VEGETABLE DYES

Being a Book of Recipes and OtherInformation Useful to the Dyer

by

ETHEL M. MAIRET

Faber and Faber Ltd24 Russell SquareLondon

First published in Mcmxviby the Ditchling PressReprinted, for the sixth time April Mcmxxxviiiand published by Faber and Faber Limited24 Russell Square, LondonPrinted at the Ditchling Press, DitchlingAll rights reserved

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I. Wool, Silk, Cotton and Linen 1

II. Mordants 6

III. British Dye Plants 11

IV. The Lichen Dyes 16

V. Blue 24

VI. Red 31

VII. Yellow 35

VIII. Brown and Black 40

IX. Green 43

X. The Dyeing of Cotton 46

XI. The Dyeing of Silk 56

 Glossary 60

 Bibliography 63

 Index 65

CHAPTER I

WOOL SILK COTTON AND LINEN

WOOLS are of various kinds:--

_Highland, Welsh and Irish_ wools are from small sheep, not farremoved from the wild state, with irregular short stapled fleeces. 

_Forest or Mountain sheep_ (Herdwick, Exmoor, Cheviot, Blackfaced, Limestone) have better wool, especially the Cheviot, which is verythick and good for milling. 

_Ancient Upland_, such as South Down, are smaller sheep than the lastnamed, but the wool is softer and finer. 

_Long Woolled sheep_, (Lincolns, Leicester) with long staple wool(record length, 36". ) and fleeces weighing up to 12 lbs. The Leicesterfleece is softer, finer and better than Lincoln. 

To the end of the 18th century _Spanish wool_ was the finest and bestwool in the world. Spanish sheep have since been introduced intovarious countries, such as Saxony, Australia, Cape Colony, NewZealand; and some of the best wools now come from the Colonies. 

_Alpaca, Vicuna and Llama_ wools are from different species ofAmerican goats. 

_Mohair_ from the Angora goat of Asia Minor. 

_Kashmir Wool_ from the Thibetan goat. 

_Camel_ hair, the soft under wool of the camel, which is shedannually. 

The colour of wool varies from white to a very dark brown black, withall shades of fawn, grey and brown in between. The natural colours arenot absolutely fast to light but tend to bleach slightly with the sun. 

The principal fleeces are:

_Lambs_, 3 to 6 months growth, the finest, softest and most elasticwool. 

_Hogs and Tegs_: the first shearing of sheep that have not been shornas lambs. 

_Wethers_: all clips succeeding the first shearing. 

Wool comes into the market in the following condition. 1. _In thegrease_, not having been washed and containing all the impurities. 2. _Washed_, with some of the grease removed and fairly clean. 3. _Scoured_, thoroughly cleaned and all grease removed. 

Wool can be dyed either in the fleece, in the yarn, or in the wovencloth. Raw wool always contains a certain amount of natural grease. This should not be washed out until it is ready for dyeing, as thegrease keeps the moth out to a considerable extent. Hand spun wool isgenerally spun in the oil to facilitate spinning. All grease and oilmust be scoured out before dyeing is begun, and this must be done verythoroughly or the wool will not take the colour. 

WATER

A constant supply of clean soft water is an absolute necessity for thedyer. Rain water should be collected as much as possible, as this isthe best water to use. The dye house should be by a river or stream, so that the dyer can wash with a continuous supply. Spring and wellwater is, as a rule, hard, and should be avoided. In washing, as wellas in dyeing, hard water is injurious for wool. It ruins thebrilliancy of the colour, and prevents the dyeing of some colours. Temporary hardness can be overcome by boiling the water (20 to 30minutes) before using. An old method of purifying water, which isstill used by some silk and wool scourers, is to boil the water with alittle soap, skimming off the surface as it boils. In many cases it issufficient to add a little acetic acid to the water. 

TO WASH WOOL

In a bath containing 10 gallons of warm water add 4 fluid ounces ofammonia fort, . 880, 1 lb. Soda, and 2 oz. Soft soap, (potash soap). Stir well until all is dissolved. Dip the wool in and leave for 2minutes, then squeeze gently and wash in warm water until quite clear. 

_Or_ to 10 gallons of water add 6 oz. Ammonia and 3 oz. Soft soap. Thewater should never be above 140°F. And all the washing water should beof about the same temperature. 

Fleece may be washed in the same way, but great care should be takennot to felt the wool--the less squeezing the better. 

There are four principal methods of dyeing wool. 

1st. --The wool is boiled first with the mordant and then in a freshbath with the dye. 

2nd. --The wool is boiled first with the dye, and when it has absorbedas much of the colour as possible the mordant is added to the samebath, thus fixing the colour. 

A separate bath can be used for each of these processes, in which caseeach bath can be replenished and used again for a fresh lot of wool. 

3rd. --The wool is boiled with the mordant and dye in the same bathtogether. The colour, as a rule, is not so fast and good as with aseparate bath, though with some dyes a brighter colour is obtained. 

4th. --The wool is mordanted, then dyed, then mordanted again. Thismethod is adopted to ensure an extremely fast colour. The mordantshould be used rather sparingly. 

SILK

There are two kinds of silk (1) _raw silk_ (reeled silk, thrown silk, drawn silk), and (2) _waste silk_ or spun silk. 

Raw silk is that directly taken from the cocoons. Waste silk is thesilk from cocoons that are damaged in some way so that they cannot bereeled off direct. It is, therefore, carded and spun, like wool orcotton. 

Silk in the raw state is covered with a silk gum which must be boiledoff before dyeing is begun. It is tied up in canvas bags and boiled upin a strong solution of soap for three or four hours until all the gumis boiled off. If it is a yellow gum, the silk is wrought first in asolution of soft soap at a temperature just below boiling point forabout an hour, then put into bags and boiled. After boiling, the soapis well washed out. 

Generally speaking, the affinity of silk for dyes is similar butweaker in character to that of wool. The general method for dyeing isthe same as for wool, except, in most cases, lower temperatures areused in the mordanting. In some cases, soaking in a cold concentratedsolution of the mordant is sufficient. The dyeing of some colours isalso at low temperature. 

COTTON

Cotton is the down surrounding the seeds in pods of certain shrubs andtrees growing in tropical and semi-tropical countries. Firstintroduced into Europe by the Saracens, it was manufactured into clothin Spain in the early 13th century. Cotton cloth was first made inEngland in the early 17th century. 

The colour of cotton varies from deep yellow to white. The fibrediffers in length, the long stapled being the most valued. It isdifficult to dye and requires a special preparation. 

A few of the natural dye stuffs are capable of dyeing cotton direct, without a mordant, such as Turmeric, Barberry bark, safflower, annatto. For other dyes cotton has a special attraction, such ascatechu. 

LINEN

Linen is flax, derived from the decomposed stalks of a plant of thegenus Linum. 

It grows chiefly in Russia, Belgium, France, Holland and Ireland. Theplants after being gathered are subjected to a process called"retting" which separates the fibre from the decaying part of theplant. In Ireland and Russia this is usually done in stagnant water, producing a dark coloured flax. In Belgium, Holland, and France, retting is carried out in running water, and the resulting flax is alighter colour. Linen is more difficult to dye than cotton, probablyon account of the hard nature of the fibre. The same processes areused for dyeing linen as for cotton. 

_To Bleach Linen_--(For 13 to 15 yards linen). Boil 1/2 lb. Soap and1/2 lb. Soda in a gallon of water. Put it in a copper and fill up withwater, leaving room for the linen to be put in. Put in the linen andbring to the boil. Boil for 2 hours, keeping it under the water andcovered. Stir occasionally. Then spread out on the grass for 3 days, watering it when it gets dry. Repeat this boiling and grassing 3weeks. The linen is then pure white. 

_To bleach linen a cream colour_--Boil 1/2 lb. Soap and 1/2 lb. Sodain a gallon of water. Fill copper up with water and put in linen. Boilfor 2 hours. Repeat this once a day for 4 days. The linen should notbe wrung out but kept in the water till ready to be put into the freshbath. 

CHAPTER II

MORDANTS

Any dye belongs to one of two classes. _Substantive_, giving colouringdirectly to the material: and _adjective_, which includes the greaternumber of dyes and requires the use of a mordant to bring out thecolour. 

There are thus two processes concerned with the dyeing of mostcolours; the first is mordanting and the second is the colouring oractual dyeing. The mordanting prepares the stuff to receive the dye(_mordere_, _to bite_). 

The early French dyers thought that a mordant had the effect ofopening the pores of the fibre, so that the dye could more easilyenter; but according to Hummel, and later dyers, the action of themordant is purely chemical; and he gives a definition of a mordant as"the body, whatever it may be, which is fixed on the fibre incombination with any given colouring matter. " The mordant is firstprecipitated on to the fibre and combines with the colouring matter inthe subsequent dye bath. But, whether the action is chemical or merelyphysical, the fact remains that all adjective dyes need thispreparation of the fibre before they will fix themselves on it. Theuse of a mordant, though not a necessity, is sometimes an advantagewhen using substantive dyes. 

In early days the leaves and roots of certain plants were used. Thisis the case even now in India and other places where primitive dyeingmethods are still carried on. Alum has been known for centuries inEurope. Iron and tin filings have also been used. Alum and copperashave been known in the Highlands long ages. 

_Mordants_ should not affect the physical characteristics of thefibres. Sufficient time must be allowed for the mordant to penetratethe fibre thoroughly. If the mordant is only superficial, the dye willbe uneven: it will fade and will not be as brilliant as it should be. The brilliancy and fastness of Eastern dyes are probably due to agreat extent to the length of time taken over the various processes ofdyeing. _The longer time that can be given to each process, the moresatisfactory will be the result. _

Different mordants give different colours with the same dye stuff. Forexample:--Cochineal, if mordanted with alum, will give a crimsoncolour; with iron, purple; with tin, scarlet; and with chrome orcopper, purple. Logwood, also, if mordanted with alum, gives a mauvecolour; if mordanted with chrome, it gives a blue. Fustic, weld, andmost of the yellow dyes, give a greeny yellow with alum, but an oldgold colour with chrome; and fawns of various shades with othermordants. 

Silk and wool require very much the same preparation except that inthe case of silk, high temperatures should be avoided. Wool isgenerally boiled in a weak solution of whatever mordant is used. Withsilk, as a rule, it is better to use a cold solution, or a solution ata temperature below boiling point. Cotton and linen are more difficultto dye than wool or silk. Their fibre is not so porous and will nothold the dye stuff without a more complicated preparation. The usualmethod of preparing linen or cotton is to boil it first with someastringent. The use of astringents in dyeing depends upon the tannicacid they contain. In combination with ordinary mordants, tannic acidaids the attraction of the colouring matter to the fibre and addsbrilliancy to the colours. The astringents mostly used are tannicacid, gall nuts, sumach and myrobalams. Cotton has a naturalattraction for tannic acid, so that when once steeped in its solutionit is not easily removed by washing. 

ALUM

This is the most generally used of all the mordants, and has beenknown as such from early times in many parts of the world. For mostcolours a certain proportion of cream of tartar should be added to thealum bath as it helps to brighten the ultimate colour. The usualamount of alum is a quarter of a pound to a pound of wool. As a rule, less mordant is needed for light colours than for dark. Excess of alumis apt to make the wool sticky. The usual length of time for boilingis about an hour. Some dyers give as much as 2-1/2 hours. 

_Example of mordanting with alum_--1/4 lb. Of Alum and 1 oz. Cream oftartar for every pound of wool. This is dissolved and when the wateris warm the wool is entered. Raise to boiling point and boil for onehour. The bath is then taken off the fire and allowed to cool overnight. The wool is then wrung out (not washed) and put away in a linenbag in a cool place for 4 or 5 days, when it is ready for dyeing, after being thoroughly washed. 

IRON

(_Ferrous Sulphate, copperas, green vitriol. _)

Iron is one of the oldest mordants known and is largely used in wooland cotton dyeing. It is almost as important as alum. The temperatureof the mordanting bath must be raised very gradually to boiling pointor the wool will dye unevenly. A general method of dealing withcopperas is to boil the wool first in a decoction of the colouringmatter and then add the mordant to the same bath in a proportion of 5to 8 per cent of the weight of the wool, and continue boiling for halfan hour or so longer. With some dyes a separate bath is needed, suchas with Camwood or Catechu. Great care is needed in the using ofcopperas, as, unless it is thoroughly dissolved and mixed with thewater before the wool is entered, it is apt to stain the wool. It alsohardens wool if used in excess or if boiled too long. A separate bathshould always be kept for dyes or mordants containing iron. The leasttrace of it will dull colours and it will spoil the brilliancy ofreds, yellows and oranges. 

Copperas is mostly used for the fixing of wool colours (Fustic, etc. )to produce brown shades; the wool being boiled first in a decoction ofthe dye for about 1 hour, and then for 1/2 an hour with the additionof 5 to 8 per cent of copperas. If used for darkening colours, copperas is added to the bath after the dyeing, and the boilingcontinued for 15 to 20 mins. 

TIN

(_Stannous chloride, tin crystals, tin salts, muriate of tin. _)

Tin is not so useful as a mordant in itself, but as a modifying agentwith other mordants. It must always be used with great care, as ittends to harden the wool, making it harsh and brittle. Its generaleffect is to give brighter, clearer and faster colours than the othermordants. When used as a mordant before dyeing, the wool is enteredinto the _cold_ mordant bath, containing 4 per cent of stannouschloride and 2 per cent oxalic acid; the temperature is graduallyraised to boiling, and kept at this temperature for 1 hour. It issometimes added to the dye bath towards the end of dyeing, tointensify and brighten the colour. It is also used with cochineal forscarlet on wool in the one bath method. 

CHROME

(_Potassium dichromate. Bichromate of Potash. _)

Chrome is a modern mordant, unknown to the dyer of fifty years ago. Itis excellent for wool and is easy to use and very effective in itsaction. Its great advantage is that it leaves the wool soft to thetouch, whereas the other mordants are apt to harden the wool. The woolshould be boiled for 1 to 1-1/2 hours with bichromate of potash in theproportion of 2 to 4 per cent of the wool. It is then washed well andimmediately dyed. Wool mordanted with chrome should not be exposed tolight, but should be kept well covered with the liquid while beingmordanted, else it is liable to dye unevenly. An excess of chromeimpairs the colour, 3 per cent of chrome is a safe quantity to use forordinary dyeing. It should be dissolved in the bath while the water isheating. The wool is entered and the bath gradually raised to theboiling point, and boiled for 3/4 of an hour. 

