COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA. 

 WHEAT GROWING IN AUSTRALIA. 

 ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE MINISTER OF STATE FOR EXTERNAL AFFAIRS, MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA, 1915. 

 By authority: McCARRON, BIRD & CO. , PRINTERS, 479 COLLINS STREET, MELBOURNE. 

 Information Concerning AUSTRALIA may be obtained on application to--

 IN AMERICA:

 THE AUSTRALIAN PAVILION, PANAMA PACIFIC EXHIBITION, SAN FRANCISCO. 

 NIEL NIELSEN, Esq. , Trade and Immigration Commissioner for New South Wales, 419 Market Street, San Francisco. 

 F. T. A. FRICKE, Esq. , Land and Immigration Agent for Victoria, 687 Market Street, San Francisco. 

 IN LONDON:

 The High Commissioner for THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, 72 Victoria Street, Westminster. 

 IN AUSTRALIA:

 The Secretary DEPARTMENT OF EXTERNAL AFFAIRS, Collins and Spring Streets, Melbourne. 

CONTENTS. 

 Introduction 5

 Australian Wheat Area 12

 Factors Governing Wheatgrowing 18

 Securing a Wheat Farm 22

 Working Plant Required 23

 Working the Wheat Farm 26

 Cost of Production 34

 Share Farming 38

 How the Settler is Assisted 43

 Social Life in Australia 49

WHEATGROWING IN AUSTRALIA. 

With the growing scarcity of foodstuffs that has become a world-widefeature of the last few years, the wheatgrower is one of the mostimportant necessities in civilisation. He has prospered in the past, butthe future holds still greater and richer prospects. And in no countryin the world are those prospects brighter than in the Commonwealth ofAustralia. The world's surface is gradually filling up, and most of theolder countries have reached sight of the limit of cultivation, so theworld's millions have to look to newer lands to provide them with food. The great island continent in the southern seas possesses a vast area ofproven wheat land, as yet untouched by the plough. It lies dormant, fertile, and responsive, awaiting the union of labour and land to yieldabundance of food. 

[Illustration: BREAKING UP NEW GROUND. ]

Australia has many rural industries, but of agriculture wheat is themost important, just as it is the most important of the world's crops. Wheat is the king of cereals--the prime essential of civilised life. Nearly half the inhabitants of the globe are wheat-eaters. And thenumber is growing, for the Eastern races are becoming consumers ofwheat, which is significant of a higher standard of living. For as racesrise in the human scale wheat becomes a more important part of theirfood. This alone shows the increasing importance of the cereal, and theimportance of the men who grow it. Indeed, the food value of wheat, itsease of cultivation and preparation for human use, the fact that it willgrow and flourish in so many different soils and climates, and can bemade into so many and various products, combined with its quick andbountiful return, all go to enhance the value of wheat grain, and theprospects of the man who grows it. 

Science is teaching how to produce more wheat from the same area, isimproving the varieties of wheat and the methods of cultivating it, andteaching how to restore impoverished lands. And there is still anenormous area as yet untouched, while land is being utilised now thattwenty years ago was deemed incapable of growing wheat. Who can tellwhat the future will find?

Australia alone has many millions of acres of wheat land as yet unusedfor that purpose. One of the youngest of nations, yet one of the oldestparts of the world geologically, it can house and feed millions morethan its present population. There is room for the extension andcontinuation of the magnificent progress that wheatgrowing has alreadymade. The story of wheat cultivation is the story of progress. InAustralia, within the last decade, wheatgrowing has advanced rapidly. Railways have been built out into new districts, and freight is cheap. Towns have sprung into existence, and the whole aspect of thecountryside in district after district being altered by increasingsettlement, where wheatfields have taken the place of sheep paddocks. These towns are solvent and prosperous, and certain of a great future, for there is room for immensely greater settlement. The majority of thewheat farms are larger than necessary, and only a small percentage ofthe wheat land is cultivated. The urgent necessity is for more men tobuild homes and farm these lands. There are both private and publiclands awaiting settlement. 

[Illustration: TYPICAL CLASSES OF FARMING LANDS. ]

The profitable nature of wheatgrowing in Australia is shown by thecomfortable homesteads and the strong financial position of numerousfamilies in the wheat districts. Many of these successfulwheatgrowers, indeed most of them, are men who started with little orno capital in cash, but with plenty of energy and willingness to work. They have built homes for themselves in the "bush, " and foundprosperity, and there is room for thousands of other men to follow intheir footsteps. In a favourable year a wheatfarmer will often receiveas much, or more, for his crop than the capital value of his land. 

[Illustration: FIRST STAGES OF CROPPING. ]

In the early stages of wheatgrowing in Australia mistakes were made andprogress was slow. Wheat was grown in the wrong soil and districts, andsuitable varieties of the cereal were not available. Cultivation wasconfined to the moist coastal country, with its annual rainfall of 30 to40 in. , and wheat was not a success. The discovery that the drierdistricts inland were more suitable for wheatgrowing altered theposition very happily. The bulk of the wheat is now grown in districtswith a rainfall of 20 to 25 in. And under. This averaged rainfall isconsidered sufficient for wheatgrowing, and safer than a heavierrainfall. Wheatgrowing has been most profitable in districts with arainfall below 20 in. , and an average of 40 bushels per acre has beenharvested from 600 acres. On well-worked fallowed land splendidmoney-making crops have been gathered, although the growing crop onlyhad 2 or 3 in. Of rain. 

In Australian wheat districts the quantity of rain is not as importantas the time of the year in which it falls. Rain is wanted in the earlyautumn, so that ploughing can be done, and in the spring, when the wheatis heading and flowering. With rain in April and May, and again inSeptember or October, the Australian wheatgrower is assured of a finecrop. In the wheat districts those are the seasonable times to get rain. The summer is usually dry and warm, and this is one of the mainadvantages from the wheatgrower's standpoint. This fine dryweather--which is exceptionally healthy for the human being--means theproduction of a high-class grain, for which there is an unlimited demandin the world's markets. Unless the common rule is broken, and the seasonis unduly wet, there is no fear of rust, and nothing to interfere withthe haymaking. The main crop, which is kept for grain, can be leftstanding safely in the paddocks until it is thoroughly ripe, when it istaken off with a stripper or harvester and bagged. So the districts thathave heavy summer rains are largely unsuitable for wheatgrowing, butthose in which the rains fall during the autumn, winter, and spring, andhave dry summers, are most suitable. 

While the present average is low in the Australian wheatgrowingdistricts compared with other countries, the cost of production is alsoremarkably low. Furthermore, methods are improving generally, and aconsiderable increase in yield can be expected with confidence. The veryrichness of the soil and the kindliness of the climate has temptedgrowers to adopt speculative methods of growing wheat. The main idea hasbeen to put a large area under crop on the chance of striking a goodyear, when a small fortune may be realised. But growers are beingeducated to the value of more careful methods as paying best in the longrun. The average yield in Australia has been about 11 to 13 bushels peracre. The total area under wheat and the wheat yield in the differentAustralian States for the season 1913-14 was:--

 +------------------+---------------+------------------+-----------+ | | | | Average | | State. | Area. --Acres. | Yield. --Bushels. | per Acre. | |------------------+---------------+------------------+-----------+ |New South Wales | 3, 206, 600 | 38, 043, 360 | 11. 09 | |Victoria | 2, 786, 421 | 32, 936, 245 | 12. 84 | |South Australia | 2, 699, 632 | 16, 736, 988 | 7. 47 | |Western Australia | 1, 104, 753 | 13, 496, 242 | 12. 02 | |Queensland | 132, 655 | 1, 769, 432 | 13. 34 | |Tasmania[A] | 18, 054 | 421, 380 | 23. 33 | | |---------------|------------------+-----------+ | | 9, 948, 115 | 103, 403, 647 | 10. 39 | +------------------+---------------+------------------+-----------+

[Footnote A: Estimated. ]

As stated, compared with some of the older countries, such averages seemsmall, yet in the dry districts of Australia they mean a reasonablemargin of profit. In such districts it is estimated that a 10-bushelcrop per acre will pay $0. 60 per bushel. Of late years the pricereceived by growers has averaged about $0. 84 per bushel. 

[Illustration: DISC PLOUGHS ARE POPULAR IN AUSTRALIA. ]

The average return does not show what a district or country is capableof producing, as it is reduced by the low yields of careless andunskilled farmers. The men are responsible, and not the soil or climate. There are thousands of farmers who never have a lower average than 20 to25 bushels, while in some well-farmed districts a whole locality hasaveraged nearly 30 bushels to the acre. The whole tendency now istowards more careful methods and higher averages, and this will meangreater prosperity for the farmers. As it is, men have been wonderfullysuccessful in growing wheat in Australia, and if this is the case withthe careless, largely happy-go-lucky style of the past, the prospect isextremely promising for the future. In a way, new men coming intoAustralia, and taking up wheatgrowing, stand a better chance than manyof the long-settled farmers who have got into a groove--even aprofitable one--and who do not care to bother greatly with progressiveideas. The new comer has no preconceived notions, and comes with an openmind adaptable to the teachings of experience. 

