THE WORLD'S GREATEST BOOKS

JOINT EDITORS

ARTHUR MEE

J. A. HAMMERTON

VOL. XIII RELIGION PHILOSOPHY

Copyright, MCMX MCKINLAY, STOKE & MACKEKZU

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

 RELIGION

 APOCRYPHA

 AUGUSTINE, ST. City of God

 BAXTER, RICHARD Saints' Everlasting Rest

 BOOK OF THE DEAD

 BRAHMANISM, BOOKS OF

 BROWNE, SIR THOMAS Religio Medici

 CALVIN, JOHN Institution of the Christian Religion

 COLERIDGE, S. T. Aids to Reflection

 CONFUCIANISM

 FÉNELON Existence of God

 GALILEO GALILEI Authority of Scripture

 HEGEL, G. W. F. Philosophy of Religion

 HINDUISM, BOOKS OF

 KEMPIS, THOMAS À Imitation of Christ

 KORAN

 NEWMAN, CARDINAL Apologia pro Vitâ Sua

 PAINE, THOMAS Age of Reason

 PASCAL, BLAISE Letters to a Provincial

 PENN, WILLIAM Some Fruits of Solitude

 RENAN, ERNEST Life of Jesus

 SWEDENBORG, EMANUEL Heaven and Hell

 TALMUD

 ZOROASTRIANISM

 PHILOSOPHY

 ARISTOTLE Ethics

 AURELIUS, MARCUS Discourses with Himself

 BACON, FRANCIS Advancement of Learning

 BERKELEY, GEORGE Principles of Human Knowledge

 DESCARTES Discourse on Method

 EMERSON, RALPH WALDO Nature

 EPICTETUS Discourses and Encheiridion

A COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WORLD'S GREATEST BOOKS WILL BE FOUND AT THE ENDOF VOLUME XX. 

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RELIGION

THE APOCRYPHA

 Apocrypha is a Greek word, signifying "secret" or "hidden, " but in the sixteenth century it came to be applied to a list of books contained in the Septuagint, or Greek translation of the Old Testament, but not in the Palestinian, or Hebrew Canon. Hence, by theological or bibliographic purists, these books were not regarded as genuine Scripture. That view was adopted by the early Greek Church, though the Western Church was divided in opinion. They appeared as a separate section in Coverdale's English Bible in 1538, and in Luther's German Bible in 1537. The Council of Trent in 1546 admitted them as canonical, except the First and Second Esdras and the Prayer of Manasses--a view rejected after the Reformation by Protestants, who recognised only the Palestinian Record as canonical. The Westminster Confession declared that they were only to be made use of as "human writings, " and the Sixth Article of the Church of England states that they are "to be read for example of life and instruction of manners, but not to establish doctrine. " As the result of a violent controversy in Scotland and America between 1825 and 1827, the Apocrypha was deleted from the copies of the Holy Scriptures issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society. The controversy was revived in 1862 when a quotation was engraved on the Prince Consort's Memorial in Kensington Gardens from the Wisdom of Solomon: "He, being made perfect in a short time, fulfilled a long time. For his soul pleased the Lord: Therefore hasted He to take him away from among the wicked. " All the books bear evidence of having been written long after the date to which they are ascribed. 

FIRST ESDRAS

And Josias held the feast of the Passover in Jerusalem unto his Lord, the 14th day of the first month of the 18th year of his reign, andordered the Levites, the holy ministers of Israel, to hallow themselvesunto the Lord, and set the Holy Ark of the Lord in the house that KingSolomon had built. And there were offered in sacrifices to the Lord onthe altar 37, 600 lambs and kids, and 4, 300 calves. And they roasted thePassover with fire: as for the sacrifices, they sod them in brass potsand pans with a good savour, and set them before all the people. Andsuch a Passover was not kept in Israel since the time of the ProphetSamuel. And the works of Josias were upright before his Lord with anheart full of godliness. 

Now, after all these acts of Josias, it came to pass that Pharaoh, theKing of Egypt, came to raise war at Carchamis upon Euphrates; andJosias, not regarding the words of the Prophet Jeremy, spoken by themouth of the Lord, went out against him and joined battle with him inthe plain of Magiddo. Then said the king unto his servants: Carry meaway out of the battle; for I am very weak. And being brought back toJerusalem he died and was buried in his father's sepulchre. And in allJewry the chief men, with the women, yea Jeremy the prophet, madelamentation for him unto this day. 

And the people took Joachaz, the son of Josias, and made him king; butthe King of Egypt deposed him, and made Joacim, his brother, King ofJudea and Jerusalem, who did evil before the Lord. Wherefore, againsthim, Nabuchodonosor, King of Babylon, came up and bound him with a chainof brass, and carried him into Babylon. Nabuchodonosor also took of theholy vessels of the Lord and carried them away, and set them in his owntemple at Babylon, and made Zedechias king. Zedechias reigned elevenyears, but did evil also in the sight of the Lord. 

The governors of the people and of the priests did likewise many thingsagainst the Lord, and defiled the Temple of the Lord, who, being wrathwith his people for their great ungodliness, commanded the Kings of theChaldees to come up against them. This they did, and slew and sparedneither young man nor maid, old man nor child, among them. And they tookall the holy vessels of the Lord, both great and small, with the vesselsof the Ark of God and the king's treasures, and carried them away intoBabylon. As for the House of the Lord, they burnt it, and broke down thewalls of Jerusalem and set fire upon her towers. And the people thatwere not slain with the sword were carried unto Babylon, who becameservants to Nabuchodonosor, till the Persians reigned, to fulfil theword of the Lord spoken by the mouth of Jeremy. 

In the first year of Cyrus, King of the Persians, the Lord raised up hisspirit, and he made proclamation through all his kingdom, saying: TheLord of Israel, the most high Lord, hath made me king of the wholeworld, and commanded me to build him an house at Jerusalem in Jewry. Ifthere be any of you that are of his people, let the Lord, even his Lord, be with him; let him go up to Jerusalem and build the house of the Lordof Israel. 

Then the chief of the families of Judea and of the tribe of Benjamin, the priests also, and the Levites moved up to Jerusalem to build anhouse for the Lord there. And they were helped in all things with silverand gold, with horses and cattle, and with very many free gifts. KingCyrus also brought forth the holy vessels which Nabuchodonosor hadcarried away from Jerusalem and had set up in his temple of idols. Thevessels of gold and of silver which were brought back by Sanabassar, together with them of the captivity from Babylon to Jerusalem, were, innumber, five thousand four hundred three score and nine. 

But in the time of Artaxerxes, the building of the Temple ceased. Now, when Darius reigned, he made a great feast unto all the governors andcaptains that were under him from India unto Ethiopia, of an hundred andtwenty-seven provinces. And when they had eaten and drunken, three youngmen that were of the guard that kept the king's body strove to exceleach other in wise speeches. Every one wrote his sentence and referredthe writings to the judgment of the king. The first declareth thestrength of wine; the second declareth the power of a king; the thirdthe force of women and of truth. The third, who was Zorobabel, wasjudged to be wisest; and all the people then shouted: Great is Truth, and mighty above all things. 

Then said the king unto him: Ask what thou wilt, and we will give it tothee, because thou art found wisest. Then Zorobabel said unto the king:Remember thy vow which thou hast vowed to build Jerusalem in the daywhen thou camest into thy kingdom, and to build up the Temple, which theEdomites burned when Judea was made desolate by the Chaldees. 

Then Darius the king stood up and kissed him, and wrote letters for himunto all the treasurers and governors that they should safely convey ontheir way both him and all those that went with him to build Jerusalem. He also wrote letters unto the lieutenants in Celosyria, Phenice, andLibanus, that they should bring cedar wood from Libanus to Jerusalem;and that they should build the city. Then the families and tribes withtheir men-servants and maid-servants and singing men and women, escortedby a thousand horsemen which Darius sent with them, were brought back toJerusalem. 

On the first day of the second month, in the second year after they werecome back to Jerusalem, the foundation of the House of God was laid; andthe Temple was finished in the three and twentieth day of the month ofAdar, in the sixth year of Darius, and dedicated with a great feast andsacrifices. 

After these things, when Artaxerxes, the King of the Persians, reigned, came Esdras of the family of Aaron, the chief priest, from Babylon, andwith him certain priests, Levites, holy singers and ministers of theTemple unto Jerusalem. He brought commission from the king to look intothe affairs of Judea and Jerusalem, agreeably to that which is in theLaw of the Lord, and gifts of vessels of gold and silver for the use ofthe Temple of the Lord. 

Then Esdras made proclamation in all Jewry and Jerusalem to all them whowere of the captivity, that they should be gathered together atJerusalem. Three days after all the multitude gathered in the broadcourt of the Temple, and they gave their hands to put away their heathenwives and children, and to offer rams to make reconcilement for theerrors they had committed. And Esdras stood up upon a pulpit of wood, which was made for that purpose, and opened the Law of Moses to thepeople. 

So Esdras blessed the Lord God, most High, the God of Hosts, Almighty. And all the people answered: Amen; and, lifting up their hands, theyfell to the ground and worshipped the Lord, saying: This day is holyunto the Lord; for they all wept when they heard the Law. So the Levitespublished all things to the people, saying: This day is holy to theLord; be not sorrowful. Then went they their way every one to eat anddrink, and make merry and to give to them that have nothing, and to makegreat cheer. 

SECOND ESDRAS

The word of the Lord came unto the prophet Esdras, saying: Go thy way, and show my people their sinful deeds which they have done against me, for they have forgotten me, and have offered unto strange gods. Igathered you together, as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings:But now I will cast you out from my face. Then Esdras willed to comfortIsrael, but they refused, and despised the commandments of the Lord;therefore he announced that the heathen were called to the heavenlykingdom. After that, Esdras saw upon the Mount Sion a great people whopraised the Lord with songs; and the angel said unto him: These be theythat have put off the mortal clothing, and put on the immortal, and haveconfessed the name of God. Now are they crowned, and receive palms intheir hands from the Son of God in their midst. 

In the thirtieth year after the ruin of the city, Esdras was in Babylonand troubled because of the desolation of Sion. He acknowledged to Godthe sins of the people, yet complained that the heathen who were lordsover them were more wicked than they. Uriel, the angel, then said thatwhen Adam transgressed God's statutes the way was made narrow, and thedays few and evil; but, behold, the time shall come when my son Jesusshall be revealed and shall die, and all men that have life. And afterseven days of silence, the earth shall restore those that are asleep, and the most High shall appear upon the seat of judgment; and miseryshall pass away but judgment shall remain; truth shall stand; and faithwax strong. 

Then Esdras said: I know the most High is called merciful, and hepardoneth; for if he did not so that they which have committediniquities might be eased of them, the ten thousandth part of men shouldnot remain living; there should be very few left, peradventure, in aninnumerable multitude. And the angel answered: There be many created, but few shall be saved. Every one that shall be saved shall be able toescape by his works and by faith, and then they shall be shown greatwonders. And it came to pass that a voice out of a bush called Esdras, which prophesied that God would take vengeance upon Egypt, Syria, Babylon, and Asia; that the servants of the Lord must look for troubles, and not hide their sins but depart from evil, and they would bedelivered because God is their guide. 

TOBIT

This is the Book of Tobit, of the tribe of Nephthali, who in the time ofEnemessar, King of the Assyrians, was led captive to Nineve. Tobit incaptivity still remembered God with all his heart, and was deprived ofhis goods under King Sennacherib for privily burying fellow-captives whohad been killed. Then Tobit, who became blind, remembered that he had inthe days of his prosperity committed to Gabael in Rages of Media the sumof ten talents; and he called his son Tobias to go forth and seekGabael, giving him handwriting. Tobias sought a guide and found Raphael, who was an angel though Tobias knew it not, and who said he knew and hadlodged with Gabael. So they went forth both. 

When Tobias and Raphael came to the River Tigris, a fish leaped out ofthe water and would have devoured him, but the young man laid hold ofit, and drew it to land. The Angel bade Tobias open the fish, and takethe heart and the liver and the gall, and put them up safely. The youngman said to the Angel: To what use are these? And the Angel said:Touching the heart and the liver, if an evil spirit trouble any, we mustmake a smoke thereof, and the party shall be no more vexed. As for thegall: it is good to anoint a man that a whiteness in his eyes shall behealed. 

When they came near to Rages, the Angel said: To-day we shall lodge withRaguel, who is thy cousin and hath an only daughter named Sara. The maidis fair and wise, and I will speak that she may be given thee as a wife. Then the young man answered the Angel, that he had heard that this maidhad been given to seven men who all died in the marriage chamber, and hefeared lest he should also die. But the Angel said: Fear not, for she isappointed unto thee from the beginning. 

Now they came to the house of Raguel, and Sara met them and brought themtherein. Raguel and Edna his wife recognised Tobias as a kinsman, andkissed and blessed him. Tobias and Raphael were entertained cheerfully;and after Raphael had communicated with Raguel, Edna, his wife, wascalled and an instrument of covenants of marriage between Sara andTobias were written and sealed. And a chamber was prepared for them byEdna, who blessed Sara and asked the Lord of Heaven and Earth to giveher joy. And when they had all supped, Tobias was brought in unto Sara. And, as he went he remembered the words of Raphael, and put the heartand liver of the fish upon the ashes of the perfume, and made a smoketherewith. When the evil spirit had smelled the smoke he fled into theutmost parts of Egypt, where an angel bound him. Then Tobias and Saraarose and prayed that God would have pity upon them, and bless them, andmercifully ordain that they might become aged together. So they sleptboth that night. 

Raguel praised God because the Lord had had mercy upon two that were theonly begotten children of their fathers, and prayed that they mightfinish their life in health and joy. Raphael then went to Rages toGabael for the money, and the two returned to Raguel's house with thebags sealed up. 

Now Tobit and his wife longed for their son, and Tobias said to Raguel:Let me go, for my father and mother look no more to see me. Then Raguelgave him Sara, his wife, and half his goods, servants, cattle and money. And he and Edna blessed them and sent them away. 

After a prosperous journey, they drew near unto Nineve. Then Raphaeltold Tobias to make haste before his wife to prepare the house, and totake in his hand the gall of the fish. Now Anna sat looking about towardthe way for her son, and when she espied him coming, she said to hisfather: Behold, thy son cometh and the man that went with him. And Annaran forth, and fell upon the neck of her son and said: From henceforth Iam content to die. Tobias met his father at the door, and strake of thegall on his father's eyes, saying: Be of good hope, my father. And Tobitrecovered his sight. When he saw his son, he fell upon his neck andwept, and blessed God. Then Tobit went out to meet his daughter-in-lawat the gate of Nineve, and welcomed and blessed her; and there was joyamong all his brethren which were at Nineve. 

Tobit offered to Raphael half of all that had been brought from Rages;but Raphael called him and Tobias apart and exhorted them to praise andmagnify the Lord for all the things which he had done unto them; andtold them that he, Raphael, was one of the seven holy angels whichpresent the prayers of the saints, and which go in and out before theglory of the Holy One. Then they were both troubled and fell upon theirfaces; but he said: Fear not, for it shall go well with you. I go up tohim that sent me; but write all the things which were done in a book. And when they arose they saw him no more. 

Tobit wrote a prayer of rejoicing, saying: In the land of my captivitydo I praise thee, O Lord, and declare thy might and majesty to a sinfulnation. For Jerusalem shall be built up, her walls and towers andbattlements restored. And all her streets shall say: Alleluia. 

And when he was very aged, Tobit called his son and the six sons of hisson, and bade them go into Media, for he was ready to depart out of thislife, and he surely believed that which Jonas the prophet spake ofNineve, that it should be overthrown. When he had said these things hegave up the ghost. Tobias departed with his wife to Media, and diedthere; but before he died he heard of the destruction of Nineve, whichwas taken by Nabuchodonosor. 

JUDITH

In the days of Arphaxad, which reigned over the Medes in Ecbatane, hefortified Ecbatane with great stone walls, and towers and gates, for thegoing forth of his mighty armies. Nabuchodonosor, who reigned in Nineve, made war with King Arphaxad, and sent ambassadors to Cilicia, Damascusand Syria, and the land of Moab and Ammon and Judea and all Egypt askingaid; but the inhabitants thereof made light of the commandment, and sentaway his ambassadors with disgrace. Therefore, Nabuchodonosor was veryangry, and sware by his throne that he would be avenged upon all theinhabitants of these countries, and would slay them with the sword. Nabuchodonosor, in the seventeenth year of his reign, marched in battlearray against Arphaxad and overthrew his power and, all his horsemen andchariots, and took his cities even unto Ecbatane, and spoiled thestreets thereof, and turned the beauty of the city into shame. He alsotook Arphaxad in the mountains of Ragau and smote him. So he returned toNineve with all his company of sundry nations and feasted. In theeighteenth year, Nabuchodonosor called the chief captain of his army, Holofernes, and commanded him to take one hundred and twenty thousandfootmen and twelve thousand horsemen and go against all the west countrybecause they had disobeyed his commandment. He charged also Holofernesto spare none that would not yield, and put them to the slaughter, andspoil them. And the army went forth with a great number of allies likelocusts into Cilicia, and destroyed Phud and Lud, and all the childrenof Rasses and Ishmael. Then the army went over Euphrates and wentthrough Mesopotamia, and destroyed all the high cities on the riverArbonai to the sea, and then to Japheth over against Arabia, and Mediaand Damascus, and burned up their tabernacles, destroyed their flocksand herds, utterly wasted their countries, and smote all their young menwith the edge of the sword. Then fear fell upon the inhabitants of Tyrusand Sidon, on the sea coasts, who sent ambassadors unto Holofernes, andmade submission. He received them, yet he cast down their frontiers, cutdown their groves, destroyed all the gods of the land, and decreed thatall the nations should worship Nabuchodonosor only, and call upon him asGod. 

Now, the children of Israel that dwelt in Judea, who were newly returnedfrom captivity, were exceedingly afraid for Jerusalem and for the Templeof the Lord their God. Therefore, they possessed themselves of all topsof the high mountains, and fortified the villages, and laid up victualsfor the provision of war. And Joacim and all the priests ministered untothe Lord in the Temple, and offered sacrifices and prayed that he wouldnot give the children of Israel for a prey, their wives for a spoil, thecities of their inheritance to destruction, and the sanctuary toprofanation. 

Holofernes was very angry when he heard this. And Achior, captain of thesons of Ammon, told Holofernes what the Jews were, their history, andwhat their God had done for them; and advised Holofernes not to meddlewith them. There was then tumult in the council of the Assyrian host, and Holofernes despised the God of the people of Israel, and sent Achiorto the children of Israel that were in Bethulia, in the hill country. Then Holofernes with all his army besieged Bethulia, and took possessionof the fountains of water, so that the inhabitants fainted for thirst, and there was no longer any strength in them. They murmured against thegovernors, and called upon them to deliver the city to Holofernes andhis army. Ozias, the chief of the city, said: Brethren, be of goodcourage; let us yet endure five days, in which space the Lord our Godmay turn his mercy towards us; for he will not forsake us utterly. 

Now Judith heard thereof. She was a widow and was of a goodlycountenance and very beautiful to behold, and she feared God greatly. Judith sent for the ancients of the city, and blamed them for provokingthe Lord to anger by their lack of trust, and she promised that shewould do a thing within the days before the city was to be delivered totheir enemies which should go throughout all generations to the childrenof the nation. Then Judith went to the House of the Lord and fell uponher face and called upon the Lord who breakest the battles to bless herpurpose. She went thereafter to her house, put off the garments ofwidowhood and of sackcloth, and bathed, and anointed herself withprecious ointment, and put on the garments of gladness, with braceletsand chains and rings and ornaments to lure the eyes of all the men thatshould see her. Then she went forth with her maid out of the city ofBethulia into the camp of the Assyrians, and was taken by the guard tothe tent of Holofernes, who marvelled at her beauty. Holofernes askedJudith the cause of her coming, and she declared that if he would followher words, he and his army would be led by her through the midst ofJudea unto Jerusalem wherein he would set op his throne. 

Holofernes and all his servants were pleased, and said there was notsuch a woman in all the earth for beauty of face and wisdom of words. Judith would not eat of the meats and wine which Holofernes offered her, but partook only of the provisions which her maid had brought with herin a bag. Then she was brought into a tent and abode in the camp threedays, going out every night into the valley of Bethulia to pray. In thefourth day Holofernes made a feast, and said to Bagoas, the eunuch, togo and persuade the Hebrew woman to come and eat and drink with him andhis officers. Judith arose and decked herself, and went in and sat onthe ground on soft skins over against Holofernes, whose heart wasravished with her, and his mind moved, and he desired greatly hercompany. 

Now Judith took and ate and drank what her maid had prepared, andHolofernes was greatly delighted with her, and drank much more wine thanhe had drunk at any time in one day since he was born. Judith, when theevening was come, was left alone with Holofernes, and the servants weredismissed. Then she came to the pillar of the bed, which was atHolofernes's head, took down his fauchion, seized hold of the hair ofhis head, and said: Strengthen me, O Lord God of Israel, this day. Andshe smote twice upon his neck with all her might, and took away his headfrom him. 

She put the head in her bag of meat and gave it to her maid, and thetwain went forth together, according to their custom, as unto prayer, and passed the camp. Then came they to Bethulia, and were admitted intothe city; and the people were astonished wonderfully and worshipped God, and said: Blessed be thou, O our God, which hast this day brought tonought the enemies of thy people. The head of Holofernes was hanged upon the highest place of the city walls, and the men of Israel went forthby bands into the passes of the mountain. When the Assyrians saw this, they sent to Holofernes's tent, and said that the slaves of Israeliteshad come forth against them in battle. Then Bagoas went into the tentand found the body of Holofernes cast upon the ground and his head takenaway. When also he found not Judith, he leaped out to the people andtold them; and great fear and trembling fell upon them, and they fled, being chased until past Damascus and the borders thereof by the childrenof Israel, who gat many spoils. Then Judith sang a song of thanksgivingin all Israel, and the people sang after her. She dedicated the spoil ofHolofernes, which the people had given her, for a gift unto the Lord;and when she died in Bethulia, a widow of great honour, all Israel didlament. 

THE BOOK OF ESTHER

 These are the chapters of the Book of Esther, which are found neither in the Hebrew nor in the Chaldee. 

In the second year of the reign of Artaxerxes the Great, Mardocheus, whowas a Jew and dwelt in the city of Susa, had a dream. And the same nighthe overheard two eunuchs plotting to lay hands on Artaxerxes, and he, being a servitor in the king's court, told the king; and the eunuchs, after examination, were strangled. Aman, because of this, inducedArtaxerxes to write to all the princes and governors from India untoEthiopia to destroy all the Jews, with their wives and children, withoutpity, on the fourteenth day of the twelfth month of Adar. Mardocheus andQueen Esther, being in the fear of death, resorted unto the Lord, andprayed for deliverance, and for the preservation of the children ofIsrael. On the third day, Queen Esther cometh unto the king's presence;and she was ruddy through the perfection of her beauty, but her heartwas in anguish for fear. The king looketh angrily at her as she stoodbefore his royal throne, and she fainteth. Then God changed the spiritof the king, who leaped from his throne, took her in his arms, saying:Be of good cheer, thou shalt not die, though our commandment be general. As he was speaking, she fell a second time for faintness, and the kingwas troubled and all his servants comforted her. 

Artaxerxes then wrote a letter to all the princes wherein he taxed Aman, the Macedonian, with having by manifold and cunning deceits sought thedestruction of Mardocheus, who had saved the king's life, and also ofthe blameless Esther, partaker of his kingdom, with their whole nation. The king revoked the decree procured by Aman, who, with all his family, was hanged at the gates of Susa. And the king commanded the day of theirdeliverance to be kept holy. 

THE WISDOM OF SOLOMON

Love righteousness, ye that be judges of the earth, for into a malicioussoul wisdom shall not enter. The spirit of the Lord filleth the world:therefore he that speaketh unrighteous things cannot be hid. Seek notdeath in the error of your life: for God made not death, andrighteousness is immortal. The ungodly reason, but not aright: life isshort and tedious, which, being extinguished, our bodies shall be turnedinto ashes, and our spirit vanish as the soft air. Come, therefore, letus enjoy the good things that are present. Their own wickedness hathblinded them, for God created man to be immortal. 

Nevertheless, through envy of the devil came death into the world. Thesouls of the righteous are in the hands of God, and there shall notorments touch them. Having been a little chastised they shall begreatly rewarded. Better to have no children and to have virtue; forchildren begotten of unlawful beds are witnesses against their parents. Honourable age is not measured by number of years. He, being madeperfect in a short time, fulfilled a long time. For his soul pleased theLord: Therefore, hasted he to take him away from among the wicked. Thisthe people saw and understood it not, neither laid they up this in theirminds. That his grace and mercy are with his saints, and that he hathrespect unto his chosen. The wicked wonder at the godly, and say: Whathath pride profited us? And what good hath riches, with our vaunting, brought us? All those things are passed away like a shadow. The hope ofthe ungodly is like dust that is blown away: but the righteous live forevermore: their reward is a beautiful crown from the Lord's hand. Wisdomis easily found of such as seek her, therefore princes must desire her;for a wise prince is the stay of his people. He that hath Wisdom hathevery good thing. Moreover, by her means man shall obtain immortality, and leave behind him an everlasting memorial. 

THE WISDOM OF JESUS THE SON OF SIRACH; OR ECCLESIASTICUS. 

 There are two prologues to this book. The first is by an uncertain author, stating that the book is the compilation of three hands and is in imitation of the Book of Solomon. The second prologue is by Jesus, the son of Sirach and grandchild to Jesus of the same name, who had read the law and the prophets and other books of the fathers, and had been drawn himself to write something pertaining to wisdom and learning. Coming into Egypt when Euergetes was king, Jesus, son of Sirach, found a book of no small learning and bestowed diligence and travail to interpret it, and to bring it to an end. The following are among the precepts given:

All wisdom cometh from the Lord: she is with all flesh according to hisgift. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and driveth awaysins. My son, if thou come to serve the Lord, prepare thy soul fortemptation. Set thy heart aright, and constantly endure. Woe be tofearful hearts; but they that fear the Lord shall be filled with thelaw. Whoso honoureth his father maketh an atonement for his sins. Hethat honoureth his mother layeth up treasure. Seek not out the thingsthat are too hard for thee: profess not the knowledge that thou hastnot. Defraud not the poor of his living: and be not fainthearted whenthou sittest in judgment. Set not thy heart upon thy goods, for the Lordwill surely revenge thy pride. Winnow not with every wind, and let thylife be sincere. Do not extol thy own conceit: if thou wouldst get afriend, prove him first. A faithful friend is a strong defence. Seek notof the Lord preeminence: humble thy soul greatly. Fear the Lord, andreverence his priests. Stretch thine hand unto the poor, and mourn withthem that mourn. Strive not with a mighty man: kindle not the coals of asinner. Lend not unto him that is mightier than thyself: be not suretyabove thy power. Go not to law with a judge: consult not with a fool. Judge none blessed before his death. He that toucheth pitch shall bedenied therewith: like will to like. Say not thou: it is through theLord that I fell away: He has caused me to err. The Lord made man fromthe beginning and left him in the hand of his counsel. He has commandedno man to do wickedly, neither has he given any man licence to sin. Theknowledge of wickedness is not wisdom: neither at any time the counselof sinners prudence. Whoso discovereth secrets loseth his credit andshall never find friend to his mind. Health and good estate of body areabove all gold. There is no joy above the joy of the heart. Give notover thy mind to heaviness: the joyfulness of a man prolongeth his days. Envy and wrath shorten life: carefulness bringeth age before the time. 

[Then follow praises of a good householder, a good physician, a wiseinterpreter of the law, and injunctions as to how a man should bear themiseries of life, and face the approach of death. And the book concludeswith praises of the Patriarchs and the Prophets. ]

BARUCH

Baruch, the son of Nerias, wrote a book in Babylon what time theChaldeans took Jerusalem and burnt it with fire. Baruch read the wordsof his book in the hearing of Jechonias, the son of the King of Juda, and in the ears of all the people. The Jews wept at the reading of it, by the river Sud, and made a collection of money to send to Jerusalem, unto the High Priest Joachim, to buy burnt offerings and sin offeringsand incense, and to prepare manna to be offered upon the altar of theLord. The people at Jerusalem are asked also to pray for the life ofNabuchodonosor, King of Babylon, and his son Balthasar, and for thosewho sent the gifts and the book. The book begins with a prayer andconfession which the Jews at Babylon make, acknowledging that they areyet this day in captivity for a reproach and a curse, and to be subjectto payments according to all the iniquities of their fathers whichdeparted from the Lord our God. Then beginneth the book:

Hear, Israel, the commandments of life: give ear to understand wisdom. Let them that dwell about Sion come, and remember the captivity of mysons and daughters, which the Everlasting hath brought upon them. Be ofgood cheer, O my children, crying unto the Lord, and He shall deliveryou from the power and hand of the enemies. I sent you out with mourningand weeping: but God will give you to me again with joy and gladness forever. Put off, O Jerusalem, the garment of thy mourning and affliction, and put on the comeliness of the glory that cometh from God for ever;for behold, thy children gathereth from the west and from the east andreturn out of captivity with glory. 

[With this book of Baruch there is an Epistle of Jeremy, which he sentunto them that were to be led captive into Babylon because of theirsins. The prophet describes the idols and the conduct of the priests andthose who attend the heathen temples and warns the captives not toworship the false gods in Babylon. ]

SONG OF THE THREE HOLY CHILDREN

[This Song is not in the Hebrew of the Book of Daniel. ]

They walked in the midst of the fire praising God and blessing the Lord. Azarias opened his mouth in the midst of the flame and made confessionof sins, and prayer for deliverance to the confusion of their enemies. Whereupon, the king's servants that put them in ceased not to make theoven hot with rosin, pitch, tow, and small wood, so that the flamepassed through and burned those Chaldeans it found about the furnace. But the Angel of the Lord came down into the oven and made the midst ofthe furnace as it had been a moist whistling wind, so that the firetouched Azarias and his fellows not at all, neither hurt nor troubledthem. Then the three, as out of one mouth, praised, glorified, andblessed God in the furnace, saying: The Lord hath delivered us fromhell, and saved us from the hand of death: for his mercy endureth forever. 

THE HISTORY OF SUSANNA

There dwelt a man in Babylon called Joacim. And he took a wife whosename was Susanna, a very fair woman, and one that feared the Lord. Thesame year were appointed two of the ancients of the people to be judges;and they saw Susanna walking in her husband's garden, and their lust wasinflamed towards her. Now, Susanna went into the garden to bathe, for itwas hot, and dismissed her maids. The two elders, who had hidden in thegarden, rose up and said: Consent and lie with us. If thou wilt not, wewill bear witness against thee that a young man was with thee, andtherefore thou didst send thy maids away. Then Susanna cried with a loudvoice, and the two elders cried out against her, and declared theirmatter. The servants rushed in at the privy door and were greatlyashamed, for there was never such a report made of Susanna. It came topass the next day when the people were assembled to her husband Joacim, with the two elders full of mischievous imagination against Susanna, these wicked men commanded Susanna to uncover her face that they mightbe filled with her beauty, and her friends and all that saw her wept. Then the elders made their charge which they had agreed upon againstSusanna, and the assembled people believed them: so they condemned herto death. Then Susanna cried to the Everlasting God, saying: Thouknowest that they have borne false witness against me, and that I neverdid such things as these men have maliciously invented against me. Andthe Lord heard her voice. 