COPPER

(_Copper Sulphate, Verdigris, Blue Vitriol, Blue Copperas, Bluestone. _)

Copper is rarely used as a mordant. It is usually applied as asaddening agent, that is, the wool is dyed first, and the mordantapplied afterwards to fix the colour. With _cream of tartar_ it isused sometimes as an ordinary mordant before dyeing, but the coloursso produced have no advantage over colours mordanted by easiermethods. 

CHAPTER III

BRITISH DYE PLANTS

On the introduction of foreign dye woods and other dyes during the17th and 18th centuries, the native dye plants were rapidly displaced, except in some out of the way places such as the Highlands and partsof Ireland. Some of these British dye plants had been used from earlyhistorical times for dyeing. Some few are still in use in commercialdye work (pear, sloe, and a few others); but their disuse waspractically completed during the 19th century, when the chemical dyesousted them from the market. 

The majority of these plants are not very important as dyes, and couldnot probably now be collected in sufficient quantities. Some few, however, are important, such as woad, weld, heather, walnut, alder, oak, some lichens; and many of the less important ones would producevaluable colours if experiments were made with the right mordants. Those which have been in use in the Highlands are most of them gooddyes. Among these are Ladies Bedstraw, whortleberry, yellow iris, bracken, bramble, meadow sweet, alder, heather and many others. Theyellow dyes are most plentiful and many of these are good fastcolours. Practically no good red, in quantity, is obtainable. Madderis the only reliable red dye among plants, and that is no longerindigenous in England. Most of the dye plants require a preparation ofthe material to be dyed, with alum, or some other mordant, but a few, such as Barbary and some of the lichens, are substantive dyes, andrequire no mordant. 

PLANTS WHICH DYE RED

 Birch. _Betula alba. _ Fresh inner bark. 

 Bed-straw. _Gallium boreale. _ Roots. 

 Common Sorrel. _Rumex acetosa. _ Roots. 

 Dyer's Woodruff. _Asperula tinctoria. _ Roots. 

 Evergreen Alkanet. _Anchusa sempervirens. _

 Gromwell. _Lithospermum arvense. _

 Lady's Bedstraw. _Gallium verum. _ Roots. 

 Marsh Potentil. _Potentilla Comarum. _ Roots. 

 Potentil. _Potentilla Tormentilla. _ Roots. 

 Wild Madder. _Rubia peregrina. _

PLANTS WHICH DYE BLUE

 Devil's Bit. _Scabiosa succisa. _ Leaves prepared like woad. 

 Dog's Mercury. _Mercurialis perennis. _

 Elder. _Sambucus nigra. _ Berries. 

 Privet. _Ligustrum vulgare. _ Berries with alum and salt. 

 Red bearberry. _Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi. _

 Sloe. [A] _Prunus communis. _ Fruit. 

 Whortleberry or Blaeberry. _Vaccinium Myrtillus. _ Berries. 

 Woad. _Isatis tinctoria. _

 Yellow Iris. _Iris Pseudacorus. _ Roots. 

PLANTS WHICH DYE YELLOW

 Agrimony. _Agrimonia Eupatoria. _

 Ash. _Fraxinus excelsior. _ Fresh inner bark. 

 Barberry. _Berberis vulgaris. _ Stem and root. 

 Birch. Leaves. 

 Bog Asphodel. _Narthecium ossifragum. _

 Bog Myrtle or Sweet Gale. _Myrica Gale. _

 Bracken. _Pteris aquilina. _ Roots. Also young tops. 

 Bramble. _Rubus fructicosus. _

 Broom. _Sarothammus Scoparius. _

 Buckthorn. _Rhamnus frangula_ and _R. Cathartica. _ Berries and Bark. 

 Common dock. _Rumex obtusifolius. _ Root. 

 Crab Apple. _Pyrus Malus. _ Fresh inner bark. 

 Dyer's Greenwood. _Genista tinctoria. _ Young shoots and leaves. 

 Gorse. _Ulex Europæus. _ Bark, flowers and young shoots. 

 Heath. _Erica vulgaris. _ With Alum. 

 Hedge stachys. _Stachys palustris. _

 Hop. _Humulus lupulus. _

 Hornbeam. _Carpinus Betulus. _ Bark. 

 Kidney Vetch. _Anthyllis Vulnararia. _

 Ling. _Caluna vulgaris. _

 Marsh Marigold. _Caltha palustris. _

 Marsh potentil. _Potentilla Comarum. _

 Meadow Rue. _Thalictrum flavum. _

 Nettle. _Urtica. _ With Alum. 

 Pear. Leaves. 

 Plum. "

 Polygonum Hydropiper. 

 Polygonum Persecaria. 

 Poplar. Leaves. 

 Privet. _Ligustrum vulgare. _ Leaves. 

 S. John's Wort. _Hypericum perforatum. _

 Sawwort. [B] _Serratula tinctoria. _

 Spindle tree. _Euonymus Europæus. _

 Stinking Willy, or Ragweed. _Senecio Jacobæa. _

 Sundew. _Drosera. _

 Teasel. _Dipsacus Sylvestris. _

 Way-faring tree. _Viburnum lantana. _ Leaves. 

 Weld. _Reseda luteola. _

 Willow. [C] Leaves. 

 Yellow Camomile. _Anthemis tinctoria. _

 Yellow Centaury. _Chlora perfoliata. _

 Yellow Corydal. _Corydalis lutea. _

PLANTS WHICH DYE GREEN

 Elder. _Sambucus nigra. _ Leaves with alum. 

 Flowering reed. _Phragmites communis. _ Flowering tops, with copperas. 

 Larch. Bark, with alum. 

 Lily of the valley. _Convalaria majalis. _ Leaves. 

 Nettle. _Urtica dioica_ and _U. Urens. _

 Privet. _Ligustrum vulgare. _ Berries and leaves, with alum. 

PLANTS WHICH DYE BROWN

 Alder. _Alnus glutinosa. _ Bark. 

 Birch. _Betula alba. _ Bark. 

 Hop. _Humulus lupulus. _ Stalks give a brownish red colour. 

 Onion. Skins. 

 Larch. Pine needles, collected in Autumn. 

 Oak. _Quercus Robur. _ Bark. 

 Red currants, with alum. 

 Walnut. Root and green husks of nut. 

 Water Lily. _Nymphæa alba. _ Root. 

 Whortleberry. _Vaccinium Myrtillus. _ Young shoots, with nut galls. 

 Dulse. (Seaweed. )

 Lichens. 

PLANTS WHICH DYE PURPLE

 Byrony. _Byronia dioica. _ Berries. 

 Damson. Fruit, with alum. 

 Dandelion. _Taraxacum Dens-leonis. _ Roots. 

 Danewort. _Sambucus Ebulus. _ Berries. 

 Deadly nightshade. _Atropa Belladonna. _

 Elder. _Sambucus nigra. _ Berries, with alum, a violet; with alum and salt, a lilac colour. 

 Sundew. _Drosera. _

 Whortleberry or blaeberry. _Vaccinium myrtillus. _ It contains a blue or purple dye which will dye wool and silk without mordant. 

PLANTS WHICH DYE BLACK

 Alder. _Alnus glutinosa. _ Bark, with copperas. 

 Blackberry. _Rubus fruticosus. _ Young shoots, with salts of iron. 

 Dock. _Rumex. _ Root. 

 Elder. Bark, with copperas. 

 Iris. _Iris Pseudacorus. _ Root. 

 Meadowsweet. _Spirea Ulmaria. _

 Oak. Bark and acorns. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote A: "On boiling sloes, their juice becomes red, and the reddye which it imparts to linen changes, when washed with soap, into abluish colour, which is permanent. "]

[Footnote B: "Sawwort, which grows abundantly in meadows, affords avery fine pure yellow with alum mordant, which greatly resembles weldyellow. It is extremely permanent. "]

[Footnote C: "The leaves of the sweet willow, _salix pentandra_, gathered at the end of August and dried in the shade, afford, ifboiled with about one thirtieth potash, a fine yellow colour to wool, silk and thread, with alum basis. All the 5 species of Erica or heathgrowing on this island are capable of affording yellow much like thosefrom the dyer's broom; also the bark and shoots of the Lombardypoplar, _populus pyramidalis_. The three leaved hellebore, _helleborustrifolius_, for dyeing wood yellow, is used in Canada. The seeds ofthe purple trefoil, lucerne, and fenugreek, the flowers of the Frenchmarigold, the camomile, _antemis tinctoria_, the ash, _fraxinusexcelsior_, fumitory, _fumaria officinalis_, dye wool yellow. " "TheAmerican golden rod, _solidago canadensis_, affords a very beautifulyellow to wool, silk and cotton upon an aluminous basis. " _Bancroft. _]

CHAPTER IV

THE LICHEN DYES

Some of the most useful dyes and the least known are to be found amongthe Lichens. They seem to have been used among peasant dyers fromremote ages, but apparently none of the great French dyers used them, nor are they mentioned in any of the old books on dyeing. The onlyLichen dyes that are known generally among dyers are Orchil andCudbear, and these are preparations of lichens, not the lichensthemselves. They are still used in some quantity and are preparedrather elaborately. But a great many of the ordinary lichens yieldvery good and permanent dyes. The _Parmelia saxatilis_ and _Parmeliaomphalodes_, are largely used in the Highlands and West Ireland, fordyeing brown of all shades. No mordant is needed, and the coloursproduced are the fastest known. "Crottle" is the general name forLichens in Scotland. They are gathered off the rocks in July andAugust, dried in the sun, and used to dye wool, without anypreparation. The crottle is put into the bath with a sufficientquantity of water, boiled up, allowed to cool, then boiled up with thewool until the shade required is got. This may take from one to threeor four hours, as the dye is not rapidly taken up by the wool. Otherdyers use it in the following way: A layer of crottle, a layer ofwool, and so on until the bath is full; fill with cold water and bringto the boil, and boil till the colour is deep enough. The wool doesnot seem to be affected by keeping it in the dye a long time. A smallquantity of acetic acid put with the Lichen is said to assist inexhausting the colour. 

The grey Lichen, _Ramalina scopulorum_ dyes a fine shade of yellowbrown. It grows very plentifully on old stone walls, especially by thesea, and in damp woods, on trees, and on old rotten wood. Boil theLichen up in sufficient water one day, and the next put in the wool, and boil up again till the right colour is got. If the wool is leftin the dye for a day or more after boiling it absorbs more colour, andit does not hurt the wool but leaves it soft and silky to the touch, though apt to be uneven in colour. Some mordant the wool first withalum, but it does not seem to need it. 

The best known of the dye Lichens are _Parmelia saxatilis_ and_Parmelia omphalodes_ which are still largely used in Scotland andIreland for dyeing wool for tweeds. The well-known Harris tweed smellis partly due to the use of this dye. 

Other Lichens also known for their dyeing properties are: _Parmeliacaperata_, or Stone Crottle, which contains a yellow dye, _P. Ceratophylla_, or Dark Crottle, and _P. Parietina_, the common wallLichen, which gives a colour similar to that of the Lichen itself, yellowish brown. A deep red colour can be got from the dull greyfriable Lichen, common on old stone walls. The bright yellow Lichen, growing on rocks and walls, and old roofs, dyes a fine plum colour, ifthe wool is mordanted first with Bichromate of Potash. 

In Sweden, Scotland and other countries the peasantry use a Lichen, called _Lecanora tartarea_ to furnish a red or crimson dye. It isfound abundantly on almost all rocks, and also grows on dry moors. Itis collected in May and June, and steeped in stale urine for aboutthree weeks, being kept at a moderate heat all the time. The substancehaving then a thick and strong texture, like bread, and being of ablueish black colour, is taken out and made into small cakes of about3/4 lb. In weight, which are wrapped in dock leaves and hung up to dryin peat smoke. When dry it may be preserved fit for use for manyyears; when wanted for dyeing it is partially dissolved in warm water;5 lbs. Of Korkalett is considered sufficient for about 4 Scotch ellsof cloth. The colour produced is a light red. It is used in the dyeingof yarn as well as of cloth. 

In Shetland, the _Parmelia saxatilis_ (Scrottyie) is used to dyebrown. It is found in abundance on argillaceous rocks. It isconsidered best if gathered late in the year, and is generallycollected in August. 

Linnaeus mentions that a beautiful red colour may be prepared from theLichen _Gyrophora pustulata_. _G. Cylindrica_ is used by Icelandersfor dyeing woollen stuffs a brownish green colour. In Sweden andNorway, _Evernia vulpina_ is used for dyeing woollen stuffs yellow. Iceland Moss, _Cetraria Islandica_, is used in Iceland for dyeingbrown. _Usnea barbata_ is collected from trees in Pennsylvania, andused for an orange colour for yarn. 

A general method for using lichens is suggested by Dr. Westring ofSweden in his _Experiments on Lichens for Dyeing Wools and Silks_:

 "The Lichens should be gathered after some days of rain, they can then be more easily detached from the rocks. They should be well washed, dried, and reduced to a fine powder: 25 parts of pure river water are added to 1 of powdered lichen and 1 part of fresh quick lime to 10 parts powdered lichen. To 10 lbs. Lichen half a pound sal ammoniac is sufficient when lime and sal ammoniac are used together. The vessel containing them should be kept covered for the first 2 or 3 days. Sometimes the addition of a little common salt or salt-petre will give greater lustre to the colours. "

This method can be followed by anyone wishing to experiment withLichens. 

Dr. Westring did not use a mordant as a rule. Where the same speciesof Lichen grows on both rocks and trees, the specimens taken fromrocks give the better colours. 

ORCHIL OR ARCHIL AND CUDBEAR are substantive or non mordants dyes, obtained from Lichens of various species of Roccella growing on rocksin the Canary Islands and other tropical and sub-tropical countries. They used to be made in certain parts of Great Britain from variouslichens, but the manufacture of these has almost entirely disappeared. They have been known from early times as dyes. They give beautifulpurples and reds, but the colour is not very fast. The dye is producedby the action of ammonia and oxygen upon the crushed Lichens or weedsas they are called. The early way of producing the colour was bytreating the Lichen with stale urine and slaked lime and this methodwas followed in Scotland. Orchil is applied to wool by the simpleprocess of boiling it in a neutral or slightly acid solution of thecolouring matter. 3% Sulphuric acid is a useful combination. Sometimesalum and tartar are used. It dyes slowly and evenly. It is used as abottom for Indigo on wool and also for compound shades on wool andsilk. For cotton and linen dyeing it is not used. It is rarely used byitself as the colour is fugitive, but by using a mordant of tin, thecolour is made much more permanent. 