The new settler has his path made easy by the attention the Governmentsof the different States are giving to wheatgrowing. In all the Statesthere is a Department of Agriculture, and all its accumulated knowledgeis available to the farmer. In all the principal States there areGovernment Experiment Farms, where new wheats are tried, and also thebest methods; the results are furnished to the public. In most of thewheat districts there are demonstration plots showing the best varietiesto grow in the different localities. The new settler is advised whatvarieties to grow in his locality, and when to grow them, what amount offertiliser to use, and the best methods of handling his land. In anydifficulty the resources of the Department of Agriculture are at hisservice. At the Government farms crops of the best wheats are grown, andthe seed distributed amongst the farmers, while inspectors arecontinually travelling through the country lecturing and visiting thegrowers, and advising them, whenever advice is asked for. With suchfacilities the future of the settler practically depends upon the use hemakes of his opportunities, and the opportunities are unsurpassed in anyother country. 

[Illustration: PUTTING IN SEED. ]

In the wheat districts the summer is warm, and the thermometer oftenregisters over 100 degs. Fahr. , but it is a dry, healthy heat that isnot as uncomfortable as the lower temperatures in moister climates. Thewarm weather holds for two or three months in midsummer, when the heatduring the day is trying, but for the remainder of the year the climateis perfect. The winter is mild, so much so that live stock need noshelter, and often fatten on the natural pasture throughout the year. Farming operations can be conducted throughout the year. There is nosnow or period when work is practically at a standstill. 

AUSTRALIAN WHEAT AREA. 

On the average of the past five years the wheat yield of Australiarepresents about 2 per cent. Of the world's production. The return peracre is low, but as has been pointed out, the cost of production islikewise low, and it is doubtful if in any other country the business ofgrowing wheat is more profitable. The area now cultivated is but a merepercentage of what could be put under wheat profitably. The exact areais almost impossible to arrive at, for the simple reason that withimproved methods and better varieties of wheat, the extent of country inwhich the cereal can be successfully grown increases. 

For practical purposes the area deemed suitable for wheatgrowing is thatwhich has sufficient rainfall to admit of ploughing being carried out atthe right time of the year, as already stated, from March to June, tocover the growing period, and to fill the grain during September andOctober. In other words, it is not so much a matter of what the annualrainfall is as when the rain usually falls. The State of New South Walesfor example. For a long time land with less than a rainfall of 20 in. Has been excluded from the area considered safe for profitablewheatgrowing. Even then the area in that State suitable for wheat covers25 million acres. In the State of South Australia farmers place theannual rainfall limit at 16 in. , provided it is regular and the land isproperly worked. If wheat can be grown on that rainfall in the latterState, and the evidence is that it certainly can, at least another10, 000, 000 acres can be added to the wheat belt of the State. Although, therefore, the present area under wheat (1913-14) is only 3, 206, 600acres, there are 35, 000, 000 acres on a moderate estimate in New SouthWales alone that can grow wheat profitably. And experiments in the westshow that a still greater extension of the wheat belt can be looked for, especially with improvement in the breeding of varieties suitable forthe dryer districts. At present, however, there is no necessity forsettlers to go outside the area of "safe country. "

[Illustration: (1) TYPICAL AUSTRALIAN FARM SCENE. (2) PREPARING WHEATFOR HARVEST. (3) PLOUGHING. ]

What can be achieved in dry districts with a limited and intermittentrainfall has been most forcibly proved by experience. At Messrs. GagieBros. ' farm, Spy Hill, West Wyalong, New South Wales, a yield of 24bushels of wheat was obtained in the 1911-12 season on a rainfall of 668points--less than 7 in. ! Of course, such a crop could not be grown onsuch a rainfall alone, as a much larger quantity of water would berequired to produce that amount of wheat. The crop during the growingperiod only received 668 points of rain, but in the land on which it wasgrown, and which was fallowed and properly worked, a large quantity ofmoisture was stored from the previous year, and on this reserve thegrowing crop grew, and with the additional 668 points that fell duringthe growing period a yield of 24 bushels per acre was obtained. 

Still more remarkable were the results obtained in the same season fromexperiment plots on the farm of Mr. Carew, Deniliquin, in the sameState. The seed was sown on well-worked fallow land in which a goodamount of the previous year's rainfall had been conserved. The rainfallduring the growing period was 322 points, distributed as follows:--May, 210; June, 60; July, 12; August, nil; September, 37; October, 3 points. Under ordinary conditions such a rainfall would mean utter failure of awheat crop, yet in this case a yield of 14 bushels per acre wasobtained. 

[Illustration: A FINE CROP OF WHEAT. ]

Again at Mr. G. Laidlaw's farm, "Elm Park, " Jindera, Albury, New SouthWales, 28 bushels 56 lbs. Were obtained on fallowed land with a rainfallof 752 points. 

With a seasonal distribution of rain wheat can be successfully grownwith an average of 10 in. There are growers in country that ten yearsago was considered outside the wheat belt, that is, the safe country, who for the last five years have never harvested less than an average of25 bushels per acre. Yet an average of 12 to 15 bushels has provedprofitable. 

In Victoria, wheatgrowing can increase fivefold before the whole of thesuitable land is brought under the plough. The wheat crop of that Stateshould, if the settlers are forthcoming, within a few years reach8, 000, 000 acres, provided that one-third of each farm is regularlycultivated. The area under wheat in 1913-14 was 2, 786, 421 acres, sothere is room for thousands of growers yet. 

In South Australia and in Western Australia there are immense areas, running into millions of acres, which yet remain to be brought underwheat. In Queensland wheatgrowing practically remains to be developed. At present stockraising proves most profitable, but there is no questionthat in the course of time that State will add immensely to the wheatbelt of the Commonwealth. In all the States the usual course has beenfor wheat to follow stockraising, after the latter have sweetened andimproved the soil, making it more compact and suitable for cultivation. In new lands, where the soil has been practically untrodden for ages, itis seldom immediately suitable for the cultivation of wheat, in whatlater on proved to be ideal wheat districts. Therefore, in such a vastcountry as Australia, which totals 2, 974, 581 square miles, it is beyondman's calculations to even estimate what proportion may ultimately comeunder the plough. 

At the present time, however, it is far from extravagant to say thatwhile Australia is now, roughly, producing 100, 000, 000 bushels of wheaton 10, 000, 000 acres, it is capable, without improving the average yield, of producing 1, 000, 000, 000 bushels of wheat from 100, 000, 000 acres. Andas the experience of good farms has conclusively demonstrated that theaverage yield could be much greater than it is at present, with goodfarming methods, the general use of more suitable varieties of wheat, not to mention the still greater improvement in the breeding of suitablewheats, that yield should certainly be half as much again. Australiatherefore stands out as promising to be one of the greatestwheat-producing countries in the world. 

[Illustration: AUSTRALIA'S AVERAGE WHEAT YIELD IS FROM 11 TO 13 BUSHELSPER ACRE, BUT THOUSANDS OF FARMS YIELD FROM 20 TO 25 BUSHELS PER ACRE. ]

Australia has the land and climate; she wants the men. 

There is a large area of country in Victoria, South Australia, and NewSouth Wales known as the Mallee, the name being derived from a densedwarf eucalyptus scrub which covers the land in its natural state. For along period this land was deemed unfit for wheatgrowing on accountmainly of the low rainfall, and, away from the River Murray, absence ofwater supply. Experience has long since proved that it is veryprofitable wheat land when properly worked, while the discovery of asub-artesian water supply and good water-holding country has overcomemost of the difficulty that first faced settlement. There is a largearea of this land available for share farming, and a great area is alsobeing opened up for settlement, particularly in South Australia. Thereis thus a sound prospect fronting the new settler, as he might start onthe Mallee country share farming, and on what he has earned establishhimself on a holding of his own, with all the advantage of a practicalexperience of that particular type of land and the climate. The Malleesoil is mostly sandy loam, but red and black loams, varying from sand toclay, are found. It is a low elevation above sea level, but the countryis undulating. The vegetation is reckoned a sound guide to the qualityof the soil for wheatgrowing; indeed, this same principle can beaccepted in all parts of the wheat belt. On the Mallee the richest partsare denoted by the pines and bull oak trees, while the large and smallMallee marks good and medium loams and clays. 

The Mallee land is suitable for handling by the man with small means, either on a farm of his own or as a share farmer, as in the first casethe clearing is cheap, while in the second he can handle a large area. The scrub is broken down by rollers, and is comparatively easilyeradicated. For a time young suckers come up amongst the wheat crop, butthey are burnt off when the standing stubble is burnt after the crop hasbeen taken off, and in time quite cleaned out. The soil is naturallyrich in potash, nitrogen, and lime, but requires superphosphate, as thepercentage of phosphoric acid is low. Although the average yield islower than other parts of the wheat belt, wheatgrowing has proved veryprofitable in the Mallee country, and there is plenty of evidence ofthat fact. 

In Victoria the Mallee country is an important part of the wheat belt ofthat State, there being over 800, 000 acres under wheat last season(1913-14) out of a total area for that State of 2, 786, 421 acres. Yet itis only within the last ten years that it has had any reputation forfarming, being mostly looked upon as useless. Most of the first settlerswere share farmers with little capital, but with brains and energy, andmany of them are now worth from $50, 000. 00 to $100, 000. 00. There werefailures in the early days, because there was want of knowledge of theproper methods of working low-rainfall country for growing wheat, andalso proper methods and lack of proper implements for that class ofcountry. Suitable implements, especially "stump-jump" implements, havebeen evolved, and there is a solid guide for the new settlers to follow. One of the leading farmers in the Mallee country in Victoria, Mr. R. Blackwood, at Hopetoun, where the soil is of average quality and therainfall less than 14 in. , started on the share system in 1892. It wasseven years before he adopted the "bare fallow" method, an essential insuch country, and since doing so he has averaged 16 bushels per acre. Inthe record dry year (1902) his crop went 8 bushels to the acre, and paidworking expenses. By 1913 he was the owner of 5000 acres. He crops about650 acres each year, and fallows about the same area, working on athree-year rotation of fallow, wheat, grazing. 

