VOICE PRODUCTION

IN

SINGING AND SPEAKING

BASED ON

SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES

BY

WESLEY MILLS, M. A. , M. D. , F. R. S. C. 

EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY IN McGILL UNIVERSITY, AND LECTURER ONVOCAL PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE IN THE McGILL UNIVERSITY CONSERVATORIUMOF MUSIC, MONTREAL, CANADA

_FOURTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED_

[Illustration: publisher logo]

PHILADELPHIA & LONDONJ. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

COPYRIGHT, 1906, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

The Rights of Translation and all other Rights Reserved

COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

Electrotyped and Printed byJ. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 

[Transcriber's Notes: In this e-text, illustrations of music notationhave been rendered using standard text notation, e. G. : C = C twooctaves below middle C; c = C one octave below middle C; c' = middleC; c'' = C one octave above middle C, etc. 

Macrons are indicated thus: [=a], [=e], [=i], [=o], [=u]. ]

[Illustration: Illustrations of the appearance of the larynx duringphonation in two special cases. (Grünwald. )]

EXPLANATION OF THE COLORED ILLUSTRATIONS. 

They contrast with each other in that the one (upper) is too red; theother, too pale. The upper represents appearances such as one getswith the laryngoscope when the subject has a very severe cold, or eveninflammation of the larynx, including the central vocal bands. In thisparticular case, a young woman of twenty-five years of age, there wasinflammation with a certain amount of weakness of the internalthyro-arytenoid muscles. Speaking was almost impossible, and suchvoice as was produced was of a very rough character. In the lowerillustration we have the appearances presented in a man affected withtuberculosis of the lungs and larynx. The pallor of the larynx ischaracteristic. There is weakness of the internal thyro-arytenoidmuscle on the right side, which results in imperfect tension of thevocal band on that side, so that the voice is uncertain and harsh. Such illustrations are introduced to impress the normal by contrast. The reader is strongly advised to compare these figures with others inthe body of the work, especially those of Chapter VII. 

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION. 

In addition to certain emendations, etc. , introduced throughout thework, I have thought it well to add a chapter in which the wholesubject is treated in a broad and comprehensive way in the light ofthe latest scientific knowledge. 

In this review the psychological aspects of the subject have not beenneglected, and the whole has been related to practice to as great anextent as the character of the book permits. 

It is significant that on both sides of the Atlantic there is agrowing conviction that the foundations for speaking and singing as anart must be made as scientific as the state of our knowledge willpermit. 

THE AUTHOR. 

January, 1913. 

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 

No preface to the Second Edition was written, so few were the changesthat were made in the work, and the same might apply to this ThirdEdition. However, the fact that within a period of less than twoyears, a Second English and a Third American Edition have been calledfor, seems to the Author to be so conclusive an endorsement of theapplication of science to vocal art, that he may be entitled at leastto express his gratification at the progress the cause, to which hehas devoted his pen, is making. It would seem that the better portionat least of that public that is interested in the progress of vocalart has made up its mind that the time has come when sense and sciencemust replace tradition and empiricism. 

THE AUTHOR. 

MONTREAL, September, 1908. 

PREFACE. 

The present work is based on a life study of the voice, and has grownout of the conviction that all teaching and learning in voice-culture, whether for the purposes of singing or speaking, should as far aspossible rest on a scientific foundation. 

The author, believing that practice and principles have been too muchseparated, has endeavored to combine them in this book. His purposehas not been to write an exhaustive work on vocal physiology, withreferences at every step to the views of various authors; rather hashe tried always to keep in mind the real needs of the practicalvoice-user, and to give him a sure foundation for the principles thatmust underlie sound practice. A perusal of the first chapter of thework will give the reader a clearer idea of the author's purpose asbriefly expressed above. 

The writer bespeaks an unprejudiced hearing, being convinced that inart as in all else there is but one ultimate court of appeal: to thescientific, the demonstrable--to what lies at the very foundations ofhuman nature. 

In conclusion, the author desires to thank those publishers andauthors who have kindly permitted the use of their illustrations. 

THE AUTHOR. 

MCGILL UNIVERSITY, Montreal, October, 1906. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE CLAIMS AND IMPORTANCE OF VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 

Science and art--The engineer, architect, physician, nurse, andothers, compared with the vocal teacher and learner--Unfavorabletendencies--The old masters--The great elocutionists--Causes offailure--The lack of an adequate technique--Correct methods arephysiological--Summary of the advantages of teaching and learningbased on scientific principles--Illustrations of the application ofphysiological principles to actual cases--The evils from whichspeakers and singers suffer owing to wrong methods--Speaking andsinging based on the same principles--Relation of hygiene tophysiology 17

CHAPTER II. 

GENERAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES. 

Relations of animals to each other--Common properties of livingmatter--Explanation of these--The mammal and man--The stimulus and itsresults--The one-celled animal--Various "systems"necessary--Complexityof structure and function--Harmony through the nervous system--Therule of nervous centres--Means by which they are influenced, and bywhich they influence--Reflex action--Muscular mechanisms andneuro-muscular mechanisms--Work of the singer and speaker largelyreflex in character--Summary 34

CHAPTER III. 

BREATHING CONSIDERED THEORETICALLY AND PRACTICALLY. 

Breathing the great essential--Misconceptions--Purpose of breathing asa vital process--The respiratory organs--Their nature--Relations ofthe lungs to the chest-wall--Expansion of the chest--Itsdiameters--The muscles of respiration--Personal observation--Thediaphragm--Varying quantities of air breathed--Breathing when properlycarried out by the singer or speaker is healthful 44

CHAPTER IV. 

BREATHING FURTHER CONSIDERED THEORETICALLY AND PRACTICALLY. 

Relations of the nervous system to breathing--The respiratorycentre--Reflex action in breathing--Methods of preventingnervousness--Tones produced by the outgoing breath--Waste ofbreath--The happy combination for good singing or speaking 57

CHAPTER V. 

BREATHING WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

The well-developed chest--The voice-user a kind of athlete--Thetremolo--Exercises recommended for the development of the chest--Formsof dress that hamper breathing--Weighing and measuring, re-measurement, etc. --Specific directions for methods to develop thechest--Warnings--Additional exercises--Breathing through the nose andthrough the mouth--Exercises for the development of the diaphragm andabdominal muscles--Relation of the diaphragm to the staccatoeffect--Forms of general exercise for the voice-user--Summary 62

CHAPTER VI. 

THE SPECIAL VOICE-PRODUCING MECHANISM, THE LARYNX. 

Not the only voice-producing apparatus--Specific structures of thelarynx in use when the subject phonates--Muscles and theirattachments--The cartilages of the larynx--The lining mucousmembrane--Changes in it when one has a "cold"--The vocalbands--Functions of the epiglottis--The "middle line" and relativeposition of parts--Adam's apple--Ventricle of the larynx--Theimportance of the arytenoid cartilages--Muscles of the larynx indetail--Sphincter action--Straining--Position of the larynx--Practicalconsiderations--Dissection of a "pluck" and especially of thelarynx--Hygiene--How disorder of one part may affect another--Summary74

CHAPTER VII. 

SOUND--THE LARYNGOSCOPE--THE LARYNX RECONSIDERED. 

Some study of physics desirable--Sound and vibrations--The soundingbody--Experiments to illustrate the principles of sound--Qualities ofsound--Animals and perception of sound--The range of hearing inman--The larynx as a musical instrument--Experiments of JohannesMüller--Discovery of the laryngoscope by Garcia--Descriptionof the instrument--Method of using the laryngoscope--Thedifficulties--Auto-laryngoscopy--The importance of both laryngoscopyand auto-laryngoscopy--Change in size of the larynx due touse--Delicate changes in the laryngeal mechanism--Changes in thelarynx during adolescence--Warnings--The "breaking" of thevoice--Analogies with fatigue, etc. --When should singing bebegun?--Singing with others--Choral singing 97

CHAPTER VIII. 

FURTHER CONSIDERATION OF BREATHING, LARYNGEAL ADJUSTMENT, ETC. 

Various kinds of breathing, as "abdominal, " "clavicular, " etc. , discussed--Control of the whole of the breathing mechanismurged--Correct breathing as a habit--Breathing in the most vigorousspeaking and singing--Different views expressed by a diagram--Economyof energy in art--Reserve energy in breathing--"Pumping"--_Coup deglotte_--"Attack"--Breath-adjustment--Quality of sound the primeconsideration in tone-production--Tremolo and other faults--Tests ofgood breathing--Mouth-breathing--Exercises--Singing of a singletone--Its relation to scale-singing--Summary and review 118

CHAPTER IX. 

THE RESONANCE-CHAMBERS. 

Vocal bands and resonance-chambers compared--Improvised mechanism toillustrate resonance--Musical instruments as resonance-bodies--A vowelin relation to the resonance-chambers--Description of theresonance-chambers--How the quality of tones may be made to vary--Newviews as to the sounding-chambers--Summary 140

CHAPTER X. 

THE REGISTERS OF THE SINGING VOICE. 

A controverted subject--Definitions of a register--Qualifications fordealing with this subject--Madame Seiler--Tabular statement of herviews--Garcia's and Behnke's divisions of registers--Sir MorellMackenzie's views in detail--The author's earlier investigations--MadameMarchesi's views and practice 151

CHAPTER XI. 

FURTHER CONSIDERATION OF THE REGISTERS OF THE SINGING VOICE. 

Auto-laryngoscopy and photography of the larynx--Dogmatism andscience--Confusion and controversy--The break--Ignoringregisters--Modification of tones, or "covering"--Points of agreementbetween different writers on the subject--The falsetto formales--Madame Seiler's special qualifications--Behnke's andMackenzie's views--The author's conclusions--Rule for the extension ofa register--Why certain artists deteriorate while others donot---Males and females compared as to registers--The division of theregisters for female voices recommended by the author--Teacher andpupil as regards registers--Objection to registers answered--Themanner of using the breath and registers--How to distinguishregisters--The teacher's part--Hearing singers of eminence isrecommended--Madame Melba--Guiding sensations--Summary 161

CHAPTER XII. 

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING VOICE-PRODUCTION. 

Artistic expression only through movements--Emotions andtechnique--Relation of ideas to movements--Memories andmovements--Guiding sensations essential for movements--The principlesunderlying all movements the same--Associated reflexes and habits--Howhabits are formed--inhibitions and their importance--Early practicesonly before the teacher--Careful practice with concentration of energythe best--Queries as to practice--Fatigue a warning--Practice in theearly hours of the day, and short of fatigue--Quality to be aimed atrather than quantity--The total amount of time to be devoted topractice--"Hasten slowly;" "Little and often"--The treatment of thevoice ruined by wrong methods--Summary 179

CHAPTER XIII. 

CHIEFLY AN APPLICATION TO VOICE-PRODUCTION OF FACTS AND PRINCIPLESPREVIOUSLY CONSIDERED. 

Vowels, consonants, noise--Consonants and pauses--Voice-production andvowels--Certain vowel sounds common to most languages--Why German andEnglish are relatively unmusical--The needs of the musical artist--Themechanism required for the production of a vowel sound--Reconsiderationof the resonance-chambers--The larynx to be steadied but not heldrigidly immovable--The principal modifiers of the shape of themouth-cavity--Breath to be taken through the mouth--The lips--Tongueand lip practice before a mirror--Importance of the connection betweenthe ear and the mouth parts, etc--"Open mouth"--The mouth in singing adescending scale--Undue opening of the mouth--Proper method of openingthe mouth--Causes of compression and the consequences 195

CHAPTER XIV. 

SOME SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS OF PRINCIPLES IN TONE-PRODUCTION. 

Principles and their expression in a few exercises--Analysis of themethods of tone-production--The sustained tone--Smoothly linkedtones--The legato--The staccato and kindred effects--The mechanismsconcerned--Perfection requires years of careful practice--Thebel canto and the swell--The same exercises for singer andspeaker--"Forward, " "backward, " etc. , production--Escape ofbreath--The action of the soft palate--When to use "forward" and when"backward" production--Voice-placement--Nasal resonance, not nasaltwang--Summary 207

CHAPTER XV. 

THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH AND SONG. 

The subject may be made dry or the reverse--Vowels, consonants, noise--The position of the lips and the shape of the mouth-cavity insounding the various vowels--How to demonstrate that the mouth-cavityis a resonance-chamber--Practical considerations growing out of theabove--Speaker, vocalist, and composer--Bearing of these facts on thelearning of languages--Consonants as musical nuisances--Their greatvariation in pitch--Brücke's division of consonants--Tabulation of thesame 218

CHAPTER XVI. 

FURTHER THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION OF VOWELS ANDCONSONANTS. 

The best vowel to use in practice--Necessary to practise all--Theguttural _r_ and the lingual _r_--Consonants that favor nasality oftone--Overtones and fundamental tones--Relation of intensity andquality--The carrying power of a tone--Unusual distinctness inpractice as related to ease--The registers of the speaking voiceaccording to Madame Seiler--The range in speaking--Summary 230

CHAPTER XVII. 

THE HEARING APPARATUS AND HEARING IN MUSIC. 

Why this chapter is introduced--The essential mechanism ofhearing--The part played by waves and vibrations--Divisions of theear--The external ear in lower animals--The drum-head or tympanicmembrane--The middle ear and its connections--Relation of the throatand the ear--The inner ear or labyrinth--The end-organ and itsrelations--The connection of the ear and various parts of thebrain--The musician's ear--Relation of music and hearing--Lack of earand inattention--The artist and the musician--The ear and the speakingvoice--General musical training in relation to intonation, etc--Theappreciation of music, and training to that end--The art of listeningwith close attention--Summary 236

CHAPTER XVIII. 

CONSIDERATION OF GENERAL AND SPECIAL HYGIENE AND RELATED SUBJECTS. 

Hygienic as related to physiological principles--Hygiene in thewidest sense--Unfavorable conditions in the public life of anartist--Qualifications for success--Technique and a public career--Theisolation of the artist and its dangers--The need for greaterpreparation now than ever--Choral singing and its possibledangers--The tendencies of the Wagner music-drama--Special faults, asthe "scoop, " "_vibrato_, " "_tremolo_, " "pumping"--Desirability ofconsultations by teachers of the use of the voice--Things thevoice-user should avoid--Mouth-toilets--Lozenges--The sipping ofwater--What one should and should not eat--Tea and Coffee--The wholesubject of congestion from compression, straining, etc. , of the utmostimportance--A sore throat when frequent should give rise to inquiry asto methods--Constipation--Exercise--Bathing 251

CHAPTER XIX. 

FURTHER TREATMENT OF PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HYGIENE. 

Stammering and stuttering--Those who have broken down--The increase ofthe range of a voice--The part the student plays in settling suchquestions--Selections to be avoided--Conservation of energy--Changeand contrast--The voice as related to the building in which it isproduced--The listener and pauses--Nervousness, and how to ward itoff--General conclusion 268

CHAPTER XX. 

REVIEW AND REVISION. 

The object of the speaker or singer--The idea of co-ordination--Thestudy of vocalization may be considered a study of movements--Thepsychic condition--The instrument which is played upon--How is thisinstrument played upon?--Vibration of the air--Breathing--The aim ofall training--The whole subject of breathing--Breathing exercises--Theresonance chambers--The formation of vowels--Muscular efforts for theproduction of consonants--The pronunciation of words--General healthof great importance 276

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG. PAGE

Appearance of the larynx during phonation in twospecial cases (in colors) _Frontispiece_

 1. Muscle-fibres from the heart, much magnified 34 2. Small portion of muscle, moderately magnified 34 3. Muscle-cells from coats of intestine 35 4. Body of a nerve-cell of the spinal cord 38 5. Large nerve-cell from spinal cord of an ox 38 6. Cell from the cortex cerebri 38-39 7. Nerve terminating in a muscle 38-39 8. Muscle-fibres with capillaries around and between them 39 9. Parts of the respiratory apparatus 4410. Trachea and bronchial tubes 4511. Heart, lungs, and diaphragm 4512. Diagram showing changes in shape of chest during inspiration 4913. Diagram showing depression of the diaphragm during inspiration 5014. Position of diaphragm, abdominal walls, etc. , during expiration 5515. Diagram illustrating reflex action 5816. A well-developed, healthy chest 6217. A chest deformed by corsets 6218. Normal position of diaphragm and vital organs 6319. Vital organs misplaced by compression of the chest 6320. Thyroid and cricoid cartilages, side view 7621. Thyroid and cricoid cartilages, front view 7622. Back surface of cricoid cartilage 7723. Cricoid cartilage, side view. 7724. Arytenoid cartilages 7725. A view of the larynx from behind 7826. Epiglottis, thyroid and cricoid cartilages, etc. 78-7927. Hyoid bone, crico-thyroid muscle, etc. 78-7928. Posterior view of the larynx 7929. Diagram showing relation of parts to the thyroid cartilage 8030. Diagram showing the action of crico-thyroid muscle 8231. View of larynx from above 8332. Transverse section of larynx 8333. False and true vocal bands, etc. 8634. Inner surface of the larynx 8735. Diagram to show the action of the laryngeal muscles 9636. Registering the vibrations of a tuning-fork 10037. Illustrating the transmission of vibrations 10138. Illustrating the theory and practice of laryngoscopic examination 10439. Illustrating the practice of laryngoscopic examination 10640. Laryngoscopic picture of male larynx 11241. Laryngoscopic picture of female larynx 11242. Larynx during an attack of a common "cold" 11343. The vocal bands as seen with laryngoscope during deep inspiration 11344. Diagram showing form of chest and abdomen in forced abdominal breathing 12245. The vocal bands during the production of a high-pitched tone 13846. Water being poured into a tube until the remaining air-space becomes a resonator of a tuning-fork 14247. Soft palate, fauces, and tonsils 142-14348. Nares and soft palate, from behind 142-14349. Turbinated bones of the nose 14350. Madame Seiler's division of the registers 15551. Appearance of the vocal bands when sounding first E and then F sharp 16452. Diagram to show the nature of registers and breaks 16653. Diagram of the processes involved in singing 18654. Highly magnified diagramatic representation of a section through the superficial part of the great brain 18855. Nerve-cell from the outer rind of the great brain, much magnified 18956. Position of parts in sounding the vowel A 21957. Position of the parts in sounding I 22058. Position of the parts in sounding OU 22259. Position of the parts in sounding T, K, F, R, N, and P 22760. Vertical section of the auditory apparatus 23761. Diagram of the auditory apparatus 23862. Two of the ear-bones (malleus and incus), enlarged 23963. The complete chain of auditory ossicles 240

VOICE PRODUCTION

CHAPTER I. 

THE CLAIMS AND IMPORTANCE OF VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 

To know consciously and to do with special reference to guidingprinciples are to be distinguished from carrying out some processwithout bearing in mind the why or wherefore. Science is exact andrelated knowledge, facts bound together by principles. Art isexecution, doing, and has not necessarily any conscious reference toprinciples. 

While every art has its corresponding science, their relation is insome cases of much greater practical importance than in others. Whilea painter may be the better for knowing the laws of light, there canbe no question that he may do very good work without any knowledgewhatever of the science of optics. He is at least in no danger ofinjuring any part of his person. 

Entirely otherwise is it with the voice-user. He employs a delicateand easily injured vital apparatus. His results depend on the mostaccurate adjustment of certain neuro-muscular mechanisms, and onemight suppose that it would be obvious to all who are concerned withthis art that a knowledge of the structure and functions of thesedelicate arrangements of Nature would be at least of great if not ofessential importance. The engineer knows the structure and uses ofeach part of his engine, and does not trust to unintelligentobservation of the mere working of mechanisms which others haveconstructed. The architect studies not only the principles of design, etc. , but also the nature and relative value of materials. In his ownway he is a kind of anatomist and physiologist. 

We do not trust the care of our bodies to those who have picked up afew methods of treatment by experience or the imitation of others. Thedoctor must have, we all believe, a knowledge of the structure andworking of the animal body; he must understand the action of drugs andother healing agents. We expect him not only to diagnose thedisease--to tell us exactly what is the matter--but also to be able topredict with, some degree of certainty the course of the malady. Eventhe nurse of the day must show some grasp of the principles underlyingher art. 

In connection with all the largest and best equipped universities inAmerica there are officials to plan and direct the courses in physicalculture. This matter is no longer entrusted to a "trainer, " who hasonly his experience and observation to rely upon. It is realized thatthe building up of the mechanism which they are supposed to train inan intelligent manner rests upon well-established principles. 

It would be just as reasonable for an engineer to point to the factthat his engine works well, as evidence of his ability, as for theteacher of voice-production to make the same claim in regard to thevocal mechanism. In each case there is a certain amount ofjustification for the claim, but such teaching cannot be calledscientific. Is it even enlightened? It is just as rational to followin medicine methods that seem to lead to good results, without anyreference to the reason why, as to train for results in speaking andsinging by methods which have for the student and teacher no consciousbasis in scientific knowledge. The physician to-day who treats diseasewithout reference to anatomy and physiology is, at best, but a sort ofrespectable charlatan. Why should students and teachers ofvoice-production be content to remain, in the advanced present, wherethey were hundreds of years ago?

Indeed, there is much more reason now than formerly why the vocalist, speaker, and teacher should have a theoretical and practicalknowledge of the structure and workings of the mechanism employed. Many tendencies of the present day work against successfulvoice-training--worst of all, perhaps, the spirit of haste, the desireto reach ends by short cuts, the aim to substitute tricky forstraightforward vocalization, and much more which I shall refer toagain and again. They hurt this cause; and I am deeply impressed withthe conviction that, if we are to attain the best results in singingand speaking, we must betake ourselves in practice to the methods invogue at a time which may be justly characterized as the golden age ofvoice-production. 

We have advanced, musically, in many respects since the days of theold Italian masters, but just as we must turn to the Greeks to learnwhat constitutes the highest and best in sculpture, so must we sit atthe feet of these old masters. Consciously or unconsciously theytaught on sound physiological principles, and they insisted on thevoice-training absolutely necessary to the attainment of the best art. 

However talented any individual may be, he can only produce the bestresults as a singer, actor, or speaker, when the mechanisms by whichhe hopes to influence his listeners are adequately trained. Why do welook in vain to-day for elocutionists such as Vandenhoff, Bell, andothers? Why are there not actors with the voices of Garrick, Kean, Kemble, or Mrs. Siddons, or singers with the vocal powers of a scoreof celebrities of a former time? It is not that voices are rarer, ortalent less widely bestowed by nature. It is because _we do not to-daypursue right methods for a sufficient length of time_; because ourmethods rest frequently on a foundation less physiological, andtherefore less sound. Take a single instance, breath-control. In thisalone singers to-day are far behind those of the old Italian period, not always because they do not know how to breathe, but because oftenthey are unwilling to give the time necessary for the full developmentof adequate breathing power and control. 

There was probably never a time when so much attention was paid to theinterpretation of music, yet the results are often unsatisfactorybecause of inadequate technique. People seem to hope to impress us, onthe stage, with voices that from a technical point of view are crudeand undeveloped, and accordingly lack beauty and expressiveness. Speakers to-day have often every qualification except voice--a voicethat can arrest attention, charm with its music, or carry convictionby the adequate expression of the idea or emotion intended. 

Is it not strange that a student of the piano or violin is willing todevote perhaps ten years to the study of the technique of hisinstrument, while the voice-user expects to succeed with a period ofvocal practice extending over a year or two, possibly even only a fewmonths?

When the anatomy and physiology of the larynx are considered, it willbe seen that the muscular mechanisms concerned in voice-production areof a delicacy unequalled anywhere in the body except possibly in theeye and the ear. And when it is further considered that theseelaborate and sensitive mechanisms of the larynx are of little useexcept when adequately put into action by the breath-stream, whichagain involves hosts of other muscular movements, and the whole inrelation to the parts of the vocal apparatus above the larynx, themouth, nose, etc. , it becomes clear that only long, patient, and_intelligent_ study will lead to the highest results. 

It should also be remembered that such an apparatus can easily acquirehabits which may last for life, for good or ill, artisticallyconsidered. Such delicate mechanisms can also be easily injured orhopelessly ruined; and, as a matter of fact, this is being done daily. A great musical periodical has made the statement that thousands ofvoices are being ruined annually, in America alone, by incompetentteaching. My experience when a practising laryngologist made meacquainted with the extent of the ruin that may be brought about byincorrect methods of using the voice, both as regards the throat andthe voice itself; and contact with teachers and students has soimpressed me with the importance of placing voice-production on asound foundation, not only artistic but physiological, that I havefelt constrained to tell others who may be willing to hear me what Ihave learned as to correct methods, with some reference also to wrongones, though the latter are so numerous that I shall not be able tofind the space to deal at length with them. 

The correct methods of singing and speaking are always, of necessity, physiological. Others may satisfy a vitiated or undeveloped publictaste, but what is artistically sound is also physiological. None haveever sung with more ease than those taught by the correct methods ofthe old Italian masters; as none run so easily as the wisely trainedathlete, and none endure so well. People in singing and speaking will, as in other cases, get what they work for, but have no right to expectto sing or speak effectively by inspiration, any more than the athleteto win a race because he is born naturally fleet of foot or with aquick intelligence. In each case the ideas are converted intoperformance, the results attained, by the exercise of neuro-muscularmechanisms. I am most anxious that it shall be perceived that this isthe case, that the same laws apply to voice-production as to runningor any other exercise. The difference is one of delicacy andcomplexity so far as the body is concerned. 

It will be understood that I speak only of the technique. For artthere must be more than technique, but there is no art without goodmethods of execution, which constitute technique. The latter isnothing more than method--manner of performance. Behind these methodsof performance, or the simplest part of them, there must be some idea. The more intelligent the student, speaker or singer, as to his art andgenerally, the better for the teacher who instructs scientifically, though such intelligence is largely lost to the teacher who depends ontradition and pure imitation. In the present work I shall be soconcerned with the physical that I shall be able only to refer brieflyto the part that intelligence and feeling play in the result. 

The qualifications for the successful treatment of vocalphysiology--that is, such a discussion of the subject as shall lead toa clear comprehension of the nature of the principles involved, andplace them on a practical foundation, make them at once usable inactual study and in teaching--such qualifications are many, and, intheir totality and in an adequate degree, difficult to attain. Aftermore than twenty years of the best study I could give to this subjectin both a theoretical and a practical manner, I feel that I havesomething to say which may be useful to a large class, and, so far asI know, that is my reason for writing this book. 

For myself music is indispensable. The one instrument we all possessis a voice-mechanism. I am one of those who regret that so littleattention is paid, especially in America, to pleasing and expressiveuse of the voice in ordinary conversation. Yet how much pleasurecannot a beautiful speaking voice convey! The college undergraduaterarely finds vocal study among the requirements, in spite of the factthat the voice is an instrument that he will use much more than thepen. The truth is, the home methods of voice-production are those weare most likely to carry with us through life, and, unfortunately, little attention is given to the subject. 

Sometimes a love of sweet sounds may be a hidden cause for much thatwould otherwise be inexplicable in an entire career, as in my owncase. It led to an early study of singers and actors and theirperformances; it gave rise to an effort to form a voice that wouldmeet the requirements of an unusually sensitive ear; it led to thepractice and teaching of elocution, and, later, to much communion withvoice-users, both singers and speakers. In the meantime came medicalpractice, with speedy specialization as a laryngologist, when therewere daily consultations with singers and speakers who had employedwrong methods of voice-production; this again led on to the scientificinvestigation of voice problems, with a view of settling certaindisputed points; then came renewed and deeper study of music, both asan art and as a science, with a profound interest in the study of thephilosophy of musical art and the psychological study of the musicalartist, all culminating in this attempt to help those who will listento me without prejudice. I do not think I know all that is to beknown, but I believe I do know how to form and preserve the voiceaccording to physiological principles; I at least ask the reader togive my teachings and recommendations a fair trial. He shall havereasons for what is presented and recommended to him. 

Once more let it be said that I do not deny that good practicalresults may follow teaching that is not put before the pupil asphysiology; but what is claimed for physiological teaching is that--

1. It is more rational. The student sees that things must be thus andso, and not otherwise. 

2. Faults can be the better recognized and explained. 

3. The student can the more surely guide his own development, and meetthe stress and storm that sooner or later come to every professionalvoice-user. 

4. Injured voices can be the more effectively restored. 

5. The physical welfare of the student is advanced--a matter which Ifind is often neglected by teachers of music, though more so in thecase of instrumental than vocal teachers. 

6. The student can much more effectively learn from the performancesof others, because he sees that singing and speaking are physicalprocesses leading to artistic ends. This is perhaps one of the mostvaluable results, and I can testify to the greater readiness withwhich analysis of a performance can be made after even moderateadvancement. The teacher who is wise will encourage the student tohear those who excel, and to analyze the methods which successfulartists employ. The student can much more readily accomplish this thandetect the mental movements of the artist, though the two really gohand in hand to a large extent. 

The above are some of the advantages, but by no means all, of a methodof study of voice-production which I must claim is the only rationalone--certainly, the only one that rests on a scientific foundation. 

It does not follow that such study, to be scientific, shall be maderepellent by the use of technical terms the significance of which thereader is left to guess at, but finds unexplained. I fear suchtreatment of vocal physiology has brought it into disrepute. The aimof the writer will be to give a clear scientific treatment of thesubject, which shall not be obscured by unexplained technical terms, and which shall be _practical_--capable of immediate use by studentand teacher. If he did not believe the latter possible he would notthink it worth while to attempt the former, especially as this hasoften been done before, he regrets to say, badly enough. 

Although the author has not now the tune to give regular lessons invoice-production, he is frequently consulted, especially when abroad, during his vacations, by speakers and especially singers who areanxious to learn how they may increase their efficiency in theprofession by which they earn their livelihood and make theirreputation; and the reader may be gratified to learn how, in suchcases, the writer applies the principles he so strongly recommends toothers. 

Let two or three illustrations suffice:

1. A tenor of world renown consulted him in regard to the position ofthe larynx in singing, as he had a suspicion that his practice was notcorrect, inasmuch as his voice seemed to be deteriorating to someextent. The answer to his question need not be given here, as thissubject is discussed adequately in a later chapter. 

2. The second was the case of a young lady, an amateur singer, who wasanxious to know why she failed to get satisfactory results. The authorheard her in a large room, without any accompaniment (to cover updefects, etc. ), and standing at first at some distance from her, thennearer. Her tones were delightfully pure and beautiful, but herperformance suggested rather the sound of some instrument than singingin the proper sense. It was impossible to learn the ideas to beimparted, as the words could not be distinctly made out; there was amonotony in the whole performance, though, it must be confessed, abeautiful monotony, and there was a total lack of that vigor andsureness that both educated and uneducated listeners must be made tofeel, or there results a sense of dissatisfaction, if not evenirritation. 

The beauty of tone was owing to a production that was to a certainextent sound, and this explained why the voice carried well in spiteof its being small. This young lady was well educated, had heard muchgood music, possessed a sensitive ear and a fine æsthetic taste, and, perhaps most important of all, in this case at least, was able tothink for herself. She was very slight of body, with an ill-developedchest, and, from her appearance, could not have enjoyed robust health. It was at once evident that this was an admirable case by which totest the views advocated. Accordingly, the author addressed the younglady as follows:

"Your voice is beautiful in quality, and carries well; you observe theregisters properly; but your vocalization is feeble, and your singingis ineffective. This is due largely to the lack of robustness in yourvoice, but not wholly. You do not tell your story in song so that thelistener may know what you have to say to him. The imperfections inyour method of speaking, so common in America--an imperfectarticulation and a limp texture of voice--are evident in your singing;you do not phrase well, and you paint all in one color. This is duechiefly to your breathing and your attacks. One may observe that at notime do you fill your chest completely. You use the lower chest andthe diaphragm correctly, but you rob yourself of one half of yourbreathing power, and your chest is not at all well developed. You donot use the parts above your voice-box with vigor and efficiency, andyou direct so much attention to the quality of the tone that youneglect its quantity and the ideas to be expressed. You have beencorrectly but inadequately instructed. Your teachers have evidentlyunderstood registers practically, as few do, but they have only halftaught you breathing and attack. Their fidelity to that high ideal ofquality of tone as the final consideration wins my respect. "

The writer thought, but did not say, that they must have understoodlittle of vocal physiology, or they would not have left this younglady so ill-developed physically, at least so far as the chest isconcerned. 

I then asked this earnest and intelligent student, as she proved tobe, to take a full breath. She did not understand this, and wasabsolutely incapable of doing it. She had been taught to beginbreathing below, to expand from the lower chest upward, and, as anatural result, she never filled the upper chest. She was at onceshown how it was done, when she seemed greatly surprised, and said: "Inever have done that in my whole life. " "Did you not run and shout asa child?" "No, I never did run enough or shout enough to fill up mychest. " The latter was small, and flat. 

The method of attack was next explained and illustrated, first withoutreference to words, and then to show its importance in conveyingideas, and the causes of the defects in speaking were indicated, andthe corrections named and illustrated. The lady was then asked to singagain, making the improvements suggested, with the result that it wasclear that every principle set forth had been clearly apprehended, though of course as yet only imperfectly carried out. The student wasrecommended to take walking exercise, and to practice filling thechest in the manner to be explained later. 

After six weeks she again asked to be heard. The change effected waswonderful; she was another type of vocalist now. Without any loss inquality her voice had a volume and intensity that made it adequate forsinging in at least a small hall; her attacks were good, though notperfect; and at the end of a very large room it could easily be seenthat her chest was, when necessary, filled full, so that she was ableto produce a large and prolonged tone. But, best of all, her healthhad greatly improved, and she had gained in size and weight. 

It is but fair to point out that, in the present case, the student wasan unusually intelligent and thoughtful person. Had it been otherwise, more consultations would have been necessary, with probably manydetailed instructions and much practice before the teacher. But thecase sufficed to convince me afresh that only physiological teachingmeets the needs of pupil and teacher. I do not claim, of course, thatit is a panacea. It will not supply the lack of a musical ear or anartistic temperament. Vocalization does not make an artist, but therecan be no artist without sound vocalization. 

All the author's experience as a laryngologist tended to convince himthat most of those evils from which speakers and singers suffer, whatever the part of the vocal mechanism affected, arise from faultymethods of voice-production, or excess in the use of methods inthemselves correct. A showman may have a correct method ofvoice-production--indeed, the writer has often studied the showmanwith admiration--but if he speak for hours in the open air in allsorts of weather, a disordered throat is but the natural consequence;and the Wagnerian singer who will shout instead of sing must notexpect to retain a voice of musical quality, if, indeed, he retain oneat all. 

Throughout this work it will be assumed that the speaker and thesinger should employ essentially the same vocal methods. The singershould be a good speaker, even a good elocutionist, and the speakershould be able to produce tones equal in beauty, power, andexpressiveness to those of the singer, but, of course, within a morelimited range, and less prolonged, as a rule. To each alike isvoice-training essential, if artistic results are to follow; neitherrhetorical training on the one hand nor musical training on the otherwill alone suffice. 

So that it may be clear that the same physiological principles applyto the vocal mechanism as to all others in the body, a short chapterdealing with this subject is introduced, before taking up thestructure and functions of any part of that apparatus by which thespeaker or singer produces his results as a specialist. 

The laws of health known as hygiene follow so naturally on those ofphysiology that brief references to this subject, from time to time, with a chapter at the end of the work bearing specially on the life ofthe voice-user, will probably suffice. 

CHAPTER II. 

GENERAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

The principle that knowledge consists in a perception of relationswill now be applied to the structure and functions or uses of thedifferent parts of the body. 

The demonstration that all animals, even all living things, havecertain properties or functions in common is one of the great resultsof modern science. Man no longer can be rightly viewed apart fromother animals. In many respects he is in no wise superior to them. Themost desirable course to pursue is to learn wherein animals resembleand wherein they differ, without dwelling at great length on thequestion of relative superiority or inferiority. It may beunhesitatingly asserted that all animals live, move, and have theirbeing, in every essential respect, in the same way. Whether oneconsiders those creatures of microscopic size living in stagnantponds, or man himself, it is found that certain qualities characterizethem all. That minute mass of jelly-like substance known asprotoplasm, constituting the one-celled animal amoeba, may bedescribed as _ingestive_, _digestive_, _secretory_, _excretory_, _assimilative_, _respiratory_, _irritable_, _contractile_, and_reproductive_: that is to say, the amoeba must take in food;must digest it, or change its form; must produce some fluid withinitself which acts on food; must cast out from itself what is no longerof any use; must convert the digested material into its ownsubstance--perhaps the most wonderful property of living things; musttake up into its own substance oxygen, and expel carbonic acid gas(carbon dioxide); and possess the power to respond to a stimulus, orcause of change, the property of changing form, and, finally, theability to bring into being others like itself. 

[Illustration: FIG. 1. Muscle-fibres from the heart, much magnified, showing cross-stripings, nuclei, or the darkly stained central bodiesvery important to the life of the cell, also the divisions and pointsof union. (Schäfer's _Histology_. )]

[Illustration: FIG. 2. Appearance of a small portion of muscle under amoderate magnification. Between the muscle-cells proper a form ofbinding tissue may be seen. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 3. Muscle-cells isolated from the muscular coatsof the intestine. Similar cells are found in some part of most of theinternal organs, including the bronchial tubes. These cells are lessready in responding to a stimulus, contract more slowly, and tend toremain longer contracted when they pass into this condition thanstriped muscle cells. (Schäfer. )]

Before justifying these statements in detail it will be desirable tosay something of the anatomy or structure of a mammal, and we mayselect man himself, though it is to be remembered that one might applyexactly the same treatment to a dog, pig, mouse, or any other memberof this group of animals. The amoeba and creatures like it liveimmersed in water; man, at the bottom of an ocean of air. Both move intheir own medium, the amoeba creeping with extreme slowness, manmoving with a speed incalculably greater. In each case the movementsare determined by some cause from without which is termed byphysiologists a _stimulus_. The slightest movement of the thincover-glass placed over the drop of water in which an amoeba isimmersed, on a microscopic slide, suffices to act as a stimulus, andserves much the same purpose as an electric shock to the muscles of aman. In man an elaborate apparatus exists for the process known asrespiration, but in this and in all other cases the mechanism iscomposed of what is known technically as _cells_, the latter being theunits of structure, the individual bricks of the building, so tospeak; and just as any edifice is made up of individual pieces some ofwhich differ from one another while others do not to any appreciableextent, so is it with the body. The individual cells of a muscle arealike in structure and function, but they differ widely from those ofa gland or secreting organ, as the liver. But it is to be everremembered that the statements with which we set out hold: that is, that however cells may differ, they have in all animals certainproperties in common. Of the muscle-cell, the liver-cell, and theone-celled animal we may affirm the same properties, but thedifference is that while all are secretory the liver-cell is eminentlyso, and produces bile, which other cells do not; that while it is butfeebly contractile, or susceptible of change of form, the muscle-cellis characterized by this property above all others. 

The lower we descend in the animal scale the more simple are themechanisms by which results are attained. The one-celled animal may besaid to breathe with its whole body, while the man employs a largenumber of muscles, not to speak, at present, of other arrangements. But when a muscle is examined under the microscope, it is found toconsist of cells, each one of which is physiologically in allessentials like an amoeba, so that we may say that a muscle or othertissue or organ is really a sort of colony of cells of similarstructure and function, all working in harmony like a happy family. Weactually do find colonies of unicellular animals much like amoeba, so that the muscle-cells and all other cells of the body may becompared to amoeba and other one-celled animals. 

But while in such unicellular creatures all functions are propertiesof the individual cell, among higher forms _systems_ take the place ofthe protoplasm of the single cell. There is a circulatory system, arespiratory system, etc. ; but we must once more point out that suchsystems are made up of cells, so that every function of the highestanimal may be finally reduced to what takes place in the unicellularanimal. A circulatory system consists of a heart and blood-vessels, all filled with blood, which latter is "the life, " as was known fromthe earliest times; yet this same blood is of no more use for thenourishment of the body while it is contained in those tubes whichconstitute the blood-vessels than is bread locked up in a pantry to ahungry boy. That which really provides the nutriment for the body is afluid derived from the blood, a something like the liquid part ofblood and known as _lymph_. This latter is to the cells of any tissue, as a muscle, as is the water filled with the food on which an amoebalives. In like manner, in spite of the complicated apparatus whichsupplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide, the respiratory system, respiration is finally the work of the cell, as in amoeba; amuscle-cell respires exactly as does the one-celled animal. 