Many of the British lichens produce colours by the same treatment asis used for producing Orchil. Large quantities were manufactured inScotland from lichens gathered in the Shetlands and Western Highlands. This was called Cudbear. The Species used by the Scottish Cudbearmakers were generally _Lecanora tartarea_ and _Urceolaria calcarea_;but the following lichens also give the purple colour on treatmentwith ammonia:--_Evernia prunastri_, _Lecanora pallescens_, _Umbilicaria vellea_, _U. Pustulata_, _Parmelia perlata_. Severalothers give colours of similar character, but of little commercialvalue. The manufacture of Archil and Cudbear from the various lichensis simple in principle. In all cases the plant is reduced to a pulpwith water and ammonia, and the mass kept at a moderate heat andallowed to ferment, the process taking two or three weeks to complete. 

RECIPES FOR DYEING WITH LICHENS

_To dye Brown with Crotal. _ For 6-1/4 lbs. (100 ozs. ) of wool. Dyebaths may be used of varying strengths of from 10 to 50 ozs. OfCrotal. Raise the bath to the boil, and boil for an hour. A light tanshade is got by first dipping the wool in a strong solution of Crotal, a darker shade by boiling for half-an-hour, and a dark brown byboiling for two hours or so. It is better, however, to get the shadeby altering the quantity of Crotal used. The addition of sufficientoil of vitriol or acetic acid to make the bath slightly acid will bean improvement (a very small quantity should be used). 

_To dye red with Crotal. _ Gather the lichen off the rocks--it is bestin winter. Put layers of lichen and wool alternately in a pot, fill upwith water and boil until you get the desired tint. Too much crotalwill make the wool a dark red brown, but a very pretty terra cotta redcan be got. No mordant is required. 

_To dye Pink from a bright yellow Lichen_ (_Parmelia parietina_). Mordant the wool with 3% of Bichromate of Potash, then boil with thelichen for 1 hour or more. 

_To dye Brown from Crotal. _ Boil the wool with an equal quantity oflichen for 1 or 1-1/2 hours. No mordant is required. 

_To dye red purple from Cudbear and Logwood. _ Dye with equalquantities of Cudbear and Logwood, the wool having been mordanted withchrome. A lighter colour is got by dyeing with 8 lbs. Cudbear, 1/2 lb. Logwood (for 30 lbs. Wool). 

_To dye Yellow on Linen with the Lichen Peltigera canina_ (a largeflat lichen growing on rocks in woods). Mordant with alum (1/4 lb. Toa lb. Of linen) boil for 2 hours. Then boil up with sufficientquantity of the lichen till the desired colour is got. 

LIST OF LICHENS USED BY THE PEASANTRY OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES FOR WOOLDYEING[D]

SHADES OF RED, PURPLE AND ORANGE

 _Borrera ashney. _ Chutcheleera. India. 

 _Conicularia aculeata. _ var. _spadicea. _ Brown prickly cornicularia. Canary Islands, Highland Mountains. 

 _Evernia prunastri. _ Ragged hoary Lichen. Stag's horn Lichen. Found in Scotland on trees. 

 _Isidium corallinum. _ White crottle. On rocks in Scotland. 

 _I. Westringii. _ Westring's Isidium. Norway and Sweden. 

 _Lecanora tartarea. _ Crotal, Crottle, Corkur, Corcir, Korkir. Found in the Scotch Highlands and Islands, growing on rocks; used for the manufacture of Cudbear in Leith and Glasgow. 

 _L. Parella. _ Light Crottle, Crabs Eye Lichen. Found in Scotland, France and England, on rocks and trees; formerly celebrated in the South of France in the making of the dye called Orseille d'Auvergne. 

 _L. Hæmatomma. _ Bloody spotted lecanora, Black lecanora. Found in Scotland on rocks and trees. 

 _Lecidea sanguinaria. _ Red fruited lecidea. In Scotland, on rocks. 

 _Nephroma parilis. _ Chocolate coloured nephroma. Scotland, on stones. Said to dye blue. 

 _Parmelia caperata. _ Stone Crottle, Arcel. Found in North of Ireland and Isle of Man, on trees. Said to dye brown, orange lemon and yellow. 

 _P. Conspersa. _ Sprinkled parmelia. Found growing on rocks in England. 

 _P. Omphalodes. _ Black Crottle, Cork, Corker, Crostil or Crostal (Scotch Highlands). Arcel (Ireland). Kenkerig (Wales). Alaforel leaf (Sweden). Found on rocks, especially Alpine, in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and Scandinavia. One of the most extensively used dye lichens. It yields a dark brown dye readily to boiling water, and it is easily fixed to yarns by simple mordants. It is stated to yield a red, crimson or purple dye. 

 _P. Saxatilis. _ Crottle, stane-raw, Staney-raw (Scotland). Scrottyie (Shetland). Sten-laf, Sten-mossa (Norway and Sweden). Found on rocks and stones in Scotland, Shetland, and Scandinavia. In winter the Swedish peasantry wear home made garments dyed purple by this Lichen. By the Shetlanders it is usually collected in August, when it is considered richest in colouring matter. 

 _Ramalina farinacea. _ Mealy ramalina. On trees in England. 

 _R. Scopulorum. _ Ivory-like ramalina. Scotland, on maritime rocks. A red dye. 

 _Rocella tinctoria. _ Orseille. Grows in the South of France, on the rocks by the sea. 

 _Solorina crocea. _ Saffron yellow solorina. In Scotland, on mountain summits. The colouring matter is ready formed and abundant in the thallus. 

 _Sticta pulmonacea. _ On trees. 

 _Umbilicaria pustulata. _ Blistered umbilicaria. Found on rocks in Norway and Sweden. 

 _Urceolaria calcarea. _ Corkir, Limestone Urceolaria. Found in Scotland, Western Islands, Shetland and Wales, growing on limestone rocks. 

 _U. Cinerea. _ Greyish Urceolaria. In England, on rocks. 

 _U. Scruposa. _ Rock Urceolaria. Grows on rocks in hilly districts in England. 

 _Usnea barbata. _ Bearded Usnea. Pennsylvania and South America. On old trees. Stated to dye yarn orange. 

 _U. Florida. _ Flowering Usnea. Pale greenish yellow or reddish brown. 

 _U. Plicata. _ Plaited Usnea. On trees. 

SHADES OF BROWN

 _Alectoria jubata. _ Horsehair Lichen, Rock hair. On fir trees in England. Pale greenish brown. 

 _Borrera flavicans. _ Yellow borrera. On trees in Germany. Gamboge yellow. 

 _Cetraria Islandica. _ Iceland moss. Iceland heaths and hills. It yields a good brown to boiling water, but this dye appears only to have been made available in Iceland. 

 _Cetraria juniperina. _ En-mossa. On trees in Scandinavia. 

 _Evernia flavicans. _ Wolf's-bane evernia. On trees in Scandinavia. Gamboge yellow. 

 _Gyrophora cylindrica. _ Cylindrical gyrophora. On rocks in Iceland. Greenish brown. Also G. Deusta. 

 _G. Deusta. _ Scorched-looking gyrophora. On rocks in Scandinavia. Linnaeus states that it furnishes a paint called "Tousch", much used in Sweden. 

 _Lecanora candelaria. _ Ljus mässa. On trees in Sweden. 

 _Lecidea atro-virens. _ Map lichen. On rocks, Scandinavia. 

 _Lepraria chlorina. _ Brimstone coloured lepraria. Scandinavia, on rocks. 

 _L. Iolithus. _ Viol-mässa. Sweden, on stones. Gives stones the appearance of blood stains. 

 _Parmelia omphalodes. _ In Scandinavia and Scotland. Withering asserts it yields a purple dye, paler, but more permanent, than orchil; which is prepared in Iceland by steeping in stale lye, adding a little salt and making it up into balls with lime. 

 _P. Parietina. _ Common yellow wall lichen, Wäg-mässla Wag-laf. England and Sweden, on trees, rocks, walls, palings. Used to dye Easter eggs. Used in Sweden for wool dyeing. 

 _P. Physoides. _ Dark crottle, Bjork-laf. Found in Sweden, Scotland and Scandinavia, on rocks and trees. 

 _Sticta pulmonacea. _ Oak lung, Lungwort, Aikraw Hazelraw, Oak-rag, Hazel crottle, Rags. Found on trees in England, Scotland, North of Ireland, Scandinavia. It dyes wool orange and is said to have been used by the Herefordshire peasantry to dye stockings brown. Some species yield beautiful saffron or gamboge coloured dyes, e. G. _S. Flava crocata, aurata_. 

 _S. Scrobiculata. _ Aik-raw, Oak rag. Found on trees in Scotland and England. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote D: From an article by Dr. Lauder Lindsay on "The DyeingProperties of Lichens. " _The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_, July toOctober, 1855. ]

CHAPTER V

BLUE

INDIGO, WOAD, LOGWOOD

_INDIGO_

Indigo is the blue matter extracted from a plant _Indigoferatinctoria_ and other species, growing in Asia, South America andEgypt. It reaches the market in a fine powder, which is insoluble inwater. There are two ways of dyeing with Indigo. It may be dissolvedin sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol, thereby making an indigo extract. This process was discovered in 1740. It gives good blue colours but isnot very permanent, darker colours are more so than the paler. It doesnot dye cotton or linen. 

The other method is by the Indigo vat process which produces fastcolours but is complicated and difficult. In order to colour withindigo it has to be deprived of its oxygen. The deoxidized indigo isyellow and in this state penetrates the woollen fibre; the moreperfectly the indigo in a vat is deoxidized, the brighter and fasterwill be the colour. For wool dyeing the vats are heated to atemperature of 50°C. Cotton and linen are generally dyed cold. 

TO MAKE EXTRACT OF INDIGO

1 lb. Oil of vitriol (pure, not commercial). 2 oz. Finely ground Indigo. 1/2 oz. Precipitated chalk. 

Mix a little of the indigo with a small quantity of oil of vitriol, add a little chalk and stir well. Go on mixing gradually till all isused up. This should take an hour or two. Stir a few times each dayfor 4 or 5 days, adding about 1/2 oz. More of chalk by degrees. It isbest mixed in a glass stoppered bottle or jar, and stirred with aglass rod. It must be kept from the air. 

INDIGO EXTRACT (4 to 6 lbs. Wool). 

Mordant[E] 25% Alum. Stir 2 to 3 ozs. Indigo extract into the water ofdye bath. The amount is determined by the depth of shade required. When warm, enter the wool and bring slowly to boiling point (about 1/2an hour) and continue boiling for another 1/2 hour. By keeping itbelow boiling point while dyeing, better colours are got, but it isapt to be uneven. Boiling levels the colour but makes the shadegreener. This is corrected by adding to the dye bath a little logwood, 10 to 20 per cent which should be boiled up separately, strained, andput in bath before the wool is entered; too much logwood dims thecolour. Instead of logwood a little madder is sometimes used; alsoCudbear or Barwood. 

INDIGO VAT (TIN) FOR WOOL

To 2 quarts of water add 1/4 lb. Lime, and make hot. Then add 1 oz. Indigo pounded up with a little of the lime water; let it stand andget warmer. Pound up 1/2 oz. Tin, _Stannous Chloride_, in a littlelime water and add, together with 1/2 oz. Zinc. Add more lime water ortin according to the state of the vat. There should be a streaky scumon the surface, and the water underneath clear with a green tinge. Pearl ash can be used instead of lime. 

HYDROSULPHITE-SODA VAT FOR WOOL

2 ozs. Powdered indigo. 7 fluid ozs. Caustic Soda solution (SG 1. 2). 4 pints Sodium Hydrosulphite (SG 1. 1). 

_The Stock Solution. _--Take 2 ozs. Of well pounded indigo, with enoughwarm water (120°F. ) to make a paste, and _grind_ in a pestle andmortar for 10 minutes. Empty into a saucepan, capacity 1 gallon. Take12 fluid ozs. Of water adding gradually 3 ozs. Of commercial causticsoda 76 per cent. This will give a solution of SG 1. 2, which can betested with a hydrometer reading from 1000 to 2000, the 1000representing SG 1 as for water. 

Next take 5 pints water, add hydrosulphite slowly, stirring gentlyuntil a reading of 1100 is shown (SG 1. 1) on the hydrometer. If thehydrosulphite be weighed beforehand and the stock of the same be keptfree from damp air, or great heat, for future vats the hydrometer canbe dispensed with; it is simply weighed out and added slowly to thewater. If added too quickly the hydrosulphite will cake, fall to thebottom and be difficult to dissolve. 

To the saucepan containing the indigo (100 per cent) add 7 fluid ozs. Of the caustic soda solution, then gradually add 3-1/2 pints ofhydrosulphite solution, stirring gently for 15 to 20 minutes. Heat thesaucepan to 120°F. And on no account to more than 140°F. --_overheatingwill ruin the Stock Solution_--let it stand for half an hour, thentest with a strip of glass. This should show a perfectly clear goldenyellow colour (turning blue in 45 secs. Approx. ), free from spots. Ifdark spots show, this indicates undissolved indigo, thereforegradually add hydrosulphite solution (2-3 fluid ozs. ). Wait 15 mins. And test with glass strip; if incorrect continue this every 15 minutesuntil the glass indicates clear yellow. If the Stock Solution isgreenish white and turbid, undissolved _indigo white_ is present. Addthen not more than a teaspoonful at a time caustic soda solution untilthe Stock Solution answers the glass test. 

The _Dye Vat_ should contain about 10 gallons of water heated to handhot, 120° and not above 140°F. Add 3 ozs. Of hydrosulphite solutionstirring carefully, let it stand for 20 minutes; this renders harmlessany undissolved oxygen. Add a small cupful of the Stock Solution, stircarefully without splashing. The vats should be greenish yellow and_should not feel slimy_, an indication of too much caustic. The vat isnow ready to dye and is kept at 120° to 140°F. 

Between dips add Stock Solution as required, if the vat goes blue andturbid add 3 to 4 fluid ozs. Of hydrosulphite and warm up to 140°F. And wait 30 minutes. As a last resort add caustic soda solution verygradually. This should not be required if the Stock Solution isproperly prepared. 

Start to dye with weak vats, 20 to 40 minute dips, and finish withstronger vats. The more dips given to obtain a fixed shade, the fasterwill be the yarn to washing and rubbing. The yarn must be oxidized byexposure to the air for the same length of time as dipped. After thefinal dip, pass the yarn through a 10 gallon bath of water to which isadded 3 ozs. Of sulphuric acid, pure or hydrochloric. This neutralizesthe caustic used. Wash yarn at least twice in water. 