[Illustration: CARTING STOOKS. ]

FACTORS GOVERNING WHEATGROWING. 

The principal factors governing wheatgrowing in Australia are:--

 Conservation of soil moisture by fallowing the land. 

 Sowing of varieties of wheat most suitable for the different districts. 

 Judicious use of fertilisers. 

The settler has not to find these things out for himself. He has theassistance of well-organised and progressive departments of agriculturein the different States to tell him what to do, how and when to do it. The working of his land is a matter upon which he will be fullyinformed. He will have the scientific experience of the departmentalexperts, the examples of local experimental plots, and the experience ofworking farmers to guide him in regard to the best method of working hissoil. Methods vary somewhat in different soils and districts, as hasbeen previously stated. 

He is informed as to the best varieties to sow in his district and theproper time to sow them. The completeness of that information can begathered from the following particulars which are supplied by theDepartment of Agriculture in New South Wales every season. Similarinformation is furnished in other States. In New South Wales aclassification of varieties of wheat is made by the department, and atable published for the information of wheatgrowers. The following isthe classification for the season 1913-14:--

 With regard to time of maturity varieties of wheat recommended were classified as follows:--

 Very Early. --Bunyip, Florence, Firbank. 

 Early. --Comeback, Thew, Steinwedel. 

 Mid-season. --Bobs, John Brown, Cedar, Warren, Federation, Bayah, Rymer. 

 Late. --Jonathan, Marshall's No. 3, Zealand, Yandilla King, Cleveland, Huguenot. 

 Very Late. --Hayne's Blue Stem. 

In respect of time of sowing the varieties mentioned above wererecommended in inverse order. 

Just as the farmer is advised as to the most suitable varieties of wheatfor his district, so experiments are conducted to ascertain the mostuseful quantity of manure, and full particulars made available in theagricultural gazettes or journals which are published in the differentStates, as well as being made available in bulletin form. The questionof manuring is a very important one to the wheatgrower, as it influencesthe yield greatly in most of the principal areas, if not all. AsAustralian wheat soils possess abundance of nitrogen and sufficientpotash, but are mostly deficient in phosphoric acid, the manure chieflyused on the wheatfields is superphosphates. There are some localitieswhere further experiment is required to definitely ascertain the mostsuitable fertiliser, but in the main superphosphate is the requirement, and practically the only manure used. This has been the course provedmost satisfactory by practical experience in wheatgrowing, and carefulexperiment also with nitrogenous, pathonic, and phosphate manures, singly and combined. Superphosphate has proved superior to bonedust orbasic slag; sulphate of potash has not increased the yield, whilenitrogenous fertilisers, such as dried blood or sulphate of ammonia, have proved either useless or harmful. In New South Wales the quantityof superphosphate usually used is 56 lbs. Per acre, and the samequantity is generally applied in Victoria, but in South Australia thedressings are much heavier, running from 1 cwt. To 2 cwts. Per acre. InNew South Wales experiments carried out clearly prove that largerquantities, say, 84-112 lbs. To the acre, do not result in bigger yieldsbeing obtained, while the still heavier quantities, 1-1/2 to 2 cwt. , have actually resulted in poorer yields. 

In Victoria about 56 lbs. Of superphosphate to the acre is also theusual thing, but the amount used averages probably from 56 to 84 lbs. ;the drier districts require less, and the wetter districts more, thanthese amounts. Remarkable results are obtained from such small dressingsas 30 lbs. Of superphosphate. 

In South Australia heavier dressings of superphosphate are used than inthe other States. Wheatgrowing in South Australia was, in fact, revolutionised and changed into a most profitable business through theintroduction and general practice of using this artificial fertiliser. 

[Illustration: WITH AUSTRALIAN STRIPPER HARVESTERS WHEAT IS HARVESTED, THRESHED AND PUT INTO THE BAG FOR 8 TO 10 CENTS PER BUSHEL. ]

Commercial fertilisers are analysed by the Departments of Agriculture, and official lists are published showing their content. 

The Australian wheatgrower is practically not troubled with wheatdiseases. Thirty years ago rust was a trouble, but the breeding ofrust-resistant varieties of wheat has effectually overcome thatdrawback, and rust is seldom, if ever, heard of now. In addition, wheatgrowing is now carried on in districts where the conditions areseldom favourable to rust, which is only liable to cause serious losswhen there is hot, moist weather late in the spring. This weather isvery rarely experienced in the Australian wheat belt, and certainlylittle has been heard of rust for many years. 

Smut is the only other important parasitic disease, but as the practiceof "pickling" seed before sowing is extending, this trouble haspractically disappeared. Bunt or stinking smut is so called because ithas an objectionable smell, which makes its presence known in the grainand deteriorates its value. As stated, it can be readily prevented bytreating the seed. Smut belongs to a low form of plant life, and theplant is produced from a seed, which in its turn matures and producesother seed, which are microscopic and are known as spores. These sporesare found when matured in masses occupying the place of the wheatkernels, and these masses are called bunt-balls. The chief and almostonly cause of smut is sowing wheat seed which has healthy smut sporesattached to it. By destroying the vitality of these spores the graincrop will be clean. 

The most common solutions for pickling wheat seed are bluestone (coppersulphate) 1-1/2 lb. To 10 gallons of water, and formalin 1 lb. To 45gallons of water. Bunt balls are lighter than wheat, and float in water, so if the wheat to be treated is poured slowly into the pickle, and insuch a way that the bunt balls will not be carried down by the grain, they will float on top, and can be skimmed off and destroyed. Thedetails of pickling vary on different farms, but a common method is toplace the wheat about 2 bushels at a time in loosely-tied butts or bags, and then by means of a lever it is lowered into the solution for two orthree minutes, when it is raised on to a sloping trough, where thesuperfluous solution can drain back into the cask. Another method is toplace the seed wheat, either loose or in bags, in elevated casks ortroughs made out of hollow logs, and pour the bluestone solution overit. After it has remained on the wheat the necessary time it is run offinto another cask or trough placed in a lower position. After the seedhas been treated it requires some time drying before it can be sownthrough the drill. All that is necessary is to place the butts wherethey can drain freely, and the seed will be ready to sow after a fewhours. 

The fullest particulars as to the best way of combating this disease orany minor trouble is always obtainable from the Departments ofAgriculture in the various States. 

"Take-all" occasionally affects wheat crops growing under anydisadvantageous set of conditions, but good farming is a remedy for thattrouble, which is a minor one. 

SECURING A WHEAT FARM. 

Wheat land may be secured through public or private channels, but thearea of available Government lands is greater in some States thanothers. The landseeker having decided in which State he is going toreside, will adopt the means of securing a wheat farm best suited to hiscapital. Not only are Crown lands being opened up, principally byrailway construction, but in some States the Government purchasesprivate estates, which are subdivided and sold in small areas to farmerson exceptionally easy terms. Estates are also being constantly sosubdivided by private owners, and sold on terms extending over ten, fifteen, and twenty years. With ordinary good fortune the farmer goingon such estates is in a sound and safe position after three or fourseasons. If he has the misfortune to experience a dry season at thestart, it will, of course, take him longer to work to independence, ascan easily be understood. On the other hand a normal year will see himwell started and safe for another two or three seasons, while a reallygood year will place him in a position which means that onlycarelessness and improvidence can prevent him from attaining comfortableand practically independent circumstances. 

In the different States information can be obtained from the GovernmentInformation Bureau or Departments of Lands as to what Government landsare available for settlement. 

[Illustration: HARVESTER AS USED IN AUSTRALIA. ]

The particulars of private lands for sale may be obtained from city andcountry agents. They vary considerably in price according to thelocality, nature of improvements and proximity to railways. They may besaid to range from $16. 80 to $38. 40 per acre for improved land. In themajority of cases such lands are either cleared or partly cleared, andthe settler is able to put in a crop right away, providing he obtainspossession at a seasonable time. The ploughing and sowing period ismainly in April and May, and running to June, harvesting taking place inNovember and December. The almost invariable practice in Australia is tocombine wheatgrowing and sheepfarming. Sheep are especially profitablein Australia. This is an excellent combination, as the busy periods donot clash, and the sheep help to fertilise the land, clear the stubblepaddocks, and are also often useful for the purpose of eating down acrop in the early stages where it may be making an unduly rapid growth. 

In most districts 250 acres of wheat is as much as one man can managewithout outside help, except at harvest time, although some energeticfarmers manage 300 acres. In the more settled districts wheat farmsusually range from 300 to 600 acres, but larger farms, up to four andfive thousand acres, are common. They are either worked on shares (seep. 38), or with hired labour, and are usually owned by men who havestarted on a small area, and increased it by subsequent purchase withmoney made from wheatgrowing. On many large properties hitherto devotedto sheepraising the practice is growing of putting down a large areaunder wheat. 

It is not practical to definitely state the amount of capital requiredto purchase and prepare an area of land for a wheat farm. Much willdepend upon the capacity and experience, business acumen, andresourcefulness of the settler, as is the case in all callings, but thedetailed information given in these pages should enable the intendingsettler to work out the amount approximately required by his conditionand the lines he intends adopting. 

