SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR. WYANDOT GOVERNMENT: A SHORT STUDY OF TRIBAL SOCIETY. BY J. W. POWELL. In the social organization of the Wyandots four groups arerecognized--the family, the gens, the phratry, and the tribe. THE FAMILY. The family, as the term is here used, is nearly synonymous with thehousehold. It is composed of the persons who occupy one lodge, or, intheir permanent wigwams, one section of a communal dwelling. Thesepermanent dwellings are constructed in an oblong form, of polesinterwoven with bark. The fire is placed in line along the center, andis usually built for two families, one occupying the place on eachside of the fire. The head of the family is a woman. THE GENS. The gens is an organized body of consanguineal kindred in the femaleline. "The woman carries the gens, " is the formulated statement bywhich a Wyandot expresses the idea that descent is in the female line. Each gens has the name of some animal, the ancient of such animalbeing its tutelar god. Up to the time that the tribe left Ohio, elevengentes were recognized, as follows: Deer, Bear, Highland Turtle (striped), Highland Turtle (black), MudTurtle, Smooth Large Turtle, Hawk, Beaver, Wolf, Sea Snake, andPorcupine. In speaking of an individual he is said to be a wolf, a bear, or adeer, as the case may be, meaning thereby that he belongs to thatgens; but in speaking of the body of people comprising a gens, theyare said to be relatives of the wolf, the bear, or the deer, as thecase may be. There is a body of names belonging to each gens, so that each person'sname indicates the gens to which he belongs. These names are derivedfrom the characteristics, habits, attitudes, or mythologic storiesconnected with, the tutelar god. The following schedule presents the name of a man and a woman in eachgens, as illustrating this statement: Wun-dát English. Man of Deer gens De-wa-tí-re Lean Deer. Woman of Deer gens A-ya-jin-ta Spotted Fawn. Man of Bear gens A-tu-e-tĕs Long Claws. Woman of Bear gens Tsá-maⁿ-da-ka-é Grunting for her Young. Man of Striped Turtle Ta-há-soⁿ-ta-ra-ta-se Going Around the gens Lake. Woman of Striped Tso-we-yuñ-kyu Gone from the Water. Turtle gens Man of Mud Turtle gens Sha-yän-tsu-wat′ Hard Skull. Woman of Mud Yaⁿ-däc-u-räs Finding Sand Beach. Turtle gens Man of Smooth Large Huⁿ'-du-cu-tá Throwing Sand. Turtle gens Woman of Smooth Tsu-ca-eⁿ Slow Walker. Large Turtle gens Man of Wolf gens Ha-ró-uⁿ-yû One who goes about in the Dark; a Prowler. Woman of Wolf gens Yaⁿ-di-no Always Hungry. Man of Snake gens Hu-ta-hú-sa Sitting in curled Position. Woman of Snake gens Di-jé-rons One who Ripples the Water. Man of Porcupine gens Haⁿ-dú-tuⁿ The one who puts up Quills. Woman of Porcupine Ké-ya-runs-kwa Good-Sighted. Gens THE PHRATRY. There are four phratries in the tribe, the three gentes Bear, Deer, and Striped Turtle constituting the first; the Highland Turtle, BlackTurtle, and Smooth Large Turtle the second; the Hawk, Beaver, and Wolfthe third, and the Sea Snake and Porcupine the fourth. This unit in their organization has a mythologic basis, and is chieflyused for religious purposes, in the preparation of medicines, and infestivals and games. The eleven gentes, as four phratries, constitute the tribe. Each gens is a body of consanguineal kindred in the female line, andeach gens is allied to other gentes by consanguineal kinship throughthe male line, and by affinity through marriage. To be a member of the tribe it is necessary to be a member of a gens;to be a member of a gens it is necessary to belong to some family; andto belong to a family a person must have been born in the family sothat his kinship is recognized, or he must be adopted into a familyand become a son, brother, or some definite relative; and thisartificial relationship gives him the same standing as actualrelationship in the family, in the gens, in the phratry, and in thetribe. Thus a tribe is a body of kindred. Of the four groups thus described, the gens, the phratry, and thetribe constitute the series of organic units; the family, or householdas here described, is not a unit of the gens or phratry, as two gentesare represented in each--the father must belong to one gens, and themother and, her children to another. _GOVERNMENT. _ Society is maintained by the establishment of government, for rightsmust be recognized and duties performed. In this tribe there is found a complete differentiation of themilitary from the civil government. _CIVIL GOVERNMENT. _ The civil government inheres in a system of councils and chiefs. In each gens there is a council, composed of four women, called_Yụ-waí-yu-wá-na_. These four women councillors select a chief ofthe gens from its male members--that is, from their brothers and sons. This