_Improvement of Defective Indigo Vat Dyes. _

If, after washing until clear, the yarn should rub off badly, there isbut one remedy. Wash same in Fuller's earth, and if the shade is thentoo pale, re-dye. If, through bad management of the vats, the yarn isdull, pass the yarn through a hot bath (100% water, 1% acetic acid)and wash in two waters. If yarn is streaky, take 10 gallons of waterat 120°F. , 1 oz. Of hydrosulphite powder, 2 fluid ozs. Liquid ammoniafort. 880, and let yarn lie in same for 60 minutes. Wash in twowaters. 

The following facts should be carefully noted:--

The Caustic Soda is the _alkali_ which dissolves the Indigo White. 

The Hydrosulphite _reduces_ the Indigotine in the Indigo to _IndigoWhite_. 

Indigo White is fixed on the yarn as Indigo White and on exposure tothe air becomes blue. 

The yarn, on removal from the vat, should come out greenish yellow ora greenish blue. The latter is for blue yarn and should not turn bluetoo quickly (allow 60 seconds at least). 

Rest the vats for 1 hour after 3 hours work. Never hurry the vats. Itis a good thing to have hydrosulphite slightly in excess as thisprevents premature oxidization; too much will strip off the indigowhite already deposited on the yarn. 

Caustic Soda must always be used with the greatest caution or the yarnwill be tendered and ruined. 

Finally, unless the yarn is completely scoured it is impossible toobtain a clear colour, or a blue which will not rub off. 

The figures given are for Indigo bearing 100% Indigotine, therefore inusing vegetable Indigo do not add _all_ the Caustic or Hydrosulphite, but depend on the glass test rather than on measurements. 

_WOAD_

Woad is derived from a plant, _Isatis tinctoria_, growing in the Northof France and in England. It was the only blue dye in the West beforeIndigo was introduced from India. Since then woad has been little usedexcept as a fermenting agent for the Indigo vat. It dyes woollen clotha greenish colour which changes to a deep blue in the air. It is saidto be inferior in colour to indigo but the colour is much morepermanent. The leaves when cut are reduced to a paste, kept in heapsfor about fifteen days to ferment, and then are formed into ballswhich are dried in the sun; these have a rather agreeable smell andare of a violet colour. These balls are subjected to a furtherfermentation of nine weeks before being used by the dyer. When woad isnow used it is always in combination with indigo, to improve thecolour. Even by itself, however, it yields a good and very permanentblue. 

It is not now known how the ancients prepared the blue dye, but it hasbeen stated (Dr. Plowright) that woad leaves when covered with boilingwater, weighted down for half-an-hour, the water then poured offtreated with caustic potash and subsequently with hydrochloric acid, yield a good indigo blue. If the time of infusion be increased, greensand browns are obtained. It is supposed that woad was "vitrum" the dyewith which Caesar said almost all the Britons stained their bodies. Itis said to grow near Tewkesbury, also Banbury. It was cultivated tillquite lately in Lincolnshire. There were four farms in 1896; one atParson Drove, near Wisbech, two farms at Holbeach, and one nearBoston. Indigo has quite superseded it in commerce. 

LOGWOOD

(_Bois de Campeche, Campeachy Wood_)

Logwood is a dye wood from Central America, used for producing bluesand purples on wool, black on cotton and wool, and black and violet onsilk. It is called by old dyers one of the Lesser Dyes, because thecolour was said to lose all its brightness when exposed to the air. But with proper mordants and with careful dyeing this dye can producefast and good colours. Queen Elizabeth's government issued anenactment entirely forbidding the use of logwood. The person sooffending was liable to imprisonment and the pillory. The principaluse for logwood is in making blacks. The logwood chips should be putin a bag and boiled for 20 minutes to 1/2 an hour, just before using. 

RECIPES for DYEING with LOGWOOD

(1). BLACK

Mordant the wool for 1 to 1-1/2 hours with 3 per cent Chrome and 1 percent Sulphuric Acid. Wash and dye in separate bath for 1 to 1-1/2hours with 50 per cent Logwood. This gives a blue black. 

A dead black is got by adding 5 per cent Fustic to the dye bath. 

A green black by adding more fustic. Also by adding 3 to 4 per centAlum to the mordanting bath a still greener shade can be obtained. 

A violet black is produced by adding 2 per cent Stannous Chloride tothe dye bath and continue boiling for 20 minutes. 

(2). LAVENDER

Mordant with 3 per cent Bichromate of Potash for 45 minutes and wash. Dye with 2 per cent madder, 1 per cent logwood. Enter the wool, raiseto the boil and boil for 45 minutes. The proportion of logwood tomadder can be so adjusted as to give various shades of claret topurple. 

(3). A FAST LOGWOOD BLUE

(Highland recipe. ) Mordant with 3 per cent Bichromate of Potash andboil wool in it for 1-1/2 hours. Wash and dry wool. Make a bath of 15to 20 per cent logwood with about 3 per cent chalk added to it. Boilthe wool for 1 hour, wash and dry. The wool can be greened by steepingit all night in a hot solution of heather till the desired tint isobtained. 

(4). RAVEN GREY FOR WOOL

Mordant with 25 per cent Alum for 1/2 hour at boiling heat; then takeit out, add to the same liquor 5 per cent copperas, and work it atboiling heat for 1/2 hour. Then wash. In another copper, boil 50 percent logwood chips for 20 minutes. Put the wool into this for 1/2hour; then return it into the alum and copperas for 10 to 15 minutes. Wash well. 

(5). DARK RED PURPLE WITH LOGWOOD

(2-1/2 lbs. ) Mordant with 25 per cent alum and 1 per cent cream oftartar for 1 hour. Let cool in the mordant, then wring out and putaway for 4 to 5 days. 

Dye with 60 per cent logwood and 25 per cent madder. Boil up thelogwood and madder in a separate bath and pour through a sieve intothe dye bath. Enter the wool when warm and bring to the boil. Boilfrom 1/2 hour to 1-1/2 hours. Wash thoroughly in soft water. 

(6) PURPLE

(For 1 lb. ) Mordant wool with 1/4 lb. Alum and 1/2 oz. Tartar for onehour; wring out and put away in a bag for some days. Dye with 1/4 lb. Logwood for 1 hour. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote E: If the Extract is used alone, a mordant is notessential. ]

CHAPTER VI

RED

KERMES COCHINEAL MADDER

_KERMES_

Kermes, or Kerms, from which is got the "Scarlet of Grain" of the olddyers, is one of the old insect dyes. It is considered by most dyersto be the first of the red dyes, being more permanent than cochinealand brighter than madder. In the 10th century it was in general use inEurope. The reds of the Gothic tapestries were dyed with it, and arevery permanent, much more so than the reds of later tapestries, whichwere dyed with cochineal. Bancroft says "The Kermes red or scarlet, though less vivid, is more durable than that of cochineal. The fineblood-red seen at this time on old tapestries in different parts ofEurope, unfaded, though many of them are two or three hundred yearsold, were all dyed from Kermes, with the aluminous basis, on woollenyarn. "

Kermes consists of the dried bodies of a small scale insect, _Coccusilicis_, found principally on the ilex oak, in the South of Europe, and still used there. 

William Morris speaks of the "Al-kermes or coccus which produces withan ordinary aluminous mordant a central red, true vermilion, and witha good dose of acid a full scarlet, which is the scarlet of the MiddleAges, and was used till about the year 1656, when a Dutch chemistdiscovered the secret of getting a scarlet from cochineal by the useof tin, and so produced a cheaper, brighter and uglier scarlet. "

Kermes is employed exactly like cochineal. It has a pleasant aromaticsmell which it gives to the wool when dyed with it. 

_COCHINEAL_

The dried red bodies of an insect (_Coccus Cacti_) found in Mexico arenamed Cochineal. 

(1). PURPLE, CRIMSON AND SCARLET

(For 1 lb. Wool. ) Mordant with Bichromate of Potash (3%). Dye for 1 to2 hours with 3 oz. To 6 oz. Cochineal. With alum mordant (25%) acrimson colour is got. With tin mordant (10%) a scarlet. With ironmordant (6%) a purplish slate or lilac. 

(2). SCARLET

Mordant with 6 per cent Stannous Chloride and 4 per cent Cream ofTartar, boiling 1 hour. Dye with 15 to 20 per cent Cochineal, boil for1 hour. 

Enter in both mordant and dye bath, cool, and raise slowly to theboil. To obtain a yellow shade of scarlet, a small quantity of Flavin, Fustic, or other yellow dye may be added to the dye bath. 

(3). SCARLET

(1 lb. ) Into the same bath, put 1 oz. Tin, 1/8 oz. Oxalic acid, 4 oz. Cochineal. Enter silk and boil for 1 hour. With less oxalic acid, aless scarlet colour will be obtained. 

(4). CRIMSON

Mordant with 20 per cent alum or with 15 per cent alum and 5 per centTartar. Dye in separate bath, after well washing, with 8 to 15 percent cochineal. Boil 1 hour. A slight addition of ammonia to the dyebath renders the shade bluer. 

(5). ROSE RED

(1 lb. ) Mordant with Alum. Dye with 2 oz. Madder, 2-1/2 ozs. Cochineal, 1/4 oz. Oxalic Acid and 1/2 oz. Tin. 

(6). PURPLE (for 5 lbs. )

Mordant with 3 ozs. Chrome. Wash. Dye for 2 to 3 hours with 13 ozs. Cochineal, which has been boiled for 10 minutes before entering wool. A tablespoonful of vinegar added to the dye bath helps the colour. Wash thoroughly. 

_MADDER_

Madder consists of the ground-up dried roots of a plant _Rubiatinctorum_, cultivated in France, Holland and other parts of Europe, as well as in India. Madder is one of the best and fastest dyes. It isused also in combination with other dyes to produce compound colours. The gradual raising of the temperature of the dye bath is essential inorder to develop the full colouring power of madder; long boilingshould be avoided, as it dulls the colour. If the water is deficientin lime, brighter shades are got by adding a little ground chalk tothe dye bath, 1 to 2 per cent. 

Madder is difficult to dye as it easily rubs off and the followingpoints should be noted. 

 (1). The baths should be quite clean. Rusty baths must not be used. 

 (2). Before dyeing, the wool must be thoroughly washed so as to get rid of all superfluous mordant. 

 (3). A handful of bran to the pound of wool, helps to brighten the colour. 

 (4). The wool should be entered into a tepid dye bath and raised to boiling in 1 hour and boiled for 10 minutes or less. 

(1) RED

Mordant with 1/4 lb. Alum to the pound of wool. Boil for 1 hour, letcool in mordant, wring out and put away in bag for 3 or 4 days. Washvery thoroughly. Then dye with 5 to 8 ozs. Madder according to depthof colour required, and a handful of bran for every pound of wool. Enter in cool bath and bring slowly to the boil in an hour or more. Boil for a few minutes. 

(2) ROSE RED

Mordant with Alum. Dye with 4 to 4-1/2 ozs. Madder to lb. Wool and avery small quantity of logwood (1/2 oz. To 1 oz. To 3 or 4 lbs. Ofwool). 

(3) BROWN

(1 lb. ) Mordant with 2-1/2 ozs. Copper Sulphate. Dye with 2 ozs. To 4ozs. Madder according to depth of colour required. For yellow brownadd a small quantity of fustic (1/4 oz. To the lb. )

(4) RED BROWN

Mordant wool with 3% Chrome (see p. 9), wash well and dye with 5 to 8ozs. Madder, bringing slowly to the boil, and boil for 1 hour. 

Various shades of brownish red can be got by a mixture of madder, fustic and logwood with a Chrome mordant in varying proportions suchas 28 per cent Madder, 12 per cent Fustic, 1 per cent Logwood for abrownish claret. 5 per cent Madder, 4 per cent Fustic, 1/2 per centLogwood for tan. 

_BRAZIL WOODS_

Various leguminous trees, including lima, sapan and peach wood, dyered with alum and tartar, and a purplish slate colour with bichromateof potash. Some old dyers use Brazil wood to heighten the red ofmadder. 

_CAMWOOD_, _BARWOOD_, _SANDALWOOD_, _or_ _SANDERSWOOD_, are chieflyused in wool dyeing, with other dye woods (such as Old Fustic, andlogwood) for browns. They dye good but fugitive red with bichromate ofpotash, or alum. 

CHAPTER VII

YELLOW

WELD OLD FUSTIC TURMERIC QUERCITRON DYER'S BROOM HEATHER AND OTHERYELLOW DYES

Weld, _Reseda luteola_, is an annual plant growing in waste places. The whole plant is used for dyeing except the root. It is the best andfastest of the yellow natural dyes. 

The plant is gathered in June and July, it is then carefully dried inthe shade and tied up in bundles. When needed for dyeing it is brokeninto pieces or chopped finely, the roots being discarded, and adecoction is made by boiling it up in water for about 3/4 hour. Itgives a bright yellow with alum and tartar as mordant. With chrome ityields an old gold shade; with tin it produces more orange colouredyellows; with copper and iron, olive shades. The quantity of weld usedmust be determined by the depth of colour required. Two per cent ofstannous chloride added to the mordant gives brilliancy and fastnessto the colour. Bright and fast orange yellows are got by mordantingwith 8 per cent stannous chloride instead of alum. With 6 per centcopper sulphate and 8 per cent chalk, weld gives a good orange yellow. Wool mordanted with 4 per cent of ferrous sulphate and 10 per centtartar and dyed in a separate bath with weld with 8 per cent chalk, takes a good olive yellow. 8 per cent of alum is often used formordant for weld. A little chalk added to the dye bath makes thecolour more intense; common salt makes the colour richer and deeper. 

Weld is of greater antiquity than most, if not all, other naturalyellow dyes. It is cultivated for dyeing in France, Germany and Italy. It is important as it dyes silk with a fast colour. 

(1) OLD GOLD

Mordant with 2 per cent chrome and dye with 60 per cent of weld in aseparate bath. 3 per cent chalk adds to intensity of colour. 

(2) YELLOW

Mordant with alum, and dye with 1 lb. Of weld for every pound of wool. Common salt deepens the colour. If alum is added to the dye bath, thecolour becomes paler and more lively. Sulphate of iron inclines it tobrown. 

(3) ORANGE

Mordant with alum with a little weld in the bath. Dye with weld. Addteaspoonful of tin to the dye bath. Boil in separate bath with 1/4 oz. Madder or cochineal to the pound. 

_OLD FUSTIC_

Fustic is the wood of _Morus tinctoria_, a tree of Central America. Itis used principally for wool. With Bichromate of Potash as mordant, Old Fustic gives old gold colour. With alum it gives yellow, incliningto lemon yellow. The brightest yellows are got from it by mordantingwith tin. With copper sulphate it yields olive colours (4 to 5 percent copper sulphate and 3 to 4 per cent tartar). With ferroussulphate darker olives are obtained (8 per cent ferrous sulphate). Forsilk it does not produce as bright yellows as weld, but can be usedfor various shades of green and olive. Prolonged dyeing should alwaysbe avoided, as the yellows are apt to become brownish and dull. 