WORKING PLANT REQUIRED. 

The intending settler has to consider not only the capital required tosecure his farm, whatever its nature, but also the expenditure necessaryin obtaining a working farm plant. Prices of machinery cover a widerange, according to size, &c. In working 200 to 250 acres of wheatcrop, the following plant would be required, and the prices given areapproximately correct:--

 Five horses (good selected mares, if possible, that will give an annual return of, say, four foals), at $144 per head $720. 00

 Five sets of harness 72. 00

 One dray and set harness 86. 00

 One four-furrow plough 144. 00

 One set of harrows 33. 00

 One seed drill 182. 00

 One cultivator 96. 00 ------ Implements for putting in and working growing crop $1333. 00

 One reaper and binder 142. 00

 One stripper-harvester 430. 00 -------- Total $1905. 00

[Illustration: STEAM THRESHER AT WORK. ]

A chaffcutter ($67. 00) might be added to the above list, and in somelocalities a roller, costing about $19. 00, is required. The price ofhorses varies. In the above list they have been placed at $144. 00, butsuitable animals may be secured for $96. 00 to $120. 00 per head. As soonas he can manage it the new farmer will want to get a waggon ($168. 00). He will soon want a vehicle to move about in, a sulky ($72. 00 to$96. 00), a light horse and harness, saddle, &c. Minor implements andtools for fencing, carpentering, building, and so on will be wanted, andaltogether it would be well to reckon that working plant generally willcost about $2400. 00. To work a large area would not cost moreproportionately by any means; it is reckoned that an area of 600 acresof cultivation costs about $3360. 00 for working plant. 

All the above parts of the plant would not be required at once, and theabove amounts can be greatly reduced by obtaining smaller implements, lighter horses, and so on. Furthermore, it is not necessary that thefull amount should be paid down for the plant. Cash would have to bepaid for the horses, but machinery and most of the balance of the plantcan be acquired on terms, part payment being in cash, while the balanceruns over till after harvest, or even over two seasons. Usuallyone-third is paid in cash, and the balance about February or March, after the farmer has received the money for his crop. It is to theinterest of the machinery firms, storekeepers, and others who dobusiness with the wheatfarmer to help him as far as possible, especiallyin the early years, and in Australia, when a man shows he is honest andhard-working, he will receive every consideration in this direction. 

The wheatgrower has also to allow for the keep of himself and his familywhile waiting for his crop to ripen. 

In the above plant a stripper-harvester has been allowed for, but if astripper and winnower be used instead, the cost for implements would beabout $120. 00 less. On the other hand, more labour would be required towork them. The utilisation of the stripper-harvester is the most popularmethod of taking off a wheat crop. 

The stripper is an Australian invention. It is a machine drawn throughthe ripe standing crop by three or four horses attached to its side. Thehorses walk in the stubble of the harvested portion. The ripe earscoming within reach of the machine, which has a 5-ft. Cut, are gatheredby a comb, and directed to a cutting plate, where the beater drum cutsthem from the straw and threshes the grain out. At the same time thegrain, with the chaff and some straw, is thrown into a receptacle at theback of the machine. When this is full the stripper is driven to apicked place in the paddock and emptied. Here a winnower has beenplaced, and the mixture of grain and rubbish out of the stripper is putthrough this winnower, which cleans and bags the wheat ready for market. In fair crops one winnower, with four men to work it, will keep twostrippers going. 

The stripper-harvester is another Australian invention. It is animprovement on the stripper, and is now in more general use. It isreally a combined stripper and winnower. It takes off the heads ofwheat, and also threshes and cleans them as it goes along, and deliversthe grain into bags at the side of the machine. This reduces the cost ofharvesting, as less labour is required. Two men can work a harvester, one driving the machine while the other removes and sews up the bags. The machines cut 5 to 6 ft. , but 8-ft. Machines have proved successfulof late, and with them a good area can be handled in a day. The smallermachine will strip about 10 acres of a fair crop in a working day. 

[Illustration: (1) STEAM THRESHER. (2) STOOK-BUILDING. (3) HARVESTPICNIC. (4) BALING FOR EXPORT. (5) STOOKS READY FOR CARTING. ]

WORKING THE WHEAT FARM. 

The settler having acquired his land, he will require to fence in hisholding, and also subdivide it into convenient paddocks or fields. AllAustralian farms are fenced, and in districts in which the rabbit is amenace the boundary fences are wire-netted. Unless timber is veryplentiful wire fences are almost universal. Posts, which are obtainedfrom timber on the farm that is fallen, and split into the necessarylengths, are erected 9 or 11 ft. Apart, with six or seven wires runningthrough them. Sometimes the posts are put at a greater distance apart, and "droppers" placed between them at distances of 7 or 8 ft. Some ofthese droppers are of split timber, but patent droppers, made of wireand iron, can be obtained. Where timber is scarce such fences arecheaper. The droppers hold the wires to which they are attached in theirplace, but are not sunk into the ground. Fencing costs about $144. 00 to$168. 00 per mile. Netting the fences to keep out the rabbit costs anadditional $192. 00 to $240. 00 per mile. If the new farm consists ofimproved, that is, cleared or partly cleared land, the settler willprobably get his crop in before he does his fencing. It would be betterfor him to do that than leave his sowing till unduly late. 

Where green timber has to be cleared off the land it is ringbarkedfirst, and the trees allowed to die before they are grubbed out. Ringbarking consists of cutting a small strip of bark from around thetrunk of the tree to prevent the flow of sap keeping it alive. Afterringbarking, the trees usually throw out young shoots or "suckers, "which have to be broken off. Usually this has to be done twice, and iscalled suckering. The deeper the trees are ringbarked, the bigger thepiece of bark removed, the sooner it will die, but there is then agreater tendency to throw out suckers. The trees take two or three yearsto die, then they are grubbed and burnt. It is very seldom that thegreen trees are cut out at once, as this is very much more expensive, and for some time after removal the ground is too sour to be good forwheat or other crops. When the country is ringbarked the groundsweetens, and by the time the tree is dead is ready for cropping. Whilethe trees are dying the country is usually used for grazing sheep andother stock, as it will be carrying good pasture. Of recent years asystem has been tried, with considerable success, of poisoning the greentimber with a mixture of arsenic and soda and water. A ring is choppedround the tree, and the bark thus makes a rough cup, into which themixture is poured. This treatment has proved very effective. 

The cost of ringbarking and all similar operations, of course, dependsupon the amount of timber on the country, but it usually costs from 24cents to 30 cents per acre, while suckering costs 8 cents to 12 centsper acre. After the trees are dead they are grubbed or burnt out, allroots to 12 or 18 in. Depth being removed, and this work costs from$2. 80 to $3. 60 per acre. In some cases the country is what is known as"Yankee-grubbed, " in which case the trees are cut off level with theground, and roots allowed to remain in below the surface. When thecountry was used for grazing only, this was found a cheap and efficientmethod, but nevertheless only a small proportion of Australian wheatcountry has been so treated. To cultivate "Yankee-grubbed" country whatare known as stump-jump implements, ploughs and cultivators are used. These are available on the market, and as "Yankee-grubbing" is certainlycheaper than the usual method of grubbing, it has some attraction to theman with limited capital. The more careful farmers, however, do notadvocate this method. 

[Illustration: THRESHING BY HORSE POWER. ]

It must be remembered that the above prices for clearing are wherelabour has to be employed. It must also be remembered that the amount oftimber on different classes of wheat country in the different Statesvaries very much, so while it is usually estimated that clearing landfor wheat costs about $4. 30 per acre, it does not mean that it willalways cost that, or, in any case, that the settler has to pay thatamount out in cash. After the timber is grubbed and pulled down it isusually piled together and burnt. It burns well, and the burningenriches the soil. The settler starting in to clear his farm has everthe future picture in mind of when the work is done, and he has abeautifully-cleared, improved property on which to spend the latteryears of his life. And there is no finer picture than an improved wheatfarm, with its alternation of park-like paddocks, paddocks carrying aflock of sheep, paddocks of growing crops, and paddocks of fallowingploughed land ready for the crop next season, or perhaps carrying arotation crop of oats, rape, or cowpea. The homestead, surrounded by itsorchard, stables, hayshed, and machinery sheds, and poultry run, willstand upon a rise, from which the whole property can be surveyed. Andto none is the picture finer than to the man who by his own toil andenergy has cleared and improved most of those paddocks. Such wheat farmsare to be found in thousands throughout Australia. 

One of the first things the settler has to do is to provide a watersupply. It is the exception to find wheat farms with a natural permanentwater supply, such as a creek or river. In most cases the settlerdepends upon tanks or dams for watering his stock. A suitable low-lyingsite is picked, and the earth is scooped out and banked up at the endand sides, so there is a hole into which the rainwater runs, followingthe natural lay of the country, and assisted and directed by drains andgutters. These tanks, as they are called, usually range from 1000 to2000 cubic yards, and cost up to 24 cents or 30 cents per yard toexcavate. In most districts the country holds water splendidly, and whenthe tank is filled by the autumn and winter rains it will carry throughthe summer. For domestic use galvanised tanks are depended upon, beingplaced to catch the rainwater off the rooms of the homestead buildings. In some districts water is obtained by sinking shallow wells. In partsof the wheat country sub-artesian wells are also common, good waterbeing obtained by boring 200 to 300 ft. , when an unfailing supply ofgood water for stock is secured. The real artesian country, where deepbores are sunk for water, is outside the present wheat belt. 