When we consider the marvellous complexity of structure of one of thehigher animals, and the amazing variety of its functions, the questionnaturally arises as to how all this is brought about without any sortof clashing of the interests of one part with those of another. Why isit that the stomach has enough and not too much blood? By what meanshas Nature solved the problem of supplying more oxygen to parts inaction than to those at rest? How is it that one set of muscles actswith instead of antagonizing another set, as in any complicated seriesof movements, such as walking?

To bring about this harmonization, or _co-ordination_, the nervoussystem has been provided. As the nervous and muscular systems are ofpreëminent importance in voice-production, they will now be consideredwith more detail than it is necessary to give to other systems. 

Complicated as is the nervous system, modern advances in the sciencesof anatomy and physiology have made the comprehension of the subjecteasier. It is now known that the nervous system, in spite of its wideramifications, is also made up of cells which are structurally andfunctionally related to each other, and make connection with everypart of the whole community, the body. A nerve-cell, or _neurone_, maybe very complicated in its structure because of its many branchesor extensions from the main body of the cell. 

[Illustration: FIG. 4. Body of a nerve-cell of the spinal cord, specially stained so as to show the minute structure. (Schäfer's_Histology_. )]

[Illustration: FIG. 5. A large nerve-cell from the spinal cord of theox, magnified 175 diameters. (Schäfer. )]

[Illustration: FIG. 6. A cell of another form, from the superficial orouter part of the greater brain (cortex cerebri). The great amount ofbranching is suggestive of the power to receive and to transmitnervous influences (impulses) from various other cells; in otherwords, complexity of structure suggests a corresponding complexity offunction. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 7. Representation of the manner in which a nerveis seen to terminate in a muscle, such ending being one form of"nerve-ending" termed a "muscle plate. " It tends to emphasize theclose relationship existing between muscle and nerve, and to justifythe expression "neuro-muscular mechanism, " the nervous system being asimportant for movements as the muscles. (Schäfer's _Histology_. )]

[Illustration: FIG. 8. Three muscle-fibres lying beside each other, with the small blood-vessels (capillaries) around and between them. Such are the appearances presented under the microscope by skeletal orstriped muscles such as those of the larynx. (Schäfer. )]

It may be said, in general terms, that the nervous _centres_, thebrain and the spinal cord, which are parts of one anatomical whole, are characterized by the presence of the cell-bodies as well as theirextensions, while nerves consist only of the extensions or arms of thecell-bodies. The nerve-cell whose body is in the top of the brain mayhave an extension or arm which may reach practically to the end of thespinal cord, and there make communication with another cell whose arm, in turn, may reach as far as the toe. Such nerve arms or extensionsconstitute the _nerve-fibres_, and bundles of these _nerves_, or_nerve-trunks_. 

Usually nerve-fibres make connection with the cells of an organ by aspecial modification of structure known as a _nerve-ending_. A nervousmessage or influence (_nerve-impulse_) may pass either to thecentre--_i. E. _, toward a cell-body--or from it; in other words, anervous impulse may originate in the centre or in some organ more orless distant from it; a nervous impulse may be _central_ or_peripheral_. Nearly all central impulses, we now know, arise becauseof the peripheral ones. One may illustrate this important relation bya telegraph system. The message a railroad operator sends out--_e. G. _, that which determines whether a train is to be held at a certainstation or sent on--might depend wholly on information received fromanother office. The extra flow of blood to the stomach when foodenters it is owing to such a relation of things. The food acts as astimulus to the ends of the nerve-fibres, and, in consequence, thereis an ingoing (_afferent_) message or impulse, and, by reason of this, an outgoing (_efferent_) one to the muscle-cells of the smallblood-vessels, owing to which they contract less strongly and thecalibre of these vessels is increased; hence more blood reaches thesmallest vessels of all (_capillaries_. ) Such a physiological relationof things is termed _reflex action_. For such reflex action there arerequired structurally at least two neurones or nerve-cells, andfunctionally a stimulus of a certain strength and quality. Of course, if more blood passes to the stomach there must be less somewhere else, as the total volume of the blood is limited. The value of theknowledge of such a fact is obvious. It must be unwise to exercisevigorously immediately after meals, for this determines blood to themuscles which would serve a better purpose in the digestive organs. For a like reason the singer who would do his best before the publicwill refrain from taking a large meal before appearing. 

As this subject of reflex action is of the highest importance, thereader is advised to make himself thoroughly familiar with theprinciples involved before perusing the future chapters of this work. Fig. 16 shows the structural relations for reflex action. It alsoindicates how such nervous relations may be complicated by otherconnections of the nerve-cells involved in the reflex action. It willbe seen that they make many upward connections with the brain, inconsequence of which consciousness may be involved. Ordinarily one ismore or less conscious of reflex action, though the will is notinvolved; in fact, a willed or voluntary action is usually consideredthe reverse of a reflex or involuntary action. But for a reflex actionthe brain is not essential. As is well known, a snake's hinder partwill move in response to a touch when completely severed from the headend; and movements of considerable complexity can be evoked in aheadless frog. 

Herein, then, lies the solution of the problem. This is Nature's wayof bringing one part into harmonious relations with another. As by atelegraphic system the most distant parts of a vast railway system maybe brought into harmonious working, so is it with the body by means ofthe nervous system. The nerve-centres correspond to the heads of therailway system, or, perhaps more correctly, to the various officialsresident in some large city who from this centre regulate the affairsof the whole line. 

The muscular system is made up of cells of two kinds, thosecharacteristic of the muscles used in ordinary movements, and thoseemployed for the movements of the internal organs. The muscles of thelimbs are made up of striped muscle-cells; those of the stomach, etc. , of unstriped cells. These latter are slower to act when stimulated, contract more slowly, and cease to function more tardily when thestimulus is withdrawn. 

The muscular mechanisms used by the singer and speaker are of theskeletal variety. 

If it be true that the welfare of one part of the body is bound upwith that of every other, as are the interests of one member of a firmwith those of another, in a great business, it will at once appearthat the most perfect results can follow for the voice-user only undercertain conditions. However perfect by nature the vocal mechanism, theresult in any case must be largely determined by the character of thebody as a whole. The man of fine physique generally has naturally moreto hope for than one with an ill-developed body. 

In the natural working of the body the stimulus to a muscle isnervous; hence we may appropriately, and often to advantage, speak of_neuro-muscular_ mechanism, the nervous element being as important asthe muscular. 

In a later chapter it will be shown that the work of the singer andspeaker when most successfully carried out must be largely reflex innature--a fact on which hang weighty considerations with regard tomany questions, among them methods of practice, the influence ofexample, etc. --be he ever so much the natural artist. It will be thewriter's aim, however, to give such warnings and advice as may assisteach reader in his own best development. Many who began with acomparatively poor physical stock in trade have surpassed theself-satisfied ones who trusted too much to what nature gave them. Singers as well as others would do well to believe that _Labor omniavincit_. 

SUMMARY. 

The same fundamental physiological principles apply to the lowest andto the highest animals. To all belong certain properties or qualities. As structure is differentiated, or as one animal differs from anotherowing to greater or less complexity of form, there is a correspondingdifferentiation of function, none, however, ever losing thefundamental properties of protoplasm. Each organ comes to perform someone function better than all others. This is specialization, andimplies advance among animals as it does in civilization. 

The neuro-muscular system is of great moment to the voice-user. He isa specialist as regards the neuro-muscular systems of the vocalmechanism. But the same laws apply to it as to other neuro-muscularmechanisms. It is of great theoretical and practical importance torecognize this, and that one part of the body is related to everyother, which relationship is maintained chiefly by the nervous system, and largely through reflex action. 

CHAPTER III. 

BREATHING CONSIDERED THEORETICALLY AND PRACTICALLY. 

If the old orator was right in considering _delivery_ as the essenceof public speaking as an art, it may with equal truth be said ofsinging, the term being always so extended in signification as toimply what Rossini named as the essential for the singer--_voice_. 

Looking at it from the physiological point of view, we may say thatthe one absolutely essential thing for singers and speakers isbreathing. Without methods of breathing that are correct and adequatethere may be a perfect larynx and admirably formed resonance-chambersabove the vocal bands, with very unsatisfactory results. The more thewriter knows of singers and speakers, the more deeply does he becomeconvinced that singing and speaking may be resolved into the correctuse of the breathing apparatus, above all else. Not that this alonewill suffice, but it is the most important, and determines more thanany other factor the question of success or failure. Breathing is thekey-note with which we must begin, and to which we must return againand again. 

The extent to which this subject has been misunderstood, misrepresented, and obscured in works on the voice, and its neglect byso large a number of those who profess to understand how to teachsinging and public speaking, are truly amazing. That many should failto fully appreciate its importance in attaining artistic results isnot so surprising as that the process itself should have been so illunderstood, especially as it is open to any one to observe in himself, or in our domestic animals, Nature's method of getting air into andout of the body. 

[Illustration: FIG. 9. A front view of parts of the respiratoryapparatus. (Halliburton's Physiology. )]

[Illustration: FIG. 9. A back view of the parts represented in Fig. 9. (Halliburton's Physiology. )] [Transcriber's Note: numbered thus inoriginal. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 10 (Spalteholz). A view of the lower part of thetrachea, dividing into the main bronchial tubes, which again branchinto a tree-like form. The air-cells are built up around theterminations of the finest bronchial tubes, of which they are a sortof membranous extension. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 11 (Spalteholz). Shows well the relations ofheart, lungs, and diaphragm. The lungs have been drawn back, otherwisethe heart would be covered almost wholly by them. It will be notedthat the heart-covering is attached to the diaphragm. The fact thatthe stomach and other important organs of the abdomen lie immediatelybeneath the diaphragm is a significant one for the voice-user. Manifestly, a full stomach and free, vigorous breathing areincompatible. ]

This misapprehension is in all probability to be traced to thedependence of the student and teacher on tradition rather thanobservation--on authority rather than rational judgment. If a greatteacher or singer makes any announcement whatever in regard to thetechnique of his art, it is natural that it should be considered withattention, but it may prove a great misfortune for the individual toaccept it without thoughtful consideration. The author willillustrate, from time to time, the truth of the above. 

In this and all other chapters of this work the student, by which termI mean every one who is seriously interested in the use of the voice, is recommended to give attention, before reading on any subject, tothe illustrations employed, perusing very carefully the explanatoryremarks beneath them. 

The author considers the summaries at the conclusion of the chaptersof much importance. They not only furnish exact and condensedstatements of the main facts and principles involved, but afford thereader a test of the extent to which the foregoing chapter has beencomprehended. As the author has a horror of what is termed "cramming, "he expresses the hope that no student will use these synopses, whichhave been prepared with much care, for so great a misuse of the mindas cramming implies. 

Breathing is essential for life. The oxygen of the air is, of allfood-stuffs, the most important. Without it a mammal will perish inless than three minutes; hence there is no need of the body so urgentas that of oxygen. It is also of great moment that the waste--thecarbon dioxide, or carbonic acid gas--should be got rid of rapidly;nevertheless, it is not this gas which kills when the air-passages areclosed, though it is highly deleterious. The body is a sort of furnacein which combustions are continually going on, and oxygen is asessential for these as for the burning of a candle, and the productsare in each case the same. 

Whether the voice-user respires, like others, to maintain thefunctions of the body, or whether he employs the breathing apparatusto produce sound, it is to be borne in mind that he uses the samephysical mechanisms, so that the way is at once clear to consider theanatomy and physiology of the breathing organs. 

It has been already pointed out that respiration is in all animals, inthe end, the same process. The one-celled animal and the muscle-cellrespire in the same way, and with the same results--oxidation, combustion, and resulting waste products. In the animal of complicatedstructure special mechanisms are necessary that the essential oxygenbe brought to the blood and the useless carbon dioxide removed. Therespiratory organs or tract include the mouth, nose, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes, and the lung-tissue proper or the air-cells. 

The mouth, nose, and larynx, in so far as they are of specialimportance in voice-production, will be considered later. 

The air enters the trachea, or windpipe, through a relatively narrowslit in the larynx, or voice-box, known as the _glottis_, or _chink ofthe glottis_, which is wider when air is being taken in(_inspiration_) than when it is being expelled (_expiration_). Lifedepends on this chink being kept open. The windpipe is composed of aseries of cartilaginous or gristly rings connected together by softertissues. These rings are not entire, but are completed behind by softtissues including muscle. It follows that this tube is pliable andextensible--a very important provision, especially when largemovements of the neck are made, during vigorous exercise, and also insinging and speaking. 

The bronchial tubes are the tree-like branches of the trachea, andextend to the air-cells themselves, which may be considered as builtup around them in some such fashion as a toy balloon on its woodenstem, but with many infoldings, etc. (Fig. 10). The air-cells arecomposed of a membrane which may be compared to the walls of theballoon, but we are of course dealing with living tissue supplied bycountless blood-vessels of the most minute calibre, in which the bloodis brought very near to the air which passes over them. 

Throughout, the respiratory tract is lined with mucous membrane. Mucous membranes are so named because they secrete mucus, the fluidwhich moistens the nose, mouth, and all parts of the respiratorytract. When one suffers from a cold the mucous membrane, in the earlystages, may become dry from failure of this natural secretion; hencesneezing, coughing, etc. , as the air then acts as an irritant. 

At no time do we breathe pure oxygen, but "air"--_i. E. _, a mixture of21 parts of the former with 79 parts of an inert gas, nitrogen; andthere is always in the air more oxygen than the blood actually takesfrom it in the air-cells. 

The intaking of air is termed by physiologists _inspiration_, and itsexpulsion _expiration_, the whole process being _respiration_. Expiration takes a very little longer than inspiration, and therapidity of respiration depends on the needs of the body. The moreactive the exercise, the more rapidly vital processes go on, the moreventilation of the tissues is required and the more is actuallyeffected. When one is at rest breathing takes place at the rate offrom 14 to 18 inspirations and expirations in the minute; but of allthe processes of the body none is more variable than respiration, and of necessity, for every modification of action, every movement, implies a demand for an increased quantity of oxygen. It is notsurprising, therefore, that the very exercise of singing tends initself to put one out of breath. 

[Illustration: FIG. 12. In the above, the shaded outlines indicate theshape of the bony cage of the chest during inspiration, and thelighter ones the same during expiration. The alterations in theposition of the ribs and in the diameters of the chest, giving rise toits greater capacity during inspiration, are evident. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 13. This figure is intended to indicate, in apurely diagrammatic way, by dotted lines, the position of thediaphragm (1) when inspiration is moderate, and (2) when very deep. The unbroken curved line above the dotted ones indicates the positionof the diaphragm (only approximately, of course) after expiration. ]

Attention will now be directed to some facts that it is of the utmostimportance to clearly understand, if one is to know how to breathe andthe reasons for the method employed. The lungs are contained in acavity the walls of which are made up of a domed muscular (andtendinous) structure below, and elsewhere of bony and cartilaginoustissues filled in with soft structures, chiefly muscles. This cage islined within by a smooth membrane which is kept constantly moist byits own secretion. The lungs are covered by a similar membrane, bothof these fitting closely like the hand to a glove, so that there aretwo smooth membranes in opposition. It cannot be too well rememberedthat these two, the inner surface of the chest walls and the outersurface of the lungs, are in the closest contact. This is so whateverthe changes that take place in the size and shape of the chest. Thelungs are concave below, and so fit accurately to the fleshy partitionbetween the chest and the abdomen which constitutes the lower boundaryof the chest, if we may use the term "chest" somewhat loosely. Above, suiting the shape of the chest, the lungs are somewhat conical. 

The pressure of the air tends of itself to expand the lungs, which arehighly elastic, even when one does not breathe at all. But if moreair is to enter there must be additional space provided; hence greaterexpansion of the lungs can only follow an enlargement of the chestcavity in one or in all directions. These are spoken of as_diameters_. It follows that it is possible to conceive of the chestbeing enlarged in three, and only three, directions; so that it may beincreased in size in its vertical, its transverse, and itsantero-posterior diameter, or diameter from before backwards. 

This expansion, as in the case of all other movements, can be effectedonly by muscles, or, to speak more accurately, by neuro-muscularmechanisms. Exactly what muscles are employed may be learned from theaccompanying illustrations and by observation. While it is highlyimportant to know in a general way which muscles are chieflyconcerned, or, rather, where they are situated, it cannot be deemedessential for every reader to learn their names, attachments, etc. , down to the minutest details, as in the case of a student of anatomyproper. The author does, however, deem it of the highest importancethat the student should learn by actual observation on his own personthat his chest does expand in each of the three directions indicatedabove. 

It is not necessary to dissect to observe muscles; in fact, they canbe seen in action only on the living subject. All who would reallyunderstand breathing should study the chest when divested of allclothing and before a sufficiently large mirror. He may then observethe following during a fairly deep inspiration:

1. The chest is enlarged as a whole. 

2. The abdominal walls move outward. 

3. The ribs pass from a more oblique to a less oblique position, andmay become almost horizontal; their upper edges are also turned outslightly, though this is not so easy to observe. 

4. Again, in the case of a very deep and sudden inspiration, theabdomen and the lower ribs also are drawn inward. 

The changes above referred to are brought about in this way:

1. The total enlargement is due to the action of many muscles whichfunction in harmony with each other. 

2. The chief changes are brought about by those muscles attachedbetween the ribs (_intercostales_); but these act more efficientlyowing to the coöperation of other muscles which steady the ribs andchest generally, such as those attached to the shoulder-bones and theupper ribs; indeed, the most powerful inspiration possible can only beeffected when most of the other muscles of the body are brought intoaction. One may observe that even the arms and legs are called intorequisition when a tenor sings his highest tone as forcibly aspossible, though this is often overdone in a way to be condemned. Artshould not be reduced to a gymnastic feat. 

The most important muscle of inspiration is the _diaphragm_, ormidriff, because it produces a greater change in the size of the chestthan any other single muscle. Some animals can get the oxygen theyrequire to maintain life by the action of this large muscle alone, when all other respiratory muscles are paralyzed. As it is soimportant, and above all to the voice-user, it merits specialconsideration. 

In studying the action of a muscle it is necessary to note its _pointsof attachment_ to harder structures, either bone or cartilage. Nearlyalways one such point is more fixed than the other, and from this themuscle pulls when it contracts. 

The diaphragm is peculiar in that it is somewhat circular in shape andis more or less tendinous or sinew-like in the middle. Being attachedto the spinal column behind and to the lower six or seven ribs, whenthe muscle contracts it becomes less domed in shape--less convexupward--and of course descends to a variable degree depending on theextent of the muscular contraction. As to whether the ribs, and withthem the abdominal muscles, are drawn in or the reverse, is determinedwholly by the degree of force with which the contraction takes placeand the extent to which it is resisted. Throughout the body musclesare arranged in sets which may either coöperate with or antagonizeeach other, as required. The forcible bending of one's arm by anotherperson may be resisted by one through the use of certain muscles. Inthis the action of the muscles which bend the arm is imitated by theagent seeking to perform this movement for us. The muscles acting inopposition to certain others are said to be their _antagonists_. 

Were the diaphragm to contract moderately the ribs would be but littledrawn in, even if no muscles acted as antagonists. But, as a matter offact, this domed muscle descends at the same time as the ribs ascend, because of the action of the muscles attached to them. The diaphragmbeing concave below toward the abdomen, the contents of this cavityfit closely to its under surface. There are found the liver, stomach, intestines, etc. --a part of great practical importance, as will beshown presently. 

Naturally, in breathing, the organs of the abdomen, especially thoseabove, are pressed down somewhat with the descent of the diaphragm ininspiration, and, in turn, push out the abdominal walls. If, however, the midriff contract so powerfully that the lower ribs are drawninward, the abdominal walls follow them. Although the actual extent ofthe descent of the diaphragm is small in itself, since the totalsurface is large it effects a very considerable enlargement of thechest in the vertical diameter. 

The capacity of the lungs for air is a very variable quantity:

1. The quantity of air taken in with a single inspiration in quietbreathing (_tidal air_) is about 20-30 cubic inches. 

2. The quantity taken in with the deepest possible inspiration(_complemental air_) is about 100 cubic inches. 

3. The quantity that may be expelled by the most forcible expiration(_supplemental air_) is about 100 cubic inches. 

4. The quantity that can under no circumstances be expelled (_residualair_) is about 100 cubic inches. 

5. The quantity that can be expelled after the most forcibleinspiration--_i. E. _, the amount of air that can be moved--indicatesthe _vital capacity_. This varies very much with the individual, anddepends not a little on the elasticity of the chest walls, and sodiminishes with age. It follows that youth is the best period for thedevelopment of the chest, and the time to learn that specialbreath-control so essential to good singing and speaking. 

When the ribs have been raised by inspiration and the abdominal organspressed down by the diaphragm, the chest, on the cessation of the act, tends to resume its former shape, owing to elastic recoil quite apartfrom all muscular action; in other words, inspiration is active, expiration largely passive. With the voice-user, especially thesinger, expiration becomes the more important, and the more difficultto control, as will be shown later. 

It must now be apparent that such use of the voice as is necessitatedby speaking for the public, or by singing, still more, perhaps, musttend to the general welfare of the body--_i. E. _, the hygiene ofrespiration is evident from the physiology. Actual experience provesthis to be the case. The author has known the greatest improvement inhealth and vigor follow on the judicious use of the voice, owinglargely to a more active respiration. It also follows, however, thatexhaustion may result from the excessive use of the respiratorymuscles, as with any others, even when the method of chest-expansionis quite correct. Before condemning any vocal method one does well toinquire in regard to the extent to which it has been employed, as wellas the circumstances of the voice-user. A poor clergyman worried withthe fear of being supplanted by another man, or a singer unable tosecure employment, possibly from lack of means to advertise himself, is not likely to grow fat under any method of vocal exercise, be itever so physiological; while the prima donna who has chanced to pleasethe popular taste and become a favorite may "wax fat and kick. "

[Illustration: FIGS. 14, A and B, are to be compared: that on the leftshows the position of the diaphragm, abdominal walls, etc. , duringexpiration; the one on the right, during inspiration. The relativequantities of air in the chest in each case are approximatelyindicated by the shaded areas. ]

CHAPTER IV. 

BREATHING FURTHER CONSIDERED THEORETICALLY AND PRACTICALLY. 

When one takes into account the large number of muscles employed inrespiration, and remembers that these muscles must act in perfectharmony with each other if the great end is to be attained, henaturally inquires how this complex series of muscular contractionshas been brought into concerted action so as to result in thatphysiological unity known as breathing. 

It is impossible to conceive of such results being effected exceptthrough the influence of the nervous system, which acts as a sort ofregulator throughout the whole economy. All the parts of therespiratory tract are supplied with nerves, which are of bothkinds--those which carry nervous impulses or messages from and thosewhich convey them to the nervous centres concerned; in other words, toand from the bodies of the nerve-cells whose extensions are termednerves. These centres are the central offices where the information isreceived and from which orders are issued, so to speak. 

The chief respiratory centre--_the_ centre--is situated in thatportion of the brain just above the spinal cord, in its continuation, in fact, and is known as the _medulla oblongata_, or _bulb_. Butwhile this is the head centre, at which the ingoing (_afferent_)impulses are received and from which the outgoing (_efferent_) onesproceed, it makes use of many other collections of nerve-cells, orsubordinate centres--_e. G. _, those whose nerve-extensions ornerve-fibres proceed from the spinal cord to the muscles ofrespiration. 

[Illustration: FIG. 15. The purpose of this diagram is to indicate therelation between ingoing (afferent) and outgoing (efferent) nervousinfluences (impulses)--in other words, to illustrate _reflex action_. The paths of the ingoing impulses are indicated by black lines, andthose of the outgoing ones by red lines, the point of terminationbeing shown by an arrow-tip. The result of an ingoing message may beeither favorable or unfavorable. The nervous impulse that reaches thebrain through the eye may be either exhilarating or depressing. Theexperienced singer is usually stimulated by the sight of an audience, while the beginner may be rendered nervous, and this may expressitself in many and widely distant parts of the body. An unfavorablemessage may reach the diaphragm or intercostal muscles, and renderbreathing shallow, irregular, or, in the worst cases, almost gasping. The heart or stomach, even the muscles of the larynx, the limbs, etc. , may be affected, and trembling be the result. On the other hand, thelaryngeal and other muscles may be toned up, and the voice renderedbetter than usual, as a result of applause--_i. E. _, by nervousimpulses through the ear--or, again, by the sight of a friend. Even avery tight glove or a pinching shoe may suffice to hamper the actionof the muscles required for singing or speaking. All this is a resultof reflex action--_i. E. _, outgoing messages set up by ingoingones--the "centre" being either the brain or the spinal cord. From allthis it is evident that the singer or speaker must guard againsteverything unfavorable, to an extent that an ordinary person need not. The stomach, as the diagram is also meant to show, may express itselfon the brain, and give rise, as in fact it often does, owing toindiscretion in eating, to unpleasant outward effects on the musclesrequired in singing or speaking. Of course, no attempt has been madein the above figure to express anatomical forms and relationsexactly. ]

When all the ingoing impulses from the lungs, etc. , are cut off, ifrespiration does not actually cease, it is carried out in a way soineffective that life cannot be long sustained. It follows that as themuscular contractions necessary for the chest and other respiratorymovements are dependent on the impulses passing in from the lungs, etc. , breathing belongs to the class of movements known asreflex--chiefly so, at all events. It will thus be seen thatrespiration is a sort of self-regulative process, the movements beingin proportion to the needs of the body. The greater the need foroxygen, the more are the nerve-terminals in the lungs and the centreitself stimulated, with, as a result, corresponding outgoing impulsesto muscles. 

As the respiratory centre is readily reached by impulses from everypart of the body, like one who keeps open house, there are manydifferent sorts of visitors, not all desirable. If, for example, adrop of a fluid that produces no special effect when on the tonguegets into the larynx, trachea, or lungs, the most violent coughingfollows. This is one illustration of the _protective_ character ofmany reflexes. This violent action of the respiratory apparatus isnot in itself a desirable thing, because it disturbs if it does notexhaust, but it is preferable to the inflammation that might result ifthe fluid, a bread-crumb, etc. , were to pass into the lungs. 

In like manner, the deep breath and the "Oh!" that follow afear-inspiring sight, a very loud noise, or a severe pinch of theskin, are examples of reflex action. They are quite independent of thewill, though in some cases they may be prevented by it. 

This reflex nature of breathing throws much light on many matters ofgreat interest to the speaker and singer, some of which, as theformation of good habits of breathing, will be considered later. Unfortunately for the nervous débutant, his breathing is anything butwhat he could wish it. The pale face and almost gasping respiration, in the worst cases, are not unknown to the experienced observer. Insuch cases the preventive (_inhibitory_) influence of certain ingoingimpulses is but too obvious. Such undesirable messages may pass inthrough the eyes when the young singer looks out on the throng thatmay either approve or condemn; or they may originate within, and passfrom the higher part of the brain to the lower breathing centre. Thebeginner may have high ideals of art, and fear that they will be butill realized in his performance. His ideals in this instance do nothelp but hinder, for they interfere with the regular action of thebreathing centre. A few deep breaths after the platform has beenreached greatly help under such circumstances. It is also wise for thesinger to avoid those songs that begin softly and require long breathsand very evenly sustained tones. It is much better to begin with aselection that brings the breathing organs into fairly active exerciseat once. One feeble, hesitating, or otherwise ineffective tone is initself a stimulus of the wrong kind, sending in unfavorable messageswhich are only too apt to reach the breathing and other centresconcerned in voice-production; but of this subject of nervousnessagain. 

It is important to realize that sounds, whether musical or thereverse, are produced by the outgoing stream of breath, by anexpiratory effort. Breath is taken in by the voice-producer in orderto be converted into that expiratory force which, playing on the vocalbands, causes them to vibrate or pass into the rapid movements whichgive rise to similar movements of the air in the cavities above thelarynx, the resonance-chambers, and on which the final result asregards sound is dependent. Important as is inspiration to the speakerand singer, expiration is much more so. Many persons fill the lungswell, but do not understand how to husband their resources, and sowaste breath instead of converting every particle into sound, so tospeak. After the larynx has been studied the importance of theexpiratory blast will be better understood. 

For the voice-user, it cannot be too soon realized that _all breaththat does not become sound is wasted_, or, to express the same truthotherwise, the sole purpose of breathing is to cause effectivevibrations of the vocal bands. In these two words, _effectivevibrations_, lies the whole secret of voice production, the wholepurpose of training, the key to the highest technical results, thecause of success or failure for those who speak or sing. 

Before the larynx, the apparatus that produces sound-vibrations, canbe effectively employed, the source of power, the bellows, must bedeveloped. To some Nature has been generous--they have large chests;to others she has given a smaller wind-chest, but has perhapscompensated by providing an especially fine voice-box. Happy are theywho have both, and thrice happy those who have all three requirements:a fine chest, a well-constructed larynx, and beautifully formedresonance-chambers. If with all these there are the musical ear andthe artistic temperament, we have the singer who is born great. Theseare the very few. To most it must be--if greatness at all--greatnessthrust upon them, greatness the result of long and patient effort toattain perfect development. Indeed, even those with the most completenatural outfit can only reach the highest results of which they arecapable by long and patient application. Those who do not believe inattainment only through labor would do well to abandon an art career, as there is already a great deal too much poor speaking and badsinging. 

CHAPTER V. 

BREATHING WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

The first great requisite for a voice-user is a well-developed chest;the next, complete control of it, or, to put it otherwise, the art ofbreathing, as briefly explained above. 

The chest may be large enough, yet not be, in the physiological sense, developed. The voice-user is a sort of athlete, a specialist whosechest muscles must be strong and not covered up by very muchsuperfluous tissue in the form of fat, etc. Whatever the public maythink of the goodly form, the singer must remember that fat ispractically of no use to any one in voice-production, and may prove agreat hindrance, possibly in some cases being a coöperative cause ofthat _tremolo_ so fatal to good singing. 

[Illustration: FIG. 16. The appearance of a well-developed, healthyperson, with special reference to the chest. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 17. The appearance of the chest after unduecompression, as with corsets. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 18. In this figure, the dark curved line in themiddle is meant to represent the position, etc. , of the diaphragm, beneath which, and fitting closely to it, are the liver, stomach, andother abdominal organs, in this case not pressed upon or injured inany way. This represents the normal human being. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 19. A condition the reverse of that represented inthe preceding. The vital organs are pressed upon, with results some ofwhich are obvious; others equally serious are not such as appear tothe eye. ]

The voice-user should eschew ease and take plenty of exercise, butmost of all must he use those forms of exercise which develop thebreathing apparatus and tend to keep it in the best condition. Walking, running, and hill climbing are all excellent, but do not inthemselves suffice to develop the chest to the utmost. 

To the beginner the following exercises are strongly recommended. Theyare highly important for all, whether beginners or not, who wouldhave the best development of the breathing apparatus. 

Deep breathing, such a use of the respiratory organs as leads to thegreatest possible expansion of the chest, should be learned andpractised, if not absolutely before vocal exercises are attempted, atall events as soon after as possible. As in all cases where musclesare employed, the exercise should be _graduated_. It may be evenharmful to attempt to fill the chest to its utmost capacity at once. It is better to breathe very moderately for several days. Any suchsymptoms as dizziness or headache accompanying or following theexercises indicate that they have been too vigorous, too longcontinued, or carried out under unsuitable conditions. Above all mustthe air be pure, and the body absolutely unhampered--most of all, thechest--by any form of clothing. Last century most ladies and some menapplied to the chest a form of apparatus known as corsets, under themistaken belief that they were for women a necessary support andimproved the figure. They no doubt were responsible for much lack ofdevelopment, and feeble health, and, as has been proved by examinationof the body after death, led to compression of the liver and otherorgans. No voice-user should use such an effective means of preventingthe very thing he should most desire, a full and free use of thebreathing apparatus. 

Before carrying out the exercises suggested or others equally good, the student is recommended to be weighed, and especially to have thechest carefully _measured_. This can be done with sufficient accuracyby the use of a tape-measure. It will be well to take thecircumference a few inches above and below a certain point, so that itmay be ascertained that the chest expands in every region. Themeasurements should be taken under the following conditions:

1. The chest should be almost or wholly divested of clothing. 

2. Its circumference is to be ascertained--(_a_) when the breath hasbeen allowed to pass out gently, and before a new breath is taken;(_b_) with the deepest possible inspiration; (_c_) after the deepestpossible expiration, which has been preceded by a similar inspiration. 

After about three weeks the individual should be again measured, bythe same person, in exactly the same way, in order to learn whetherthere has been development or not, and, if so, how much. It isimportant that the measurements should be made at exactly the samehorizontal planes, and with this end in view it is desirable to put asmall mark of some kind on the chest, which may remain till the nextmeasurements are made. 

The method of breathing recommended is as follows:

1. Inhale very slowly through the nostrils, with closed mouth, counting mentally one, two, three, four, etc. , with regularity. 

2. Hold the breath thus taken, but only for a short time, counting inthe same manner as before. 

3. Exhale slowly, still counting. 

After a few moments' rest the exercise may be again carried out in thesame way. These exercises may be in series, several times a day. 

The following warnings are especially to be observed:

1. Never continue any exercise when there is a sense of discomfort ofany kind whatever. Such usually indicates that it is being carried outtoo vigorously. 

2. Increase the depth of the inspirations daily, but not very rapidly. 

3. The inspirations and expirations should both be carried out veryslowly at first. 

4. Cease the exercise before any sense of fatigue is experienced. Fatigue is Nature's warning, and should be always obeyed. It indicatesthat the waste products which result from the use of the muscles areaccumulating and proving harmful. 

After a week of such exercises the following modification of them isrecommended:

1. Inhale with the lips slightly apart. 

2. Gradually increase the length of the time the breath is held, butlet it never exceed a few seconds. 

3. Through open lips allow the breath to pass out, but with extremeslowness. The student should try to increase this last, somewhat, daily, as it is above all what is required in singing, and also inspeaking, though to a somewhat less degree--a slow, regulatedexpulsion of the breath. 

If when the chest is full of air the subject gently raises the armsover the head, or directs them backward, he will experience a sense ofpressure on the chest. If this be carefully done, its effect is tostrengthen, and it is especially valuable for those inclined to stoop. The recommendation to inspire through the open lips applies only whenone is in a room, or in the open air when it is warm enough and freefrom dust. But the student should learn to inspire through theslightly open mouth, as to breathe through the nose in speaking, andespecially in singing, is objectionable for several reasons which canbe better explained later; so that the rule is to _breathe through thenose when not using the voice, and through the mouth when one does_. 

Though all the exercises thus far referred to tend to develop thediaphragm and abdominal muscles, these may be strengthened by specialexercises. The diaphragm is the soft floor of the chest, and must atonce bear the strain of the air that acts on the approximated vocalbands, and assist in applying that pressure with just the amount offorce required, and no more; hence it is important that this muscle beboth strong and under perfect control. This large central muscle isprobably not only the most generally effective of all the respiratorymuscles, but has an action more precise and often more delicate, morenicely controlled, than that of any other. It is possible to make verypowerful movements of this muscle, and an exercise that will cause itto descend deeply and remain in a tense condition is valuable. Toeffect this, one pushes it down as far as possible, and holds it therefor a few seconds, then permits it to relax gradually. The extent towhich this is successful can be inferred from the degree to which theabdominal wall bulges forward. 

The sudden though slight movements required in those forms ofvocalization that bear more or less resemblance to what vocalists term_staccato_, and which are so effective in dramatic speaking andsinging, can be prepared for by larger but sudden movements of thediaphragm, as when one taking a full breath imitates coughingmovements, but in a regular and measured way, the throat being usedbut little. At the same time, or separately, the abdominal muscles maybe effectively exercised by being drawn in and thrust out withconsiderable force. 

None of these movements are elegant--they scarcely put one in anartistic light; but they are highly effective in strengthening partsevery voice-user must employ. 

To furnish adequate support for the diaphragm and chest in a veryvigorous use of the voice, as in the most trying passages a tragicactor has to speak or a vocalist to sing, the abdominal muscles mustremain more or less tense, and to do so effectually they must havestrength beyond that possessed by the corresponding muscles inordinary persons; hence the desirability of employing specialexercises to increase their vigor. Hill climbing and bicycling alsotend to this end, but the latter is for many reasons not a form ofexercise to be recommended to one who wishes to attain the highestresults with the voice. Wind, dust, a stooping position, excessiveheat of the body, etc. , are all among the many factors of risk for thedelicate vocal mechanism. 

As the expiratory blast is so important in voice-production, theexercises above recommended should be followed by others in which thisprinciple is specially recognized. 

1. Inspire so as to fill the chest to the fullest with considerablerapidity; then allow the breath-stream to pass out with the utmostslowness. 

2. Fill the chest with special reference to its lower or its upperpart, as desired, and very rapidly, letting the breath flow outslowly. 

SUMMARY. 

The primary purpose of respiration in all animals is the same--namely, to furnish oxygen and remove carbon dioxide (carbonic acid). Thelowest animals, as the amoeba, breathe by the whole surface of thebody. In all vertebrates the anatomical mechanism is essentially thesame: a membrane (covered with flat cells) in which the blood isdistributed in the minutest blood-vessels (capillaries). Respirationis finally effected in the tissues (cells) of the body. The moreactive the animal, or the higher in the scale, the more need offrequent interchange between the air, the blood, and the tissues. 

The respiratory organs in mammals are the mouth, nose, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes, and lung-tissue or air-cells proper. Thewindpipe is made up of cartilaginous rings completed by membrane, muscle, etc. (behind). The bronchial tubes are the continuation of thewindpipe, and branch tree-like until they become very fine. Theair-cells are built round these latter. The lung-tissue is highlyelastic. The lungs are made up of an elastic membrane, covered withflat cells, and very abundantly supplied with a mesh-work of thefinest blood-vessels. The whole of the respiratory tract as far as theair-cells is lined by mucous membrane. 

The air consists essentially of 21 parts of oxygen and 79 parts ofnitrogen, with a variable quantity of watery vapor. Only a smallportion of the total oxygen of the air is removed before it isexhaled. The respiratory act consists of (1) inspiration, and (2)expiration; the latter is of a little longer duration than the former. The rate of breathing in man is from 14 to 18 per minute, in theresting state, or about one respiration to three or four heart-beats. The quantity of air inspired depends on (1) the size of the thorax, and (2) the extent of its movements. These are effected solely bymuscular contractions, and give rise to an increase in all thediameters of the thorax. The lungs are closely applied (but notattached) to the inside of the chest wall, and remain so under allcircumstances. When the chest cavity is enlarged by inspiration, theair, pressing down into the elastic lungs, expands them as much aspossible, that is, as much as the chest walls will allow; but thelungs are never at any time either filled with or emptied of air totheir utmost capacity. At most, the amount of expansion is verymoderate. 

_The Quantity of Air in the Lungs. _

1. The quantity of air inspired in quiet breathing is about 20-30cubic inches. 

2. The quantity that can be added to this by a deep inspiration isabout 100 cubic inches. 

3. The quantity that can be expelled by a forcible expiration is about100 cubic inches. 

4. The quantity that cannot be expelled at all is about 100 cubicinches. 

The above are named: (1) The tidal air; (2) complemental air; (3)supplemental air; (4) residual air. The quantity that can be expelledby the most forcible expiration after the most forcible inspiration, that is, the air that can be moved, indicating the "vital capacity, "is about 225-250 inches. 

The chest is enlarged by the muscles of inspiration, the principal ofwhich is the diaphragm or midriff. This muscle (tendinous in thecentre) is attached to the spinal column (behind) and to the last sixor seven ribs. When it contracts it becomes less domed upward, and ispressed down more or less on the contents of the abdomen; hence thewalls of the latter move outward. During ordinary inspiration thelower ribs are steadied by other muscles, so that no indrawing ofthese ribs takes place, but a very forcible expiration makes suchindrawing very noticeable. In addition to the enlargement of the chestby the descent of the diaphragm, the ribs are elevated and everted bythe muscles attached to them, with the total result that the chestcavity is enlarged in all its three diameters during inspiration. Thefirst rib is fixed by muscles from above. During extremely forcedinspiration a large proportion of all the muscles of the body may act. Ordinary expiration is the result largely of the elastic recoil of thechest walls, only a few muscles taking part. The diaphragm ascends andbecomes more domed. During forced expiration many other muscles arecalled into action. It is of importance for the singer and speaker tonote: (1) That the chest cavity should be increased in all itsdirections; (2) that the muscular action should be easy and underperfect control, but also vigorous when required; (3) that the breathbe taken through the nostrils when the individual is not actuallyvocalizing or about to do so; (4) that the breath be kept in or letout in the proportion required. 