gentile chief is the head of the gentile council. The coucil of the tribe is composed of the aggregated gentilecouncils. The tribal council, therefore, is composed one-fifth of menand four-fifths of women. The sachem of the tribe, or tribal chief, is chosen by the chiefs ofthe gentes. There is sometimes a grand council of the gens, composed of thecouncillors of the gens proper and all the heads of households andleading men--brothers and sons. There is also sometimes a grand council of the tribe, composed of thecouncil of the tribe proper and the heads of households of the tribe, and all the leading men of the tribe. These grand councils are convened for special purposes. _METHODS OF CHOOSING AND INSTALLING COUNCILLORS AND CHIEFS. _ The four women councillors of the gens are chosen by the heads ofhouseholds, themselves being women. There is no formal election, butfrequent discussion is had over the matter from time to time, in whicha sentiment grows up within the gens and throughout the tribe that, inthe event of the death of any councillor, a certain person will takeher place. In this manner there is usually one, two, or more potentialcouncillors in each gens who are expected to attend all the meetingsof the council, though they take no part in the deliberations and haveno vote. When a woman is installed as councillor a feast is prepared by thegens to which she belongs, and to this feast all the members of thetribe are invited. The woman is painted and dressed in her best attireand the sachem of the tribe places upon her head the gentile chapletof feathers, and announces in a formal manner to the assembled gueststhat the woman has been chosen a councillor. The ceremony is followedby feasting and dancing, often continued late into the night. The gentile chief is chosen by the council women after consultationwith the other women and men of the gens. Often the gentile chief is apotential chief through a period of probation. During this time heattends the meetings of the council, but takes no part in thedeliberations, and has no vote. At his installation, the council women invest him with an elaboratelyornamented tunic, place upon his head a chaplet of feathers, and paintthe gentile totem on his face. The sachem of the tribe then announcesto the people that the man has been made chief of the gens, andadmitted to the council. This is also followed by a festival. The sachem of the tribe is selected by the men belonging to thecouncil of the tribe. Formerly the sachemship inhered in the Beargens, but at present he is chosen from the Deer gens, from the fact, as the Wyandots say, that death has carried away all the wise men ofthe Bear gens. The chief of the Wolf gens is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe. He superintends the erection of the council-house and has the care ofit. He calls the council together in a formal manner when directed bythe sachem. He announces to the tribe all the decisions of thecouncil, and executes the directions of the council and of the sachem. Gentile councils are held frequently from day to day and from week toweek, and are called by the chief whenever deemed necessary. Whenmatters before the council are considered of great importance, a grandcouncil of the gens may be called. The tribal council is held regularly on the night of the full moon ofeach lunation and at such other times as the sachem may determine; butextra councils are usually called by the sachem at the request of anumber of councilors. Meetings of the gentile councils are very informal, but the meetingsof the tribal councils are conducted with due ceremony. When all thepersons are assembled, the chief of the Wolf gens calls them to order, fills and lights a pipe, sends one puff of smoke to the heavens andanother to the earth. The pipe is then handed to the sachem, who fillshis mouth with smoke, and, turning from left to right with the sun, slowly puffs it out over the heads of the councilors, who are sittingin a circle. He then hands the pipe to the man on his left, and it issmoked in turn by each person until it has been passed around thecircle. The sachem then explains the object for which the council iscalled. Each person in the way and manner he chooses tells what hethinks should be done in the case. If a majority of the council isagreed as to action, the sachem does not speak, but may simplyannounce the decision. But in some cases there may be protracteddebate, which is carried on with great deliberation. In case of a tie, the sachem is expected to speak. It is considered dishonorable for any man to reverse his decisionafter having spoken. Such are the organic elements of the Wyandot government. _FUNCTIONS OF CIVIL GOVERNMENT. _ It is the function of government to preserve rights