In the season ploughing usually starts at 7. 30 a. M. And goes on until5. 30 p. M. , with a break of a couple of hours during the day for dinner;that is, where labour is employed. The settler himself handling his ownland usually works from dawn till dark, using changes of horses duringthe day. Both mouldboard and disc ploughs are in use, some soils suitingone and some the other, while use for both will often be found on theone farm. The four-furrow plough, drawn by five or six horses, is mostfavoured, and with it four to six acres will be done in a day. Harrowingis done with a set of three to six sections of tines, covering from 12to 20 ft. In width, and doing 15 to 20 acres a day. The bulk of thesowing is done with a combined drill, which plants the seed anddistributes artificial fertiliser at the same time. The amount of seedsown per acre varies from 25 to 45 lbs. , and even up to 100 lbs. In someparts of the Commonwealth, while usually about the same amount ofsuperphosphate is distributed, 45 to 60 lbs. Being the most commonquantity. Both hoes and disc drills are in use, ranging from twelve tofifteen tubes, the tubes being 7 in. Apart. These particulars applymostly to the man cultivating 200 to 300 acres himself. 

It is often found beneficial to harrow the growing crop until it is 3 or4 in. High. While the crop is growing the settler will find plenty to doin clearing and improving his property, attending to his sheep, and soon. If he is on shares he will find work for his team and himself onother properties, at contract work, or on the local roads. 

Harvest time comes well on in the summer, and for several weeks everyoneis busy on the farm. It is usual when putting in a wheat crop to sow aportion for hay. Either a separate crop is sown or a special varietysuitable for hay is sown around the main grain crop. This is cut withthe reaper and binder just after the wheat plant has flowered. Thesheaves, which are tied by the machine, are stooked in the paddock forten or fourteen days until dry enough to be carted in and stacked. Theclimate--as a rule fine weather prevails--is favourable to haymaking, and a bright-coloured nutritious hay is produced. The average yield is aton to one ton and a-half to the acre, but three, four, and even fiveton crops are taken off, but that is usually in a crop sown andcultivated specially for hay with the intention of supplying the chaffmarket, which is an industry in itself. The wheatfarmer, properlyspeaking, only cuts what he will require for his own horses. A reaperand binder is drawn by three horses, and will cut from 10 to 12 acresper day. One man is required to drive the machine, and one or two men topick up and stook the sheaves. Some farmers cut their own hay for chaff, working the machine either by hand or with horse-works for turning thecutting wheel, but the majority have the hay cut by contractors, whotravel through the country with a special plant for the purpose, charging $2. 16 per ton for cutting. After a portion round the edges ofthe crops has been cut for hay a strip of land is ploughed around thecrop in the stubble for the purpose of making a break in case of fire, and thus enabling a fire that might approach the crop being controlledon the bare ploughed ground. 

[Illustration: CARTING WHEAT TO RAILWAY STATION. ]

The wheat crop is allowed to become dead ripe in the paddock, as forstripping the ears must be dry and quite ripe. Once it is ready to stripevery effort is made to take the crop off as quickly as possible, as itdoes not improve standing, for some of the grain is likely to be shakenout by winds. The more modern wheats, however, hold the grainwonderfully against wind or hail. Varieties of wheat are sown so theywill mature at different times, which extends the harvesting period, asone crop will be ready to harvest before the other is quite ripe, andthere is thus a useful rotation. At harvesting time work usually startsin the paddock about 8 a. M. , as the wheat does not strip well until thehot sun gets on it, as it toughens during the night. The work goes onuntil 7 or 7. 30 p. M. , with a break of two hours at mid-day, and spellsof twenty minutes in the morning and afternoon. Where labour is employedone man drives the harvester, but his horses are looked after, fed, groomed, and harnessed for him. This saves time, and enables the crop tobe taken off the more quickly. Of course, the farmer in a small way willdo his own work, requiring only a little assistance at harvest time, someone to sew up and stack the bags. As there is always a rush atharvest time, the bags of grain are often left lying in the paddocks insmall heaps until the crop is all off, when they are carted to therailway or mill. Some farmers do their own carting, but the majority paythe regular carriers to do this work, the cost varying according todistance, but is generally done for 24 cents per ton per mile. About12-1/2 bags of wheat go to the ton. 

[Illustration: AUSTRALIAN WHEAT FOR EXPORT FROM FARM TO WHARF. ]

At present in Australia wheat is all handled in bags which contain about3 bushels of grain. The price of empty bags varies from $1. 50 to $2. 00per doz. Very few second-hand bags are used. The different StateGovernments in Australia are now considering the wisdom of introducingthe American system of handling wheat in bulk. The Governments of NewSouth Wales and of Western Australia have definitely announced theirintention of establishing that system, while it is being favourablyconsidered in Victoria. Once the system was introduced in any of theStates it would probably be only a short time before it was adoptedthroughout the Commonwealth. At present, however, bags are inuniversal use, the grain being thus carried both for local and exporttrade. 

The settler finds no difficulty in selling his wheat, as grain merchantsand millers compete for it. Often sales are made before the crop isripe. The large wheat merchants and shippers have their agents in everytown, and these men visit the farms, inspect the grain, and make anoffer according to the ruling market price. The local millers are alsocompeting for what grain they want for local consumption. The grower ispaid on delivery at the mill or the nearest railway station. If heprefers to do so he can store it with the buying firms, giving them theright to purchase when he is prepared to sell, or he can store on thefarm. The export values of wheat per bushel for the last six years, havebeen:--

 1909 $1. 00 1910 1. 00 1911 0. 84 1912 0. 95 1913 0. 84 1914 0. 82

Wheat is bought and sold on what is known as the f. A. Q. (fair averagequality) system. Samples of wheat are taken from the various districtsby the different Chambers of Commerce, and each State fixes its ownf. A. Q. Standard. These samples are mixed together, and by carefultesting on a patent scale it is ascertained what an Imperial bushel ofweight actually weighs. The idea is to ascertain as equitably aspossible what a fair average sample of the season's wheat should weigh. The standard varies a little in different years; it may be 61, 62, 64, or as low as 58 lbs. To the bushel. Whatever it is fixed at for theseason that is the basis upon which all sales are made. If the marketprice for wheat, for instance, is $1. 20 per bushel, it is for wheat upto the f. A. Q. Standard. Say the latter has been fixed at 62 lbs. , thewheat must show that weight. Agents have what is called a chrondrometerfor the purpose of testing the wheat. If it is below the f. A. Q. Standard, a lower price is given. This system has been devised to suitthe export trade. Samples of the standard wheat are sent to marketsabroad, and all cargoes are sold on that basis. When they arrive at themarket abroad they must test up to the f. A. Q. Standard. This system hasbeen in force in Australia for nearly half a century. 

It must be understood that this standard f. A. Q. Weight has nothing to dowith the quantity for which the grower is paid. He is always paid on theImperial bushel basis, 60 lbs. Whatever the standard may be, every 60lbs. Of wheat is a bushel. The f. A. Q. Weight is a standard for quality, not quantity. 

There is always a market for Australian wheat, and the price is alwaysequal to what wheat is bringing in the world's main markets. Australianwheat has a character of its own, and a character that is improving. British millers want it on account of the large amount of flour itproduces, and the colour and bloom it gives to their product. The grainis usually bright and clear in texture and rich in gluten, having finemilling qualities. Of late years Australian wheats have beenconsiderably improved in strength, and this factor is continuing, andthey undoubtedly promise to more than equal any wheat produced, possessing not only colour and bloom, but also strength, and giving themiller what he wants to produce an ideal article. 

[Illustration: FARMERS IN AUSTRALIA ARE NOT HARASSED BY HIGH RAILFREIGHTS. ]

COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 

The cost of production of wheat is a most important matter to thegrower. As already stated, the comparatively low yields in Australia areamply compensated for by the low cost of producing wheat. 

In regard to the work on the farm, the following figures areapproximately the prices for different classes of work when it is doneby contract:--Ploughing new ground, $1. 68 per acre; old or fallowedground, $1. 45 per acre; harrowing, 18 cents to 24 cents per acre;cultivating, $0. 50 per acre; drilling, 36 cents per acre; harvestingwith stripper-harvester, 72 cents per acre; cutting with binder, 84cents per acre; stooking, 24 cents per acre; carting and stacking hay, $1. 35 per acre. 

Superphosphate is the main fertiliser used. Australian wheat soils arenaturally strong in nitrogen and potash, but in many cases are deficientin available phosphoric acid. Superphosphate costs about $1. 20 per cwt. , and may be reckoned at 48 cents to 60 cents per acre. Seed wheat runsfrom 96 cents to $1. 20 per bushel; sowing 45 lbs. To the acre represents72 cents to 84 cents per acre. 

It is reckoned that if the same work is done by weekly-paid labour thecost is reduced by fully 30 per cent. All round. 

[Illustration: HARVESTING SCENE, DARLING DOWNS, QUEENSLAND]

In common practice it is considered that it costs $4. 80 to $6. 00 peracre to put in and take off an acre of wheat. The following figures arereliable estimates of the actual cost of production by official experts, and also actual figures supplied by working farmers. 