Breathing is a reflex or involuntary act. The respiratory centre, consisting of an expiratory and inspiratory division, is situated inthe bulb, or medulla oblongata, the portion of the brain just abovethe spinal cord. All the ingoing nervous impulses affect respirationthrough the outgoing impulses that pass along the nerves to themuscles; that is, the ingoing impulses pass up by the nerves from thelungs to the centre, and thence along other nerves to the respiratorymuscles. The condition of the blood determines the activity of therespiratory centre, but the incoming impulses regulate this activity. The respiratory centre can be approached from every part of the body. 

_Hygiene. _

Every thing that favors the full and free expansion of the chest in apure atmosphere is favorable, and the reverse unfavorable. Corsets areagainst the laws of beauty, are unnecessary for support, and may bycompression injure and displace important organs, as the liver, stomach, etc. ; and must interfere with the fullest expansion of thechest. They have militated against the physical, and indirectly themoral and mental advancement of the race. 

_Practical Exercises. _

I. Measurements of the chest. 

II. Exercises to strengthen muscles, promote complete expansion, regulate inflow and outflow of air, etc. 

1. (_a_) Inspiring slowly, with counting. (_b_) Holding. (_c_) Expiring slowly, with counting. 

2. The same, holding longer. 

3. The same, with shorter inspiration and longer expiration. Graduallydiminish first and lengthen last. 

4. Breathing through open lips. 

5. Exercises to strengthen diaphragm. 

6. Exercises to improve shape of chest and strengthen muscles. 

7. Exercises to strengthen abdominal muscles. 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE SPECIAL VOICE-PRODUCING MECHANISM, THE LARYNX. 

The larynx, or voice-box, is not the sole voice-producing apparatus, as is often supposed, but it is of great, possibly the greatest, importance. In describing the parts of this portion of the vocalmechanism the author deems it wiser to use the terms commonly employedby anatomists and physiologists, as others are awkward and inadequate. Moreover, there is this great advantage in learning the technicalnames of structures, that should the reader desire to consult aspecial work on anatomy in reference to this or other importantorgans, he will find in use the same terms as he has himself alreadylearned. Such are, as a matter of fact, not difficult to learn orremember if one knows their derivation or other reason for theiremployment. All the muscles of the larynx have names which are notarbitrary but based on the names of the structures to which they areattached, so that one has but to know their connections and the namesof the solid structures, which are few, to have a key to the wholenomenclature. 

When one is not using the voice the larynx is simply a part of therespiratory apparatus, but when one phonates this organ assumes aspecial function for which specific structures are essential. Assound is caused by vibrations of the air, and these may be set up byvibrations of the vocal cords, it may with absolute correctness besaid that the whole larynx exists for the vocal bands so far asvoice-production is concerned. Such a view renders the study of thelarynx much more interesting and rational; one is then engaged inworking out that solution of a problem which Nature has accomplished. 

The vocal cords, we can conceive, might be either relaxed ortightened, and lengthened or shortened, or both, and beyond that wecan scarcely understand how they might have been modified so as to beeffective in the production of sounds of different pitch. As a matterof fact, these are the methods Nature has employed to accomplish herpurpose. For each vocal cord one fixed point, and only one, isrequired. We know of only one method in use by Nature to causemovement in living structures--viz. , contraction, and muscle is thetissue which above all others has that property; hence the movementsof the vocal cords are brought about by muscles. But both for theattachment of the muscles and the vocal cords themselves solid, relatively hard structures are required. Bone would prove toounyielding, but cartilage, or gristle, meets the case exactly. Theentire framework of the larynx--its skeleton, so to speak--is made upof a series of cartilages united together so as to ensure sufficientfirmness with pliability. 

The cartilages have been named from their shape, as that appealed tothe original observers, and the terms employed are of Greek origin. The largest and strongest is the _thyroid_ (_thureos_, a shield)cartilage, which resembles somewhat two shields put together in frontwithout any visible joint, and open behind but presenting a stronglyconvex surface externally, in front and laterally. "Front" (anterior)and "back" (posterior) always refer in anatomy to the subjectdescribed, and not to the observer's position. In observing another'slarynx the subject observed and the observer naturally stand front tofront, and it is impossible to see or touch the back of the larynx asit is covered behind by the other structures of the neck. 

This thyroid, the largest of the cartilages, is attached to the hyoidor tongue bone above by a membrane, so that the whole larynx hangssuspended from this bone by a membrane, though not by it alone, formuscles are attached to it which also serve for its support. It is ofpractical importance to remember that the larynx is free to a veryconsiderable extent, otherwise it would go ill with the voice-producerin the vigorous use of the voice, not to mention the advantages ofmobility as well as pliability in the movements of the neckgenerally. 

[Illustration: FIG. 20 (Spalteholz). Shows the thyroid cartilage aboveand the cricoid below both viewed from the side. The anterior surfaceis turned toward the right. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 21 (Spalteholz). A front view of FIG. 20. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 22 (Spalteholz). The back or signet surface of thecricoid or ring cartilage, to which several muscles are attached. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 23 (Spalteholz). The cricoid cartilage, seen fromthe side, and showing behind and laterally the articular or jointsurfaces by which it connects with the thyroid below and the arytenoidcartilage above. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 24 (Spalteholz). Shows the arytenoid cartilages, the most important of all the cartilages of the larynx, inasmuch as tothe part termed "vocal process" the vocal band is attached on eachside. The movements of the vocal bands are nearly all determined bythe movements of these cartilages, which have a swivel-like action. Inthe above the front surfaces are turned toward each other. ]

The _cricoid_ (_krikos_, a signet-ring) is the cartilage next in size. It is situated below the thyroid cartilage, with which it is connectedby a membrane, the crico-thyroid. The wider part of this signet-ringis situated behind, where it affords attachment to large muscles. Italso furnishes a base of support for two very important structures, the _arytenoid_ (_arutaina_, a ladle) cartilages. As the vocal bandsare attached behind to them, and as they have a large degree ofmobility, they are from a physiological point of view the mostimportant of all the solid structures of the larynx. 

There are two pairs of small bodies, the _cartilages of Santorini_, or_cornicula laryngis_, surmounting the arytenoids, and the _cuneiform_, or _cartilages of Wrisberg_, situated in the folds of mucous membraneon each side of the arytenoids; but these structures are of littleimportance. 

The whole of the inner surface of the larynx is lined with mucousmembrane, though that covering over the true vocal bands is very thin, and so does not cause them to appear red like the false vocal bands, which are merely folds of the mucous membrane. However, the true vocalbands may become red and thickened when inflamed, because of this samemucous membrane, which, though ordinarily not visible to the eye, becomes so when the condition referred to is present; for inflammationis always attended by excess in the blood supply, with a prominence ofthe small blood-vessels resulting in a corresponding redness. Thesame thing happens, in fact, as in inflammation of the eyes or thenose, both of which are more open to observation. Bearing this in mindone can readily understand why in such a condition, which is oftenapproached if not actually present in the case of "a cold, " the voicebecomes so changed. Such vocal bands are clumsy in movement, as thearms or any other part would be if thus swollen. The plain remedy isrest, cessation of function--no speaking, much less attempts atsinging. Like the nose the larynx, and especially the vocal bands, maybe catarrhal, and such a condition may call for medical treatmentbefore the speaker or singer can do the most effective vocal work. 

While the _false vocal bands_ have little or nothing to do withphonation directly, they do serve a good purpose as protectors to themore exalted true vocal bands. When coughing, swallowing, vomiting, holding the breath tightly, etc. , these folds of mucous membrane closeover the true bands, often completely, and thus shut up for the momentthe whole of that space between the bands known as the glottis, orglottic chink, to which reference was made in a previous chapter asthe space through which the air finally gains access to the lungs. 

The true vocal cords (which, because of having some breadth and beingrather flat, are better termed vocal bands) are composed largely of_elastic tissue_. The reader may be familiar with this structure, which is often to be found in the portions of the neck of the ox thatthe butcher sells as soup beef. It is yellow in color, and stretchingit has furnished many a boy with amusement. It is so unmanageable whenraw that when it falls to the dog he usually bolts it, the case beingotherwise hopeless. Such elastic tissue is, however, the very materialfor the construction of vocal bands, as they require to be firm yetelastic. 

[Illustration: FIG. 25 (Spalteholz). A view of the larynx from behind. Several of the muscles are well shown, of which the two indicatedabove are of the most importance. The arytenoideus proprius tends tobring the cartilages from which it is named, and therefore the vocalbands, toward each other; while the posterior crico-thyroid, from itsattachments and line of pull, tends to separate these and lengthen thevocal bands. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 26 (Spalteholz). Showing structures as indicatedabove. The mucous membrane, that naturally covers all parts within thevocal mechanism, has been dissected away to show the muscles. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 27 (Spalteholz). Showing the parts indicatedabove; and of these the crico-thyroid muscle is to be especiallyobserved. The oblique (especially so in the posterior part) directionof its fibres is evident, so that when it contracts, it must pull upthe ring cartilage in front, and so tilt back its hinder portion andwith it the arytenoid cartilages, and so lengthen and tense the vocalbands, as in the utterance of low tones. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 28 (Spalteholz). A back (posterior) view of thelarynx, etc. Note how the arytenoid cartilages rest on the cricoid;how the epiglottis overhangs, as its name implies, the glottis; andthat the posterior part of the windpipe is closed in by softstructures, including (unstriped) muscle. ]

It is important to remember the relative position of parts and to bearin mind that most of the laryngeal structures are in pairs. To thislast statement the thyroid and cricoid cartilages and the epiglottisare exceptions, being single. 

Of the _epiglottis_, a flexible cartilage, it is necessary to saylittle, as its function in voice-production, if it have any, has neverbeen determined. It hangs as a flexible protective lid over theglottis, and food in being swallowed passes over and about it. It nodoubt acts to keep food and drink out of the larynx, yet in itsabsence, in some cases, owing to disease, no very great difficulty wasexperienced, probably because certain muscles acted more vigorouslythan usual and tended to close up the glottic chink. 

The following simple diagram will, it is hoped, make the relativeposition of parts plain so far as the anterior (front) attachments ofparts to the thyroid cartilage are concerned. It will be understoodthat the inner anterior surface is meant, and that by "middle line"is intended the middle line of the body, the imaginary verticaldiameter passing like a plumb-line from the middle plane of the head, let us suppose, downward just in front of the larynx. 

[Illustration: FIG. 29. ]

The angle made above and in front where the two wings of the thyroidcartilage meet is termed _Adam's apple_ (_Pomum Adami_), and in somecases, mostly males, is very prominent. Adam's apple has in itself, however, no special significance in voice-production. 

The little concavity between the false vocal bands above and the truevocal bands below is termed the _ventricle of the larynx_. It allowsof more space for the free movements of the bands, especially thosemore important in voice-production. 

The vocal bands are attached behind to the projecting angle of thebase of the arytenoid cartilage, which is itself somewhat triangularin shape, the base of the triangle being downward and resting on theupper and posterior (back) surface of the cricoid cartilage, withwhich it makes a free joint, so that it can move swivel-like in alldirections. This is most important, because through it is explainedthe fact that the vocal bands may be either tensed and lengthened orrelaxed and shortened. 

_The muscles act on these movable cartilages, and nearly all thechanges in the vocal bands are brought about through the alterationsin position of the arytenoid cartilages, to which they are attachedbehind. _

Before describing the muscles of the larynx, the reader is reminded ofthe order of structures from above downward, in front, which is asfollows:

 The hyoid bone. The thyro-hyoid membrane. The thyroid cartilage. The crico-thyroid membrane. The cricoid cartilage. The trachea. 

The latter is connected with the cricoid cartilage by its membrane. 

All the above structures can be felt in one's own person, the morereadily if he be thin and have a long neck. The hyoid bone, ortongue-bone, is that hard structure just above the cricoid cartilage, and which one may easily demonstrate to be much more movable than thelarynx itself. The tongue muscles are attached to it above, and fromit, below, the larynx is suspended, as already explained. 

The muscles of the larynx are best understood if the principle ofantagonistic action already referred to be remembered. Speakinggenerally, the muscles are arranged _in pairs_ which have an oppositeor antagonistic action--viz. : (1) Those that open and close theglottis; (2) those that regulate the tension, or degree of tightness, of the vocal bands. 

1. The muscles whose action tends to approximate the vocal bands--the_adductors_--are the _arytenoid[=e]us proprius_ and the_thyro-arytenoid[=e]us_. The former is attached to the posterior orback surface of both arytenoid cartilages; the latter, as its nameindicates, to the anterior and inner surface of the thyroid and theanterior lower surface or angle (_vocal process_) of the arytenoid. 

The opening or widening of the glottis is effected on each side (onemuscle of the pair and its action being alone described in thisand other cases) by the antagonist of these muscles, the_crico-arytenoid[=e]us posticus_, whose attachments are exactly asindicated by the names--viz. , to the posterior part of the twocartilages named. When reading the description of these or othermuscles it is absolutely necessary to have a pictorial illustration orthe real object before one. The pull of this muscle is from the morefixed point, as in all other cases; hence the force is applied in adirection from below and outward, with the result that thearytenoid cartilage is tilted outward, and with it the vocal band ismoved from the middle line. 

[Illustration: FIG. 30 (Chapman). Diagram showing action ofcrico-thyroid muscle, stretching of the vocal cords, and lengtheningof them. The dotted lines indicate the position assumed when themuscle has contracted. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 31 (Spalteholz). View of the larynx as looked atfrom above. The illustration shows particularly well both the true andthe false vocal bands. The true vocal bands are placed much as theyare when a barytone is singing a very low tone. The part of the figurelowest on the page represents the back part of the larynx. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 32 (Spalteholz). A cross-section transverse to thelarynx, such as can be readily made with a strong knife. ]

The _crico-thyroid_ also tends to open the glottis. Just as thediaphragm is the most important muscle of breathing, so is thecrico-thyroid the most important in ordinary speaking and in singingin the lower register. It is a relatively large and strong muscle withan oblique direction in the main, though it is composed in reality ofseveral sets of fibres some of which are much more oblique indirection than others (Fig. 28). As its name indicates, its points ofattachment are to the thyroid and the cricoid cartilages, but the mostfixed point (_origin_) is its point of attachment to the largercartilage; hence its direction of pull is from the thyroid, with theresult that the anterior part of the cricoid is drawn up, theposterior part down, and the arytenoid cartilage, resting on the upperpart of the cricoid, backward, so that the vocal band is renderedlonger and more tense (see especially Fig. 29). It is important tonote that this is the muscle most used in singing the lower tones ofthe scale, and that its action must necessarily cease, to a greatextent, when a certain point in the pitch is reached, as there is alimit to the degree of contraction of all muscles; and, besides, thecrico-thyroid space is of very moderate size, and the cricoidcartilage can ascend only within the limits thus determined. It thusfollows that Nature has provided in the change of mechanism for a newregister, which is nothing else than a change of mechanism with acorresponding change of function. It will be at once apparent that theclaim that registers are an invention of men, and without foundationin nature, is without support in anatomy and physiology. Thecrico-thyroid is probably, however, of much more importance to tragicactors and barytones than to tenors or sopranos. This, however, is noexcuse for the neglect of its development by the latter class, asoften happens, for without it the best tones of the lower register areimpossible. On the other hand, the elocutionists who prescribe forstudents practices that involve the excessive use of this muscle, witha cramped position of the vocal organs, the larynx being greatly drawndown, with the view of producing disproportionately heavy lower tones, must take no comfort from the above anatomical and physiologicalfacts. Art implies proportion, and it was one of the ambitions of allthe best actors in the golden age of histrionic art to have an "evenvoice"--_i. E. _, one equally good through the whole range required. Thetragic actor, elocutionist, and public speaker, and the singer, whether soprano or bass, should neglect no muscle, though they may bejustified in developing some in excess of others, but ever with awatchful eye on the weakest part. 

2. The muscles which regulate the tension of the vocal bands are thefollowing:

(_a_) The _thyro-arytenoid[=e]us_ (pair), which by tilting thearytenoid cartilages forward relaxes the tension of the vocal bands. When they act with the adductors--_e. G. _, the arytenoid[=e]usproprius--the result must be relaxation and approximation behind, which implies a greater or less degree of shortening, as usuallyhappens when a certain point in an ascending scale is reached inpersons whose methods of voice-production have not been in some waymodified, and a new register begins, which in most female voices ismarked by a more or less distinct and abrupt alteration of the qualityof the tone. 

The crico-thyroids are the antagonists of the above-named muscles, andthey may act either very much alone or, to some extent, in coöperationwith the above, to regulate or steady their action; for in movementsso complicated as those required for voice-production it is highlyprobable that we are inclined to reduce our explanations of muscularaction to a simplicity that is excessive, and to appreciate butinadequately the delicacy and complexity of the mechanism and theprocesses involved. It is quite certain that in the production of thehighest tones of a tenor or soprano several muscles coöperate, andone, especially, seems to be of great importance in the formation ofsuch tones, most of all, perhaps, in high sopranos. The musclereferred to is the thyro-arytenoid already described. It is not onlyattached to the two cartilages indicated by its name, but also alongthe whole of the external or outer surface of the vocal band. It willbe remembered that practically all the muscles are arranged in pairs, one on each side of the middle line. The muscle now underconsideration, more, perhaps, than any other, is complex in itsaction. Apparently a very few of its fibres may act more or lessindependently of all the others at a particular moment and with aspecific and very delicate result, a very slight change in pitch. Exactly how this is attained no one has as yet adequately explained;but it is doubtful whether any singer who does not possess a perfectcontrol over this muscle can produce the highest tones of the sopranowith ease and effectiveness. It is especially the muscle of the humanbirds of the higher flights. 

(_b_) To these thyro-arytenoids, which for most singers and allspeakers are probably chiefly relaxing in action, must be added asaiding in this function another pair, the _lateral crico-arytenoids_. They are situated between the cricoid and arytenoid cartilages, andthe direction of action is obliquely from below and forward, upward, and backward, so that the arytenoids are brought forward and alsoapproximated more or less, which involves relaxed tension, at least, possibly also shortening of the vocal bands. 

When a tenor or soprano singer reaches the upper tones, say about[Illustration: e'' f'' g''], or higher, there is considerable closingup in the larynx, much in the way in which the parts of the month arebrought together in sucking. This is termed _sphincter action_, themouth and the eyes being closed by such action, of which they arethe most easily observed examples. As a result of this squeezing thereis in some cases that reddening of the face and that tightness whichis often felt uncomfortably, and which is _straining_, because whenpresent in more than a very slight degree it is injurious, owing tocongestion or accumulation of blood in the blood-vessels, with all thebad consequences of such a state of things. When the tightening doesnot go beyond a certain point it is normal--indeed, such sphincteraction is inevitable; but it is the excess which is so common intenors and others who strain for undue power, and to produce tones toohigh in pitch for their development or their method, which is sodisastrous to the throat and to the best art also. 

[Illustration: FIG. 33 (Spalteholz). Shows various structures, andespecially well the false and the true vocal bands, with the spacebetween them (ventricle of Morgagni), but which has no specialfunction in phonation, unless it acts as a small resonance-chamber, which is possible. This space is a natural result of the existence oftwo pairs of vocal bands in such close proximity. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 34 (Spalteholz). Parts have been cut away toexpose to view the whole of the inner surface of the larynx (linedwith mucous membrane). An excellent view of the vocal bands and of the"ventricle" of the larynx, between them, is afforded. ]

When the vocal bands are in action their vibrations are accompanied bycorresponding vibrations of the cartilages of the larynx--a fact ofwhich any one may convince himself by laying his fingers on the upperpart of the thyroid, especially when a low and powerful tone isproduced. This vibration is not confined to the larynx, but extends toother parts--_e. G. _, the chest itself, for when one speaks or sings adistinct vibration of the chest walls can be felt, though the extentto which this is present is very variable in different persons. As anascending scale is sung the larynx can be felt (by the fingers) torise, and the reverse as the pitch is lowered. This is due partly tothe action of those muscles attached to the larynx which are notconnected with the movements of the vocal bands, and partly to theinfluence of the expiratory air-blast. The glottis, partially closedas it must be in phonation, presents considerable resistance to theoutgoing stream of air, hence the upward movement of the larynx whenit is left free, and not held down by muscular action. 

In singing and speaking the larynx should be steadied, otherwise the"attack, " or application of the air-blast to the vocal bands, cannotbe perfect. On the other hand, it is obviously incorrect to attempt tohold the larynx always in the same position. Holding down this organby main force, as in the production of the so-called "straw bass, " isone of the surest methods of producing congestion and consequentdisorders of the vocal organs; and the author wishes to warn allvoice-producers against such unnatural practices. Students ofelocution and young actors often sin in a similar way, and"clergyman's sore throat" is almost always due to this or some similarmisuse of the vocal organs. One's own sensations and common senseshould never be disregarded, however eminent the teacher whorecommends unphysiological methods. 

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

When the student has read the above description of the structure andfunctions of the larynx, and studied the illustrations well, he willbe prepared to deal with the subject in a practical manner, andwithout that it is feared his ideas will remain somewhat hazy. 

First of all, he should try to find the parts mentioned in his ownperson, following this up by examinations of others, for which purposechildren make good subjects, as they have usually necks that are nottoo deeply padded with fat, and they may be easily led to take theexaminations as a sort of fun. 

From above downward one feels in the middle line the parts in theorder previously mentioned, beginning with the hyoid bone. One maylearn that the larynx is movable and yielding, a hard structurecovered with softer tissues, but what these are, and much more, canonly be learned by examination of the larynx after it has been removedfrom some animal. Every butcher can provide the material for getting asound, practical knowledge of the respiratory apparatus. He may beasked to supply the following:

1. A pig's "pluck"--_i. E. _, the "lights, " or lungs, with the windpipeattached. The liver, heart, etc. , are not required, though to observethe relations of the circulatory system--_i. E. _, the heart and largeblood-vessels--to the respiratory system will be time well spent. Unless special instructions are given, the larynx, which the butchermay term the "weezend, " may be lacking or mutilated. It should beexplained that this organ, with a part of the windpipe and the extremeback part of the tongue, and all below it, are required. For onesitting this single "pluck" will suffice, as it will serve for ageneral examination. The lungs may be dilated by inserting a tube intothe windpipe, tying it in position, and blowing into it with greateror less force. It should be especially observed how suddenly the lungscollapse when the breath force is removed, as this illustrates welltheir _elasticity_. By cutting through the windpipe lengthwise andfollowing it downward one learns how numerous are the branches of thebronchial tree, etc. 

For a second sitting one should secure at least two specimens of thelarynx of the pig or sheep, though the former is more like the human, and so the better on the whole. A case of dissecting instruments isnot essential; a sharp pocket-knife will serve the purpose. In orderthat the student may have a clear idea of the cartilages, all the softtissues must be cut or scraped away. It is necessary to exercise greatcare, or the membranes connecting the cartilages together will be cutthrough; and on the other hand, unless the work in the neighborhood ofthe arytenoids be cautiously done, these cartilages may be injured, and it is most important that their swivel-like action and theirrelations to the true vocal bands be observed. The glottic chink canbe seen from above or below, and should be observed from bothview-points. Its margins are formed by the true vocal bands. 

Then, with the figures before him, the student should endeavor toisolate each of the muscles described. The muscles can always berecognized by their red color, but it is to be remembered that thoseon the inner surface of the larynx, such as the crico-arytenoid, arecovered with mucous membrane, which after death is very pale. This canby careful dissection be removed, and if in doing this a small pair offorceps be employed, the work will be greatly facilitated. One must bevery skilful indeed if he would get all the muscles "out, " or wellexposed to view as individuals, on a single specimen. Likely severalwill be required before entirely satisfactory results are reached, butthese are well worth all the time and labor required. The action ofthe muscles can in some measure be demonstrated by pulling on them inthe direction of their loosest attachment, though it must be confessedthis is much more difficult in the case of most of the muscles of thelarynx than in those of other parts of the body. 

Should the specimens be very successfully dissected, it may be worthwhile to keep them for future observation, in rather weak alcohol (40per cent. ), in, say, a preserve jar. 

All examinations of the vocal bands may leave the observerdisappointed; he may fail to realize, most likely, how such wonderfulresults can be accomplished by structures so simple as those he seesbefore him. But when the laryngoscope is brought into use, then comesa revelation. This instrument will be described in the next chapter. 

HYGIENE. 

Some of the hygienic principles involved have already been referred toand illustrated, and others follow from the facts already set forth. It is very important for the voice-user to bear in mind that hislarynx is a part of the respiratory tract, and that the whole of thisregion and the entire digestive tract, part of which is common toboth, are lined with mucous membrane. If the nose be affected withcatarrh, the throat does not usually long escape; and if the back ofthe mouth cavity (_pharynx_) be disordered, the vocal bands and otherparts of the larynx are almost sure to be involved more or less. 

The condition of the stomach is reflexly, if not by direct continuitythrough the mucous membrane, expressed in the throat generally; henceas experience shows, the voice-user cannot exercise too great care asto what and how much he eats, especially before a public appearance. He must know himself what best suits him, in this regard, to a degreethat is necessary for few others. 

When singing, more blood is sent to the organs used, hence the greatdanger of that excess of blood being retained in the parts too long, as might easily happen from pressure about the neck, etc. It isscarcely necessary to point out that draughts, cold rooms, etc. , willalso determine the blood from the skin inward, and set up thatcomplicated condition of multiform evils known as "a cold. " Theobvious principle of prevention lies in keeping the body, andespecially the neck, shoulders, and chest, warm after using the vocalorgans in any way in public. To hand the singer a wrap after leavingthe platform is always wise, and the judicious friend will see thatconversation is not allowed, much less forced on the possiblybreathless and wearied voice-user--a precaution that is probably morehonored in the breach than in the observance, for in this as in othercases one's friends are sometimes his worst enemies. 

SUMMARY. 

The larynx is the most important organ in voice-production, andconsists of cartilages, muscles, the vocal bands, true and false, membranes and ligaments, folds of mucous membrane, etc. It is situatedbetween the hyoid (tongue) bone above and the trachea below. Thecartilages are the (1) epiglottis, (2) thyroid, cricoid, arytenoid, the two small, unimportant cornicula laryngis, or cartilages ofSantorini, surmounting the arytenoids, and the two cuneiform, orcartilages of Wrisberg, in the folds of mucous membrane on each sideof the arytenoids. 

The muscles are attached to the main cartilages. In addition to themuscles that are concerned with the movements of the vocal bands, others that hold the larynx in place or raise and lower it areattached _externally_ to these, especially to the large thyroidcartilage. The epiglottis, the false vocal cords, the true vocalcords, and the thyro-arytenoid muscles are attached to the interioranterior surface of the thyroid in this order from above down. 

The false vocal bands have no direct function in phonation. _The wholelarynx, so far as phonation is concerned, may be said to exist for thetrue vocal bands. _ They are attached close together to the internaland anterior surface of the thyroid in front and to the lower anteriorangles (vocal processes) of the arytenoids behind. Between the falsevocal bands above and the true vocal bands below there is a cavity(the ventricle of Morgagni). The false vocal bands are protective, andapproximate closely during coughing, swallowing, etc. 

It is very important to note that the arytenoid cartilages move freelyon their base, swivel-like, so that nearly all the changes effected inthe movements and tension of the vocal bands are brought about throughalterations in the position of these cartilages; and this implies thatall the muscles concerned are attached to them. From above down, infront, the order of structures is as follows:

 Hyoid bone. Membrane. Thyroid cartilage. Membrane. Cricoid cartilage. Trachea. 

The hyoid bone is not a part of the larynx, but from it the larynx issuspended. The bone itself gives attachment to the muscles of thetongue. The glottis is the chink between the true vocal bands. 

The muscles of the larynx may be divided into the following: (1) Thosethat open and those that close the glottis; (2) those which regulatethe tension of the vocal bands. The latter include the (_a_)crico-thyroids, which tense and elongate them, (_b_) thyro-arytenoids, which relax and shorten them. The crico-thyroid may be considered themost important muscle of phonation, because it is so much used and soeffective. By its action the cricoid is pulled up in front and downbehind, so that the arytenoids are drawn back, and thus the vocalbands tensed and lengthened. The lateral crico-arytenoids and thethyro-arytenoids have the opposite effect--_i. E. _, they relax andshorten the vocal bands; hence when they come into play a new registerbegins. The thyro-arytenoids, attached along the whole length of thevocal bands externally, have a very important but not well-understoodaction in the production of the higher tones, and probably also of thefalsetto. 

The whole larynx is lined with mucous membrane, that covering the truevocal bands being very thin. The false vocal bands are made up chieflyof mucous membrane; the true vocal bands abound in elastic tissue. Thelarynx rises during the production of high tones, and duringphonation its vibrations may be felt, as also those of the chest. 

_Practical. _

1. Feel in your own person the parts of the larynx, etc. , from abovedown. 

2. Note the vibration of the larynx when a vowel is spoken or sung. Asimilar vibration of the chest walls may be felt by the hands laidover them. 

3. Note the change of position of the larynx in singing a scale. 

4. Dissect a pig's or sheep's pluck and some specimens of the larynx. 

[Illustration: FIG. 35. These three figures illustrate perhaps moreclearly the _action_ of the muscles indicated FIGS. 26-34. 

The arrows show the direction of the pull of the muscles. The resultof this action is the new position of the cartilages and vocal bands, which is shown by red outlines. The muscle is also depicted in red. The heavier outer rim is to indicate the thyroid cartilage. Bycomparing the upper and the lowest figure it will be seen that theyare opposites. Of course, in phonation the vocal bands are never somuch separated as shown in the illustrations. Rather does the lowerfigure indicate a case of extreme separation due to a very deepinspiration. However, these illustrations are merely diagrams meant toindicate in a general way the manner of the working of parts. Forexact pictures of the vocal bands and related parts, see ChapterVII. ]

CHAPTER VII. 

SOUND--THE LARYNGOSCOPE--THE LARYNX RECONSIDERED. 

Before discussing our subject further it is desirable that someattention be given to a few of the fundamental principles of thatdepartment of physics termed _acoustics_, and which deals with thesubject of sound. If the student has the opportunity to study thissubject theoretically and practically, as it is set forth in some goodwork on physics, he will have no reason to regret the time spent. Adeep knowledge of the laws of sound is not absolutely essential, oreven highly necessary, for a sufficient understanding of theprinciples involved in voice-production. It is, however, all-importantthat a few facts and principles be thoroughly grasped. 

For those who feel that they have the time for a study of acoustics, the author would especially recommend Tyndall's work on sound, inwhich the subject is treated with wonderful clearness and charm. Whatwe endeavor now to bring before the reader we have found sufficientfor nearly all the purposes of the voice-user. 

An observer on the street, looking at a military band, notices certainmovements of one member of the organization which result in what hetermed the sound of the drum; but a deaf man by his side, though hesees the movements, hears nothing. This, being analyzed, means thatthe movements of the drummer's arm, conveyed through the drumstick tothe membrane of the drum, give rise to movements in it which set upcorresponding movements of the air within the drum, which again causemovements of the body of the instrument, the whole causing movementsof the external air; and here the purely physical process ends. Themovements other than muscular ones are not readily observed, butexperiments not only prove that they exist, but demonstrate theirnature, even to their exact rate of occurrence, their size, etc. Thesemovements are termed _vibrations_, and, as has been indicatedpreviously, they are the sole physical cause of sound. But that thelatter is not due wholly to a physical origin is evident from the factthat sound for the deaf does not exist. It must, therefore, be apersonal, a subjective experience, and as the sleeping, unconsciousperson does not necessarily hear a sound, the process is not wholly acorporeal or physiological process; it is finally an experience of themind, the consciousness, and so is psychological as well asphysiological. 

The fact that sound has a physical basis in the vibrations of bodies, either solid, liquid, or gaseous, may be brought home to one invarious ways. Concussion or shaking of some kind is essential to startthese vibrations. The air is made up of its particles, and one beingmoved sets up, inevitably, movements in neighboring particles on allsides, hence vibrations travel in all directions; which explains why asound in the street may be heard by those in every part of the streetnot too distant, and also in the upper rooms of the houses and belowin the basements. This is an important fact for the singer or speakerto bear in mind. His purpose must be to set up vibrations that willtravel with great perfection and rapidity in all directions. 

The following experiments of a simple kind will serve to convincethose who may not have given much attention to the subject that soundis due to movements of some object, which we term the sounding body, strictly that which starts the vibrations by its own movements orvibrations. 

If a sufficiently flexible band of metal or a stiff piece of whalebonebe fixed at one end in a vice, and then sharply pulled to one side andsuddenly let go, a sound results. The same effect is produced when atight cord or small rope is plucked at and then suddenly released. Ineach of these cases, if actual movements are not seen, a certain hazewhich seems to surround the object may be observed. The same can beseen when a tuning-fork is set into action by a bow, a blow, etc. Inthe case of the fork a graphic tracing (Fig. 36) can be readily takenon smoked paper, thus demonstrating to the eye that vibrations exist, that they occur with perfect regularity and with a frequency that canbe measured. 

[Illustration: FIG. 36 (Tyndall). Illustrates how the vibrations of atuning-fork are registered on a blackened (smoked) glass. In orderthat the movements of the fork shall be traced in the form of regularcurves, the surface must be kept moving at a definite regular rate. ]

A similar observation can be made in the case of stringed instruments. If pieces of paper be laid on the strings of a violin, and the bowthen drawn across them, the bits of paper will fly off owing to themovements--_i. E. _, the vibrations--of the strings. 

That a force applied at one end of several objects in a line or seriescauses an obvious effect at the other end, can be well illustrated ina simple way. If a number of individuals stand one behind another in aline, each with his hands laid firmly on the shoulders of the one nextto him, and the person at the end be pushed, the force will beconveyed through all the intermediate individuals, and cause theunsupported person at the distant end to move. So is it with theparticles of which the air is composed. The movements begun in thedrum set up by contact corresponding movements or vibrations in theadjacent air, which ultimately reach the hearing subject's ear, thereby affect his brain, and are accompanied by that change inconsciousness which he terms "hearing. " It will be observed that theseevents constitute a chain, and a break anywhere will prevent a soundbeing heard; there is then, in fact, no sound. 

Sounds are characterized by _pitch_, _volume_, and _quality_. 

The _pitch_ is determined by the number of vibrations that reach theear within a certain time; the more numerous the sound-waves(vibrations) in a second, the higher the pitch. 

[Illustration: FIG. 37 (Tyndall). Meant to illustrate vibrations. Theimpulse communicated by the ball pushed from the hand to all theintervening ones causes only the last to actually move bodily. ]

Animals differ a good deal as to the limits of hearing. Cats hear veryhigh-pitched sounds, as of mice, that human beings may not notice, andit is likely that insects hear sounds altogether beyond the limit ofthe human ear. But it is wonderful how much human beings differ amongthemselves in regard to this matter. It has surprised the author tofind that many persons cannot hear the high-pitched note of certainbirds, as the wax-wing. 

The lower limit, speaking generally, is for most persons 16vibrations, and the highest 38000 vibrations a second, according toHelmholtz, hence the entire range of the human ear would be fully 11octaves; but the practical range of musical sounds is within 40 and4000 vibrations a second--_i. E. _, about 7 octaves--and, as is wellknown, even this range is beyond the appreciation of most persons, though as to this much depends on cultivation--attention to thesubject extending over a considerable period of time. 

The _volume_, or loudness, of a sound depends on the size of thevibrations, just as one feels a blow from a large object, other thingsbeing equal, more than from a small one. The ear drum-head is in thecase of a large sound beaten, as it were, more powerfully. The singersthat give us bigness of sound instead of quality belabor our ears, soto speak; they treat us as persons of mean understanding--dullintellects; the thing is essentially vulgar. 

The _quality_ of a sound is determined by the form of the vibrations. A sound of good quality is to the ear what a beautiful statue orpicture is to the eye. As will be explained later, the form or qualitydepends largely on the shape, etc. , of the resonance-chambers abovethe vocal bands. 

Much discussion has taken place from time to time as to the nature ofthe larynx as a musical instrument, some being inclined to regard itas most closely allied to a stringed instrument, others to awind-instrument. It has obviously points of resemblance to both, butthe most recent researches make it clearer than ever that it isneither one nor the other, strictly speaking, but that it stands in aclass by itself. It is, however, helpful, in considering manyquestions, to bear in mind its resemblances to both wind and stringedinstruments. The vocal bands are not wholly free throughout theirlength, like the strings of a violin, nor do they bear any greatresemblance to the reed of such an instrument as the clarinet, but asin the latter the force causing the vibrations is a blast of air. Wehave already pointed out that the vocal bands are set into vibrationsolely by the _expiratory_ blast of air. 

THE LARYNGOSCOPE. 

The distinguished physiologist Johannes Müller demonstrated theworking of the larynx by special experiments. He fixed into thewindpipe a bellows, and showed, in the dead larynx, of course, thatthe blast from this source could cause the vocal bands to vibrate andthus produce sounds, which by varying the strength of the force, etc. , were made to vary in pitch. 

While such experiments indicate the essential principles of a possiblevoice-production, as the conditions in life were not and could not befully met these results were rather suggestive than demonstrative ofNature's methods. These investigations served a good purpose, butthey were manifestly inadequate, and this was felt by one thoughtfulvocal teacher so keenly that he pondered much on the subject, in thehope of finding a method of observing the larynx during actualphonation. To this distinguished teacher, Manuel Garcia, belongs thehonor of inventing the means of observing the vocal bands in action. This was accomplished in 1854, and, soon after, Garcia read an accountof his observations to the Royal Society of London; and though much inthis paper required correction by subsequent observations, it remainsto this day the foundation of our knowledge of the action of thelarynx in voice-production. 

[Illustration: FIG. 38 (Bosworth). Intended to illustrate the opticalprinciples involved and the practical method of carrying outlaryngoscopic examination. The dotted lines show the paths of thelight-rays. ]

As usually employed, the laryngoscope consists of two mirrors, thehead-mirror, so called because it is usually attached to the foreheadby an elastic band, and the throat-mirror, which is placed in the backpart of the mouth cavity. The purpose of the head-mirror is to reflectthe light that reaches it from a lamp or other source of illuminationinto the mouth cavity so perfectly that not only the back of themouth, etc. , but the larynx itself may be well lighted up; butinasmuch as this illumination may be accomplished, under favorablecircumstances, by direct sunlight, the head-mirror is, though mostlyindispensable, not an absolutely essential part of the laryngoscope. There is, indeed, one advantage in the use of direct sunlight, in thatthe color of the parts seen remains more nearly normal. Lamplighttends, because of its yellow color, to make parts seem rather of adeeper red than they actually are; but this to the practised observer, always using the same source of illumination, is not a seriousmatter--his standards of comparison remain the same. Moreover, thisobjection does not apply equally to electric light, now so much used. 

[Illustration: FIG. 39. This illustration is meant to show moreespecially the relative position of observer and observed. Theobserver, on the right, is wearing the head-mirror, while twothroat-mirrors seem to be in position--in reality, the same mirror intwo different positions. One is placed so as to reflect the picture ofthe nasal chambers, especially their hinder portion. The walls of thenose, etc. , may for the purposes of this illustration be consideredtransparent, so that the scroll (turbinated) bones, etc. , come intoview. The tongue is protruded. The light, not seen in this figure, isusually placed on the left of the subject, as in Fig. 38. ]

It being a fundamental law of light that the angle of reflection andthe angle of incidence correspond--are, in fact, the same--it wasnecessary that the throat-mirror should be set at an angle to itsstem, so that the light passing up by reflection from the larynxshould, when striking on the surface of this plane throat-mirror, bereflected outward in a straight line to the eye, which must be in thesame horizontal plane with it. This and all the other facts andprinciples involved can only be understood by a careful inspection ofthe accompanying figures, which it is hoped will make the subjectplain. The throat-mirror is none other than the mouth-mirror of thedentists, and in use by them before Garcia discovered how it might beemployed to throw light on the larynx, in a double sense. 

The essentials, then, for a view of the interior of the larynx are: Asource of illumination; a mirror to reflect the light reaching it fromthis source into the back of the throat and larynx; and a secondmirror to reflect the light outward which is, in the first instance, reflected from below, from the interior of the larynx. The principlesinvolved are few and simple, but their application to any particularcase is not easy, and is sometimes well-nigh impossible. 