RECIPES FOR DYEING WITH OLD FUSTIC

(1) OLD GOLD

Boil the wool with 3 to 4 per cent chrome for 1 to 1-1/2 hours. Wash, and dye in a separate bath for 1 to 1-1/2 hours at 100°C. With 20 to80 per cent of old fustic. 

(2) OLD GOLD

Mordant with 3 per cent chrome, for 3/4 hour and wash. Dye with 24 percent fustic and 4 per cent madder for 45 minutes. 

(3) BRIGHT YELLOW

Mordant wool with 8 per cent of stannous chloride for 1 to 1-1/2hours, and 8 per cent of tartar. Wash, and dye with 20 to 40 per centof fustic. 

(4) GREENISH YELLOW

Mordant wool with 3 per cent chrome, for 3/4 hour and wash. Dye with 6per cent fustic, 33 per cent logwood. Boil 3/4 hour. 

(5) YELLOW

Mordant with 25 per cent alum, wash after laying by for 2 days, dyewith 5 to 6 oz. Fustic to lb. 

_TURMERIC_

Turmeric is a powder obtained from the ground-up tubers of _Curcumatinctoria_, a plant found in India and other Eastern countries. Itgives a brilliant orange yellow, but has little permanence. It is oneof the substantive colours and does not need any mordant. Cotton has astrong attraction for it, and is simply dyed by working in a solutionof Turmeric at 60°C. For about 1/2 hour. With silk and wool it gives abrighter colour if mordanted with alum or tin. Boiling should beavoided. It is used sometimes for deepening the colour of Fustic orWeld, but its use is not recommended, as although it gives verybeautiful colours, it is a fugitive dye. 

_QUERCITRON_

Quercitron is the inner bark of the _Quercus Nigra_ or Q. Tinctoria, aspecies of oak growing in the United States and Central America. Itwas first introduced into England by Bancroft in 1775 as a cheapsubstitute for weld. He says, "The wool should be boiled for the space of 1 or 1-1/4 hours with one sixth or one eighth of its weight of alum; then, without being rinsed, it should be put into a dyeing vessel with clean water and also as many pounds of powdered bark (tied up in bag) as there were used of alum to prepare the wool, which is then to be turned in the boiling liquor until the colour appears to have taken sufficiently: and then about 1 lb. Clean powdered chalk for every 100 lbs. Of wool may be mixed with the dyeing liquor and the operation continued 8 or 10 minutes longer, when the yellow will have become both lighter and brighter by this addition of chalk. "

Flavin is extract of Quercitron bark, and is much used for brightyellow with tin. 

YELLOW (1 lb. )

Mordant with alum. Dye with 1 oz. Flavin. 

ORANGE WITH FLAVIN OR QUERCITRON (1 lb. )

Put into bath first 1/2 oz. Cream of Tartar. Then 3/4 oz. Tin mixedwith water (important to enter the Tartar first). Enter yarn and boilfor 45 minutes. In the meantime have mixed up 1/2 oz. Flavin and 1/2oz. To 3/4 oz. Cochineal (according to depth of orange required) with1/4 oz. Tin with a little warm water. Remove yarn, enter flavin, madder and tin, take off the boil, enter yarn and stir well. Boil 30minutes. 

_BARBERRY_

The roots and bark of _Berberis Vulgaris_ is used principally for silkdyeing, without a mordant. The silk is worked at 50° to 60°C. In asolution of the dye wood slightly acidified with sulphuric, acetic ortartaric acid. For dark shades mordant with stannous chloride. 

_DYER'S BROOM_

_Genista Tinctoria. _ The plant grows on waste ground. It should bepicked in June or July and dried. It can be used with an alum andtartar mordant and gives a good bright yellow. It is called greeningweed and used to be much used for greening blue wool. 

_PRIVET_

_Ligustrum Vulgare. _ The leaves dye a good fast yellow with alum andtartar. 

_HEATHER_

Most of the heathers make a yellow dye, but the one chiefly used isthe Ling, _Calluna vulgaris_. The tips are gathered just beforeflowering. They are boiled in water for about half-an-hour. The wool, previously mordanted with alum or chrome according to the shade ofyellow wanted, is put into the dye bath with the boiling liquor, whichhas been strained. It is then covered up closely and left till themorning. Or the wool can be boiled in the heather liquor till thedesired colour is obtained. 

_ONION SKINS_

Prepare by mordanting with alum. Take a sufficient quantity of onionskins and boil for 30 minutes. This gives a good yellow. The additionof tin will make the colour more orange. 

CHAPTER VIII

BROWN AND BLACK

CATECHU ALDER BARK SUMACH WALNUT PEAT SOOT LOGWOOD AND OTHER DYES

_CATECHU_

Catechu (Cutch) is an old Indian dye for cotton. It can also be usedfor wool and silk, and gives a fine rich brown. It is obtained fromthe wood of various species of Areca, Acacia and Mimosa trees. BombayCatechu is considered best for dyeing purposes. 

Catechu is soluble in boiling water. It is largely used by the cottondyer for brown, olive, drab, grey and black. (See pp. 46, 47, 48. )

LIGHT GREY

(For 6 lbs. ) 1 oz. Cutch, 1 oz. Iron. Boil for 1/2 an hour in thecutch, then put into boiling iron, being very careful to stir well. Wash very thoroughly. 

These proportions can be varied according to the shade of greyrequired; the more iron makes the colour browner, the more cutch thebluer grey. 

CATECHU BROWN

The wool is boiled for 1 to 1-1/2 hours, with 10 to 20 per centcatechu, then sadden with 2 to 4 per cent of copper sulphate, ferroussulphate, or chrome, at 100°C. , in a separate bath for 1/2 hour. 

_ALDER BARK_

The bark and twigs of alder are used for dyeing brown and black. For 1lb. Wool use 1 lb. Alder bark. Boil the wool with it for 2 hours, whenit should be a dull reddish brown. Add 1/2 oz. Copper as for everypound of wool for black. 

_SUMACH_

Sumach is the ground up leaves and twigs of the _Rhus coraria_ growingin Southern Europe. It dyes wool a yellow and a yellow brown, but itis chiefly used in cotton dyeing. 

_WALNUT_

The green shell of the walnut fruit and the root are used for dyeingbrown. The husks to be used for dyeing must be collected green andfresh, then covered with water and kept from the light to prevent themoxidizing. In the walnut tree there is an astringent colourlesssubstance which gives a greenish yellow dye. This has the property ofabsorbing oxygen from the air and turning dark brown. It is only theunoxidized pale greenish stuff that can act as the dye, the dark brownitself has no affinity for the wool. Acids should be added to the dyebath to prevent oxidization. Without a mordant the colour is quitefast, but if the wool is mordanted with alum a brighter and richercolour is got. When used they are boiled in water for 1/4 hour, thenthe wool is entered and boiled till the colour is obtained. Longboiling is not good as it makes the wool harsh. It is much used as a"saddening" agent; that is, for darkening other colours. 

 "The best and most enduring blacks were done with this simple dye stuff, the goods being first dyed in the indigo or woad vat till they were a very dark blue, and then browned into black by means of the walnut root. "--_William Morris. _

PEAT SOOT gives a good shade of brown to wool. Boil the wool for 1 to2 hours with peat soot. Careful washing is required in several changesof water. It is used sometimes for producing a hazel colour, after thewool has been dyed with weld and madder. 

OAK BARK. Mordant with alum and dye in a decoction of oak bark. 

ONION SKINS. (Brown. ) Mordant the wool with alum. Drying two or threetimes in between makes the colour more durable. Dry. Wash. Boil aquantity of onion skins, and cool; then put in wool and boil lightlyfor 1/2 an hour to 1 hour; then keep warm for a while. Wring out andwash. 

BLACK. Mordant with 3% Bichromate of Potash for 45 minutes. Dye with 1oz. Hematin crystals, 3/4 oz. Madder, 1/2 oz. Persian berries. Afterboiling for 1 hour remove wool and add 1/4 oz. Cream of tartar, 1 oz. Cochineal, 3/4 oz. Iron, 1/2 oz. Copper sulphate. Return wool and boilagain for 1/2 hour. Wash in soap. 

VARIOUS RECIPES

MADDER for BROWN. (1 lb. Wool. ) Mordant with 1 oz. Copperas and 1 oz. Cream of tartar. Dye with 6 ozs. Madder. 

MADDER, etc. , for FRENCH BROWN. Mordant with 3 per cent chrome. Dyewith 8 per cent fustic, 2 per cent madder, 1 per cent cudbear, 2 percent tartar. If not dark enough add 1 per cent logwood. Boil for 1/2hour. Wash and dry. 

TAN SHADE. (6-1/2 lbs. Wool. ) Mordant with 3 ozs. Chrome for 45minutes and wash in cold water. Boil for 1/2 hour in a bag 5 oz. Madder, 4 oz. Fustic, 1/2 oz. Logwood. Enter the wool, raise to theboil, and boil for 45 minutes. By altering the proportions of madderand fustic various shades of brown can be got. 

GREENISH BLACK. (For 1 lb. ) Mordant with 3 per cent Chrome. Dye with 2ozs. Fustic, 2 ozs. Logwood, 1 oz. Madder, and 1 oz. Copperas. 

DARK GREENISH-BROWN. (1 lb. ) Mordant with 3 per cent chrome. Dye with2 ozs. Logwood, 4 ozs. Madder, 1 oz. Fustic, 1-1/2 ozs. Copperas. Boilfor 1 hour. 

CHAPTER IX

GREEN

Green results from the mixing of blue and yellow in varyingproportions according to the shade of colour required. 

Every dyer has his particular yellow weed with which he greens hisblue dyed stuff. But the best greens are undoubtedly got from weld andfustic. 

The wool is first dyed in the blue vat; then washed and dried; thenafter mordanting, dyed in the yellow bath. This method is notarbitrary as some dyers consider a better green is got by dyeing ityellow before the blue. But the first method produces the fastest andbrightest greens as the aluming after the blue vat clears the wool ofthe loose particles of indigo and seems to fix the colour. 

If a bright yellow green is wanted, then mordant with alum after theindigo bath; if olive green, then mordant with chrome. 

The wool can be dyed blue for green in three different ways:--1st inthe Indigo vat, 2nd with Indigo Extract with Alum mordant, 3rd withlogwood with Chrome mordant. For a good bright green, dye the wool arather light blue, then wash and dry; Mordant with alum, green it witha good yellow dye, such as weld or fustic, varying the proportion ofeach according to the shade of green required. Heather tips, dyer'sbroom, dock roots, poplar leaves, saw wort are also good yellows fordyeing green. If Indigo Extract is used for the blue, fustic is thebest yellow for greening, its colour is less affected by the sulphuricacid than other yellows. 

According to _Bancroft_, Quercitron is the yellow above all others fordyeing greens. He says:--"The most beautiful Saxon greens may beproduced very cheaply and expeditiously by combining the lively yellowwhich results from Quercitron bark, murio sulphate of tin and alum, with the blue afforded by Indigo when dissolved in sulphuric acid, asfor dyeing the Saxon Blue. "

"For a full bodied green" he says "6 or 8 lbs. Of powdered bark shouldbe put into a dyeing vessel for every 100 lbs. Wool, with a similarquantity of water: When it begins to boil, 6 lbs. Murio-sulphate oftin should be added (with the usual precaution) and a few minutesafterwards 4 lbs. Alum: these having boiled 5 or 6 minutes, cold watershould be added, and then as much sulphate of Indigo as needed for theshade of green to be dyed, stirring thoroughly. The wool is then putinto the liquor and stirred briskly for half an hour. It is best tokeep the water just at the boiling point. "

RECIPES FOR DYEING GREEN

(1) GREEN WITH QUERCITRON FOR WOOL

Dye the wool blue in the indigo vat, wash well. For 100 parts of woolput 3 of chalk and 10 or 12 of alum. Boil wool in this 1 hour. Then tosame bath add 10 to 12 parts quercitron and continue boiling for 15minutes, then add 1 part of chalk, this addition is repeated atintervals of 6 to 8 minutes till a fine green is brought out. 

(2) WITH INDIGO EXTRACT AND WELD FOR WOOL

Mordant 1 lb. Wool with 4 ozs. Alum and 1/2 oz. Cream of tartar. Dyeblue with sufficiency of indigo extract, wash and dry. Prepare a dyebath with weld which has been previously chopped up and boiled. Enterwool and boil for half an hour or more. 

(3) GREEN FOR WOOL

Mordant with alum and cream of tartar, add to the mordanting bath alittle weld or fustic. Dye with 6 ozs. Fustic (or weld). Dye in aseparate bath with indigo extract, a rather bluer green than iswanted. Then put into a yellow bath till the right shade of green isgot. 

(4) GRASS GREEN

For 1 lb. Wool: 1-1/2 oz. Alum, 1/2 oz. Sulphuric acid, 1/2 oz. Salt, 1/4 oz. Tin crystals. Dissolve tin in separate saucepan and mix halfof it with 1/4 oz. Flavin, add both to the bath together with indigoextract (1/2 tablespoonful). When hot enter yarn and boil hard for 1to 1-1/2 hours. It turns a green when exposed to air. Wash verythoroughly. 

(5) JADE GREEN (1 lb. )

Mordant with 1/3 oz. Cream of Tartar and 4 oz. Alum for 1/2 hour. Takeout wool and air. Cool bath a little and add half the amount of theindigo extract to be used (according to shade of green required, 1/2 oz. Indigo extract makes a good colour). Enter wool and stirrapidly for 5 minutes or so without boiling. Take out wool. Mix in therest of the indigo extract. Enter wool and boil for 10 minutes. Takeout wool. Throw away a quarter of the water and add some with 3/4 oz. Fustic extract. Enter wool and boil for 1/2 hour to an hour. 

CHAPTER X

THE DYEING OF COTTON

The dyeing of cotton is difficult with the natural dye stuffs, thereare only a few colours which can be said to be satisfactory. Thefastest known in earlier days was Turkey red, a long and difficultprocess with madder and not very practical for the small dyer. It hadits origin in India where it is still used; red Indian cotton is oneof the fastest colours known. Catechu is another excellent cotton dyeused for various shades of brown, grey and black. A cold indigo vat isused for blue, Indigo Extract is not used. Yellows can be got withweld, flavin, turmeric (for which cotton has a strong attraction), andfustic. Great care is to be taken in dyeing yellow as it is not veryfast to light. Greens may be got by dyeing in the indigo vat and thenwith a yellow recipe, purples from logwood with tin mordant, butpurples and greens are unsatisfactory, and not suitable to thevegetable dyer. 