When she was led to be put to death, the Lord raised up the holy spiritof a youth named Daniel, who said: Are ye such fools, ye sons of Israel, that without examination or knowledge of the truth ye have condemned adaughter of Israel? Then Daniel put the two elders aside, one far fromthe other, to examine them. To the first he said: If thou hast seen her, under what tree sawest thou them companying together? He answered: Undera mastic tree. Daniel said: Very well; and he put him aside andcommanded the other to be brought. Tell me, he said, under what treedidst thou take them companying together? He answered: Under an holmtree. Then Daniel said: These men have lied against their own heads, foreven now the Angel of God waiteth with the sword that he may destroythem. Then all the assembly arose against the two elders, for Daniel hadconvicted them of false witness by their own mouth; and they put them todeath. Thus the innocent blood was saved the same day; and from thattime forth was Daniel had in great reputation in the sight of thepeople. 

THE HISTORY OF THE DESTRUCTION OF BEL AND THE DRAGON

When Cyrus of Persia received his kingdom, Daniel conversed with him, and was honoured above all his friends. Now, the Babylonians had an idolcalled Bel, which the king worshipped, but Daniel worshipped his ownGod. The king said unto him: Why dost thou not worship Bel? Danielanswered: Because I may not worship idols made with hands, but theliving God. Then the king said: Thinkest thou not that Bel is a livinggod? Seest thou not how much he eateth and drinketh every day? ThenDaniel smiled and said: O king, be not deceived; for this is but claywithin and brass without, and it never eateth or drinketh anything. Thentrial was made by order of the king, and meat and wine were set in thetemple, the door made fast, and sealed with the king's signet. Thepriests of Bel were three score and ten, besides their wives andchildren, and they little regarded the trial, for under the table theyhad made a privy entrance, whereby they entered the temple continuallyand consumed the meat and the wine. But Daniel had commanded hisservants to strew the temple floor with ashes, before the door was shutand sealed. Now, in the night came the priests with their wives andchildren, as they were wont, and did eat and drink up all. 

In the morning betimes the king arose, and Daniel with him. As soon asthe door was opened, the king looked upon the table, and cried with aloud voice: Great art thou, O Bel, and with thee is no deceit at all. Then laughed Daniel, and said: Behold the pavement, and mark well whosefootsteps are these. And the king saw the footsteps of men, women, andchildren, and was angry when he was shown the privy doors where theycame in and consumed such things as were upon the table. Therefore theking slew them, and delivered Bel into Daniel's power, who destroyed theidol and the temple. 

In the same place there was a great dragon, which they of Babylonworshipped. The king said to Daniel: Lo! this dragon liveth, eateth, drinketh; thou canst not say that he is no living god; therefore worshiphim. Then said Daniel: I will worship the Lord, for he is the livingGod. But give me leave, O king, and I shall slay this dragon withoutsword or staff. 

The king gave him leave, and Daniel took pitch, and fat, and hair, anddid seethe them together, and made lumps thereof. These he put in thedragon's mouth, and the dragon burst in sunder. Then Daniel said: Lo, these are the gods ye worship!

When they of Babylon heard that, they conspired against the king, saying: The king is become a Jew. So they came to the king, and said:Deliver us Daniel, or else we will destroy thee and thine house. Beingsore constrained, the king delivered Daniel unto them, and they cast himinto the lions' den, where he was six days, during which the seven lionswere given no carcases, to the intent that they might devour Daniel. 

Now, there was in Jewry a prophet called Habakkuk who made pottage andbroken bread to take to the reapers in the field. An Angel of the Lordsaid unto Habakkuk: Go, carry the dinner that thou hast into Babylonunto Daniel, who is in the lions' den. And Habakkuk said: Lord, I neversaw Babylon; neither do I know where the den is. Then the Angel of theLord took Habakkuk by the crown, and bare him by the hair of his head, and through the vehemency of his spirit set him in Babylon over the den. And Habakkuk cried: O Daniel, take the dinner which God has sent thee. And Daniel said: Thou hast remembered me, O God: neither hast thouforsaken them that seek thee and love thee. So Daniel arose, and dideat: And the Angel of the Lord set Habakkuk in his own placeimmediately. Upon the seventh day the king went to bewail Daniel; andwhen he came to the den, behold, Daniel was sitting. Then cried the kingwith a loud voice, saying: Great art thou, O Lord God of Daniel, andthere is none other besides thee. And he drew Daniel out, and cast thosethat were the cause of his suffering into the den; and they weredevoured by the lions in a moment before his face. 

THE PRAYER OF MANASSES

The Prayer of Manasses, King of Juda, when he was holden captive inBabylon, is an enumeration of the attributes of the Almighty God ofAbraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and of their righteous seed; a generalconfession of sins; and an entreaty that God would show him great mercyand goodness, forgive him, and condemn him not into the lower parts ofthe earth. Therefore, he would praise the Lord for ever, all the days ofhis life. 

THE FIRST BOOK OF THE MACCABEES

Antiochus, surnamed Epiphanes, reigned in the hundred and thirty-seventhyear of the kingdom of the Greeks. In those days certain wicked men ofIsrael went to the king, who gave them licence to do after theordinances of the heathen. Whereupon, they built a place of exercise atJerusalem according to the custom of the heathen. Now, Antiochus madewar against Egypt, and when he had smitten the strong cities, and takenthe spoils thereof, he returned in the hundred forty and third year andwent up against Israel and Jerusalem, and captured the city with greatmassacre and spoiled the Temple, and took away the vessels of gold andsilver and hidden treasures which he found therein. Therefore, there wasgreat mourning in Israel. Two years after, the king sent his chiefcollector of tribute unto the cities of Juda, and he fell suddenly uponJerusalem, set fire to it, and pulled down the houses and walls thereof. And the women and children he took away captive, and defiled thesanctuary. 

But the enemy builded the city of David, with a great and strong walland mighty towers, and stored it with armour and victuals and the spoilsof Jerusalem, so that it became a sore snare against the sanctuary andan evil adversary to Israel. Moreover, King Antiochus wrote to his wholekingdom that all should be one people, and sent letters unto Jerusalemand the cities of Juda commanding that the Israelites should abandontheir own worship, cease to circumcise their children, and adore hisidols. Then was the abomination of desolation set up in the Temple, andidol altars were builded throughout the cities of Juda, and the books ofthe law were burned. Howbeit many in Israel chose rather to die thatthey might not be defiled with meats and profane the Holy Covenant. Inthose days arose Mattathias, a priest of the sons of Joarib. He dwelt inModin, and had five sons--Joannan, Simon, Judas who was calledMaccabeus, Eleazar, and Jonathan. The king's officers came to Modin andasked Mattathias to fulfil the king's commandment; but Mattathias said:Though all the nations consent, yet will I and my sons walk in thecovenant of our fathers. And he slew a Jew that did sacrifice to idolsin his presence, and the king's messenger also. So he and his sons fledinto the mountains, and, being joined by a company of mighty men ofIsrael, went round about, and pulled down idol altars and circumcisedthe children valiantly. And the work prospered in their hands, and theyrecovered the law out of the hands of the Gentiles. When Mattathias cameto die he appointed Simon as a man of counsel, and Judas Maccabeus, whohad been mighty and strong in battle even from his youth up, to be theircaptain to avenge the wrongs of their people. So he died in his hundredforty and sixth year, and was buried in the sepulchre of his fathers atModin, and all Israel made great lamentation for him. 

Now, Judas Maccabeus fought the battles of his people with greatvaliance, captured the cities of Juda, drove Apollonius and a great hostout of Samaria, slew Apollonius, took their spoils, and Apollonius'ssword also, and therewith he fought all his life long. Judas alsooverthrew Seron and the great army of Syria. Then Judas was renownedunto the utmost parts of the earth, and an exceeding great dread fellupon the nations round about. Now, when King Antiochus heard thesethings he was full of indignation; wherefore he sent and gatheredtogether all the forces of his realm. And the king sent Lysias, one ofthe blood royal, with a great army to go into the land of Juda anddestroy it. Judas and his brethren, when he heard this, assembled theIsraelites at Maspha, over against Jerusalem, where they fasted; andJudas organised and armed them to battle, and camped at Emmaus. Gorgias, the lieutenant of Lysias, attempted to surprise Judas, but Judas joinedhim in battle and discomfited him, putting his host to flight andgaining great spoil. Next year Lysias gathered another army, that hemight subdue the Israelites, and came into Idumea, and pitched tents atBethsura. But Judas joined him in battle, and put Lysias and his army toflight. After this, Judas and his brethren came to Jerusalem, pulleddown the altar which the heathen had profaned, and set up a new altar. He also builded up Mount Sion with strong towers and high walls. Afterthat Judas smote the children of Esau, Bean, and Ammon, and sent Simoninto Galilee, while he, with his brother Jonathan, went over Jordan, andcaptured the cities of Galaad. About that time Antiochus was in Persia, and heard of the doings of Judas. He was astonished and sore moved, andfell sick of grief and died. Lysias set up Antiochus, his son, as king, and called him Eupator, and brought a great army into Juda. The numberof his army was an hundred thousand footmen, twenty thousand horsemen, and two and thirty elephants. Judas went out from Jerusalem and pitchedin Bathzacharias over against the king's camp. Then a great battle wasfought, when Judas was defeated. There being a famine in the city, hemade peace with Eupator, who, however, ordered the wall round about Sionto be pulled down. 

Demetrius came from Rome and attacked Eupator in Antioch, captured thecity, and slew Eupator and Lysias. Alsimus, who wished to be highpriest, complained to Demetrius of Judas, and the king sent Nicanor, aman that bare deadly hate unto Israel, to destroy the people; but he wasdefeated by Judas at Capharsalama with great slaughter, and in a secondbattle Nicanor's host was discomfited and he himself was slain, and hishead and right hand were hanged up on the tower at Jerusalem. This was aday of great gladness to Israel, and the victory was kept holy everyyear after. 

Now, Judas, being informed of the power and policy of the Romans, made aleague with them of mutual help. Notwithstanding, Demetrius sentBacchides and Alcimus a second time into Judea with a great host, andcamped at Berea. Now, Judas had pitched his tent at Eleasa, where, seeing the multitude of the other army to be so great, his men began todesert him, whereupon Judas said: God forbid that I should flee awayfrom the enemy; if our time be come, let us die manfully for ourbrethren, and let us not stain our honour. 

The armies came to battle, and the earth shook at the noise thereof, andthe fight continued from morning to night. Judas discomfited the rightwing of the enemy under Bacchides and pursued them to Mount Azotus, butthe left wing followed upon Judas and a sore battle took place, insomuchthat many were slain on both sides. Judas was killed also, and the restof his army fled. The body of Judas was taken to the sepulchre of hisfathers at Modin by Jonathan and Simon, his brothers, and all Israelmade lamentation for him, and mourned many days, saying: How is thevaliant man fallen that delivered Israel!

Jonathan took command of the Israelites in the room of Judas, and madepeace with Bacchides. Thereafter, Demetrius made large offers to havepeace with Jonathan, including freedom of worship and release oftribute, together with the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem and thetowers thereof, and the repairs of the sanctuary; but Jonathan and thepeople gave no credit to these words because they remembered the greatevil Demetrius had done in Israel. Jonathan made peace with Alexander, and joined him in battle against Demetrius, whose host fled, and hehimself was slain. 

After that Demetrius the younger came out of Crete, and sent a greathost to Azotus. Here Jonathan attacked him, and with the help of Simon, his brother, defeated the enemy and set fire to Azotus, and the templeof Dagon therein. There were burned and slain with the sword eightthousand men. Now, King Alexander honoured Jonathan and sent him abuckle of gold such as is given to those of the king's blood. Afterthese days, Jonathan did many wonderful exploits in Galilee andDamascus, and then returned to Jerusalem. Now, when Jonathan saw thatthe time served him, he renewed his league with the Romans andLacedemonians, and pursued the Arabians unto Damascus. He strengthenedthe cities of Juda, but he was captured by fraud by Tryphon atPtolemais. Simon was made captain in his brother Jonathan's room, andprepared to attack Tryphon and, rescue his brother, but Tryphon slewJonathan, and returned into his own country. 

The land of Juda was quiet all the days of Simon, and every man satunder his own vine and fig-tree. When Simon was visiting the cities thatwere in the country, Ptolemeus, son of Abubus, the captain of Jerico, invited Simon and his two sons into his castle, called Docus. There agreat banquet was given, at which Simon and his sons drank largely, andPtolemeus and his men came into the banqueting place and slew them. 

THE SECOND BOOK OF THE MACCABEES

The brethren, the Jews that were at Jerusalem and in the land of Judea, wrote a letter to the Jews that were throughout Egypt to thank God forthe death of Antiochus. In his letter are recounted all the sayings ofJeremy, and the great deeds of Judas Maccabeus and his brother Simon, asrecorded in the books of Jason, until Nicanor the blasphemer was killed, and his head hanged upon the tower at Jerusalem, from which time forththe Hebrews had the city in their power. 

 * * * * *

ST. AUGUSTINE

THE CITY OF GOD

 A French critic has said of Augustine's "City of God" that it is the earliest serious attempt to write a philosophy of history, and another has spoken of it as the encyclopaedia of the fifth century. These two remarks together characterise the work excellently. It is a huge treatise in twenty-two books, begun in the year 413, and finished in 426, and was given to the public in sections as these were completed. Augustine (see LIVES AND LETTERS) himself explains the origin of the work. The fall of Rome by Alaric's invasion in 410 had been ascribed to the desertion of the old gods of Rome and to the wide extension of Christianity, or the City of God, throughout the empire. It was to refute this calumny that the learned African bishop elaborated his great defense of Christ's kingdom, the "Catholic Church, which should include all nations and speak in all tongues. " In Books 1-5 St. Augustine shows that the catastrophe of Rome was not due to the neglect of the old mythological superstitions; and in Books 6-10 that the heathen cult was helpless for the life after death. Books 11-14 deal with the origin of the two cities, namely, of God and the World; Books 15-18 with their respective histories, and Books 19-22 with their respective ultimate destinies. 

_I. --THE ORIGIN OF THE TWO CITIES_

I write, dear Marcellinus, of that most glorious City of God, both inher present pilgrimage and life by faith, and in that fixed andeverlasting seat which she awaits in patience. I write to defend heragainst those who place their gods above her Founder--a great andarduous work, but God is my aid. I well know what power a writer needswho would show the proud how great is the virtue of humility. For thelaw of our King and Founder is this: "God is against the proud but givesgrace to the humble"; but the swollen and insolent soul loves herein tousurp the divine Majesty, and itself "to spare the subject and subduethe proud. " Wherefore I may not pass over in silence that earthly cityalso, enslaved by its lust of empire. 

For it is from this City of the World that those enemies have arisen, against whom we have to defend the City of God; Romans, spared by thebarbarians on Christ's account, are haters of the name of Christ. Theshrines of the martyrs and the basilicas of the apostles received, inthe devastation of the city, not their own people only, but everyfugitive; and the fury and greed of the invaders were quenched at theseholy thresholds. Yet with thankless arrogance and impious frenzy thesemen, who took refuge under that Name in order that they might enjoy thelight of fugitive years, perversely oppose it now, that they maylanguish in sempiternal gloom. 

Never has it been known, in so many wars as are recorded from before thefoundation of Rome to the present day, that an enemy, having reduced anycity, should have spared those who had fled to the temples of theirgods; not even the Romans themselves, whose moderation in victory has sooften been justly praised, have respected the sanctuary of vanquisheddeities. The devastation and massacre and pillage and conflagrations ofthe sack of Rome were nothing new. But this one thing was new andunheard of--these savages became suddenly so mild as to set apartspacious basilicas and to fill them with people on whom they had mercy;no one might be killed therein nor any dragged from thence. Who does notsee that this is due to the name of Christ and to a Christian age? Whocan deny that these sanguinary hordes were bridled by Him Who had said:"I will visit their sins with the rod, but will not take my mercy fromthem"?

All natures, because they exist and therefore have their manner andspecies and a certain peace with themselves, are good; and when they arein the places belonging to the order of nature, they preserve the beingwhich they have received. 

The truest cause of the felicity of the good angels is to be found inthis, that they adhere to Him Who supremely is; and the cause of themisery of bad angels lies in this, that they have turned away from HimWho supremely is, to themselves, who have not supreme being. This vicehas no other name but pride, which is the beginning of every sin. Theyrefused to preserve their strength for Him, and so threw away that inwhich all their greatness consisted. It is vain to seek for an efficientcause for the bad will; we have to do, not with anything efficient, butwith a deficiency. The mere defection from that which supremely is tothings which are on a lower grade of being is to begin to have a badwill. 

Now God founded mankind, not as the angels, so that even did they sinthey should not die; but in such a way that did they obey, they shouldenter, without death, on a blessed eternity; but, did they disobey, theyshould suffer the most just penalty, both of body and of soul. Forthough the human soul is truly said to be immortal, yet is there a sensein which it dies when God forsakes it. 

Only because they had begun inwardly to be evil did the first of mankindfall into overt disobedience. A bad will had preceded the bad action, and of that bad will the beginning was pride, or the appetite for aninordinate rank. To lift oneself up is in itself to be cast down and tofall. Wherefore humility is most highly of all things commended in andto the City of God, and in Christ her King; but the contrary vice ofarrogance especially rules her adversary, the devil, and this isunquestionably the great difference by which the two cities are divided, and the society of the pious from the society of the impious. Thus twoloves have founded two cities, the love of Self extending to contempt ofGod has made the City of the World; the love of God extending tocontempt of Self has made the Heavenly City. 

_II. --THE GROWTH OF THE CITIES_

This whole universal time or age, in which the dying give way and thenewborn succeed them, is the scene and history of those two cities whichare our theme. The City of the World, which lasts not for ever, has itsgood here below, and rejoices in it with such joy as is possible. Theobjects of its desire are not otherwise than good, and itself is thebest of the good things of earth. It desires an earthly peace for lowerends, makes wars to gain this peace, wins glorious victories, and whenvictory crowns a just cause, who shall not acclaim the wished-for peace?These things are good indeed, and unquestionably are the gifts of God. But if, neglecting the better things, which belong to the supernal city, they covet these lower ends as if there were none higher, misery mustinevitably follow. 

All men, indeed, desire peace; but while the society which does not liveby faith seeks its peace in the temporal advantages of the present life, that which lives by faith awaits the promised blessings, and makes useof earthly and temporal things only as pilgrims do. The earthly cityseeks its peace in a harmony of the wills of men with respect to thethings of this life. And the heavenly city also, or, rather, that partof it which travels in this mortality, must use that earthly peace whilemortality remains. Living a captive life in the midst of the earthlycity, it does not hesitate to respect its laws. Since this mortality iscommon to both cities, there is a concord between them in the thingsthat belong to it. Only, the heavenly city cannot have common laws ofreligion with the earthly city, but has been forced to dissent, and tosuffer hatred and the storms of persecution. 

Therefore, this heavenly city, a pilgrim upon earth, calls out citizensfrom all peoples and collects a pilgrim society of all tongues, carelesswhat differences there may be in manners, laws and institutions by whichearthly peace is achieved and maintained, destroying none of these, butrather serving and fulfilling them. Even the celestial city, therefore, uses the earthly peace, and uses it as a means to the heavenly peace;for that alone can be called the peace of a rational creature whichconsists in a harmonious society devoted to the enjoyment of God and oneanother in God. 

As for that uncertainty with regard to everything, which characterisesthe New Academy, the City of God detests all such doubting as a form ofmadness, since she has the most certain knowledge of those things whichshe understands by mind and reason, however that knowledge may belimited by our corruptible body. She believes also the evidence of thesenses, which the mind uses through the body, for he is miserablydeceived who regards them as untrustworthy. She believes also the holyScriptures, which we call canonical. 

It is no matter to the City of God what dress the citizen wears, or whatmanner of life he follows, so long as it is not contrary to the Divinecommands; so that she does not compel the philosophers, who becomeChristians, to change their habit or their means of life, which are nohindrance to religion, but only their false opinions. As for these threekinds of life, the contemplative, the active, and that which partakes ofboth qualities, although a man living in faith may adopt any of them, and therein reach eternal reward, yet the love of truth and the dutiesof charity alike must have their place. One may not so give himself tocontemplation as to neglect the good of his neighbour, nor be so deeplyimmersed in action as to neglect the contemplation of God. In leisure weought to delight, not in an empty inertia, but in the inquisition ordiscovery of truth, in such a way that each may make progress withoutenvying the attainments of another. In action we ought to seek neitherthe honours of this life nor power, since all that is under the sun isvanity; but only the work itself, which our situation enables us to do, and to do it rightly and serviceably. 

According to the definitions which Scipio used in Cicero's "Republic, "there never really existed a Roman republic. For he briefly defines arepublic as the estate of the people--"res publica" as "res populi, " anddefines the people as a multitudinous assemblage, united by consent tolaw and by community of advantage. So, then, where justice is not, therecan be no people; and if no people, then no estate of the people, butonly of a confused multitude unworthy of the name of a people. Where nojustice is, there is no commonwealth. Now, justice is a virtuedistributing unto everyone his due. Where, then, is the justice of theman who deserts the true God and gives himself over to unclean demons?Is this giving everyone his due?

But if we define a people in another way, and consider it as anassemblage of rational beings united by unanimity as to the objects oftheir love, then, in order to ascertain the character of a people, wemust ascertain what things they love. Whatever it loves, so long as itis an assemblage of rational creatures and not a herd of cattle, and isagreed as to the objects of its love, it is truly a people, though somuch the better as its concord lies in better things, and so much theworse as its concord lies in inferior things. According to thisdefinition, then, the Roman people is indeed a people, and its estate isa commonwealth. But what things that people has loved in its earlier andlater times, and how it fell into bloody seditions and into social andcivil wars, breaking and corrupting that concord which is the health ofa people--of these things history is witness. Yet I would not on thataccount deny it the name of a people, nor its estate the name of arepublic, so long as there remains some assemblage of rational personsassociated by unanimity with regard to the objects of love. But ingeneral, whatever be the nation in question, whether Athens, Egypt, Babylon, or Rome, the city of the ungodly--refusing obedience to thecommandment of God that no sacrifice should be offered but to Himalone--is without true justice. 

For though there may be an apparent mastery of the soul over the body, and of reason over vices, yet if soul and reason do not serve God as Hehas commanded, they can have no true dominion over the body and itspassions. How can the mind which is ignorant of the true God, andinstead of obeying Him is prostituted to impure demons, be true mistressof the body and the vices? Nay, the very virtues which it appears toitself to possess, by which it rules the body and the vices in orderthat it may obtain and guard the objects which it desires, beingundirected to God, are rather vices than virtues. For as that whichmakes flesh to live is not flesh but above it, so that which enables manto live in blessedness is not of man, but above him. 

_III. --THE DESTINY OF THE JUST_

Who is able to tell of the creation, with its beauty and utility, whichGod has set before the eyes of man, though here condemned to labour andsorrow? The innumerable loveliness of sky, earth and sea, the abundanceand wonder of light, the sun, moon and stars, the shade of trees, thecolours and fragrance of flowers, the multitude of birds of varied hueand song, the many forms of animals, of which the smallest are morewonderful than the greatest, the works of bees more amazing than thevast bodies of whales--who shall describe them?

What shall those rewards, then, be? What will God give them whom He haspredestined to life, having given such great things to those whom He haspredestined to death? What in that blessed life will He lavish uponthose for whom He gave His Son to death? What will the state of man'sspirit be when it has become wholly free from vice; yielding to none, enslaved by none, warring against none, but perfectly and wholly atpeace with itself?

Who can say, or even imagine, what degrees of glory shall there be givento the degrees of merit? Yet we cannot doubt that there will be degrees;and that in that blessed city no one in lower place shall envy hissuperior; for no one will wish to be that which he has not received, though bound in closest concord with him who has received. Together withhis reward, each shall have the gift of contentment, so as to desire nomore than he has. There we shall rest and see, we shall see and love, weshall love and praise. For what other end have we, but to reach thekingdom of which there is no end?

 * * * * *

RICHARD BAXTER

THE SAINTS' EVERLASTING REST

 Richard Baxter, the Puritan author of one hundred and sixty-eight volumes, of which "The Saints Everlasting Rest" was, and is, the most popular, was born in 1615 during the reign of James I. , and died in 1691, soon after the accession of William III. His lifetime, therefore, was coincident with the troubles of the Stuart House. For fifty years Baxter was one of the best known divines in England. Throughout, his was a moderating influence in politics, the Church, and theology. His best known pastorate, one of extraordinary success, was at Kidderminster, between his twenty-sixth and forty-fifth years, and there, in an interlude of ill-health of more than customary severity--for all his life he was ailing--he wrote, anticipatory of death, "The Saints Everlasting Rest. " The book, which was dedicated to his "dearly beloved friends the inhabitants of the Borrough and Forreign of Kederminster, " was published in 1650 and had an immediate and almost unparallelled success. Twenty thousand copies were sold in the year after publication, and various editions are now in circulation. The saintliness of this broad-minded divine's character emerges unsullied from an age of contentious bigotry. 

_I. --THE NATURE OF REST_

 "There remaineth therefore a rest to the people of God. " --Heb. Iv, 9. 

It was not only our interest in God and actual fruition of Him which waslost in Adam's covenant-breaking fall, but all spiritual knowledge ofHim, and true disposition towards such a felicity. Man hath now a hearttoo suitable to his low estate--a low state, and a low spirit. And whenthe Son of God comes with tenders of a spiritual and eternal happinessand glory, He finds not faith in man to believe it; but, as the poor manwould not believe that any one man had such a sum as a hundredpounds--it was so far above what he possessed--so no man will hardly nowbelieve that there is such a happiness as once he had, much less asChrist hath now procured. 

The Apostle bestows most of his epistle against this distemper, andclearly and largely proves that the rest of Sabbaths and Canaan shouldteach men to look for further rest, which indeed is their happiness. What more welcome to men under personal afflictions, tiring duty, successions of sufferings, than rest? What more welcome news to menunder public calamities, unpleasing employment, plundering losses, sadtidings, than this of rest?

Now let us see what this rest is. Though the sense of the text includesin the word "rest" all that ease and safety which a soul hath withChrist in _this life_--the rest of grace--yet because it chiefly intendsthe rest of eternal glory I shall confine my discourse to this last. 

Rest is the end and perfection of motion. The saints' rest, here inquestion, is _the most happy estate of a Christian having obtained theend of his course_. 

May we show what this rest containeth. Alas! how little know I of thatwhereof I am about to speak. Shall I speak before I know? If I stay tillI clearly know I shall not come again to speak. Therefore will I speakthat little which I do know of it rather than be wholly silent. 

There is contained in this rest a cessation from motion or action. Whenwe have obtained the haven we have done with sailing; when we are at ourjourney's end we have done with the way. There shall be no more prayerbecause no more necessity, but the full enjoyment of what we prayed for. Neither shall we need to fast and weep and watch any more, being out ofthe reach of sin and temptations. Nor will there be use for instructionsand exhortations; preaching is done; the ministry of man ceaseth;sacraments useless; the labourer called in because the harvest isgathered, the tares burned, the work done. 

This rest containeth a perfect freedom from all the evils that accompanyus through our course, and which necessarily follow our absence from thechief good. Doubtless there is not such a thing as grief and sorrowknown there; nor is there such a thing as a pale face, a languid body, feeble joints, unable infancy, decrepit age, peccant humours, doloroussickness, griping fears, consuming care, nor whatsoever deserveth thename of evil. Indeed, a gale of groans and sighs, a stream of tearsaccompanied us to the very gates, and there bid us farewell for ever. 

This rest containeth the highest degree of the saints' personalperfection, both of soul and body. This necessarily qualifies them toenjoy the glory and thoroughly to partake the sweetness of it. This isone thing that makes the saints' joy there so great. Here eye hath notseen, nor ear heard, nor heart conceived what God hath laid up for themthat wait for Him; but there the eye and ear and heart are made capable, else how do they enjoy it? The more perfect the appetite the sweeter thefood; the more musical the ear the more pleasant the melody; the moreperfect the soul the more joyous those joys, and the more glorious to usis that glory. 

This rest containeth, as the principal part, our nearest fruition ofGod, the chiefest good. And here, wonder not if I be at a loss. When Iknow so little of God, I cannot know how much it is to enjoy Him. Whenit is so little I know of mine own soul--either its quiddity or quality, while it is here in this tabernacle--how little must I needs know of theinfinite majesty, or the state of this soul when it is advanced to thatenjoyment. Nay, if I never saw that creature which contains notsomething unsearchable, nor the worm so small which afforded not matterfor questions to puzzle the greatest philosopher that ever I met with, no wonder if mine eye fail when I look at God, my tongue fail me inspeaking of Him, and my heart in conceiving. What strange conceivingshath a man born blind of the sun of its light; or a man born deaf of thenature of music; so do we want that sense by which God must be clearlyknown. But this we know, the chief good is for us to be near to God. 

_II. --HOW THE SAINTS WILL BE EMPLOYED_

This rest containeth a sweet and constant action of all the powers ofthe soul and body in this fruition of God. It is not the rest of a stonewhich ceaseth from motion when it attains the centre. Whether theexternal senses, such as now we have, shall be continued and employed inthis work is a great doubt. For some of them, it is usuallyacknowledged, they shall cease, because their being importeth their use, and their use implieth our state of imperfection--as there is no use foreating and drinking, so neither for taste. But do not all senses implyour imperfection? As the ore is cast into the fire a stone, but comesforth so pure a metal that it deserves another name, so far greater willthe change of our body and senses be--even so great as now we cannotconceive. And, doubtless, as God advanceth our sense and enlargeth ourcapacity, so will He advance the happiness of those senses, and fill upwith Himself all that capacity. 

And if the body shall be thus employed, oh, how shall the soul be takenup! As the bodily senses have their proper aptitude and action, so doththe soul in its own action enjoy its own object--by knowing, bythinking, by remembering, by loving. This is the soul's enjoying. 

Knowledge of itself is very desirable, even the knowledge of some evil, though not the evil itself. As far as a rational soul exceeds thesensitive, so far the delights of a philosopher in discovering thesecrets of Nature, and knowing the mysteries of science, exceed thedelights of the glutton, the drunkard, the unclean, and of allvoluptuous sensualists whatsoever--so excellent is all truth. What, then, is their delight who know the God of truth! What would I not giveso that all the uncertain, questionable principles in logic, naturalphilosophy, metaphysics, and medicine were but certain in themselves andto me, that my dull, obscure notions of them were but quick and clear. Oh, what then should I not either perform or part with to enjoy a clearand true apprehension of the most true God!

How noble a faculty of the soul is this understanding! It can compassthe earth; it can measure the sun, moon, stars, and heaven; it canforeknow each eclipse to a minute many years before; yea, but the top ofall its excellency is that it can know God, who is infinite, who madeall these--a little here, and more, much more, hereafter. Oh, the wisdomand goodness of our blessed Lord! He hath created the understanding witha natural bias and inclination to truth as its object, and to the primetruth as its prime object; and lest we should turn aside to anycreature, He hath kept this as His own divine prerogative, notcommunicable to any creature, namely, to _be_ the prime truth. 

And, doubtless, memory will not be idle or useless in this blessed work, if it be but by looking back to help the soul to value its enjoyment. Our knowledge will be enlarged, not diminished; therefore the knowledgeof things past shall not be taken away. And what is that knowledge but aremembrance? Doubtless, from that height the saint can look behind himand before him; and to compare past with present things must needs raisein the blessed soul an unconceivable esteem and sense of its condition. To stand on that mount whence we can see the wilderness and Canaan bothat once; to stand in heaven and look back on earth, and weigh themtogether in the balance of a comparing sense and judgment, how must itneeds transport the soul and make it cry out: Have the gales of graceblown me into such a harbour! O, blessed way, and thrice blessed end!

And now if there be such a thing as indignation left how will it herelet fly: O vile nature that resisted so much and so long such ablessing! Unworthy soul, is this the place thou camest so unwillinglytowards? Was duty wearisome? Was the world too good to lose? Didst thoustick at leaving all, denying all, and suffering anything for this? Wastthou loth to die to come to this? O false heart, that had almostbetrayed me and lost me this glory!