The throat-mirror should be placed against that curtain suspended inthe back of the mouth cavity known as the soft palate, so that it mustbe pushed back out of the line of view. But many persons find such aforeign object in the throat a sufficient cause of unpleasantsensations so that retching may be the result. Generally there is atendency to raise the tongue behind in a way fatal to a view of themirror and the picture reflected from it. These difficulties, however, can be overcome by a deft hand using the mirror brought to "bloodheat" by placing it in warm water or holding it over some source ofheat, as a small lamp, and directing the subject observed to breathefreely and _through the mouth_. This latter tends to quiet that unrulymember, the tongue, and lead it to assume the flat position soimportant to an unobstructed view. It is for the same reason theauthor urges mouth breathing during speaking and singing. No othertends so well to put the tongue in the correct position. 

The extent to which one feels the annoyance of a small mirror heldgently in the throat depends really on the amount of attentiondirected to it, and the degree of determination with which he resolvesto exercise self-control. The author has examined an entire class ofstudents of voice-production and found only one person who did notsucceed in at once giving him a view of the larynx. But it must be atonce said that of all persons examined by the author during hisexperience as an investigator of voice-production and in specialmedical practice, none have been able to show their throats, thelarynx included, so well as speakers and, above all, singers; which initself indicates that speaking and singing do give control of thethroat--that all its parts respond to the will of the observed person. The author must further, however, remark that he has found thiscontrol associated not so much with vocal power as with intelligentstudy. Intelligence tells in music a good deal more than many peoplehave yet learned to believe; but on this point the reader will longsince have learned the author's views--in fact, so deep are hisconvictions on this subject that he hopes he may be pardoned forfrequent reference to them, in one form or another. 

One anatomical fact may be so invincible that a view of the glottiscannot be obtained at all: the epiglottis may so overhang the openingto the larynx that a good view of its interior is absolutelyimpossible, in other cases only occasionally and under very favorablecircumstances. Such cases are, however, of the rarest occurrence, while there are not a few persons in whom one may even see down thewindpipe as far as its division into the two main bronchial tubes, andinflammation may thus often be traced from the vocal bands far downthe mucous membrane common to the larynx, windpipe, etc. 

As has been remarked previously, it is only by the use of thelaryngoscope that one can see the vocal mechanism of the larynx inaction, so that for investigation laryngoscopy is essential. Auto-laryngoscopy, or the use of the laryngoscope by the subject toobserve his own larynx, has its special difficulties and advantages, the greatest of the latter being, perhaps, that the observer may usehimself as often and as long as he will, while he would hesitate tomake observations on others at great length or with frequentrepetition. There are no new principles involved in auto-laryngoscopy. The observer must simply see that a good light is reflected into hisown throat, and that the picture in his throat-mirror is reflectedinto another into which he may gaze, an ordinary small hand-glassusually sufficing. 

Only rarely is the individual met who can himself so control histongue that assistance from the observing laryngologist isunnecessary. In by far the greater number of instances the tongue, after being protruded, must be gently held by the left hand of theobserver, a small napkin covering the tip of the organ. Theauto-laryngologist must, of course, control his own tongue, and betterif without any hand contact. 

It is scarcely necessary to say that before placing the mirror in themouth its temperature must be tested by touching it for a momentagainst the back of the hand. 

Nearly all the facts of importance in phonation, several of which havealready been referred to, or will be mentioned in the "Summary andReview" below, could only have been discovered by the use of thelaryngoscope. The difference in the larynx in the two sexes and indifferent types of singers and speakers, though open to ordinaryobservation, dissection, etc. , are still better brought out by the useof the instrument now under consideration. 

One naturally expects any organ to be larger and heavier in the malethan in the female, and to this the larynx is no exception; andindividual differences are equally pronounced. There may be almost ifnot quite as much difference between the larynx of a barytone and of atenor as between that of an ordinary man who is not a publicvoice-user and the larynx of the ordinary woman. The larynx of thecontralto may in its size and general development remind one of thesame organ in the male. The vocal bands of the bass singer may be tothose of a soprano as are the strings of a violoncello to those of aviolin--using these examples, it will be understood, merely as roughillustrations. 

The change in the size of the larynx produced by even a few months'judicious practice may be astonishing. As already hinted, it isimportant that in bringing about this development exclusive attentionshould not be given, as is sometimes done, especially in the case ofspeakers, to the lower tones, though it is not so important for themas for singers to have an even development up to the highest range. 

But again the author would urge the voice-user to aim at attainingthat delicate control of muscles (neuro-muscular mechanisms, to speakmore scientifically) so important for the finest vocal effects, ratherthan be satisfied with mere power. The vocalist and speaker mustindeed be athletic specialists, but they should not aim at being likethe ordinary athlete, much less mere strong men of the circus. 

It is said that Madame Mara within her range of three octaves couldeffect 2100 changes of pitch, or 100 between each two tones of thetwenty-one in her compass, which would represent a successive changein the length of the vocal bands of a small fraction, possibly notmore than 1/17000 of an inch--something unapproachable in nicety inthe use of any other instrument. Even if we make large deductions fromthe above, the performances of those who have reached the highestlaryngeal control must remain marvellous, all the more when it isremembered that this control over the larynx, to be efficient formusical purposes, must be accompanied by a corresponding mastery ofthe art of breathing. Is it necessary to point out that such wonderfuldevelopment and control can only be attained after years of steadywork by the best methods?

At one period in the life of the individual changes of such importancetake place in the entire nature, physical, mental, and moral, that hebecomes almost a new being. This epoch is known as the period ofpuberty or adolescence, and may be considered that of the gravestmoment during one's whole life; for then, for better or worse, greatchanges inevitably occur. It is incomparably the period of greatestdevelopment, and, unfortunately, there may also spring into being, with striking suddenness, physical and psychic traits which cause thegreatest anxiety. In any case, the thoughtful must then regard theyouth or maiden with feelings of the deepest interest, if not anxiety;and in the case of the voice-user, especially the singer, this periodmay come laden with the destinies of the future. 

The vocal organs, especially in males, undergo very marked changes inrelative proportions and actual growth. So marked is this that theboy soprano may actually become a barytone, or, unfortunately, nolonger have a singing voice at all. 

[Illustration: FIG. 40 (Grünwald). If this be compared with the nextillustration (FIG. 41), some of the differences between the larynx ofthe male and that of the female may be noted. The vocal bands in FIG. 40, being those of a male, are heavier and wider. They are morecovered by the epiglottis than in the other case--that of a female(FIG. 41). The false vocal bands are well seen in both cases, and bytheir redness (dark in the figures) contrast with the whiteness of thetrue vocal bands. In both illustrations the bands are in theinspiration position. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 41 (Grünwald). Laryngoscopic picture of the femalelarynx--to be contrasted with that of a male, shown in FIG. 40. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 42 (Grünwald). In this case, owing to the subjecthaving a cold, it is with difficulty that the true can bedistinguished from the false vocal bands, so reddened (dark, in thefigure) were the former, with corresponding changes in the characterof the voice. This view was obtained as the subject was phonating, sothat the vocal bands are approximated somewhat closely. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 43 (Grünwald). Shows the larynx as it may be seenonly by the use of the laryngoscope. The above is an example of theappearance of the vocal bands during a deep inspiration, and in thissubject, as in those illustrated by FIGS. 40, 41, the circumstanceswere so favorable that the observer could see even the trachea, therings of which are indicated in the picture. The reader will bear inmind that in this and all laryngoscopic pictures, while right remainsright, front becomes back, and back front, so that the back of thelarynx appears toward the observer--_i. E. _, is lowest on the page. ]

So far as the larynx is concerned the changes are less pronounced, usually, in the girl; nevertheless, the period is one of such changefor the female that the greatest care should be exercised at thistime, especially in the case of city girls. The body requires all itsavailable resources for the growth and development which is socharacteristic of this biological and psychological epoch; hence itmay be ruinous for the future of the girl if at this time the samestrain is put upon her as on the adult, whether in the direction ofstudy, physical exertion, or social excitement, and of course thevoice must suffer with all the rest. The farmer who would attempt towork the colt of a year or two old as he does the horse of four orfive would be regarded as either grossly ignorant of his business orutterly reckless as to his own interests, if not positively cruel. Doour modern usages not show a neglect of facts of vital moment stillmore marked? Unfortunately, the woman all her life must live, to agreater or less extent, on a sort of periodic up-curve or down-curveof vitality; and that this fact is so generally ignored by society andeducators is one of those peculiarities of our age at which, in spiteof its great advancement in so many directions, a future generationmust wonder. 

To use the voice when the health is even slightly disordered is notwithout risk to the vocal organs, and it is the clear duty of everyteacher of vocal culture, at all events, to allow no practice and togive no lessons that imply the actual use of the vocal organs at thesetimes. Nor is this a great loss, rightly considered, for theintellectual side of the subject, which requires so much attention, may readily be made to take the place of the vocal for a few days. 

The so-called "breaking" of the voice is largely confined to males, because the growth changes, etc. , as already said, are most marked inboys. At this time, also, there is frequently an excess of bloodsupplied to the larynx, with possibly some degree of stagnation orcongestion, which results in a thickening of the vocal bands, unequalaction of muscles, etc. , which must involve imperfections in thevoice. In all such cases common sense and physiology alike plainlyindicate that rest is desirable. All shouting, singing, etc. , shouldbe refrained from, and even ordinary speech, as much as possible, invery marked cases, especially when the individual is even slightlyindisposed or weary. 

In other cases the changes are so gradual and so little marked that itis not at all necessary to discontinue vocal practice, if carried outwith care and under the guidance of an intelligent friend or teacher;but because of the possibility of the voice changing in quality, thereis no time when the advice of an experienced and enlightened teacheror laryngologist is more necessary. 

The condition present in the vocal bands and larynx generally of theboy at puberty is more or less akin to that found in fatigue, ill-health, hoarseness, etc. , as well as in old age, when muscularaction is very uncertain, so that in the weak larynx, as elsewhere, the old man may approach the undeveloped youth, and for much the samereason--lack of co-ordinated or harmonious control of parts. 

These remarks imply, of course, that the youth has already begunstudies in voice-production, and that raises another importantquestion, viz. : When should the individual who is sufficiently endowedmusically begin to sing, or study public utterance practically in someof its forms?

No faculty develops earlier than the musical, and this is a strongargument in itself for the early study of music, apart altogether fromother considerations about which there is room for more difference ofopinion. Should the child get his musical development through the useof his own musical instrument or another? If he shows natural abilityfor the use of the voice, should he be trained very early?

Against early training may be urged the facts above referred to--theliability of great changes taking place in the larynx at puberty, especially in the boy. But marked are the changes that take place inother parts of the body also, and this is not urged against exercisesfor general development, for the boy. It is a remarkable fact thatmany of the great composers sang as boys, and possibly this has hadsomething to do with their writing music for the voice, later, whenthey were most of them by no means fine singers; but on this too muchstress should not be laid. 

The question at issue is to be sharply marked off from another--thepublic appearance of children as soloists, reciters, etc. In this casethe question is more complicated, and cannot be settled byphysiological considerations alone. Our problem is also to be keptapart from another very important question--the singing of children, or, indeed, adults, in classes, choirs, etc. 

If a child shows himself a desire to sing, and especially if he hasmusical ability above the average and a voice that is of fair rangeand quality, one can scarcely see why he should not be encouraged, andplaced under a wise teacher; for it is doubtful if there be any betterway of developing the ear and musical nature, even if in future thechild shows that he will accomplish more as an instrumentalist. Suchvocal training tends to development of the larynx, and that canscarcely be wholly lost, no matter what changes puberty may bringabout. At the same time, one must take care not to be too hopeful inregard to child singers. Nature gives us some surprises, and notalways pleasant ones. 

But as to the cultivation of the vocal organs with the view ofproducing a beautiful speaking voice by processes akin to those usedfor the singer, as the teaching of this work constantly implies, therecan be no doubt. Unless the individual acquires a respect for thebeautiful in the speaking voice when young, it is feared he may neverget it, as the existing state of things only too clearly shows. 

It is hoped that enough has been said on this subject to indicate theprinciples, at all events so far as physiology is concerned, on whichthe decisions regarding some weighty questions must be made. 

The question of singing with others, as usually carried out inschools, seems to the author a very doubtful procedure, to say theleast, as for those with fine throats it may prove injurious, and forthose who have feeble musical endowments it does little; but of thissubject and concerted singing generally again. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

FURTHER CONSIDERATION OF BREATHING, LARYNGEAL ADJUSTMENT, ETC. 

Experience proves that breathing, for the speaker and singer, is oneof those subjects that may be very inadequately comprehended by thestudent, and, the author regrets to say, may be positivelymisrepresented by teachers and writers. 

Some--indeed, a great many--teachers direct their students to employ"abdominal" or "diaphragmatic" breathing, others "clavicular"respiration. A little consideration must convince those who have readthe chapters on breathing that such distinctions, in which one part ofan entire process is treated as if it were the whole, cannot bejustified. By "clavicular" breathing some mean upper chest breathing, and others a form of respiration in which the shoulders (clavicles, orkey-bones) are raised with inspiration in an objectionable manner. Thelatter is, of course, to be condemned; yet, very exceptionally, atenor of excellent training may feel that he can, under thecircumstances of the hour, reach a certain tone very high in his rangeonly by the utmost exertion. We all know how a singer's reputation maybe more or less ruined should he fail to reach such a high note--one, indeed, by which he may, owing to the vitiated taste of the public, have acquired a reputation beyond his artistic merits. Under thesecircumstances such a singer might be justified in a momentary use ofevery resource of what physiologists term _forced respiration_, including clavicular breathing; but in general any raising of theshoulders should be absolutely avoided. 

When "clavicular" breathing is used in the sense of upper chestbreathing, it is correct as far as it goes, but the term is not ahappy one to employ in this sense, and it has led to error in theoryand practice. 

In the same way, "diaphragmatic" breathing is perfectly correct, butits exclusive use cannot be justified, for Nature teaches usotherwise. It is true that the lower part of the chest, which alwaysshould expand with the descent of the diaphragm, is wider than theupper; it is true that by a very well-developed diaphragmaticbreathing a singer or speaker is fairly well provided with breathpower; but why teach this method exclusively, when thereby thevoice-user is being robbed of possibly from one quarter to one thirdof his total breathing efficiency?

It is likely that teachers have insisted on diaphragmatic breathing, especially in the case of females, because, unfortunately, prevalentmodes of dress so restrict the lower chest, etc. , that individualsinstinctively seek relief in upper chest or clavicular breathing, inwhich case it may be observed that the actual breath power of thesinger is very small. It cannot be denied that few people everadequately fill the chest--least of all, few women--and if admonitionsas to diaphragmatic breathing accomplish this purpose, the practicemust be commended. But another remedy should obviously precede thisone: the respiratory prisoner should first be released. 

No doubt, in the most vigorous singing and speaking the lower part ofthe chest, with the diaphragm, is of the greatest importance, butoften both the speaker and the singer, as in a short, rapid passage, require to take breath, and the only way in which they can really meetthe case is by a short, more or less superficial action of therespiratory apparatus, in which the upper chest must play the chiefpart. There is no opportunity to fill the whole chest, so that anyadmonition in regard to abdominal breathing is then quite out ofplace. 

The fact is, the voice-user should have control of his whole breathingmechanism, and use one part more or less than another, or all partsequally and to the fullest extent, as the circumstances require; andif the student has not already learned such control, the authorrecommends his practising breathing with special attention first tofilling the upper chest completely, and then the lower. It must beremembered that for a long time breathing, for the voice-user, must bea voluntary process, which, as has been pointed out, is not the usualand natural one for the individual when not phonating, which latteris essentially reflex or involuntary. The voice-user, in other words, must, with a definite purpose in view, take charge of himself. Intime, breathing for him too will become reflex--_i. E. _, correctbreathing for the purposes of his art will become a habit. It must bepointed out that the breathing for any particular composition, literary or musical, should be carefully studied out, for this isnothing else than determining how this part of the voice-user'smechanism can be employed with the best artistic result. This, fortunately, is now recognized by a large number of teachers, for thefact is, the artistic is at present much better understood andappreciated than the technical; were it not so, such erraticliterature on the subject of breathing could never have appeared. 

On another aspect of the subject there is room for much greaterdifference of opinion. Among even eminent singers and teachers thereis lack of agreement in regard to the part the diaphragm and abdomenshould play in the most vigorous (_fortissimo_) singing. 

Singers of renown practise what may be termed a sort of "forced"abdominal or diaphragmatic breathing. The breath is so taken that thewhole chest is filled, the diaphragm brought well down, and theabdominal walls drawn in (retracted), which gives the singer, in allparts above and below, a bellows with tense walls in all parts, withthe great advantage that such breathing permits of a firmnessotherwise unattainable, and he is enabled to exert his breath forcewith great certainty and power, and, as some maintain, with all thecontrol necessary for even delicate effects. 

[Illustration: FIG. 44. Intended to express to the eye the two viewsof respiration discussed in the body of the work (p. 113-117). Thedotted lines indicate the form of the chest and abdomen advocated bysome as the best for the singing or speaking of long and vigorouspassages. ]

Against this it has been urged that it is unnatural, not according towhat is found in man and other animals in nature. It is perhapsforgotten that when we make a great effort, as in lifting, we put thebreathing apparatus into just this state; we gird up our loins--or theequivalent of that process--so that this method cannot be said to becontrary to nature. The only question seems to be as to whether it isnecessary and advantageous, or wasteful of energy. For ordinaryefforts it does not seem to be necessary, though the chest must insinging and speaking always be _held_ more or less full, not by anydeliberate and painful effort, but in a quiet, unobtrusive way. 

The diagram (Fig. 44) will make the difference in the theoriesreferred to clear. 

Up to the present the student has been urged to fill his chest, afterdays of less vigorous practice, to the fullest, retain the mechanismin this condition for a short time, and then in the slowest and mostregular fashion relax it, the purpose being development and control. In actual speaking and singing such breathing is not usually eitherpossible or desirable. 

Nature herself always works with the least possible expenditure ofenergy and with power in reserve. These must be the voice-user'sprinciples, to be deliberately and persistently applied. To fill thechest to the fullest on all occasions is to use up energy to nopurpose and to induce fatigue. Art is ever economical. Effort, obviouseffort, detracts from the listener's enjoyment. Ease in the executantcorresponds with enjoyment in the listener, or, at all events, ifnothing more, it puts him in such a frame of mind, that the morepositive qualities of the performance find him in an undisturbed, receptive state. 

The singer or speaker must breathe easily and adequately, but not soas to waste his energies. Prior to the execution of his task, heshould consider what respiratory efficiency calls for in the case ofany particular phrase, and meet this without waste--_i. E. _, fully, butwith something to spare. For the best art, as well as the soundesttechnique, there should always be in the executant enough and tospare. Let the last word be so uttered or sung that the listener mayfeel, however vigorous the passage, that more could have been done hadit been required; in other words, _speak or sing the last word feelingthat several others might follow did one so choose_. 

When this principle of reserve force is not observed, the voice-usermay distress himself or his audience in a variety of ways, amongothers by a bad habit known as "pumping"--_i. E. _, endeavoring toproduce sound when the breath power is really spent. It is onlynecessary to refer to it for a moment that its unwisdom andphysiological unrighteousness may be apparent. 

Another term, _coup de glotte_ (blow or shock of the glottis), has ledto so much confusion and misunderstanding, which unfortunately, hasbeen followed by erroneous practice, that it would be well if itsfurther employment were abandoned. 

Breathing, so far as voice-production is concerned, is for the solepurpose of causing the vocal bands to vibrate; and at this stage wemay say that the perfection of any vocal result depends wholly on theefficiency with which these vibrations are produced, so that breathingand tone are brought together, so to speak, by the mediation of theselittle bands, the vocal cords; and this is the justification forspeaking of the larynx as _the_ vocal organ. This usage, however, isobjectionable, as it tends to narrowness and to divert the mind fromother highly important parts of the vocal mechanism. In one sense, therespiratory organs and the resonance-chambers are each as important asthe larynx. 

The term _coup de glotte_ has been sometimes employed as theequivalent of "attack, " and again as the synonym of nearly all that isbad in voice-production. As to this latter, all depends on the sensein which the term is employed. 

Before the vocal bands can be set into suitable vibrations theexpiratory breath-stream must be directed against them in a specialmanner, and they themselves must be adapted to the blast. It is a caseof complex and beautiful adaptation. The clarinet or flute player mustlearn to "blow, " and equally must the singer learn to use his breath. The processes each employs, though not identical, are closely related;both use the breath to cause vibrations, and there can be none thatare effective, in either case, except a certain relation of adaptationof breath-stream to instrument be effected--with the clarinet-player, adjustment of breath to reed, and with the voice-user, of breath tovocal bands. 

Exactly what changes are made in the larynx, and by what means, havealready been described, and will be again considered in more than onepart of this volume. The main fact is that owing to a multitude ofneuro-muscular mechanisms the different parts of the respiratory andlaryngeal apparatus are brought to work in harmony for the productionof tones. 

The nature of the vibrations of the vocal bands, and, therefore, thecharacter of the sounds produced, depend in no small measure on onething, to which attention cannot be too carefully given. To a largeextent the pitch, the volume, the quality, the carrying power, etc. , of a tone depend on the adjustment now referred to--one of the factswhich were, if not physiologically, at least practically recognized bythe old Italian masters. Teachers everywhere felt the need of sometechnical term to express the adjustment we are considering, hence theexpression _coup de glotte_, which is not in itself necessarily eitherincorrect or for other reason to be condemned. All depends on thesense in which it is used, as we have already said. It must, however, be admitted that it does; to most persons, convey the idea ofsomething that is more or less violent as well as sudden, so thatthere seems to lurk in this term a tendency to mislead, to say theleast. 

There really should never be a blow or shock of the glottis; the vocalbands should never strike together violently, or, indeed, striketogether at all, in the ordinary sense of the term. They should, however, be approximated with considerable rapidity and with a perfectadjustment to the breath-stream, and this must be associated with alike perfect adaptation of the breath-stream to them through theharmonious working of the many muscles (neuro-muscular mechanisms)which constitute the most important part of the respiratory mechanism. In brief, the adjustment of the breathing and laryngeal mechanismsresulting in the adequate and suitable approximation of the vocalbands for tone-production constitutes the _coup de glotte_, or, as theauthor prefers to term it, the "attack. "

To get this perfect should be one of the aims of teachers and one ofthe ambitions of students. Without a good attack the singer or speakerfails to do himself justice, and the listener is left unsatisfied. Thegood attack suggests physiological and technical perfection, so far asit goes; artistically, it implies power and sureness, and for thelistener satisfaction, a feeling that what has been attempted has beenaccomplished; and the best of it is that the auditor at the end of alarge hall experiences this sense of satisfaction quite as fully asthe persons sitting in the first row of seats. Without good attacksthere can be no intellectual singing or speaking, no broad phrasing, and much more that all should aim at who come before the public, andwhich listeners have, indeed, a right to expect. But just because manypersons feel this to be true, they make serious errors in attemptingto attain the result; they substitute main force for the correctmethod. Impatience and eagerness may defeat the voice-user's purpose. In this and all other cases the action should be performed with butmoderate force, or even, at first, softly, and with gradual increasein vigor, and always in relation to the quality of the sound produced;quality must always be the first if not also the last consideration. 

If the method be correct, power can be attained with patience; ifwrong, the throat and voice may be absolutely ruined. This point willbe considered later, but we must at once express the opinion that abungling attack in which main force is substituted for the propermethod is one of the most dangerous, as it is one of the most seriouserrors in the technique of modern singing, and the same may often becharged against our public speaking. 

Another of the worst faults of singing, the _tremolo_, is due tounsteadiness in attack and in maintaining the proper relations betweenthe breathing and the laryngeal mechanism. If the voice-user fails toget a tone of good quality easily and without escape of breath to anyappreciable extent, he must consider that his method is incorrect. There must be no wasted breath in the best vocal technique. This leadsto ineffectiveness in the voice-producer and lack of satisfaction inthe listener. Breath must, for a perfect technique, mean tone--alltone--and this must be produced so that the singer is not aware, byany unpleasant feelings, that he has vocal bands or a larynx at all;in a perfect technique one must only be distinctly aware of certainsensations in the parts above the larynx, in his mouth cavity, etc. His consciousness is concerned with tone--the result. But, to attainthis, the method must be physiological--_i. E. _, natural, and not onlythat, but carried out with an approach to perfection in the details ofthe process which takes time and calls for infinite patience and care, all permeated by sound and clear ideas of what is being aimed at bythe voice-user. Nothing should be attempted till the method and theend are understood thoroughly; to do otherwise is to waste time, defeat the purpose, and court failure and disappointment; and the morethe student can think for himself, and the less dependent he is on histeacher, the better will it be for both and for art itself. 

From all that has been hitherto said it will be inferred that one ofthe best tests of a good attack, or any other feature invoice-production, is the absence of escape of breath, as such, fromthe mouth. Many persons begin wrongly; they attempt to produce tonesby forcing the breath out in such a way that all their resources inbreathing are at once spent, instead of being husbanded with the careof a miser. As time is the most precious possession of man, as man, sois breath for the singer or speaker. It is his hoard. Nothing must bepaid out of this always limited capital for which the best value isnot obtained. 

The test for perfect economy of breath known to older generations ofactors still remains the best. They were accustomed to hold a candle afew inches from the mouth when speaking. If the flame did not flicker, it was clear that breath was not being uselessly expelled. 

Instead of feeling that the breath passes out, the voice-producershould rather feel, when phonating, as if it passed in--an illusion, it is true, but still a safe one. It will be found that holding amirror or the hand with the back turned toward the mouth, and a fewinches (four to six) from it, will serve fairly well to indicatewhether the breath is escaping or not, though in sensitiveness andconvincing power this is not equal to the flame test. 

We would again urge that in every instance of phonation in eitherspeaker or singer, the breath be taken through the open mouth. Only inthis way can enough breath be inhaled in the mere moment available forthis purpose. Often the singer or actor must take breath withabsolutely the greatest rapidity possible, and the narrow passages ofthe nose do not suffice to admit enough air within the time foraction. 

But even more important, perhaps, is the fact that when breath istaken through the nostrils the singer may find that on opening hismouth to sing the tongue and soft palate are in an unfavorableposition for good tone-production; his sounds may be muffled, throaty;but if breath be inhaled through the open mouth, and not through thenose at all, the tongue tends to lie flat, and this organ and otherparts assume the correct position for good intonation. 

Mouth breathing, for the purposes of tone-production, is the onlymethod which has physiological justification. Many singers especiallycomplain of having trouble with the tongue; some believe it too large, others that it is beyond their control. These so-called large tongueshave one advantage--they may exercise a great influence on the qualityof the tone; and correct breathing brings them to good behavior. Theauthor has time and again, by explaining the influence of mouthrespiration, brought sudden joy to the heart of the singer who hadbeen all his life troubled with the tongue, and worried by theconsciousness that his tones lacked in clearness, carrying power, etc. 

Nose breathing is of course to be used exclusively when the subject isnot phonating. During the latter many opportunities occur to close themouth; and the idea that drying of the mucous membrane of the mouth, etc. , will occur by reason of mouth breathing in speaking and singingis purely imaginary. 

EXERCISES. 

The student, whatever his degree of advancement, will find theexercises about to be recommended, or others closely resembling them, of great value. 

It cannot be too well borne in mind, obvious though it is, that allspeaking and singing, whatever else they be, are tone-production;hence the first thing for every one to ascertain regarding himself isthe extent to which he can form and hold tones of good quality--inother words, the success with which he can establish the essentialco-ordinations or harmonious actions of the breathing and laryngealmechanisms, and maintain them for a considerable length of time. 

Many singers can produce a fairly good and powerful tone, but it is asort of vocal explosion rather than a tone, which will continue to dothe singer's bidding for as long as he will. The correctly producedand sustained tone is the foundation of all that is best invoice-production; all the rest is but a series of variations on this. Hence the author recommends the following practice to all, whateverelse they may do or have done. It is to be a test of inspiration, attack, economy of breath, adjustment of the vocal bands, theresonance-chambers, etc. 

1. Inhale slowly through the somewhat open mouth, filling the chestmoderately full, and at once attack so as to produce a tone of butmoderate force, but of the best quality possible. 

2. Continue to hold this tone as long as the breath is easilysufficient, taking care that the tone be on no account sustained afterthere is the slightest difficulty in maintaining it of the samequality and power as before. Steadiness and perfection in quality areto be the chief considerations. 

3. The student is advised, after a few days' practice in this manner, to note with a watch the time during which he can hold a tone underthe restrictions above referred to, and to endeavor to increase theholding power daily by a little. It will, of course, be necessary tofill the chest more completely day by day. 

4. It will also be well for the voice-producer to practise taking verydeep and rapid inspirations, followed by the most prolongedexpirations. 

5. This method of breathing may then be put to the actual test inintonation. 

Another exercise very valuable in giving breath-control is thefollowing:

Produce a tone exactly as before, but every now and then, at regularintervals at first, then at irregular ones, cut the tone off short bysuddenly arresting the breath, and, after a very short pause, continueagain in exactly the same way _without_ taking a fresh breath; and, asin the above and all other exercises, frequently apply the hand and, when more practised, the more exacting flame test. 

The first of the above exercises may be represented to the eye by acontinuous straight line; the second by straight lines with shortspaces between them. 

In all these exercises there must never be any sort of _push_anywhere, neither in the chest nor throat. Such methods are absolutelywrong, because so wasteful of energy. The tone should come asspontaneously and inevitably as the gas from a soda-water bottle whenthe cork is slightly loosened, or, if this illustration be too strong(it is employed because gas, air, is concerned in each case), let ussay, as water from the pipe of a waterworks' system when the tap isturned. _The tone should come, the breath must tarry. _

If the student does not feel ease, certainty, and inevitableness inresult, he has not made a good attack. If he cannot sustain the tonefor a few seconds, he should conclude that his method of using hisbreath is wasteful. In time a tone should be easily held for at leastten seconds. 

The purpose of the second exercise is to give still more fullybreath-control, and to lead the voice-user to realize how important isbreathing for intonation. 

The student may ask: "Why not begin, as is often done, by the singingof scales?" Really useful scales are too complex; they imply the useof a series of tones formed according to the principles insisted uponabove. The first thing is to get one perfect tone--to use the vocalmechanism under simple conditions; and _that tone should be chosenwhich the voice-user can produce of best quality and with greatestease, with least expenditure of energy_. It should never be selectedfrom the extremes of the subject's range. From the favorite or besttone he should work down and up the scale. After this the scale comeseasy, and all actual singing is scale singing--the use ofintervals--and all speaking the same thing; so that, from every pointof view, this exercise should be the first in intonation, and thestudent will do well not to leave it till the conditions aboveprescribed can be fully met. Some singers have continued suchexercises throughout a long artistic career. 

It is to be understood always that the exercises, etc. , recommended inthis work are intended for all voice-users, whether they are singersor speakers. It is easy for a speaker to pass from such prolongedtones to the shorter ones required in speaking, but after suchexercises he can do so with a feeling of ease, mastery of himself, improved ear, and purity of speech not otherwise attainable. 

The author would also insist, in the most emphatic manner, on thegreat importance of making all such exercises musical. Every toneshould be the best then possible to the voice-user, and power must onno account be aimed at for some time. Thus are developed and go handin hand, as they always should, a sound technique with the artisticconscience and perceptions. 

SUMMARY AND REVIEW. 

_The Principles of Physics, etc. , Involved. _

Sound (tone) is a mental result having its origin in certain changesin the ear and the brain, owing to vibrations of the air. Tones have_pitch_, depending on the number of vibrations in a second, _volume_(power), depending on the size of the waves or vibrations, and_quality_ (_timbre_), determined by the shape of the waves. Pitch isdetermined by the vocal bands, volume by the same, in great part, andquality by the shape of the resonance-chambers above the vocal bands. The resonance-chambers influence volume also. A tone is augmented byresonance. 

The larynx bears certain resemblances to both stringed and windinstruments, but it is really unique (_sui generis_). The vibrationsof the vocal bands are caused solely by the expiratory current of air, which is more or less held back by the cords, owing to theirapproximation, so that the greater the obstruction the stronger mustthe blast of air be, other things being equal, and the result increasein pitch. The problem Nature had to solve is very complex. 

The laryngoscope was invented in 1854 by a teacher of singing, ManuelGarcia, who soon after gave an account of it to the Royal Society ofEngland. The instrument consists essentially of two mirrors, theexternal, or "head-mirror, " which is concave and reflects into thelarynx, and the internal, or "mouth-mirror, " which reflects thepicture outward to the eye. The latter mirror is plane, and set at anangle. The picture may show, under the most favorable circumstances, all the upper parts of the larynx, including the vocal bands, butsometimes, also, the windpipe as far down as its division into the twomain bronchial tubes. The difficulties commonly met with in the use ofthe instrument are a constrained action of the throat and mouth partsof the subject, unnatural breathing, an unruly tongue, etc. Theepiglottis may, also, naturally so overhang the glottis that a goodview of the vocal cords is impossible. It is difficult to see morethan one-half to two-thirds of the length of the vocal bands. Thepicture seen is that of the parts of the larynx reversed--_i. E. _, while right remains right, posterior becomes anterior. Thelaryngoscope shows that (1) in singing an ascending scale the vocalbands are for a certain time in action (vibration) throughout theirwhole length; that (2) there may be observed a rather sudden changewhen the vocal bands are relaxed and shortened, and that this processof shortening goes on, the bands approaching more and more, bothbehind and in front, till (3) in the highest tones of a soprano ofgreat range there is only a small portion of each vocal cord towardthe centre that is not approximated somewhat closely. 

With certain qualifications, it may be said that the action of thevocal bands is alike for all voices. In all cases a certain degree ofapproximation of the vocal bands is absolutely necessary forphonation, and the mechanism is generally similar in males and femalestill the highest tones, above alluded to, are reached. This is inharmony with the following facts: (1) The crico-thyroids are themuscles most in use in ordinary speech and in singing the lower tones. (2) Several muscles combine in relaxing and shortening the vocalbands. (3) The peculiar mechanism of the highest tones in a sopranovoice of great compass is only to be explained by a combined action ofseveral muscles, and a very delicate and precise use of the internalthyro-arytenoids attached along the whole length of the outer surfaceof the vocal bands. The larynx of the male differs from that of thefemale chiefly in its greater size, weight, etc. The vocal bands inthe male may measure from three-fifths to four-fifths of an inch whenrelaxed, and from four-fifths to one inch when tense; in the female, from two-fifths to three-fifths of an inch when relaxed, and fromthree-fifths to four-fifths of an inch when tense. There arestructural differences corresponding to and determining the kind ofvoice, as to range and power more especially. The bass singer has, asa rule, the largest larynx and the longest and heaviest vocal bands. 

At puberty the changes that take place in the body generally areassociated with corresponding alterations in the larynx. The larynxgrows, changes its proportions, etc. , often somewhat rapidly, and theresult may be a corresponding alteration in voice, as regards range, power, and quality. The voice, because of imperfect anatomical andphysiological adjustment, may "break, " to a greater or less extent. The same may take place, owing to similar imperfect adjustment, inold age, and temporarily, owing to disease, weakness, nervousness, fatigue, faulty production, etc. These facts indicate that under suchcircumstances the voice should be used with great care, not at all, orin a whisper, when the vocal bands are practically not in action. 

[Illustration: FIG. 45. Represents what the author has frequentlyseen, by the use of the laryngoscope, when a soprano is producing avery high head-tone, say C, D, or E in alt. It will be observed thatthe vocal bands approximate in front and behind ("stopped"), so thatthe only parts of the bands capable of vibration are those shortportions which form the margins of the oval opening shown in theillustration. Only a very limited number of singers are capable of thedelicate adjustments required. ]

In a singer highly endowed by nature and perfected by long trainingbased on the soundest principles, the action of the muscles of thelarynx may reach a degree of perfection only to be compared with thatof the eye and ear. 

Consideration of the _coup de glotte_, the attack, or adjustment ofmechanisms to produce tone that begins correctly; breathing, with openmouth, with effectiveness and economy of energy; singing for children, in choirs, etc. , have been discussed. 

Practical exercises should be related to the principles underlyingthem. Musical and æsthetic principles are always to be associated witha sound technique. The artistic and technical or physiologicalconscience should be associated. 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE RESONANCE-CHAMBERS. 

When it is borne in mind that the vocal bands have little or nothingto do with the quality of tones, the importance of those parts of thevocal apparatus which determine quality, and the error of speaking ofthe larynx as if it alone were the sole vocal organ, become apparent. 

It may be strictly said that the vocal bands serve the purpose ofmaking the resonance mechanism available. What one hears may be saidto be vibrations of this resonance apparatus, and not, strictly, thoseof the vocal bands, though this expression would also be correct, butwould not indicate the final link in the series of vibrations. 

The tone caused by the vibration of two such small bands as the vocalcords must, in the nature of the case, be very feeble. It becomesimportant for the reader to convince himself of the importance ofresonance in sounding bodies and musical instruments. 

When the stem of a tuning-fork so small that it can be scarcely heardwhen in vibration, except by, the person holding it, is laid against asolid body, as a table, its sound is at once so increased that it canbe heard in the most distant part of a large room. When the same forkis held over an empty jar of suitable size and shape, a similar butmuch, less marked increase of its tone is to be observed. 

If a cord of but moderate thickness be fastened at each end to a thinpiece of wood, say a split shingle, and a little block of wood, inimitation of the bridge of a violin, be placed under the cord so as torender it tense, we have the essentials of a stringed instrument, thepitch of which can be made to vary by moving the block about and thusvarying the tightness of the cord. But the sound of such an improvisedinstrument, produced by drawing a bow across the cord, is ridiculouslyfeeble. 

In the actual violin the volume of sound, as well as its quality, depends on the size, shape, and weight of the instrument. The stringsserve the purpose of causing the body of the instrument, the airwithin it, and, in consequence, the air without, between it and theear of the auditor, to vibrate or move in a specific manner. 

Similarly, the imposing size of the grand piano is associatedinevitably with loudness, as compared with a smaller instrument. Avioloncello must produce a larger tone than a violin, though notnecessarily one more intense. 

These principles of resonance apply in the case of the singer and thespeaker. The bass and barytone produce tones of larger volume (as wellas different quality) than those of the tenor, because their resonanceapparatus is different in size and shape. It is true, their vocalbands, their wind-power, and the laryngeal muscles are different--theyare not of the same size, etc. --and, in a more remote sense, this isthe cause of the differences in the tones they produce; but theimmediate cause is to be sought in the resonance mechanism, and, aboveall, in the resonance-chambers. 

It is true that when one speaks or sings, the chest, windpipe, andlarynx may be felt to vibrate, but the essential vibrations are_supra-glottic_--above the vocal bands. 

These resonance-chambers are the _mouth cavity_, in the widest sense, and the _nasal chambers_. It is highly probable that the vibrations ofthe chest walls and of the bones of the head may to some degree modifythe vibrations of the air within the resonance-chambers, chiefly inthe direction of intensification; but the idea that the hollow spacesin certain of the bones of the head have any appreciable influence onthe tones of the speaker or singer, can at best not be considered asdemonstrated, and it serves no practical purpose to take into accountthis possibility. 

The great facts, the facts which are so plain that they may bedemonstrated to a child, are these: that the quality of anytone--_e. G. _, a vowel--is absolutely determined by the shape of thesecavities, the mouth and nasal chambers. This subject will be treatedfurther when the tones, etc. , of speech are considered, but inasmuchas no one can sing, in the proper sense of the term, without the useof vowels, at least, and as we produce different vowels withease, one may at once demonstrate to himself that this is done byaltering the shape of his mouth cavity, and chiefly by the agency ofthe tongue and soft palate. 