BOILING OUT

Before dyeing cotton in the raw state, or in yarn spun direct from theraw state, it must be boiled for several hours to extract its naturalimpurities. For dark colours water alone may be used, but for lightand bright colours a weak solution of carbonate of soda, 5%; or ofcaustic soda, 2%, should be used. 

MORDANTS

_Alum. _ Alum (1/4 weight of cotton) is dissolved in hot water withcarbonate of soda crystals, or other alkali (1/4 weight of alum); workcotton in the solution, steep for several hours or overnight. Thenwell wash. Aluminium acetate solution as for silk (page 56) may beused. After drying, the cotton may be passed through a fixing solutionof some alkali, for examples see page 50. Before mordanting withalum, the cotton is often prepared with tannic acid. 

_Iron. _ Iron is usually employed as a "saddening" agent, i. E. Thecotton after dyeing is steeped in a cold solution of the mordant. Afurther use is in dyeing black, when the cotton, after being preparedwith tannin, is steeped in a cold solution of Iron. This process byitself gives a dark colour before any dye is used. 

_Tin. _ Tin is rarely used alone as a mordant for cotton but brightensthe colour in combination with other mordants. 

_Chrome. _ Chrome is used for browns and other colours with Catechu. After boiling in a solution of the dye stuff, boil a short time inchrome solution, this oxidizes the colouring matter of the Catechu. 

_Copper. _ Copper is sometimes added in small quantities to the dyebath for brown or yellow to vary the shade. 

_Tannin (Tannic acid). _ Cotton and linen strongly attract tannin andwhen prepared with it they are able to retain dyes permanently. Cottonsaturated with tannin attracts the dye stuff more rapidly, and holdsit. Tannic acid is the best tannin for mordanting as it is the purestand is free from any other colouring matter; it is, therefore, usedfor pale and bright shades. But for dark shades, substances containingtannic acid are used, such as _sumach_, _myrobalans_, _valonia_, _divi-divi_, _oak galls_, _chestnut_ (8 to 10 per cent tannin), _catechu_. 

Cotton and linen are prepared with tannin after they have been throughthe required cleansing, and, if necessary, bleaching operations. Abath is prepared with 2 to 5 per cent of tannic acid of the weight ofthe cotton, and a sufficient quantity of water. For dark shades, 5 to10 per cent should be used. The bath is used either hot or cold. Itshould not be above 60°C. The cotton is worked in this for some time, and then left to soak for 3 to 12 hours, while the bath cools. It isthen wrung out and slightly washed. 

The following gives the relative proportions of the various substancescontaining tannin:--1 lb. Tannic acid _equals_ 4 lbs. Sumach, 18 lbs. Myrobalans, 14 lbs. Divi-divi, 11 lbs. Oak galls. 

_Examples from various recipes_:

For 10 lbs. Cotton use 12 ozs. Tannic acid. " 50 " " " 10 lbs. Sumach. " 40 " " " 10 lbs. " " 20 " " " 2 lbs. Yellow (or black) catechu. " 20 " " " 3 lbs. Catechu with 3 ozs. Blue vitriol. 

Some recipes soak the cotton 24 hours, others 48. 

RECIPES FOR DYEING

(1) INDIGO VAT

Take 3 oz. Well ground indigo, mix into a paste with hot water. Slake3 oz. Quicklime and boil with 6 oz. Potash or Soda ash in sufficientwater, let it settle, pour off the clear liquor in which dissolve theindigo paste, boil or keep hot 24 hours; it should then have theconsistency of thick cream, with much froth. During the boiling, slakeanother 3 oz. Quicklime, boil in a pint of water for 15 minutes, letsettle, pour off the clear liquor in which dissolve 4 to 5 oz. Greencopperas. Add the indigo and copperas solutions to 5 gallons water, stir well, let vat rest, stir once or twice during 24 hours or untilit appear ready for dyeing. Before use it should be stirred and letstand 2 hours. It should be a clear yellowish green with much scum. 

The cotton to be dyed should be entered in dips of increasing lengthsof time, as 1, 5, 10, 20 minutes, and aired in between, according todepth of shade required. It should then be well washed, passingthrough water slightly acidulated with Sulphuric acid (a teaspoonfulto 1 gallon). When this vat appears exhausted and turns a dark colourit may be revived by adding 2 or 3 oz. Green Copperas dissolved asbefore. When again exhausted, more of all the ingredients must beadded. 

(2) LIME COPPERAS VAT

2 oz. Indigo, 4 oz. Copperas, 5 oz. Quicklime (fresh). Mix Indigo intoa paste with hot water. Dissolve copperas in hot water. Slake lime. Fill earthenware jar with about 5 gallons cold water and add theIndigo, copperas and slaked lime in that order. Stir well, cover andlet stand till next day or until vat is in proper condition; it shouldbe clear brownish yellow with possible blue scum. There will be somesediment. The dyeing process is as in (1). 

(3) RED

(For 1 lb. Cotton. ) The Turkey Red process is long and difficult. (1)Boil yarn 6 to 8 hours in a solution of carbonate of soda, 1-1/2 oz. , wash well and dry. (2) Prepare a solution of 2 fluid ozs. Turkey Redoil, 2 ozs. Carbonate of soda at 100°F. , work cotton in this tillthoroughly saturated, wring out, dry. (3) Repeat No. 2. (4) Repeat No. 2. (5) Steep 3 or 4 hours in solution of 1 oz. Carbonate of soda at100°F. , wring out, dry. (6) Repeat No. 5 with a slight increase ofsoda. (7) as No. 6. (8) Steep 10 hours in water at 100°F. , dry. Thecotton should now be clear white. (9) Steep 4 hours in solution of1-1/2 oz. Tannic acid or 4 oz. Galls, at 100°F. , wring out, dry. (10)Steep 24 hours in solution made by dissolving 10 oz. Alum in hotwater, and slowly adding 2-1/2 oz. Carbonate of soda crystals, wringout and dry. The cotton is now grey coloured. (11) Dye with 2 lbs. Madder. Bring slowly to the boil, boil for 1 hour, a white scum on thesurface denotes the cotton has absorbed all its colour. A teaspoonfulof chalk may be added to the dye-bath. The cotton is now dark claretcolour. (12) To brighten, boil 3 or 4 hours in a solution of 1/2 oz. Carbonate of soda crystals and 1/2 oz. Soap. The bath should becovered, except for a small outlet for the steam which otherwiseshould be retained as much as possible. (13) The cotton can be furtherbrightened by boiling with 1/2 oz. Soap and a teaspoonful of Tin. Washand dry. 

(4) RED

(For 1 lb. ) After boiling out in soda, wash and dry. Steep overnightin a hot bath of 1-1/2 oz. Tannic acid or 4 oz. Galls, dry, steep incold solution of 1/4 lb. Alum and 1/2 oz. Chalk, dry, add 2 oz. Morealum to solution and steep as before, wash and dry. Dry with 12 oz. Madder, bring to boil in 1 hour and boil a few minutes, rinse, re-dyeas above, pass through warm soap bath, 2 oz. , wash and dry. 

(5) YELLOW

(For 1 lb. ) Mordant twice in Aluminium acetate, as described for silk(page 73), or in 1/4 lb. Alum and 1-1/2 oz. Chalk, steeping in coldsolution. Pass through weak bath of chloride of lime, wash, dry. Dyewith 2-1/2 lbs. Weld and 1/2 oz. Copper sulphate, boil for 1 hour, then boil with soap. Or dye with 2 to 3 oz. Quercitron, which shouldbe brought slowly to the boil and boiled for a few minutes only. 

(6) YELLOW

(For 1 lb. ) Steep overnight in hot bath of 1-1/2 oz. Tannic acid, or 4oz. Galls, wring out, dry. Work 2 hours in bath of 1/4 lb. Alum and1/2 oz. Chalk, dry, pass through weak bath of chloride of lime about 1oz. , dry. Return to alum bath and repeat process, wash well, dyeslowly with 1-1/2 oz. Flavin. 

(7) ORANGE

(For 1 lb. ) Boil 2 oz. Annatto with 1 oz. Carbonate of soda crystalsfor 1/2 hour, then add to a bath containing a teaspoonful of TurkeyRed Oil, boil for 10 minutes. Take off boil, enter yarn, boil for1-1/4 hours, let cool to hand heat, remove yarn, wash slightly and dryquickly. 

(8) BROWN

(For 1 lb. ) Enter in one bath 1 oz. Cutch, in another 1/2 oz. Chrome. Enter cotton in cutch bath, boil 20 minutes, wring out, boil 10minutes in chrome bath. Add 6 oz. Fustic or 1 oz. Flavin to cutchbath, re-enter cotton. Repeat above until the required depth of colouris reached, finish in cutch bath to obtain deepest shade, which may bedarkened by adding 1 drachm or so copper sulphate. A greyish drab maybe got by adding ferrous sulphate. All shades of brown may be obtainedby decreasing or increasing the amount of cutch or by adding a littlelogwood or fustic, in which latter case the cotton should have beenpreviously mordanted. 

(9) BLACK

(For 1 lb. ) Wash, steep overnight in hot solution of tannic acid, 1oz. , wring out without washing, work for 10 minutes in soda bath, at atemperature of 50° to 60°C. , 1-1/4 oz. Wring out, work in coldsolution of copperas, 1-1/4 oz. , for 1/2 hour, return to soda bath for1/4 hour. Wash, dye in bath of logwood 12 oz. , madder 2-1/2 oz. , andfustic 8 oz. Enter into cold bath and raise gradually to boiling, boilfor 1/2 hour, pass through warm solution of chrome, 1 oz. , wash, workthrough warm soap bath. 

Greys may be obtained with 1 to 5 per cent of logwood after mordantingin a weak solution of iron. 

THE ZINC-LIME INDIGO VAT

_The Zinc-lime Indigo Vat. _ It will be necessary to explain thesewords--Indigo blue is insoluble and cannot be used for dyeing. Ifhowever it is "reduced" or changed to indigo white, it has, while itis in this form, an affinity for vegetable and animal fibre. Thesefibres will take it up from the solution and retain it. If they arethen exposed to the air, the oxygen acts upon the indigo in the fibreand turns it back again to indigo blue. Various chemicals can be usedto reduce indigo blue to indigo white. I propose to describe how thework is done with zinc dust and lime as reducing agents. 

In course of time the word "vat" has been transferred from the dyeingvessels themselves to their contents; _i. E. _, the indigo dye liquor. By "vat, " therefore, we understand not only the vessel used for dyeingindigo, but the solution of alkali salts of indigo white in water. This definition distinguishes the _indigo vat_ completely from indigoextract, or any other improper purposes to which indigo may be put. 

The zinc lime indigo vat is better than any other for dyeing cottonand linen. It is also very good for dyeing silk. It has manyadvantages over the hydrosulphite vat, as it is not nearly so muchaffected by changes of temperature and weather. It can be put to workafter a six months' rest. 

The disadvantage which it shares with the copperas vat, though in aless degree, is that there is a sediment which must not touch thestuff during the dyeing. This is avoided by hanging a net in the vatafter the sediment has settled, or by dipping the skeins on rods. 

It is essential that the indigo used should be of the best quality, and ground to so fine a powder that it will float on water. Coarselyground indigo will never reduce and can be found at the bottom of thevat unchanged. It should be so fine that no roughness is felt with thetongue. Buy the best quality indigo ready ground, and if possiblemixed to a paste with water. A 20% paste, _i. E. _ 20% of indigo and 80%of water, is a usual quantity. If indigo powder must be used it mustbe mixed to a paste very carefully, as it will, if properly ground, fly about like dust. The easiest method of mixing is to pour therequired amount of boiling water into a jar (previously heated), thenput in the indigo. Close the vessel tightly. The steam which riseswill moisten the indigo so that it loses its tendency to fly about. After 10 or 15 minutes it can easily be mixed with a stick. The zincdust should be dry and not caked. 

_The lime_ should be in hard lumps. It should be bought from areliable chemist in a sealed container, and kept sealed till wanted. If it is crumbling and cracking it has been exposed to damp air, andis partly slaked already, and therefore more or less useless. 

As the indigo is more quickly reduced in a concentrated solution, astock vat is first made and this is added to the dye vat as required. The vessel for the stock vat should have a well-fitting lid. Astoneware jar with a bung will do very well. To make a stock vatsufficient to furnish a dye vat containing 15-20 gallons use:--

 10 oz. Indigo 20% paste (or 2-1/2 oz. Indigo pasted with 7-1/2 oz. Of water), 1-1/2 oz. Zinc dust, 4-5 oz. Quick lime, 4-5 pints of water. 

Mix the zinc dust to a paste with a little of the water, gradually addthe indigo and the rest of the water. The heat of the water should benot less than 160°F. As it will cool while the lime is beingprepared. Slake the lime in a separate vessel by pouring about 5 oz. Of water over it. When it begins to hiss and break, add more waterlittle by little. When all the lumps have cracked up stir till a thickeven cream is made. Add this to the other ingredients in the stockvat. Stir well. The stock vat should have a temperature of 120-140°F. It should be stirred at intervals. The vessel should be stood in hotwater to keep the temperature as near 120°F. As possible. In about 5hours the mixture has a pure yellow colour and is ready to add to thedye vat. (There is of course a blue-black scum of indigo on top. )

_Preparation of the dye vat. _ The vessel used should be deep andupright so that an unnecessarily large surface is not exposed to theair, and a sufficient space for dyeing is obtained above the sediment. A galvanised dust bin, or a barrel (provided it is not of oak or anyother wood which contains tannin), make good indigo vats. Put 16gallons of water in the vat at a temperature of 65-70°F. In order tocounteract the effects of the atmospheric oxygen contained in thewater of the vat, additions of zinc dust and lime are made some hoursbefore the stock solution is added. A pinch of zinc dust and an ounceof lime, previously slaked, should be added and the vat stirred. Stirring must always be done gently and smoothly, every effort beingmade not to take air into the vat. At the same time it must be stirredup from the bottom so that the sediment is mixed with the liquor aboveit. The best tool for this purpose is a broom stick, to one end ofwhich a piece of wood is nailed, like a garden rake. When all isready, carry the stock solution to the dye vat, and, to avoidsplashing through the air, hold it in the water of the vat whilegently pouring out half its contents. Stir up the vat and cover ituntil it shows a clear yellow colour under the surface of the scum. This may not happen for 24 hours. A good way to test the colour of thevat is to push back the scum with the edge of a saucer or plate, thendip it halfway into the liquor. Against its white surface the colourof the liquor will be plainly seen. It should look like good lightale. If the liquor is greenish and sufficient time has elapsed, another pinch of zinc dust and a little more lime must be added asbefore, and the vat again stirred, allowed to settle and again tested. A little difficulty may be found in getting the vat to start, but onceit has worked well no difficulty will be found in starting it again. It will work more easily as it gets older. 