and enforce theperformance of duties. Rights and duties are co-relative. Rights implyduties, and duties imply rights. The right inhering in the party ofthe first part imposes a duty on the party of the second part. Theright and its co-relative duty are inseparable parts of a relationthat must be maintained by government; and the relations whichgovernments are established to maintain may be treated under thegeneral head of rights. In Wyandot government these rights may be classed as follows: First--Rights of marriage. Second--Rights to names. Third--Rights to personal adornments. Fourth--Rights of order in encampments and migrations. Fifth--Rights of property. Sixth--Rights of person. Seventh--Rights of community. Eighth--Rights of religion. To maintain rights, rules of conduct are established, not by formalenactment, but by regulated usage. Such custom-made laws may be calledregulations. _MARRIAGE REGULATIONS. _ Marriage between members of the same gens is forbidden, butconsanguineal marriages between persons of different gentes arepermitted. For example, a man may not marry his mother's sister'sdaughter, as she belongs to the same gens with himself; but he canmarry his father's sister's daughter, because she belongs to adifferent gens. Husbands retain all their rights and privileges in their own gentes, though they live with the gentes of their wives. Children, irrespective of sex, belong to the gens of the mother. Men and womenmust marry within the tribe. A woman taken to wife from without thetribe must first be adopted into some family of a gens other than thatto which the man belongs. That a woman may take for a husband a manwithout the tribe he must also be adopted into the family of some gensother than that of the woman. What has been called by someethnologists endogamy and exogamy are correlative parts of oneregulation, and the Wyandots, like all other tribes of which we haveany knowledge in North America, are both endogamous and exogamous. Polygamy is permitted, but the wives must belong to different gentes. The first wife remains the head of the household. Polyandry isprohibited. A man seeking a wife consults her mother, sometimes direct, andsometimes through his own mother. The mother of the girl advises withthe women councilors to obtain their consent, and the young peopleusually submit quietly to their decision. Sometimes the womencouncilors consult with the men. When a girl is betrothed, the man makes such presents to the mother ashe can. It is customary to consummate the marriage before the end ofthe moon in which the betrothal is made. Bridegroom and bride makepromises of faithfulness to the parents and women councilors of bothparties. It is customary to give a marriage feast, in which the gentesof both parties take part. For a short time at least, bride and groomlive with the bride's mother, or rather in the original household ofthe bride. The time when they will set up housekeeping for themselves is usuallyarranged before marriage. In the event of the death of the mother, the children belong to hersister or to her nearest female kin, the matter being settled by thecouncil women of the gens. As the children belong to the mother, onthe death of the father the mother and children are cared for by hernearest male relative until subsequent marriage. _NAME REGULATIONS. _ It has been previously explained that there is a body of names, theexclusive property of each gens. Once a year, at the green-cornfestival, the council women of the gens select the names for thechildren born during the previous year, and the chief of the gensproclaims these names at the festival. No person may change his name, but every person, man or woman, by honorable or dishonorable conduct, or by remarkable circumstance, may win a second name commemorative ofdeed or circumstance, which is a kind of title. _REGULATIONS OF PERSONAL ADORNMENT. _ Each clan has a distinctive method of painting the face, a distinctivechaplet to be worn by the gentile chief and council women when theyare inaugurated, and subsequently at festival occasions, anddistinctive ornaments for all its members, to be used at festivals andreligious ceremonies. _REGULATIONS OF ORDER IN ENCAMPMENT AND MIGRATIONS. _ The camp of the tribe is in an open circle or horse-shoe, and thegentes camp in following order, beginning on the left and going aroundto the right: Deer, Bear, Highland Turtle (striped), Highland Turtle (black), MudTurtle, Smooth Large Turtle, Hawk, Beaver, Wolf, Sea Snake, Porcupine. The order in which the households camp in the gentile group isregulated by the gentile councilors and adjusted from time to time insuch a manner that the oldest family is placed on the left, and theyoungest on the right. In migrations and expeditions