[Illustration: FIG. 46 (Tyndall). Representing water being poured intothe vessel A B, till the air-space is just sufficient to respond tothe vibrations of the tuning-fork. The air thus becomes a resonator ofthe fork. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 47 (Spalteholz). The mouth is extremely widelyopened. The soft palate is seen terminating in the uvula, and on eachside, extending from it, are the pillars of the fauces, a pair offolds between which the tonsil is seen to lie. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 48. View of the nose, etc. , from behind, showingthe parts enumerated above. It is not hard to understand that anyconsiderable amount of swelling of the lining mucous membrane mightgive rise to difficulty in breathing through the nose, and even compelmouth-breathing. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 49 (Spalteholz). Showing well the scroll(turbinated) bones of the nose, which break up the space and make itmore cavernous. It can be seen that there is free communicationbehind, between the mouth and the nasal cavities, and that if the softpalate and the tongue approximate, the breath-stream must pass intoand through the nose, giving rise to nasality in utterance. ]

A short description of a part to which many voice-users remainstrangers all their lives will now be given. These resonance-chambersremain, for many, an apparatus used daily and absolutely essential, yet never examined. Fortunately, a few illustrations, which should befollowed by an examination of the student's own resonance-chambers andtheir various parts as they may be seen in a mirror, will remove alldifficulty in the understanding of them, and prepare for that detailedstudy to be recommended in a subsequent chapter. 

Passing from before backward, one meets the _lips_, the _teeth_ and_gums_, the _hard palate_, which is a continuation of the gums; then, suspended from the hard palate, behind, is the _soft palate_, back ofwhich lies the _pharynx_ (often termed "the throat"), and above it andconstituting its continuation, the _naso-pharynx_; and lying on thefloor of the mouth there is the _tongue_. 

Certain of these parts, as the teeth, gums, hard palate, nasal bones, etc. , constitute fixed structures, and though they determine in nosmall measure the shape of the resonance-chambers, and so to a degreethe quality of the voice, so movable are the lips, soft palate, and, above all, the tongue, that there is the widest scope for varying thequality and even the volume of the voice; so that it is a good thing, practically, for every one to believe that so far as quality, at allevents, is concerned, he is the master of his own destinies. 

Though we are accustomed to believe that the mouth and nose are, though neighbors, quite separate and independent of each other, suchis not the case. Indeed, in the pre-natal condition these are not two, but one; and in some instances they remain imperfectly separated, owing to the failure of the hard palate to develop to the full--acondition known as "cleft palate, " and giving rise to a peculiar nasalintonation, to be explained presently. 

The _nasal chambers_ are divided into two by a vertical partition, asone can readily demonstrate by the use of his fingers, and are stillfurther broken up by certain bones, the scroll-shaped or _turbinated_bones, so that the nasal chambers are of very limited size, and muchdivided up by bony outgrowths from their walls. The _vertical septum_, while bony above, is cartilaginous and flexible below. 

Without the aid of instruments and a good light the nose can be butindifferently examined from the front, while it requires the greatestskill on the part of a laryngologist to see it well from behind. However, the whole difficulty can be got over by visiting a butcherand securing a sheep's head split through from before back. In a fewmoments one can learn all the essential facts, including that one ofgreat practical importance--viz. : that every part of theresonance-chambers is lined by the same mucous membrane which is alsocontinued downward into the larynx and the gullet. 

It will be thus observed that the throat and nose communicate in thefreest manner behind, and that the only way of closing off the mouthcavity from the nasal chambers is by means of the tongue and the softpalate working together. As in the proper use of the tongue and softpalate lie many of the secrets of the art of the speaker and singer, special attention must be given to these parts. 

The _tongue_, which completely fills the floor of the mouth, is madeup of several muscles of different attachments, which explains whythis organ is so movable. To say that it can with the greatest easeand rapidity be turned toward every one of the thirty-two pointsmarked on a mariner's compass, is but to feebly express its capacityfor movements. What we are most concerned with now is its power toalter the shape of the mouth cavity in every part. 

The _soft palate_ is suspended like a curtain from the hard palate, behind. It is composed of muscles arranged in pairs, and is continuedinto a conical tip below known as the _uvula_, and on each side intofolds, the _pillars of the fauces_, between which lie the _tonsils_, which are in shape like very small almond nuts. When quite normalthese should not protrude much, if at all, beyond the cavity made bythe folds referred to above. 

Both the tonsils and the uvula may become so enlarged as to be asource of awkwardness or more serious evil to the voice-user. Theymay, in fact, require operative interference. So serious, however, isthe decision to operate, or the reverse, for the voice-user, that theauthor recommends that such operations be entrusted only tolaryngologists who have some knowledge of their influence onvoice-production. 

It is of the greatest moment to observe that the quality of tones canbe made to vary in the highest degree by the joint use of the tongueand soft palate. When in vocalizing the tongue is raised behind andthe soft palate made to approach it, or actually to meet it, the toneassumes a more or less nasal character. The reason of this is that thecavity of the mouth proper, or "mouth" in the narrower sense, theforward part, is shut off from the hinder part, or the pharynx, sothat the breath is then directed upward and passes chiefly through thenose, producing a nasal tone or twang--always a fault, and onefearfully common in America. 

When the tongue alone is raised behind, or drawn back unduly, tonesbecome muffled--indistinct, etc. This is also a very common fault, butis found in England and Germany also. English speech is often hard andguttural, German unduly guttural, if not so hard, and Americanslovenly and horribly nasal. 

But what may in a certain degree be disagreeable and a vocal error, isin another a positive excellence; so, in this case, the use of thetongue and soft palate in the proper degree and at the right momentgives us emotional expression. This subject will, however, beconsidered again later; in the meantime, the student is advised to doa little experimenting in the use of his tongue and soft palate, witha view of noting how the quality of tone may be thus made to vary. Heis also advised to use a hand-glass with the object of observing theparts mentioned in this chapter, and if he can also find a friendwilling to lend his mouth for observation, so much the better. 

The sooner any voice-user comes to feel that his vocal destinies liein his own hands, the better. "Know thyself" is as necessary anadmonition for the speaker and singer as for any other artist, butwith that must go another, "Believe in thyself"--that thou canstproduce tones of beautiful and expressive quality if thou wilt; it maybe only after much wisely directed work, but yet it is possible. 

Allusion must be made to the danger of those engaged in mathematicaland physical investigations applying their conclusions in too rigid amanner to the animal body. It was held till recently that the pitch ofa vocal tone was determined solely by the number of vibrations of thevocal bands, as if they acted like the strings of a violin or the reedof a clarinet, while the resonance-chambers were thought to simplytake up these vibrations and determine nothing but the quality oftone; they were believed not to have any influence on pitch. Againstthis view the author long ago demurred. To Prof. Scripture, however, belongs the credit of demonstrating that the resonance-chambersdetermine pitch also. It seems probable that the vocal bands so beatthe air within the resonance-chambers as to determine the rate ofvibration of the air of these cavities, and so the pitch of the toneproduced. These chambers not having rigid walls, one can the betterunderstand that the tension of these parts may not only be differentin individuals, but vary in the same person from time to time, according to the condition of his health, etc. Herein we find anothersource of explanation of variations in the voice. All theseconsiderations make the resonance-chambers more important than ever, so that there is greater objection to speaking of the larynx as _the_vocal organ than we were aware of before these investigations wereundertaken. 

SUMMARY. 

Without a resonator, which may be solid or hollow, the sound made by areed or tense string is feeble. That the mouth can act as a resonatormay be proved by holding a vibrating tuning-fork of suitable pitchbefore this chamber when open. 

The resonating chambers of importance are supra-glottic. Of these the"mouth" including all as far back as the pharynx and the nasalchambers are the principal. These two main cavities are separated fromeach other by the hard palate, which is a bony floor, covered withmucous membrane, as are all the parts of the resonance-chambers. Thehard palate extends horizontally from the gums backward, andis continued as the soft palate. The latter is a muscular andtherefore movable curtain that divides, with varying degrees ofcompleteness, the mouth (in the narrower sense) from the pharynx andnaso-pharynx--_i. E. _, the space back of the soft palate and theposterior nares (back nostrils) respectively. By the elevation of theback of the tongue and the lowering of the soft palate as when onespeaks nasally, the mouth proper is largely shut off from the nasalchambers, so that the breath must be directed through the nose. "Cleftpalate" also connects undesirably the mouth and nasal chambers. Thetonsils lie between two folds, the pillars of the fauces, connectedwith the soft palate. When normal in size the tonsils should scarcelyextend beyond these folds. The uvula is the central lower tip of thesoft palate. The nasal chambers are divided by a central bony andcartilaginous partition, the septum nasi, but are further encroachedupon, on each side, by three scroll-like (turbinated) bones. Thetongue is composed of several muscles, which explains why itsmovements may be so complicated and delicate. The mouth cavity isbounded in front by the gums, teeth, and lips. 

The form and, to some extent, possibly; the size of theresonance-chambers determine the quality of the tone produced inspeaking and singing. The shape and size of the mouth can be made tovary by the soft palate and lips, but chiefly by the tongue, so thatthe movements of the latter, especially, cannot be too well studied. 

It was formerly considered that pitch was determined solely by therate of vibration of the vocal bands; though the author opposed thisview as rigidly applied. Very recently Prof. Scripture, by the use ofnew methods, has shown that the supra-glottic chambers cannot becorrectly likened to a resonator with rigid walls. It is held that thevocal bands give a number of sudden shocks to the air in theresonators, so that, in a sense, the resonance-chambers determine boththe pitch and the quality of the tone; and as the tension of theresonators varies with both the physical and psychical condition ofthe individual, variations in tone-production, more especially as toquality, can now be the better understood. According to this viewthese chambers are not properly resonators but sounding cavities. 

 The reader's attention is particularly drawn to the new views of the method of action of the vocal bands, etc. , referred to on this page. Since the above was written, such views have become more widely known, and it is hoped that as they are very radical they may be established by other methods. 

CHAPTER X. 

THE REGISTERS OF THE SINGING VOICE. [1]

[Footnote 1: The chapters on the Registers of the Singing Voice may beomitted by readers whose practical interest is confined to theSpeaking Voice. ]

About no subject in the whole range of voice-production has there beenso much confusion, difference of opinion, and controversy as that ofregisters; so that it is important at the very outset to defineregister, and throughout to aim at the utmost precision and clearness. 

"A register is a series of consecutive and homogeneous sounds risingfrom the grave to the acute, produced by the development of the samemechanical principle, the nature of which essentially differs from anyother series of sounds equally consecutive and homogeneous, producedby another mechanical principle" (Manuel Garcia). 

"A register consists of a series of tones which are produced by thesame mechanism" (Behnke). 

"A register is the series of tones of like quality producible by aparticular adjustment of the vocal cords" (Mackenzie). 

From a consideration of the above proposed definitions it will be seenthat for the successful or, at all events, complete or idealinvestigation of a subject so many-sided and difficult, manyqualifications are desirable, if not absolutely essential. It is nottoo much to say that the ideal investigator of the registers shouldhave a practical knowledge of general anatomy and physiology, togetherwith a detailed and exact knowledge of the vocal organs; be versed inthe laws of sound; have an adequate knowledge of music; be capable ofexamining himself with the laryngoscope (auto-laryngoscopy) as well asothers (laryngoscopy); possess an acute ear for the pitch and qualityof tones; be himself able to use his voice at least fairly well insinging and speaking; be provided with the all-important ballast ofcommon sense, and an impartial mind longing above all things to learnthe truth. 

As few can hope to unite all these qualities in themselves in even amoderate degree, openness of mind, temperance in the expression ofopinion, and common sense with experience, must be largely relied onto furnish working conclusions. 

A discussion of a subject so difficult and complicated is not easy tofollow. It is but just to other investigators, and fair to the reader, to present the views of those who have possessed specialqualifications for dealing with the questions involved. The authorwill endeavor to present the grounds on which others have taken theirstand, in a few words and clearly, if the reader will patientlyfollow. There will at first seem, possibly, to be little agreement, but it will be shown that on some of the most essential points thereis substantial unity of opinion; and the subject is of such vitalmoment, as the author will endeavor to make clear, that it is hopedthat the most patient examination will be given to the questions thatarise, from the beginning to the end of the discussion. For the authorto express a dogmatic opinion, and simply state his disagreement oragreement with others, would be contrary to the whole spirit of thiswork, and leave the subject where it once was--in the realm ofhopeless disagreement and controversy. If the problem of the registersis to be solved to the satisfaction of the rational thinker, it mustbe by evidence, and not the mere opinions of any teacher or writer, however eminent. To lay this evidence before the reader is now theauthor's task. 

One of those most eminently equipped, by a great variety of qualities, for the investigation of this subject, or any other question of thevoice, was Madame Seiler. Whenever the author is obliged to differfrom this really great investigator, he does so with the sense of thehighest respect for her opinions generally, because she always soughtfor scientific grounds for such opinions. Her views may be thusbriefly presented:

She recognized three registers, chest, falsetto, and head, with theirsubdivisions. 

(1) The first chest register extends (1) The whole glottis (vocalto [Illustration: a b-flat] in men, bands) is moved in looseand to [Illustration: c' c-sharp'] vibrations. In women. 

(2) The second chest register extends (2) The vocal ligaments (orto [Illustration: f' f-sharp'] in both ligamentous glottis) alonesexes. Are in action. 

(3) The first falsetto extends in (3) The edges alone of thefemales to [Illustration: c'' c-sharp''] vocal bands vibrate, but theand in males to [Illustration: e'' whole glottis is in action. E-flat'']. 

(4) The second falsetto in the (4) The edges only of thefemale extends to [Illustration: vocal bands are used, and thef'' f-sharp''] and to [Illustration: g''] vocal ligaments alone are inin women. Action. [Transcriber's Note: So in original;"female" should probably be "male. "]

(5) Above this point head tones (5) Edges only of the vocalbegin. Bands in vibration; partial closure of the ligaments posteriorly (behind). 

It will be noted that Madame Seiler spoke of the vocal bands (cords)proper as the "ligamentous glottis, " and included in the "glottis" thearytenoid cartilages themselves, or, at all events, that part of them, their lower anterior angles, known as the vocal processes (orextensions), to which the vocal bands proper are attached. 

The above tabular statement shows (1) that Madame Seiler recognizedfive registers for both male and female voices; (2) that she used theterm "falsetto" in a sense different from its ordinary one. Usuallythis term is not applied at all to the female voice, but only to thatspecial modification of the male voice seldom employed now, and almostnever except by tenors. With this writer, "falsetto" as applied tofemale voices replaces "middle, " in the commoner usage. 

[Illustration: FIG. 50. Tabular representation of Madame Seiler'sdivision of the register. ]

Garcia, also, recognized five registers. Behnke, a teacher of singing, who practised laryngoscopy and auto-laryngoscopy in the investigationof the registers, used "lower thick, " "upper thick, " "lower thin, ""upper thin, " and "small, " as answering to the "first chest, " "secondchest, " etc. , of Madame Seiler and others. 

Nearly all writers have used the term "break" to indicate the point atwhich a new register begins. Behnke held that the break between thethick and the thin register occurred in _both_ sexes at about[Illustration: f' f-sharp']. The vocal bands in this part of the scalevibrate in their entire breadth, and the series of tones above thepoint just referred to is produced by a new mechanism, but one whichis the same for all voices and both sexes--_i. E. _, only the inneredges of the vocal bands vibrate. 

According to Behnke, the male voice has but two registers, the thickand the thin, but the female voice three, the thick, the thin, and thesmall. These terms were not original with Behnke, but had been usedearlier by Curwen. 

Behnke was emphatic on one point, to which we would call specialattention, in his own words: "If there is _straining_ anywhere, it isduring the attempt to carry the mechanism of the upper thick beyondits natural limit. "

Mackenzie (afterwards Sir Morell Mackenzie) held that "It is certainthat however over-refined musicians may multiply the 'registers' ofthe voice, physiologically there are but two--_i. E. _, 'chest' and'head, ' the falsetto of the man answering to the head production ofwomen. "

According to the same author, "The essential factor in chestproduction is the long reed, whilst the essential factor in headdelivery is the short reed. " The terms "long reed" and "short reed"were the equivalents of Madame Seiler's "glottis" and "ligamentousglottis" respectively. Mackenzie held that the cartilaginous(inter-arytenoid) glottis is generally open in the lower and gentlyclosed in the upper tones of the chest register, while a segment ofthe ligamentous glottis (vocal bands proper) is tightly closed in thehead voice. 

As the result of the examination of 50 persons gifted with finevoices, 42 of whom were "trained" singers and 8 "natural" singers, Mackenzie formulated his conclusions as follows:

1. In tenor voices the whole glottis may be open to [Illustration: g ab] and not unfrequently to [Illustration: g']. Beyond this point thereis closure of the cartilaginous glottis. Sometimes the whole glottisis open throughout. 

2. In barytone voices the whole glottis is often open to[Illustration: a b], and occasionally to [Illustration: c']. Beyondthis point the cartilaginous glottis is closed, except in rare cases. 

3. In bass voices the whole glottis is sometimes open to[Illustration: g b]. Beyond this point, except in a few instances, thecartilaginous glottis is gradually closed. 

4. In sopranos and mezzo-sopranos the whole glottis is sometimes opento [Illustration: f' g'], often to [Illustration: c''], beyond whichthe cartilaginous glottis is usually closed. The glottis is sometimesclosed throughout the scale, and in one case it was open throughout. 

5. In contralto voices the whole of the glottis is often open to[Illustration: f' g'], beyond which the cartilaginous portion isclosed. 

6. In the head voice of women and the falsetto voice of men"stop-closure" (_i. E. _, closure so tight that the cords in this regiondo not vibrate) always takes place in the posterior portion of theligamentous glottis, and sometimes at the anterior part also. 

This writer also held that "Boys who sing alto always use the chestregister. " He was of opinion that "The quality of the voice generally, but not always, indicates which mechanism is being used. "

The views of the author, published at a former period, and based onthe special examination of a large number of persons with thelaryngoscope, etc. , and on auto-laryngoscopy, may be briefly stated asfollows:

A nomenclature for the registers involving no theory would be best, such, for example, as _lower_, _middle_, and _upper_ registers. Mandl, who recognized only two registers, spoke of them as "lower" and"upper, " equivalent to "chest" and "head, " as commonly used. 

The author examined with the laryngoscope 50 persons, who might (withGrützner) be divided into "trained singers, " "natural singers, " and"non-singers. " The whole glottis was found to be open in all voices inthe lowest tones of the chest register, and this condition obtained upto about [Illustration: f-sharp' g'], beyond which another mechanismcame into play, except in rare cases. 

The high falsetto of men and the head voice of women are produced by asimilar mechanism and method. 

In the investigation of registers more attention should be given tothe use of the breathing organs than has hitherto been done by thosewriting on this subject. 

As Madame Marchesi, of Paris, has taught with preëminent success, andwith the greatest practical consideration for the preservation of thevoice and the vocal organs in an unimpaired condition, and as theauthor has had, through her kindness, the opportunity to becomeacquainted with her methods by observation, her views on the registersare here presented. It is to be understood that as she teaches onlyladies, her views are considered, so far as she is concerned, asapplying only to female voices. These views are further presentedbecause Madame Marchesi was herself taught by Garcia, who was in thedirect line of the old Italian masters, though it will be observedthat the pupil has retained only the essentials of the master's viewson the registers. 

1. There are three registers in female voices: chest, middle, andhead. 

2. While there are small differences in voices and individuals asregards the registers, the following principles apply to all of them:

(_a_) The chest register must never be carried above [Illustration:f-sharp']. 

(_b_) [Illustration: e' f'] should be "covered" or modified chesttones. 

(_c_) In all cases [Illustration: f-sharp''] must be a head tone. 

(_d_) In quick passages chest should not be carried beyond[Illustration: d-flat']--_i. E. _, [Illustration: d' e' f'] are middlein quick passages. 

CHAPTER XI. 

FURTHER CONSIDERATION OF THE REGISTERS OF THE SINGING VOICE. 

It will, it is hoped, be apparent to the reader that the subject nowunder treatment may be considered either theoretically or practically. If science be exact, systematized, and, when complete, unifiedknowledge, then every source of information must be employed in theinvestigation of so difficult a subject as the registers. There may bedifferences of opinion as to the relative importance of some of thesemeans of investigation--_e. G. _, auto-laryngoscopy, but that it shouldbe utilized, there can be no question. The value of photography of thelarynx, as carried out up to the present, may be questioned; but therecan be no doubt that if this method of studying the action of thevocal bands could be pushed to a certain point, much light might bethrown on the questions at issue. 

Merely to assume that a method of treating the registers which hasgiven, apparently, good practical results in the hands of one teacheris sound, and rests on a scientific basis, is unwarranted. It may besimply a little better or a little worse than some other. How is thestudent to distinguish, in his choice, between Mr. A and Mr. B, in thecase of two successful teachers, both of whom recognize registers? Aphysiologist may be sound as far as he goes, yet lack that practicalknowledge of the voice which the vocal teacher properly considersrequisite in determining how a pupil shall use the registers. Amongthose who are most dogmatic on this and other questions there is oftena plentiful lack of knowledge of the vocal organs; and some cleverlaryngologists must have learned, when they were carried into thediscussion of this subject, that some knowledge of music and singingis absolutely indispensable, and that enough cannot be picked up, evenby an able man, in a few minutes devoted to interrogating singers, especially when these vocalists have been trained by widely differentmethods, and have, as is too often the case, given but little real_thought_ to the scientific, or, indeed, any other side of their art. 

We find "break" confounded with "register, " and the meaning attachedto the latter, at best, one-sided or inadequate in some respects. Thetruth is, such a subject cannot be settled by the physiologist, evenwhen a laryngologist, as such; nor can the solution to a scientificquestion of this kind be given by a singer, as a singer. Such aproblem can only be settled, as we have throughout insisted, by thosepossessing many qualifications, and even when the investigator unitesin himself every intellectual qualification, something will depend onhis temperament and spirit. An atmosphere of controversy is notfavorable to scientific investigation, and among the dangers that everlie in the path of the teacher are pride and prejudice. Theassumption that one is prepared to teach is too often associated withviews and feelings that prevent the guide from remaining himself astudent and being ready to learn even from the very beginner, as hemust if he have the true spirit. Unfortunately, several of the mosthighly qualified writers on this subject have formulated their viewsunder conditions unfavorable to the attainment of the whole truth. 

It is to be borne in mind always that a register implies (1) a seriesof tones of a characteristic clang, _timbre_, color, or quality; (2)that this is due to the employment of a special mechanism of thelarynx in a particular manner. It follows that in thinking ofregisters scientifically, one must take into account both the tonesand the mechanisms by which they are produced. 

Naturally, with most untrained people the passage from one register toanother is associated with a suddenness of change which is unpleasant, and which is termed the _break_. It is often suggestive of weakness, uncertainty, etc. , and to an ear at once sensitive and exactingthrough training is intolerable when very pronounced. Often this breakis very marked in contraltos, and is invariably so pronounced in themale voice when it passes to the upper falsetto that even the dullestear does not fail to notice the change. 

It is, therefore, not surprising that teachers should have sought tolessen the unpleasant surprise for the listener caused by the break. Some have looked on registers as almost an invention of the Evil One, and forbidden the use of the term to their students; but suchostrich-like treatment of the subject--such burying of the head in thesand--does not do away with a difficulty, much less can such a plainfact as the existence of registers be ignored without the mostdetrimental results, as we shall endeavor to make plain. Some, feelingthat the break was an artistic abomination, have proceeded to teachthe student to reduce all tones to the same quality, which is about asrational as asking a painter to give us pictures, by the use of butone pigment. 

To attempt to abolish registers would be like leaving but one stringto the violin; which instrument, in its present form, has a registerfor each string; and the player endeavors to avoid the breaks thatnaturally occur in passing from string to string, and to get a smoothseries of tones just as the intelligent vocalist does. 

The registers may be represented to the eye by the method illustratedin figure 52. 

The wise instructor recognizes registers; they are a fact in nature, and one to be valued. The more colors, the greater the range of theartist's powers, other things being equal, whether the artist paintwith pigments or tones; but just as the painter uses intermediatetones of color to prevent rude transitions or breaks, so must thesinger modify or "cover" the tones between the registers--_i. E. _, useto some extent the mechanism of both neighboring registers. 

The reader who has perused the previous chapter thoughtfully maynaturally ask: "With such difference of opinion among eminent authorslike those quoted, how am I to know which one to follow, and what tobelieve on this subject?"

The answer to that question we propose now to give. It will be wise toendeavor to show just wherein the writers quoted differ and on whatthey agree. A careful examination will show that there is substantialagreement on the most important points:

1. All agree that there are registers, or natural changes of qualityof tone, corresponding to changes of mechanism or method. 

2. All, with the exception of Madame Seiler, agree that the mostimportant changes take place at or near [Illustration: a'] in femalevoices, and the majority consider that this applies to both sexesequally. 

3. Often in males there is some laryngeal change lower than this. 

4. All agree that the high falsetto of tenors is of a special quality, and produced by a mechanism of its own--_i. E. _, all consider it aseparate register--and often, at least, it begins naturally about[Illustration: f-sharp'], which is usually, however, written an octavehigher, though really sung as given above. 

[Illustration: FIG. 51. A photographic representation of theappearances of the vocal bands when the subject is sounding first Eand then F sharp, in which latter case "the vibratory portions of thevocal bands are shortened about one-sixteenth inch, " according to Dr. French, who has been eminently successful in photographing the larynx. It will be noted that this is the point in the scale at which thechange of register usually takes place--_i. E. _, there is a change ofmechanism corresponding to the change in quality. (French-Raymond. )]

The point of greatest strain is generally, for both sexes, about thispoint, and many persons cannot sing higher than this--_i. E. _, about[Illustration: f-sharp'] for males, and its octave for females. 

It is to be remembered, as Madame Seiler has pointed out, that at theperiod of greatest perfection in vocal training, some hundred andfifty years or more ago, concert pitch was very much lower than it isto-day; so that to teach tenors to sing in one register up to[Illustration: a''] then, was quite a different matter from what thatwould be to-day. The old Italian masters were accustomed to trainsingers to the use of the falsetto, and whatever views may be held asto the desirability of the tenor using this register, so far as art isconcerned, there can be no question whatever that physiologically itis easy, and one of the means by which relief may be sought from thehigh tension caused by carrying up the lower register. 

The author, after a special investigation of this and other questionsconnected with the registers, came to the conclusion that the falsettoin males and the head voice in females are produced by a similarmechanism. In the high falsetto the vocal bands do not vibratethroughout their whole breadth, and there must be, for a successfulresult, in every case a feeling of ease, due to the relaxation ofcertain mechanisms in use up to that point and the employment of newones. 

[Illustration: FIGS. 52. These figures are meant to convey through theeye some of the main truths regarding the nature of registers andbreaks. The figure on the left applies to the case of one with threeregisters in the voice, and with the breaks only very moderatelymarked; the illustration on the right applies to the same person aftertraining, when the breaks have become indistinct, almostimperceptible. For teaching purposes the author is accustomed to use asimilar diagram, but in shades of the same color, the difference beingrendered less obvious by intermediate shades _between_ the registershades in the right-hand figure. ]

The author now offers, with all respect, but confidence, a fewcriticisms on the eminent investigators whose conclusions and methodshe has been discussing. 

Madame Seiler was the writer who, as has been already said, broughtmore numerous and higher qualifications of a scientific and practicalkind to the investigation of this subject than any other person. However, the study of physics, involving as it does the use of methodsof extreme precision, tends to beget habits of mind which are not inall respects the best for the consideration of biological problems. Madame Seiler and her master, the physicist Helmholtz, regarded thevocal mechanism very much in the same light as they did theirlaboratory apparatus. Only in this way can the author explain some ofMadame Seiler's positions; but on this assumption one can understandwhy she should make five registers, and consider them all, apparently, of equal importance. This latter, together with the tendency generallyto present her views in too rigid a form, was, we think, her greaterror. 

Behnke admitted that all five registers might be heard, especially incontraltos, but he did not attach equal importance to each of theseregisters. 

Mackenzie the author conceives to have been misled by the very methodthat he considered a special virtue in his investigations--theexamination of trained singers. Surely, if one would learn what isNature's teaching on this subject, he must not draw conclusions fromtrained vocalists alone! By training one may learn to walk well on hishands, but this does not prove such a method the natural one, norwould it be good reasoning to draw this conclusion, even if a fewindividuals were found who could thus walk more rapidly than in theusual way. 

The diversity that Mackenzie found in singers does not, in theauthor's opinion, exist in nature; much if not most of it was due totraining, and all that can be said is that several people may sing indifferent ways with not greatly different æsthetic results; but suchmethods of investigation may, as in this case, lead to conclusionsthat are dangerously liberal. 

The author holds to-day, as he did when he published his results manyyears ago, that "Impressions from general laryngoscopic observationsor conclusions drawn from single cases will not settle thesequestions. Very likely differences such as these writers allude to mayexist to a slight degree; but if they do, I question whether they aresufficiently open to observation ever to be capable of definition; noris it likely that they interfere with methods of voice-productionwhich are alike operative in all persons. "

Holding these views, not only can the author not agree with those whobelieve that the change in a register occurs in different persons ofthe same voice (_e. G. _, soprano) at appreciably different levels inthe scale, and even varies naturally from day to day, but he holdsthat to believe this in theory and embody it in practice is to pursuea course not only detrimental to the best artistic results, butcontrary to the plain teachings of physiology in general and that ofthe vocal organs in particular. 

The change in a register should be placed _low_ enough in the scale tosuit all of the same sex. _It is safe to carry a higher register down, but it is always risky, and may be injurious to the throat, to carry alower up beyond a certain point. _ The latter leads not only to alimitation of resources in tone coloring, but also to straining, towhich we have before alluded. Though this process may not be at onceobviously injurious, it _invariably_ becomes so as time passes, and novocalist who hopes to sing much and to last can ignore registers, muchless make the change at a point to any appreciable extent removed fromthose that scientific investigation and equally sound practice teachus are the correct ones at which to make the changes. 

Why is it that some artists of world-wide reputation sing as wellto-day as twenty years ago, while others have broken down or havebecome hopelessly defective in their vocal results in a few years?There is but one answer in a large proportion of these cases: correctmethods in the former and wrong methods in the latter class ofsingers--and "correct" in no small degree refers to a strictobservance of registers. 

The author has known a professional soprano to sing every tone in thetrying "Hear, O Israel" (_Elijah_) in the chest register. How can sucha singer hope to retain either voice or a sound throat? But so long asaudiences will applaud exhibitions of mere lung-power and brute forcethe teachings of physiology and healthy art will be violated. But, surely, all artists themselves and all enlightened teachers shouldunite in condemning such violations of Nature's plain teachings!

The question of the registers is generally considered now a somewhatsimpler one for males than for females. Basses and barytones sing inthe chest register only; tenors are usually taught to sing in thechest register; but few teachers believe that the high falsetto isworth the expenditure of the time and energy necessary to attainfacility in its use. 

Probably in many male voices there are the distinctions of registerMadame Seiler alludes to--_i. E. _, first chest and second chest, orsome change analogous to the middle of females; but, from one causeand another, this seems to readily disappear. Whether it would not beworth maintaining is a question that the author suggests as at leastworth consideration. Certain it is that, speaking generally, there isno change in males equally pronounced with the passage from the lowestto the next higher (chest to middle) register in females. 

What, then, are the views that the author believes so well grounded, in regard to the registers, that they may be made, in all confidence, the basis of teaching?

Without hesitation, he recommends that arrangement of the registersset forth in the last chapter. It is not the exclusive invention northe basis of practice of any one person, but it may fittingly enoughbe associated with the name of a woman who for over fifty years hastaught singing with so much regard for true art and for Nature'steachings--_i. E. _, for physiological as well as artistic principles. 

Such a method for female voices is wholly consistent with the bestscientific teaching known to the author; it is in harmony with thelaws of vocal hygiene; it gives the singer beautiful tones, and leavesher with improved, and not injured, vocal organs. Such an arrangementof the registers is not marred by the rigidity of Madame Seiler's northe laxity of Mackenzie's, but combines flexibility with sufficientlydefinite limitations. 

As to just how much a teacher of singing should say to the pupil onthe subject of registers, and especially in a physiological way, mustdepend on circumstances. About the wisdom of teachers of singing (andelocution) understanding the vocal mechanism, and carefully weighingthe matter of registers from every point of view, the reader of thisbook will have no doubt, by this time, the author ventures to hope. 

Of course, one may object that for every tone, as it differs slightlyin quality from its neighbor in the scale, there should be a newregister--a new mechanism. Such an objection, though theoreticallysound, is of no practical weight. What students wish to know andinstructors to teach is how to attain to good singing--the kind thatgives genuinely artistic results, and leaves the throat and entirebody of the vocalist the better for his effort. The teaching of thiswork in regard to the registers and other subjects is intended toaccomplish this, and not to occupy the attention of readers with vocalor physiological refinements of no practical importance. 

The author has always been of opinion that those who have investigatedand written on this subject have devoted insufficient attention to onepoint--viz. , the manner of using the breath. The breathing in the useof the high falsetto, for example, is as different as are thelaryngeal processes; and this is a point of practical importance, forthe voice-user must ever consider economy in breathing. It isexpenditure in this direction that most taxes all singers, even thebest trained and the most highly endowed. 

But the student, deeply impressed with the importance of the subjectof registers, may ask: "How am I to distinguish between one registerand another? How am I to know when I am singing with chest, middle, orhead voice?" The answer is: "By sensations"--chiefly by hearing, butalso by certain sensations (less properly termed "feelings") in theresonance-chambers and to a certain extent in the larynx. Of course, before one can thus identify any register, he must have heard a singerof fairly good voice form the tones of this particular register. Onewho has never heard sounds of a particular color or quality cannot, ofcourse, learn to recognize them from mere description, though by thismeans he is often _prepared_ to hear, and to associate clear ideaswith that hearing. 

As the registers are of such great practical importance, especiallyfor the female voice, there is no period when it is of so much valueto have a lady teacher as just when the voice is being "placed"--whichshould mean the recognition of its main quality, and the teaching ofregisters by imitation as well as description. The student should bemade to understand, by practical examples, the subject of "covering, "or modification. Certainly, the training of a vocalist cannot beadequately undertaken by even the most learned musician, however goodan instrumentalist, if he has paid no attention to the voicepractically. Much of the teaching done by those ignorant ofvoice-production, however well meant, may be a positive drawback, andleave the would-be singer with faults that may never be whollyeradicated. 

The author would recommend all students who have begun a seriouspractical study of the registers to hear, if possible, some singer ofeminence who observes register formation strictly. In this way morecan often be done in getting a clear notion of their characteristicqualities, in a single evening, than by listening to an ordinaryamateur, or to such a voice as an otherwise excellent vocal teachercan bring to her work, on many occasions; better one hour listening toa Melba, with her observance of registers, covering, etc. , as setforth by the author in this chapter, than a score of vocalists ofindifferent, even if not incorrect production. One then has before heran individual who, after long and careful training, attains resultsnot, indeed, within the reach of all, but such as may be approached ifthe same methods are pursued long enough; and in Madame Melba, andothers that might be named, the student has examples of how thoseusing correct methods, and not worshipping at the shrine of mere vocalpower, may retain the vocal organs uninjured and the voice unimpairedafter the lapse of well-nigh a score of years of exacting publicsinging. Teachers will do well to encourage their pupils to hear thebest singers; for do not students need inspiration as well asdiscipline?

Granted that the ear can at once determine what register the pupilherself or another singer may be using, what other guide has she?

There are certain sensations, as already said, felt within theresonance-chambers and larynx, which are sure guides. In a person whohad learned to recognize the correct register formation by the helpof the ear and those sensations now referred to, the latter wouldsuffice to be a partial guide, at least, even had he become deaf. While these sensations are absolutely characteristic, it is difficultto describe them; they must be experienced to be understood. Toattempt to describe the taste of a peach to one who knew that of anapple but had never eaten a peach would be, perhaps, not absolutelyuseless, but would certainly serve little purpose. The sensation mustaccompany the correct formation of the tone. The term "straining"carries with it the idea of unpleasant sensations; all understandpractically what this term means; yet the sensation of strain in atenor carrying his chest register too high is no more marked than thesensation of relief when he changes to the falsetto. 

When once the voice has been well placed, little attention need be, oris usually, paid _consciously_ to the sensations associated ofnecessity with all changes in the vocal organs. When one becomesunduly conscious of any of the normal sensations of the body, he is nolonger a perfectly healthy person. At the same time, as we havepointed out in Chapter II. , and shall do more at length shortly, sensations are absolutely essential guides for all muscular and otherprocesses of the body; but they should enter just so much intoconsciousness, and no more. 

It is practically helpful to the voice-producer and the teacher tothink of the resonance-chambers and the ear as bearing a closerelationship to the movements essential to tone-production. Thesensations from these parts are of importance above all others invoice-production. They are the chief guides, and the attention may toadvantage be concentrated on them. 

No doubt the question of registers for the speaker must be considered, but this can be done to greater advantage in a later chapter. 

SUMMARY. 

All good definitions of a register must recognize two things: changeof quality in the voice, and change of mechanism in the vocalapparatus. A break is not a register, but occurs because of theexistence of registers. The abrupt transition, or break, is to beavoided by covering, or modification of the upper tones of the lower(at least) register. 

For an adequate scientific examination of the question of registers, many qualifications are required in the investigator; and the student, when not an investigator, should endeavor to weigh the evidencepresented so as to choose with caution from among conflictingopinions. He should be suspicious of those who scout the value ofscientific study of this or any other subject, and also of those whoclaim that experience is of no importance in settling such a question. 

Though several well-qualified persons who have written on the subjectdiffer in some respects, they are in agreement as to many of the moreimportant points. They are practically all convinced that there iscommonly a change of register for all voices, at or near one point inthe scale (F), and that if this be practically disregarded, dangerousstraining may result. 

Conclusions drawn from trained singers, alone, may be misleading. Allclasses of persons should be examined with the laryngoscope, ifcorrect and far-reaching generalizations are to be safely made. 

The precision and rigidity of physics and mathematics cannot beintroduced with safety into a subject of this character; otherwise thedivision and limits of registers will be fixed with a narrowness ofmargin that does not comport with Nature's methods. 

In all questions of register, the method of breathing--_i. E. _, thenature of the application of the expiratory blast--must be dulyconsidered. 

With male voices, the subject is usually considered much simpler thanin the case of female voices. Men sing mostly in the chest register;basses and barytones wholly so, with the rarest exceptions. Tenors aretaught to do so. Whether there might not be a subdivision of thisregister made to advantage in training, the author leaves as an openquestion; but about straining, in the case of tenors and all others, and as to the importance of recognizing three registers for femalevoices, there is in his mind no question. The fact that some may notbe able to produce head tones does not justify carrying up the chestregister to any appreciable extent, even by altos. 

Now, as in past times, the high falsetto for males, if good, theresult of proper training, has the warrant of both art and soundphysiology. 

In the use of registers, sensations are infallible guides. Of these, the most important are those associated with the organs of hearing, but those arising in the vocal organs are also valuable. 

Those only should expect to sing artistically, and to preserve theirvoices unimpaired for a long period, who wisely observe Nature'steachings in regard to registers. 

CHAPTER XII. 

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING VOICE-PRODUCTION. 

It is highly important for the speaker or singer to realize early inhis career that all forms of artistic expression can be carried outonly through movements--muscular movements; in other words, techniqueor execution implies the use of neuro-muscular mechanisms. Howeverbeautiful the conception in the mind of the painter, it can onlybecome an artistic thing when it assumes material form--when it is puton canvas. The most beautiful melody is no possession of the worldwhile it is in the mind of the composer alone; till it is _expressed_, it is as good as non-existent. 

Even poetry can only affect us when it exists in the form of wordsproduced by lip or pen. Between the glowing thought of the poet andthe corresponding emotion produced in ourselves there must intervenesome form of technique--_i. E. _, some application of neuro-muscularaction. This latter term is a convenient one, and has been alreadyexplained. It is a condensed expression for that use of the nervousand muscular systems that results in movements, simple or complex. 

Without nerve-cells and muscles movements are impossible, speakinggenerally, and for a willed or voluntary movement there must besomething more, an idea or concept. Before one can make a movementresulting in a simple line or even dot on a piece of paper, he musthave the idea of that line or dot in mind. In like manner, before oneplays or sings a single note, he must have the idea of that note inmind; in other words, the idea is the antecedent to the movement, andabsolutely essential. To have such an idea, memory is necessary. It isimpossible to sing a tone after another, as an imitative effort, unless one has the power to retain that tone in memory for at least abrief period of time; and before this same tone can be reproduced onsight of it as represented by a written note, the memory of the soundto which it answers must first be recalled; and not only so, but othermemories--indeed, memories of all the sensations associated with thebodily mechanism used in producing it. 