As indigo does not penetrate easily, every effort must be made to helpit to do so. The stuff to be dyed must be thoroughly scoured so thatno particle of grease, size, or any other impurity is present. Everyeffort must be made to prevent unreduced indigo from attaching itselfto the cotton. Never begin to dye in a vat which is greenish. Theunreduced indigo will attach itself to the stuff and be wasted. Yourtime will also be wasted in washing it off. 

The vat should be thoroughly stirred and allowed to settle each daybefore dyeing begins. When the sediment has settled, the froth shouldbe carefully skimmed and kept to return to the vat when the day'sdyeing is finished. 

If a net is to be used it should be thoroughly wetted (if everythinggoes into the vat wet it will take less air with it). The net can bekept down by tying a few stones in a bag or an iron weight to thecentre of it. If the hanks are to be dipped on a rod this may be ofiron, or of wood suitably weighted. The hanks should not be less than8 inches below the surface of the liquor and about 1 ft. Above thebottom of the vat. The hanks should be turned after each dip, as, ifthe same end goes to the bottom each time it will be darker. A pulleyover the vat to draw out the rod or net is convenient. The dyeings canthen be allowed to drain a few seconds. Then wring each hank, shakingit out to get the air into it. After a sufficient airing, dip again. Many short dips with airing between will produce faster colours. Dip 1minute, wring and air 2 minutes. Dip 2 minutes, wring and air 4minutes. Dip 5 minutes, and so on. 

As linen and cotton look so very much darker when wet than when dry, abit should be dried to judge if the colour is right. 

Indigo can be dyed from the palest sky blue to black. The very palestshade of sky blue is never very fast. The virtue which indigo aloneseems to possess is that, though it may become lighter with continualuse, it also becomes a clearer and more lovely blue. This isespecially so on cotton and linen, for which it is a superb dye. Thevarying shades of indigo of butchers' coats, sailors' collars, andFrench porters' blouses always give us pleasure. 

CHAPTER XI

THE DYEING OF SILK

Silk is covered with a natural gum which has to be removed before thedyeing process can begin. This is done by boiling for one hour or morein a bath containing soap, 2 to 8 ozs. To the pound of silk accordingto the amount of gum on the silk. It is then well washed, and is readyfor mordanting. 

The mordants mostly used are _Alum_, for most of the bright colours. _Tin_, for brightening some colours, and as a separate mordant forothers. _Iron_, for black dyeing. _Chrome_, for certain browns such ascatechu. 

The principal Alum mordant is Acetate of Alumine, prepared as follows:Let 3 lbs. Alum and 3 ozs. Chalk be dissolved in 1 gallon of warmwater in an earthenware pan, add the chalk slowly to the Alum. Add 2lbs. White acetate of lead, stir occasionally during 24 to 36 hours. Let it remain 12 hours at rest. Decant and preserve the clear liquor, being careful not to stir up the sediment. Pour 2 gallons of water onthe sediment, and stir occasionally for 12 hours. Let it rest 12hours. Decant the clear and add to the first lot. Bottle for use. Itkeeps about three weeks. Of the mordant 2 parts are diluted with 1 ofwater, and the silk is well worked in this for 10 minutes, after beingwetted down. Steep for 12 hours, wring out and dry. Wet down again andreturn to the Alum liquor, work for 10 minutes, steep 12 hours, dry. When thoroughly dry, wash well in several changes of water beforedyeing. For less bright colours one mordanting may be sufficient. 

The mordant is used for successive batches of silk until exhausted;the fresher the mordant, the better for brighter colours. Silk shouldbe dyed as soon after it is dried as is convenient. 

Another Alum mordant. Dissolve 25 per cent of Alum in hot water andadd 6 per cent carbonate of soda crystals. Fill up a jar with waterand steep silk in it over-night. It must be washed before dyeing. 

RECIPES FOR DYEING

(1) INDIGO VAT FOR BLUE

Silk is dyed in a similar manner as described for wool, but requiresstronger vats and longer dips to obtain the same depth of colour. Seepage 33. 

(2) INDIGO EXTRACT FOR BLUE

Dye at a temperature of 40 to 50°C. With as much Indigo Extractdissolved in the bath as is required for the desired depth of shade. If the silk has been first mordanted with alum, compound colours canbe obtained by the addition of a red or yellow dye to the bath. 

(3) CRIMSON

Mordant with Alum or Aluminium Acetate and dye with 40 to 50 per centCochineal. A teaspoonful of Tin, dissolved in cold water, may be addedto brighten. Boil well. It is advisable to wash in soap after usingtin as it prevents the latter making the yarn brittle. 

(4) MADDER RED

Mordant with Alum or Aluminium Acetate. Dye with 80 to 100 per centMadder and a handful of bran per pound of silk. Bring slowly to theboil in 1 hour, boil a few minutes. It should be brightened by boilinga short time in soap, with a little tin. 

(5) YELLOW

Mordant with Alum or Aluminium Acetate. Various Dyes may be used. _Weld_: Dye with 150 per cent. _Flavin_: Dye with 1 oz. To the pound, with a teaspoonful Tin. _Fustic_: Dye with 50 per cent, or more. _Quercitron_: Dye with 10 to 20 per cent. A little chalk may be addedtowards the end. 

The shades may be varied by the addition of small quantities of madderor cochineal. Orange may be obtained by the use of Madder, 2 to 4 ozs. Per pound, with Flavin or Fustic. 

(6) GREEN

Greens may be obtained by dyeing with any of the yellow dyes andblueing in the Indigo Vat or with Indigo Extract. If the colour isthin, it should be dyed a deeper blue in the vat and then re-dyed withyellow. A strong clear yellow is needed for a good green. 

(7) PURPLE

Dye silk blue in Indigo Vat. Then dye without mordanting in Cudbear. 

(8) ORANGE (1 lb. )

Mordant with Alum Acetate. Dye with 1/2 lb. Madder, 2 ozs. Flavin and1 oz. Tin. 

Enter the tin first in a cold bath. Mix Flavin and Madder into a pasteand add to the bath. Bring to the boil slowly, boil for 10 minutes. Wash in soap. 

(9) BLACK (1 lb. )

Mordant with Alum Acetate. Dye with 6 ozs. Logwood, 3/4 oz. Flavin, 1oz. Iron. Mix all together and boil for 1/2 hour. Wash thoroughly. 

(10) BLACK

 (1) Mordant with basic ferric sulphate and after allowing the silk to lie for some time, wash well and soap at 90°C. 

 (2) Dye with 50 per cent Fustic, 10 per cent Ferrous Sulphate and 2 per cent Copper Acetate. 

 (3) Dye with logwood 50 per cent and soap. 

(11) GREY WITH BRACKEN (1 lb. )

Mordant with 1 oz. Iron and 2 ozs. Cream of Tartar. Boil a quantity ofyoung bracken tips for 1/2 hour. Strain. Boil silk in the decoctionfor about an hour. 

(12) BROWN WITH LICHEN (1 lb. )

Mordant with Alum Acetate. Put into the dye bath the quantity oflichen according to required colour with about a teaspoonful of AceticAcid. Boil from 1 to 3 hours. 

(13) ORANGE (1 lb. )

1 oz. Tin, 1/2 oz. Oxalic Acid, 2 oz. Flavin. Enter silk and boil for1 hour. Remove silk and add to the bath 1 oz. Tin, 1 oz. Oxalic, 2 oz. Cochineal. Boil for 1 hour or more. 

(14) BLACK (1 lb. )

Mordant with 2 oz. Logwood extract, 1-1/4 oz. Fustic extract, 1-1/4oz. Iron, 1/2 oz. Copper sulphate. Boil for 1 hour. Take out andrinse. To the same bath add 1-3/4 oz. Logwood extract, 1 oz. Fusticextract, 7 oz. Madder. Enter silk and boil for 1 hour. Wash in soap. 

(15) YELLOW (1 lb. )

Mordant with 1 oz. Bichromate of Potash. Boil 1 hour. In a separatebath put 1 lb. Weld and boil for 1 hour. 

(16) RED (1 lb. )

Mordant with 1-3/4 oz. Tin and 1-3/4 oz. Oxalic acid. Boil for 1 hour. Then add 3/4 lb. Cochineal and 6 oz. Madder. Boil well and wash insoap. 

(17) BROWN (1 lb. )

Mordant with 1 oz. Copper sulphate. Boil for 1 hour. Take out silk andadd 2-1/2 oz. Madder, 1 oz. Fustic chips, and boil for 1 hour. 

(18) RED (1 lb. )

Dissolve 1 oz. Tannic Acid in hot water. Enter silk and leave for 24hours, stirring occasionally. Rinse well in two waters. In a freshbath, put 4 oz. Cochineal. Enter silk. Bring to boil and let bluecolour develop. Lift, and add 1 oz. Cochineal & 1 oz. Tin. Re-entersilk & boil well. Wash in soap. 

GLOSSARY

_Adjective Dyes. _ Dyes which require mordant. 

_Alizarin. _ The chief colouring principle of madder. It is also thename for an extensive series of chemical colours produced fromanthracene, one of the coal tar hydrocarbons discovered in 1868. 

_Aniline. _ Discovered 1826 (_anil. Span. Indigo_). First prepared fromindigo by means of caustic potash, found in coal, 1834. Manufacturedon a large scale after Perkin's discovery of mauve in 1856. 

_Annatta. _ (Annotto, Arnotto, Roucou. ) A dye obtained from the pulpsurrounding the seeds of the _Bixa orellana_; chiefly used in dyeingsilk an orange colour, but is of a fugitive nature. 

_Argol. _ The tartar deposited from wines completely fermented, andadhering to the sides of casks as a hard crust. When purified itbecomes Cream of Tartar. 

_Beck. _ A large vessel or tub used in dyeing. 

_Bois jaune. _ Fustic, yellow wood. 

_Carthamus. _ Safflower, an annual plant cultivated in South Europe, Egypt and Asia, for the red dye from its flowers. 

_Caustic Soda. _ Carbonate of soda, boiled with lime. 

_Coal Tar Colours. _ Colours obtained by distillation and chemicaltreatment from coal tar, a product of coal during the making of gas. There are over 2, 000 colours in use. 

_Detergent. _ A cleansing agent. 

_Dip. _ Generally applied to immersing cloth, etc. , in the blue vat. 

_Divi-Divi. _ The dried pods of _Caesalpina coriaria_ growing in theWest Indies and S. America; they contain 20 to 35% tannin and a browncolouring matter. 

_Dyer's Spirit. _ Aqua fortis, 10 parts; sal ammoniac, 5 parts; tin, 2parts; dissolved together. 

_Enter. _ To enter wool, to put it into the dye or mordant liquor. 

_Fenugrec. _ Fenugreek _Trigonnella fænugræcum_. 

_Flavin. _ A colouring matter extracted from Quercitron. 

_Full, to. _ To treat or beat cloth for the purpose of cleansing andthickening it. 

_Fuller's herb. _ _Saponaria officinalis. _ A plant used in the processof fulling. 

_Fuller's Thistle_, or teasle. _Dipsacus fullonum. _ Used for fullingcloth. 

_Fustet. _ Young fustic. Venetian Sumach _Rhus cotinus_. It gives afine orange colour, which has not much permanence. 

_Galls, Gall nuts. _ Oak galls produced by the egg of an insect, --thefemale gall wasp. An excrescence is produced round the egg, and theinsect, when developed, pierces a hole and escapes. Those gall nutswhich are not pierced contain most tannic acid. The best come fromAleppo and Turkey. 

_Gramme_ or _Gram_. About 15-1/2 grains (Troy). 

_Kilo. Kilogramme. _ Equals 2 lbs. 3. 2 oz. 

_Litre. _ Nearly 1-3/4 pints. 

_Lixivitation. _ The process of separating a soluble substance from aninsoluble by the percolation of water. 

_Lixivium. _ (Lye. ) A term often used in old dye books, waterimpregnated with alkaline salts extracted by lixivitation from woodashes. 

_Lye_ or _Ley. _ Any strong alkaline solution, especially one used forthe purpose of washing such as soda lye, soap lye. 

_Mercerised Cotton. _ Cotton prepared by treating with a solution ofcaustic potash or soda or certain other chemicals. Discovered by JohnMercer in 1844. 

_Milling. _ The operation of fulling cloth. 

_Myrobalans. _ The fruit of several species of trees, growing in Chinaand the East Indies, containing tannic acid (25-40% tannin). 

_Oil of Vitriol. _ Sulphuric acid. 

_Organzine. _ Twisted raw silk from best cocoons, used for warp. 

_Pearl Ash. _ Carbonate of potash. 

_Persian Berries. _ The dried unripe fruit of various species ofRhamnus. Also called French berries, grains of Avignon. 

_Potassium Carbonate. _ (Potashes. ) Carbonate of potash has been knownsince ancient times as a constituent of the ashes of land plants, fromwhich it is obtained by extraction with water. In most cases SodiumCarbonate, which it strongly resembles, can be used in its place. 

_Red spirits. _ Tin Spirits. Applied to tin mordants generally. Asolution of Stannous chloride. 

_Red woods. _ Camwood, Barwood, Sanderswood (Santal, Sandal, RedSanders), Brazil wood, Sapan wood, Peach-wood. 

_Roucou. _ Anatta, Arnotto. 

_Saxon blue. _ The dye made by indigo dissolved in oil of vitriol. 

_Scotch ell. _ 37. 2 inches. 

_Scour, to. _ To wash. 

_Scroop. _ The rustling property of silk. 

_Soda ash. _ Carbonate of soda. 

_Sour water. _ To every gallon of water, add one gill vitriol; stirthoroughly. Stuff steeped in this should be covered with the liquor, otherwise it will rot. 

(2) Water in which bran has been made to grow sour. 24 bushels of branare put in a tub, about 10 hogsheads of nearly boiling water is pouredinto it; acid fermentation soon begins, and in 25 hours it is ready touse. 

(3) Throw some handfuls of bran into hot water and let it stand for 24hours, or until the water becomes sour, when it is fit for use. 

_Staple. _ A term applied to cotton and wool indicating length offibre. 