In the following estimate of the cost of producing wheat it is assumedthat the land is fallowed, and the estimate is based on a yield of 20bushels per acre:--

 Ploughing once at $1. 45 per acre $1. 45

 Harrowing three times at 18 cents per acre 0. 54

 Cultivating once at $0. 60 per acre 0. 60

 Drilling at 36 cents per acre 0. 36

 Seed, 45 lbs. , at 80 cents per bushel 0. 72

 Pickling seed 0. 06

 Superphosphate, 1/2 cwt. At $1. 20 0. 60

 Harvesting with harvester at 72 cents per acre 0. 72

 Seven bags at $1. 60 per dozen 0. 84 ----- $4. 89

[Illustration: THE STRIPPER AT WORK. ]

If the land is not fallowed and the seed sown immediately afterploughing, the cost is correspondingly less. The above figures are thecost if the work is done on contract. If it is done by weekly hiredlabour the work comes out about 30 per cent. Cheaper, as will be seen bythe following figures:--

 Ploughing: Wages, one man at $6. 00 per week; man's rations, $2. 40 per week; feed for four horses for week, $9. 60; total, $18. 00. One man with four horses in a three-furrow plough will do 22 acres in six days at a cost of less than $0. 84 per acre. Drilling: Man's wages, $6. 00; rations, $2. 40; horsefeed, three horses, $7. 20; total, $7. 80. He will drill 90 acres in six days at that cost, or less than $0. 18 per acre. Other operations cost similarly less, but in all cases wear and depreciation of plant and interest on capital invested in plant should be allowed for. 

These figures, however, concern cases where labour is employed. Thefollowing figures show the outlay where a man is doing the work himself. He could plough, cultivate, and sow 250 acres, which would take himtwenty-two weeks. The first year he has to purchase his seed wheat andfeed for his horses:--

 190 bushels seed wheat at $0. 80 per bushel $153. 60

 10 tons chaff at $19. 20 per ton 192. 00 ------- $345. 60

 Approximately $1. 38 per acre. 

At harvest time he would first reap portion of his crop to secure asupply of horse feed for the following year, say, 10 acres:--

 Reaping and haymaking, 2 men's wages for three days at $1. 92, food $0. 48 per day $14. 40

 Twine (for binding the sheaves) 6. 00

 Harvesting the wheat crop: One man's wages $1. 92, food $0. 48 per day for forty days 96. 00

 One hundred dozen bags at $1. 68 per dozen 168. 00

 Horsefeed, 5 tons chaff at $19. 20 per ton 96. 00

 Cartage, 1000 bags wheat at $0. 18 per bag 180. 00 ------- $560. 40

This is reckoning the crop as averaging 15 bushels per acre, when thereturns would be:--

 15 tons of chaff (a low estimate) at $19. 20 per ton $288. 00

 1200 bags of wheat, 3600 bushels at $0. 80 per bushel 2880. 00 -------- $3168. 00

 Less expenditure ($345. 60, $560. 40) 906. 00 -------- Balance $2262. 00

To be thoroughly correct we should allow for:--

 Interest on plant, costing, say, $1920. 00 at 5 per cent. $96. 00

 Depreciation of plant, 10 per cent. 192. 00

 Rent on 250 acres at $1. 20 per acre 300. 00 ------- Total $588. 00

And in addition allow for the value of the farmer's own labour:--

 Twenty-two weeks putting in crop at $12. 00 per week $264. 00

 Ten weeks harvesting at $14. 40 per week . . 144. 00 ------- $408. 00

We still have a satisfactory result, viz. :--

 Returns $3168. 00

 Outlay $570. 00

 Interest, &c. 588. 00

 Farmer's labour 408. 00 ------- 1902. 00 -------- Net clear return $1266. 00

From this it can be seen that very handsome returns can be obtainedwhere the farmer is working his land properly, and growing a goodportion, if not all, of his crop on fallowed land. Then his averagewould be nearer 25 bushels than 15, and his net return nearly as muchagain. In the above example, after making full allowance for alllegitimate charges, the cost of producing a 15-bushel crop from 250acres comes out at about $7. 44 per acre. 

SHARE FARMING. 

One of the most prominent and, in a sense, unique features ofwheatgrowing in Australia is the share-farming system. In New SouthWales, for instance, something like one-sixth of the wheat crop is putin on shares. Under this system the landowner and the worker withlimited means co-operate to their mutual benefit. One provides the landand the other the labour, and, under certain conditions, they share theproduce. Since it was introduced many years ago, share farming hasbecome popular because it has proved a boon to both parties and to thedifferent States, while providing an exceptionally safe means of givingmen the opportunity to ultimately acquire farms of their own. 

[Illustration: WHEAT AT COUNTRY RAILWAY SIDING. ]

The conditions upon which land is worked on shares differs slightly indifferent districts, but usually they are somewhat on the followinglines. The landowner provides the land ready for the plough, fenced andcleared; the seed wheat, and bluestone for pickling same; bags and twinefor his share of the crop. The share farmer usually provides machineryand horses to work the land, put in and take off the crop, all labourand bags and twine for his share of the crop. In the majority of casesthe landowner and the share farmer each take half the proceeds, or "bagfor bag, " each reserving the right to dispose of his share when andwhere he deems fit. In some cases the agreement is more liberal to theshare farmer, and a fixed amount--perhaps 16 to 18 bushels--is agreedupon, which is shared equally, any balance being taken by the farmer. This is sometimes adopted as an incentive to good farming, and in casesas an inducement to attract the share farmer into new districts somedistance from the railway. There have been cases where farmers havesecured very good crops, 30 to 36 bushels to the acre, which meant thatthey received 22 and 28 bushels per acre for their share, while thelandowner only received 8 bushels. These are exceptional conditions. Asstated, the usual practice is to share equally. The following are samplespecimens of the different agreements worked under:--

 The landowner finds the land, all seed, and half manure; the farmer finds plant, labour, and half manure. Each takes half the crop. 

 The landowner provides land, all seed and all manure; the farmer plant and labour, and takes one-third of the crop, the landowner taking two-thirds. 

 The landowner provides land only, and takes one-third of the crop; the farmer provides plant, labour, seed, and manure, taking two-thirds of the crop. 

 The landowner provides all stock, land, and half manure; the farmer provides labour, seed, and half manure, and the crop is divided equally. 

 The landowner provides land, seed, and manure; the farmer does all the work, and the crop is equally divided. 

[Illustration: A NICE MIXED FARM. ]

It will thus be seen that some minor differences occur in theagreements. The first of the above list is most common. There are cases, however, where a progressive owner is anxious to get his land underwheat, and has financed the farmer, finding everything but labour. Thelandowner has provided a working plant, for which the farmer pays himfrom the proceeds of the crops, the payments extending over a term ofseasons. Under this system men have started without any capital, and ina few years possessed a plant worth several hundred pounds, togetherwith a snug banking account to their credit. Of course, in such casesthe landowner knows his man, and knows he is honest, experienced, andcapable. Usually the men have worked on the place as farm hands. 

Under any conditions it is essential that the share farmer must havecertain qualifications. It could not be expected that the landownerwould consent to allow him to work valuable land otherwise. Practicalexperience of wheatgrowing is required, together with a good personalcharacter. Local experience is also usually required, and in any case itwould be the wisest course for any man to secure in his own interestssuch experience before endeavouring to start farming on shares. InAustralia the man who is in earnest, and determined to go on the land, will find no difficulty in obtaining such experience. There is a gooddemand for willing farm workers at a rate of wages that will allow athrifty man to put something by, while he is gaining a practicalexperience and a knowledge of local conditions. Once he has those hewill not find it difficult to obtain the chance to start working onshares. 

The share farmer has to find his own dwelling, and support himself andfamily. In some cases the owner erects the dwellings under specialterms, but usually, as the farmer hopes to only be engaged for a fewseasons share farming, the building is of a cheap nature, as the climateis temperate. 

A man with $1440. 00 or $1920. 00 can purchase horses and obtain a plant, financing himself for a couple of years without depending too much oncredit. Men have started with less and succeeded, as examples givenlater will show. It is not necessary to purchase a complete plant, and, as already stated, the more expensive implements can be purchased onterms. A man can handle 200 to 300 acres, and at the ruling prices forwheat of recent years, taking the average obtained by good farmers, thereturns will run from $9. 60 to $14. 00 per acre and more for his share. In addition, after ploughing and sowing is completed, a team of horseswill earn good money at contract work in the district, carrying on theroads and so on, until harvest time. In this way a farmer in three orfour years, perhaps less, will be in the position to take up land on hisown account on a private or Government subdivision, and start in tobuild a permanent and comfortable home for himself and his family. 

While share farming he has proved his capability and obtained theconfidence that comes with experience, together with a valuableknowledge of local conditions, which is a great help in selecting landfor purchase. 

It will be seen that share farming affords exceptional opportunities forthe energetic man with a small capital. He can start without sinkingall his capital in rent or purchase money, and perhaps burdening himselfwith a heavy debt. In his own interests he has that to farm well, andindeed in most cases the terms of the agreement require conditionsessential to good farming. Farmers are usually required to plough to aspecified depth, and at times to prepare an area of fallow land for thesucceeding crop. He is allowed to graze his horses on the property, orgiven the use of a paddock at a low rental. 