This applies to all movements, of whatever kind, that we at any timeexecute. Without the past--_i. E. _, without memories--no present. Someof the memories associated with an act may be lost, and others, sufficient for its performance in some fashion, remain. A man mayforget, after the lapse of months or years, how to tie his necktie ina certain way, as he stands before a mirror; yet on turning away hemay succeed at once. In this case the visual memories, those that comethrough the eyes, were lost, but others, those associated withmuscular movements, remain. The muscular sense may prove an adequateguide when the visual is ineffective. 

In the same way, one may call up a melody by moving the fingers overthe piano keys, when it cannot otherwise be recovered, or one rescuesan air from oblivion by humming a few of its tones; all of which isexplained by the revival of muscular and similar memories. 

All voluntary movements are at first accomplished relatively slowlyand with difficulty. They soon weary us. A child learns to walk withthe greatest difficulty, and only after numberless failures or errors. The first tones of the would-be pianist or violinist are produced butslowly and with great difficulty, in spite of the most determinedeffort. If the attempts to vocalize are any more successful, it isbecause one has already learned to talk--a process that in the firstinstance (in infancy) was even more laborious than that of walking. 

The degree to which any one succeeds in his earliest efforts to sing ascale will depend on the readiness with which he can use a variety ofneuro-muscular mechanisms--indeed, all those associated with therespiratory, laryngeal, and resonance apparatus. Fortunately for thevoice-user, this apparatus has all been in use in ordinary speaking. But when this latter process is analyzed, it is found that it is notessentially different from singing. In each the same mechanism isused, and in much the same way; but every one knows that not all whocan talk are able to sing, and it is usual to say that those whocannot have no "ear" for music; and this expresses a part of thetruth, though not in a scientific way. What is really the truth isfound to be, on analysis, that certain guiding sensations, chieflythose from the hearing apparatus (ear, nerves, brain), areinsufficient, owing either to natural defect or lack of training; butthat this is not the only explanation is plain from the fact that manycomposers with the most vivid musical imagination, the most perfectauditory memory, and the most acute ear, cannot sing in any but themost imperfect manner. As we have said before, the speaker of greatpower to affect his fellows through tones, or the artistic singer, must be a sort of vocal athlete. In the athlete there is a veryperfect association into one whole of certain sensations from eye, skin, muscles, etc. , and certain movements. These exist in all men, but in very unequal degree. The singer is a tone specialist in whomthe perception of the pitch and the quality of sounds may not be moreacute than in the composer, possibly less so, but he can do what thecomposer of music often cannot--viz. , associate these sensations withmuscular movements of a highly perfect character; in different words, he has the technique which others have not in an equal degree. 

In the singer and speaker there is a very close association betweenthe sensations of the resonance-chambers, the larynx, and other partsof the vocal mechanism, and those from the ear. So perfect does thisbecome from training that the necessary technique at last becomeseasy. But it is of the greatest importance that the exact nature ofthis process be realized by both students and teachers, for weightyconsiderations grow out of it. 

We wish to impress the fact that the nature of all neuro-muscularprocesses is essentially the same. Learning to sing is like learningto talk, and the latter is not radically different from learning towalk. This last is at first slow, imperfect, laborious, and largely avoluntary or willed process, or, more strictly, a series of processes. As progress is made, there is less of the voluntary and more that isinvoluntary, or what physiologists term reflex. When ideas, feelings, etc. , enter into a process which is carried out reflexly, a _habit_ isformed. 

One may say that talking implies a series of associated reflexes, theparts associated being the respiratory, the laryngeal, and theresonance apparatus. Singing only approaches this condition of reflexaction and habit after practice, and yet no air is perfectly sungexcept when the result is the outcome of a sort of new habit. Everysong involves, the learning of new vocal habits. One forms a new habitof an athletic character all the more readily because of previousones. A man learns to play one game of ball the better, usually, if hehave already played at another, the reason being that he has only tomodify the action of neuro-muscular mechanisms, not associate newmechanisms together to the same extent as in the formation of a habitof a widely different kind, as rowing a boat. At the same time, onemust always unlearn something--break up old habits, to some extent. Anopera singer often makes a failure of oratorio at first. The sets ofreflexes or the habits, bodily and mental, which he has found valuablefor the one form of art do not suit the other perfectly; nevertheless, the same materials are used, the reflexes are in the main the same. Hemust use preventions, or _inhibitions_, as the physiologists termthem. Rather is it that he must avoid doing certain things--_i. E. _, modify his neuro-muscular processes or reflexes, than form wholly newones. 

Were it not for reflexes and habits, learning would be so slow onelifetime would not suffice to make an artist. It must be apparent thathabits and reflexes are Nature's ways of economizing energy. As thebest have but a limited amount of energy, it should be the aim ofevery one who will not be a mere reckless spendthrift to economize, tomake the most of what Nature has given him; hence the purpose ofpractice is not only to render success more certain and more perfect, but to make efforts tell to the fullest extent with as littleexpenditure of energy to the speaker or singer as possible. _He singsor speaks best who attains the end with the least expenditure ofenergy. _

It may with scientific accuracy be said that the object of the studentshould be to attain to the formation of correct habits in singing andspeaking, and of the teacher to guide in this process. It follows thatall practice by the beginner should be carried out only in thepresence of one who knows the correct methods and can teach thestudent how to form his habits wisely. Practice alone may not only dolittle good, but, by the formation of wrong habits of production, bepositively mischievous; yet a trainer of athletes often lays morerestrictions on his ward as to when and how he shall practise, andexercises more supervision over it, than do some teachers of singing, in spite of the fact that the apparatus the singer or speaker uses ismuch more delicate, and wrong habits much more injurious. 

The admonition "Practise, practise, " is greatly overdone. The bestresults cannot be obtained in either singing, speaking, or playing, with the lengthy and necessarily more or less imperfect if notcareless practice in which many students of music indulge. Better tenminutes with the whole attention of a fresh and interested mind givenintelligently to a subject than ten hours of mere mechanical movement. It is a mistake to suppose that the acquirement of a sound techniqueis a purely mechanical process. We have shown that for all successfuleffort there must be the idea, and as soon as that fades, fromweariness, etc. , the practice should be discontinued. Students arenot treated fairly when given exercises the meaning or purpose ofwhich is not explained to them. 

There is now more need than ever that the teacher of music orelocution should be intellectual and not mechanical in his methods. Technique is mechanism, but it should be mechanism subordinated toideas. Technique is essential to art, but it is not art. Art is thesoul, technique the body. The soul will be unknown to the worldwithout technique; hence the author strives in this book to teach theprinciples on which a sound vocal technique rests, but only that whatis best in the soul be not hidden, that the one noble or poeticthought shall be multiplied a thousand times--indeed, that if it besufficiently worthy, it shall, like Tennyson's Brook, "go on forever. "To believe, on the one hand, that the highest art can be attained witha very mediocre technique, and, on the other, that a perfect techniqueis the main object of musical training, are alike great andmischievous errors. 

The author has been asked frequently such questions as the following:"When is the best time to practise? How long should a singer practiseat one time, and for how long during a single day? Should one practisesoftly (_piano_) or vigorously (_forte_)?"--etc. 

Often the student is puzzled by contradictory opinions on thissubject. One celebrated prima donna states that she never practisesmore than one hour a day; another, equally distinguished, that shehas often spent several hours in almost continuous strenuous practice. What is the student to believe, and whom to follow? No one, for no twopersons are alike. All the above questions can be safely and surelyanswered in the light of science and experience combined, but suchquestions cannot be settled by the dictum of any singer, teacher, orwriter, nor does the experience, in itself, of any one person furnishan adequate guide for others. 

[Illustration: FIG. 53. By this diagram the author has attempted togive the reader some idea of the nature of the chain of processesinvolved in singing a single tone, from the time the eye looks on thenote till the muscles concerned have given it utterance as a tone. Thevarious nervous centres concerned are all in the brain (though thespinal cord supplies some subordinate centres). There are sensorycentres, or those for the eye and the ear, and motor centres, or thosesending the commands to the muscles involved. Further, these must be_connected_ by paths not shown in detail, but represented by onecentre spoken of as an "association" centre, which may also, possibly, have much to do with emotions, etc. But, at all events, the dependenceof movements on ingoing messages or sensations is emphasized. The deafcannot speak or sing, and the blind cannot read (ordinary) music. Thedefect may not be in either senses or muscles, but in the relatingnervous mechanism between them. As explained in the body of the work, execution depends on at least two factors, sensations, or ingoingmessages, and movements determined by these. Now the _connection_between the ingoing and the outgoing impulses is the most importantand the least understood part, but the above diagram will at leastserve to emphasize the fact that such connections exist, and that in ageneral way the result, performance, can be explained. No attempt hasbeen made to trace the path of other sensory impulses than those fromeye and ear, as this would make the diagram too complicated. ]

Investigation has shown that the use of muscles tends to theaccumulation of the waste products of vital activity; that suchaccumulation is associated with the experience in consciousness ofwhat we term "fatigue, " and which is preceded by "weariness. " Thelatter is a warning that the more serious condition is approaching, but is to be distinguished from another feeling not necessary to name, often present in unwilling youthful students, and for which variousforms of treatment are sometimes tried so unsuccessfully that it is aswell to discontinue study altogether. 

1. The time at which, as a rule, any work can best be carried out isduring the early hours of the day, so that if it is possible, practiceshould be begun early, and after some preliminary exercise for thegood of the body generally--_e. G. _, a short walk, during which thelungs may be filled with pure air. As the muscles of the chest, etc. , are to be used in voice-production, such a walk or other form ofgeneral exercise should not be lengthy. Energy should be reserved forthe muscular activities involved in vocal practice. 

2. The principle that guides in all use of the muscles, all exercise, is that it be taken under the most favorable circumstances and shortof fatigue, even of weariness; hence the question whether the studentshould practise five minutes or one hour is one that he himself, andhe alone, can determine, provided he is old enough and observantenough to know when he begins to feel weary in his vocal mechanism, whether it be in the respiratory organs, the larynx, or theresonance-chambers. With some there is a weak spot, and this settlesthe question for all other parts. As a rule, beginners will do wellnot to practice, at first, for longer at one time than five minutes, not only because of the possible weariness, but because at the outsetit is difficult to keep the attention fixed. The ear and brain tire aswell as the muscles. 

Naturally, the condition of the student at the time has much to dowith the length of a practice, but all things are determined by thesensible application of that principle which science and experiencealike show to be a safe guide. 

Naturally, as in other exercises, the duration of an exercise may begradually lengthened with experience. One singer may find an hour aday sufficient, if she be already perfectly trained in everyrespect--be "in good form, " or "fit, " as the athletes say--and haveonly light or _coloratura_ parts to sing; but would this suffice toform a singer to sustain the heaviest dramatic parts for hourstogether before a large public audience? The training of ahundred-yards sprinter should not be the same as that prescribed for along-distance runner or a wrestler. 

[Illustration: FIG. 54. The above is a diagrammatic representation ofa highly magnified section (or very thin slice) through the outermostor most superficial part of the great brain (cortex cerebri), and isinserted to help the reader to form some idea of the complexity ofstructure of the most important part of the brain so far as thehighest mental processes are concerned. This complexity is greater inman than in other animals. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 55. A nerve-cell from the outer rind of the greatbrain (cortex cerebri), much magnified. (Schäfer. )]

3. In all practice it is ever to be borne in mind that the end, evenin an exercise, is artistic. Tones of that quality only which is thebest possible to the singer at the time are to be produced, andeverything else must yield to this. 

4. No wise trainer ever allows his charges to go on a racing track andat once run a hundred yards at the highest possible speed. Such acourse would be against all sound knowledge and all the bestexperience. Hence the question of _piano_ and _forte_ practice answersitself; the singer should never begin any exercise _forte_, but either_piano_ or _moderato_--as to which depends on the individual. Somepersons can only after long study produce really good tones _piano_;such if not most persons should, of course, begin practising withmoderate force. 

Certainly, the voice-user should, in order to gain volume, graduallyincrease the vigor of his practice, but exactly how to do this, and towhat extent daily, are questions in which the advice of a sensible andexperienced teacher is of great value, though the principle on whichthat opinion should be founded is clear enough. 

5. The questions as to the total amount of time to be devoted topractice in a single day, and as to whether practice should becontinued day after day for weeks and months without interruption, must be decided by the condition of the student, and not by anyarbitrary opinion. Some individuals and some racers have a capacityfor steady work not possessed by others, and happy are they; but thereare others who go on by spurts, and such natures are often capable ofreaching lofty artistic heights, if they be wisely managed. They needmuch the same sort of care as a very fleet but uncertain race-horse, and they are often a source of disgust to themselves and of worry totheir teachers; but they in some cases get far beyond what the moresteady ones can attain to, while others are so unsteady without beingtalented that they are a trial, and a trial only, to all concerned. Such people should, even when clever, not be encouraged in theirvagaries, but brought gradually and tactfully under a stricterdiscipline. 

6. "Hasten slowly" applies to all musical practice, that of the voiceincluded, and there never was a time in the history of the world, unfortunately, when people believed in it less. The author wouldespecially warn the student against attempting to force progress byviolent or unduly long-continued practices, for if the vocal apparatusbe strained, it may remain impaired for months or even for life. "Little and often" is a good maxim for vocal practice, all the more asthe discontinuation, for the time, of voice-production need not implythat the mind must cease to act. An artist is not formed byvocalization alone, but by processes of education that are many andcomplicated, into which we might be tempted to enter did they not liebeyond the range of the present work. 

If the principles set forth in this chapter are scientificallyreliable, and we believe they will not be questioned, certainpractical considerations are well worthy of special attention. Ifpractice, repetition, leads to the formation of habits more or lessfixed, then there can be no surer way to ruin a speaker or vocalistthan to permit him to practise by a wrong method; the more hepractises, the more he stamps in what is bad. It follows that the mosthopeless cases eminent teachers have to deal with are to be foundamong those vocalists who come to them after years of professionallife before the public. One must look on some of these people as on abuilding spoiled by a bad architectural design. In some cases there isnothing to do but to take the whole structure apart and put ittogether afresh. It may be humiliating to the vocalist, and it is asevere condemnation of certain methods of teaching, but there is oftenno other course open, the only question being as to whether thematerial is good enough to warrant such a radical proceeding. Everyeminent teacher can recall such cases, and might fill volumes withtheir histories. If more of these were published as warnings tostudents and teachers, a good purpose would be served. It is truly sadto find that the prospects of one who might have been formed into afine artist have been hopelessly ruined by years of practice based onprinciples that are radically unsound. 

In the next chapter some specific applications of the principlesdiscussed in the foregoing pages will be considered. 

SUMMARY. 

All forms of artistic and other expression imply movements. For awilled or voluntary movement there are required (1) an idea, (2) aneuro-muscular mechanism. Such movements may be relatively simple orhighly complex. They all tend, when frequently carried out, to becomereflex, and to some extent unconscious or subconscious. Combinationsof reflexes when associated with consciousness become habits. Movements only attain their highest perfection when they reach thisstage. It follows that the purpose of all musical practice should beto establish those reflexes which attain the end, the ideal, and toform correct habits. A poem properly recited or a song satisfactorilysung implies a combination of certain reflexes or habits. Some ofthese are in their main features common to all speech and song, butmany are peculiar to each example. 

As phonation implies the use of the muscles (neuro-muscularmechanisms) of the (1) respiratory organs, (2) vocal bands, (3)resonance-chambers, and as these must all work in harmony, or be"co-ordinated, " it will be seen that speaking and singing arephysiologically highly complex. When, in addition, ideas and feelingsare associated, and determine the exact form of these co-ordinations, the whole matter is seen to be still more complex. The emission of asingle tone implies (1) an idea--the nature of the sound as to pitchand quality, (2) such an arrangement of all the parts of the mechanismas will produce it. The former involves memory of the tone; thelatter, memories of former movements. Then, partly as a series ofvoluntary acts and partly reflexly, according as the student is moreor less advanced, or the particular tone new or old in experience, dothe various neuro-muscular arrangements pass into orderly action. Inthis process the ear is the chief guide, always in relation tomemories. When one uses the printed page, the eyes also guide--_i. E. _, the nervous impulses that pass in through these avenues determine theoutgoing ones that bring the muscles into action. In doing so theyrouse many others (associated nervous connections) which are highlyimportant when an artistic result is to be reached. 

To consider a single case: Assume that the note [Illustration: a'] isto be sung. The following are required: (1) Memory of this tone. (2)Adaptation through eye and ear of all the neuro-muscular mechanismsrequired for (_a_) bringing the vocal bands into the correct positionand degree of tension; (_b_) the proper shape, tension, etc. , of theresonance-chambers; (_c_) that use of the breathing apparatus suitableto cause the proper vibrations of the vocal bands. All use of thevoice implies this much, but in most instances there are _associated_nervous mechanisms and ideas that are highly important in determiningthe exact volume, quality, etc. , of the tone as related to expressionof ideas and feelings according to conventional usage. 

The breath-stream must in all cases be so employed that there shall beeconomy of energy--no waste. Waste occurs whenever air escapes to anyappreciable extent through the glottis chink, as that implies animperfect adjustment of the vocal bands and the expiratory current. From this and other points of view it may be said that _he is the bestsinger who gets the most perfect result with the least expenditure ofenergy_. 

It is of the highest importance that during every practice, and everymoment of each practice, attention be given to as perfect a result aspossible, and that the same method be invariably employed. 

All questions as to methods of practising can be decided on well-knownscientific principles which harmonize with experience, and need not beleft in that loose and unsatisfactory condition when the dictum ofsome individual is substituted for principles capable of actualexperimental demonstration. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

CHIEFLY AN APPLICATION TO VOICE PRODUCTION OF FACTS AND PRINCIPLESPREVIOUSLY CONSIDERED. 

Certain sounds may be made without the use of words or syllables, evenwithout the employment of vowels or consonants, but intonation propercannot be carried out without vowels, at least. 

The exact nature of vowels and consonants will be considered in thenext chapter, but in the meantime it may be pointed out that a vowelis a free and open sound requiring for its production a certain formof the resonance-chambers. Neither vowels nor consonants areabsolutely pure--that is, entirely free from foreign elements, fromnoise; but for all practical purposes a vowel is a pure sound, aconsonant a sound accompanied inevitably by much noise. This noise islargely due to the difficulties of sounding consonants, the breathbreaking against the vocal organs, especially the teeth, lips, etc. , much as the waves of the sea against a rocky beach. So far then asmusical quality is concerned, a consonant is an unmitigated nuisance. On the other hand, none but the most elemental communication by soundscould be carried out by the use of vowels alone. The consonants stopthe breath-current, separate the vowels, and thus lay the foundationfor the expression of ideas. Ideas imply differences; a new idea isconveyed by a new word, which in its simplest form is a syllable. 

When a consonant is introduced after a vowel sound, a momentary arrestis produced in the breath-flow, and this has its corresponding effecton the mind. It is, in fact, equivalent to a pause--say a comma or aperiod. If introduced before a vowel, it is marked off in a moredefinite way. The effect of this is to enable the ear the better tograsp the sounds. There is the principle of differentiation and theprinciple of rest, both highly important in all sensory and otherpsychic or mental processes. 

Consider the sentence "He is a man"--composed purely of monosyllables. Remove the consonants, and we have the following: "e i a a. " Theirineffectiveness in conveying ideas is at once plain, for though "aman" conveys two ideas, such are not expressed by the vowels, whichare identical, while "e" and "i" are common to too many words of onesyllable to serve any useful purpose, alone, in the conveyance of_definite_ ideas. The consonants at once mark off the limitations;they fence around the ideas, so to speak. For the communication ofideas they are indispensable; nevertheless, being largely noises, theyare musically abominable. 

It follows that voice-production should begin with vowel sounds, andnot words--not even syllables. For successful intonation, the firststeps should be made as simple as possible, as we have alreadyendeavored to show, hence no such complication as a consonantal noiseshould be introduced. Upon this point there is room for no differenceof opinion, though as to which vowel sound is best suited for thebeginner, and for more advanced voice-production, there has been greatdiversity in teaching--a diversity which we propose to show, in thenext chapter, need not exist to any appreciable extent. 

Certain vowel sounds may be said to be common to most of the languagesused by civilized peoples. These are _u_ (_oo_), _[=o]_, _a_ (_ah_), _[=a]_, _i_ (_ei_), and _[=e]_. There is, fortunately, among teachersconsiderable agreement as to the question of the best vowel sound withwhich to begin intonation, or the process of forming musical tones. There can be no question that _a_ (ah) is for general purposes thebest, the reason for which will appear later. Unfortunately, there isnot in the minds of students or teachers generally a sufficiently deepconviction of the importance of forming the voice by long-continuedpractice with vowels only, for which lack the spirit of the times islargely responsible. Until a student of either speaking or singing canform every vowel perfectly, which implies the recognition of thesesounds as pure and perfect, and the ability to sing them as the tonesof a musical scale, he should not take a single step in any otherdirection. To do so is to waste tune and to lower artistic ideals. 

When words are to be used, the question as to which language should beemployed is for the singer, at least, a very important one. The idealvocalist who will bring before the ideal public the best in vocalmusic must sing in Italian, French, German, and English, at least. Each of these languages produces its own effects through the voice, and each presents its own advantages and difficulties; but allcompetent to judge are agreed that Italian, because of the abundanceof vowels in its words, is the best language in which to sing, or, atall events, to begin with as a training. Because of the prevalence ofconsonants, the German and the English languages are relativelyunmusical. The English abounds in hissing sounds, which are a trial tothe singer with an exacting ear and perfect taste, and produce mostunwelcome effects on the refined listener who really puts music firstand the conveyance of ideas second in a vocal composition. It should, of course, be the aim of the student to overcome these difficulties, as German and English, the languages of Goethe, Schiller, andShakespeare, are for dramatic and some other purposes not equalled byany other languages. 

But the artist, and above all the musical artist, must be a citizen ofthe world. He deals with those forms of emotion common to all mankind, and not with the peculiar little combinations of ideas that grow up ina province, city, or village; though of course he will not neglectlocal coloring, so well illustrated in the folk-songs or popularmelodies that have survived for ages in different countries. 

Though a vowel can be produced pure only when the resonance-chambersassume a certain form, this is, of course, only one link in the chainof production. The breathing apparatus and the larynx are alsoconcerned, and we are again brought back, as ever, to the triplecombination of the three sets of mechanisms so often alluded to, yet, we venture to think, very inadequately linked in the minds oflearners, if not also of teachers. 

In producing a vowel sound the end aimed at is, on the one hand, purity, on the other, as a result, the easy and effective use ofmechanisms--_i. E. _, the technique. In every case the breath must beused without waste--just enough, and no more; the laryngeal apparatus, the vocal bands, must be so adapted as to set the air of theresonance-chambers into perfect vibration, which only occurs when theexpiratory blast is applied in the correct way and at the right momentto the properly adjusted vocal bands. This latter we have defined asthe attack. It implies giving a good start to the tone. It is not all, but it is a large half, in the artist and for the auditor. 

RECONSIDERATION OF THE RESONANCE-CHAMBERS

We shall now give further attention to some of the more importantparts of the resonance-chambers, in so far as they bear directly onvoice-production. 

In singing and speaking, the larynx should be _steadied_, but not heldrigidly fixed in any one position. It will be remembered that to thispart of the vocal mechanism are attached, below, the trachea, andabove, the tongue, indirectly through the hyoid bone and thethyro-hyoid membrane, as well as certain muscles which influence therelative position of these various parts, so that to maintain thelarynx in the same position, absolutely, must be against Nature'smethods. The tongue alone must in its movements tend to alter theposition of the larynx, as we have before pointed out. At the sametime, the laxness and lack of control which some singers permit intheir vocal organs, under the mistaken idea that all the parts of the"throat" cannot be too free, prevents them from getting the effectsthey desire, with that vigor and certainty the public so much admires, and rightly so. The golden mean should be observed; between unduetension, which implies inability to control, whether it be in thelarynx or the breathing apparatus, and a looseness inconsistent withneat and certain results, the voice-producer must choose, with thatcommon sense so indispensable to success in all undertakings, butwhich will never be adequately encouraged till students look morefrequently for the reasons of the procedures recommended to them, andteachers strive to gain influence with their pupils by showing themthat what they recommend lies beyond their own minds--that it, infact, has its foundation in the laws of Nature. 

Of the tongue, soft palate, and lips, which are the principalmodifiers of the shape of the mouth cavity, the tongue has by far themost influence. When the tongue lies flat in the mouth, it may beconsidered to be in its primary position, and it is important that insinging and speaking the student learn to begin his voice-productionwith this organ in that position, or a slight modification of it, forit is only when it is thus placed that a tone at once round, full, andpure can be produced. 

In order to secure this result, the vocalist or speaker must begin bytaking breath through the mouth, as we have already insisted, and atonce, before there is time for any stiffening of parts, commence tointonate--_i. E. _, as soon as enough air has been inhaled for thepurpose intended. The correct position is facilitated when one takingbreath through the mouth acts as if about to _yawn_. If this act bewell imitated, the student will find, on looking into a hand-glass, that the tongue is more or less furrowed behind in the middle--inother words, it forms a sort of trough; and the deeper the trough thestudent learns to form at will, the better, for there are times inactual singing and speaking when this must be as deep as possible. Itis clear that in this way the central convexity above, formed by thehard palate, forms with the corresponding concavity in the tongue asort of trumpet-shaped organ admirably adapted for the production ofthe desired tone. 

The tongue is important in the highest degree not only in theformation of vowels, as will be shown more fully in the next chapter, but also in shaping consonants. 

It is sometimes important to move the tongue from one position toanother with great rapidity. Such a composition as Figaro's song(cavatina) in Rossini's "Barber of Seville" could not be properly sungby any one not possessing great control over the tongue. Indeed, thiscomposition may be considered a perfect test of the extent to whichthe singer is a master of mouth gymnastics; and this is only one ofmany such works. In like manner, many passages in Shakespeare andothers of the best writers in all languages can only be spoken witheffect by those with a mastery over the tongue, lips, soft palate, etc. , but above all, the tongue. 

Important as are the lips, many persons tend to use them too much, andthe tongue too little, in speaking and singing. They attempt to makeup for a mouth almost closed in front by the teeth, by excessivemovements of the lips. 

Special tongue and lip practice should be carried out before a mirror. The lips should be kept rather close to the gums, and moved away aslittle as possible (_i. E. _, the lips), as to do so serves no goodpurpose, and is unpleasant to the eye of the observer. Teeth and lipsmust be regarded, so far as musical sounds are concerned, as dangerregions--rocks on the shore, against which the singer or speaker mayshipwreck his tones. His object should be to use them adequately toform vowels and consonants--in other words, in the formation, not thespoiling, of words, as is so often the case. 

We cannot too much insist on both speaker and singer attending toforming a connection between his ear and his mouth cavity. He is tohear, that he may produce good tones, and the tones cannot becorrectly formed if they be not well observed. To listen to one's selfcarefully and constantly is a most valuable but little practised art. The student should listen as an inexorable critic, accepting only thebest from himself. 

This leads to the consideration of the question of the open mouth. Theexpression "open mouth" means, no doubt, to most people, the open lipsrather than the open mouth cavity--_i. E. _, open in front, the teethwell separated. In voice-production, by "open mouth" both open cavityand open lips must be understood. 

There is a special tendency in many, perhaps in most persons, to closethe mouth cavity unduly in singing a descending scale. This is oftenaccompanied by a bad use of the breath, and a general relaxation ofthe vocal apparatus, which is possibly more frequent in sopranos andtenors, whose chief effects are often produced by their high tones. But to-day, more than ever, when refined intellectual and emotionaleffects are demanded, is it important that the lower tones, soeffective in producing emotional states, should not be neglected byany singer of whatever voice; while for speakers high tones are reallycomparatively little used. 

Much more attention is paid by teachers and students to the open mouthat the present time than formerly; in fact, like some other goodthings, it is often overdone. The individuality of the singer andspeaker must always be borne in mind. If some are obliged to open themouth as much as others, the result will not be happy. Any one maydemonstrate to himself that the quality of a tone may be at oncechanged by unduly opening or closing the mouth. One may say that _themouth should be sufficiently opened to produce the best possibleeffect_. We have never seen the mouth opened to such an extent that itwas positively unsightly--reminding one of the rhinoceros at azoo--without feeling that the tone had suffered thereby. 

If all would remember that the mouth is best opened by simply_dropping the lower jaw_, passively, in the easiest manner possible, the difficulties some students experience would disappear. Many act asif the process were chiefly an active one, while the reverse is thecase, as one may observe in the sleeper when the muscles become undulyrelaxed--a condition that is often accompanied by snoring, which isproduced by a mouth-breathing that gives rise to vibrations of thesoft palate. We mean to say that the lower jaw drops when musclesrelax, and that opening the mouth is largely a passive thing, whileclosing the mouth is an active process. 

The position of the head in its influence on tone-production is aninsufficiently considered subject. It is impossible that the head bemuch raised or lowered without changes being produced in the vocalapparatus, especially the larynx, and if the tone is not to suffer inconsequence, special care must be taken to make compensatory changesin the parts affected. It is only necessary to sing any vowel, andthen raise the chin greatly, to observe a distinct change in thequality of the tone, with corresponding sensations in the vocalorgans. 

To speak or sing with the head turned to one side is plainlyunfavorable to the well-being of the parts used, because it leads tocompression, which gives rise to that congestion before referred to asthe source of so many evils in voice-users. To sit at a piano and singis an unphysiological proceeding, because it implies that the head isbent in reading the music on a page much lower than the eyes, andwhen, with this, the head is turned to one side to allow of readingthe music on the distant side of the page, furthest from the middleline of the head, the case is still worse. If all who thus use thevocal organs do not give evidence of the truth of the above byhoarseness, etc. , it is simply because in young and vigorous organsthere may be considerable power of resisting unfavorable influences. The student is recommended to use his voice in the standing positiononly, when possible, as all others are more or less unnatural. 

One often has the opportunity to observe how the effect is lost when areader bends his head downward to look at his book or manuscript; andhe himself, if the process is long-continued, will almost certainlyfeel the injurious influence of this acting on his vocal organs. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

SOME SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS OF PRINCIPLES IN TONE PRODUCTION. 

It is no doubt valuable, indeed for most singers essential, to employa series of elaborate exercises, or _vocalises_, which in some casesdiffer from each other only by slight gradations; but it is to beborne in mind that all the actual principles involved can be expressedpractically in a very few exercises. These are: (1) The singlesustained tone; (2) the tones of a scale sung so as to be smoothlylinked together; (3) the same, sung somewhat more independently ofeach other; (4) the same, but each tone beginning and ending verysuddenly. If the execution of any vocal musical composition beanalyzed, it will be found that these four methods cover substantiallythe whole ground. As one other is very extensively used in givingexpression in the form of shading, it is worthy of specialmention--viz. , (5) the swell. All others are modifications of theabove. 

As these methods of tone-production are of so much importance, it willbe worth while to analyze them. It will be found that in each there isa characteristic use of the breathing mechanism. The larynx and theresonance-chambers are of course intermediate, as usual, between thebreath-stream and the result, the tone; without them there could beno tones. But if the student have clearly in mind the memory of thetone he wishes to produce, including its various properties of pitch, volume, quality, etc. , it will be found that the point requiringstrict attention, in production, is the breathing, especially themanner of using the expiratory current. 

1. The sustained tone requires an amount of breath proportional to itslength, and the great aim in its production should be to convert, soto speak, all the breath into tone, as we explained in a previouschapter. This sustained tone, which may be practised with advantage onevery one of the notes of a scale, is, in the nature of things, thevery foundation of all good singing and speaking. 

2. In the second and third exercises the differences in the method liein the attack and the manner of using the breath. The smoothly linkedtones are the more difficult for most people, since they requirespecial control over the laryngeal mechanism and the breathingapparatus. Between the singing of a scale in this manner (_legato_), and as it is frequently done, there is the same difference as inwalking up-stairs as does a perfectly trained ballet-dancer, and thisact as carried out by a rough countryman, used only to ploughedfields, etc. For a perfect execution, the attack, while decisiveenough, must be most carefully regulated, and the breathing, which isalways to be considered in a good attack, must be of the most evencharacter; the outflow requires the most perfectly controlledmovements of the respiratory apparatus. In the other form of exercise(detached tones) there is often, at least, a little more emphasis onthe attack, and the breathing is perhaps not always so even, but insome passages, in actual singing, the method employed for these lessclosely linked tones is in most respects the same as the last. 

3. Very different from all the preceding is the mode of productionusually designated by musicians _staccato_, _marcato_, etc. The toneis attacked suddenly, and as suddenly dropped, which, expressedphysiologically, means that the entire vocal mechanism is rapidlyadjusted, one part to another, and as suddenly relaxed; and the oneseems to be about as difficult as the other. In this a certain suddentension of the vocal apparatus is essential. The whole respiratoryapparatus, after the breath is taken, is held more or less tense. Inexecuting these abrupt (staccato) effects the diaphragm is the chiefagent, and operates against the column of air in the lungs, the chestand abdominal walls being kept more or less tense. 

Though this is the case, the voice-producer will succeed best if hegives attention to the resonance-chambers, after having put thebreathing mechanism into the right condition. There should be aslittle movement of the chest walls, diaphragm, larynx, etc. , aspossible. The whole is a question of tension, but not rigidity, andthe reason the staccato effect is so difficult for most persons isthat they attempt to accomplish it by _excessive movements_ of thebreathing apparatus or larynx. 

The _mind_ must be relieved of any feeling of undue tension, and theresult attained by the establishment of a close connection between theear and the resonance-chambers. The first interrupted effects shouldbe of very brief duration and as _piano_ as possible, but the attemptto produce the real staccato may to great advantage be preceded by anexercise recommended in Chapter VIII. , --viz. , singing a tone of someduration, then suddenly interrupting it, and, with the same breath, beginning the tone again as suddenly as it was interrupted. In fact, till this can be done with ease the staccato proper should not beattempted, for though the principles involved are the same, theexecution requires far more skill than the exercise recommended for anearlier stage, and which it is well to continue throughout. 

Simple as these exercises seem from mere description, or as carriedout with a certain degree of success, perfection in them is not to beattained short of years of the most diligent study. How many singersliving can sing an ascending and a descending scale, in succession, with a perfect staccato, to mention no other effect? Yet among all theresources of dramatic singing and speaking none is more important thanthis one. What so eloquent as the silence after a perfect stop--acomplete and satisfactory arrest of the tone? How many modern actorsare capable of it? How many singers? Instead of the perfect arrest, the listener is conscious, not of the rounded and complete tone, butof an edge more or less ragged. There is some noise with the actualtone. 

The above exercises, when carried out to a perfect result, give us_bel canto_ singing, for which the old Italian school was so noted, and which is now largely a lost art, not so much because the methodsare not known to teachers, as because students will not do the worknecessary to attain to this _bel canto_. We seek for short cuts, andwe get corresponding results. 

The _bel canto_ is, simply, beautiful singing, the result of perfecttechnique, and is opposed to effects which are not truly artistic, though no doubt often highly expressive to the unmusical and theinartistic. They may appeal to us as feats, but they are not artisticresults, and, as we have before insisted, they are injurious in manycases to the vocal organs, while good voice-production strengthensthem. 

5. The swell is simply a modification of the sustained tone. When atone is perfectly sustained, without any change in volume, etc. , wehave a most valuable effect, and one very difficult to achieve, because it implies such a steady application of the breath power andsuch nice adjustments of all the parts concerned. To produce a tonewith variations in it is easy enough, and that is what is usuallygiven us instead of the perfectly even tone, reminding us of astraight line. 

In the swell, as the name suggests, the tone should rise gradually involume or loudness, and as gradually decline. If this can be donereadily, and continued for several seconds, it will be easy to produceother effects, as the sudden swell, but such effects should comeafter, not before, the slower ones. A critical observer soon realizesthe defects of modern technique when he listens to a singer's toneswhen attempting slow effects, as in a softly sustained melody. Onlythe well-trained vocalist can hope to sing such a melody, especiallyif long sustained, in a way to meet the demands of an exacting ear andadvanced musical taste. It will be apparent that the swell is thebasis of shading, a quality that is so highly appreciated in thisrefined age. He who can manage the swell perfectly has the secret ofthis effect in his possession as have none others. 

Although we have referred more to the singer than to the speaker, inthis chapter, it is to be understood that these and all otherexercises suggested are of great value in forming the voice for publicspeaking. It is not so important, it must be admitted, for the speakeras for the singer that his tones be musically perfect, as he reliesmore on ideas than on tones, still, with every idea employed by thepublic speaker there is the inseparable feeling, or "feeling-tone;" sothat the speaker, as well as the singer, is to some extent dependenton tone painting--indeed, must be, if he will be no mere man of wood, a "dry stick, " to some extent, in spite of the use of appropriatelanguage, gestures, etc. There are many avenues to the heart, and thatby tones cannot with impunity be neglected by the speaker, though forhis purpose the singing of tones need occupy only weeks or months, while for singers, in the case of all who would attain to a highdegree of excellence, it must extend over years. 

"FORWARD, " "BACKWARD, " ETC. , PRODUCTION. 

Certain expressions are in common use by teachers and singers, such as"to direct the breath forward, " "forward production, " "backwardproduction, " etc. No doubt such terms may serve a practical purpose, though they are often used with lamentable vagueness, but it must beunderstood that they do not answer to any clearly demonstratedphysiological principles. There is, for example, no clear evidencethat the breath can be directed toward the hard palate in theneighborhood of the teeth, as the drawings sometimes published wouldindicate. 

It has already been many times urged that when breathing issatisfactory, breath does not escape to any considerable extent intothe mouth cavity, but that the expiratory blast is used to set the airof the resonance-chambers into vibration. The changes that must bemade in these cavities, to lead to certain effects, are accompanied bycharacteristic sensations, and these, and not the direction of thebreath, are largely responsible for the ideas on which the aboveexpressions rest. 

As before shown, the soft palate is constantly being used more orless, and when it and the tongue unite in action so as to cut off themouth cavity, or, more strictly, the anterior portion of it, from thenasal chambers, a very pronounced modification in the tone results, and, of necessity, such actual escape of breath as occurs takes placethrough the nose. In reality, there is a special modification of theshape of the resonance-chambers for every tone produced, andespecially when the color or quality is changed, as well as the pitch. There is, therefore, not only "forward" and "backward" but also middleproduction, though, in reality, these terms at best but imperfectlydescribe, even for practical purposes, what happens. 

It is to be feared that with some teachers of both singing andspeaking "forward production" has become a sort of panacea for allvocal ills; but it is not, and just the reverse teaching is requiredin certain cases. If a voice be brilliant, yet hard, it will beimproved by a more backward production, judiciously employed, and inthis way the French language is often to be recommended to suchsingers, as it favors this backward production, with such use of thenasal resonance as mellows the tones. The tenor who has not learnedthe use of the nasal resonance, to give richness to the tones of hismiddle and upper range, has missed a valuable principle. On the otherhand, for voices that are too soft, lack brightness, and fail incarrying-power, a more forward production will often improve thequality of the voice greatly. But a little consideration must convincethe student that if he is to be master of his voice-productionthroughout, if he is to produce tones of every shade of quality, hemust be able to shift that voice about in every quarter as occasiondemands; in other words, _all the changes possible in theresonance-chambers must be at his command_. Such is the case in thevery greatest singers of both sexes; and, of course, this appliesequally, if not still more, to speakers. 

When the voice-producer has learned to intonate surely, when the voiceis "placed, " and the secrets of the registers are known to him, hewill do well to experiment a little, cautiously, with his ownresonance-chambers, so as to widen his practical knowledge of theprinciples underlying the modification of tones. Why should thestudent of the voice remain a mere imitator, when the one who works inany other direction is, or should be, encouraged to be an originalinvestigator? The inability of students to judge of either the groundsfor or the value of the exercises and methods recommended to them bytheir teachers seems to the author to indicate a regrettable state ofthings, which teachers of every form of vocal culture should endeavorto remedy. Some teachers do not use the terms "backward" and"forward, " but "darkening" and "brightening" the voice; and, ofcourse, the result of a certain use of the tongue and soft palate isto darken or veil the quality of the voice. But the attentive readerwill scarcely mistake the author's meaning in the above and otherreferences to this subject. 