But oh, the full, the near, the sweet enjoyment is that of theaffections--love and joy! It is near, for love is of the essence of thesoul; love is the essence of God, for God is love. Oh, the high delightsof this love! The content that the heart findeth in it! Surely love isboth work and wages. 

But, alas! my fearful heart scarce dares proceed. Methinks I hear theAlmighty's voice saying to me, as to Job, "Who is this that darkenethcounsel by words without knowledge?" But pardon, O Lord, Thy servant'ssin. I have not pried into unrevealed things, nor with audacious witscuriously searched into Thy counsels; but, indeed, I have dishonouredThy Holiness, wronged Thine Excellency, disgraced Thy saints' glory bymy own exceeding disproportionate pourtraying. I bewail that myconceivings fall so short, my apprehensions are so dull, my thoughts somean, my affections so stupid, expressions so low, and unbeseeming sucha glory. But I have only heard by the hearing of the ear. Oh, let Thyservant see Thee and possess these joys, and then I shall have moresuitable conceivings, and shall give Thee fuller glory!

_III. --HOW THE ETERNAL REST IS REACHED_

Having thus opened to you a window towards the temple, and showed you asmall glimpse of the back parts of that resemblance of the saints' restwhich I had seen in the Gospel-glass, it follows that we proceed to viewa little the adjuncts and blessed properties of this rest, and firstconsider the eminent antecedents, the great preparations, the notableintroduction to this rest; for the porch of this temple is exceedingglorious, and the gate of it is called beautiful. And here offerthemselves to our observation as the four corners of this porch the mostglorious coming and appearing of the Son of God; His wonderful raisingof our bodies from the dust, and uniting them again with the soul; Hispublic and solemn proceedings in their judgment; His solemn celebrationof their coronation, and His enthronising of them in their glory. 

Well may the coming of Christ be reckoned into His people's glory andenumerated with those ingredients that compound this precious antidoteof rest, for to this end it is intended, and to this end it is ofapparent necessity. Alas, fellow Christians, what should we do if ourLord should not return? What a case are we here left in! It cannot be;never fear it, it cannot be. And O, fellow-Christians, what a day willthat be when we, who have been kept prisoners by sin and the grave, shall be fetched out by the Lord Himself! It will not be such a comingas His first was--in meanness and poverty and contempt. He will notcome, O careless world, to be slighted and neglected by you any more. Tothink and speak of that day with horror doth well beseem the impenitentsinner, but ill the believing saint. How full of joy was that blessedmartyr Mr. Glover, with the discovery of Christ to his soul, after longdoubting and waiting in sorrow, so that he cries out: "He is come! He iscome!" If thou have but a dear friend returned, that hath been far andlong absent, how do all run out to meet him with joy! "Oh, " said thechild, "My father is come!" Saith the wife, "My husband is come!" Andshall not we, when we behold our Lord in His majesty returning, cry out:"He is come! He is come!"

The second stream that leadeth to Paradise is that great work of JesusChrist in raising our bodies from the dust and uniting them again untothe soul. A wonderful effect of infinite power and love. "Yea, wonderfulindeed, " saith unbelief, "if it be true. " "What, " saith the Atheist andSadducee, "shall all these scattered bones and dust become a man? A mandrowned in the sea is eaten by fishes, and they by men again, and thesemen by worms. What is to become of the body of that first man? Shall itrise again?" Thou fool--for so Paul calls thee--dost thou disputeagainst the power of the Almighty? Wilt thou pose him with thysophistry? Dost thou object difficulties to infinite strength? Thoublind mole, thou silly worm; thou little piece of creeping, breathingclay; thou dust, thou nothing, knowest thou who it is whose power thoudost question? If thou shouldst see Him, thou wouldst presently die. IfHe should come and dispute His cause with thee, couldst thou bear it? Ifthou shouldst hear His voice, couldst thou endure?

Come then, fellow-Christians, let us contentedly commit these carcassesto the dust, knowing that prison shall not long contain them. Let us liedown in peace and take our rest; it will not be an everlasting night orendless sleep. As sure as we awake in the morning when we have slept outthe night, so sure shall we then awake. What if our carcasses become asvile as those of the beasts that perish, what if our bones are digged upand scattered about the pit brink, and worms consume our flesh, yet weknow that our Redeemer liveth, and shall stand at the last on earth, andwe shall see Him with these eyes. 

The third part of this prologue to the saints' rest is the public andsolemn process at their judgment. O terrible, O joyful day! Then shallthe world behold the goodness and the severity of the Lord--on them whoperish, severity; but to His chosen, goodness. Then, fellow-Christians, let the terror of that day be never so great, surely our Lord can meanno ill to us. 

The fourth antecedent and highest step to the saints' advancement istheir solemn coronation, enthronising and receiving into the kingdom. They that have been faithful unto death shall receive the crown of life, and according to the improvement of their talents here so shall theirrule and dignity be enlarged. 

_IV. --EXCELLENCES OF THE ETERNAL REST_

A comfortable adjunct of this rest is the fellowship of the blessedsaints and angels of God. Oh, when I look in the faces of the preciouspeople of God, and believing, think of this day, what a refreshingthought is it! Shall we not there remember, think you, the pikes whichwe passed through here; our fellowship in duty and in sufferings; howoft our groans made as it were one sound, our conjunct tears but onestream, and our conjunct desires but one prayer. And now all our praisesshall make up one melody, and all our churches one church; and allourselves but one body; for we shall be one in Christ, even as He andthe Father are one. 

It is a question with some whether we shall know each other in heaven orno. Surely there shall no knowledge cease which we now have, but onlythat which implieth imperfection! And what imperfection can this imply?Nay, our present knowledge shall be increased beyond belief. It shall bedone away, but as the light of candles and stars is done away by therising of the sun, which is more properly a doing away of our ignorancethan of our knowledge. Indeed, we shall not know each other after theflesh; nor by stature, voice, colour, complexion, visage, or outwardshape, but by the image of Christ and spiritual relation, and formerfaithfulness in improving our talents we shall know and be known. 

Again, a further excellence is this--it will be unto us a _seasonable_rest. When we have passed a long and tedious journey, and that throughno small dangers, is not home then seasonable? When we have had a longand perilous war, and have lived in the midst of furious enemies, andhave been forced to stand on a perpetual watch, and received from themmany a wound, would not a peace with victory be now seasonable? Some arecomplaining under the pressure of the times--weary of their taxes, wearyof their quarterings, weary of plunderings, weary of their fears anddangers, weary of their poverty and wants, and is not rest yetseasonable? Some of us languish under continual weakness, and groanunder most grievous pains, weary of going, weary of sitting, weary ofstanding, weary of lying, weary of eating, weary of speaking, weary ofwaking, weary of our very friends, weary of ourselves. Oh, how oft haththis been mine own case--and is not rest yet seasonable?

A further excellence is that this is a _suitable_ rest. Gold and earthlyglory, temporal crowns and kingdoms could not make rest for saints. Suchas their nature and desire such will be their rest. 

It will, too, be absolutely _perfect and complete_--as there is nomixture of our corruption with our graces, so there will be no mixtureof our sufferings with our solace. We shall know which was the rightside and which the wrong. Then shall our understandings receive theirlight from the face of God, as the full moon from the open sun whenthere is no earth to interpose betwixt them. It is a perfect rest fromperplexing doubts and fear, from all sense of God's displeasure, fromall the temptations of Satan, the world, and the flesh. And it is an_eternal_ rest. This is the crown of our crown. Mortality is thedisgrace of all sublunary delights. But, O blessed eternity, where ourlives are perplexed by no such thoughts, nor our joys interrupted by anysuch fears! Our first paradise in Eden had a way out, but none in again;but this eternal paradise hath a way in, but no way out again. The Lordheal our carnal hearts lest we enter not into His eternal rest becauseof our unbelief. 

 * * * * *

BOOK OF THE DEAD

 This is probably the oldest religious book in the world. Properly speaking, indeed, it is no book at all, but rather a collection of hymns and litanies which have no more connection with each other than the Psalms. Like the Psalter, too, this so-called book has grown by degrees to the magnitude which it now usually assumes in European and other libraries--175 chapters of varying sizes. Its Egyptian name is "The Book of the Coming Forth by Day" (Renouf), or "The Coming Out of the Day" (Naville); the latter being probably more correct, "day" in this connection denoting man's life with its morning and evening. The hymns in this collection are supposed to be recited by the deceased person with whose body they were commonly buried, and by the recital of these and other sacred texts the departed was believed to be protected against injury in his journey to the underworld, and also to have secured for him a safe return in the form of a resurrection. It was Lepsius, the great German Egyptologist, who gave this compilation the name "Book of the Dead. " Even this name, however, though more correct than any other, gives by no means an adequate account of that for which it stands. This, and other summaries of the sacred books of the East appearing in THE WORLD'S GREATEST BOOKS present in quite original ways the systems and philosophies of the great non-Christian religions. 

_INTRODUCTORY_

The Book of the Dead may be described as the soul's _vade mecum_ in thejourney from this world. It prescribes the forms the soul must have atcommand in order to ward off the dangers on the way to the underworld, during residence in the world, and on the journey back. 

The ancient Egyptians considered this book as inspired by the gods, whocaused their scribe, Thoth, to write it down. Every chapter is supposedto exist for the sake of persons who have died. Sometimes chapters hadto be recited before the body was put down out of sight. Often achapter, or more than one, was inscribed on the coffin, or sarcophagus, or mummy wrappings, this being thought a sure protection against foes ofevery kind. 

This collection has been chiefly found written on papyrus inhieroglyphic or hieratic characters on coffins, mummies, sepulchralwrappings, statues, and on the walls of tombs. Complete copies have beenfound written on tombs of the time of the 26th Dynasty (about 800 B. C. ). 

There are many recensions, or editions, in the various libraries ofEurope and also in the East, and no two of them are identical in thetext. Lepsius translated from the Turin papyrus; Budge bases histranslations on what is called the Theban recension. But in all the textis exceedingly corrupt, and translation is often no more than a guess. Owing to the number of proper names and technical terms which we have nomeans of understanding, it is often quite impossible to know the driftof large paragraphs, and even of whole chapters. Since many of thechapters were treated merely as having a magical efficacy either whenrecited or when inscribed on something buried with the body, it was ofsmall consequence whether or not the words were understood. The barerecital or writing of names of gods, etc. , had a magical efficacyaccording to the people who counted the Book of the Dead their sacredscriptures. 

As regards date, the greater number of the hymns and prayers wererecited by the people of Egypt on behalf of their deceased friendsbefore the first dynasty had begun to reign. Birch says before 3000 B. C. The hymns and prayers were first of all preserved in the memory only, and their number was at an early time but small. They were written downwhen the priests had doubts with regard to the meaning of certain terms, and wished to hand them on unimpaired to posterity, being influenced bythe belief that the words of this sacred book were, as such, magicallypotent. The oldest extant papyrus containing the Book of the Deadbelongs to the 18th Dynasty, _i. E. _, about 1500 B. C. ; but we do not comeacross a complete copy, with the chapters collected and set in ordermuch as they are to-day, until the 26th Dynasty (about the 7th centuryB. C. ). Previous to this the chapters seem to have been put together withno regard to order; probably they existed on different papyri, whichwere used as occasion required. Commonly they would be sold, and forthat purpose stored up. 

The translations which can be recommended to students are those byRenouf, with text and notes; Budge, with text and notes; and that byC. H. S. Davis, U. S. A. (based on Pièrre). All these editions include thevignettes, which are very helpful in understanding the text. 

_I. --THE SCRIBE ANI PLEADS WITH OSIRIS THROUGH THOTH FOR ADMISSION TOTHE UNDERWORLD AND FOR A SAFE EVIT (RESURRECTION)_

(Osiris)[1] Ani the Scribe says: Praise be to thee, Osiris Bull [so hewas often represented]. O Amentet [the lower world] the eternal king ishere to put words into my mouth. I am Thoth, the great god in the sacredbook, who fought for thee. I am one of the great gods that fought onbehalf of Osiris. Ra, the sun-God, commanded me--Thoth--to do battle onthe earth for the wronged Osiris, and I obeyed. I am among them moreoverwho wait over Osiris, now king of the underworld. 

I am with Horus, son of Osiris, on the day when the great feast ofOsiris is kept. I am the priest pouring forth libations at Tattu, I amthe prophet in Abydos. I am here, O ye that bring perfected souls intothe abode of Osiris, bring ye the perfected soul of (Osiris) the ScribeAni, into the blissful home of Osiris. Let him see, hear, stand, and sitas ye do in the home of Osiris. 

O ye who give cakes and ale to perfected souls, give ye at morn and ateve cakes and ale to the soul of Ani the Scribe. 

O ye who open the way and prepare the paths to the abode of Osiris, openthe way and prepare the path that the soul of (Osiris) Ani the Scribemay enter in confidence and come forth [on the resurrection]victoriously. May he not be turned back, may he enter and come forth;for he has been weighed in the scale and is "not lacking. "[2]

_II. --THE PRAYER OF ANI THE SCRIBE_

_The chapter about coming forth by day and living after death. _

Says (Osiris) Ani: O thou, only shining one of the moon; let me, departing from the crowd on earth, find entrance into the abode ofshades. Open then for me the door to the underworld, and at length letme come back to earth and perform my part among men. 

_A chapter whereby the funeral statuettes (Shabti) may be made to workfor a man in the underworld. _[3]

O thou statuette there! If in the underworld I shall be called upon toperform any tasks, be thou my representative and act for me--plantingand sowing fields, watering the soil and carrying the sands of East andWest. 

_A chapter concerning the piercing of the back of Apepi. _[4]

Tur, the overseer of the houses, says through his god Tmu: O thou waxone[5] who takest thy victims captive and destroyest them, who preyestupon the weak and helpless, may I never be thy victim; may I neversuffer collapse before thee. May the venom never enter my limbs, whichare as those of the god Tmu. O let not the pains of death, which havereached thee; come upon me. I am the god Tmu, living in the foremostpart of Tur [the sky]. I am the only one in the primordial water. I havemany mysterious names, and provide myself a dwelling to endure millionsof years. I was born of Tmu, and I am safe and sound. 

_About contending against fever with the shield of truth and goodconduct. _

Says (Osiris) Ani: I go forth against my foes endowed with the defenceof truth and good conduct. I cross the heavens, and traverse the earth. Though a denizen of the underworld, I tread the earth like one alive, following in the footsteps of the blessed spirits. I have the gift ofliving a million years. I eat with my mouth and chew with my jaw, because I worship him who is master of the lower world. 

_III. --NU PRAISES RA (THE SUN-GOD) FOR HIS ABILITY TO GO DOWN INTO THEGRAVE AND RETURN TO EARTH THROUGH THE MAGIC USE OF THE SACRED TEXTS_

_About entering the underworld and coming forth therefrom. _

Nu says: I cry aloud to thee, O Ra, thou guardian of the secret portalsof Seb [the grave], which leads to where Ra in the underworld holds thebalance which weighs every man's righteousness every day. I have burstthe earth [returned to earth]; grant that I may remain on to a good oldage. 

_IV. --THE SPIRIT OF THE SCRIBE MESEMNETER PRAYS THAT SOME OFFENDED GODMAY BE CONCILIATED_

_About removing the anger of the god towards the departed one. _

The scribe Mesemneter, chief deputy of Amon, says: Praise be to thee, OGod, who makest the moments to glide by, who guardest the secrets of thelife beyond that of the earth, and guidest me when I utter words. Thegod is angered against me. But let my faults be wasted away, and let thegod of Right and Truth bear them upon me. Remove them wholly from me, Ogod of Right and Truth. Let the offended one be at peace with me. Removethe wall of separation from before us. 

_A hymn to Ra at his rising and setting_. 

(Osiris) the scribe says: Praise to thee, O Ra, when thou risest. Shinethou upon my face. Let me arise with thee into the heavens, and travelwith thee in the boat wherein thou sailest on the clouds. 

Thou passest in peace across the heavens, and art victorious over allthy foes. 

Praise to thee who art Ra when thou risest, and Tmu when in beauty thousettest. The dwellers in the land of night come forth to see thee ascendthe sky. I, too, would join the throng; O let me not be held back. 

_Hymn of praise to Osiris. _

Praise be unto thee, Osiris, lord of eternity, who appearest in manyguises, and whose attributes are glorious. 

Thou lookest towards the underworld and causest the earth to shine aswith gold. 

The dead rise up to gaze on thy face; their hearts are at peace if theybut look on thee. 

_V. --LITANY TO OSIRIS_

_Prayer_. Praise to thee, O lord of the starry gods of Annu, moreglorious than the gods hidden in Annu. 

_Answer (repeated after each prayer). _ Grant thou me a peaceful life, for I am truthful and just. I have uttered no falsehoods nor acteddeceitfully. 

_Prayer_. Praise to thee, O Ani; with thy long strides movest thouacross the heavens. 

_Prayer_. Praise to thee, O thou who art mighty in thy hour, great andmighty prince, lord and creator of eternity. 

_Prayer_. Praise to those whose throne is Right and Truth, who hatestfraud and deceit. 

_Prayer_. Praise to thee who bringest Hapi [the Nile]; in thy boat fromhis source. 

_Prayer_. Praise to thee, O creator of the gods, thou king of the Northand the South. O Osiris, the all-conquering one, ruler of the world, lord of the heavens. 

_VI. --HYMN OF PRAISE TO THE SETTING SUN_

_About the mystery of the underworld and about travelling through theunderworld. _

When he sets on the underworld the gods adore him. The great god Rarises with two eyes [sun and moon]; all the seven gods (Kuas) welcomehim in the evening into the underworld. They sing his praises, callinghim Tmu. The deceased one says, "Praise be to thee, O Ra, praise be tothee, O Tmu. Thou hast risen and put on strength, and thou settest inglorious splendour into the underworld. Thou sailest in thy boat acrossthe heavens, and thou establisheth the earth. East and West adore thee, bowing and doing homage to thee day and night. "

_VII. --ABOUT THE RESURRECTION, OR THE COMING BACK TO LIFE (DAY), OFDEPARTED SHADES. _

[This is one of the oldest (cir. B. C. 2700) and most remarkablechapters, though also one of the hardest to follow in its details. Thevignettes reproduced in the editions of Davis, Renouf, and Budge helpconsiderably in following the line of thought. An exact copy of thischapter has been found on the tomb of Horhotep. 

The soul of the deceased encounters all manner of obstacles andopponents in the attempt to pass to the upper air, and he seeksconstantly the help of Ra, etc. , that he may be victorious]. 

_Of the praises of entering the lower world and of coming out_. 

(Osiris) the scribe Ani says it is a good and profitable thing on earthfor a man to recite this text, since all the words written herein shallcome to pass. 

I am Ra, who at my rising rule all things. I am the great self-made god. 

I am yesterday and to-morrow. I gave the command, and a scene of strifeamong the gods arose [_i. E. , _ the sun awakened all the forces of Natureinto action]. What is this? It is Amentet, the underworld. 

What is this? The horizon of my father Tmu [the setting sun]. All of myfailings are now supplied, my sins cleansed as I pass through the twolakes which purify the offences which men offer the gods. 

I advance on the path, descending to the realm of Osiris, passingthrough the gate Teser. O all ye who have passed this way in safety, letme grasp your hands and be brought to your abode. 

O ye divine powers of Maert, the sworn foes of falsehood, may I come toyou. 

I am the great Cat [_i. E. , _ Ra] himself, and therefore in his name whichI bear, I can tread on all my enemies. O great Ra, who climbest theheavenly vaults and who sailest in thy boat across the firmament withundisputed authority, do thou save me from that austere god whoseeyebrows are as menacing as the balance that weighs the deeds of men. Save me, I pray thee, from these guardians of the passages who will, ifthey-may, impede my progress. O Tmu, who livest in the august abode, godof gods, who thrivest upon damned souls, thou dog-faced, human-skinnedone, devourer of shades, digester of human hearts, O fearful one, saveme from the great soul-foe who gnaws and destroys shades of men. 

O Chepera in thy bark, save me from the testing guardians into whosecharge the glorious inviolate god has committed his foes; deliver thoume. May these never undo me, may I never fall helpless into the chambersof torture. O ye gods, in the presence of Osiris, reach, forth yourarms, for I am one of the gods in your midst. 

The (Osiris) Ani flies away like a hawk, he clucks like a goose, he issafe from destruction as the serpent Nehebkau. Avaunt, ye lions thatobstruct my path. O Ra, thou ascending one, let me rise with thee, andhave a triumphant arrival to my old earthly abode. 

_VIII. --A LITANY ADDRESSED TO THOTH_

_The speech of Ammautef, the priest_:

I have come to you, ye gods of heaven, earth, and the underworld, bringing with me Ani, the scribe, who has done no wrong against anygods, so that ye may protect him and give him good-speed to theunderworld. 

_The speech of Ani himself_:

Praise be to thee, O thou ruler of Amenta, Unneferu, who presides inAbydos. I have come to thee with a pure heart, free from sin. I havetold no falsehoods nor acted deceitfully. Give thou me in the tomb thefood I need for the journey, so let me have a safe entrance to theunderworld and a sure exit. 

_The speech of the priest Samerif:_

I come to the gods residing at Restau. I have brought you (Osiris) Ani;grant him bread, water, and air, and also an abode in the Sechithotepu[Field of Peace]. 

_The speech of Ani himself:_

Praise be to Osiris, everlasting lord, and to the gods of Restau. I cometo thee knowing thy goodwill and having learned those rites which thourequirest for entrance into the lower world. May I have a safe arrival, and find food in thy presence. 

_Litany to Thoth:_

O thou who makest Osiris triumphant over his foes, make thou this scribeNebenseri victorious over his foes. 

O Thoth, make Ani triumphant over his enemies, etc. , etc. 

[If this chapter is recited over the deceased he shall come forth intothe day and pass through the transformations which the departed onedesires. ]

_IX. --A MAGICAL CHAPTER_

_Chapter of the Crown of Triumph_. 

Thy father Tmu has made thee this beautiful crown as a magical charm sothat thou mayest live for ever. Thy father Seb gives thee hisinheritance. Osiris, the prince of Amenta, makes thee victorious overthy foes. Go thou as Horus, son of Isis and Osiris, and triumph ever onthy way to the underworld. 

Yea (Osiris) Aufankh shall, through this recited text, live and triumphfor ever and ever. Horus repeated these words four times, and hisenemies fell headlong. And (Osiris) Aufankh has repeated these wordsfour times, so let him be victorious. 

This chapter is to be recited over a consecrated crown placed over theface of the deceased, and thou shalt cast incense into the flame onbehalf of (Osiris) Aufankh, so securing triumph over all his foes. Andfood and drink shall in the underworld be reached him in the presence ofOsiris its king. 

_Chapter about making the deceased remember his name in the underworld_. 

Nu triumphant, son of Amen-hotep, says: Let me remember my name in thegreat House below on the night when years are counted and months arereckoned up. If any god come to me, let me at once be able to utter hisname[6] and thus disarm him. 

_A chapter about not letting the heart of the deceased act against himin the underworld_. 

My heart, received from my mother, my heart, without which life on earthwas not possible, rise then not up against me in the presence of thegods in the great day of judgment when human thoughts, words, and actsshall all be weighed in a balance. 

These words are to be inscribed on a hard green, gold-coated scarab, which is to be inserted through the mouth into the bosom of thedeceased. 

_Chapter about repelling the ass-eater_[7]. 

Avaunt! serpent Hai, impure one, hater of Osiris. Get thee back, forThoth has cut off thy head. Let alone the ass, that I may have clearskies when I cross to the underworld in the Neshmet boat. I am guiltlessbefore the gods, and have wronged none. So avaunt! thou sun-becloudingone, and let me have a prosperous voyage. 

_Chapter about reserving for the deceased his seat in the underworld_. 

Nu says: My seat, my throne, come ye to me, surround me, divine ones. Iam a mummy-shaped person. O grant that I may become like the great god, successful, having seat and throne. 

_A chapter about coming forth by day from the underworld_ (i. E. , _theresurrection_). 

[One of the very oldest chapters in the Book of the Dead, as old atleast as the first dynasty, say 4500 B. C. No chapter was regarded withgreater reverence, or recited or copied with more confidence in itsefficacy, probably because it is a summing up of the important chapterson the coming forth by day from the underworld. He who knows thischapter by heart is safe against danger in this world and in all otherabodes. ]

Nebseni, lord of reverence, says: I am yesterday and know to-morrow. Iam able to be born again. Here is the invisible force which creates godsand gives food to denizens of the underworld. I go as a messenger toOsiris. 

O goddess Aucherit, grant that I may come forth from the underworld tosee Ra's blazing orb. O thou conductor of shades, let me have a fairpath to the underworld and a sure arrival. May I be defended against allopposing powers. May the cycle of gods listen to me and grant my request

 * * * * *

BOOKS OF BRAHMANISM

_INTRODUCTORY_

 The religion of the ancient Persians and of the ancient Aryan Indians was at one time the same, and it is easy now to see the common basis of the beliefs and practices embodied in the Hindu Vedas and the Zend Avesta (see ZOROASTRIANISM), and their general resemblance. The religion of the ancient Aryan Indians has passed through three outstanding phases, designated by modern scholars: Vedism, or that taught by the Vedas; Brahmanism, based on the Brahmans, or ritual additions to the Vedas; and Hinduism (_q. V. _), the form which revived Brahmanism took after the expulsion of Buddhism. Though the latter is strictly an Indian religion, judged by its origin and characteristic features, it has for centuries almost ceased to exist in India proper. It will be found generally true that in Brahmanism there is, as compared with Vedism, an increase of the ritual, and a corresponding decrease of the moral element. The gods become more material, and the means of conciliating them ceremonial and magical. So also there is a growth in the power of the priesthood. One may compare this with the course of development among the Hebrews--the ritual and ceremonial bulking more and more, and the ethical receding, according to most modern scholars. It has to be remembered carefully, however, that the distinction between Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism is more logical than actual. The seeds of Hinduism, even the doctrine of caste, may be traced in the Rig Veda, and a modern orthodox. Hindu will tell you that his principal scriptures are the Vedas, and that his creed and practice have their source in these scriptures. Brahmanism may be represented as a system of law and custom in the Laws of Manu; as a philosophy in the Upanishads; and as a mythology in the Ramayana and Mahabharata. 

MAHABHARATA

The word "Mahabharata" means "The Great Bharata, " the name of awell-known people in ancient India. The epic so called is a very longone, containing at least 220, 000 lengthy lines. It is really anencyclopaedia of Hindu history, legend, mythology, and philosophy. Four-fifths of the poem consist of episodes, some of them verybeautiful, as the tale of Nala and his wife Damayanti. These have noprimary connection with the original, though they are worked in sodeftly as to make the whole appear a splendid unity. For pathos, sublimity, and matchless language, no poem in the world exceeds thisone. 

It is arranged in eighteen books, all of which claim to have beencomposed by Vyasa--another name for the god Krishna--who is said also inthe course of the epic to have composed the Vedas and the Puranas. Thisis, of course, mythology, and not literary history. 

The historical nucleus underlying this poem is the conflict which ragedin ancient India between two neighbouring tribes, the Kurus (orKauravas) and the Pandavas. But this is worked up into another long taleinto which and around which Brahman teachers and philosophers have wovena very network of religious, theosophic, and philosophic speculation. The tale is, in fact, made a vehicle for teaching Brahman ism as itexisted in India in the first five centuries of our era, though much ofthe Mahabharata goes back to a thousand years or so B. C. 

_OUTLINE OF THE EPIC_

The descendants of Bharata, the king of Hastinapura, about sixty milesnorth of Delhi, were divided into two branches, the Kauravas and thePandavas, each of which occupied the territory which had come down to itby inheritance. They lived together in peace and prosperity, worshippingthe gods, studying the Vedas, and spending much time in meditation abouthigher things. But there came a change for the worse. The Kauravas, notcontent with their own territory, looked with jealous eyes upon that oftheir kinsmen, the Pandavas. Soon their covetousness realised itself inaction, for gathering their armed men together, they sprang suddenlyupon the land of their neighbours, whom they disarmed previously byprofessions of friendship and goodwill The Pandavas were conquered anddriven into a far country, where they wandered homelessly and yet filledwith undying love for the old home of their fathers and with a resolveto regain at the first opportunity their ancestral territory. 

With the help of as many princes and generals as they could win to theirside they marched towards the land which they had lost, taking back byforce what had been wrested from them by force. The two armies met faceto face on the field of Kurukshetra (land of the Kurus), and the battle, which lasted eighteen days, was about to begin. The father and king ofthe Kauravas, called Dhritarashtra, aged and blind, felt that he couldnot stand to witness the bloody affray. He accordingly accepted theoffer of Vyasa (Krishna), a relative of both the contending parties, tohave the entire course of events described to him when all was over, oneSangara, being deputed to perform the task. The battle began andproceeded for ten long days when Bhrisma, the chief general of theKauravas, fell. 

At this point Sangara advanced to the old King Dhritarashtra to acquainthim with the course things had taken, and among the rest to recite tohim a conversation which had taken place between Krishna and Arguna, thePandavan prince and general. It is this dialogue which constitutes theHoly Song, known as the Bhagavad-Gita, or Krishna Song, the Krishna ofthis philosophic poem being, of course, the eighth avatara; orincarnation, of Vishnu. 

The remaining books of the Mahabharata recount the subsequent incidentsof the war, which, in all, lasted for eighteen days. The Kauravas weredestroyed, the only survivors being the Pandavas and Krishna with hischarioteer. The many dead that were left on the field were buried withthe rites of religion, and amid many signs of touching affection andgrief. 

Bhrisma, leader of the Kauravas, instructs Yudhishthira on the duties ofkings and other topics. The poem then ends. 

THE BHAGAVAD-GITA, OR HOLY SONG OF BRAHMANISM

This poem forms one of the finest episodes in the great Iliad of India, and, in fact, is hardly surpassed for profound thought, deep feeling, and exquisite phrasing, in the whole literature of India. Telang holdsthat the song is at least as old as the 4th century, and is inclined toregard it as an original part of the epic. According to most scholars, however, the "Divine Song" was added at a later period, and, in fact, inits present form it is scarcely older than 500 A. D. It is so thoroughlyBrahmanic in its teaching that there can be little doubt but that thissong was introduced in order to convey the teaching of Brahmanismprevalent at the time. The German scholar, Dr. Lorinser, has tried toprove that the author of this song had a knowledge of the New Testamentand used it. The following passages are pointed out by him as dependenton New Testament passages. 

BHAGAVAD-GITA

 I am exceedingly dear to the wise man; he also is dear to me. 

 I am the way, supporter, lord, witness, abode, refuge, friend. 

 I never depart from him (the true Yogis); he never departs from me. 

 They who worship me with true devotion, are in me and I in them. 

 Be assured that he who worships me perishes not. 

 I am the beginning and the middle and the end of existent things. 

 I will deliver thee from all sin; do not grieve. 

 He who knows me as unborn and without beginning, the mighty Lord of the World, he among mortals is undeluded, he is delivered from all sins. 

 What sacrifice, almsgiving, or austerity is done without faith is evil. 

 That man obtains the perfect state who honours by his proper work him from whom all things have issued, and by whom this All was spread out. 

NEW TESTAMENT

 He that loveth Me shall be loved of My Father, and I will love him (John xiv. 21). 

 I am the way, the truth, and the life (John xiv. 6) I am the first and the last (Rev. I. 17). 

 He that dwelleth in Me and I in Him (John vi. 56). 

 I in them and thou in Me, that they may be made perfect in one (John xvii. 23). 