_Substantive Dye. _ A dye not requiring a mordant. 

_Sumach. _ Leaves and twigs of several species of Rhus, containingtannic acid. It is sold in the form of crushed leaves or as a powder(15-20% tannin). 

_Tram. _ Slightly twisted raw silk, used for weft. 

_Tyrian purple. _ A purple colour obtained from certain shell fish, such as Buccinum and Purpura. It is mentioned by Pliny as beingdiscovered in 1400 B. C. It was a lost art in the Middle Ages. 

_Valonia. _ Acorn cups of certain species of oak from South Europe, containing 25-35% of tannic acid. 

_Vegetable alkali. _ Potash. 

_Verdigris. _ Acetate of copper. 

_Wet out, to. _ To damp before putting the yarn or cloth into the dye. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A profitable Boke. (On Dyeing. ) Translated from the Dutch. 1583. 

Bancroft, Edward. The Philosophy of Permanent Colours. 1794. 

Berthollet. The Art of Dyeing. 1824. 

Bird, F. J. The Dyer's Handbook. 1875. 

Bolton, Clement. A Manual of Wool Dyeing. 1913. 

Boulger, Professor G. S. The Uses of plants. 1889. 

Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia. 1830. Dyeing. 

Crook, W. Dyeing and Tissue Printing. 1882. 

Darwin and Meldola. Woad. ("Nature, " Nov. 12, 1896. )

Edge, Alfred. Some British Dye Lichens. (Journal of the Society ofDyers and Colourists. May, 1914. )

Edmonston, T. "On the Native Dyes of the Shetland Islands. "(Transactions of Botanical Society of Edinburgh, Vol. 1, 1841. )

English Encyclopædia. Dyeing. 1802. 

Francheville. On Ancient and Modern Dyes, 1767. (Royal Academy ofSciences, Berlin. )

Haigh, James. The Dyer's Assistant. 1778. 

Hellot, Macquer, M. Le Pilleur D' Apligny. The Art of Dyeing Wool, Silk and Cotton. (Translated from the French, 1789. New Edition. 1901. )

Henslow. Professor G. Use of British plants. 

Hiscock, Gardiner D. 20th Century book of Recipes, Formulas andProcesses. 1907. 

Hummel, J. J. The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics. 

Hurst, Silk Dyeing and Printing. (Technological Handbook. 1892. )

Jarmain, George. On Wool Dyeing. 6 Lectures. 1876. 

Knecht, Rawson and Lowenthal. A Manuel of Dyeing. 1893. 

Lindsay, Dr. W. L. On the Dyeing Properties of Lichens. (Edinburgh NewPhilosophical Journal, 1855. )

Love, Thomas. The Practical Dyer and Scourer. 1854. 

Mackay, Mrs. Anstruther. Simple Home Dyeing. 

Milroy, R. P. Handbook for Dyeing for Woollen Homespun Workers. (Congested Districts Board for Ireland. )

Morris, William. "Of Dyeing as an Art. " (Essays by Members of Arts andCrafts Exhibition Society, 1903. )

Morris, William. "The Lesser Arts of Life. " (from Architecture, Industry and Wealth. 1902. )

Napier, James. A Manual of Dyeing Recipes. 1855. 

Napier, James. A Manual of the Art of Dyeing. 1853. 

Parnell's Applied Chemistry. --Article on Dyeing. 

Plowright, Dr. British Dye Plants. (Journal of the Royal HorticulturalSociety, Vol. 26. 1901. )

Rawson, Gardiner and Laycock. A Dictionary of Dyes, Mordants. 1901. 

Sansome. "Dyeing. " 1888. 

Sims, T. Dyeing and Bleaching. (British Manufacturing Industries. 1877. )

Smith, David. The Dyer's Instructor. 1847. 

Smith. Practical Dyer's Guide. 1849. 

Sowerby. English Botany. 

Sowerby. Useful Plants of Great Britain. 

The Art of Dyeing. (Translated from the German. 1705. Reprint, 1913. )

The Dyer and Colour Maker's Companion. 1859. 

Thomson, John M. The Practical Dyer's Assistant. 1849. 

INDEX

Acacia, 40

Acetate of Alumina, 46, 56

Adjective dyes, 6, 60

Agrimony, 12

Alder, 11, 14, 15, 40

Alizarin, 60

Alkanet, 12

Alpaca, 1

Alum, 7, for silk, 56, cotton, linen, 46

Ammonia, 2, 3, 32

Aniline, 60

Annotto, Anatta, Annatta, Arnotto, 4, 50, 60

Arcel, 21

Archil, 19

Argol, 60

Areca, 40

Ash, 12

Barberry, 12, for cotton, 4, for silk, 38

Barwood, 34, 62

Bearberry, 12

Beck, 60

Bedstraw, 11

Bichromate of Potash, 9

Birch, 11, 12, 14

Black, 29, 40-42 dyeing plants, 15 for cotton, linen, 51 for silk, 58, 59 from alder, 40 from walnut, 41 with logwood, 29

Blackberry, 15

Blaeberry, 12, 14

Blue, 24-30 dyeing plants, 12 from lichen, 21 " logwood, 29 " whortleberry, 12

Blue vitriol, 10

Bluestone, 10

Bog asphodel, 12

Bog myrtle, 12

Bois de Campeche, 28

Bois jaune, 60

Bracken, 12

Bran, 33, 57

Bramble, 12

Brazil woods, 34

Broom, 12

Brown, 40-42 dyeing plants, 14 for cotton, 50 for wool from catechu, 40 from alder bark, 40 " crotal, 19 " Iceland moss, 22 " lichens, 22 " madder, 33, 42 " onion skins, 41 " peat soot, 41 " walnut, 41

Brownish red, 14, 34

Bryony, 14

Buckthorn, 12

Camel hair, 1

Camomile, 13

Campeachy wood, 28

Camwood, 34, 62

Carbonate of Potash, 62

Carbonate of Soda, 60

Carthamus, 60

Catechu, 40 for cotton, 46, 47, 50

Caustic potash, 28

Caustic soda, 25-28, 60

Centaury, 13

Chestnut, 47

Chrome, 9, 47, 56

Coal Tar Colours, 60

Coccus, 31, 32

Cochineal, 31

Copper, 10, 47

Copperas, 8, 9

Copper Sulphate, 10

Corydal, 13

Cotton, 4, 46-55 mordanting, 46 the colour of, 4

Crab Apple, 12

Cream of Tartar, 7, 10

Crimson--from cochineal, 32 from lichens, 17, 21

Crottle, Crotal, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23

Cudbear, 16, 20

Cutch, 40

Damson, 14

Danewort, 14

Dandelion, 14

Deadly nightshade, 14

Detergent, 60

Devil's Bit, 12

Dip, 60

Divi-divi, 47, 60

Dock, 12, 15

Dog's Mercury, 12

Dulse, 14

Dyer's Broom, 38

Dyer's Greenwood, 12

Dyer's Spirit, 60

Dyer's Woodruff, 12

Elder, 12, 14, 15

Felting, to prevent, 3

Fenugrec, Fenugreek, 13, 60

Ferrous sulphate, 8

Flavin, 38

Flax, 4

Fleece, various kinds of, 1

Flowering reed, 14

French brown, 42

Fuller's Herb, 61

Fuller's Thistle, 61

Fumitory, 13

Fustic, 36 for green, 44

Fustet, 61

Gall nuts, 47, 61

Gamboge from lichen, 22

Golden rod, 13

Golden yellow from weld, 25

Gorse, 12

Gramme, 61

Green, 43-45 black, 42 dyeing plants, 13 from Fustic, 44 " Quercitron, 44 " Weld, 44 with logwood, 29 " Indigo extract, 44, 45 " Indigo vat, 43 " Indigo Extract and weld, 44

Green Vitriol, 8

Greening weed, 43

Greenish brown, 42

Greenish black, 42

Grey, 30

Grey from Catechu, 40

Gromwell, 12

Hazel colour from Peatsoot, 41

Heath, 13

Heather, 11, 39

Hellebore, 13

Hematin Crystals, 42

Hogs, 2

Hop, 13, 14

Hornbeam, 13

Hydrochloric acid, 28

Hydrosulphite vat, 25-28

Iceland Moss, 18, 22

Indigo, 24

Indigo Extract, 25 for green, 44, 45

Indigo Vats, 25-28 for cotton, 48 for cotton (zinc-lime), 51 for green, 43, 44, 45 Improvement of, 27

Indigo White, 27

Indigotine, 27

Iris, 11, 12, 15

Iron, 8, 9 for cotton, 47 for silk, 56

Iron filings, 6

Kashmir wool, 1

Kermes, Kerms, 31

Kilo, 61

Korkalett, 17

Korkir, 20

Lady's Bedstraw, 11, 12

Lamb's fleece, 1

Larch, 14

Lavender, 29

Lemon yellow from fustic, 36 from lichen, 20

Lesser Dye, 29

Ley, 61

Lichen dyes, 14, 16-23 list etc. , for dyeing, 20-22

Lilac with cochineal, 32

Lily of the Valley, 14

Lima wood, 34

Lime, 52

Linen, 4, 5

Ling, 13

Litre, 61

Lixivitation, 61

Lixivium, 61

Logwood, 20, 28-30

Lucerne, 13

Madder, 12, 32, 42

Marsh Marigold, 13

Meadow Rue, 13

Meadowsweet, 15

Mercerised cotton, 61

Milling, 61

Mimosa, 40

Mohair, 1

Mordants, 8-10 for silk, 56 for linen and cotton, 46

Muriate of Tin, 9

Myrobalans, 47, 61

Nettle, 13, 14

Oak, 14, 15

Oak bark, 41

Oak galls, 47

Oak lung, 23

Oak rag, 23

Oil of vitriol, 24, 61

Old gold from fustic, 36 from weld, 35

Old fustic, 36

Olive from fustic, 36, 37 from weld, 35

Olive green, 43

Onion skins, 14, 39, 41

Orange from annatta, 50 from flavin, 38 from lichen, 21, 22

Orange from weld, 36 from turmeric, 37

Orchil, 16, 18

Organzine, 61

Orseille d'Auvergne, 20

Oxalic acid, 9

Peach wood, 34

Pear, 13

Pearl ash, 25, 61

Peat soot, 41

Persian berries, 42, 61

Pink from lichen, 20

Plum, 13

Plum colour from lichen, 17

Polygonum, 13

Poplar, 13

Potash, 62

Potassium Carbonate, 62

Potassium dichromate, 9

Potentil, 12, 13

Privet, 12, 13, 14, 39

Purple, from cochineal, 32, 33 from lichen, 18, 20, 21 from logwood, 30 from whortleberry 14

Purple dyeing plants, 14

Purplish slate, 32 from Brazil woods, 34 from cochineal, 32

Quercitron, 37 for cotton and linen, 48 for green, 44

Ragweed, 13

Raven grey, 30

Red, 31-34 from Brazil woods, 34 from lichens, 20-23 from madder, 33 for cotton, 49, 50

Red brown, 34 from alder, 40 from lichen, 20 from madder, 34

Red currant, 14

Red dyeing plants, 11

Red purple with cudbear and logwood, 20 with logwood, 30

Red woods, 34

Retting, 4

Rose red, 33

Roucou, 60, 62

Saddening, 10, 40, 41, 47

Saffron from lichen, 23

Safflower, 4

Sanderswood, 34

Sandalwood, 34

Sapan wood, 34

Sawwort, 13

Saxon blue, 44, 62

Saxon green, 43

Scarlet (cochineal), 32

Scarlet of grain, 32

Scotch ell, 62

Scouring agents, 2-3

Scroop, 62

Scrottyie, 17, 21

Sheep, various kinds of, 1-2

Silk, mordants, 56 the dyeing of, 57 preparation of, 3, 56 various kinds, of 3

Slate purple, 32

Sloe, 12

Soap for scouring, 2

Soda, 2

Soda ash, 62

Sodium carbonate, 62

Sour water, 62

Sorrel, 11

Spanish wool, 1

Spindle tree, 13

Stachys, 13

Staple, 62

St. John's wort, 13

Stannous chloride, 9

Substantive dye, 6, 11, 18, 37, 62

Sulphuric acid, 24

Sumach, 7, 40, 48, 62

Sundew, 13, 14

Sweet willow, 13

Tan, 42

Tan colour fr. Lichen, 19

Tannin, 47

Tannic acid, 47

Teasel, 13

Terra cotta (lichen), 19

Tin, 9, 47, 56

Tin crystals, 9

Tin salts, 9

Tousch, 22

Tram, 62

Trefoil, 13

Turkey red oil, 49

Turmeric, 37

Tyrian purple, 62

Valonia, 47, 63

Vegetable alkali, 63

Verdigris, 11, 63

Vetch, 13

Vicuna, 1

Violet from elder, 14

Walnut, 11, 14, 40

Water, 2

Water lily, 14

Wayfaring tree, 13

Weld, 13, 35 with copper, 35 for green, 44

Wet out, to, 63

Wethers, 2

Whortleberry, 12, 14

Willow, 13

Woad, 12, 25

Wool, 1-3 colour of, 1 method of dyeing, 3 to wash, 2 various kinds of, 1, 2

Yellow, 35-39 for cotton (weld), 50 for linen (lichen), 19 for silk, 57 from weld, 35 dyer's broom, 38 fustic, 37 heather, 39 lichen, 19, 22, 23 privet, 39 quercitron, 38 sumach, 41

Yellow brown from lichen, 16 from sumach, 41

Yellow dyeing plants, 12-13

Yellow green, 43

Yellow weed, 43

 * * * * *

Transcriber's Notes

Original spelling, capitalization, hyphenation, and punctuationhave been retained from the original book except for the followingchanges:

 Page 3: Repeated "in" deleted. (3rd. --The wool is boiled with the mordant and dye in the same bath together. )

 Page 18: Added closing quote to blockquote (luster to the colours. ")

 Page 25: Changed comma to period after ozs. (12 fluid ozs. Of water)

 Page 34: The period was removed after 28 per cent for consistency. 

 Page 34: The typographical error "w ash" was changed to "wash. "

 Page 50: Under (5) YELLOW: "described for silk (page 73)", the reference to page 73 could possibly be referring to page 56, mordanting silk in general, or to page 57, where mordanting of yellow is detailed. 

 Page 65: (Index): Crottle, Crotal: The duplicate page 20 was removed. 

 Page 66: (Index): Lixiviation was changed to Lixivitation. 

 Page 68: Color was changed to colour (Tan colour fr. Lichen) for consistency. 

 A space has been added before each lb. And oz. And the space removed between ° and F. Or C. For consistency.