It is scarcely necessary to point out that in what has been said noencouragement is intended to be given to the nasal twang, or any thingresembling it--and it is easy to so use the nasal resonance that itbecomes a defect; but the value of a judicious use of the nose insinging and speaking is, we are convinced, not as well known in vocalteaching as it deserves to be. 

SUMMARY. 

The relation of vowels and consonants to singing and speaking. Intonation should be by vowels only, at first. Consonants are anecessary evil in singing, but all-important in the formation ofwords--_i. E. _, in imparting ideas. 

Every language has its own special merits and defects for the purposesof song and speech. That language which abounds in vowels is the bestadapted for vocal exercises, etc. 

It is a cardinal error to begin a course in speaking and especiallysinging with exercises based on words. Vowel sounds should beexclusively employed at first. In the formation of vowels andconsonants the resonance-chambers are especially involved. 

The tongue, soft palate, and lips are the most movable parts, and sohave the largest share in giving color and meaning to sounds--_i. E. _, they are the organs most important in the formation of the elements ofwords. 

The "open mouth" should mean open mouth cavity and duly separatedlips. 

It is important that there be control of all parts of theresonance-chambers, and always in relation to other parts of the vocalapparatus. 

CHAPTER XV. 

THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH AND SONG. 

The subject treated in this chapter may be made dry enough; but if thestudent will, while reading the descriptions given, endeavor to formthe sounds described, observing at the same time his ownresonance-chambers (mouth parts) carefully in a hand-glass, and thenfollow up the applications made, the reader's experience will be, inall probability, like the author's: the more the subject is studiedthe more interesting does it become, especially if one experimentswith his own resonance apparatus. 

Vowels and consonants are the elements of syllables, and words arecomposed of the latter. However pure a vowel is, it is accompanied inits utterance by some noise; a consonant, by relatively a great dealof noise. 

A _noise_, in distinction to a musical tone, is characterized byirregularity as regards the vibrations that reach the ear, while inthe case of a tone a definite number of vibrations strikes against thedrum-head of the ear within a given time; so that so far as syllablesand words, even vowels, are concerned, we are not dealing with puretones. 

For the formation of each vowel a definite form of theresonance-chambers is essential. In uttering, either for the purposesof speech or song, the vowel _u_ (_oo_), the mouth cavity has the formof a large flask such as chemists use for their manipulations, but theneck in this case is short. The whole resonance cavity is elongated, and the lips are protruded; the larynx is depressed, and the root ofthe tongue and the fauces (folds from the soft palate, usually spokenof as the "pillars of the fauces") approach. The pitch of this vowelis very low. 

[Illustration: FIG. 56 (Beaunis). Shows the position of parts insounding the vowel _a_. By comparing this illustration with thosefollowing, the relatively greater size of the cavity of the mouth inthis case will be evident. The reader is recommended to at once testthe correctness of these representations by sounding the vowels, andobserving the parts of his own vocal mechanism with a hand-mirror. ]

In _[=o]_ the lips are nearer to the teeth, and the neck of the flaskis shorter and wider; the larynx is somewhat more elevated than in thelast case, and the pitch of the sound is higher. 

When sounding _a_ (as in _father_) the mouth cavity has the shape ofa funnel, wide in front; the tongue lies rather flat on the floor ofthe mouth, the lips are wide apart, and the soft palate is somewhatraised. 

In _[=a]_ (as in _fate_) there is some modification of the last, thetongue and larynx being more raised. The pitch of this vowel is higherthan is that of the more open _a_. 

In the case of _[=e]_ (as in _me_) the flask is relatively small, andthe neck is long and narrow, the larynx much raised, the lips drawnback against the teeth, and the tongue greatly elevated, so as to formthe narrow neck of the flask. The pitch of this vowel is high. 

[Illustration: FIG. 57 (Beaunis). Shows the relative position of partsin sounding _I_. In sounding _E_ the position is a good deal like thatfor _I_. ]

When sounding _[=i]_ (as in _mine_) the cavity of the mouth behindresembles a small-bellied flask with a long, narrow neck, the larynxis at its highest, and the lips assume a position much as in the caseof _[=e]_; between the hard palate and the back of the tongue there isonly a narrow passage--a mere furrow. The pitch of this vowel is alsohigh. 

It is thus seen that every vowel has its characteristic quality andpitch, the order as regards the latter being from below upward, _u_, _o_, _a_, _[=a]_, _e_, _i_. 

That the mouth cavity really can act as a resonance-chamber can beeasily demonstrated by holding a small vibrating tuning-fork beforethe open mouth, and varying the shape and size of the cavity till thesound of the fork is observed to be suddenly increased in volume. Thecavity then is a resonance-chamber for the fork, and thus intensifiesits sound; in other words, the air in the mouth cavity vibrates inharmony with the tuning-fork. 

To demonstrate in a simple manner that each vowel has its own pitch, the mouth cavity is put into the form usual in sounding the vowel, andthe finger is filliped against the cheek, when a tone answering inpitch to that of the vowel in question results. The demonstration iseasier with the lower-pitched, broader vowels, but the correctness ofthe order of the pitch mentioned above can thus be shown to beestablished. 

Some very important principles for the speaker and singer hinge uponthe above-mentioned facts. It follows, for example, that it isimpossible to give a vowel its _perfect_ sound in any but oneposition of the mouth parts, so that for a singer to utter a wordcontaining the vowel _[=u]_ (_oo_) at a high pitch is a practicalimpossibility. The listener may know what syllable is meant, andoverlook the defect either from habit or from an uncritical attitude, but composers of vocal music should bear such facts in mind and notimpose impossibilities on singers. At the same time, the vocalist, inorder to satisfy a modern audience, is obliged to sound every word andevery syllable as correctly as possible, even if the tone suffersomewhat thereby. It is wonderful how fully the best poets have, withthe insight of genius, adapted their words (vowels) to the ideas theywish to convey, and had all composers of vocal music done the same, the path of the singer would not have been strewn with so manythorns. The difficulties in the case of the speaker are similar, butless marked, as his range is so much more limited as regards pitch. 

[Illustration: FIG. 58 (Beaunis). Shows the relative position of theparts in sounding _OU_. ]

This subject has also most important bearings on the learning oflanguages. One is born with tendencies toward certain mouth positions, etc. , and from infancy he is constantly using the resonance-chambersin certain characteristic ways. In the course of years thesepositions, etc. , become such fixed habits that it is difficult tochange them, so that for this as well as many other reasons thelearning of languages by persons beyond a certain age is a difficultmatter. But to all students of a foreign tongue it is really essentialto explain the physical mechanism by which the various sounds aremade. The author has known an adult to struggle for months with Frenchand German pronunciation, and get into a state of discouragement, fearing that he never would be able to learn the languages in which hewished to speak and sing, when a few moments spent in explaining justwhat we have written above for vowels, and what we have earlier andshall now more fully set forth in this chapter as regards consonants, have been followed by the lifting of the cloud from the mind and of aload of heaviness from the heart. 

The learner should (1) hear the sound (elemental--a vowel, say) fromthe lips of the teacher, and actually perceive just what that soundis--_i. E. _, he must really hear it; (2) observe the shape of theresonance-chambers; (3) try to produce the same shape of his own, andunder the guidance of his ear and his eye (watching the mouth of theteacher) so utter the sound correctly. This sound should be fixed inthe mind, and the ear trained by comparing it with other sounds, asthe wise teacher will do, and require imitations. Any language can bepronounced correctly in a short time, if this method be followed. Itis, indeed, the only one that rests on science and common sense. Thestudent when away from the teacher, after he has once learned to formthe vowels correctly, should practise with a hand-glass before him forsome time, at least. 

The learning of a new language is the acquiring of a new mouth, or, atall events, entirely new methods of using the old one. In reality, however, this is not so fully the case as it at first seems. In allthe languages one wishes to acquire, the same vowels occur, and forthe learner it is often a question of lower or higher pitch, orgreater or less breadth, though all this involves the formation of newhabits and the fighting of old ones, and often in the case of theadult the struggle is a long-continued and severe one. Some nationsspeak at a lower pitch than others, and if a foreigner enunciate everso well, yet at the pitch of his own and not that of the new language, his utterance may seem foreign. The Germans speak at a much lowerpitch than Americans, and their tongue, even when grammatically spokenby the latter, is apt to have a sort of foreign flavor. It slightlydisturbs the listener, who is not accustomed to hear his mother-tonguetransposed into another key, so to speak. 

We have known a learner to derive great benefit from having it pointedout to him that certain of his vowel sounds would at once cease to beincorrect if their pitch were altered. Of course, in doing this, therewere at once many changes made in the resonance-chambers, in order toget the changed pitch. Pitch, accent, and duration of the sound throwmuch light on the subject of dialect, as a little analysis of Irish orScotch will show. 

Consonants are, as we have already said, noisy nuisances for thesinger, but indispensable for word-formation, and so for humanintercourse. Each has also its own pitch, and investigators have cometo a measurable degree of agreement on this subject. 

To illustrate: Madame Seiler found that _r_ and _s_ are separated fromeach other by an interval of many octaves: [Illustration: C], _r_;[Illustration: b-flat'''], _s_. The latter, _s_, cannot be soundedwithout more or less of a hissing sound, suggesting escape of air, which is very unpleasant to the ear, and, unfortunately, these hissingsounds are very common in English, so that the speaker or singer iscalled upon to use all his art to overcome this disagreeable effect. This is also prominent in _whispering_--_i. E. _, the escape of breath, with its corresponding effect on the ear. Whispering is effectedchiefly, if not solely, by the resonance-chambers, the vocal bandstaking only the slightest part, if any at all. 

The physiologist Brücke, treating of the utterance of consonants, considered that they were formed by the more or less complete closureof certain doors in the course of the outgoing blast of air, and wehave already referred to a consonant as an unpleasant interrupter, musically considered. Perhaps we should be disposed to compare them tothe people that talk during the performance at a concert, did we notwish to avoid bringing such useful members of the speech communityinto undeserved disrepute. 

Consonants, like vowels, have their own mouth positions. This followsfrom their having pitch, but, in addition, they require the use of thetongue, lips, etc. , in a special way. The principal articulationpositions are the following: (1) Between the lips; (2) between thetongue and the hard palate; (3) between the tongue and the softpalate; (4) between the vocal bands. 

To indicate this, certain terms have been employed, and as they are incommon use by those who treat of this subject, it will be well toexplain them. 

_Explosives_ are consonants in uttering which there is completeclosure with a sudden opening of the resonance-chambers in front, asin _b_ and _p_. 

[Illustration: FIG. 59 (Beaunis). Representation of the relativeposition of the parts and the resulting shape of the sounding chamberwhen the consonants indicated are formed vocally. Verification of thetruthfulness of the illustrations will prove profitable. ]

_Vibratives_ call for an almost complete closure of the door and avibration of its margin, as in _r_. 

_Aspirates_ partly close the opening, which is at once suddenly openedagain, as in _f_, _v_, etc. 

_Resonants_ close the mouth, so the sound must find its way outthrough the nose, as in _m_, _n_, _ng_. 

The above may be put in tabular form as follows:

ArticulationPositions. Explosives. Aspirates. Vibrates. Resonants. 

1 _b, p_ _f, v, w_ _m_2 _t, d_ _s, z, l, sch, th_ _n_3 _k, g_ _j, ch_ Palatal _r_ _ng_4 _h_

Of course the above is only one of many possible classifications, andexpresses only a part of the whole truth, for the formation of asingle consonant is a very complicated process, the exact nature ofwhich can only be very imperfectly analyzed and expressed in words. 

In complexity of action the resonance-chambers are wonderful beyondany instrument devised by man, and the more one studies the subject, the greater the wonder becomes at the amount and complexity of thework done in a single day's speaking. It is also easy to understandhow difficult it is to attain to absolutely perfect results. To enableone's fellow-creatures to understand him in even his mother-tongueinvolves an amount of effort and energy, a complexity and facility infunction, that can only be reached after months of practice ininfancy; but to attain to that degree of perfection that makes anartist in speaking, how much greater is the expenditure in vitalcapital! Is not the result when attained worth the best efforts of themost talented individual?

CHAPTER XVI. 

FURTHER THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION OF VOWELS ANDCONSONANTS. 

The reader will now be prepared to consider the answer to be given tothe question as to the _vowels_ most suitable for practice inintonation. Plainly, _a_ (_ah_) puts the resonance-chambers into theeasiest and best position to form a good pure tone. The pitch of thevowel is intermediate--not very low and not high in the scale. For thehigher tones, evidently, _[=a]_, _e_, and _i_ are better than _a_(_ah_), much less _o_ and _u_, which are quite out of the question, comparatively speaking. 

However, as music must be sung with vowels in every position, it isplainly necessary to learn to sound all the vowels well throughout thescale. In fact, one might wisely, after preliminary practice on _a_, begin a scale below with _u_, then go on to _o_, _a_, _[=a]_, _e_, and_i_. 

Some have recommended that the vocalist begin his scale practices with_a_, and when the higher middle tones are reached, that he use _[=a]_, and for head tones _[=a]_ and _e_, an advice which is obviously sound, as it is based on scientific principles. 

Sounds that are very expressive in public utterance, whether in speechor song, are _l_ and especially _r_. In ordinary speech most personsuse only the guttural _r_, in the formation of which the soft palatetakes a prominent part; but for the speaker and the singer the lingual_r_ is often much more effective. It is produced by the vibration ofthe tip of the tongue, and can only be formed well, in most cases, after long-continued and persevering practice. 

Certain consonants tend to nasality. These are _m_, _n_, _ng_, and ofthese all persons who are disposed to this production to the point ofexcess must especially beware. These letters, with such people, shouldbe given a rapid and forward production, while singers with hard andmetallic voices will do well to sing syllables beginning with theseconsonants, such as _maw_, _naw_, _ang_, _eng_, etc. 

According to the teachings of physics, the quality of a tone isdetermined largely by the number and variety of the _overtones_accompanying the fundamental tone. Practically all musical tones, whether vocal or instrumental, are made up of the ground tone andcertain others less loud and prominent, and the latter are theovertones. These may be very numerous, and some are favorable andothers unfavorable to excellence in quality. It has been thought, asthe result of scientific investigation, that when the first octave ofthe fundamental tone and its fifth interval are prominent, the voiceis soft, and with the fifth and seventh well in evidence, the voice isbright and clear. 

It might be said that the voice-user should endeavor to keep out ofhis voice certain overtones, especially those which are not withinthe range of our modern harmonies. A harsh voice is one in which suchunharmonic intervals preponderate. 

The most beautiful quality of tone is produced by keeping intensitywithin limits, and by a sudden, elastic attack, a point on which wedwelt at some length before; but this only emphasizes the importanceof all who use the voice employing, not only when beginners, butthroughout their career, exercises with vowels alone. Only in this waywill the association between the hearing of pure tones and theirproduction be established. 

Such exercises are also necessary to give good carrying power to thevoice. If more attention were given to this point, and less to theproduction of mere volume of sound, it would be well for the bestmusical art. Naturally, the higher the pitch of tones, within certainlimits, the greater their carrying power, and the reverse, of course, with the lower tones; so that it is very important that the speakerand singer use all reasonable means to produce these lower tones well, else they are muffled, and the words associated with them are notheard. This principle should be borne in mind especially by tenors andlight sopranos, in whom the lower tones are not usually the best, orthe easiest to produce; so that a good attack and careful and neatsyllable-formation, with all attention to both vowels and consonants, should be especially studied, and, above all, in tones below about Gon the treble clef. The tendency to close the mouth, especially in adescending scale, below this point, and to confound blurring with soft(_piano_) singing, is common. A _piano_ tone should be formed withespecial care as to attack, open mouth, etc. , and all words associatedwith the duller, lower-pitched vowels be spoken with the greatestdistinctness, both in singing and speaking. At the same time, thebarytone and contralto should not boast themselves over the tenor orsoprano, if they are more successful with lower tones and the wordsassociated with them, for the latter class of singers can often revellike birds in regions not approachable by the deeper-voiced singers. Each in its own order!

It follows that if the organs of speech are used so as to producevowels, consonants, and their combinations, with unusual and, forpractical purposes, unnecessary distinctness, the actual performance, as demanded by a critical ear, will be easier. One that can run twohundred yards as readily as another can one hundred is in a betterposition for the shorter sprint than the other man; hence the wisdomof the singer and speaker practising first with unusual and indeedunnecessary distinctness, so far as the listener is concerned, inorder that he may satisfy even the critical with _ease_--thatall-important principle in art. 

All persons must, of necessity, speak in some register, and even anear but little cultivated can recognize that the pitch and quality ofthe tones of adult males, adult females, and children differ greatlyfrom each other. 

Madame Seiler has thus expressed herself on this subject:

"Women use mostly tones of the second chest and first falsettoregisters, sometimes also those of the first chest register. Men speakan octave lower than women, and use mostly the upper half of the chestregister. In public speaking, as well as on the stage, the secondchest register is used by men, and sometimes also the lowest tones ofthe voice. The second falsetto and head registers are used only bylittle children. "

It will be remembered that Madame Seiler's "second chest" correspondsto the upper chest tones of some writers, and that "falsetto" isequivalent to "middle, " as generally employed. 

Ordinary speech is economical, and a range of very few tones, usuallynot more than two to four intervals of the scale, suffices, but on thestage, and by some of our best public speakers, twice this range maybe exceeded. In nature, the cat, under the excitement of a heatedinterview with a fellow-vocalist, may pass through an entire octave. 

SUMMARY. 

The shape of the resonance-chambers varies in the formation of vowelsand consonants, which may be classified accordingly, or according totheir pitch. 

Practical implications for singing and speaking, the learning offoreign languages, the study of dialects, etc. 

The importance of special attention to those words containing thelow-pitched and dark vowels, especially when low in the scale, andwhen sung _piano_. 

Overtones, and their bearing on the quality of the voice. 

The carrying power of the voice, determined by the method of itsproduction, is more important than its volume. 

The value of practice with the use of a mirror, and of the formationof the sounds in practice with a distinctness in excess of the actualneeds of the listener. Ease is essential to art. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

THE HEARING APPARATUS AND HEARING IN MUSIC. 

So important are the ingoing sensory messages (impulses) thatoriginate in the ear, as a guide not only in the appreciation ofmusical sounds but in those movements on which all musical execution, all vocal effects, whether of song or speech, depend, that we thinkthe reader will welcome a chapter on the ear, even though it be nopart of the vocal apparatus proper. 

The essential mechanism used by Nature to give us the sensation ofsound consists of (1) a complicated form of nerve-ending; (2) anauditory nerve leading from, and a continuation, in a certain sense, of, the latter; (3) nerve tracts and hearing centres in the brain. Thewhole constitutes a very complicated mechanism, but the principles onwhich it is constructed may be reduced to a few. Mechanical orphysical principles, as well as physiological ones, are involved. 

The entire apparatus has for its purpose the conversion of thevibrations of the air into the vibrations of a fluid, which thusstimulates the end-organ, and brings about those changes in the nervewhich result in corresponding changes in the brain, that areassociated, in some way we cannot explain, to that state ofconsciousness we term hearing. Complicated as is the auditoryapparatus, it can be readily enough comprehended, if the readeraccompany the perusal of the text by an examination of the figuresintroduced. 

[Illustration: FIG. 60. (Beaunis). In this illustration parts areexposed to view by the removal of others. The whole of the inner earlies within bone, which in this figure is cut away. The drum-head(membrana tympani); the Eustachian tube, extending from the back ofthe throat, and opening into the middle ear; the semicircular canals(which are not concerned with hearing, but with the maintenance ofequilibrium); the cochlea, (snail-shell), which contains the variousparts most essential to hearing, as the "hair-cells, " the terminals ofthe auditory nerve, the latter nerve itself, and several otherparts--are well shown. Should the Eustachian tube be closed owing toswelling of its lining mucous membrane, a certain amount of temporarydeafness may result, because, the air within the middle ear (drum)being absorbed, and fresh air not being admitted, the outer airpresses against the drum-head uncounteracted, and renders theconducting mechanism too rigid. ]

Anatomists speak of (1) an outer or external ear, (2) a middle ear, drum, or tympanum, and (3) an inner ear, or labyrinth. 

[Illustration: FIG. 61 (Beaunis). Diagrammatic representation of theauditory apparatus. The external, middle, and internal ear areseparated by dotted lines. A, the external; B, the middle; C, theinternal ear; 1, auricle; 2, external auditory meatus; 3, tympanum(middle ear), with its chain of bones, 7, 8, 9. Into it opens 5, Eustachian tube, leading from back of throat; 4, membrana tympani ordrum-head, closing the middle ear off from the external ear. The mostimportant part of the inner ear is 13, the cochlear canal, in whichthe "hair-cells" are found, around which latter the final branches ofthe auditory nerve end. Above it is the scala vestibuli and below itthe scala tympani, passages filled with fluid. The openings to thesecanals are closed with membrane. Attached to the membrane of the ovalopening is the stapes (stirrup). It is thus seen that vibrationscommunicated to the chain of bones from the tympanic membrane arepassed on to the fluid filling the passages (scalæ) of the cochlea, and thus affect the hair-cells, and so the nerve of hearing, andthrough it the brain. The parts indicated by 12 and 16 are importantin the maintenance of equilibrium, but are not concerned in hearing. ]

The purpose of the _outer ear_ is to collect the air vibrations andconvey them to the middle ear, which passes them on to the inner ear, where they produce the vibrations in the fluid therein contained andwhich affect the end-organ and nerve-endings, and thus initiate theessential physiological processes in the nerve of hearing. It followsthat we have an instance of the conversion of one kind of vibrations, those of the air, into another kind, those of fluid, which latterfurnish a sufficiently delicate stimulus or excitation of the finehair-like extensions (_processes_) of the cells known as_hair-cells_, about which the nerves in their final smallest brancheswrap themselves. 

[Illustration: FIG. 62 (Beaunis). Two of the bones of the ear (themalleus or hammer and the incus or anvil) enlarged. These smallear-bones have joints like larger ones. The line of conveyance ofvibrations is indicated by B A. ]

When we ourselves hear sounds when under water, we are affecteddirectly by the vibrations of that water; in this case we, in ourwhole body, represent the hair-cells which are stimulated by the fluid(_endolymph_) which surrounds them. 

[Illustration: FIG. 63 (Beaunis). The complete chain of bones. Thearrows indicate in a general way the direction of the line oftransmission of vibrations from the tympanic membrane on to the fluidwithin the passages of the inner ear. ]

The external ear, well developed in many of the lower animals, beingoften highly movable, is practically immovable in man, and is whollywanting in some animals, as the frog. The circular plate one seesbehind the eye of the frog is the drum-head of the middle ear. 

From the _drum-head_, or _tympanic membrane_, the vibrations, whichare now those of a solid, are communicated by a series of very smallbones, most beautifully linked together by perfect joints, to anothermembrane, which closes a small hole in the outer wall of the innerear. 

The _middle ear_, it will be seen, is a drum with its stretchedmembrane like any other drum, and it too has a communication with theexterior air through a tube, the _Eustachian tube_, which leads fromthe drum into the back part of the throat. When one has a cold, themucous membrane which lines this tube may become swollen or evencatarrhal, and be so closed that no air can enter from the throat; theair already within the drum being absorbed, the outer air pressesunduly against the drum-head, with the result that the wholeconducting apparatus is put more or less out of condition, and acertain degree of deafness naturally results. The tension of thedrum-head is regulated by a muscle attached to the bone which isconnected with the inner part of this membrane. 

It is now easy to understand how any unfavorable condition of thethroat may affect the ear, or that of the ear influence the throat. 

In the hearing mechanism of man, the _inner ear_, or _labyrinth_, wellso named because of its complexity, is really situated in the innerhardest portion of the "temporal" bone. It consists of a membrane anda bony portion, the former containing the essential mechanism ofhearing, the latter being chiefly protective to it. The membranousportion consists of a series of canals communicating with somesimilarly membranous sacs, the whole being surrounded by and filledwith fluid. These latter communicate with an extension termed the_cochlea_, which contains a central canal in which that collection ofcells is found which constitutes the _end-organ_, among them thehair-cells, about which the nerve ends. 

This end-organ in the cochlea may be compared very fitly to thetelephone which receives the message, and that portion of the brainwhere the auditory tract ends, to the telephone at the distant end ofthe path, the listener there representing consciousness. The auditorypath within the brain is long and complicated, there being, in fact, many way-stations through which the message passes before it reachesthe final one. 

The auditory nerve proceeds first to the lowest or hindermost portionof the brain, known as the _bulb_, or _medulla oblongata_; thence acontinuation of the nerve tract passes forward to a central region, the _posterior corpora quadrigemina_, then, by a new relay ofnerve-fibres, to the highest and most important part of the brain, that most closely associated with consciousness, the _cortex of thetemporal lobe_, where there is situated the most important of all thecentres of hearing. 

It will be apparent, on consideration, that "hearing" is a veryelaborate result, the outcome of many physiological processes(initiated by physical ones), the initial and final being betterunderstood than the intermediate ones. 

One asks, with natural curiosity and interest, "Is the auditoryapparatus of the highly endowed musician different from and superiorto that of the individual with little talent for music?"

It is not easy to give a short and definite answer to this question. No special examinations of the essential parts of the ears of eminentmusicians have been made, so far as we are aware, and as yet few ofthe brains of this class of men. It is, however, practically certainthat there is a brain development peculiar to the born musician, andthat this, whatever else it may be, involves a special excellence ofthe auditory path within the brain, rather than any unusualdevelopment of the essential parts of the ear. The individual who is amusical prodigy has, without question, _a more perfect connection_established between his auditory apparatus, in the widest sense of theword, and those muscular mechanisms employed in the execution ofmusic, whether vocal or instrumental, than is the case with theaverage man. Usually, with this goes a wide series of brainassociations or connections, we may presume, between the auditorytracts and other regions, for without this it is difficult to explaintemperament and artistic perception. That they are not necessarilyassociated, however, is clear from the fact that some have a highdegree of executive ability and little real artistic development. 

It must never be forgotten, however, that whatever else music may be, it is essentially and primarily a sensuous experience. The one whoenjoys music must feel its sensuous charm, and the artist whofurnishes that which is enjoyed addresses himself primarily to ourauditory mechanism. Executing music is hearing music, and enjoyingmusic is hearing music, though both may involve much more than this, and herein individuals must differ greatly, owing to education, pastexperience, etc. ; but all who have the power to really appreciatemusic must be capable of the sensuous enjoyment of tones. In this alleverywhere find something in common; often that which we enjoy is ofthe most varied nature. 

One thing is certain: those connections between the hearing and themotor processes we term singing or playing should be made early inlife, if they are to reach that degree of facility and generalexcellence essential to success. We think there is good reason tobegin voice-production early, as well as the practice of aninstrument, though we do not maintain that the argument is as strongin the one case as in the other. 

That the "ear for music" may be well developed, in the sense that onemay know perfectly what is correct in time and tune, without the powerto execute well, there can be no doubt, as witness the case of manycomposers, but the reverse does not hold. There can be no doubt that_the nervous impulses that pass from the ear to the brain are of allsensory messages the most important guides for the outgoing ones thatdetermine the necessary movements_. 

The author would advise every serious student of music to believe inthe unlimited capacity of his own ear for improvement. The lack of"ear" of many people is due largely, if not solely, to inattention. Indeed, an excess of temperament may be a positive hindrance tomusical development, both as regards appreciation and execution, forit may be accompanied by inattentive listening and consequentinadequate hearing. On the other hand, no one should, because he has agood faculty for time and tune and the memorizing of airs, concludethat he is an artist. The one faculty may exist altogether apart fromthe capacity for the highest art. It is a matter of history thatseveral vocalists now before the public, and who rank in the highestclass of musical artists, displayed at one period of their career alack of perception as to pitch or rhythm that was, to say the least, very discouraging, and which, but for their force of character, wouldhave kept them from ever being eminent. 

If one have neither ear, temperament, nor artistic perception, heshould not waste his energies on musical study--at least, not extendedefforts; but if he have the two last, and but a moderate ear, he willdo well to try to improve the lower for the sake of the higherqualities. 

In children the difficulty often is due wholly to inattention. 

Those who would cultivate the speaking voice are frequentlydiscouraged from lack of "ear, " and when urged to follow suchexercises as have been recommended in this work, complain that theyhave not the "ear" to do so. To such the author would say, "Persevere;believe in your ear; learn to listen--_i. E. _, to attend to soundshaving musical qualities. "

Besides, it must not be forgotten that in addition to the"ear"--_i. E. _, the ability to appreciate relative pitch, tune, andrhythm--there is also the entirely distinct faculty that appreciatesthe _quality_ of sounds. The latter is really more important for thespeaker, who can succeed with a very moderate development of thefaculty for time and tune, but to whom the power to appreciate the_quality_ of sounds is essential. 

No doubt the first and fundamental qualities in the make-up of amusician are the capacities to appreciate pitch and rhythm, but noresult worthy the term "artistic" can be produced in which attentionis not given to the quality of sounds, hence the technical andartistic should be developed together. The lack of attention on thepart of a certain class of vocal teachers to the quality of the tonesproduced is one of the special defects in the instruction of the day. 

In the early weeks of vocal training, when the student should intoneonly before his teacher, the former need not be left without musicalculture, and it is for each teacher to give the pupil that training, at this time, which will forestall disgust and impatience at theapparent slowness of his progress. At this time much can be done tocultivate the ear in all its various powers. 

And the author would like to put in a plea for the development of the_appreciation of music_. Whatever difference of opinion there may beas to choral singing, singing in schools, etc. , there can be noquestion that time spent in developing the appreciation of musical artis well spent, and makes for the development and provides for theinnocent and elevating sources of enjoyment of a people. If some ofthe time spent in bad piano-playing were devoted to the development ofthe power to appreciate and delight in really good music, includingthe sweet sounds of speech and song, the world would thereby begreatly the gainer. 

The author would impress on all students of music, and of the voice asused in both singing and speaking, the paramount importance oflearning early to listen most attentively to others when executingmusic; and, above all, to listen with the greatest care to themselves, and never to accept any musical tone that does not fully satisfy theear. When one considers how much harshness is passed as singing orspeaking, by the student, even by those who pose as public singers andspeakers, one must often wonder where they keep their ears. As amatter of fact, the ideal listeners are rare, and the critical ear, like a sentinel on guard, is among students, really seldom to be metwith, if one extend the term "listening" to mean giving attentionequally and in the most critical way, not only to pitch and rhythm, but also to the quality of sounds, the effects of pauses, shading, etc. , all of which are perceived through the ear. 

If such listening requires, as it does, the closest attention, it mustgive rise to fatigue, so that it is clear that the lengthy practicessome undertake are against the plainest laws of physiology andpsychology, even if the hearing processes alone be considered; but aswe have before shown, there are other reasons why such long-continuedexercises as some attempt are in every way unwise; in fact, in theauthor's opinion, they are in the musical world a great evil under thesun. 

SUMMARY. 

Hearing is finally a psychological or mental condition, a state ofconsciousness, but is always associated with certain physiologicalprocesses, which are initiated by a physical stimulus in the form ofwaves in a fluid surrounding the hair-cells of the auditory end-organ;which waves may again be traced to the movements of the bones of themiddle ear, caused by the swinging to and fro of the drum-head, owingto vibrations of the air produced by a sounding body. 

The ear is anatomically divisible into external, middle (tympanum ordrum), and internal (labyrinth). The outer ear collects thevibrations, the middle ear conducts them, and the internal convertsthem into a special physiological condition of the hair-cells and theauditory nerve. This condition is communicated to the other links inthe anatomical hearing chain, until the highest part of the brain, orcortex, is reached. Hearing, from the physiological point of view, isthe outcome of a series of processes having their development in acorresponding series of centres, or collections of nerve-cells. 

The perceptions associated with the ear, in the mind of the musician, are those of the pitch, rhythm (and time), and quality of tones. Theloudness of a tone is, of course, recognized by the ear also, but thisis hardly a musical quality proper. In reality, like all that belongsto hearing, these perceptions are the result of a series ofphysiological processes, in which the ear takes an important but notthe sole or even the chief part, which is to be referred to the brain. 

It is practically important to recognize that these various qualitiesare distinct perceptions, and that the "ear" for relative pitch mayexist well developed and the color, clang, or quality of a tone beimperfectly recognized, and the reverse. 

The most comprehensive ear-training involves attention to each of theabove characters of tones, and then uniting them in a musicallyperfect result. Lack of "ear" is often simply want of attention to thecharacters of sounds. 

The auditory messages are the most important of all the nervousimpulses that reach the brain, for the musician, whether appreciationor execution be considered. They are the chief guides for the outgoingnervous impulses to the muscles. 

The good executant must, above all, be a good listener. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

CONSIDERATION OF GENERAL AND SPECIAL HYGIENE AND RELATED SUBJECTS. 

Hygiene deals with the laws by the observance of which health is to bemaintained and disease prevented; but as such laws must be based onphysiological principles, hygiene follows from physiology. Accordingly, throughout this work our method has been to point out thecorrect way as soon as the physiological principle has been laid down, so that the reason for the recommendation made would be obvious. However, it may be well if now some of the more important tendencies, errors, bad habits, and dangers to be guarded against by the singerand speaker be pointed out afresh, briefly, with some additionalobservations that experience has shown to be of practical importance. 

Hygiene, for all persons, should, in the widest sense, refer to thewhole man, his body, intellect, feelings, and will, though the termhas usually been restricted to the preservation of bodily health. But, fortunately, it is being more and more recognized that man is a whole, and that one part of him cannot suffer without the othersparticipating, so we shall pursue the broader course, and consider thegeneral welfare of the voice-user as properly coming underconsideration. 

He, being a human being like his fellows, must, of course, observe thesame laws for the preservation of his general health as they, but justbecause he comes before the public, his case is peculiar, and he must, in addition, take special precautions to avoid every form of temporaryor permanent disability. 

There is, of course, much in the life of a public speaker or singerthat conduces to health of body and mind, such as the vigorous use ofthe breathing apparatus, the favorable effect of praise expressed inone way and another, etc. , but even with the most successful, all thismay be more than counter-balanced by other unfavorable factors. Whenone considers the necessary travelling, often including nightjourneys, the late hours, the concentrated efforts essential tosuccess, the uncertainty of the public taste, the rivalries, jealousies, exhaustion, etc. , often associated with a public career, it must be clear that no one should embark upon it without countingwell the cost. For one with mediocre ability, imperfect training, voice of very limited range, power, and quality, feeble will, animperfectly developed body, and indifferent health, to enter on apublic career is practically to court failure and to ensuredisappointment and unhappiness. 

It is to be remembered that never was the world so exacting of theartist, and never were there so many aspirants to popular favor, sothat the competition in the ranks of the actors and singers, atleast, is very keen. At the same time, there is room for a certainclass of persons--viz. , those with good health, excellent physique, first-rate ability, self-control, sound moral principles, perseverance, industry, musical feeling, and artistic insight, withvocal organs trained like the muscles of the athlete, and, in the caseof singers, sound musical knowledge and an exacting and reliable ear. 

Considering that the actor, often the public speaker, and the singerare constantly being put under excessive strain, it follows that (1)such persons should begin with an unusually good physicalorganization--others can scarcely hope to get into the first class, even with the best abilities; and (2) because there is a tendency toexhaustion of the body and mind through emotional and otherexpenditure, the public voice-user must take precautions, on the onehand, to prevent this, and, on the other, to make good his outlay byspecial means. He needs more sleep and rest generally than others, andhe should counteract the influence of unhealthy conditions on thestage or platform by some quiet hours in the open air, all the betterif with some congenial friend, sympathetic with his aims, yetbelonging, preferably perhaps, to another profession, and who willspeak of topics other than those that are ever recurring in the lifeof an artist. The uninterrupted pursuit of one thing, without the mindand spirit being fed from other springs, can be good for no humanbeing. The specialist who is only a specialist will never reach thevery highest point. The artist must seek sources of inspiration andmental nutriment outside of his own line of thought, or he will sufferprofessionally and in his own spirit. 

The reader will by this time understand why the author considers thatfor one who would be an artist to enter on his public career withoutthe fullest mental equipment and vocal training is an exceedinglyunwise course. Technique should be acquired before an aspirant tosuccess steps on a public stage or platform, and this is exactly whatis so seldom done in these days, and why we have so few singers, actors, and public speakers of the highest rank. Many, very many, knowwhat they wish to express, and, in a sense, how to express it, butthey have neither the formed voice nor the control of that voice bywhich their ideas are to be embodied. Let no one delude himself intothe belief that technique will be learned in public; such is rarely, if ever, the case. Expression, style, etc. , may come to the vocalistor speaker all the more readily if he occasionally goes before thepublic; but that such may be so, he must first have voice andtechnique. It is because of the neglect of this training for theacquirement of technique that so many naturally good voices are oflittle practical use for the public, and this explains why the ranksof the professions are crowded with inferior artists, if, indeed, artists they may be called. 

The _isolation_ of the dramatic and musical artist from his fellowsgenerally is a great evil. Much that society complains of in thelives of artists would never exist but for this isolation, in spite ofthe fact that the artistic temperament is so moody and so impulsive, so little regardful of ordinary conventionalities. That it is so ispartly the fault of society. It is quite true that because ofjourneying, rehearsals, etc. , the travelling artist has little time tomeet the members of the community in private life; but this state ofthings could be mitigated were society and the artists themselvesconvinced that for any class of people to live in little hives, whollyseparated from their fellows, must be unfortunate for them andsociety. Artists as men and women are practically unknown to theworld, though their false selves as represented by sensationalparagraphs in newspapers are only too familiar to us. It may truly besaid of the artist: "Be thou as chaste as ice, as pure as snow, thoushalt not escape calumny. " It is within the power of society to alterthis, and it should do so. 

Why is it that actors and singers do not prepare themselves by asprolonged and thorough a vocal training as in a past time?

Considering that there never was a period when there was the samescope for art, never a time when the public was so eager to hear andso able to pay for art, as now, never a period of such widespreadintelligence on all subjects, music included, the question is a verypertinent one. We believe there are many factors underlying thetechnical decadence we must regret. The orchestra has greatlydeveloped, choral singing is common in all countries, and the spiritof the times has changed. So analytical, so refined is our age, thatsinging sometimes becomes a sort of musical declamation, but, unfortunately, without that power to declaim possessed by the actorsand often the opera-singers of a former period. A singer oftenattempts now to make up by an expressive reading of a song, fortechnical defects. We must all commend every evidence ofintellectuality in music, but this does not imply that we shouldaccept good intentions for execution--performance. Let us have everypossible development of orchestral music; let every village have, ifpossible, its choral society, but let none enter it who have not beentrained vocally. 

Out of the author's own experience he could a tale unfold of the evildone to the vocal organs by those who have sung in choirs withoutadequate vocal training. Choristers are tempted to reach high tones bya process of their own, without any regard to registers, and withcorresponding effects on their throats, some of which imply alsolasting injury to the voice itself. 

In choral singing there is the tendency to lean on certain singers whoare natural leaders, with the result that there is little independentlistening and individual culture, even if the singer could hear hisown voice well, which is not usually the case. The same objections andothers apply to class singing in schools, which does little formusic, and tends to make slovenly singers. If some of the time givento school singing were taken up in illustrating why certain musicalselections are good, and others mere rubbish--in other words, informing the taste of the nation in the children--a valuable work wouldbe done; but school class singing, as commonly carried out, tendsrather to injure than develop voices and good musical taste. 

We cannot honestly pass by the subject of Wagner's music and some ofits tendencies. Wagner was an intellectual giant among men, and hisworks are amazingly grand, yet they unfortunately are, in a certainsense, responsible for much bad singing and not a little injury tofine voices. 

First of all, Wagner's operas are, in their present form, too long. Tosing these compositions night after night is beyond human powers, evenin the case of those of the most perfect musical and technicaltraining. If they were divided into two, and one half sung on oneevening and the other on the next, it would be a gain for the publicand the artists. It is impossible for even the musically cultivated toabsorb and assimilate the whole of such an opera as "Siegfried" or"Tristan and Isolde" in one evening, and it is too much to expect anyartist to sing them through without a rest. 

Again, they call for such strong accents, such deep and strenuousbreathing, that the artist impersonating a hero or a god or goddessis put to a degree of exertion that is too great for human powers whencontinued for more than a very moderate period; besides, there is atemptation to a wrong use of the larynx--a forcible _coup de glotte_, or attack--that is exceedingly dangerous, and has injured many voicesand ruined others. The man or woman who would sing Wagner's greatermusic dramas should, in addition to a strong physique, be master of awonderfully perfect technique. These operas should never be attemptedby very young singers of either sex, and especially not by very youngwomen. They are for the powerful, the mature, the perfectly trained, the experienced. 