 Whosoever believeth in Him shall not perish, but have everlasting life (John iii. 16). 

 I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and ending (Rev. I. 8). 

 Son, be of good cheer; thy sins be forgiven thee (Matt. Ix. 2). 

 This is life eternal, that they might know Thee, the only true God, and Jesus Christ, Whom Thou hast sent (John xvii, 3). 

 Whatsover is not of faith is sin (Rom. Xiv. 23). 

 Whether therefore ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God (1 Cor. X. 31). 

_OUTLINE OF THE BHAGAVAD-GITA_

The blind old father of the Kauravas asked Sangara to tell him how thebattle had gone. He replied that, just as the fighting began, Krishna, the Heaven-Born One, stationed his glorious chariot between the armiesand entered into a long conversation, with Arguna, the prince-general ofthe Pandavas. Said Arguna, "My grief at seeing these kindred peoples atwar is beyond bearing, and the omens are unfavourable. I long not forvictory, but for peace and for the prosperity of all. Behold, in battlearray grandfathers, fathers, sons, friends, and allies. We have resolvedto commit a great sin, to slay our kindred and associates, and all forlust of wealth and power. "

The Holy One (Krishna) said in reply, "Thou grievest for those who needno grief of thine; yet are thy words words of wisdom. The wise have nogrief for dead or living; know thou, O Arguna, that the man who hasknowledge of the Eternal and Absolute One will never more be born, norwill he know death. As one puts away an old used garment, putting on anew one, so the self in a man puts away the old body and assumes onethat is new. He, the Everlasting One, is unchanging and inconceivable. Be not thou grieved and have no fear. If slain in the battle, thou shaltreach endless bliss in heaven. If victorious, thou shalt have happinesson the earth; get thee, therefore, honoured one, to the fight and haveno care for pleasure or pain. 

"Some obtain comfort from what the Vedas promise with reference toeternal bliss. But these very Vedas teach that a man should strive atself-mortification and advancement in virtue with no regard to anyreward. The final good after which men are chiefly to aim is a state ofsupreme indifference and contempt. "

"But, " asked Arguna, "what, pray, is that state of equipoise of spiritwhich thou urgest?"

Said the Holy One, "There is a twofold law: that of Sankhyas, orintellectual devotion, and that of Yogis, or practical devotion. Menmust strive after the highest knowledge, that of Brahma, and also seekafter right conduct. " "What, " asked Arguna, "is the cause of sin?" Towhich the Holy One replied, "Love and hatred, for hatred is begotten oflove, and ignorance of moral distinctions and of anger; from all thiscomes unreasonableness and resulting ruin. A man's knowledge carriesalways with it desire, as the fire smoke. The senses are great, the mindis greater, and the intellect still greater, but the greatest of all isthe Eternal Essence, Brahma. 

"Many, " said the Holy One, "are my births, and I know them; many too, are thine, but thou knowest them not. I am born from age to age for thedefence of the virtuous and the undoing of the wicked. He who believesin my divine birth and work has no second birth, but enters me andabides with me for ever. Know me as the creator of the cates, know mealso as the Eternal one that creates nothing. Faith brings with itknowledge, and knowledge contentment. Without knowledge and faith thesoul is lost. "

Arguna asked, "How fares it with the man who is not able to suppress hislower instincts and to undergo the discipline of Yogis? Is he for this, to be undone for ever?"

"No, " replied the Holy One, "neither in this world nor in the next is helost. The virtuous man does not enter an evil state. He reaches thatheaven provided for all the good, and is born thereafter with highermoral capacities, with which, and by means of the knowledge gained inhis previous existence, he rises to greater perfection; so that aftermany births he reaches absolute perfection and is united for ever withBrahma. But learn thou my higher nature; what thou seest is my lower, for I am divine and human. All the world came forth from me, and I willat the last destroy it. Higher than I does not exist. I am taste, light, moon, sun; I am the mystic OM; I am the mystic seed from which allthings grow. He that offers sacrifice to inferior gods goes after deathto those gods, but they that worship me come to me. "

"What, " asked Arguna, "is Brahma, the supreme spirit, the supremesacrifice?"

The Holy One answered, "He is the Supreme, the Indestructible One; I amthe Supreme Sacrifice in my present body. 

"Hear now, Son of Pritha, " said the Holy One. "If thy heart be fixed onme, and thou seekest refuge in me, thou shalt know me fully, and I shallreveal to thee the perfect knowledge of God and man. There are countlessmyriads of men in this world, but few there are who seek afterperfection, and fewer still there are who obtain it. "

_OTHER PARTS OF THE MAHABHARATA_

Though the husband die unhappy on account of his wife's ill-treatmentand disobedience, yet if she consign herself to the flames after hisdeath she is deserving of great praise. How much more should a woman bevenerated who flings herself of her own accord into the flames after thedeath of a husband whom she has treated with affection and submission!

Let gifts be avoided; for receiving them is a sin. The silkworm dies ofits riches. 

It is not proper to rebuke or even blame wrong acts of gods or priestsor seers; though no one is justified in following them in these acts. 

Virtue is better than everlasting life; kingdom, sons, renown, andwealth all put together do not make up one-sixteenth part of the valueof virtue. 

The greatest sin that a king can commit is atoned for by sacrificesaccompanied with large gifts [cows, etc. ] to the priests. 

 * * * * *

SIR THOMAS BROWNE

RELIGIO MEDICI

 Sir Thomas Browne, English essayist, came of a Cheshire family, but was born in London on October 19, 1605. Educated at Oxford, where he graduated in 1626, he next studied medicine at the great universities of Montpelier, Padua, and Leyden, and in 1637 went to live at Norwich, where he remained until his death on October 19, 1682. He was happily married in 1641, and was knighted by Charles II. In 1671. Sir Thomas Browne is one of the greatest figures in English literary history. He had extraordinary learning, a magnificent style, a certain dry humour, and, above all, great power and nobility of mind. In his two most valued works, "Religio Medici, " or "Religion of a Physician, " published in 1643, and "Urn Burial, " in 1658, he deals with the greatest of all themes, the mysteries of faith and of human destiny. The "Religio Medici, " written about 1635, was not at first intended for publication; but the manuscript had been handed about and copied, and the appearance, in 1642, of private editions, forced the author to issue it himself. 

_I. --THE BROAD-MINDED CHRISTIAN_

For my religion I dare, without usurpation, assume the honourable styleof a Christian. Not that I merely owe this title to the font, myeducation, or the clime wherein I was born; but that having, in my riperyears and confirmed judgment, seen and examined all, I find myselfobliged, by the principles of grace and the law of mine own reason, toembrace no other name but this. 

But, because the name of a Christian is become too general to expressour faith--there being a geography of religion as well as lands--I am ofthat reformed new-cast religion, wherein I dislike nothing but the name:of the same belief our Saviour taught, the apostles disseminated, thefathers authorised, and the martyrs confirmed; but, by the sinister endsof princes, the ambition and avarice of prelates, and the fatalcorruption of the times, so decayed, impaired, and fallen from itsnative beauty, that it required the careful and charitable hands ofthese times to restore it to its primitive integrity. 

Yet do I not stand at sword's point with those who had ratherpromiscuously retain all than abridge any, and obstinately be what theyare than what they have been. We have reformed from them, not againstthem, for there is between us one common name and appellation, one faithand necessary body of principles common to us both; and therefore I amnot scrupulous to converse and live with them, to enter their churchesin defect of ours, and either pray with them or for them. 

I am naturally inclined to that which misguided zeal terms superstition;at my devotion I love to use the civility of my knee, my hat, my hand, with all those outward and sensible motions which may express or promotemy invisible devotion. At the sight of a crucifix I can dispense with myhat, but scarce with the thought or memory of my Saviour. I could neverhear the Ave-Mary bell without an oraison, or think it a sufficientwarrant, because they erred in one circumstance, for me to err inall--that is, in silence and dumb contempt. 

I could never divide myself from any man upon the difference of anopinion; I have no genius to disputes in religion. A man may be in asjust possession of truth as of a city, and yet be forced to surrender;'tis therefore far better to enjoy her with peace than to hazard herupon a battle. If, therefore, there rise any doubts in my way, I doforget them, or at least defer them, till my better settled judgment beable to resolve them. In philosophy, where truth seems double-faced, there is no man more paradoxical than myself; but in divinity I love tokeep the road, and, though not in an implicit, yet an humble, faithfollow the great wheel of the Church. 

Heads that are disposed unto schism, and complexionally propense toinnovation, are naturally indisposed for a community, nor will be everconfined unto the order or economy of one body; and, therefore, whenthey separate from others, they knit but loosely among themselves; norcontented with a general breach or dichotomy with their church, dosubdivide and mince themselves almost into atoms. 

As for those wingy mysteries in divinity and airy subtleties in religionwhich have unhinged the brains of better heads, they have neverstretched the membranes of mine. Methinks there be not impossibilitiesenough in religion for an active faith; I love to lose myself in amystery, to pursue my reason to an _O altitudo!_ I can answer all theobjections of Satan and my rebellious reason with that odd resolution ofTertullian: "It is certain because it is impossible. "

_II. --THE DIVINE WISDOM_

In my solitary and retired imagination I remember I am not alone; andtherefore forget not to contemplate Him and His attributes who is everwith me, especially those two mighty ones, His wisdom and eternity. Withthe one I recreate, with the other I confound, my understanding; for whocan speak of eternity without a solecism, or think thereof without anecstasy?

In this mass of Nature there is a set of things that carry in theirfront, though not in capital letters, yet in stenography and shortcharacters, something of divinity; which, to wiser reasons, serve asluminaries in the abyss of knowledge, and to judicious beliefs as scalesto mount the pinnacles of divinity. 

That other attribute wherewith I recreate my devotion is His wisdom, inwhich I am happy; and for the contemplation of this only, do not repentme that I was bred in the way of study. The advantage I have of thevulgar, with the content and happiness I conceive therein, is an amplerecompense for all my endeavours in what part of knowledge soever. Wisdom is His most beauteous attribute; no man can attain unto it; yetSolomon pleased God when he desired it. He is wise because He knows allthings; and He knows all things because He made them all; but Hisgreatest knowledge is in comprehending that He made not--that is, Himself. The wisdom of God receives small honour from those heads thatrudely stare about, and with a gross rusticity admire His works. Thosehighly magnify Him whose judicious inquiry into His acts, and adeliberate research into His creatures, return the duty of a devout andlearned admiration. Every essence, created or uncreated, hath its finalcause and some positive end both of its essence and operation. This isthe cause I grope after in the works of Nature; on this hangs theprovidence of God. 

That Nature does nothing in vain is the only indisputable axiom inphilosophy. There are no grotesques in Nature, nor anything framed tofill up unnecessary spaces. I could never content my contemplation withthose general pieces of wonder, the flux and reflux of the sea, theincrease of the Nile, the conversion of the needle to the north; buthave studied to match and parallel those in the more obvious andneglected pieces of Nature which, without further travel, I find in thecosmography of myself. We carry with us the wonders we seek without us;there is all Africa and her prodigies in us. 

Thus there are two books from whence I collect my divinity: besides thatwritten one of God, another of His servant, Nature, that universal andpublic manuscript, that lies expansed unto the eyes of all. Surely theheathens knew better how to join and read these mystical letters than weChristians, who cast a more careless eye on these common hieroglyphics, and disdain to suck divinity from the flowers of Nature. Now, Nature isnot at variance with art, nor art with Nature, they being both theservants of His providence. Art is the perfection of Nature. Nature hathmade one world, and art another. In brief, all things are artificial, for Nature is the art of God. 

This is the ordinary and open way of His providence, which art andindustry have in good part discovered, whose effects we may foretellwithout an oracle. But there is another way, full of meanders andlabyrinths, and that is a more particular and obscure method of Hisprovidence, directing the operations of individual and single essences. This we call fortune, that serpentine and crooked line whereby He drawsthose actions His wisdom intends in a more unknown and secret way. 

This cryptic and involved method of His providence have I ever admired;nor can I relate the history of my life, the occurrences of my days, theescapes, or dangers, and hits of chance, with a bare grammercy to mygood stars. Surely there are in every man's life certain rubs, doublings, and wrenches, which pass a while under the effects of chance;but at the last, well examined, prove the mere hand of God. 'Twas notdumb chance that, to discover the fougade, or powder plot, contrived amiscarriage in the letter. I like the victory of '88 the better for thatone occurrence which our enemies imputed to our dishonour and thepartiality of fortune: to wit, the tempests and contrariety of winds. 

There is no liberty for causes to operate in a loose and straggling way, nor any effect whatever but hath its warrant from some universal orsuperior cause. 'Tis not a ridiculous devotion to say a prayer before agame at tables; for even in sortileges and matters of greatestuncertainty there is a settled and pre-ordered course of effects. It iswe that are blind, not fortune. Because our eye is too dim to discoverthe mystery of her effects, we foolishly paint her blind, and hoodwinkthe providence of the Almighty. 

'Tis, I confess, the common fate of men of singular gifts of mind to bedestitute of those of fortune; which doth not any way deject the spiritof wiser judgments, who thoroughly understand the justice of thisproceeding; and, being enriched with higher donatives, cast a morecareless eye on these vulgar parts of felicity. It is a most unjustambition to desire to engross the mercies of the Almighty. 

I have heard some with deep sighs lament the lost lines of Cicero;others with as many groans deplore the combustion of the library ofAlexandria; for my own part, I think there be too many in the world, andcould with patience behold the urn and ashes of the Vatican, could I, with a few others, recover the perished leaves of Solomon. Some men havewritten more than others have spoken. Of those three great inventions inGermany, there are two which are not without their incommodities. Tisnot a melancholy wish of my own, but the desires of better heads, thatthere were a general synod--not to unite the incompatible difference ofreligion, but for the benefit of learning, to reduce it, as it lay atfirst, in a few and solid authors; and to condemn to the fire thoseswarms and millions of rhapsodies, begotten only to distract and abusethe weaker judgments of scholars and to maintain the trade and mysteryof typographers. 

As all that die in the war are not termed soldiers, so neither can Iproperly term all those that suffer in matters of religion, martyrs. There are many, questionless, canonised on earth that shall never besaints in heaven, and have their names in histories and martyrologieswho, in the eyes of God, are not so perfect martyrs as was that wiseheathen Socrates, that suffered on a fundamental point of religion--theunity of God. The leaven and ferment of all, not only civil butreligious actions, is wisdom; without which to commit ourselves to theflames is homicide, and, I fear, but to pass through one fire intoanother. 

_III. --THE HOPE OF IMMORTALITY_

I thank God I have not those strait ligaments or narrow obligations tothe world as to dote on life or tremble at the name of death. Not that Iam insensible of the horror thereof, or, by raking into the bowels ofthe deceased and continual sight of anatomies, I have forgot theapprehension of mortality; but that, marshalling all the horrors, I findnot anything therein able to daunt the courage of a man, much less awell-resolved Christian. Were there not another life that I hope for, all the vanities of this world should not entreat a moment's breath fromme. Those strange and mystical transmigrations that I have observed insilkworms turned my philosophy into divinity. There is in these works ofNature which seem to puzzle reason, something divine, that hath more init than the eye of a common spectator doth discover. 

Some, upon the courage of a fruitful issue, wherein, as in the truestchronicle, they seem to outlive themselves, can with greater patienceaway with death. This seems to me a mere fallacy, unworthy the desiresof a man that can but conceive a thought of the next world; who, in anobler ambition, should desire to live in his substance in heaven ratherthan his name and shadow in the earth. Were there any hopes to outlivevice, or a point to be superannuated from sin, it were worthy our kneesto implore the days of Methuselah. But age doth not rectify but bringson incurable vices, and the number of our days doth but make our sinsinnumerable. There is but one comfort left, that though it be in thepower of the weakest arm to take away life, it is not in the strongestto deprive us of death. 

There is no happiness within this circle of flesh, nor is it in theoptics of these eyes to behold felicity. But besides this literal andpositive kind of death, there are others whereof divines make mention, as mortification, dying unto sin and the world. In these moralacceptations, the way to be immortal is to die daily; and I haveenlarged that common "Remember death" into a more Christianmemorandum--"Remember the four last things"--death, judgment, heaven, and hell. I believe that the world grows near its end; but that generalopinion, that the world grows near its end, hath possessed all ages pastas nearly as ours. 

There is no road or ready way to virtue; it is not an easy point of artto disentangle ourselves from this riddle or web of sin. To perfectvirtue, as to religion, there is required a panoplia, or completearmour; that whilst we lie at close ward against one vice, we lie notopen to the assault of another. There go so many circumstances to pieceup one good action that it is a lesson to be good, and we are forced tobe virtuous by the book. 

Insolent zeals that do decry good works, and rely only upon faith, takenot away merit; for, depending upon the efficacy of their faith, theyenforce the condition of God, and in a more sophistical way do seem tochallenge heaven. I do not deny but that true faith is not only a markor token, but also a means, of our salvation; but, where to find this isas obscure to me as my last end. If a faith to the quantity of a grainof mustard seed is able to remove mountains, surely that which we boastof is not anything, or, at the most, but a remove from nothing. 

For that other virtue of charity, without which faith is a mere notionand of no existence, I have ever endeavoured to nourish the mercifuldisposition and humane inclination I borrowed from my parents, andregulate it to the written and prescribed laws of charity. I give noalms to satisfy the hunger of my brother, but to fulfil the command ofmy God; I draw not my purse for his sake that demands it, but His thatenjoined it. Again, it is no greater charity to clothe his body than toapparel the nakedness of his soul; and to this, as calling myself ascholar, I am obliged by the duty of my condition. 

Bless me in this life with but the peace of my conscience; command of myaffections the love of Thyself and my dearest friends; and I shall behappy enough to pity Caesar! These are, O Lord, the humble desires of mymost reasonable ambition, and all I dare call happiness on earth:wherein I set no limit to Thy hand or providence; dispose of meaccording to the wisdom of Thy pleasure. Thy will be done, though in myown undoing. 

 * * * * *

JOHN CALVIN

INSTITUTION OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION

 John Calvin was born on July 10, 1509, at Noyon, in Picardy, Northern France. Although the Calvins, his ancestors, had been bargemen on the Oise, his father was notary apostolic, procurator-fiscal of the county, clerk of the church court, and diocesan secretary. Young Jean Calvin was eight years old when Luther nailed his theses to the door of the castle church in Wittenburg. The new religion gaining very quickly a footing in France, the youth became influenced by it when studying in Paris at the College de la Marche. He held meetings with Protestants in a cave at Poitiers. His precocity was remarkable. At the age of twenty-three he wrote his first book, a commentary on Seneca's "Treatise on Clemency. " At twenty-five he revised a translation of the French Bible. At twenty-seven he published the first edition of his mighty work, "The Institution of the Christian Religion, " a treatise which has been styled "one of the landmarks of the history of Christian doctrine. " At twenty-eight Calvin was the foremost man in Geneva, and was already one of the most remarkable reformers in the world. His career has rarely been paralleled. Calvin died on May 27, 1564. 

_I. --THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD THE CREATOR_

Our wisdom consists almost exclusively of two parts: the knowledge ofGod, and of ourselves. But, as these are connected together by manyties, it is not easy to determine which of the two precedes, and whichgives birth to the others. Our weakness, ignorance, and depravity remindus that in the Lord, and in none but Him only, dwell the two lights ofwisdom, of virtue, and of piety. It is evident that man never attains toa true self-knowledge until after he has contemplated the face of God, and come down after such contemplation to look into himself. 

It is beyond dispute that there exists in the human mind, and indeed bynatural instinct, some sense of deity. As Cicero, though a pagan, tellsus, there is no nation so brutish as not to be imbued with theconviction that there is a God. Even idolatry is an evidence of thisfact. But, though experience teaches that a seed of religion is divinelysown in all, few cherish it in the heart. Some lose themselves insuperstitious observances; others, of set purpose, wickedly revolt fromGod; and many think of God against their will, never approaching Himwithout being dragged into His presence. 

But since the perfection of blessedness consists in the knowledge ofGod, He has been pleased not only to deposit in our minds the seed ofreligion, of which we have already spoken, but so to manifest Hisperfections in the whole structure of the universe, and daily placeHimself in our view, that we cannot open our eyes without beingcompelled to behold Him. His essence is, indeed, transcendent andincomparable, but on each of His works His glory is engraven incharacters so bright that none, however dull and illiterate, can pleadignorance as an excuse. 

Herein appears the shameful ingratitude of men, that, though they havein their own persons a factory where countless operations of God arecarried on, instead of praising Him, they are the more inflated withpride. How few are there among us who, in lifting our eyes to theheavens, or looking abroad on the earth, ever think of the Creator! Invain, because of our dulness, does creation exhibit so many bright lampslit up to show forth the glory of its Author. Therefore, another andbetter help must be given to guide us properly to God as our Creator, and He has added the light of His Word in order to make known Hissalvation. 

Here it seems proper to make some observations on the authority ofScripture. Nothing can be more absurd than the fiction that the power ofjudging Scripture is in the Church. When the Church gives it the stampof her authority, she does not thus make it authentic, but shows herreverence for it as the truth of God by her unhesitating assent. Scripture bears, on the face of it, as clear evidence of its truth asblack and white do of their colour, sweet and bitter of their taste. Itis preposterous to attempt, by discussion, to rear up a full faith inScripture. Those who are inwardly taught by the Holy Spirit acquiesce init implicitly, for it carries with it its own testimony. 

It is foolish to attempt to prove to infidels that the Scripture is theWord of God. For it cannot be known to be, except by faith. Justly doesAugustine remind us that every man who would have any understanding insuch high matters must previously possess piety and mental peace. Inorder to direct us to the true God, the Scripture excludes all the godsof the heathen. This exclusiveness annihilates every deity which menframe for themselves, of their own accord. Whence had idols theirorigin, but from the will of man?

There was thus ground for the sarcasm of the heathen poet (Horace, Satires, I. 8). "I was once the trunk of a fig-tree, a useless log, whenthe tradesman, uncertain whether he should make me a stool, etc. , choserather that I should be a god. " In regard to the origin of idols, thestatement of the Book of Wisdom has been received with almost universalconsent, that they originated with those who bestowed this honour on thedead, from a superstitious regard to their memory. 

_II. --THE GRACE OF CHRIST THE REDEEMER_

Through the fall of Adam arose the need of a Redeemer, the whole humanrace having by that event been made accursed and degenerate. Man therebybecame deprived of freedom of will and miserably enslaved. The dominionof sin, ever since the first man was brought under it, not only extendsto the whole race, but has complete possession of every soul. Free willdoes not enable any man to perform good works unless he is assisted bygrace. Yet, since man is by nature a social being, he is disposed, fromnatural instinct, to cherish and preserve society; and, accordingly, wesee that the minds of all men have impressions of order and civilhonesty. So that, in regard to the constitution of the present life, noman is devoid of the light of reason. And this gift ought justly to beascribed to the divine indulgence. Had God not so spared us, our revoltwould have carried with it the entire destruction of nature. But to thegreat truth, what God is in Himself, and what He is in relation to us, human reason makes not the least approach. The natural man has nocapacity for such sublime wisdom as to apprehend God, unless illuminedby His Spirit, and none can enter the kingdom of God save those whoseminds have been renewed by the power of the spirit. 

It is certain that after the fall of our first parent, no knowledge ofGod without a Mediator was effectual to salvation. Hence it is that Godnever showed Himself propitious to His ancient people, nor gave them anyhope of grace without a Mediator. The prosperous and happy state of theChurch was always founded in the person of Christ. The primary adoptionof the chosen people depended on the grace of the Mediator, and Christwas always held forth to the holy fathers under the law as the object oftheir faith. 

It deeply concerns us that He who was to become our Mediator should bevery God and very man. The work to be by Him performed was of no commondescription, being to restore us to the divine favour so as to make ussons of God and heirs of the heavenly kingdom. In Him the divinity wasso conjoined with the humanity that the entire properties of each natureremained entire, and yet the two natures constitute only one Christ. Everything needful for us exists in Christ. 

When we see that the whole sum of our salvation, and every single partof it, are comprehended in Christ, we must beware of deriving even theminutest part of it from any other quarter. If we seek salvation, we aretaught by the very name of Jesus that He possesses it; if we seek anyother gifts of the Spirit, we shall find them in His unction; strengthin His permanent government; purity in His conception; indulgence in Hisnativity, in which He was made like us in all respects, in order that Hemight learn to sympathise with us; if we seek redemption we shall findit in His passion; acquittal in His condemnation; remission of the cursein His cross; satisfaction in His sacrifice; purification in His blood;reconciliation in His descent into hell; mortification of the flesh inHis sepulchre; newness of life in His resurrection; immortality also inHis resurrection; the inheritance of a celestial kingdom in His entranceinto heaven; protection, security, and the abundant supply of allblessings, in His kingdom; secure anticipation of judgment in the powerof judging committed to Him. In fine, since in Him blessings aretreasured up, let us draw a full supply from Him, and none from anotherquarter. 

_III. --THE MERIT OF CHRIST AS OUR SAVIOUR_

It may be proved both from reason and from Scripture that the grace ofGod and the merit of Christ (the Prince and Author of our salvation) areperfectly compatible. Christ is not only the minister, but also thecause of our salvation, and divine grace is not obscured by thisexpression. Christ, by His obedience, truly merited this divine gracefor us, which was obtained by the shedding of His blood, and Hisobedience even unto death, whereby He paid our ransom. 

It is by the secret operation of the Holy Spirit that we enjoy Christand all His benefits. In Christ the Mediator the gifts of the HolySpirit are to be seen in all their fulness. As salvation is perfected inthe person of Christ, so, in order to make us partakers of it, He"baptizes us with the Holy Spirit and with fire, " enlightening us intothe faith of His Gospel, and so regenerating us to be new creatures. Thus cleansed from all pollution, He dedicates us as holy temples to theLord. 

But here it is proper to consider the nature of faith. The trueknowledge of Christ consists in receiving Him as He is offered by theFather, namely, as invested with His Gospel. There is an inseparablerelation between faith and the Word, and these can no more bedisconnected from each other than rays of light from the sun. Johnpoints to this fountain of faith thus: "To-day, if ye will hear Hisvoice, " to "hear" being uniformly taken for to "believe. " Take away theWord and no faith will remain. Hence Paul designates faith as theobedience which is given to the Gospel. 

The mere assent of the intellect to the Word is, according to some, thefaith insisted on in Scripture, but this is a mere fiction. Such as thusdefine faith do not duly ponder the saying of Paul, "With the heart manbelieveth unto righteousness. " Assent itself is more a matter of theheart than the head, of the affection than the intellect. 

_IV. --OF REPENTANCE_

Repentance follows faith and is produced by it. In the conversion of thelife to God we require a transformation not only in external works, butin the soul itself, which is able only after it has put off its oldhabits to bring forth fruits conformable to its renovation. Repentanceproceeds from a sincere fear of God, and it consists of two parts, themortification of the flesh and the quickening of the spirit. Both ofthese we obtain by union with Christ. If we are partakers in Hisresurrection we are raised up by means of it to newness of life, whichconforms us to the righteousness of God. In one word, then, byrepentance I understand regeneration, the only aim of which is to formus anew in the image of God, which was sullied and all but effaced bythe transgression of Adam. 

The apostle, in his description of repentance (2 Corinthians vii. 2), enumerates seven causes, effects, or parts belonging to it. These arecarefulness, excuse, indignation, fear, desire, zeal, revenge. I stopnot to consider whether these are causes or effects; both views may bemaintained. The penitent will be careful not in future to offend God; inhis excuses he will trust, not to his own apologies, but to Christ'sintercession; his indignation will be directed against his owniniquities; his fear will be lest he cause God displeasure; his desireis equivalent to alacrity in duty; zeal will follow; and revenge will bepractised in the censure passed on his own sins. 

_V. --OF JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH_

A man is said to be justified in the sight of God when, in the judgmentof God, he is deemed righteous, and is accepted on account of hisrighteousness. So we interpret justification as the acceptance withwhich God receives us into His favour as if we were righteous; and wesay that this justification consists in the forgiveness of sins and theimputation of the righteousness to Christ. Since many imagine arighteousness compounded of faith and works, let it be noted that thereis so wide a difference between justification by faith and by works thatone necessarily overthrows the other. If we destroy the righteousness byfaith by establishing our own righteousness, then, in order to obtainHis righteousness, our own must be entirely abandoned. The Gospeldiffers from the law in this, that it entirely places justification inthe mercy of God and does not confine it to works. It is entirely by theintervention of Christ's righteousness that we obtain justificationbefore God. 

The doctrine of Christian liberty is founded on this justification byfaith. This liberty consists of three parts. First, believers renouncingthe righteousness of the law look only to Christ. Secondly, theconscience, freed from the yoke of the law, voluntarily obeys the willof God. This cannot be done under the dominion of the law. Thirdly, under the Gospel we are free to use things indifferent. The consciencesof believers, while seeking the assurance of their justification beforeGod, must rise above the law, and think no more of obtainingjustification by it. Our consciences being free from the yoke of the lawitself, voluntarily obey the will of God. 

_VI. --ON THE DOCTRINE OF ELECTION_

Ignorance of the doctrine of election and predestination impairs theglory of God and fosters pride. The covenant of life is not preachedequally to all, and among those to whom it is preached does not alwaysmeet with the same reception. The reason of this discrimination belongsto the secret thing of God. This doctrine is cavilled at; yet when wesee one nation preferred to another, shall we plead against God forhaving chosen to give such a manifestation of His mercy? God hasdisplayed His grace in special forms. Thus of the family of Abraham Herejected some, and kept others within His Church, showing that Heretained them among His sons. 

Although the election of God is secret, it is made manifest by effectualcalling. Both election and effectual calling are founded on the freemercy of God Calling is proved to be according to the free grace of Godby the declarations of Scripture, by the mode in which it is dispensed, by the instance of Abraham's vocation, by the testimony of John, and bythe example of all those who have been called. There are two species ofcalling. There is a universal call by which God, through the preachingof His Word, invites all men alike. Besides this, there is a specialcall, which, for the most part, God bestows on believers only, when bythe internal illumination of His Spirit he causes the Gospel to takedeep root in their hearts. 

 * * * * *

SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE

AIDS TO REFLECTION

 This famous book, of which the full title is "Aids to Reflection in the Formation of a Manly Character on the several Grounds of Prudence, Morality, and Religion, " was published in 1825, nine years before the author's death. Its influence on thoughtful minds was very great, and many of the first divines of that period owed to it their profoundest religious ideas. It has been said that the fame of Coleridge (see LIVES AND LETTERS) as a philosophic thinker is not so great as it was during the twenty years immediately after his death; but one imagines that this statement merely means that not so many people now read Coleridge as did fifty years ago. The book, at any rate, has not yet been written which exposes a fallacy in his argument or demolishes his system. It should be remembered that this poet and searching thinker, to whom men like Wordsworth and Haslitt listened with reverence, was for some time in his life a Unitarian, and won to faith in the divinity of Christ by the use of his reason. 

_I. --INTRODUCTORY APHORISMS_

It is the most useful prerogative of genius to rescue truths from theneglect caused by the very circumstance of their universal admission. Truths, of all others the most awful and interesting, are too oftenconsidered as so true that they lose the power of truth, and liebedridden in the dormitory of the soul. 

There is one sure way of giving freshness and importance to the mostcommonplace maxims--that of _reflecting_ on them in direct reference toour own state and conduct, to our own past and future being. Areflecting mind, says an ancient writer, is the spring and source ofevery good thing. As a man without forethought scarce deserves the nameof man, so forethought without reflection is but a metaphorical phrasefor the instinct of a beast. 

In order to learn, we must attend; in order to profit by what we havelearnt, we must think; he only thinks who reflects. 