the order oftravel follows the analogy of encampment. _PROPERTY RIGHTS. _ Within the area claimed by the tribe each gens occupies a smallertract for the purpose of cultivation. The right of the gens tocultivate a particular tract is a matter settled in the council of thetribe, and the gens may abandon one tract for another only with theconsent of the tribe. The women councillors partition the gentile landamong the householders, and the household tracts are distinctly markedby them. The ground is re-partitioned once in two years. The heads ofhouseholds are responsible for the cultivation of the tract, andshould this duty be neglected the council of the gens calls theresponsible parties to account. Cultivation is communal; that is, all of the able-bodied women of thegens take part in the cultivation of each household tract in thefollowing manner: The head of the household sends her brother or son into the forest orto the stream to bring in game or fish for a feast; then theable-bodied women of the gens are invited to assist in the cultivationof the land, and when this work is done a feast is given. The wigwam or lodge and all articles of the household belong to thewoman--the head of the household--and at her death are inherited byher eldest daughter, or nearest of female kin. The matter is settledby the council women. If the husband die his property is inherited byhis brother or his sister's son, except such portion as may be buriedwith him. His property consists of his clothing, hunting and fishingimplements, and such articles as are used personally by himself. Usually a small canoe is the individual property of the man. Largecanoes are made by the male members of the gentes, and are theproperty of the gentes. _RIGHTS OF PERSON. _ Each individual has a right to freedom of person and security frompersonal and bodily injury, unless adjudged guilty of crime by properauthority. _COMMUNITY RIGHTS. _ Each gens has the right to the services of all its women in thecultivation of the soil. Each gens has the right to the service of allits male members in avenging wrongs, and the tribe has the right tothe service of all its male members in time of war. _RIGHTS OF RELIGION. _ Each phratry has the right to certain religious ceremonies and thepreparation of certain medicines. Each gens has the exclusive right to worship its tutelar god, and eachindividual has the exclusive right to the possession and use of aparticular amulet. _CRIMES. _ The violations of right are crimes. Some of the crimes recognized bythe Wyandots are as follows: 1. Adultery. 2. Theft. 3. Maiming. 4. Murder. 5. Treason. 6. Witchcraft. A maiden guilty of fornication may be punished by her mother or femaleguardian, but if the crime is flagrant and repeated, so as to become amatter of general gossip, and the mother fails to correct it, thematter may be taken up by the council women of the gens. A woman guilty of adultery, for the first offense is punished byhaving her hair cropped; for repeated offenses her left ear is cutoff. _THEFT. _ The punishment for theft is twofold restitution. When the prosecutorand prosecuted belong to the same gens, the trial is before thecouncil of the gens, and from it there is no appeal. If the partiesinvolved are of different gentes, the prosecutor, through the head ofhis household, lays the matter before the council of his own gens; byit the matter is laid before the gentile council of the accused in aformal manner. Thereupon it becomes the duty of the council of theaccused to investigate the facts for themselves, and to settle thematter with the council of the plaintiff. Failure thus to do isfollowed by retaliation in the seizing of any property of the genswhich may be found. _MAIMING. _ Maiming is compounded, and the method of procedure in prosecution isessentially the same as for theft. _MURDER. _ In the case of murder, if both parties are members of the same gens, the matter is tried by the gentile council on complaint of the head ofthe household, but there may be an appeal to the council of the tribe. Where the parties belong to different gentes, complaint is formallymade by the injured party, through the chief of his gens, in thefollowing manner: A wooden tablet is prepared, upon which is inscribed the totem orheraldic emblem of the injured man's gens, and a picture-writingsetting forth the offense follows. The gentile chief appears before the chief of the council of theoffender, and formally states the offense, explaining thepicture-writing, which is then delivered. A council of the offender's gens is thereupon called and a trial isheld. It is the duty of this council to examine the evidence forthemselves and to come to a conclusion without further presentation ofthe matter on the part of the person