Turning to some special faults, we would warn against the "scoop, " theexcessive use of the _portamento_, or glide, so common a fault at thepresent time, and the _vibrato_ and _tremolo_. 

The two former are musical faults, so we pass them by without furtherconsideration. Otherwise is it with the last two faults; they bothresult from a wrong use of the vocal organs. They are both due to someunsteadiness and lack of control, and, unfortunately, when onceacquired, are very difficult to remedy. The unsteadiness may be almostanywhere in the vocal organs, but is usually referable to therespiratory apparatus or to the larynx. 

A _vibrato_ is the milder form of the evil, and is encouraged, weregret to say, by some teachers, while the _tremolo_ is due to anextreme unsteadiness, and, so far as we are aware, is universallycondemned. It is about the worst fault any singer can have. It isevident in some cases only when the vocalist sings _piano_, but mostlyin vigorous singing, and often arises from straining, disregard ofregisters, etc. It may be due to the singer trying to control toolarge a supply of air, or from bringing a blast to bear on the vocalbands too strong for them. In every case there is lack of adjustmentbetween the vocal bands and the respiratory organs. The remedy must beadapted to the case, but usually the singer must for a time give upthe use of the voice in _forte_ singing altogether, and graduallyagain learn to control his vocal mechanism. 

Associated sometimes with this fault is another, which, indeed, oftengives rise to the former--viz. , "pumping, " or attempting to vocalizeafter the breath power is exhausted. One should always have enough airin reserve to sing at least two tones more than what is required. 

It will be observed that good singing and speaking are alwaysphysiological--_i. E. _, they depend on the observance of well-knownphysiological principles; we wish we could add, principles clearlyrecognized by singers and teachers generally. It is to those who dothat we would recommend the student of the vocal art to go at theoutset of his career, otherwise much time may be lost and possiblymuch injury done. We distinguish, of course, between the teacher whorecognizes physiological principles only practically and the one whodoes so consciously. The former may be an excellent and safe teacher, though, we think, not so good, other things being equal, as one of thelatter type, --as yet somewhat rare. 

At an earlier period we referred to the important matter ofclassifying the voice. It often happens that one who is a tenor istrained as a barytone, or a contralto as a soprano, and the reverse, only to discover later that a mistake has been made. If it couldbecome the custom to have vocal consultations among teachers, asmedical ones among doctors, the author is convinced it would be well. Often a patient is sent a long distance to consult a medical man, andto return to his own physician for treatment based on the diagnosismade. In these instances the doctor consulted is expected to write hisviews privately to the patient's doctor, and to recommend treatment. Why should the same not occur in the vocal teacher's profession? It isconsidered scandalous in the medical profession to "steal" anotherphysician's patient, and why should not a similar etiquette prevail inthe profession now under consideration? The teacher in doubt about avoice might thus obtain the views of another member of his profession, of longer experience, on such a vital point as the classification of avoice, and with satisfaction alike to himself and to his pupil. If theteacher or pupil were not satisfied with the diagnosis, anothereminent vocal teacher might be consulted, which would only befollowing custom in the medical profession. 

We would again remind the reader that voices are to be _classified byquality_, and not by range, at least not to any appreciable extent. 

Of all persons, the singer should know himself. He must learn hislimitations, and the sooner the better. At the outset of his career hemay be able to take certain liberties with himself with apparentimpunity, but sooner or later he will pay the penalty; so that werecommend him to live with all the care of an athlete in training. However it may be with other men, spirits in every form, tobacco, etc. , are not for him. Both tend to irritate and relax if not toinflame the throat, not to mention their bad effects on the generalhealth, both psychical and physical. This advice is all the morenecessary when one considers the exacting nature of the professionallife of the artist. Strenuous exertion tends to fatigue andexhaustion, with a natural desire to relieve them by some specialmeans, such as alcohol. To do so is often but to make a beginning ofthe end. How many bright lights in the dramatic and musicalprofessions have been prematurely quenched through indulgence in thedelusive draught! If tonics, sedatives, etc. , are to be taken, whichshould not be a habitual practice, they should be used only under thedirection of a medical man, and not self-prescribed. 

As the speaker and singer must often practise their art in anatmosphere that is far from pure, they will do well to carry out in aroutine way some sort of mouth toilet on their return home and thenext morning. Various simple mouth and throat washes may be used, suchas (1) water with a little common salt dissolved in it; (2) watercontaining a few drops of carbolic acid--just enough to be distinctlytasted; (3) water containing listerine; (4) either of the last twowith the addition of a pinch of bicarbonate of sodium to a teacupfulof the fluid, when there is a tendency to catarrh. 

The use of lozenges in a routine way is not to be commended, and thosecontaining morphia, cocaine, etc. , should be employed only under thesupervision of a medical practitioner. Sometimes, especially in thecase of nervousness, a licorice pellet or a particle of gum arabicserves a good purpose in aiding in keeping the mouth moist. 

For one with a healthy throat the sipping of water is unnecessary, andthe habit is one on no account to be learned, for the most admirableeffect may be spoiled through the speaker stopping to sip water; thereis the fatal and rapid descent from the lofty to the little. 

It is much more important to avoid eating certain things whichinterfere with the voice than to take anything to improve it beforesinging or speaking. Each individual should learn just what he can orcannot with safety eat. Certain kinds of fruit, cheese, fat meat, pastry, nuts, occasionally even butter, not to mention puddings, etc. , must be put on the list of what singers and speakers had better notpartake of before a public appearance. But the quantity is quite asimportant as the quality of the food taken. About one half the usualquantity, at most, and of very simple but nourishing food, is enoughfor any one who would do himself justice before the public. If bloodand energy be drawn off to the stomach by a large meal, it cannot beavailable for the uses of the artist. Moreover, a full stomachpressing up under the diaphragm greatly hampers the movements of this, the most important of all the muscles of breathing. Of course, thepublic singer or speaker should eat after his work is done, of whatand how much he can best learn by experience. 

As the author has felt called upon to condemn the use of alcohol inevery form, he should, perhaps, point out that to take a cup of such amild stimulant as tea or coffee during an interval, in the case ofthose who feel weary, is generally an unobjectionable, indeed, often auseful, procedure; but the less the artist coddles himself, especiallywhile still young, the better. 

We would again call attention to one anatomical fact of greatimportance for the explanation of certain facts of experience--viz. :that the whole respiratory tract, the larynx included, is lined with a_mucous membrane_, which is continuous with that covering the innersurface of the digestive organs. That is to say, the nose, the mouth, the back of the throat, the larynx, the windpipe, the bronchial tubes, the gullet, the stomach and intestines are all brought into structuralconnection by this common lining membrane. Moreover, these parts haveto some extent the same nerve supply, and are, in fact, so relatedthat derangement in one region must affect sooner or later, and to avariable degree according to the resisting power of each individual, other related parts. Thus it is that a disordered stomach affects thevoice, that a cold may affect digestion, that a catarrh of the nosewill eventually reach the vocal bands, etc. 

Another principle of wide-reaching importance is that all sorts of_compression_ must, of necessity, be attended by functional disorders, which, if long continued, will result in organic or structural changesimplying deterioration of a kind that must be more or less permanent. Whatever the cause of compression of the chest or neck, the result isthe same: a retention of blood in parts for too long a period--acondition of things which must inevitably be injurious. 

The tissues are made up of cells, which are the individuals of thebodily community. Around these cells are found the smallest of theblood-vessels, the capillaries, between which and the tissues a sortof physiological barter is continually going on, the capillarieshanding over oxygen and food supplies from the blood, and receivingwaste materials in return, as the blood creeps along at a very slowrate. If, however, in consequence of pressure on a part, the blood bekept back in these minute vessels too long, there is naturally adouble evil: first, the food and oxygen supplies fail--they have beenused up already--and, secondly, the waste products accumulate in thetissue cells, so that there is a combination of starvation andpoisoning--a sort of physiological slum life, with correspondingdegradation; so that it is not at all difficult to understand whytight collars, neckbands, corsets, etc. , must be unmixed evils, apartaltogether from the fact that they so greatly hamper the verymovements the voice-user most requires for the successful execution ofhis task. 

All sorts of straining or forcing also involve this same evil, knownto medical men as _congestion_. The sore throats so common with thosewho force, owing to methods essentially wrong, or simply to the toovigorous use of methods correct in themselves, are to be traced to theabove--_i. E. _, to this congestion, which is bad, and bad only. 

If one who had a naturally sound throat at the outset finds that aftervocal exercise he experiences either a soreness or an undue wearinessof parts, he should conclude, if he is living under healthyconditions, that the methods he is employing are incorrect, and seekthe natural remedy. Proper vocal exercise should, in those withhealthy vocal organs, always improve them and the condition of thewhole man. The author has met those who have been ruined vocally forlife by the use of certain methods recommended by would-beprofessional guides. Why should not all who assume the responsibilityof guiding speakers and especially singers be required by the state toshow that they have not only a knowledge of music and vocal technique, but also at least a moderate amount of practical knowledge of theanatomy and physiology of the vocal organs, with some elementaryinformation on general physiology? If the injury done by incompetentteachers were realized, we feel certain that the above propositionwould not be questioned. 

A common cause of congestion of the digestive organs, with which, ofcourse, other parts sympathize physiologically, is _constipation_, very often the result of insufficient exercise, and injurious in manyways. Speakers and singers very generally ride to and from theirengagements, so that there is special reason why they should see to itthat some time is set aside for general exercise, as walking in theopen air, which would of itself work against that tendency to grow fatwhich is the physical curse that seems to fall on artists above mostothers. 

It seems scarcely necessary to point out how important it is for thosewho propose to take up the life of the stage or the platform to lookto hardening themselves against catching cold, by friction of theskin, cold bathing, etc. The use of a sponge-bath of cold salt andwater to the upper parts of the body, especially the neck and chest, will prove valuable in many cases, but the enervating effects of hotwater should be avoided by all. 

 The remarks made in regard to Wagner's music on page 257 have been among the very few to which exception has been taken by my reviewers. 

 To those who disagree with me on the merits of the case I have nothing to say, but some have assumed that the writer was speaking out of pure theory, in real ignorance of Wagner's works. I wish to set that class of critics right. 

 I have spent a great many seasons in Germany, and have heard Wagner's works under a great variety of circumstances, and have heard them also in several other countries. I have also had the opportunity of getting behind the scenes in a way that falls to the lot of few, so I think I am entitled to speak with rather more than the usual authority. 

 My convictions as expressed in the foregoing chapter have in the interval rather strengthened than weakened. I am firmly convinced that it would be in the interests of art, the singer, and the auditor alike, either to shorten these operas, or to produce them in some way which will relieve the continuous strain. It must not be forgotten, either, that the poor overworked and greatly underpaid orchestral player often suffers severely in his nervous system from long continued Wagner playing. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

FURTHER TREATMENT OF PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HYGIENE. 

_Stammering_ and _stuttering_ are allied but not identical defects. They require special treatment, the earlier the better. Much can bedone by the exercise of a little patience and kind consideration, tomake the subject of these infirmities feel at ease, and so manifestthe defects as little as possible. It is, of course, as a generalrule, very unwise to take any notice whatever of such imperfections, as they are thereby made worse. As a rule, they are best treatedpractically by those who have made this branch a specialty. 

Those who have been badly taught, or who have overworked the vocalorgans and, in consequence, may have broken down, are among the mostdiscouraging if they be not the very worst cases that come under thetreatment of the physician or vocal teacher. If the throat be out oforder, a specialist should be consulted. He will likely enjoincomplete rest of the vocal organs, and his advice should be implicitlyfollowed. But usually the time comes when some sort of vocal exercisesmay be resumed. When this is the case, the choice of a teacher becomesof the utmost importance, more so than in ordinary cases, for furtherinjudicious treatment may lead to the utter ruin of the voice. Assuming that medical treatment is no longer or not at all required, we recommend: (1) That all practices be only _piano_, or, at most, _moderato_, for some time; (2) that they be of very brief duration atany one period, so as to avoid fatigue; (3) that they be well withinthe range of the singer. The same principles apply to speakers whohave broken down, whether owing to bad methods or to over-use of thevoice. It is most important that strength and facility be graduallygained, and that weariness, not to say fatigue, be strictly avoided. If the general health be good, time, patience, and the utmost care inthe application of the above principles, under the direction of anenlightened teacher, will in a large proportion of cases restore thevoice for efficient use in at least moderate efforts. Of course, muchdepends on the age, general health, intelligence, etc. , of thesubject. 

On the question of the extent to which a singer's range can be safelyincreased, the greatest difference of opinion exists, and very extremeviews have been held. On the one hand are those who almost ridiculethe idea of "making" tones, and on the other, those who maintain thatthe range of all young singers can be increased by proper training. 

As a matter of fact, there are many singers before the public to-daywhose range, either upward or downward, has been increased by manytones, in some cases almost an octave, and these singers aresuccessful artists and sound vocalists; while others have sought toadd but two or three tones to their range, and in vain. This is quiteintelligible. As a rule, those of the former class have fallen intothe hands of very good teachers, while yet young, have had excellenthealth and well-formed vocal organs, and been patient and attentivestudents. The acquisition has been gradual, and never forced. We havebefore said that if a pupil felt his throat the worse for a lesson invocal culture, there was something wrong: either the method wasincorrect in itself, or the practice was continued too long or carriedout too vigorously. Of course, it is always assumed that the vocalorgans are in a normal condition, and the student's health good notonly generally but on the day of the practice. 

It is in every case for the student himself to determine, from his ownfeelings, whether the attempt to reach a certain tone producesstraining, and for the teacher to judge whether this be so, from theappearance of the face of the pupil, the character of the tone, etc. One thing is certain: harm, and harm only, is done by any form offorcing or straining. At the same time, as the athlete increases theheight to which he can jump, or the speed with which he can run, evenduring a single season, it seems illogical to conclude that in no casecan a singer safely reach tones that are not originally in hisvoice--meaning thereby that he is unable to sing them at the outset ofhis career. This is one of those subjects on which common sense andscience unite in admonishing us to test cautiously and to progressgradually, if the purpose is to be achieved with good results for theindividual and for art. 

It is also unwise for a singer to attempt those selections in publicthe range of which taxes him to the very utmost. They lead to undueanxiety as to success, violate the principle of reserve force, towhich reference has several times been made, and may lead to vocalfailure, if not to injury to the throat. Though it is true thatoccasionally a song suffers by transposition to a lower key, if thevocalist is determined to sing a composition even slightly beyond hiseasy range, it is better to resort to it than to risk thepossibilities mentioned above and other undesirable ones. 

Everyone who purposes to follow the arduous career of the vocal ordramatic artist would do well to realize early the importance oflearning the art of conserving energy, or making the most of all thatNature has given him. When a man or woman is small, and has lessbreath power than some others, it becomes more important that theyobserve the laws of contrast, rest, etc. , in their public efforts. A_forte_ has much the same effect, if it be preceded by darker, quietertones, as if it were really louder. In like manner, a pause may oftenserve a very good purpose in preparing the ear of the listener for aneffect that should be telling, yet a difficult one for a person oflimited physical powers. 

In reality, all the best art recognizes, mostly unconsciously, thepeculiarities of our physical and mental nature. A continuous _forte_, for example, ceases to be a _forte_, in reality, since the ear and themind weary under it, and all the effect of contrast is lost. As wehave more than once said, good art is physiological--in harmony withthe laws of the body, as well as of the mind. It follows that each oneshould study especially how to make the wisest, the most effective, use of his powers, for what is best for one may not be so for another. 

A singer or speaker, by reason of a voice somewhat small in volume, may seem to be shut out from certain buildings. This need rarely bethe case. The artist must simply the more carefully consider how heshall vary his effects, how so use his powers that they shall suffice. A loud voice may be a very bad one for the hearer, and may annoy andweary rather than please. When a building is large, nearly all effectsshould be increased--_e. G. _, all pauses lengthened, the _tempo_ takena little slower, the contrasts made stronger, etc. , --rather than thevolume of tone increased. The method of attack becomes of the utmostimportance; all low or soft passages should be sung or uttered withthe greatest distinctness, all final letters most perfectly finished. It is especially important for a speaker to be aware of hisfavorite--_i. E. _, most easy and natural--pitch, and also that pitchwhich best adapts his voice to a certain building. Many forget thatsound does not, in reality, travel very rapidly, and that allowancemust be made for this, so that one tone shall not break on the earbefore another has had time to be attended to--one idea to be graspedbefore another is presented. 

Of all things pauses are of the greatest importance, to the listener, that he may apprehend the ideas presented, and to the speaker, that hemay have time to take breath and a brief rest, and also seize theopportunity to readdress himself, so to speak, to his auditors, by theuse of another accent, pitch of tone, or whatever he deems most apt tohis purpose. Speakers who make suitable pauses with intention (notfrom lack of ideas), or from an artistic instinct, give pleasure, aswell as effect their intellectual purpose, for the listener also getshis moments for rest, perceives readily what is meant, and enjoys thepurely sensuous in the art far more than when the speaker's utterancerushes on like a torrent. All this applies to a certain extent to thesinger, though it is but very inadequately observed--we must say, however, much better than at a former period, when "ranting, " on thestage especially, was a very common fault. 

In an earlier chapter attention was given to the precautions to betaken before a public appearance, especially by those who areinexperienced; and we would again emphasize the fact that those whohave the best training, and have made the most perfect specialpreparation for the coming event, are least likely to suffer from thatgreat disturber, nervousness; and when they are somewhat tense, thewell-disciplined often recover rapidly, and frequently astonish theirfriends by the success of their first appearance. We stronglyrecommend all who can to take rest on the day preceding and followinga hard evening's work, and preferably, in summer, in the open air. Aquiet walk in a park, where one may think or observe or not, as hefeels inclined, is an excellent thing to do, either before or after astrenuous artistic effort. If the battery is to be well charged, itmust not be discharged even partially before the right moment. Amateurs and the inexperienced are particularly apt to neglect suchprecaution for success, and to fritter away their energies byattention to details, possibly trivial ones, up to the last moment. 

Happy is he who, well prepared for his task, free from worries, unmoved by envy, jealousy, or undue ambition, can step before thepublic resolved to do his best for art, and who, having done it, canrest in the satisfaction that he has contributed something to theinnocent and ennobling enjoyment of his fellows, and so has helped toadvance those of his own generation; caring little for either theflatteries of admirers or a criticism that may be ignorant, unjust, or malignant, but feeling that the best reward is the approval of hisown conscience, knowing that "Art is long, and life short. "

CHAPTER XX. 

REVIEW AND REVISION. 

All the most important truths of any subject may be stated in a briefspace. The Author proposes to make this final chapter one of arestatement of the essentials of the subject in the light of ourpresent-day knowledge, and with a distinct relation to practice. 

The object of the speaker or singer is to produce certain sounds whichshall as easily as possible convey to the listener his own state ofmind. It follows that he must have a clear idea of these sounds, thathe must hear them mentally prior to their utterance; in other words, the psychological must precede the physiological. Voice production forthe purpose of speaking and singing implies a coöperation of thepsychic and the physiological, a co-ordination of processes that arepsychic, and physical, somatic or physiological. 

It is well to regard the subject from as many points of view aspossible, and to consider the various ways in which the same truth maybe stated. 

Stress must be laid on the idea of co-ordination, for processes may beindependently satisfactory yet fail to lead to the desired result ifthey are not connected, harmonised or co-ordinated. The latter is thebetter term because it suggests a certain order of progress. As amatter of fact, first the psychic, then the physiological. The ideamay be clear, yet from a physical defect, as in stammering, the resultdoes not follow, though this physiological imperfection in movementmay itself be the result of a psychic condition and generally is so. Aclearer case is that of paralysis of the vocal organs. The ideas to beexpressed may be perfectly clear in the mind yet impossible ofexpression. The defect is at the distal end of the combination--_i. E. _, in the physical, somatic or bodily part of the process to express thesame idea by the use of different terms. The consideration ofconditions of defect or pathological states may make normalpsychological and physiological ones clearer, as has been shown by theabove illustrations. The practical importance of the co-ordination ofprocesses is very great. It is not possible for one born deaf to speakbecause the necessary mental or psychic conditions for co-ordinationdo not exist--_i. E. _, there is no sound in the mind to beexpressed--not because there is any serious anatomical defect. In likemanner the student of singing will produce no better tone than he hasin mind no matter how much he practices vocalization. It follows, therefore, that the psychic state of the student should be kept inadvance of his actual powers of execution. This he will mostsuccessfully do by listening to the best artists either directly or ifthis be impossible by hearing their gramophone records--all this inaddition to the best the teacher can do for him by the correction offaults, giving him illustrations of better tone by his own efforts, etc. If the student has the opportunity of hearing himself by means ofa phonographic record, he should not fail to do so. No one ever hearshimself as others hear him. 

As the mind and the brain are always associated in thought andfeeling; in other words, in psychic processes, and these latter findexpression chiefly through movements, in one sense a study ofvocalization may be considered a study of movements. These are alwaysbrought about by the use of several muscles which act together for adefinite end--_i. E. _, they are co-ordinated. As such movementsgenerally involve many muscles and to be effective must be exact andunder perfect control, much practice is necessary, though "much"should have reference rather to the clearness of the mind in referenceto what is to be attained and the means of accomplishing it, ratherthan to the amount of time spent over the actual performance. We mayconfidently assert that technique or the physical side of putting theideas into execution, which is simply making certain movements, issuccessful largely in proportion to the perfection of the psychicprocesses involved. A clear head should precede the moving hand, orfunctioning vocal organs. The student should think technique beforeand after its actual execution. This is even yet, in spite of a greatadvance in recent years, the weakest part of the student's method ofwork. All that we know of science as well as the results of allrightly directed practice emphasizes the importance of this centraltruth. 

Assuming that the psychic condition is satisfactory for the productionof a definite tone--_i. E. _, that it is heard mentally, what followsbefore it is actually produced, before it becomes a tone from thephysicist's point of view? What is the chain of physical, somatic, bodily or anatomical (to use several words that express similar butslightly different aspects of the same main idea) connectionsinvolved, and what is the nature of the physiological processes; inother words, what are the parts of the body involved and how do theyact? This will be clearer if we first consider the mechanism concernedand its functions in a general way. 

The instrument which is played upon, which finally gives rise to thetone, may be spoken of as that connected series of cavities for whichwe have no single term but which are generally named the resonancechambers when regarded from the physicist's point of view. To themusician they are the instrument, to the physiologist and anatomist aset of chambers communicating with each other. Plainly all the restof the vocal mechanism exists for them, and too much stress cannot belaid on this fact. However excellent the state of training of the partbelow them this is of no avail except in so far as it can affect theseresonance cavities. 

How is this instrument played upon and how are these cavities madeactually into resounding chambers? In the answer to this, in therecognition of the relationship of the three distinct parts of thevocal apparatus lies the one great fundamental conception of themanner in which tone is produced. To understand this clearly is tocomprehend in its main outlines the whole subject of voice productionin a scientific way. 

Before a tone is heard vibrations of the atmospheric air must reachthe ear. These are set up by the vibration of the air within theresonance chambers, and this again is effected by the mechanism belowthem--_i. E. _, by the movements of the vocal bands of the larynx whichare due to the blast of air emanating from the lungs, this itselfbeing brought into being by the movements of the chest, using the termin the widest sense, thus including the diaphragm, etc. 

Breathing has for its object so far as phonation is concerned no otherpurpose than to so affect the vocal bands, that the resonance chambersreally do resound. The question is how is this breathing bestaccomplished so that the instrument shall be most efficiently playedupon? We cannot alter the anatomical structure of the instrumentappreciably, but we can improve the functioning of the several partsof the whole apparatus. Breathing can be improved as regards power andcontrol. More can be done with less expenditure of energy thanoriginally if there be judicious training. How shall we train? As theoutgoing stream of air alone affects the vocal bands, it is clear thatwe must aim to so apply and regulate this outflow that the desiredresult shall follow from the least possible expenditure of energy. Howthe air is got in is important only in relation to its expenditure. But the easier the supply is furnished the better. This law of theconservation of energy is one of the greatest importance, for allbeings have but a limited supply of energy and our problem must everbe how best to husband this as a wise man should study how best tospend his limited income. One must not only consider what is calledfor in ordinary conversational speaking, or in singing in a smallroom, but also when the greatest possible efforts are demanded. In allcases when movements are concerned, indeed whenever activity of anykind psychic or physiological is involved the _law of habit_ should beborne in mind--_i. E. _, one should so think and do that a habit may beestablished, for a habit implies, when a good one, that there iseconomy of both mental and bodily energy. 

The aim of all training is to establish good habits--ways of doingthings which will leave the subject with more capital to invest so tospeak, as he wastes less. It follows that the same methods shouldalways be used in trying to attain the same end. There are fewsubjects of equal importance so little considered by students of musicin a conscious intelligent way. A clear conviction as to thefoundation for close adherence to certain methods of doing things isan invaluable mental asset for any student. 

The whole subject of breathing has been so fully considered inprevious chapters--indeed more or less in all parts of this work--thatit is not necessary to go into much detail now. The investigations ofphysiologists in the internal have only emphasised the author'steaching on this subject. The present position of the subject may bestated thus: (1) In inspiration the whole chest is enlarged, thisinvolving the descent of the diaphragm. (2) The amount of mobility ismuch greater in the lower half of the chest. (3) This lower half ofthe chest and the diaphragm act together, constituting a specialmechanism of great importance. (4) The abdominal muscles discharge acoöperative function. It follows that the advice of a present dayfamous tenor to "breathe low" is sound. Nevertheless, it must not beforgotten that inspiration begins above and that the upper chest hasits functions also. It is not merely a region of support for thelower mechanism, important as this function is. The terms "abdominal"and "diaphragmatic" respiration have led to misunderstanding. Neitherthe abdominal muscles nor the diaphragm ever act alone in normalrespiration, though they are important coöperative factors. 

Breathing exercises should be based on broad views of the subject, andno part of the respiratory mechanism should be neglected. 

Small an organ as is the larynx it is through it the energy of theexpiratory act is transmitted effectively or the reverse to theall-important resonance chambers. This should be so done that there isno waste; in other words, that there be perfect co-ordination betweenthe breathing and the laryngeal mechanism. The vocal bands must be sorelated in function to the expiratory mechanism that the outgoingblast of air shall be as effective as possible. There must be no wasteof power--_i. E. _, of the expiratory blast through escape of air thataccomplishes no purpose. The blast must be so applied to the vocalbands, or, in other words, they must be so adapted to the blast thatthere is no waste of energy. If the bands approximate a little toolate there is waste of breath power. The bands must further so beatthe air of the resonance chambers as to get the greatest possibleresult with the least possible expenditure of energy. As all theseco-ordinations imply the action of many muscles in a related way, itis plain that intelligent and prolonged training is necessary; and ifour scientific knowledge had no other result than to establish such aconviction on a sure basis it would be well worth while; but it is alight unto the feet of the student and teacher at every step, only itmust be a clear light, not one seen through a mental haze. If there befailure the fault must not be set down to science but to ourselves. 

It is ever to be borne in mind that when anything is done in the rightway not only is there no pain, unpleasant feeling or evilafter-effects, but when real skill has been attained through training, the result is accomplished with a sense of ease and all theaccompanying feelings are agreeable. The singer need not know that hehas a throat by any disagreeable reminder. At the same time a functionmay be correctly discharged but continued too long, so that wearinessor positive fatigue with some evil consequences may follow. Fatiguealways implies more or less poisoning of the system. 

Of the resonance chambers, the mouth cavity, the pharyngeal cavity andthe naso-pharynx, which may both be regarded as a part of the mouthcavity, and the nasal chambers, the latter may be considered the leastvariable in shape; nevertheless they can, by means of the softpalate, be to a large extent shut off from the other parts of thisseries of chambers. 

The means by which the size and shape of the resonance chambers can bevaried are chiefly the soft palate and the tongue, the latter being ofthe greatest importance. The changes in the shape of the mouth cavitynecessary for the formation of vowels are due chiefly to the movementsof the tongue, and the tongue is more largely concerned in theutterance of consonants than any other moveable part of the uppervoice mechanism. 

For practical ends it is important to realize that one speaks with thetongue; and if one believed that everything depended on this organ, other parts--including the outer mouth or lips merely to be kept outof the way--the result would on the whole likely be gain. 

In the formation of vowels the result may be good when the lips takebut the slightest active part, and the student is advised to practicevowel formation without the use of the lips. He is likely to use themenough in any case provided he ensures the formation of pure vowelsounds, and people seem to have an extraordinary facility forover-doing the use of lip movements, for getting the teeth in the wayand thus spoiling tone, that was begun well, before it has escapedfrom the mouth. It may be observed that those who get their living onthe streets by the use of the voice, and who use the voice much andoften speak rapidly, and in spite of this are heard well, so constructtheir words that the lips are not seen to move to any appreciableextent except as the lower jaw moves. The lips seem to be alwaysapart. It is not the amount of movement that is important but the kindof movement, especially its rapidity. 

Muscular efforts for the production of consonants should be neat, decisive, sharp, rather than held ones, which tend to spoil the wordas a whole. As a rule, one is safe in holding the vowel as long aspossible and in making the time dwelt on the consonant as short aspossible--_i. E. _, consistent with distinct and musical utterance. 

The same applies to singing with even greater force. In speakingespecially short pauses not printed in the text may be made to greatadvantage, and this is often better than dwelling on consonants. Themouth of the speaker and still more that of the singer should notattract the attention of the listener, so the less movement of thelips of a kind readily open to observation, the better. Besides suchmovements being unnecessary are a waste of muscular and nervousenergy. 

Singers are not warranted in departing to any appreciable extent fromthe pronunciation of words laid down as standard for speakers--_e. G. _, "shall" should not be sung as "sholl, " and in such a word as "motion, "the final syllable should not be made equally important with thefirst one. Singers should observe the laws of a good elocution; inother words, such treatment of the language of the song as an approvedreader would employ. The author would go so far as to say that nosinger should appear in public till he can utter every syllable as hesings so that it is readily recognised by the listener. At presentsuch is rarely the case even with the best vocalists. All prospectivevocalists should study utterance by the speaking voice first andcontinue it when the study of singing has been begun. The words ofevery song, etc. , should be mastered in all respects before they aresung. 

As the degree of success in singing or speaking depends so far astechnique is concerned on a series of co-ordinations the condition ofboth the psychic and bodily mechanism as determined by training andthe general health of the individual is of great importance; and it isnot to be forgotten that the mind as well as the body is to beconsidered in all questions of hygiene. 

INDEX. 

A

Abdominal muscles, 66

Acoustics, 97

Adam's apple, 80

Adductors, 82

Air, 48 complemental, 70 quantity of, in lungs, 70 residual, 70 supplemental, 70 tidal, 70

Amateurs, 274

American speech, 146

Americans, pitch of, 224

Antagonists, 53

Anatomy, 35

Art, 17, 272

Artist, isolation of, 254

Artistic, 246 perception, 245 temperament, 31

Arytenoid cartilages, 77

Aspirates, 228

Attack, 30, 125, 127, 208 best tests of a good, 129 good, 127, 232

Auditory messages, 250

Auto-laryngoscopy, 109, 110, 152, 161

B

"Backward" production, 213

Bel Canto, 211

Break, 162

Breath, 60, 72 control of, 20, 21 exercise for, 133, 134 in phonation, 130 manner of using, 172, 208 stream, 22, 125, 194

Breathing, 44-73, 118, 124 abdominal, 118 clavicular, 118, 119 deep, 63 diaphragmatic, 118, 119 exercises, 131 mechanism, control of, 120 method of, 64, 177 nose, 131

C

Cartilage of Santorini, 77 Wrisberg, 77

Cells, 36

Chest, 50, 62, 71 cavity of, 71 complete control of, 62 position of, in singing, 123 in speaking, 123

Children, public appearance of, 116 register of, 234

Choral singing, 247

Choristers, 256

Circulatory system, 37

Clergyman's sore-throat, 88

Cold, a, 77, 92 prevention of, 93

Color, 214

Composers, 116

Consonant, a, 195, 196

Consonants, 223, 225, 226, 230-235 mouth positions of, 226-228

Corsets, evil effects of, 72

Coup de glotte, 124-127, 139

Cramming, 46

Cricoid cartilage, 77, 81 thyroid, 83, 85 membrane, 81

Curwen, 156

D

Dialects, 225, 235

Diameters, 50

Diaphragm, 52, 53, 66, 71

E

Ear, 182, 236, 245, 248 connection with mouth cavity, 203 drum-head of, 240 external, purpose of, 240 for music, 244 lack of, 245, 249 inner, 237, 241 middle, 237, 241 musical, 31 outer, 237 purpose of, 238

Ease, 123, 233

English, 198 speech, 146

Epiglottis, 79

Eustachian tube, 241

Execution, 179, 256

Exercises, 131-135, 139 practical, 73

Expiration, 49

Expiratory blast, 60, 68, 88, 103, 177 current, 136, 208

Explosives, 226

Expression, 254

F

Falsetto, 154 high, 170, 178 in males, 160, 179

"Feeling-tone", 212

Food, 263

"Forward" production, 213

Fundamental principles, 179-194 application of, 195-206 tone, 231

G

Garcia, Manuel, 105, 138, 159

German language, 198 speech, 146

Germans, pitch of, 224

Glide, 258

Glottis, 47, 78, 82, 88, 126, 159 in barytone voices, 157 bass voices, 157 contralto voices, 158 mezzo-soprano voices, 158 tenor voices, 157 ligamentous, 157

H

Head, position of, 205

Hearing, 101, 236-250 difference in animals, 101 highest limit of, 102 lower limit of, 102

Helmholtz, 167

Hygiene, 33, 72, 92, 93, 251-275

Hyoid bone, 81, 95

I

Illustration of principles, 27, 28

Impulses, 236

Inhibitions, 184

Inspiration, 48, 51, 71

Intonation, 195, 196, 230 correct position for good, 131

Italian language, 198

K

Knowledge, principle of, 34

L

Larynx, 60, 74-96, 136, 148, 258 anatomy of, 21 as a musical instrument, 102 change in size of, 111 control over, 112 difference in size, 110 growth of, 138 in action, 109 in singing and speaking, 198 muscles of, 81, 95 of the male 138 photography of, 161 physiology of, 21 ventricle of, 80 vibrations of, 96 whole, 94

Laryngoscope, 91, 103, 136

Ligamentous glottis, 157

Lips, 202

Lungs, 49, 63

Lymph, 37

M

Mackenzie, Sir Morell, 156, 167, 168

Mara, Madame, range of, 111

Marcato production, 209

Marchesi, Madame, teaching of, 159

Men, register of, 234

Messages, Auditory, 250

Methods, correct, 22, 23 faulty, 32

Middle production, 214

Midriff, see diaphragm

Mind, 210

Mirror, use of, 235

Mouth, as a resonance chamber, 221 resonator, 148 cavity, 149 respiration, 131 toilet of, 262

Movements, 192

Muscles, 36, 82 abdominal, 66

Muscular action, 71 mechanism, 42 movements, 179

Music, 243 appreciation of, 247 intellectuality in, 256 intelligence in, 108 interpretation of, 21

Musical artist, 198 ear, 31 prodigy, 243 faculty develops early, 115 faults, 258 sounds, practical range of, 102 tones, 231

Musician, fundamental qualities of, 246

N

Nasal chambers, 144, 149, 214

Nasality, 231

Nerve-cells, 38

Nervous centres, 39 impulses, 244, 250 system, 38

Nervousness, 274

Neuro-muscular mechanisms, 17, 42, 181 processes, 183 system, 43

New language, learning of, 224

Noise, 218

O

Open mouth, 203, 204, 217

Ordinary speech, 230

Overtones, 231, 235

P

Palate, cleft, 149 hard, 149, 213 soft, 145, 214, 216, 231

Phonation, 192, 193 breath in, 130 example of, 193

Physics, principles of involved, 135

Physiological considerations, 34-43 teachings, 26, 31

Piano production, 259

Pillars of the fauces, 145

Pitch, 101, 136, 150, 214 favorite, 273

Portamento production, 258

Practical considerations, 88

Practice, 132, 185-192 best time to, 186, 187 by wrong method, 191 for sustained tone, 132 methods of, 194

Puberty, at, 112, 138 in boys, 114, 115 in girls, 113

Public singing, age to begin, 115 speaking, 212

Pumping, 259

Q

Quality, 101, 136, 214

R

R and s, interval between, 225

Reed, long, 157 short, 157

Reflex action, 40

Reflexes, associated, 183 protective character of, 58, 59 sets of, 184

Register, 233 change in, 169, 177 chest, 160 definition of, 176 in female voices, 160 of basses and barytones, 170 of tenors, 170

Registers, 151-178 Behnke on, 155, 156, 167 Garcia on, 155 Mackenzie on, 156, 167, 168 Madame Seiler on, 153, 165, 170 Mandl on, 158

Resonance chambers, 102, 136, 140-150, 175, 182, 198, 213, 223, 224, 228, 234 in sounding bodies, 140 of musical instruments, 140, 141

Resonants, 228

Resonator, 148

Respiration, 46, 48, 68, 69 forced, 119 hygiene of, 55 mouth, 131

Respiratory centre, 57, 58, 172 efficiency, 124 organs, 47 system, 37 tract, 26

S

Science, 17

Scripture, Prof. , 150

Seiler, Madame, 153, 165, 170

Selections in public, 271

Sensations, 172, 174, 175, 178

Septum nasi, 149

Singer, purpose of, 99 range of, 269

Singing, choral, 256 class, 257 fortissimo, 121 good, 259 in schools, 247

Song, elements of, 218-229

Soprano, highest tones of, 137 light, 232

Sound, 60, 97-103, 135, 225 quality of, 102, 246 Tyndall on, 97 volume of, 101, 102, 136

Sounding body, 99

Speaker, purpose of, 99

Speaking, good, 259

Speech, elements of, 218-229 organs of, 233 purity of, 135

Sphincter action, 86

Staccato production, 209

Stammering, 268

Stop-closure, 158

Straining, 86, 175

Straw bass, 88

Stuttering, 268

Style, 254

Swell, 207, 212

T

Technique, 23, 179, 183, 185, 186, 254, 255

Teeth, 202

Temperament, 245

Tenors, 232

Throat mirror, 107 sore, 265

Thyro-arytenoideus, 84, 85 hyoid membrane, 81

Thyroid cartilage, 76, 81

Timbre, 136

Tone, 132, 135, 136 carrying power of, 126 color of, 214 ground, 231 head, 160 piano, 233 pitch of, 126 production, 132, 207-217 quality of, 128, 142, 150, 231 the sustained, 208 volume of, 126

Tones, 189 head, 177 highest, 137 lower, 137 quality of, 146 timbre of, 136 upper, 86

Tongue, 131, 145, 149, 214 control of, 202 influence of, 201

Tonsils, 145, 149

Trachea, 81

Tremolo, 128, 258, 259

Tuning fork, 99

U

Uvula, 145

V

Vibrations, 61, 98, 100, 236

Vibratives, 228

Vibrato, 258

Vital capacity, 71

Vocal athlete, 182

Vocal bands, 87, 103, 126 action of, 137 false, 78 true, 77, 78, 80, 94 vibrations of, 136 cords, false, 95 Madame Seiler on, 154 true, 95 methods, 32 physiology, 17-32 training, early weeks of, 246

Vocalises, 207

Vocalist, ideal, 198

Vocalization, 19, 31

Voice, 44, 254 breaking of, 114 brightening the, 216 carrying power of, 232 darkening the, 216 even, 84 harsh, 232 head, in females, 166 in ill health, 114 loud, 272 placed, 215 position in use of, 206 production, 22, 244 small in volume, 272 user, 17, 33, 46 exercises for, 135 well placed, 175

Voices, classification of, 260, 261 injured, 26

Vowel, a, 195 purity of, 199 sounds, 196, 197, 216

Vowels, adaptation of, to ideas, 222 and consonants, 230, 235 dark, 235 formation of, 218-221 low-pitched, 235 mouth positions of, 218 perfect sound of, 221 pitch of, 221, 225, 230 quality of, 221

W

Wagner, 257

Whispering, 225, 226

Women, register of, 234