To assign a feeling and a determination of their will as a satisfactoryreason for embracing or rejecting an opinion is the habit of manyeducated people; to me, this seems little less irrational than to applythe nose to a picture, and to decide on its genuineness by the sense ofsmell. 

In attention we keep the mind passive; in thought we rouse it intoactivity. 

An hour of solitude passed in sincere and earnest prayer, or theconflict with and conquest over a single passion or "subtle bosom sin, "will teach us more of thought, will more effectually awaken the faculty, and form the habit of reflection, than will a year's study in theschools without them. 

Never yet did there exist a full faith in the Divine Word which did notexpand the intellect, while it purified the heart; which did notmultiply the aims and objects of the understanding, while it fixed andsimplified those of the desires and passions. "Give me understanding, "says David, "and I shall observe Thy laws with my whole heart. "

It is worthy of especial observation that the Scriptures aredistinguished from all other writings pretending to inspiration, by thestrong and frequent recommendations of knowledge and a spirit ofinquiry. The word "rational" has been strongly abused of late times. This must not, however, disincline us to the weighty consideration thatthoughtfulness and a desire to rest all our convictions on grounds ofright reasoning, are inseparable from the character of a Christian. Hewho begins by loving Christianity better than truth will proceed byloving his own sect and church better than Christianity, and end inloving himself best of all. 

_II. --REFLECTIONS RESPECTING MORALITY_

Sensibility, that is a constitutional quickness, of sympathy with painand pleasure, is not to be confounded with the moral principle. Sensibility is not even a sure pledge of a good heart. How many areprompted to remove those evils alone, which by hideous spectacle orclamorous outcry are present to their senses and disturb their selfishenjoyments? Provided the dunghill is not before their parlour window, they are well contented to know that it exists, and perhaps is thehotbed on which their own luxuries are reared. Sensibility is notnecessarily benevolence. 

All the evil of the materialists is inconsiderable besides the mischiefeffected and occasioned by the sentimental philosophy of Sterne and hisnumerous imitators. The vilest appetites and the most remorselessinconstancy towards their objects, acquired the titles of the "heart, ""the irresistible feelings, " "the too-tender sensibility"; and if thefrosts of prudence, the icy chain of human law, thawed and vanished atthe genial warmth of human nature, who could help it? It was an amiableweakness! At this time the profanation of the word "love" rose to itsheight; the muse of science condescended to seek admission at thesaloons of fashion and frivolity, rouged like a harlot and with theharlot's wanton leer. I know not how the annals of guilt could be betterforced into the service of virtue than by such a comment on the presentparagraph as would be afforded by sentimental correspondence produced incourts of justice, fairly translated into the true meaning of the words, and the actual object and purpose of the infamous writers. 

Do you in good earnest aim at dignity of character? I conjure you, turnaway from those who live in the twilight between vice and virtue. Arenot reason, discrimination, law, and deliberate choice thedistinguishing characters of humanity? Can anything manly proceed fromthose who for law and light would substitute shapeless feelings, sentiments, impulses, which, as far as they differ from the vitalworkings in the brute animals, owe the difference to their formerconnection with the proper virtues of humanity? Remember that loveitself, in its highest earthly bearing, as the ground of the marriageunion, becomes love by an inward fiat of the will, by a completing andsealing act of moral election, and lays claim to permanence only underthe form of duty. 

All things strive to ascend, and ascend in the striving. While youlabour for anything below your proper humanity, you seek a happy life inthe region of death. 

 Unless above himself he can Erect himself, how mean a thing is man!

_III. --PRUDENTIAL APHORISMS_

With respect to any final aim or end, the greater part of mankind liveat hazard. They have no certain harbour in view, nor direct their courseby any fixed star. But to him that knoweth not the port to which he isbound, no wind can be favourable; neither can he who has not yetdetermined at what mark he is to shoot, direct his arrow aright. 

It is not, however, the less true that there is a proper object to aimat; and if this object be meant by the term happiness, the perfection ofwhich consists in the exclusion of all hap [_i. E. , _ chance], I assertthat there is such a thing as _summum bonum_, or ultimate good. Whatthis is, the Bible alone shows certainly, and points out the way. "InCicero and Plato, " says Augustine, "I meet with many things acutelysaid, and things that excite a certain warmth of emotion, but in none ofthem do I find these words, 'Come unto Me, all ye that labour and areheavy laden, and I will give you rest!'"

In the works of Christian and pagan moralists, it is declared thatvirtue is the only happiness of this life. You cannot become better, butyou will become happier; you cannot become worse without an increase ofmisery. Few men are so reprobate as not to have some lucid moments, andin such moments few can stand up unshaken against the appeal of theirown experience. What have been the wages of sin? What has the devil donefor you?

Though prudence in itself is neither virtue nor holiness, yet withoutprudence neither virtue nor holiness can exist. 

Art thou under the tyranny of sin, a slave to vicious habits, at enmitywith God, a fugitive from thy own conscience? Oh, how idle the disputeswhether the listening to the dictates of prudence from self-interestedmotives be virtue, when the _not_ listening is guilt, misery, madness, and despair! The most Christian-like pity thou canst show is to takepity on thy own soul. The best service thou canst render is to showmercy to thyself. 

_IV. --APHORISMS ON SPIRITUAL RELIGION_

If there be aught spiritual in man, the will must be such. If there be awill, there must be spirituality in man. 

There is more in man than can be rationally referred to the life ofNature and the mechanism of organisation. He has a will not included inhis mechanism; the will is, in an especial sense, the spiritual part ofour humanity. 

I assume a something, the proof of which no man can _give_ to another, yet every man may find for himself. If any man say that he cannot findit, I am bound to disbelieve him. I cannot do otherwise withoutunsettling the foundations of my own moral nature. If he will not findit, he excommunicates himself, forfeits his personal rights, and becomesa thing--_i. E. , _ one who may be used against his will and without regardto his interest. If the materialist use the words "right" and"obligation, " he does it deceptively, and means only compulsion andpower. To overthrow faith in aught higher than nature and physicalnecessity is the very purpose of his argument. But he cannot be ignorantthat the best and greatest of men have devoted their lives to enforcethe contrary; and there is not a language in which he could argue forten minutes in support of his scheme without sliding into phrases thatimply the contrary. 

The Christian grounds his philosophy on assertions which have nothing inthem of theory or hypothesis; they are in immediate reference to threeultimate facts--namely, the reality of the law of conscience; theexistence of a responsible will as the subject of the law; and lastly, the existence of evil--of evil essentially such, not by accident ofcircumstances, not derived from physical consequences, nor from anycause out of itself. The first is a fact of consciousness, the second afact of reason necessarily concluded from the first, and the third afact of history interpreted by both. 

I maintain that a will conceived separately from intelligence is anon-entity, and that a will the state of which does in no senseoriginate in its own act is a contradiction. It might be an instinct, animpulse, and, if accompanied with consciousness, a desire; but a will itcould not be. And this every human being knows with equal clearness, though different minds may reflect on it with different degrees ofdistinctness; for who would not smile at the notion of a rose willing toput forth its buds and expand them into flowers?

I deem it impious and absurd to hold that the Creator would have givenus the faculty of reason, or that the Redeemer would in so many variedforms of argument and persuasion have appealed to it, if it had beenuseless or impotent. I believe that the imperfect human understandingcan be effectually exerted only in subordination to, and in a dependentalliance with, the means and aidances supplied by the supreme reason. 

Christianity is not a theory, or a speculation, but a life. Not aphilosophy of life, but life, and a living process. It has been eighteenhundred years in existence. 

The practical inquirer has his foot on the rock when he knows thatwhoever needs not a Redeemer is more than human. Remove from him thedifficulties that perplex his belief in a crucified Saviour, convincehim of the reality of sin, and then satisfy him as to the facthistorically, and as to the truth spiritually, of a redemption therefromby Christ. Do this for him, and there is little fear that he will leteither logical quirks or metaphysical puzzles contravene the plaindictate of his commonsense, that the Sinless One that redeemed mankindfrom sin must have been more than man, and that He who brought light andimmortality into the world could not in His own nature have been aninheritor of death and darkness. 

A moral evil is an evil that has its origin in a will. An evil common toall must have a ground common to all. Now, this evil ground cannotoriginate in the Divine will; it must, therefore, be referred to thewill of man. And this evil ground we call original sin. It is amystery--that is, a fact which we see, but cannot explain; and thedoctrine a truth which we apprehend, but can neither comprehend norcommunicate. 

The article on original sin is binding on the Christian only as showingthe antecedent ground and occasion of Christianity, which is the edificeraised on this ground. The two great moments of the Christian religionare, original sin and redemption; _that_ the ground, _this_ thesuperstructure of our faith. Christianity and redemption are equivalentterms. 

The agent and personal cause of the redemption of mankind is--theco-eternal word and only begotten Son of the living God. The causationact is--a spiritual and transcendent mystery, "that passeth allunderstanding. " The effect caused is--the being born anew, as before inthe flesh to the world, so now born in the spirit to Christ. 

Now, albeit the causative act is a transcendent mystery, the fact, oractual truth, of it having been assured to us by revelation, it is notimpossible, by steadfast meditation on the idea and supernaturalcharacter of a personal will, for a mind spiritually disciplined tosatisfy itself that the redemptive act supposes an agent who can at onceact on the will as an exciting cause, and in the will, as the conditionof its potential, and the ground of its actual, being. 

The frequent, not to say ordinary, disproportion between moral worth andworldly prosperity has at all times led the observant and reflecting fewto a nicer consideration of the current belief, whether instinctive ortraditional. By forcing the soul in upon herself, this enigma of saintand sage, from Job, David, and Solomon to Claudian and Boëtius, thisperplexing disparity of success and desert, has been the occasion of asteadier and more distinct consciousness of a something in man, different in kind, which distinguishes and contra-distinguishes him fromanimals--at the same time that it has brought into closer view an enigmaof yet harder solution--the fact, I mean, of a contradiction in thehuman being, of which no traces are observable elsewhere, in animated orinanimate nature. 

A struggle of jarring impulses; a mysterious division between theinjunctions of the mind and the elections of the will; and the utterincommensurateness and the unsatisfying qualities of the things aroundus, that yet are the only objects which our senses discover or ourappetites require us to pursue; these facts suggest that the riddle offortune and circumstance is but a form of the riddle of man, and thatthe solution of both problems lies in the acknowledgement that the soulof man, as the subject of mind and will, possesses a principle ofpermanence and is destined to endure. 

Evidences of Christianity! I am weary of the word. Make a man feel thewant of it; rouse him, if you can, to the self-knowledge of his need ofit; and you may safely trust it to its own evidence--remembering onlythe express declaration of Christ himself, "No man cometh to Me, unlessthe Father leadeth him. "

Christ's awful recalling of the drowsed soul from the dreams and phantomworld of sensuality to actual reality--how has it been evaded! His word, that was spirit! His mysteries, which even the apostles must wait forthe parable in order to comprehend! These spiritual things, which canonly be spiritually discerned, were--say some--mere metaphors! Figuresof speech! Oriental hyperboles! "All this means only morality!" Ah! howfar nearer the truth to say that morality means all this!

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CONFUCIANISM

THE LUN YU, OR SAYINGS OF CONFUCIUS

 The so-called "Four Books" of Chinese literature are held in less esteem than the "Five Kings, " or "Primary Classics, " but they are still studied first by every Chinaman as a preparation for what is regarded as the higher and more important literature. It should be borne in mind that the four "Shus, " as these books are called, tell us much more about the actual teaching and history of Confucius. The four books are: (i) The "Lun Yu, " or the "Analects of Confucius, " which contain chiefly the sayings and conversations of Confucius, and give, ostensibly in his own words, his teaching, and, in a subordinate degree, that of his principal disciples; (2) the "Ta-Hsio, " or "Teaching for Adults, " rendered also the "Great Learning, " a treatise dealing with ethical and especially with political matters, forming Book 39 of the "Li-Ki, " or "Book of Rites, " the "Fourth Classic, " (3) the "Chung Yung, " or "Doctrine of the Mean, " more correctly the State of Equilibrium or harmony, forming Book 28 of the "Li-Ki"; and (4) "Meng-tse, " Latinised "Mencius, " that is, the conversations and opinions of Mencius. The first, the "Lun Yu, " or "Analects, " is the most important of these, the next in importance being the teaching of Mencius. The book to which we are most indebted in the preparation of the following epitomes is "The Chinese Classics, " edited by Dr. J. Legge. Other books are "The Sayings of Confucius, " translated by S. A. Lyall; "Chinese Literature, " by H. A. Giles; and "The Wisdom of Confucius, " by G. Dimsdale Stacker. 

_INTRODUCTORY_

The original of the Chinese title of the "Lun Yu" is literally"Discourses and Dialogues. " By Legge and most British Chinese scholarsthis work is called "The Confucian Analects, " the word "analect"denoting things chosen, in the present case from the utterances of themaster. 

The "Lun Yu" is arranged in twenty chapters or books, and gives, ostensibly in his own words, the teaching of Confucius and that of hisleading disciples. It is here that we learn nearly all that we knowabout Confucius. Since the work was composed, as we have it, within acentury of the master's death, there seems good reason for believingthat we have here a _bona-fide_ record of what he thought and said. Wemay compare with the "Lun Yu" the Christian Gospels which profess togive the doctrines and sayings of Jesus, and also the traditionalutterances of Mohammed edited by Al-Bokhari, who died in 870 A. D. Theutterances which follow are by the master (Confucius) himself, unless itis otherwise stated. Other speakers are generally disciples ofConfucius. 

_GENERAL MAXIMS_

I care little who makes a nation's laws if I have the making of itsballads. 

The young child ought to be obedient at home, modest from home, attentive, faithful, full of benevolence, spending spare time mostlyupon poetry, music, and deportment. 

A son ought to study his father's wishes as long as the father lives;and after the father is dead he should study his life, and respect hismemory. 

A man who is fond of learning is not a glutton, nor is he indolent; heis earnest and sincere in what he says and does, seeks the company ofthe good, and profits by it. 

At fifteen my whole mind was on study. At thirty I was able to standalone. At forty my speculative doubts came to an end. At fifty Iunderstood Heaven's laws. At sixty my passions responded to higherinstincts. At seventy my better nature ruled me altogether. 

Mere study without thought is useless, but thought without study isdangerous. 

Fine words and attractive appearances are seldom associated with truegoodness. 

If a man keeps cultivating his old knowledge and be ever adding to itnew, that man is fit to be a teacher of others. 

The superior man is broad-minded, and no partisan. The mean man isbiased and narrow. 

Tze-chang studied with a view to official promotion. The master said, "This is wrong, " adding, "Thou shouldest listen much, keep silent whenthere is doubt, and guard thy tongue. See much, beware of dangers, andwalk warily. Then shalt thou have little cause for repentance. "

I do not know how a man can get on without truth. It is easier for awaggon to go without a cross-pole, or a carriage to be drawn withoutharness. 

Neither courtesy nor music avail a man if he has not virtue and love. 

Worship the dead as though they stood alive before you. Sacrifice to thespirits as if they were in your immediate presence. 

If I am not personally present when the sacrifice is being made, then Ido not sacrifice. There can be no proxy in this matter. 

Tze-kung wanted to do away with the offering of a sheep at the new moon. The master said, "Thou lovest the sheep, but I love the ceremony. "

These things are not to be tolerated: Rank without generosity, ritualwithout reverence, and mourning without genuine sorrow. 

It is better to have virtue with want and ignominy, than wealth andhonour without virtue. 

If a man in the morning learns the right way of life he may die at nightwithout regret. 

A scholar's mind should be set on the search for truth, and he shouldnot be ashamed of poor clothes or of plain or even of insufficient food. 

The superior man loves the good and pursues it; besides this, he has nolikes or dislikes. 

The good man considers what is right; the bad man what will pay. 

As long as thy parents live thou must not go far from them. But ifthrough necessity thou leavest them, let them know where thou art, andbe ready to come to them when needed. 

The man who governs himself, restraining his passions, seldom goeswrong. 

The good man desires to be slow of speech, but active in conduct. 

Virtue stands never alone. It will always make neighbours. 

In my first dealings with men I listened to their words, and gave themcredit for good conduct. Experience has taught me not to listen to theirwords but to watch their conduct. It was from Yu that I learned thislesson. 

I have met no man of strong and unbending will; even Chang ispassionate. 

On being asked why Kung-wan was said to be cultured, the master replied, "Because he was quick to learn, fond of learning, and especially becausehe was not ashamed to ask questions of those below him. " Of Tze-changthe master said that he had four characteristics of the gentleman: hewas humble in his own life, respectful towards seniors, generous insupplying the needs of the people, and just in all his demands of them. 

Yen Yuan and Chi Lu were once sitting by the master, who turned to themand said, "Come, I want each of you to tell me his wishes. " Chi Lu said, "I should like to have carriages and horses and light fur robes to sharewith my friends that they, and I, may carelessly wear them out. " YenYuan said, "My wish is to make no boast of moral or intellectualexcellence. " The master said, "My wish is this: to make the aged happy, to show sincerity towards friends, and to treat young people withtenderness and sympathy. "

Nature preponderating over art begets coarseness; art preponderatingover nature begets pedantry; art and nature united make a propergentleman. 

To men whose talents are above mediocrity we speak of superior things. To men whose talents are below the common we must speak things suited totheir culture. 

On being asked, "What is wisdom, " the master replied, "To promote rightthoughts and feelings among men; to honour the spirits of the dead. " Inreply to the question, "What is love?" the master answered, "Making mostof self-sacrificing efforts but of success only in a subordinatedegree. "

Perfect virtue consists in keeping to the Golden Mean. He who hasoffended against Heaven has no one to whom he can pray. 

Men should not murmur against Heaven, for all that Heaven does is good. 

The master paid great attention to three things--piety, peace, andhealth. 

If I have coarse rice to eat and pure water to drink, and my bent armfor a pillow, I am content and happy. But ill-gotten riches and honourare to me as a floating cloud. 

If my life could be lengthened out by a few years, I would devote atleast fifty years to the study of the "Yi King" [Book of Changes], thenmight I be purified from my sin. 

_ON POETRY, HISTORY, AND PROPRIETY_

The master constantly talked about poetry, history, and the rules ofpropriety. 

Tze-lu, on being asked about Confucius, gave no answer. The master askedabout being present, said, "Why didst thou not say to him, 'Confucius isa man so eager in the pursuit of knowledge that he forgets his food, sojubilant in its attainment that he forgets his grief and grows oldwithout knowing it'?"

I was not born in the possession of knowledge, but I am fond of the pastand study it closely, and hence knowledge is coming to me. 

My pupils, do not think that I hide anything from you. Whatever I thinkand do I tell you frankly and truly. I keep no secrets from mydisciples. 

The master used to teach four things: culture, morals, and manners, piety, and faithfulness. 

In knowledge and in culture I am perhaps the equal of other men. I havenot yet attained to perfection, nor are my knowledge and livingconsistent. 

The master once being very ill, Tze-lu asked permission to pray for him. The master asked, "Is that customary?" "It is, " replied the disciple, "for the memorials have it, 'Pray to the spirits in heaven above and onearth below. '" The master replied, "I have for long prayed for myself, and that is best. "

The master was dignified, yet gentle. He was majestic, but inspired nofear. He was gentlemanly, but always at ease. 

Poetry rouses the mind, the rules of propriety establish the character, music crowns a man's education. 

It would be hard to meet a man who has studied for three years withoutlearning something good. 

Learn as though you felt you could never learn enough, and as though youfeared you could not learn in your short life what is needful forconduct. 

A man from a certain village once said, "Confucius is, no doubt, a verylearned man, but he has not made himself a name in any special thing. "When the master heard this, he said to his disciples, "What shall Iundertake: charioteering, archery, or what? I think I shall become acharioteer, and thus get me a name. "

A high officer asked Tze-kung, "May we not say that the master is a sagebecause he can do so many things?" To which Tze-kung replied, "Heavenhas indeed highly endowed him, and he is almost a sage; and he is verymany-sided. "

On hearing this the master said, "Does the officer know me? Being oflowly birth when I was young, I learnt many a trade, but there wasnothing great in that. The superior man may excel in one thing only, andnot in many things. "

Wishing to go and live among the nine wild tribes of the East, one ofhis friends remonstrated with the master and said, "They are low. Howcan you go and live among them?" To which he gave for answer, "Nothingthat is low can survive where the virtuous and the good-mannered manis. "

After I returned from Wei to Lu I found the music had been reformed, andthat each song was given its proper place. 

The master said, "To serve ministers and nobles when abroad, fathers andelder brothers when at home, to avoid neglect in offerings of the dead, and to be no slave to wine: to which of these have I attained?"

_CONFUCIUS AT HOME AND AT COURT_

In his own village Confucius looked homely and sincere, as if he had noword to say; but in the ancestral temple and in the court he was full ofwords, though careful in using them. 

When waiting at court he talked with the lower officers frankly, but tothe higher officers more blandly and precisely. When the sovereign waspresent he used to be respectful but easy, solemn yet self-possessed. When the sovereign bade him receive visitors his countenance changed, and his legs appeared to bend. Bowing to those beside him, hestraightened his robes in front and behind, hastening forward with hiselbows extended like a bird's wings. When the guest had retired he usedto report to the prince, saying, "The guest does not any more lookback. " When he entered the palace gate he seemed to stoop as though itwere not high enough for him. Ascending the dais, lifting up his robeswith both hands, he held his breath as if he would cease breathing. Ashe came down his face relaxed after the first step, and looked more atease. At the bottom of the steps he would hurry on, spreading out hiselbows like wings, and on gaining his seat he would sit intent aspreviously. 

He was never arrayed in deep purple or in puce-coloured garments. Evenat home he wore nothing of a red or reddish colour. In hot weather heused to wear a single garment of fine texture, but always over an innergarment. Over lambs' fur he wore a garment of black, over fawns' fur oneof white, and over foxes' fur one of yellow. His sleeping-dress was halfas long again as his body. On the first day of the month he always wentto court in court robes. On fast days he wore pale-hued garments, changed his food, and made a change in his apartment. 

He liked to have his rice carefully cleaned and his minced meat choppedsmall. He did not eat rice that had been injured by heat or damp or thathad turned sour, nor could he eat fish or meat which had gone. He didnot eat anything that was discoloured or that had a bad flavour, or thatwas not in season. He would not eat meat badly cut, or that was servedwith the wrong sauce. No choice of meats could induce him to eat morethan he thought right. 

After sacrificing at the ancestral temple he would never keep the meatthere overnight, nor would he keep it more than three days at home. Ifby any mishap it were kept longer, it was not eaten. 

He never talked at meals, nor would he speak a word in bed. Though therewere on the table nothing but coarse rice and vegetable soup, he wouldalways reverently offer some of it to his ancestors. If his mat was notstraight he would not sit on it. 

_ON LEARNING AND VIRTUE_

Chung-kung asked about virtue. The master said: "It consists in thesethings: To treat those outside thine own home as if thou wert welcominga great guest; to treat the people as if thou wert assisting at a highsacrifice; not to do to others what thou wouldest not have them do tothee; to encourage no wrongs in the state nor any in the home. "

The master being once asked "Who is the virtuous man?" answered, "Onethat has neither anxiety nor fear, for he finds no evil in his heart. What, then, is there to cause anxiety or fear?"

The master, on being once asked by one of his disciples "On what doesthe art of government depend?" answered, "Sufficient food, troops, and aloyal people. " "If, however, " the same disciple asked, "one of them hadto be dispensed with, which of the three could we best spare?" "Troops, "said the master. "And which, " the disciple then asked, "of the other twocould be better spared?" "Food, " said the master. 

Tze-chang asked the master, "When may a scholar or an officer be calledeminent?" The master asked, "What dost thou mean by being eminent?" Towhich the other answered, "To be famous throughout the state andthroughout his clan. " "But that, " said the master, "is fame, noteminence. The truly eminent man is genuine and straightforward; he lovesrighteousness, weighs people's words, and looks at their countenances. He humbles himself to others, and is sincerely desirous of helping all. That is the, eminent man, though he may not be a famous one. "

If a ruler can govern himself, he is likely to be able to govern hispeople. But how can a man who has not control of himself keep his peoplein subjection?

Tze-kung asked, "Is it proper that a man should be liked by all hisneighbours?" "Certainly not, " said the master. "Is it then proper, "asked the same, "that a man should be hated by all his neighbours?""Decidedly not, " said the master. "The good man is loved by his goodneighbours, and hated by his bad ones. "

The virtuous man is hard to satisfy, but easy to serve. Nothing thatthou doest to please him satisfies him unless it is strictly accordingto right. But in all his demands upon his servants he expects accordingto capacity, and is satisfied if the servant does his best, though it belittle. The bad man is easy to satisfy, but hard to serve. He issatisfied with whatever pleases him, though it be not right; and hedemands of his servants whatever he requires, making no allowance forcapacity. 

A scholar whose mind is set upon comfort is not worthy of the name. 

"Where there's a will, " said the master, "there's a way. "

To refrain from speaking to a man who is disposed to hear is to wrongthe man; to speak to a man not disposed to listen is to waste words. 

"How can one in brief express man's whole duty?"

"Is not reciprocity such a word?" said the master; "that is, what thoudost not want others to do to thee, do thou not to others. "

There are three things which the virtuous man has to guard against. Inyouth, lust; in full manhood, strife; and in old age, covetousness. 

The highest class of men are those who are born wise; the next those whobecome wise by study; next and third, those who learn much, withouthaving much natural ability. The lowest class of people are those whohave neither natural ability nor perseverance. Men are very similar atbirth; it is afterwards the great differences arise. 

It is only the wisest and the silliest of men who never alter theiropinions. 

"My children, " said the master once to his disciples, "Why do you notstudy the Book of Poetry [the Shih King]? It would stimulate your mind, encourage introspection, teach you to love your fellows, and to forbearwith all. It would show you your duty to your fathers and your king; andyou would also learn from it the names of many birds and beasts andplants and trees. "

TA-HSIO, OR TEACHING FOR ADULTS

_INTRODUCTORY_

The "Ta-Hsio, " or "Teaching for Adults, " rendered also "The GreatLearning, " is really a treatise dealing with ethical, and especiallywith political, matters, the duties of rulers, ministers, etc. It isusually ascribed in part to "the master" himself, and in part to TsengTsan, one of the most illustrious of his disciples. This forms Book 39of the "Li Ki, " or "Book of Rites, " and it is admitted by the bestscholars to be a genuine specimen of the teaching of Confucius, thoughno one believes that "the master" is the author of the book as it nowstands. The likeliest suggestion as to authorship is that which ascribesthe present treatise, and also the "Chung Yung" (No. 28 of the "Li Ki")to Khung Chi, the grandson of Confucius. 

The great Chinese philosopher Chang said of this book: "'The teachingfor Adults' is a book belonging to the Confucian school, forming thegate through which youthful students enter the great temple of virtue. We should not have been able to ascertain the methods of learningpursued by the ancients if this book and the works of Mencius had notbeen preserved. Beginners ought to start their studies with this book, and then pass on to the harder books, after which the Five Classicsshould be read and pondered over. "

The object of the "Ta-Hsio" is to illustrate outstanding virtue, topromote love of the people and their improvement in morals and manners. In order that these results may be obtained, this treatise must bepatiently calmly, and thoughtfully studied. 

_HOW THE EMPIRE IS TO BE IMPROVED_

The ancients, wishing to make their empire perfect, first endeavoured tomake their states perfect. For this last purpose they exerted themselvesto improve their famines, and to this end they took great pains toimprove their personal character. In order to improve their personalcharacter, they endeavoured to purify their hearts and to make theirthoughts sincere. 

From the Son of Heaven [the Emperor] to the masses of the people, thecultivation of personal character was regarded as the root of allamelioration. To know this has been called knowing the "root, " which isthe perfection of knowledge. 

On Thang's bathing-tub these words were inscribed:

"Renovate thyself day by day, yea, every day renovate thyself. " At theopening of his reign, Thang was exhorted to renovate his people. 

In the Book of Poetry it is said that although Kau was an ancient state, yet it regarded Heaven's commands as ever new. In the same book we readthat the thoughts of the Emperor Wan were deep, and his conduct firm. Inall his relationships he was reverent and true. As a sovereign he wasbenevolent; as a minister respectful; as a son he exhibited filialpiety; as a father he was kind and considerate; towards his subjects hewas steadfastly faithful. This virtuous and accomplished sovereign, Wan, took great pains to sharpen his intellect and to make his heart moresensitive to all obligations. How majestic, how glorious was he; heshall ever be remembered by his grateful people at the ancestral shrine. 

"The cultivation of personal character depends upon the regulation ofthe mind. " What does this mean? If a man's passions are not kept undercontrol, he will form wrong judgments about actions and never have awell-balanced mind. Therefore must man regulate his mind in order tocultivate himself. "The government of the family depends upon thecultivation of personal character. " What does this mean? Where there isaffection, judgment is distorted. We see the good qualities of those welove, but are blind to the bad ones. We see the bad qualities of thosewe hate, but are blind to the good ones. In order to be able to govern afamily rightly, we must train our minds to judge fairly and impartiallyof those nearest to us--_i. E. , _ it requires careful self-training to beable to train a family. 

"We must be able to govern the family before we can rule a state. " Whatmeans this? If a man fails to teach the members of his own family to beobedient and loyal to their head, how can he train a nation to beunited, obedient, and loyal?

Yas and Shun ruled with love, and the people became loving. Kieh and Kauruled with violence, and the people became violent. The sovereign musthave and exhibit the same qualities that he wishes his subjects tocultivate. Nor has he the right to expect his people to be free from badqualities which are in himself. The ruler must himself be what he wantshis people to be. Thus it is that the government of the state rests uponthe proper government of the family. 

"That the empire should have peace and prosperity depends upon thegovernment of the constituting states. " What does this mean?

When ruler and ministers treat their aged ones as they ought to, theinhabitants in general become filial. Similarly, the inhabitants learnto show respect towards their seniors and sympathy towards the youngwhen their superiors set them the right example in these matters. No manshould treat his inferiors as he would not like his superiors to treathim. What he disapproves of in his inferiors, let him not exhibit in hisdealings towards his superiors. 

In the Book of Poetry it is written, "The parents of the people are muchto be congratulated. A sovereign whose loves and hates correspond withthose of his people is his people's father. " To gain the people is togain the state; therefore a ruler's primary concern should be his ownintegrity, for thereby he wins his people's loyalty, and through thatloyalty he obtains the state, and therewith the wealth of the wholecountry. 

Virtue is the root, wealth but the branches. See first, therefore, tothe root. 

In the Records of Khu one reads, "The State of Khu values men, not gemsnor robes. "

A country is wealthy if it consumes less than it produces, and that manis rich whose income exceeds his expenditure. 

The virtuous ruler gathers wealth on account of the reputation it canbring him. The wicked ruler seeks wealth for its own sake, sacrificingeven virtue to obtain it. 

A benevolent sovereign makes a just people. When the people are just theaffairs of the sovereign prosper. The state's prosperity consists inrighteousness, not in riches. 

CHUNG YUNG, OR DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN

_INTRODUCTORY_

The "Chung Yung" is more correctly rendered "The state of equilibriumand harmony" (Legge, etc. ) than by "The Doctrine of the Mean, " its usualappellation. Other titles suggested have been "The Just Mean, " "The TrueMean, " "The Golden Mean, " and "The Constant Mean. " The word "chung"means "middle, " "yung" denoting "course" or "way. " Hence, "Chung Yung"means literally, "The middle way. " Compare Aristotle's doctrine of TheMean ("Ethics" Book II. ). 