aggrieved. Having decided thematter among themselves, they appear before the chief of the councilof the aggrieved party to offer compensation. If the gens of the offender fail to settle the matter with the gens ofthe aggrieved party, it is the duty of his nearest relative to avengethe wrong. Either party may appeal to the council of the tribe. Theappeal must be made in due form, by the presentation of a tablet ofaccusation. Inquiry into the effect of a failure to observe prescribed formalitiesdeveloped an interesting fact. In procedure against crime, failure informality is not considered a violation of the rights of the accused, but proof of his innocence. It is considered supernatural evidencethat the charges are false. In trials for all offenses forms ofprocedure are, therefore, likely to be earnestly questioned. _TREASON. _ Treason consists in revealing the secrets of the medicine preparationsor giving other information or assistance to enemies of the tribe, andis punished by death. The trial is before the council of the tribe. _WITCHCRAFT. _ Witchcraft is punished by death, stabbing, tomahawking, or burning. Charges of witchcraft are investigated by the grand council of thetribe. When the accused is adjudged guilty, he may appeal tosupernatural judgment. The test is by fire. A circular fire is builton the ground, through which the accused must run from east and westand from north to south. If no injury is received he is adjudgedinnocent; if he falls into the fire he is adjudged guilty. Should aperson accused of having the general reputation of practicingwitchcraft become deaf, blind, or have sore eyes, earache, headache, or other diseases considered loathsome, he is supposed to have failedin practicing his arts upon others, and to have fallen a victim tothem himself. Such cases are most likely to be punished. _OUTLAWRY. _ The institution of outlawry exists among the Wyandots in a peculiarform. An outlaw is one who by his crimes has placed himself withoutthe protection of his clan. A man can be declared an outlaw by his ownclan, who thus publish to the tribe that they will not defend him incase he is injured by another. But usually outlawry is declared onlyafter trial before the tribal council. The method of procedure is analogous to that in case of murder. Whenthe person has been adjudged guilty and sentence of outlawry declared, it is the duty of the chief of the Wolf clan to make known thedecision of the council. This he does by appearing before each clan inthe order of its encampment, and declaring in terms the crime of theoutlaw and the sentence of outlawry, which may be either of twogrades. In the lowest grade it is declared that if the man shall thereaftercontinue in the commission of similar crimes, it will be lawful forany person to kill him; and if killed, rightfully or wrongfully, hisclan will not avenge his death. Outlawry of the highest degree makes it the duty of any member of thetribe who may meet with the offender to kill him. _MILITARY GOVERNMENT. _ The management of military affairs inheres in the military council andchief. The military council is composed of all the able-bodied men ofthe tribe; the military chief is chosen by the council from thePorcupine gens. Each gentile chief is responsible for the militarytraining of the youth under his authority. There is usually one ormore potential military chiefs, who are the close companions andassistants of the chief in time of war, and in case of the death ofthe chief, take his place in the order of seniority. Prisoners of war are adopted into the tribe or killed. To be adoptedinto the tribe, it is necessary that the prisoner should be adoptedinto some family. The warrior taking the prisoner has the first rightto adopt him, and his male or female relatives have the right in theorder of their kinship. If no one claims the prisoner for thispurpose, he is caused to run the gauntlet as a test of his courage. If at his trial he behaves manfully, claimants are not wanting, but ifhe behaves disgracefully he is put to death. _FELLOWHOOD. _ There is an interesting institution found among the Wyandots, as amongsome other of our North American tribes, namely, that of fellowhood. Two young men agree to be perpetual friends to each other, or morethan brothers. Each reveals to the other the secrets of his life, andcounsels with him on matters of importance, and defends him from wrongand violence, and at his death is chief mourner. * * * * * The government of the Wyandots, with the social organization uponwhich it is based, affords a typical example of tribal governmentthroughout North America. Within that area there are several hundreddistinct governments. In so great a number there is great variety, andin this variety we find different