[Illustration: THIS CROP YIELDED OVER 30 BUSHELS TO THE ACRE. ]

One of the advantages of share farming, making towards amicable working, is that the interests of the landowner and the farmer are the same. Bothare anxious to secure the greatest possible return from the land, andthere is a direct community of interest. The landowner may be moreconcerned about maintaining the fertility of the soil, and securing goodfarming, but this is also to the interest of the farmer, and certainlyaffords him a valuable lesson for the future when he is working his ownproperty. While the system beyond question is equitable and fair, andgives the farmer an excellent chance to achieve success that would notbe the case where he was working on wages, or an ordinary tenant, admittedly it is also advantageous to the landowner. He secures a goodreturn from his land, and avoids the anxiety and trouble oftenassociated with the employment of labour on a large scale, while he hasnot to embark a large sum of money in working plant. 

In connection with a system such as this the evidence of an unbiassed, independent outside body is, perhaps, more convincing than anythingelse. It is available. 

In 1910 Australia was visited by the Scottish Agricultural Commission, abody of practical men from Scotland, who investigated rural conditionsin the Commonwealth. The Commission toured the Commonwealth, visitingdifferent wheat districts, and came into direct touch with localconditions. They paid great attention to the share farming, as itspossibilities could not fail to impress them, and in their report on"Australia: Its Land, Conditions, and Prospects, " they had the followingto say:--

 "After a year or two the newcomer finds himself ready for a start on his own account. If he possessed a few hundred pounds when he landed, he will now seek to become his own landlord in one or other of the ways open to him. If, however, he has yet too little money for that, he will be well advised to take no risks, but to be content meantime either with renting a farm or with farming on the share system. A man who is intelligent and industrious, who has had sufficient experience of farming in Australia, but who has not enough money to buy land, cannot do better than turn his attention to farming on shares. 

 "He can take up wheatfarming . .. And if he has a good reputation, he will find no difficulty in getting on shares the kind of farm he wants. "

HOW THE SETTLER IS ASSISTED. 

The different Australian States fully recognise the great value to thecommunity of the farmer, and special steps are taken to assist him indifferent ways. 

Financial assistance is rendered through agricultural banks in WestAustralia and Queensland, the Credit Foncier in Victoria, and StateBanks in New South Wales and South Australia. Through these Governmentinstitutions advances are made to settlers. Full particulars in thisregard are furnished in another booklet, obtainable by intendingsettlers. 

[Illustration: FARMERS ON THE WAY TO A COUNTRY SHOW. ]

In Australia all the railways are State-owned, and the endeavour is tocarry farm produce and farming implements, fertilisers, &c. , at thelowest possible rate compatible with the railways covering workingexpenses and depreciation of stock. Special rates are made for longdistances. The rates vary in the different States, but it can beconfidently said that they prove no hindrance to successfulwheatgrowing. As all the wheat grown in Australia has to be carried tothe seaboard on the railways, the particulars of success achieved, asalready given, proves that. The Commonwealth Statistician furnishes thefollowing particulars of State railway rates for agricultural produce inthe different States, which serve as a guide to the settler:--

 +------------------+-------------------------------------+ | |Charge per Ton in | | |truckloads for a haul of | | State. +-----------+------------+------------+ | | 50 miles. | 100 miles. | 200 miles. | +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+ | | $ | $ | $ | |New South Wales | 1. 20 | 1. 80 | 2. 28 | |Victoria | 1. 32 | 2. 04 | 2. 52 | |Queensland | 1. 10 | 2. 10 | 2. 64 | |South Australia | 1. 48 | 2. 10 | 3. 10 | |Western Australia | 1. 50 | 2. 14 | 2. 90 | |Tasmania | 1. 62 | 2. 32 | 3. 12 | +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+ |Average | 1. 36 | 2. 08 | 2. 76 | +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+

 +------------------+-------------------------------------+ | |Charge per Ton in | | |truckloads for a haul of | | State. +-----------+------------+------------ | | 300 miles. | 400 miles. | 500 miles. | +------------------+------------+------------+-----------+ | | $ | $ | $ | |New South Wales | 2. 52 | 2. 72 | 2. 88 | |Victoria | 2. 96 | 3. 36 | 3. 76 | |Queensland | 2. 88 | 3. 12 | 3. 36 | |South Australia | 4. 10 | 5. 10 | 6. 10 | |Western Australia | 4. 08 | 5. 28 | 5. 76 | |Tasmania | . .. | . .. | . .. | +------------------+------------+------------+-----------+ |Average | 3. 10 | 3. 90 | 4. 38 | +------------------+------------+------------+-----------+

The following table shows the rates on low-class freight, which includesordinary articles of merchandise, such as are particularly identified orconnected with the primary industries:--

 +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+ | | Charge per Ton for haul of | | State. +-----------+------------+------------+ | | 50 miles. | 100 miles. | 200 miles. | +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+ | | $ | $ | $ | |New South Wales | 0. 60 | 0. 86 | 1. 36 | |Victoria | 1. 02 | 1. 60 | 2. 40 | |Queensland | 1. 10 | 2. 10 | 3. 60 | |South Australia | 1. 00 | 1. 84 | 3. 26 | |Western Australia | 1. 20 | 2. 00 | 3. 40 | |Tasmania | 1. 20 | 1. 62 | 2. 04 | +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+ |Average | 1. 00 | 1. 64 | 2. 86 | +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+

 +------------------+------------+------------+------------+ | | Charge per Ton for haul of | | State. +------------+------------+------------+ | | 300 miles. | 400 miles. | 500 miles. | +------------------+------------+------------+------------+ | | $ | $ | $ | |New South Wales | 1. 86 | 2. 36 | 2. 86 | |Victoria | 2. 84 | 3. 24 | 3. 64 | |Queensland | 4. 40 | 5. 60 | 5. 60 | |South Australia | 4. 26 | 5. 26 | 6. 26 | |Western Australia | 4. 40 | 5. 60 | 6. 60 | |Tasmania | . .. | . .. | . .. | +------------------+------------+------------+------------+ |Average | 3. 62 | 4. 42 | 5. 48 | +------------------+------------+------------+------------+

The railways being publicly owned, there is always a demand for areduction of rates when they show any undue profit over workingexpenses. The object of railway administration is to assist theproducer. 

The oversea trade of Australia runs into enormous figures, amounting in1913 to $759, 422, 400. 00. Extensive shipping facilities are available, and the producer has cheap and constant access to the world's markets. The Australian wheatgrower is practically able to compete on equal termsin this regard with the farmer in the North and Midland counties ofEngland. 

The postal, telegraphic, and telephonic services are also Stateconcerns. There is a universal penny post throughout Australia, telegrams are conveyed at cheap rates, and special facilities areprovided for groups of neighbouring farmers to secure a united telephoneservice. The farmer is able to keep in close touch with the world'smarkets through these means. 

The Departments of Agriculture in the different States have, of course, been created to advance the interests of the farming community. They arelarge and important departments, well equipped, and have proved of greatpractical value. Wheatgrowing being the most important crop inAustralia, the industry receives special attention, and scientificinvestigation and experiment is being constantly made, and the resultscommunicated to the wheatgrowers. 

Agricultural colleges, where accommodation is provided for students, whoare given theoretical and practical instruction in different branches offarming; experiment farms, where students are also trained;demonstration farms; and farmers' experiment plots are conducted by theDepartments of Agriculture. Wheatbreeding and pathological andbacteriological work is carried on, and expert instructors work in thefield assisting the farmer in every possible way. Bulletins dealing withdifferent phases of work on the wheat farm, giving the results ofexperiments made, lists of varieties of wheat to plant and when to plantthem, are issued in large numbers, and either given to the farmer freeor sold at a nominal price. Agricultural gazettes and journals are alsoissued monthly, while topical information is made public through thecolumns of the press, which in Australia devotes an unusual amount ofspace regularly to rural topics. 

In New South Wales wheat experiments are conducted at the CowraExperiment Farm, which is the headquarters, and at the HawkesburyAgricultural College, and Wagga, Bathurst, Glen Innes, Nyngan, and YancoFarms. At Nyngan tests are made with a view to determining thesuitability of the different varieties for cultivation in dry areas. Thework at each farm consists of:--Pedigree plots of the main varietiesgrown on the farms; crossbreds in course of fixation for localconditions of soil and climate; a "stud variety trial, " including allstandard varieties, newly-introduced wheats, and samples sent foridentification; "stud bulks" to provide seed for planting the farm areaswhich supply seed wheat for sale. 

Since 1897 the Government agricultural experts have been endeavouring todetermine the varieties of wheats most suitable for different districts, and to secure new types which return the best milling results locally, and their efforts have been very successful. In this connection the workof the late William Farrer, wheat experimentalist of the Department ofAgriculture, New South Wales, has become world famous. His efforts weredirected to the production of new varieties of greater milling value andmore rust-resistant. Farrer's wheats, which rank among the most prolificgrain varieties, are largely cultivated in Australia. Farrer's work isstill carried on, and it has been proved that Australia can producestrong white wheat equal in flour production to the old varieties, andequal in strength to the famed standard Manitoba wheat. Australian wheatis eagerly sought after by British millers. 

Farrer's work has been of direct and material value to the wheatgrowers, and his memory is held high in Australia. Prior to the introduction intothe wheatgrowing areas of his crossbred wheats, growers depended mostlyupon Purple Straw varieties. Hardly any varieties were known, and littleattention was paid to the advisability of sowing certain varietieseither early or late in the season. The advent of these new varietieshas brought about a great change. Such an extensive range is providedthat farmers can begin their sowing much earlier, and finish with othervarieties much later than was the case before. The sowing season hasbeen lengthened by more than two months. Not only is the sowing periodconsiderably prolonged, but the harvesting period is prolonged also, forthe late varieties sown early mature late, those sown in mid-season areharvested in mid-season, and the early varieties which have been sownlate mature and are harvested early. Thus instead of the whole cropbecoming ripe at the one time it ripens in stages, and is harvestedaccordingly. Such a system has immense advantages over the old days, when practically the whole crop ripened at once. 