This treatise occurs as Book 28 of the "Li-Ki" and by Chinese scholarshas been declared to be the most valuable part of the Book of Rites. Wehave here the fullest account existing of the philosophy and ethics ofthe master. Apart from its value as such, the "Chung Yung" isexceedingly interesting as a monument of the teaching of the ancientChinese. In its existing form the "Chung Yung" is arranged in fivedivisions, containing, in all, thirty-three chapters. No attempt is madein the epitomes that follow to retain these divisions and chapters. Forthe authorship and date of this third book see what is said in theintroduction to the "Ta-Hsio. "

_THE GOOD MAN'S PATH_

The sense of obligation has been implanted in man by Heaven. The path ofduty is a life in accordance with this heaven-implanted intuition. Everyman ought always to tread this path; the true doctrine teaches how thisis to be accomplished. The good man will ever be on his guard lest hedepart a hair's breadth from the right way. 

The mental state of equilibrium is reached when a man is free from thedistracting influences of anger and goodwill, joy and sorrow. When theseemotions exist in due proportion and extent the state of harmony isattained. From the first proceed all great human enterprises. The stateof harmony is the path along which all good men will go. When the statesof equilibrium and harmony exist in their fulness gods and men receivetheir dues, and there is prosperity and happiness. 

Kung-ni[8] said, "The virtuous man embodies in himself the states ofequilibrium and harmony, but the low man knows neither of these states. "This perfect condition of human character in which there is completeequilibrium and harmony is reached but by few. Why is this so? It isbecause those who are wise consider these ideal states too commonplace, and they aim at things which the world values more highly. The low man, on the other hand, grovels in the dust and never rises to higherthoughts or nobler aims. Men could, if they would, distinguish theworthy from the unworthy, just as with a healthy palate they can tellgood food from bad. But men's moral discernment has been blunted by alife of sensuality and sin, just as the physical palate loses its powerof tasting when in a diseased condition. 

In order to find out the Mean, our Father Shun, of blessed memory, usedto question the people[9] and study their answers, even the shallowones. He used to encourage them to speak out by seeming to value thepoorest answers. He would take the extremest sayings he heard, and fromthem deduce the Mean. 

It is hard to keep in the middle way: men rule kingdoms and accepthonours and emoluments who have yet signally failed to govern themselvesby the rules of the Mean. 

The good man's ambition is not to perform feats which startle the worldand give him fame, but rather to live the life of the moderate andharmonious one; yet how often for lack of true discernment he fails!This middle path is not, however, hidden from the sincere and pure; evencommon men and women may know it, though in its highest reaches itbaffles the wisest. The greatest and the wisest and the best find lodgedwithin them unrealised ideals. Whoever strenuously aims at realisingthese ideals, though he fails, is near the right path. 

"The good man has four difficulties, " said the master, "and I have notmyself been able to overcome them. (1) To serve my father as I shouldlike my son to serve me. (2) To serve my ruler as I should like him toserve me were I his ruler. (3) To serve an elder brother as I shouldlike him to serve me were he my younger brother. (4) To act towards afriend as I should like him to act towards me were our relationsreversed. "[10]

The good man suits his conduct to his station in life. If he has wealthand high office he acts becomingly, never treating his inferiors withharshness or contempt. If he be poor and unrecognised, he never murmursagainst heaven, or pines over his lot, or cringes before superiors, ordoes anything immoral for applause or gain. The virtuous man acceptsheaven's allotments thankfully and uncomplainingly. 

In order to attain to the middle path we must carefully perform theduties which lie nearest to us, not waiting to do great things. In theBook of Poetry we read of the love of wife, of children, and brothers. Cultivate this love on the home hearth, and thy charity will expand andtake in mankind. [Note how charity, though beginning at home, travelsfar afield. ]

Shun displayed his filial piety on a huge scale, and brought greathonour to his parents and to himself. No wonder that such filial pietyas his was rewarded with dominion, wealth, and fame. It is well said inthe Book of Poetry, "The good man receives Heaven's benediction. "

The Emperor Wan was the only man with no cause for grief, his fatherbeing the admirable Ki, and his son the equally admirable Wu. The fatherlaid the foundation of all this excellence, the son transmitting it tohis own son. The Emperor Wu retained the honour and distinction of hisforebears Thai, Kai, and Wan. He had the dignity of the true Son ofHeaven, and owned all within the Four Seas. [11] He sacrificed regularlyin the ancestral temple, and after death his successors sacrificed tohim. The Duke of Kau continued the glorious traditions handed on by Wu. Both these great rulers realised the aspirations and wishes of theirforefathers, restoring and improving the ancestral temple, renovatingthe sacred vessels and offering sacrifices suited to each year. In otherways also they perpetuated the good deeds of their ancestors, observedtheir religious rites, encouraged the study of music and poetry, honoured the honourable, and loved the lovable. They showed due respectto their departed ones, and thus discharged their duty to the living andthe dead. 

THE WORKS OF MENCIUS

_INTRODUCTORY_

Mencius is the Latinised form of "Mengtse, " which means "the philosopherMeng, " Meng (or Meng-sun) being the name of one of the three greatHouses of Lu, whose usurpations gave so much offence to Confucius. Hispersonal name was Ko, though this does not occur in his own works. Hewas born in B. C. 372, and died in B. C. 289 at the age of 83, in thetwenty-sixth year of the Emperor Nan, with whom ended the longsovereignty of Kau (Chow) dynasty. He was thus a contemporary of Plato(whose last twenty-three years synchronised with his firsttwenty-three), Aristotle, Zeno, Epicurus, and Demosthenes, and he iswell worthy of being ranked with these illustrious men. 

Mencius was reared by his widowed mother, whose virtue and wisdom arestill proverbial in China. The first forty years of his life arevirtually a blank to us, so that we know very little of his earlyeducation. He is said, however, to have studied under Khung Chi, thegrandson of Confucius. 

In the hundred and six years between the death of Confucius (B. C. 478)and the birth of Mencius (B. C. 372), the political and moral state ofChina had altered greatly for the worse. The smaller feudal states hadbeen swallowed up by larger ones, the princes were constantly at warwith one another, and there was but little loyalty to the occupant ofthe imperial throne; moreover, the moral standard of things had loweredvery much. At about the age of forty-five Mencius became Minister underPrince Hsuan, of the Chi state. But as his master refused to carry outthe reforms he urged, he resigned his post and travelled through manylands, advising rulers and ministers with whom he came in contact. Inthe year B. C. 319 he resumed his former position in the state of Chi, resigning once more eight years later. He now gave himself up to a lifeof study and teaching, preparing the works presently to be noticed. Hismain purpose was to expound and enforce the teaching of Confucius. Buthis own doctrine stands on a lower level than that of the master, for heviews man's well-being rather from the point of view of politicaleconomy. He was justly named by Chao Chi "The Second Holy One orProphet"--the name by which China still knows him. 

The treatise called "The Works of Mencius" is a compilation of theconversation and opinions of Mencius, having a similar relation to thatgreat philosopher that the Analects (or "Lun Yu") have to Confucius. Itis arranged in seven books. According to tradition the work, in itsexisting form, is as it came from the philosopher himself. 

_VIRTUE, NOT PROFIT, TO BE THE CHIEF QUEST_

When Mencius visited King Hui, of Liang, the latter asked him whatcounsel he could give to profit his kingdom. The philosopher replied, "Why does your majesty use the word profit? The only things which I haveto counsel are righteousness and goodwill. If the king seeks mainly the_profit_ of his kingdom, the great officers will seek the profit oftheir families and the common people that of theirs. The chief things tobe aimed at by king and people are virtue and benevolence. All else isas nothing. No benevolent man has neglected his parents, nor has anyvirtuous man slighted his sovereign. "

"How comes it, " asked the king, "that my state Tsin has deterioratedsince I became its ruler, and that calamities many and great have fallenon it?" Mencius answered, "With so great an extent of territory as thineprosperity ought to be within easy reach; but in order to procure ityour majesty must govern thy subjects justly and kindly, moderatingpenalties, lightening taxes, promoting thus and otherwise theirindustries, increasing their comforts as well as lessening theirburdens, deepening the faithfulness of the people to one another and tothe throne. Then will thy people be loyal to thee and formidable towardsthy foes. Thou shalt make thy subjects loyal friends, for the benevolentone has no enemy. "

_A PROSPEROUS RULER THE FRIEND AND FATHER OF HIS PEOPLE_

On one occasion the Emperor Hsuan of Chi visited Mencius in the SnowPalace, and asked him, "Do the people find enjoyment in music and in thechase?" "Certainly, " answered Mencius; "it is when ruler and peopleshare each other's joys and sorrows that the sovereign attains to hishighest dignity. Moreover, a ruler, when moving amongst his people oughtto copy the ancient sovereigns. In the good old days, when the rulermade a tour of inspection among his people he was received with greatacclamation everywhere, for joy and gladness came in his train. In thespring he inspected the ploughing and supplied all that was lacking inthe way of seed. In the autumn he examined the reaping and made up forany deficiency in the yield. It was a common saying during the Hsiadynasty, 'If the Emperor visiteth not, what will become of us?' But now, may your majesty permit me to say, matters are very different, for, whenin these days a ruler visits his people he is accompanied by a hugearmy, who with himself and suite have to be maintained by the peoplevisited. And so it comes to be that the hungry are robbed of their food, and the toilers are wearied with the extra tasks imposed upon them. If aruler wishes to have the hearts of his people, and to' be regarded astheir father, he must consider their needs and endeavour to supplythem. "

_MENCIUS USES STRATAGEM TO BRING HOME TO THE EMPEROR HIS GUILT_

Mencius said on one occasion to Hsuan, King of Chi, "Suppose one of thyministers were to entrust his family during his absence to asubordinate, and that the latter neglected his duty so that the wife andchildren were exposed to great suffering and danger. What should thatminister do?"

"Dismiss him at once, " was the royal reply. 

"But, " continued the philosopher, "suppose that the government of yourown kingdom were bad, the people suffering and disunited and disloyal onaccount of their king's bad rule. What then should be done?" The king, looking this way and that, turned the conversation to other themes. 

_IT MAY BE RIGHT TO KILL A SOVEREIGN_

King Hsuan asked Mencius, "Is it true that Thang banished his ownsovereign, Kieh [the last king of the Hsia dynasty], and that Wuattacked the tyrant Emperor Kau-hsin and slew him?" "It is true, " saidMencius, "for it is so written in the 'Shu King. ' But if a sovereignacts as Kieh did he is no longer a sovereign but a robber, and to bedealt with as such. And if a ruler is, like Kau-hsin, the enemy of hispeople, he is no longer their ruler, and therefore to be put out of theway, and how better than by death?"

_THE GIFTS THAT MAY AND THOSE THAT MAY NOT BE ACCEPTED_

Chan Tsin spoke to Mencius as follows:

"The King of Chi once offered thee a present and thou declinedst it, butdidst accept gifts offered at Sung and at Hsieh. Why this inconsistency?If it were right to refuse in the first case it was equally right torefuse in the other two. If it were right to accept in the latter twocases, it was equally right to accept in the first case. " Thephilosopher answered, "I acted rightly and consistently. The gifts atSung were to provide me with what was needed for a long journey which Iwas about to undertake. Why should I refuse such gifts when needed? AtHsieh I was in some personal danger and needed help to procure the meansof self-defence. The gifts were to enable me to procure arms. Why shouldI have refused such needed help? But at Chi I needed no money, andtherefore refused it when offered, for to accept money when it is notneeded is to accept a bribe. Why should I take such money?"

_WRONG CONDUCT SHOULD BE ENDED AT ONCE_

A distinguished officer of Sung, called Tai Ying-chib, called uponMencius and said, "I am unable as yet to dispense with the tax on goodsand the duties charged at the frontier passes and in the markets, thoughthis is a right and proper thing to do. But it is my intention, untilthe next year, to lighten the tax and the duties, and then next year Ishall remove them altogether. " The philosopher replied, "Here is a manwho daily steals a score of his neighbour's fowls. Someone remonstrates, and, feeling that he is guilty of acting dishonestly, he says, 'I knowthat this stealing is wrong, but in the future I shall be content withstealing one fowl a month. But next year I will stop stealing fowlsaltogether. ' If, " continued Mencius, "this task and these duties are, asyou admit, wrong, end them at once. Why should you wait a year?"

_THE INHERENT GOODNESS OF HUMAN NATURE_

Kao Tzu said to Mencius, "Human nature resembles running water, whichflows east or west according as it can find an outlet. So human natureis inclined equally to what is good and to what is bad. " "It is true, "answered Mencius, "that water will flow indifferently to the east or tothe west. But it will not flow indifferently up or down; it can onlyflow down. The tendency of human nature is towards what is good, as thatof water is to flow downwards. One may, indeed, by splashing water, makeit spurt upwards, but that is forcing it against its true character. Even so, when a man becomes prone to what is evil it is because hisHeaven-implanted nature has been diverted from its true bent. "

_PEOPLE FIRST, KINGS LAST_

"The people, " said Mencius, "are first in importance; next come thegods. The kings are last and least. "

_EVERY MAN SHOULD ACCEPT HIS LOT_

Mencius said, "Every man's lot is fixed for him, and it is a proof ofwisdom to accept it uncomplainingly. He who does this faces misfortuneand even death unmoved. "

_WHAT THE GOOD KING DELIGHTS IN MOST_

"The virtuous king, " said Mencius, "is glad to have a large extent ofterritory and a numerous people to rule over; but his heart is not onthese things. To be at the head of a great kingdom and to see his peopleloyal, united, and flourishing, gives the good king joy; but his heartis not on these things. It is on benevolence, justice, propriety, andknowledge that the good king's heart is set. "

_THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMPLE_

Mencius said, "In the good days of old, men of virtue and talentabounded in the land, and their influence for good was great upon theirfellows. But now, alas, the masses of the people are ignorant, anddepraved, and their dominant influence is bad. "

_COUNSELLORS SHOULD LOVE RIGHTEOUSNESS RATHER THAN RICHES_

Mencius said, "Those who counsel men in high places should feel contemptfor their pomp and display. I have no wish for huge and gorgeous halls, for luxurious food with hundreds of attendants, or for sparkling wine orbewitching women. These things I esteem not; what I esteem are the rulesof propriety handed down by the ancients. "

 * * * * *

FÉNELON

THE EXISTENCE OF GOD

 François de Salignac de la Mothe Fénelon was born at the château of Fénelon, in the ancient territorial division of Périgord, France, August 6, 1651. At twenty-four he became a priest. He was for many years a friend of his celebrated contemporary Bossuet, but later Bossuet attacked a spiritual and unworldly work of Fénelon, who was condemned by the Pope. He died on January 17, 1715, leaving behind him many books, of which the "Treatise on the Existence of God, " first published in 1713, is the masterpiece. This noble and profound work, though it accepts the "argument from design, " which the discovery of universal evolution necessarily modifies, does so with such rare philosophical insight as to stand for ever far above any other works of the kind. Fénelon can scarcely be called a mystic, for his reason was of the finest, and never surrendered its claims; but, though a strictly rational thinker, he had the insight of the mystic or the idealist who sees in external nature, and in the mind of man alike, what Goethe called "the living garment of God. "

_I. --THE HAND THAT MAKES EVERYTHING_

I cannot open my eyes without admiring the art that shines throughoutall nature; the least cast suffices to make me perceive the Hand thatmakes everything. 

Men the least exercised in reasoning, and the most tenacious of theprejudices of the senses, may yet with one look discover Him who hasdrawn Himself in all His works. The wisdom and power He has stamped uponeverything He has made are seen, as it were, in a glass by those thatcannot contemplate Him in His own idea. This is a sensible and popularphilosophy, of which any man free from passion and prejudice is capable. 

If a great number of men of subtle and penetrating wit have notdiscovered God with one cast of the eye upon nature, it is not matter ofwonder, for either the passions they have been tossed by have stillrendered them incapable of any fixed reflection, or the false prejudicesthat result from passions have, like a thick cloud, interposed betweentheir eyes and that noble spectacle. 

A man deeply concerned in an affair of great importance, that shouldtake up all the attention of his mind, might pass several days in a roomtreating about his concerns without taking notice of the proportions ofthe chamber, the ornaments of the chimney, and the pictures about him, all of which objects would continually be before his eyes, and yet noneof them make any impression upon him. In this manner it is that menspend their lives. Everything offers God to their sight, and yet theysee Him nowhere. 

They pass away their lives without perceiving that sensiblerepresentation of the Deity. Such is the fascination of worldly triflesthat obscure their eyes. Nay, oftentimes they will not so much as openthem, but rather affect to keep them shut, lest they should find Himthey do not look for. In short, what ought to help most to open theireyes serves only to close them faster. I mean the constant duration andregularity of the motions which the Supreme Wisdom has put in theuniverse. 

But, after all, whole nature shows the infinite art of its Maker. When Ispeak of an art, I mean a collection of proper means chosen on purposeto arrive at a certain end; or, if you please, it is an order, a method, an industry, or a set design. Chance, on the contrary, is a blind andnecessary cause, which neither sets in order nor chooses anything, andhas neither will nor understanding. Now, I maintain that the universebears the character and stamp of a cause infinitely powerful andindustrious; and, at the same time, that chance--that is, the fortuitousconcourse of causes void of reason--cannot have formed this universe. 

Who will believe that so perfect a poem as Homer's "Iliad" was not theproduct of the genius of a great poet, but that the letters of thealphabet, being confusedly jumbled and mixed, were by chance, as it wereby the cast of a pair of dice, brought together in such an order as isnecessary to describe, in verses full of harmony and variety, so manygreat events; to place and connect them so well together; to paint everyobject with all its most graceful, most noble, and most affectingattendants; in short, to make every person speak according to hischaracter in so natural and so forcible a manner? Let people subtiliseupon the matter as much as they please, yet they never will persuade aman of sense that the "Iliad" was the mere result of chance. How, then, can a man of sense be induced to believe, with respect to the universe, what his reason will never suffer him to believe in relation to the"Iliad"?

_II. --EARTH, THE MOTHER OF ALL LIVING_

After these comparisons, about which I only desire the reader to consulthimself, without any argumentation, I think it is high time to enterinto a detail of nature. I do not pretend to penetrate through thewhole. Who is able to do it? Neither do I pretend to enter into anyphysical discussion. Such way of reasoning requires a certain deepknowledge, which abundance of men of wit and sense never acquire; andtherefore I will offer nothing to them but the simple prospect of theface of nature. I will entertain them with nothing but what everybodyknows, which requires only a little calm and serious attention. 

Let us, in the first place, stop at the great object that first strikesour sight--I mean the general structure of the universe. Let us cast oureyes on this earth that bears us. 

Who is it that hung and poised this motionless globe of the earth? Wholaid its foundation? Nothing seems more vile and contemptible, for themeanest wretches tread it under foot; but yet it is in order to possessit that we part with the greatest treasures. If it were harder than itis, men could not open its bosom to cultivate it; and if it were lesshard it could not bear them, and they would sink everywhere as they doin sand, or in a bog. It is from the inexhaustible bosom of the earth wedraw what is most precious. That shapeless, vile, and rude mass assumesthe most various forms, and yields alone, by turns, all the goods we candesire. That dirty soil transforms itself into a thousand fine objectsthat charm the eye. In the compass of one year it turns into branches, twigs, buds, leaves, blossoms, fruits, and seeds, in order, by thosevarious shapes, to multiply its liberalities to mankind. 

Nothing exhausts the earth; the more we tear her bowels the more she isliberal. After so many ages, during which she has produced everything, she is not yet worn out. She feels no decay from old age, and herentrails still contain the same treasures. A thousand generations havepassed away, and returned into her bosom. 

Everything grows old, she alone excepted; for she grows young againevery year in the spring. She is never wanting to men; but foolish menare wanting to themselves in neglecting to cultivate her. It is throughtheir laziness and extravagance they suffer brambles and briars to growinstead of grapes and corn. They contend for a good they let perish. Theconquerors leave uncultivated the ground for the possession of whichthey have sacrificed the lives of so many thousand men, and have spenttheir own in hurry and trouble. Men have before them vast tracts of landuninhabited and uncultivated, and they turn mankind topsy-turvy for onenook of that neglected ground in dispute. The earth, if well cultivated, would feed a hundred times more men than she does now. Even theunevenness of ground, which at first seems to be a defect, turns eitherinto ornament or profit. The mountains arose and the valleys descendedto the place the Lord had appointed for them. Those different groundshave their particular advantages, according to the divers aspects of thesun. In those deep valleys grow fresh and tender grass to feed cattle. Next to them opens a vast champaign covered with a rich harvest. Here, hills rise like an amphitheatre, and are crowned with vineyards andfruit-trees. There, high mountains carry aloft their frozen brows to thevery clouds, and the torrents that run down from them become the springsof rivers. The rocks that show their craggy tops bear up the earth ofmountains just as the bones bear up the flesh in human bodies. 

There is scarce any spot of ground absolutely barren if a man do notgrow weary of digging, and turning it to the enlivening sun, and if herequire no more from it than it is proper to bear. Amidst stone androcks there is sometimes excellent pasture, and their cavities haveveins which, being penetrated by the piercing rays of the sun, furnishplants with most savoury juices for the feeding of herds and flocks. Even sea-coasts that seem to be the most sterile and wild yieldsometimes either delicious fruits or most wholesome medicines that arewanting in the most fertile countries. Besides, it is the effect of awise over-ruling Providence that no land yields all that is useful tohuman life. For want invites men to commerce, in order to supply oneanother's necessities. It is therefore that want which is the naturaltie of society between nations; otherwise, all the people of the earthwould be reduced to one sort of food and clothing, and nothing wouldinvite them to know and visit one another. 

All that the earth produces, being corrupted, returns into her bosom, and becomes the source of a new production. Thus she resumes all she hasgiven in order to give again. Thus the corruption of plants, and of theanimals she feeds, feed her, and improve her fertility. Thus, the moreshe gives the more she resumes; and she is never exhausted, providedthey who cultivate her restore to her what she has given. Everythingcomes from her bosom, everything returns to it, and nothing is lost init. Nay, all seeds multiply there. 

Admire the plants that spring from the earth; they yield food for thehealthy, and remedies for the sick. Their species and virtues areinnumerable. They deck the earth, yield verdure, fragrant flowers, anddelicious fruits. Do you see those vast forests that seem as old as theworld? Those trees sink into the earth by their roots, as deep as theirbranches shoot up to the sky. Their roots defend them against the winds, and fetch up, as it were by subterranean pipes, all the juices destinedto feed the trunk. The trunk itself is covered with a tough bark thatshelters the tender wood from the injuries of the air. The branchesdistribute, by several pipes, the sap which the roots had gathered up inthe trunk. In summer the boughs protect us with their shadow against thescorching rays of the sun. 

The farther we seek through the universe the more sure is her teaching. That which we learnt from the earth and from plants is taught us againby water, by the air, and by fire. It is the lesson of the skies, and ofthe sun and the stars. The whole animal world teaches us the same. If weturn from things that are large, we shall find wonders no less in theinfinitely little; if we turn from the bodies of animals to the study oftheir instincts, their sleep, their food, the persistence of their racesfrom age to age--though all individuals are mortal--again we findevidence of the skill and power of the Author of all things. 

Still more wonderful is the body of man, his skin and veins, his bonesand joints, his senses, tongue and teeth, the proportions of his body, and, above all things, his soul, which alone among all creatures thinksand knows and is sovereign master over the body. 

It is this reason that is in man which, above all, demonstrates theresidence of God in us. 

_III. --GOD IN THE MIND OF MAN_

It cannot be said that man gives himself the thoughts he had not before;much less can it be said that he receives them from other men, since itis certain he neither does nor can admit anything from without, unlesshe finds it in his own foundation, by consulting within him theprinciples of reason, in order to examine whether what he is told isagreeable or repugnant to them. Therefore, there is an inward schoolwherein man receives what he neither can give himself, nor expect fromother men who live upon trust as well as himself. 

Here, then, are two reasons I find within me, one of which is myself, the other is above me. That which is myself is very imperfect, prejudiced, liable to error, changeable, headstrong, ignorant, andlimited; in short, it possesses nothing but what is borrowed. The otheris common to all men, and superior to them. It is perfect, eternal, immutable, ever ready to communicate itself in all places, and torectify all minds that err and mistake; in short, incapable of everbeing either exhausted or divided, although it communicates itself toall who desire it. 

Where is that perfect reason which is so near me, and yet so differentfrom me? Surely it must be something real, for nothing cannot either beperfect or make perfect imperfect natures. Where is that supreme reason?Is it not the very God I look for?

We have seen the prints of the Deity, or, to speak more properly, theseal and stamp of God Himself, in all that is called the works ofnature. When a man does not enter into philosophical subtleties, heobserves with the first cast of the eye a hand, that was the firstmover, in all the parts of the universe, and set all the wheels of thegreat machine agoing. Everything shows and proclaims an order, an exactmeasure, an art, a wisdom, a mind superior to us, which is, as it were, the soul of the whole world, and which leads and directs everything toHis ends, with a gentle and insensible, though ever an omnipotent force. 

We have seen, as it were, the architecture and frame of the universe;the just proportion of all its parts; and the bare cast of the eye hassufficed us to find and discover even in an ant, more than in the sun, awisdom and power that delights to exert itself in polishing and adorningits vilest works. 

This is obvious, without any speculative discussion, to the mostignorant of men; but what a world of other wonders should we discovershould we penetrate into the secrets of physics, and dissect the inwardparts of animals, which are framed according to the most perfectmechanics. 

Let a man study the world as much as he pleases; let him descend intothe minutest details; dissect the vilest of animals; narrowly considerthe least grain of corn sown in the ground, and the manner in which itgerminates and multiplies; attentively observe with what precautions arose-bud blows and opens in the sun, and closes again at night; and hewill find in all these more design, conduct, and industry than in allthe works of art. Nay, what is called the art of men is but a faintimitation of the great art called the laws of nature, which the impiousdid not blush to call blind chance. Is it, therefore, a wonder thatpoets animated the whole universe, bestowed wings upon the winds, andarrows on the sun, and described great rivers impetuously running toprecipitate themselves into the sea and trees shooting up to heaven torepel the rays of the sun by their thick shades? These images andfigures have also been received in the language of the vulgar, sonatural it is for men to be sensible of the wonderful art that fills allnature. 

Poetry did only ascribe to inanimate creatures the art and design of theCreator, who does everything in them. From the figurative language ofthe poets those notions passed into the theology of the heathens, whosedivines were the poets. They supposed an art, a power, or a wisdom, which they called _numen_ [divinity], in creatures the most destitute ofunderstanding. With them great rivers were gods, and spring naiads. Woods and mountains had their particular deities; flowers had theirFlora; and fruits, Pomona. After all, the more a man contemplatesnature, the more he discovers in it an inexhaustible stock of wisdom, which is, as it were, the soul of the universe. 

What must we infer from thence? The consequence flows of itself. "If somuch wisdom and penetration, " says Minutius Felix, "are required toobserve the wonderful order and design of the structure of the world, how much more were necessary to form it!"

If men so much admire philosophers because they discover a small part ofthe wisdom that made all things, they must be stark blind not to admirethat wisdom itself. 

_IV. --A PRAYER TO GOD_

O my God, if so many men do not discover Thee in this great spectacleThou givest them of all nature, it is not because Thou art far from anyof us. Every one of us feels Thee, as it were, with his hand; but thesenses, and the passions they raise, take up all the attention of ourminds. Thus, O Lord, Thy light shines in darkness; but darkness is sothick and gloomy that it does not admit the beams of Thy light. 

Thou appearest everywhere; and everywhere inattentive mortals neglect toperceive Thee. All nature speaks of Thee, and resounds with Thy holyname; but she speaks to deaf men, whose deafness proceeds from the noiseand clatter they make to stun themselves. Thou art near and within them;but they are fugitive, and wandering, as it were, out of themselves. They would find Thee, O Sweet Light, O Eternal Beauty, ever old and everyoung, O Fountain of Chaste Delights, O Pure and Happy Life of all wholive truly, should they look for Thee within themselves. But the impiouslose Thee only by losing themselves. Alas! Thy very gifts, which shouldshow them the hand from whence they flow, amuse them to such a degree asto hinder them from perceiving it. They live by Thee, and yet they livewithout thinking on Thee or, rather, they die by the Fountain of Lifefor want of quenching their drought in that vivifying stream; for whatgreater death can there be than not to know Thee, O Lord? They fallasleep in Thy soft and paternal bosom, and, full of the deceitful dreamsby which they are tossed in their sleep, they are insensible of thepowerful hand that supports them. 

If Thou wert a barren, impotent, and inanimate body, like a flower thatfades away, a river that runs, a house that decays and falls to ruin, apicture that is but a collection of colours to strike the imagination, or a useless metal that glistens, they would perceive Thee, and fondlyascribe to Thee the power of giving them some pleasure, although inreality pleasure cannot proceed from inanimate beings, which arethemselves void and incapable of it, but from Thee alone, the truespring of all joy. If, therefore, Thou wert but a lumpish, frail, andinanimate being, a mass without any virtue or power, a shadow of abeing, Thy vain fantastic nature would busy their vanity, and be aproper object to entertain their mean and brutish thoughts. But becauseThou art too intimately within them, and they never at home, Thou art tothem an unknown God; for while they rise and wander abroad, the intimatepart of themselves is most remote from their sight. The order and beautyThou scatterest over the face of Thy creatures are like a glaring lightthat hides Thee from them and dazzles their sore eyes. In fine, becauseThou art too elevated and too pure a truth to affect gross senses, menwho are become like beasts cannot conceive Thee, though man has dailyconvincing instances of wisdom and virtue without the testimony of anyof his senses; for those virtues have not sound, colour, odour, taste, figure, nor any sensible quality. 

Why, then, O my God, do men call Thy existence, wisdom, and power morein question than they do those other things most real and manifest, thetruth of which they suppose as certain, in all the serious affairs oflife, and which, nevertheless, as well as Thou, escape our feeblesenses? O misery! O dismal night that surrounds the children of Adam! Omonstrous stupidity! O confusion of the whole man! Man has eyes only tosee shadows, and truth appears a phantom to him. What is nothing is all;and what is all is nothing to him. What do I behold in all nature? God. God everywhere, and still God alone. 

When I think, O Lord, that all being is in Thee, Thou exhaustest andswallowest up, O Abyss of Truth, all my thoughts. I know not whatbecomes of me. Whatever is not Thou disappears; and scarce so much ofmyself remains wherewithal to find myself again. Who sees Thee not neversaw anything; and who is not sensible of Thee, never was sensible ofanything. He is as if he were not. His whole life is but a dream. Arise, O Lord, arise, Let Thy enemies melt like wax and vanish like smokebefore Thy face. How unhappy is the impious soul who, far from Thee, iswithout God, without hope, without eternal comfort! How happy he whosearches, sighs, and thirsts after Thee. But fully happy he on whom arereflected the beams of Thy countenance, whose tears Thy hand has wipedoff, and whose desires Thy love has already completed. 

When will that time be, O Lord? O fair day, without either cloud or end, of which Thyself shalt be the sun, and wherein Thou shalt run through mysoul like a torrent of delight! Upon this pleasing hope I cry out: "Whois like Thee, O Lord? My heart melts and my flesh faints, O God of mysoul, and my eternal wealth. "

 * * * * *

GALILEO

THE AUTHORITY OF SCRIPTURE

 Galileo's treatise on "The Authority of Scripture in Philosophical Controversies" was written at a time when the Copernican theory of the constitution of the universe was engaging the attention of the world. A Benedictine monk, Benedetto Castelli, called upon to defend the theory at the grand-ducal table of Tuscany, asked Galileo's assistance in reconciling it with orthodoxy. His answer was an exposition of a formal theory as to the relations of physical science to Holy Writ. This answer was further amplified in the "Authority of the Scripture, " addressed in 1614 to Christina of Lorraine, Dowager Grand-Duchess of Tuscany, an able and acute defence of his position. A year later another monk laid Galileo's letter to Castelli before the Inquisition, whereupon the philosopher was summoned by Pope Paul V. To the palace of Cardinal Bellarmine, and there warned against henceforth holding, teaching, or defending the condemned doctrine. Nevertheless, in a few years Galileo (see SCIENCE, vol. XV) had to suffer trial and condemnation by the Inquisition for publishing his "Dialogues on the System of the World, " which gave the Ptolemaic theory its death-blow. 