degrees of organization, the degreesof organization being determined by the differentiation of thefunctions of the government and the correlative specialization oforganic elements. Much has yet to be done in the study of these governments before safegeneralizations may be made. But enough is known to warrant thefollowing statement: Tribal government in North America is based on kinship in that thefundamental units of social organization are bodies of consanguinealkindred either in the male or female line; these units being what hasbeen well denominated "gentes. " These "gentes" are organized into tribes by ties of relationship andaffinity, and this organization is of such a character that the man'sposition in the tribe is fixed by his kinship. There is no place in atribe for any person whose kinship is not fixed, and only thosepersons can be adopted into the tribe who are adopted into some familywith artificial kinship specified. The fabric of Indian society is acomplex tissue of kinship. The warp is made of streams of kinshipblood, and the woof of marriage ties. With most tribes military and civil affairs are differentiated. Thefunctions of civil government are in general differentiated only tothis extent, that executive functions are performed by chiefs andsachems, but these chiefs and sachems are also members of the council. The council is legislature and court. Perhaps it were better to saythat the council is the court whose decisions are law, and that thelegislative body properly has not been developed. In general, crimes are well defined. Procedure is formal, and formsare held as of such importance that error therein is _prima facie_evidence that the subject-matter formulated was false. When one gens charges crime against a member of another, it can of itsown motion proceed only to retaliation. To prevent retaliation, thegens of the offender must take the necessary steps to disprove thecrime, or to compound or punish it. The charge once made is held asjust and true until it has been disproved, and in trial the cause ofthe defendant is first stated. The anger of the prosecuting gens mustbe placated. In the tribal governments there are many institutions, customs, andtraditions which give evidence of a former condition in which societywas based not upon kinship, but upon marriage. From a survey of the facts it seems highly probably that kinshipsociety, as it exists among the tribes of North America, has developedfrom connubial society, which is discovered elsewhere on the globe. Infact, there are a few tribes that seem scarcely to have passed thatindefinite boundary between the two social states. Philologic researchleads to the same conclusion. Nowhere in North America have a people been discovered who have passedbeyond tribal society to national society based on property, i. E. , that form of society which is characteristic of civilization. Somepeoples may not have reached kinship society; none have passed it. Nations with civilized institutions, art with palaces, monotheism asthe worship of the Great Spirit, all vanish from the priscan conditionof North America in the light of anthropologic research. Tribes withthe social institutions of kinship, art with its highest architecturaldevelopment exhibited in the structure of communal dwellings, andpolytheism in the worship of mythic animals and nature-gods remain. INDEX Adultery, Wyandot law for, 66 Chiefs, Wyandot, Election of, 61, 62Crimes, Wyandot laws for, 66, 67 Encampment regulations (Wyandot), 64 Family, The term, defined, 59Fellowhood, Wyandot institution of, 68 Gens, The term, defined, 59Government, Wyandot civil, 61 Functions of, 63 Kinship society, 68, 69 Maiming, Wyandot law for, 66Marriage regulations (Wyandot), 63, 64Migration regulations (Wyandot), 64Military government (Wyandot), 68Murder, Wyandot law for, 66 Name regulations of the Wyandot tribe, 64 Outlawry, Wyandot institution of, 67 Personal adornment regulations (Wyandot), 64Phratry defined, 60, 61 Society, Kinship, 68, 69 Theft, Wyandot law for, 66Treason, Wyandot law for, 67Tribal government based on kinship, 68, 69Tribal society, A study of (Wyandot), 59-69 Witchcraft, Wyandot law for, 67Wyandot criminal laws, 66, 67 for adultery, 66 for maiming, 66 murder, 66 of outlawry, 67 for theft, 66 for treason, 67 for witchcraft, 67Wyandot government, 59-69Wyandot military government, 68Wyandot regulations, 63, 64 of encampment, 64 of migration, 64 of name, 64 of personal adornment, 64Wyandot rights, 65 of community, 65 of person, 65 of religion, 65 [Transcriber's Note: This index is a subset of the original indexassocated with _First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to theSecretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80_, by J. W. Powell. ]