The foremost variety bred by William Farrer is "Federation, " which hasbecome a general favourite in New South Wales, Victoria, and SouthAustralia. This variety is a very heavy yielder, has gooddrought-resistant qualities, and withstands wind and weather so wellthat it may be said to be storm-proof. It would require a storm ofexceptional violence to either cause the crop to lodge or the ear toshed its grain. Consequently it is most popular with growers, and a verylarge proportion of the wheat area is sown with this variety. It isestimated that in New South Wales and Victoria alone the increased valuein yield obtained from this variety is worth over $2, 880, 000. 00 annuallyto the growers. It is estimated that the yield of Federation is at least3 bushels more per acre than the next best yielding variety in New SouthWales. 

Other of Farrer's wheats have been singularly successful, as an instance"Bunyip, " which can be sown safely a month later than was the case withany variety previously. It must be recognised that the result of suchexperimental work is of great value to the grower. 

New wheat varieties are bred at the experimental farms, and thoroughlytested and proved before they are put out to the farmer. In New SouthWales they are then grown on farmer's experimental plots. The State isdivided into divisions, and in each an inspector supervises the sowingand cultivation of these plots, which are situated on private farms byspecial arrangement, the farmer carrying out the work and the departmentfinding seed, manure, and supervision, usually near the roadside, wherethe plots can be seen by district farmers and progress noted. Theinspector advises growers generally, while the plots are a silentteacher all the time. They have proved a valuable medium of practicaleducation amongst the farming community, special attention being givento cultural methods. In 1911-12 plots were cultivated in New SouthWales in eighty-three districts. In 1911 there were seventy-two farmers'plots in Victoria on which manurial and variety wheat trials wereconducted. 

In the latter State, however, a change has been made, and the majorityof these plots have been discontinued, and a commencement made towards apolicy of concentration in experimental investigation. It was decided toestablish a Central Research Farm at Werribee, on which the initiativewith regard to all experimental and research work is undertaken, whileother State farms and the Agricultural College will be used as districtexperiment stations. The work at the Central Research Farm is intendedto confer on agriculture the benefits of the most scientific advances bythe prosecution of investigations and trials under practical andaccurately-recorded conditions concerning problems involved inincreasing the agricultural output. Attention will be given toimprovement of wheat, soil renovation, fertilising and tillage methods, rotation of crops, &c. The farm is within 18 miles of the capital city, Melbourne, and is easy of access by farmers from all parts of the State. Much of the soil closely resembles in physical character and chemicalanalysis that of the principal wheatgrowing districts. At LongerenongAgricultural College and the Rutherglen Viticultural College attentionis given to the improvement of wheat by systematic selection, crossbreeding and hybridisation in one case, and the fixation andtesting of new crossbred wheats in the other. 

South Australia also has its Government Agricultural College, whereextensive wheat experiments are conducted. The college has been of thegreatest benefit to the farming community. In that State there areseveral demonstration and experiment farms established by the State, including the Parafield Wheat Research Station, 170 acres in extent, which is set apart for the raising of high-grade seed wheat fordistribution amongst growers, and the raising of new varieties of wheatby crossbreeding and selection. 

In Western Australia several State farms were established for thepurpose of demonstrating the possibilities of farming on up-to-dateprinciples in the different districts. Having achieved that object asfar as pioneering work is concerned, they are now maintained asexperiment stations for the production of purebred cereals, &c. AtNarrogin State Farm students are accepted for instruction in practicalagriculture. 

Queensland has its Agricultural College and State Farms. Although thearea under wheat has not yet attained large dimensions in that State, principally because stockraising proves so profitable, good averageyields are obtained as compared with the other States, and considerablescientific attention is being devoted to wheat culture. At the RomaState Farm and Hermitage State Farm extensive wheat experiments arecarried out in the way of manurial trials, variety tests, and methods oftillage. The greater portion of the State Farm, Hermitage, is devoted tothe production of seed wheat true to type, thus making available asupply of tested seed for the growers. 

Agricultural High Schools are also established in some States, andagricultural teaching and agricultural education extends from theclasses in the State Public Schools, through the High Schools, Agricultural Colleges, and finally the University. 

Agricultural Societies exist in practically every farming district inAustralia. They are usually subsidised by the various State Governments, and conduct annual agricultural shows, which are a source of educationand social entertainment. They are the leading functions in thedifferent country districts. Usually experts from the Departments ofAgriculture attend these shows--at times a special exhibit is made bythe State Experimental Farms--and lecture on agriculture. In the capitalcities Royal Agricultural Societies hold annual shows, which aremagnificent exemplifications of the resources of the States and theprogress in agriculture. Wheat competitions are naturally a strongfeature of these exhibitions. 

South Australia led the way in the formation of an Agricultural Bureau, which has branches throughout the country districts. The members meetregularly, and discuss farming subjects, are periodically addressed byofficers of the Department of Agriculture, and also hold an annualconference. The bureau has proved a valuable means of education, as itbrings the farmers together, and engenders a spirit of co-operation andmutual assistance. In New South Wales an Agricultural Bureau was formedwithin recent years, and is now well established, having nearly 100branches. Farmers' unions and associations are also powerful bodies inAustralia, exercising both an educational and political influence. 

SOCIAL LIFE IN AUSTRALIA. 

Australia is essentially a "White Man's Country. " Over 90 per cent. Ofthe total population of 4, 872, 059 people are of British descent. Thepeople are free and democratic, and their laws progressive and advanced;in industrial and social legislation Australia leads the world. It isessentially a peaceful country, and so far has been blessed by neverhaving war within its boundaries. Respect for the law, and absence ofviolent crime is a marked feature of life in the Commonwealth. In thecountry districts crime is practically unknown, and it is common forhouses to be left unguarded, and locked doors are rare. The people arekindly and hospitable, and there is very little class distinction. Inits place is an equality of opportunity that opens all avenues to thosewith ambition. Working men and their sons frequently rise to the highestpositions the States have to offer, and such an occurrence is so commonas to fail to arouse any comment. In politics there is a universalsuffrage, every man and woman having a voice in the government of thecountry, therefore the laws are framed for the good of the majority. Noland offers better or freer social conditions to the homemaker. Advantages offer not only to the settler himself, but he has everyreason to hope for a happy destiny for his children. 

As has been stated, the climate is exceptionally healthy and mild. Thedry atmosphere, long hours of sunshine and open-air life tend to healthand happiness. Indeed it is no exaggeration to say that the fertility ofthe soil and the congenial climate has greatly lead to easy-goingmethods of farming, which are not altogether in the interests of thecountry. Few countries could carry on their rural industries withsimilar easy methods; none would leave the people as prosperous as thepeople of Australia. 

The information already given shows that the wheatfarmer, except in themost isolated districts, has the facilities for educating his childrenat little or no cost. Living is cheap on the farm. In most parts of thewheat belt fruit grows luxuriantly, and within three or four years a fewtrees will provide the settler with sufficient fresh fruit for homeconsumption, and to make jam and preserves for the family use. Vegetables can be grown during the greater part of the year, andthroughout the twelve months if there is an ample water supply. Idealsettlers' homes are to be met with in all districts--a weatherboard orbrick cottage, comfortable and roomy, with wide verandahs, covered withcreeping grape or passion fruit vines, a few beds of brilliant flowers, a vegetable patch, and an acre or so of fruit trees. Many wheatgrowerscombine fruitraising or poultry-keeping with wheatgrowing; some, insuitable districts, find great profit in cultivating a vineyard. Thesedevelopments depend upon the man and his capability and tendencies, andupon the co-operation and talents of his wife. 

For his meat supply the farmer usually depends upon his own flock ofkilling sheep, varied with beef or bacon procured from the township. Ifhe is within 10 miles of the township he will obtain his bread supplyfrom the local baker, although, of course, many housewives do their ownbaking. In the country districts, however, bread and stores aredelivered long distances, 20 miles and more. 

The smallest country town has its church, school, post and telegraphoffice, bank, savings bank, stores, blacksmith's shop, hotel, and so on. There is usually a School of Arts, with a circulating library. 

The country districts enjoy a system of local government, and the farmerelects the councillors who manage local affairs. 

He has his annual show, usually an annual race meeting. There arefootball and cricket clubs for his boys. Open-air sports are popular inthe country districts of Australia, and are a splendid means of bringingthe young fellows together. 

The Agricultural Bureau or Farmers' Associations' meetings provideintercourse with other men on the land. Farmers' picnics or carnivalsare an annual function in many places. 

Within 2, 3, or 4 miles away, according to the size of his farm, thereare neighbouring farmers and their families. The settler is not anisolated unit in a strange land, but is living in a civilised countryamongst civilised progressive people, enjoying the advantages andfacilities of modern conditions, and living under a system of politicaland religious liberty. 

To all white men Australia, with its vast tracts of untilled wheat land, holds out a welcome hand. The self-reliant man, with a small capital, can come to Australia, confident that with energy and attention to hiswork he can build up a prosperous career, and rear his children in acontented home surrounded by health and happiness, helping in the makingof a young, clean nation, part and parcel of an enlightened race. 

 _By Authority:_

 McCARRON, BIRD & CO. , MELBOURNE, 479 COLLINS STREET.