_I. --THE DEFENDERS OF FALLACY_

Some years ago I discovered many astronomical facts till then unknown. Their novelty and their antagonism to some physical propositionscommonly received by the schools did stir up against me many whoprofessed the vulgar philosophy, as if, forsooth, I had with my own handplaced these things in the heavens to obscure and disturb nature andscience. These opponents, more affectionate to their own opinion than totruth, tried to deny and disprove my discoveries, which they might havediscerned with their own eyes; and they published vain discourses, interwoven with irrelevant passages, not rightly understood, of thesacred Scriptures. From this folly they might have been saved had theyremembered the advice of St. Augustine, who, dealing with celestialbodies, writes: "We ought to believe nothing unadvisedly in a doubtfulpoint, lest in favour of our error we conceive a prejudice against thatwhich truth hereafter may discover to be nowise contrary to the sacredbooks. "

Time has proved every one of my statements, and proving them has alsoproved that my opponents were of two kinds. Those who had doubted simplybecause the discoveries were new and strange have been graduallyconverted, while those whose incredulity was based on personal ill-willto me have shut their eyes to the facts and have endeavoured to aspersemy moral character and to ruin me. 

Knowing that I have confuted the Ptolemaic and Aristotelian arguments, and distrusting their defence in the field of philosophy, they havetried to shield their fallacies under the mantle of a feigned religionand of scriptural authority, and have endeavoured to spread the opinionthat my propositions are contrary to the Scriptures, and thereforeheretical. To this end they have found accomplices in the pulpits, andhave scattered rumours that my theory of the world-system would ere longbe condemned by supreme authority. 

Further, they have endeavoured to make the theory peculiar to myself, ignoring the fact that the author, or rather restorer, of the doctrinewas Nicholas Copernicus, a Catholic, and a much-esteemed priest, who wassummoned to Rome to correct the ecclesiastic calendar, and in the courseof his inquiries reached this view of the universe. 

The calendar has since been regulated by his doctrine, and on hisprinciples the motions of the planets have been calculated. Havingreduced his doctrine to six books, he published them under the title of"De Revolutionibus Coelestibus, " at the instance of the Cardinal ofCapua, and of the Bishop of Culma; and, since he undertook the task atthe order of Pope Leo X. , he dedicated the work to his successor PaulIII. , and it was received by the Holy Church and studied by all theworld. 

In the end of his dedicatory epistle Copernicus writes: "If there shouldchance to be any mateologists who, ignorant in mathematics yetpretending to skill in that science, should dare, upon the authority ofsome passage of Scripture wrested to their purpose, to condemn andcensure my hypothesis, I value them not, and scorn their inconsideratejudgment. For it is not unknown that Lactantius (a famous author thoughpoor mathematician) writes very childishly concerning the form of theearth when he scoffs at those who affirm the earth to be in form of aglobe. So that it ought not to seem strange to the intelligent if anysuch should likewise now deride us. The mathematics are written formathematicians, to whom (if I deceive not myself) these labours of mineshall seem to add something, as also to the commonweal of the Churchwhose government is now in the hands of Your Holiness. "

It is such as Lactantius who would now condemn Copernicus unread, andproduce authorities of the Scripture, of divines, and of councils insupport of their condemnation. I hold these authorities in reverence, but I hold that in this instance they are used for personal ends in amanner very different from the most sacred intention of the Holy Church. I am ready to renounce any religious errors into which I may run in thisdiscourse, and if my book be not beneficial to the Holy Church may it betorn and burnt; but I hold that I have a right to defend myself againstthe attacks of ignorant opponents. 

The doctrine of the movement of the earth and the fixity of the sun iscondemned on the ground that the Scriptures speak in many places of thesun moving and the earth standing still. The Scriptures not beingcapable of lying or erring, it followeth that the position of those iserroneous and heretical who maintain that the sun is fixed and the earthin motion. 

It is piously spoken that the Scriptures cannot lie. But none will denythat they are frequently abstruse and their true meaning difficult todiscover, and more than the bare words signify. One taking the sense tooliterally might pervert the truth and conceive blasphemies, and give Godfeet, and hands, and eyes, and human affections, such as anger, repentance, forgetfulness, ignorance, whereas these expressions areemployed merely to accommodate the truth to the mental capacity of theunlearned. 

This being granted, I think that in the discussion of natural problemswe ought to begin not with the Scriptures, but with experiments anddemonstrations. Nor does God less admirably discover Himself to us innature than in Scripture, and having found the truth in nature we mayuse it as an aid to the true exposition of the Scriptures. TheScriptures were intended to teach men those things which cannot belearned otherwise than by the mouth of the Holy Spirit; but we are meantto use our senses and reason in discovering for ourselves things withintheir scope and capacity, and hence certain sciences are neglected inthe Holy Writ. 

Astronomy, for instance, is hardly mentioned, and only the sun, and themoon, and Lucifer are named. Surely, if the holy writers had intended usto derive our astronomical knowledge from the Sacred Books, they wouldnot have left us so uninformed. That they intentionally forbore to speakof the movements and constitution of the stars is the opinion of themost holy and most learned fathers. And if the Holy Spirit has omittedto teach us those matters as not pertinent to our salvation, how can itbe said that one view is _de Fide_ and the other heretical? I might hereinsert the opinion of an ecclesiastic raised to the degree ofEminentissimo: That the intention of the Holy Ghost is to teach us howwe shall go to Heaven, and not how the heavens go. 

_II. --SCRIPTURAL AND EXPERIMENTAL TRUTH_

Since the Holy Writ is true, and all truth agrees with truth, the truthof Holy Writ cannot be contrary to the truth obtained by reason andexperiment. This being true, it is the business of the judiciousexpositor to find the true meaning of scriptural passages which mustaccord with the conclusions of observation and experiment, and care mustbe taken that the work of exposition do not fall into foolish andignorant hands. It must be remembered that there are very few mencapable of understanding both the sacred Scriptures and science, andthat there are many with a superficial knowledge of the Scriptures andwith no knowledge of science who would fain arrogate to themselves thepower of decreeing upon all questions of nature. As St. Jerome writes:"The talking old woman, the dotard, the garrulous sophist, all ventureupon, lacerate, teach, before they have learnt. Others, induced bypride, dive into hard words, and philosophate among women touching theHoly Scriptures. Others (oh, shameful!) learn of women what they teachto men. "

I will not rank among these same secular writers any theologists whom Irepute to be men of profound learning and sober manners, and thereforehold in great esteem and veneration; yet it vexes me when they wouldconstrain science by the authority of the Scriptures, and yet do notconsider themselves bound to answer reason and experiment. It is truethat theology is the queen of all the sciences, but queen only in thesense that she deals with high matters revealed in noble ways, and ifshe condescends not to study the more humble matters of the inferiorsciences she ought not to arrogate to herself the right to judge them;for this would be as if an autocratic prince, being neither physiciannor architect, should undertake to administer medicines and erectbuildings to the danger of the lives of his subjects. 

Again, to command the professors of astronomy to confute their ownobservations is to enjoin an impossibility, for it is to command themnot to see what they do see, and not to understand what they dounderstand, and to find what they do not discover. I would entreat thewise and prudent fathers to consider the difference between matters ofopinion and matters of demonstration, for demonstrated conclusionstouching the things of nature and of the heavens cannot be changed withthe same facility as opinions touching what is lawful in a contract, bargain, or bill of exchange. Your highness knows what happened to thelate professor of mathematics in the University of Pisa--how, believingthat the Copernican doctrine was false, he started to confute it, but inhis study became convinced of its truth. 

In order to suppress the Copernican doctrine, it would be necessary notonly to prohibit the book of Copernicus and the writings of authors whoagree with him, but to interdict the whole science of astronomy, andeven to forbid men to look at the sky lest they might see Mars and Venusat very varying distances from the earth, and discover Venus at one timecrescent, at another time round, or make other observationsirreconcilable with the Ptolemaic system. 

It is surely harmful to souls to make it a heresy to believe what isproved. The prohibition of astronomy would be an open contempt of ahundred texts of the Holy Scriptures, which teach us that the glory andthe greatness of Almighty God are admirably discerned in all His works, and divinely read in the open book of the heavens. 

_III. --FACT AND FAITH_

It may be said that the doctrine of the movement of the sun and thefixity of the earth must _de Fide_ be held for true since the Scripturesaffirm it, and all the fathers unanimously accept the scriptural wordsin their naked and literal sense. But it was necessary to assign motionto the sun and rest to the earth lest the shallow minds of the vulgarshould be confounded, amused, and rendered obstinate and contumaciouswith regard to doctrines of faith. St. Jerome writes: "It is the customfor the pen-men of Scripture to deliver their judgments in many thingsaccording to the common received opinion that their times had of them. "Even Copernicus himself, knowing the power of custom, and unwilling tocreate confusion in our comprehension, continues to talk of the risingand setting of the sun and stars and of variations in the obliquity ofthe zodiac. Whence it is to be noted how necessary it is to accommodateour discourse to our accustomed manner of understanding. 

In the next place, the common consent of the fathers to a naturalproposition should authorise it only if it have been discussed anddebated with all possible diligence, and this question was in thosetimes totally buried. 

Besides, it is not enough to say that the fathers accept the Ptolemaicdoctrine; it is necessary to prove that they condemned the Copernican. Was the Copernican doctrine ever formally condemned as contrary to theScriptures? And Didacus, discoursing on the Copernican hypothesis, concludes that the motion of the earth is not contrary to theScriptures. 

Let my opponents, therefore, apply themselves to examine the argumentsof Copernicus and others; and let them not hope to find such rash andimpetuous decisions in the wary and holy fathers, or in the absolutewisdom of him that cannot err, as those into which they have sufferedthemselves to be hurried by prejudice or personal feeling. His holinesshas certainly an absolute power of admitting or condemning propositionsnot directly _de Fide_, but it is not in the power of any creature tomake them true or false otherwise than of their own nature and _defacto_ they are. 

In my judgment it would be well first to examine the truth of the fact(over which none hath power) before invoking supreme authority; for ifit be not possible that a conclusion should be declared heretical whilewe are not certain but that it may be true, their pains are vain whopretend to condemn the doctrine of the mobility of the earth and thefixity of the sun, unless they have first demonstrated the doctrine tobe impossible and false. 

Let us now consider how we may interpret the command of Joshua that thesun should stand still. 

According to the Ptolemaic system, the sun moves from east to westthrough the ecliptic, and therefore the standing still of the sun wouldshorten and not lengthen the day. Indeed, in order to lengthen the dayon this system it would be necessary not to hold the sun, but toaccelerate its pace about three hundred and sixty times. Possibly Joshuaused the words to suit the comprehension of the ignorant people;possibly--as St. Augustine says--he commanded the whole system of thecelestial spheres to stand still, and his command to the moon ratherconfirms this conjecture. 

On the Copernican system interpretation is simplified; for if weconsider the mobility of the sun and how it is in a certain sense thesoul and heart of the universe, it is not illogical to say that it givesnot only light, but also motion to the bodies round it. In this manner, by the standing still of the sun at Joshua's command, the day might belengthened without disturbing the order of the universe or the mutualpositions of the stars. This interpretation also explains the statementthat the sun stood still _in medio coeli_. Had the sun been in themiddle of the heavens in the sense of rising and setting, it had hardlybeen necessary to check its course; but _in medio coeli_ probablysignifies in the middle or centre of the universe where it resides. 

I have no doubt that other passages of the Scriptures could be likewiseinterpreted in accordance with the Copernican system by divines withknowledge of astronomy. They might say that the word "firmament" verywell agrees, _ad literam_, with the starry sphere. _Ad literam_, if theyadmit the rotation of the earth, they might understand its poles, whenit is said _Nec dum terram fecerat, et flumina, et cardines orbisterrae_. [Nor yet had He created the earth, or the rivers, or the hingesfor the globe of the earth. ] Surely _cardines_, or "hinges, " areascribed to the earth in vain if it be not to turn upon them. 

 * * * * *

GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH HEGEL

THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

 Hegel's "Philosophy of Religion" was published the year following the philosopher's death, at Berlin, in 1832; and the rugged shape and uneven construction of some of it may fairly be attributed to the fact that, as it stands, it is largely an editorial compilation. Such faults, however, as Dr. Edward Caird has remarked, "if they take from the lectures as expressions of their author's mind, and from their value as scientific treatises, have some compensating advantages if we regard them as a means of education in philosophy; for in this point of view their very artlessness gives them something of the same stimulating, suggestive power which is attained by the consummate art of the Platonic dialogues. " The importance of the work is evidenced by the influence it has exercised over the mind of a later generation; and many readers, to whom Hegel (see Vol. XIV) is little more than a name, will certainly find here the sources of much that has become familiar as an essential part of the religious atmosphere of a later day, and of the apologies of modern speculative theology. 

_I. THE RELATION OF PHILOSOPHY TO RELIGION_

The object of religion is the same as that of philosophy; it is theexternal verity itself in its objective existence; it is God--nothingbut God and the unfolding of God. Philosophy is not the wisdom of theworld, but the knowledge of things which are not of this world. It isnot the knowledge of external mass, of empirical life and existence, butof the eternal, of the nature of God, and of all which flows from Hisnature. For this nature ought to manifest and develop itself. Consequently, philosophy in unfolding religion merely unfolds itself, and in unfolding itself it unfolds religion. In so far as philosophy isoccupied with the eternal truth, the truth which is in and for itself;in so far as it is occupied with this as thinking spirit, rather than inan arbitrary fashion and in view of a particular interest, philosophyhas the same sphere of activity as has religion. And if the religiousconsciousness aspires to abolish all that is peculiar to itself and tobe absorbed in its object, the philosophic spirit likewise plunges withthe same energy into its object and renounces all particularity. 

Religion and philosophy are thus at one in having one and the sameobject. Philosophy, in fact, also is the adoration of God, it isreligion; for, seeing that God is its object, it involves the samerenunciation of every opinion and every thought that is arbitrary andsubjective. Philosophy is, in consequence, identical with religion. Onlyit is religion in a peculiar manner, and this it is which distinguishesit from religion commonly so called. So philosophy and religion are bothreligion, and that which distinguishes one from the other is no morethan the characteristic mode in which respectively they consider theirobject, God. 

Here is the difficulty of understanding how philosophy can make but onewith religion, a difficulty which has even been mistaken forimpossibility. Thence also arise the fears which philosophy inspires intheology and the hostile attitudes which they assume towards each other. What brings about this attitude is, on the side of theology, that forher philosophy does nothing but corrupt, pull down, and profane thecontent of religion, and that she understands God in a totally differentmanner from that after which religion understands Him. It is the sameopposition which long ago among the Greeks caused a free and democraticpeople like the Athenians to burn books and to condemn Socrates. In ourown day, however, this opposition is considered a thing which it isnatural to admit--more natural indeed than the other opinion concerningthe unity of religion and philosophy. 

Diverse religions offer us, it is true, only too often the most bizarreand monstrous representations of the divine essence. But we must notconfine ourselves to a superficial consideration and consequentrejection of these representations and the religious practices whichfollow upon them as being engendered by superstition, by error, or byimposture, or even by a simple piety, and so neglect their essentialvalue. There is need to discover in these representations and in thesepractices their relation with truth. 

_II. --GOD THE UNIVERSAL_

For us, who have religion, God is a familiar being, a substantial truthexisting in our subjective consciousness. But, scientificallyconsidered, God is a general and abstract term. The philosophy ofreligion it is which develops and grasps the divine nature and whichteaches us what God is. God is a familiar idea, but an idea which hasstill to be scientifically developed. 

The result of philosophic examination is that God is the absolute truth, the universal in and for itself, embracing all things and in which allthings subsist. And in regard to this assertion, we may appeal in thefirst place to the religious consciousness, and to its conviction thatGod is the absolute truth whence all things proceed, whither they allreturn, upon which all things depend, and in respect of which nothingcan possess a true and absolute independence. 

The heart may very well be full of this representation of God, butscience is not built up of what is in the heart. The object of scienceis that which has arisen to the level of consciousness, and of thinkingconsciousness that is, in other words, that which has attained to theform of thought. 

In so much as He is the universal, God is, for us, in relation todevelopment, Being enclosed in itself, Being at unity with itself. Whenwe say God is Being enclosed in itself, we enunciate a proposition whichis bound to a development which we await. But this envelopment of God inHimself which we have called His universality we must not conceive, relatively to God Himself and His content, as an abstract universality, outside of which, and as opposed to which, the particular has anindependent existence. 

So we must consider this universal as an absolutely concrete universal. This sense of fulness is the sense in which God is one, and there is butone God--that is to say, God is not one merely by contrast with othergods, but because it is He that is the One, that is, God. 

The things which are, the developments of the worlds of nature and ofmind, show a multiplicity of forms and an infinite variety ofexistences. But whatever may be their difference of degree, of force, ofcontent, these things have no true independence; their being isconsequent, and, so to speak, contingent. When we predicate being ofparticular things, it is not of Being which is absolute that wespeak--Being of and from itself; that is, God--but a borrowed being, asemblance of being. 

God in His universality--that is, this universal Being which has nolimit, no bounds, no particularity--is a Being which subsistsabsolutely, and which subsists alone; all else which subsists has itsroot in this unity, and by this alone subsists. In thus representing toourselves this first content we may say that God is absolute substance, the only veritable reality. For not everything which has a reality has areality of its own, or subsists by itself. God is the only absolutereality, and thereby the absolute substance. 

If we stop at this abstract thought we have Spinozism, for in Spinozismsubjectivity is not yet differentiated from substantiality, fromsubstance as such. But in the presupposition just made there is alsothis thought--God is spirit, absolute and eternal; spirit which comesnot forth from itself in differentiation. This ideality, thissubjectivity of spirit, which is transparency, ideality excluding allparticular determination, is precisely the universal, pure relation toself, Being which remains absolutely within itself. 

If we halt at substance, we fail to grasp this universal under itsconcrete form. In its concrete determination spirit always preserves itsunity, this unity of its reality which we call substance. But one shouldadd that this substantiality, the unity of the absolute reality withitself, is but the foundation, but a moment in the determination of Godas spirit. Hence, principally, arises the reproach which is directedagainst philosophy--to wit, that philosophy, to be consistent withitself, is necessarily Spinozism, and consequently atheism and fatalism. But at the beginning we have not yet determinations distinguished onefrom another as aye and nay. We have the one but not the other. 

Consequently, what we have here is, to start with, content under theform of substance. Even when we say, "God, " "spirit, " we have onlywords, indeterminate representations. The essential point is to knowwhat has been produced in the consciousness. And that is, first, thesimple, the abstract. Here, in this first simple determination, we haveGod only under the form of universality. Only we do not halt at thismoment. 

Nevertheless, this content remains the foundation of all furtherdevelopments, for in these developments God comes not forth from Hisunity. When God creates the world--to use the expression of everyday--there comes not into existence an evil, a contrary, existing initself independently of God. 

_III. --GOD EXISTS FOR THOUGHT_

This Beginning is an object for us or a content in us. We possess thisobject. Immediately the question arises, Who are we? We, I, spirit--herealso is a complex being, a multiplied being. I have perceptions; I see, I hear, etc. Seeing, hearing; all this is I. Consequently, the precisesense of this question is, Which among these determinations is it inaccordance with which this content exists for our minds? Idea, will, imagination, feeling--which is the seat, the proper domain of thiscontent, of this object?

If we accept the common answers to this question, God will abide in usas the object of faith, of feeling, of representation, of knowledge. 

We shall have to examine more closely later on in a special fashion withrespect to this point, these forms, faculties, aspects of ourselves. Inthis place we shall not seek a reply to this question; nor shall we say, basing our answer on experience and observation, that God is in ourfeeling, etc. But, to begin with, we will confine ourselves to what wehave actually before us, to this One, to this universal, to thisconcrete Being. 

If we take this One, and ask for what power, for what activity of ourmind does this One, this absolutely universal Being, exist, we cannotbut name the one activity of mind which corresponds to it asconstituting its proper natural domain. This activity, which correspondsto the universal, is thought. 

Thought is the field in which this content moves; it is the energisingof the universal, or the universal in the reality of its activity. Or, if we say that thought embraces the universal, that for which theuniversal is will still be thought. 

This universal which can be produced by thought, and which is forthought, may be a quite abstract universal. In this sense it is theunlimited, the infinite, the being without bounds, without particulardetermination. This universal, negative to begin with, has its seat notelsewhere than in thought. 

To think of God is to rise above the things of sense, exterior andindividual, above simple feeling into the region of pure being; being atunity with itself--that is to say, into the pure region of theuniversal. And this region is thought. 

Such is the substratum for this content considered on the subjectiveside. Here the content is that Being in which is no difference, noschism; Being which abides in itself, the universal; and thought is theform for which this universal is. 

Thus we have a difference between thought and the universal which wehave called God. It is a difference which in the first place belongsonly to our reflection, and is by no means to be found in the content onits own account. There is the result to which philosophy comes--a resultalready comprised in religion as under the form of faith--to wit, thatGod is the sole veritable reality, the Being without which no otherreality would exist. 

In the unity of this reality, in this cloudless shining, the reality andthe distinction which we call thinking-being have as yet no place. 

What we have before us is this absolute unity. This content, thisdetermination we cannot yet call religion because to religion belongssubjective spirit consciousness. Thought is the seat of this universal, but this seat is, to begin with, absorbed in this being which is one, eternal, in and for itself. 

This universal constitutes the beginning and the point of departure, butonly as unity which so abides. It is not a mere substratum whencedifferences are born; rather, all differences are included in thisuniversal. No more is it an abstract and inert universal, but theabsolute principle of all activity, the matrix, the infinite sourcewhence all things proceed, whither all things return, and in which theyare eternally preserved. 

Thus the universal is never separated from this ethereal element, fromthis Unity with itself, this concentration within itself. 

_IV. --WHAT IS EVIL?_

As the universal, God could not find Himself faced by a contrary whereofthe reality should pretend to rise above the phantasmal level. For thispure unity and this perfect transparency matter is nothing impenetrable, and spirit, the ego, is not so independent as to possess a true, individual, substantiality of its own. 

There has been a tendency to label this idea pantheism. It would be moreexact to call it the conception of substantiality. God is firstdetermined as substance only. The absolute subject spirit is alsosubstance; but it is determined rather as subject. This is thedifference generally ignored by those who assert that speculativephilosophy is pantheism. As usual, they miss the essential point anddisparage philosophy by falsifying it. 

Pantheism is commonly taken to mean that God is all things--the whole, the universe, the collection of all existences, of things infinite andinfinitely diverse. From which notion the charge is brought againstphilosophy that it teaches that all things are God; that is to say, thatGod is, not the universal which is in and for itself, but the infinitemultiplicity of individual things in their empirical and immediateexistence. 

If you say God is all that is here, this paper, etc. , you have indeedcommitted yourself to the pantheism with which philosophy is reproached;that is, the whole is understood as equivalent to all individual things. But there is also the genus, which is equally the universal, yet iswholly different from this totality in which the universal is but thecollection of individual things, and the basis, the content, isconstituted by these things themselves. To say that there has ever beena religion which has taught this pantheism is to say what is absolutelyuntrue. It has never entered any man's mind that everything is God; thatis to say, that God is things in their individual and contingentexistence. Far less has philosophy ever taught this doctrine. 

Spinozism itself, as such, as well as Oriental pantheism, contains thisdoctrine: that the divine in all things is no more than that which isuniversal in their content, their essence; and in such sense that thisessence is conceived of as a determinate essence. 

When Brahma says, "In the metal I am the brightness of its shining;among the rivers I am the Ganges; I am the life of all that lives, " hethereby suppresses the individual. He says not, "I am the metal, therivers, the individual things of various kinds as such, nor in thefashion of their immediate existence. "

Here, at this stage, what is expressed is no longer pantheism; butrather that of the essence in individual things. 

In the living being are time and space. But in this individual being itis only the changeless element that is made to stand out. "The life ofbeing that lives" is in this latter sphere of life the unlimited, theuniversal. But if it be said "God is all things, " here we understandindividuality with all its limitations, its finity, its passingexistence. This notion of pantheism arises out of the conception ofunity, not as spiritual unity but abstract unity; and then, when theidea takes its religious form, where only the substance, the One, ispossessed of true reality, there is a tendency to forget that it isprecisely in presence of this unity that individual and finite thingsare effaced, and to continue to place these in a material fashion sideby side with this unity. They will not admit the teaching of theEleatics, who, when they say "There is only One, " add expressly thatnon-entity is not. All that is finite would be limitation, a negation ofthe One, but non-entity, the boundary, term, limit, and that which islimited, exist not at all. 

Spinozism has been accused of atheism. But Spinozism does not teach thatGod is the world, that He is _all things_. Things have indeed aphenomenal existence--that is, an existence as appearances. We speak ofour existence, and our life is indeed comprised in this existence, butto speak philosophically the world has no reality, it has no existence. Individual things are finite things to which no reality can beattributed; it may be said of them that they have no existence. 

Spinozism--this is the accusation directed against it--involves by wayof consequence that, if all things make but one, good and evil make butone; there is no difference between them; and thereby all religion isdestroyed. In themselves, it is said there is no difference between goodand evil; consequently it is a matter of indifference whether one berighteous or wicked. It may be granted that in themselves--that is, inGod, who is the sole veritable reality--the difference between good andevil disappears. In God there is no evil. But the difference betweengood and evil can exist only on condition that God is the evil. But itcannot be allowed that evil is an affirmative thing, and that thisaffirmation is in God. God is good, and nothing else than good; thedistinction between good and evil is not present in this unity, in thissubstance, and comes into existence only with differentiation. 

God is unity abiding absolutely in itself. In the substance there is nodifferentiation. The distinction of good and evil begins with thedistinction of God from the world, and particularly from man. It is thefundamental principle of Spinozism with regard to this distinction ofGod and the world that man must have no other end than God. The love ofGod, therefore, it is that Spinozism marks out for man as the law to befollowed in order to bring about the healing of this breach. 

And it is the loftiest morality that teaches that evil has no existenceand that man is not bound to permit the substantial existence of thisdistinction, this negation. Yet it is possible for him to desire tomaintain the difference and even to push it to the point of sheeropposition to God, who is the universal, self-contained andself-sufficing. In this case man is evil. But, alternatively, he mayannul this distinction and place his true existence in God alone and inhis aspiration towards Him; and in this case he is good. 

In Spinozism there is indeed the difference between good and evil, opposition between God and man; but side by side with it we have alsothe principle that evil is to be deemed a non-entity. In God as God, inGod as substance, there is no distinction. It is for man that thedistinction exists, as also for him exists the distinction of good andevil. 

_V. --THE DETERMINATION OF UNITY_

The superficial method of appraising philosophy is exemplified also inthose who assert that it is a "system of identity. " It is perfectly truethat substance is this unity at one with itself, but spirit no less isthis self-identity. Ultimately, all is identity, unity with itself. Butwhen they speak of the philosophy of identity they have in view abstractidentity or unity in general; and they neglect the essential point, towit, the determination of this unity in itself; in other words, theyomit to consider whether this unity is determined as substance or asspirit. Philosophy from beginning to end is nothing else than the studyof determinations of unity. 

In the sphere of the Notion many unities are comprised. The combinationof water and earth is a unity, but this unity is mixture. If we bringtogether a base and an acid, we have as the result a crystal; alsowater; but water which cannot be discerned and which gives no trace ofhumidity. Here the unity of the water and of this matter is a unitydifferent from the mixture of water and earth. The essential point isthe difference of these determinations. The unity of God is alwaysunity, but what is of primary importance is to know the modes and formsof the determination of this unity. 

Manifestation, development, determination do not go on to infinity, noryet do they stop accidentally. But in the course of its true developmentthe Notion completes its course by a return upon itself, whereby it hasattained the reality adequate to it. So it is that the manifestation isinfinite in nature, that the content is adequate to the Notion ofspirit, and that the phenomenal world exists, like spirit, in and foritself. In religion, the Notion of religion has become its own object. Spirit which is in and for itself has now no longer in its developmentindividual forms and determinations, it knows itself no longer as spiritin such determinability or such a limited moment; but it has triumphedover these limitations and this finiteness, and is for itself that whichalso it is in itself. This cognisance in which spirit is for itself whatit is in itself constitutes the in-and-for of spirit which is inpossession of knowledge, the perfect and absolute religion, in which isrevealed what spirit is, what God is. That is the Christian religion. 

 * * * * *

THE BOOKS OF HINDUISM

THE VEDANTA SUTRAS

 Hinduism, though usually understood to include Brahmanism (q. V. ), is, in fact, a later development of it. Its central doctrine is the trinity, or Trimurti, which embraces the three-fold manifestation of the god-head as Brahma, the one supreme being, the Creator; Vishnu the Preserver; and Siva the Destroyer. The three principal books of Hinduism are the "Vedanta Sutras, " the "Puranas, " and the "Tantras, " of which only the first is epitomised here. The "Sutras" are the earliest. The "Vedanta" (literally "goal" or "issue of the Veda") is a purely pantheistic and monastic philosophical system, and by far the most prevalent in Modern India. It is ascribed to Badarayana, sometimes called Vyasa, though this last is really a generic name denoting "a collector. " The word "sutra" denotes literally "threads, " and is used by Brahmanic writers for short, dry sentences, brief expositions. "Vedanta Sutras" means literally "compendious expressions of the Vedantic (not Vedic) doctrine. " The second great division of Hindu sacred literature is the "Puranas, " the last and most modern of the books of Hinduism. The word "Purana" means "old, " and in ancient Sanscrit writings it has the same meaning as our "cosmology. " The "Puranas, " however, are ill-arranged collections of theological and philosophical reflections, myths and legends, ritual, and ascetic rules. They depend very much on the two great epics, especially the Mahabharata. The Sanscrit writings called "Tantras" are really manuals of religion, of magic, and of counter-charms, with songs in praise of Sakti, the female side of Siva. 

_INTRODUCTORY_

The Vedanta is sometimes called the Mimamsa (= philosophicalreflections). The aphorisms of which the Vedanta Sutras consist are inthemselves almost as unintelligible as the Confucian "Book of Changes, "the compiler having been only too successful in aiding the memory of theHindu student by a system of _multum in parvo_. 

It is usual to accept the interpretation put on the Sutras by theSanscrit commentator Sankara, commonly called Sankara Karya, whoflourished about A. D. 700. There are, however, many other commentaries, notably that of Ramanuga. George Thibaut, in the "Sacred Books of theEast" (vols. 34, 38, and 48), gives the interpretation of Sankara, andalso that of Ramanuga when it differs essentially. On the whole it maybe said that Sankara is a thorough-going Vedantist and pantheist. Ramanuga, on the other hand, has leanings towards the dualism of theSankhya philosophy, and endeavours to make the Vedanta Sutras supporthis opinions. 

The Vedanta Sutras embrace five hundred and fifty-five aphorisms, orSutras, arranged in four books (_Adhyay_), each having four-chapters(_Pada_), the chapters being severally divided into sections(_Adhikarana_). These Sutras are of the utmost importance, as nearly allHindu sects base their belief and practices on them. It should beremembered that these Sutras form a collection, and that they are thework of many hands, and belong to different periods. 

_BOOK I. --BRAHMAN, THE SUM AND SUBSTANCE OF EVERYTHING_

The ego and the non-ego differ in themselves and in their attributes. Itwill be found, however, that the non-ego depends on the ego, and is itsproduct. Individual souls, on the other hand, representing so many egos, are themselves but manifestations of the supreme universalsoul--Brahman; that is, Brahman and the Atman [the individual soul] areidentical, the latter being the product of the self-revealing of theformer. [With this one may compare the "ontological ideas" of Plato, the"absolute substance" of Spinoza, and the "absolute idea" of Hegel; allof them standing for the One only existing Being which manifests itselfto thought and to sense in various forms. ]

"What, then, " asks the Vedantist, "is Brahman"?

The word comes from _brih_, "to be great. " Hence Brahman is something, or someone, transcendently great. The word may be defined as connotingthat whence all things proceed. This implies absolute, unoriginatedorigin, absolute subsistence, and also reabsorption, for as all thingsgo forth from Brahman, so shall all things return to that whence theystarted forth. 

The Scriptures [Vedas] lay most stress on Brahman as the source andorigin of all things. What qualities there are in the world inhere inBrahman, or they could not be in the world which has sprung from him. There could be no intelligent souls without a previously existingintelligent Brahman. That Brahman, the Supreme Being, is all-knowing isproved from the fact that the Veda itself, the source and centre of whatis knowable, proceeds from Him as its one, only author. 

This Brahman, as set forth in the Vedanta texts as the cause of theworld, is therefore intelligent, and by no means to be identified withthe non-intelligent Pradhâna (_Prakriti_) which the Sankhya [atheistic]philosophy makes to be the world's cause. What looks like a separate, conscious, individual soul or mind is really but the outworking ofBrahman, the highest and first of beings. 

The difference is apparent, but not real. So teaches Sankara; but hisrival commentator, Ramanuga, endeavours to show that Brahman, thesupreme self of the universe, is absolutely free from the effects ofconduct. But the individual selves, which we call souls, are not, for itis the effect of conduct in a previous state of existence [Karma] thatdecides the character and form of the new life to be lived, or whetherthere is to be a new life lived at all, since conduct sufficiently goodentitles to absorption in the one all--Brahman. 

It may be objected that Brahman cannot be the creator of this actualworld, for there is in it suffering, injustice, and cruelty. He couldnot be the author of these. To which the commentator Sankara answers:"Brahman is himself, with all his greatness, subject to the operation ofthe great moral laws according to which virtue is rewarded and vicepunished. All men are free, and it is their self-chosen conduct thatdetermines their destiny. This is a law that pervades all existence, conditions existence, and without which there could be no existence. "

It may be again asked: "How can a being with perfect life produce aworld that is lifeless?" In other words, "How can the effect differ fromits cause?" The same commentator replies: "Just as lifeless hair cangrow out of a living man. "

Again, it is said, "In the universe Brahman is at once he who enjoys andhe who is enjoyed. How can he be both one and the other--agent andobject?" To which Sankara replies: "It is as possible for these two togo together as for the ocean to be itself and to be at the same timefoam, waves, billows, and bubbles. The same earth produces diamonds, rock crystal, and vermilion. Do they differ from the earth?

"The same sun causes plants of various kinds to grow, and the very samenourishment taken into the body is changed to flesh, hair, nails, etc. The spider spins its web from its own substance, and spirits assume manyforms when they appear on the earth. All these are but images of theeternal world-process by which Brahman reveals Himself in souls and inmaterial objects. "

 THE HIGHEST KNOWLEDGE INACCESSIBLE TO LOW CASTE MEN

No Sudra [or lowest caste man] is capable of such knowledge as leads toBrahmanhood [the state of being absorbed in Brahman]. Only thetwice-born[12] are allowed to study the Vedic Scriptures, a knowledge ofwhich is essential to salvation. The twice-born are likewise alonepermitted to offer sacrifice, for how can a man sacrifice aright who isignorant of the sacred scriptures, which are alone adequate for a man'sguidance? If the Sudras, or fourth-caste men, are excluded from the_summum bonum_ of humanity--absorption in the one great all--how muchmore are Pariahs, or non-caste men, deprived of this great boon! Brahmanis the material, as well as the efficient, cause of the world, whichsprings from him by way of modification, but is his manifested self andnothing more. 

_BOOK II. --OBJECTIONS TO VEDANTIC DOCTRINES STATED AND REFUTED_

The Vedanta texts, the Vedas and the Upanishads, teach that Brahman isthe one only source of whatever exists outside himself; that his natureis not only mighty, but also intelligent. The evidence for this suppliedin Book I. Is, for the most part, the authority of the above texts; thatwhich they say must be accepted as "gospel, " whatever human reason maysee or say to the contrary. 

Book II. Begins by stating and answering speculative objections on thepart of Sankhyaists. Though himself intelligence (not merelyintelligent) Brahman may give birth to a non-intelligent world, seeingthat like does not always spring from like [see above]. 

Atomists hold that there is apparent difference and separateness inthings. "Where, then, " they ask, "is the oneness, the monism, for whichthe Vedantists argue?" It is replied that it is only superficial thoughtthat fixes itself upon the manifoldness of things, losing sight of theironeness. Deeper thought sees underneath the many a oneness which bindsthem, and of which they are only the outward expressions. The greatocean is one, but its waves and ripples are many. All at bottom is butone: the Universal Being. 

A non-intelligent first cause (_Prakriti_), such as the Sankhyaistspostulate, could never call into being an orderly world, for how couldunreason produce reason? Nor could atoms set in motion produce a plannedor intelligent universe, as the Atomists falsely say. There must be anintelligent power controlling the atoms and contemplating the result tobe attained. 

The view put forth by the Sankhya philosophers, that an external andinternal world exists in mutual independence, is contrary to thought andexperience--is, in fact, unthinkable. We know no external world: we havenever had any experience outside the region of our own consciousness;yet what is regarded as external to the individual consciousness is not_Maya_, as is taught in some of the Upanishads, and maintained by laterphilosophers. This external world as a fact of consciousness is as realas that consciousness and as the individual mind which makes mentalexperience possible, and is the great All, of which the individual mindis the working and manifestation. 

 THE RELATION OF BRAHMAN TO ELEMENTS AND THE SOUL

Are the elementary substances (ether, air, etc) co-eternal, withBrahman, or do they issue from him? It can be shown, and is shown, thatone elementary substance proceeds from another (_e. G. _, air from ether), and that in the last resort all such substances have come forth fromBrahman, who has not only produced them, but also guided and effectedtheir evolution. 

The individual soul is, according to the scriptures [Vedas andUpanishads], eternal and permanent, and has not been produced byBrahman; who is, however, as noted, the producer of the elementarysubstances. Like Brahman himself, the individual soul is uncreated andeternal. What is in time and belongs to time is the connection of thesoul with the conditions of space and time. This is the interpretationgiven by Sankara. Ramanuga, however, holds that the soul is a creatureof Brahman, though an eternal one, it having existed ever as a mode ofthe great All [compare the doctrine of the eternal procession of theSon]. 

 WHAT IS SOUL?

What is soul? It is _gna_, or knowledge. [The etymology of both theselatter words is identical--compare Greek _gnosco_, etc. ] This means, according to Sankara, that knowledge is of the very essence of soul, andnot a mere attribute of it. The soul is not merely a knower (_gnatri_), but it is knowledge. Ramanuga, on the other hand, explains that theknowledge spoken of in this Sutra means "the knower"; that the soul isnot knowledge, but that which can and does know. 

Is the soul limited in size, and capable, therefore, of occupying but arestricted space? Or is it, on the contrary, omnipresent?

Sankara maintains that the Sutra in question teaches the latter; thesoul is everywhere. Ramanuga makes the same Sutra teach the verycontrary. As a matter of fact, the Sutra in question seems to teach boththese contradictory doctrines, perhaps because it registers differenttraditions. Sankara, however, explains further on that as long as thesoul is passing through the changes involved in Samsara [=transmigration] it is limited and local, but on reaching Brahmanhood itbecomes omnipresent. In this way the great commentator seeks toreconcile teaching apparently contradictory in this Sutra. 

Is this soul an agent? Some of the Sutras say it is, others say it isnot. How are the conflicting statements to be reconciled? Sankara doesthis in the following way. As long as the soul is tied down to materialconditions--that is, is passing through the processes of Samsara--it isan agent. But as soon as it has escaped from this bondage oftransmigration it dwells in a state of perfect repose, inactive andrestful. In all its activities the soul is prompted by Brahman, withoutwhose inspiration and guidance the soul could perform nothing, and couldnever, therefore, reach the true goal of all souls, absorption in theone All, which can be obtained in no other way than by the performanceof good deeds, which means action. 

_BOOK III. --OF THE SOUL AND ITS SUMMUM BONUM_

When at death the soul passes from the body its subtle material elementsstill cling to it. Good souls pass on to the moon, whence theyafterwards descend in a form and state determined by their formeractions [Karma]. If the previous life has been a moral failure, the newlife now entered upon will belong to a lower level of being, _i. E. _, theman may become an animal, the higher, animal may become a lower one. Onthe other hand, there may be an ascent in the scale of being. 

When the soul is a-dreaming, what it thinks it sees and hears, etc. , isall illusion, for it does not see or hear, etc. , what it thinks it does. In a state of profound dreaminess the soul leaves the body and lives inclose fellowship with Brahman. 

How is the soul to obtain final release from the thraldom of materialconditions? By meditating on Brahman as he is set forth in the sacredscriptures. Brahman must be thought about and meditated on in all hisattributes, and this produces identity with the one great self ofexistence. 

Though Sankara makes this to be the teaching of the Sutras, in anotherplace he insists that Brahman is without attributes. He is not, therefore, consistent. The meditation on Brahman which leads tosoul-freedom must have regard also to Brahman's negative qualities, _i. E. _, his not being gross, nor subtle, wise nor foolish, etc. 

 THE RELATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND CONDUCT

The knowledge of Brahman is independent of action, and not subordinateto it. It is _vidya_ [compare _vision_, which has the same etymology], or knowledge, that is alone prescribed in the holy writings, notconduct. Where, however, there is right knowledge, there will berightness of life. But mere rightness of life is nothing; it is thatwhich leads to it and is the cause that is alone commanded and commended[compare the controversy among Christian theologians about faith andworks]. The knowledge which saves and enfranchises may be reached by aman in this present life, and will be, if the appropriate means areemployed. 

 OF BRAHMANHOOD

Meditation is a duty to be observed to the very close of life, and theamount and intensity of it are the measure of a man's virtue and piety. When he has reached the full knowledge of Brahman, a man is freed fromthe consequences [karma] of all his evil deeds, past, present, andfuture. [One would think that the state of Brahmanhood excluded thepossibility of sin, but this Sutra seems to imply the contrary. TheSutras, however, make a distinction between a lower state of Brahmanhoodand a higher. See below. ]

What happens to the knowing one (_vidvan_) at death? The soul of him whohas at death the lower Brahman knowledge merges into the subtlerelements. But when the highest knowledge is attained there is completeabsorption in Brahman. Whoever dies in possession of this highestknowledge is at once merged in Brahman, and rests eternally andperfectly in him. 

The Upanishads describe the stations on the way which leads up toBrahman. These stations are to be understood not merely as terminuses ofthe various stages of the journey, but they denote also the divinebeings who direct the soul in its progress and enable it to move forwardand upward. According to some Sutras in this book the guardians of thepath conducting to the gods lead the departed soul, not to the highestBrahman, but to the effected (_karya_), or qualified (_saguna_), Brahman. But in other Sutras in this book the opposite view is statedand defended, according to which the _vidvan_, or knower, goes direct tothe highest Brahman without halting anywhere short of that god. 

The Sutras teach, on the whole, the doctrine that the enfranchised soul, being identical with Brahman, is inseparable from him just as a mode ofsubstance is incapable of existing apart from the substance of which itis a mode. Ramanuga points out, however, that some of the Sutras in thisbook give it clearly to be understood that the freed soul can exist inisolation and in separation from the great All. 

The released soul can enter several bodies at the same time, since it isnot subject to space relations as other souls are. 

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THOMAS À KEMPIS

THE IMITATION OF CHRIST

 Thomas à Kempis, whose family name was Haemmerlein, received the name of Kempis from Kempen, in Holland, the place of his birth. Either Thomas Haemmerlein or Thomas Kempensis would be a more correct name than the form "à Kempis, " by which he is generally known; and "Musica Ecclesiastica" is the more correct title of the "Imitatio Christi. " It is not even certain that Thomas was the author of it, for the names of other authors have been put forward with more or less probability; but he was certainly its copyist, and the balance of evidence is in favour of his authorship. Thomas was born in 1379, the son of a shoemaker; entered in 1400 a monastery at Agnetenberg, near Zwolle, and died in the monastery on August 8, 1471, with a great reputation for learning and for sanctity. The "Imitation" was completed about 1420. Editions and translations in all principal languages are innumerable; but the definitive edition is the Latin text by Dr. Carl Hirsche, of Hamburg (1874), from which the following epitome has been made. The "Imitation" consists of four books of meditations, which are among the most priceless treasures of Christian literature. 

_I. --ADMONITIONS USEFUL TO THE SPIRITUAL LIFE_

"Whoever follows Me does not walk in darkness, " says the Lord. These arethe words of Christ by which we are admonished how far we should imitateHis life and manners if we wish to be truly illumined and liberated fromall blindness of heart. Let it, therefore, be our supreme study tomeditate on the life of Jesus Christ. 

Vanity of vanities, all things are vanity, except to love God and toserve Him only. The highest wisdom is to strive towards celestialkingdoms, through contempt of the world. It is, therefore, vanity toseek the riches that are about to perish, and to hope in them. It isvanity also to solicit honours, and to exalt oneself to high place. Itis vanity to follow after the desires of the flesh, and to seek that forwhich we must soon be heavily punished. It is vanity to wish a longlife, and to care little about a good life. It is vanity to attend onlyto the present life, and not to provide for things which are to come. Itis vanity to love that which passes away so speedily, and not to hastenthither where eternal joy remains. 

Remember often that proverb--"The eye is not satisfied with seeing northe ear with hearing. " Study, therefore, to withdraw your heart from thelove of visible things, and turn yourself to the invisible. For thosewho follow their sensuality stain their conscience, and lose the graceof God. 

Every man naturally desires to know, but what does knowledge signifywithout the fear of God? The humble peasant who serves God is far betterthan the proud philosopher who neglects himself and considers thecourses of the stars. Whoever knows himself well contemns himself, andtakes no delight in human praise. If I should know all things in theworld, and yet not be in charity, what would it advantage me in thepresence of God, Who is about to judge me for my deeds?

Desist from too much desire of knowing, because great distraction anddeception are found in it. Those who know, desire to seem and to becalled wise. There are many things of which the knowledge is of littleor no value to the soul, and the man is very foolish who turns to otherthings than those which subserve his health. Many words do not satisfythe soul; but a good life cools down the mind, and a good conscienceaffords great confidence towards God. 

We might have great peace if we did not occupy ourselves with the wordsand deeds which are no concern of ours. How can he remain long in peacewho meddles with cares which are foreign to him, who seeks opportunitieswithout, and recollects himself little or rarely? Blessed are thesimple, for they shall have much peace. 

Without charity, an outward work is of value; but whatever is done fromcharity, however small and trivial it may be, becomes wholly fruitful. For God weighs more the source from which an action comes than the workwhich it does. He does much who loves much. He does much who does thedeed well. He does well who serves the community rather than his ownwill. 

That often seems to be charity which is rather carnality; for naturalinclination, one's own will, the hope of reward, and the liking forcomfort are rarely absent. But whoever has true and perfect charityseeks himself in nothing, but desires only the glory of God. He enviesno one, because he loves no joy of his own, nor cares to rejoice inhimself; but wishes, above all good things, to find felicity in God. Whoever has a spark of true charity feels at once that all earthlythings are full Of vanity. 

_II. --ADMONITIONS LEADING TO INWARD LIFE_

"The kingdom of God is within you, " says the Lord. Turn yourself withyour whole heart to the Lord, and leave this miserable world, and yoursoul shall find rest. Learn to despise outward things, and to giveyourself to inward things, and you shall see the kingdom of God risewithin you. For the kingdom of God is peace and joy in the Holy Spirit, and is not given to the impious. Christ shall come to you showing youHis consolation, if you prepare within you a home fit for Him. All Hisglory and beauty are from within, and it is there that He delightsHimself. He often visits the man of inward mind, with sweet colloquy, pleasant consolation, great peace, and most astounding familiarity. 

If you know not how to contemplate high and celestial things, rest inthe passion of Christ, and willingly dwell in His holy wounds. For ifyou devoutly have recourse to the wounds of Jesus you will feel greatcomfort in trouble, care little for human contempt, and easily beardetracting words. For Christ, in the world, was despised by men, and inHis greatest need was deserted, among insults, by His friends. Christwilled to suffer and to be despised, and shall you dare to complain ofanything? Christ had enemies and detractors, and do you wish to have allfriends and benefactors? Whence shall your patience be crowned if youhave suffered no adversity? If you desire to suffer nothing contrary toyou, how shall you be the friend of Christ?

He to whom all things taste as they really are, and not as they arespoken of or esteemed, is the truly wise man, taught by God rather thanby men. Whoever knows how to walk from within, and to put little valueon things without, needs not to find a place nor wait a time for hisdevout prayers. The man of inward mind quickly recollects himself, because he never spends himself wholly upon outward things. 

First hold yourself in peace, and then you will be able to pacifyothers. The pacific man is of more service than the learned. But thepassionate man turns even good to evil, easily believing evil. Thepeaceful man is good, and turns all things to good. The man who is wellat peace is suspicious of nothing, but the discontented and turbulent isagitated by divers suspicions. He can neither himself be quiet, norleave others in quiet. He often says what he ought not to say, andleaves undone what he ought to do. He thinks about what others ought todo, and neglects his own duty. 

Man is raised from earthly matters by two wings--namely, simplicity andpurity. Simplicity should be in his intention, and purity in hisaffection. Simplicity tends towards God, purity takes hold of Him. 

Always to do well, and to hold oneself in small esteem, is the mark of ahumble soul. To desire no consolation from any created thing is the signof great purity and inward confidence. The man who seeks no witness forhimself from without has plainly committed himself altogether to God. For "not he who commends himself is approved, " says blessed Paul, "buthe whom God commends. " To walk with God within, and to be held by noaffection without, is the state of the inwardly-minded man. 

Jesus has now many lovers of His celestial kingdom, but few bearers ofHis Cross. He has many who desire consolation, but few who desiretribulation. He finds many companions of His table, but few of Hisabstinence. All wish to rejoice with Him; few are willing to bearanything for Him. 

In the Cross is safety; in the Cross is life; in the Cross is protectionfrom enemies; in the Cross is the sweetness of heaven; in the Cross isstrength of mind; in the Cross is the perfection of sanctity. There isno health for the soul nor hope of eternal life except in the Cross. Take up your cross, therefore, and follow Jesus. 

If anything were better and more useful for the welfare of men than tosuffer, Christ would have shown it both in His words and in His example. For He calls to the disciples who follow Him, and to all who desire tofollow Him, and says: "If any will come after Me, let him deny himself, and lift up his cross and follow Me. " When all has been read andstudied, let this be our conclusion--"That through many tribulations wemust enter into the kingdom of God. "

_III. --OF INWARD CONSOLATION_

I will hear what the Lord God may say in me. It is a blessed soul whichhears the Lord speaking in it, and receives the word of consolation fromHis lips. Speak, Lord, for your servant hears. 

"I have taught the prophets from the beginning, " says the Lord, "anduntil now I have not ceased to speak at all; but many are deaf and hardto My voice. Many listen more willingly to the world than to God, andmore easily follow the appetite of the flesh than God's good pleasure. The world promises small and temporary things, and is served with greateagerness; I promise supreme and eternal things, but the hearts ofmortals are torpid. Who serves and obeys Me in everything with so greatcare as the world and its lords are served? Men run a long way for atrifling reward, but for eternal life many scarcely lift a foot oncefrom earth. "

Lord God, you are all my good. And who am I that I should dare to speakto you? I am the poorest and least of your servants, a wretched littleworm, far more miserable and contemptible than I know or dare to say, Yet remember me, Lord, because I am nothing, I have nothing, and amworth nothing. Do not turn your face from me; do not defer your coming;do not withdraw your consolation, lest my soul become like a waterlessland before you. Lord, teach me to do your will; teach me to walkworthily and humbly in your presence; because you are my wisdom, whotruly know me, and knew me before the world was made and before I wasborn in the world. 

"Son, walk in My presence in truth, and seek Me always in the simplicityof your heart. Whoever walks in My presence in truth will be kept safefrom the assaults of evil, and truth will liberate him from those wholead astray and from the detractions of unjust men. If truth shall haveliberated you, then you will be truly free, and you will not care forthe vain words of men. "

It is true, Lord, I pray that it may be done with me as you say. Letyour truth teach me and guard me, and keep me to a salutary end. Let itliberate me from every evil affection and inordinate love, and I shallwalk with you in great liberty of heart. 

"I will teach you, " says Truth, "what things are right and pleasing inmy Bight. Think on your sins with great displeasure and sorrow, andnever imagine yourself to be anything because of your good works. Youare really a sinner, liable to many passions and entangled in them. Ofyourself, you are always tending to nothingness; you quickly slip, youare quickly overcome, you are quickly disturbed, you quickly pass away. You have nothing in which you can glory, but much for which you ought tohold yourself cheap; you are far more infirm than you are able tounderstand. 

"Some do not sincerely walk before me, but, led by a certain curiosityand arrogance, wish to know my secrets, and to understand the highthings of God, neglecting themselves and their welfare. These often fallinto great temptations and sins, when I resist them on account of theirpride and curiosity. Fear the judgments of God; be exceedingly afraid ofthe anger of the Omnipotent. Do not discuss the works of the Highest, but scrutinise your iniquities, and see how gravely you have offendedand how many good deeds you have neglected. 

"There are others, enlightened in their minds and purged in theiraffections, who are always panting after eternal things and listenunwillingly to earthly things; these perceive what the spirit of truthsays within them. 

"Love is a great thing, altogether a great good, which alone makes lighteverything that is heavy, and carries evenly all that is uneven. For itbears the burden without being burdened, and makes sweet and tastefuleverything that is bitter. The noble love of Jesus drives on to greatdeeds, and always excites to the desire of more perfect things. Lovewills to rise upwards, and not to be held back by the lowest things. Nothing is sweeter than love, nothing is stronger, nothing higher orbroader; nothing is more delightful or fuller in heaven or in earth; forlove is born of God, and cannot rest except in God, above all createdthings. "

_IV. --DEVOUT EXHORTATION TO HOLY COMMUNION_

The voice of Christ, "Come to Me all who labour and are burdened, and Iwill refresh you, " says the Lord. "The bread which I will give you is Myflesh for the life of the world. Receive and consume it; this is My bodywhich will be delivered for you; do this in commemoration of Me. Whoevereats My flesh and drinks My blood remains in Me, and I in him. The wordswhich I have spoken to you are spirit and life. "

These are your words, Christ, Eternal Truth, although not given at onetime nor written in one place. Because they are yours, and true, theyare all to be received gratefully by me. They are yours, and youpronounced them; and they are mine also because you uttered them for mywelfare. I gladly accept them from your lips, that they may be moreclosely buried in my heart. Words of such kindness, full of sweetnessand love, arouse me. But my own sins frighten me, and my impureconscience repels me from taking hold of such great mysteries. 

You bid me come to you trustfully if I would have part with you; and toreceive the food of immortality if I wish to obtain eternal life andglory. "Come to Me, " you say, "all who labour and are burdened, and Iwill refresh you. " O sweet and friendly word in the ear of a sinner, that you, my Lord God, invite the destitute and poor to the communion ofyour most holy Body. 

Lord, all things in heaven and in earth are yours. I desire to offermyself as a willing oblation, and to remain yours in perpetuity. Lord, in the simplicity of my heart I offer myself to you to-day to be forever your servant--offer myself for obedience and for a sacrifice ofeternal praise. Receive me with this holy offering of your preciousBody, which I offer to you to-day in the presence of angels, assistingthough unseen, that it may be for my welfare and for the welfare of allyour people. 

The voice of the beloved: "God does not deceive you; he is deceived whotrusts too much to himself. God walks with the simple, reveals Himselfto the humble, gives understanding to the feeble, opens His meaning topure minds, and hides His grace from the inquisitive and proud. Humanreason is weak and may be deceived, but true faith cannot be deceived. 

"All reason and natural investigation ought to follow faith, and notprecede it nor impair it. For faith and love excel here most of all, andwork in hidden ways in, this most holy and transcendent sacrament. Theeternal and immeasurable God of infinite power does great andinscrutable things in heaven and in earth, and there is no finding outof His wonderful works. If the works of God were such that they couldeasily be seized by human reason, they would not deserve to be calledwonderful or ineffable. "

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THE KORAN

 The Koran, the sacred book of Islam, and of more than a hundred millions of men, is the least original of all existing sacred books. Muslims agree in believing that it is from beginning to end, and word for word, inspired; and that it existed before the Creation on what is called the "Preserved Tablet. " This tablet was brought by the Archangel Gabriel from the highest to the lowest heaven, whence it was dictated sura [chapter] by sura, verse by verse, and word by word, to the Prophet Muhammad. Its matter is, however, taken for the most part from the Old Testament, especially the narrative portions of the Pentateuch; from the New Testament; from the traditions of the ancient Arabs; and also from Zoroastrian and other scriptures or traditions. It is not likely that Muhammad used literary sources, except in a small measure. But there were Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and others in and around Arabia, and he must have learned from their lips the principal doctrines of their respective religions. Nevertheless, planless and fragmentary compilation though it be, the Koran, particularly in the earlier suras written at Mekka, has much of the grandeur and poetry of style and the passionate exaltation of a true prophet, the sincerity of whose zeal is unquestioned. 

_INTRODUCTORY_

The word "Koran, " or "Quran, "[13] from a root _qara_ = to read, meansliterally "what is to be read, " _i. E. _, the written authority on allmatters, religions, etc. It is the exact equivalent of the RabbinicalHebrew word "Miqra" (from the Hebrew _qara_ = to read). The ideainvolved in both the Arabic and Hebrew words is that what is sodesignated is the ultimate authority deciding all questions. The Rabbisof post-Biblical times (compare the Jewish Qabbalah) regarded the OldTestament as an encyclopaedia of universal knowledge. In the best-knownMuslim universities of modern times philosophy, science, and everythingelse are taught from the Koran, which is made in some way to containimplicitly the latest words of modern thought, invention, and discovery. 

The Koran did not exist as a whole until after the ProphetMuhammad's[14] death. It was then compiled by the order of Abu Bekr, thefirst Sunnite Caliph. Its contents were found written on palm leaveswhite stones, and other articles capable of being written on. Thecompilers depended, to a large extent, upon the memory of the prophet'sfirst followers, but the Koran, as we now have it, existed without anyappreciable divergence by the end of the first year, after Muhammad'sdeath (A. D. 632). 

This Muslim Bible has no scheme or plan because it is an almosthaphazard compilation of unconnected discourses, uttered on variousunexplained occasions, and dealing with many incidents and themes. Thereis practically no editing, and no attempt is made to explain when, orhow, or why the various speeches were delivered. 

The earliest native writers and commentators on the Koran arranged itssuras in two main classes: (1) Those uttered at Mekka before the flightin A. D. 622; (2) those written at Medinah during the next ten years. 

Most recent scholars follow the chronological arrangement proposed bythe great Orientalist Nöldeke in 1860. Friedrich Schwally in his newlyrevised edition of Nöldeke's great work on the Koran follows his masterin almost every detail. Rodwell's translation of the Koran, recentlyissued in "Everyman's Library, " arranges the suras chronologicallyaccording to Nöldeke's scheme. In the summaries that follow, it is thischronological order that is adopted. In the Arabic editions followed bythe well-known and valuable translations of Sale, E. H. Palmer (ClarendonPress, "Sacred Books of the East, " vols. 6 and 9), and others, theprinciple adopted is to put the longest suras first and the shortestlast. 

The Mekkan suras are much more original than the Medinah ones, especially those of the first period--_i. E. _, those belonging to thefirst four years of Muhammad's prophetic mission, _e. G. _, suras 96, 74, etc. In these suras the style is grander, more passionate, and fuller ofpoetry. The prophet appears in a state of great mental exaltation, fullof a zeal which no words can adequately express, and of a sinceritywhich few scholars have questioned. 

The suras of the second period, the following two years of the prophet'smission (_e. G. _, suras 54, 37, etc. ), have the same general character, but are less vehement. Still less vehement and more restrained are thesuras of the third Mekkan period--_i. E. _, from the seventh year of theprophet's mission to his flight in A. D. 622 (_e. G. _, suras 32, 41, etc. ). The style of the Medinah suras resembles that of the Mekkanrevelations of the third period, only they are still more matter of factand restrained, and are largely made up of appeals to Jews, Christians, and others to abandon their "unbelief, " and to accept the prophet whohad come to them with the true religion, a religion as old as Abraham, though forgotten for many ages. 

The Koran differs from the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, including the Apocrypha, in that these latter are much-more varied, asemanating from many minds, and belonging to very different occasions. The Koran is, from beginning to end, the effusions (often very wild) ofone man. 

The present editor has kept before him the Arabic text of Maracci, Fluegel, and Redslob, and also several Oriental editions (Cairo, Constantinople, Calcutta, etc. ). But, of course, the best knowntranslations, and also the native commentaries (Baidhawi, etc. ), havebeen consulted. 

In the summaries which follow, numerals following the paragraphsindicate the number of the sura or suras in the Arabic text as well asin Sale's translation. 

MEKKAN SURAS

I. --FIRST PERIOD (A. D. 613-617)

_MUHAMMAD'S FIRST CALL TO READ THE KORAN_

In the name of the gracious and compassionate God. [15]

Recite in the name of thy Lord, who created man and taught men to write, recite what God has revealed to thee His Prophet, and be not afraid. Consider not the opposition of Abu Gahl, who has threatened to put hisfoot on thy neck if thou dost worship Allah. (96. )

_DENUNCIATION OF ABU LAHAB_[16]

Abu Lahab's two hands shall perish, and he himself shall perish. Hiswealth shall not avail him, nor all that he has gained. He shall beburnt in the fiery flames[17] of Hell, his wife carrying wood for fuel, with a cord of palm-tree fibres twisted round her neck. (III. )

_MUHAMMAD COMMANDED TO OFFER SACRIFICES_

We have given to thee, O Prophet, great wealth and abounding riches. Pray thou to Allah, and offer Him suitable sacrifices out of what He hasbestowed upon thee. (108. )

[Compare with this paragraph the following, from sura 22 of the Medinahgroup:

We have ordained that ye offer sacrifices unto Allah, and that yereceive much benefit therefrom. When, therefore, ye slay your camels letthe name of Allah be pronounced over them. Then eat of them and give tothose who ask humbly, giving also to the poor and needy who ask not. Flesh and blood can never reach unto Allah (God), but your obedience andpiety will reach unto Him. ]

_BELIEVERS AND UNBELIEVERS_

We will make the path to happiness easy and safe to all such as fearAllah, and give alms, and believe the truth proclaimed by Allah'smessenger. But we will make easy the path to distress and misery for allsuch as are niggardly, are bent on making riches, and deny the truthwhen it is proclaimed to them. When these last fall headlong into Hell, their wealth will avail them nothing. In the burning furnace they shallburn and broil. (92. )

_THE DUTY OF EXERCISING CHARITY_

Verily, We (God) have created some men in such poverty and distress asto need the help of others. What does that braggart man mean when hesays, "None shall prevail over me; I have and have scattered richesboundless"? Does he not know that there is a Divine eye that sees him?Have not We created him with a capacity of distinguishing between thetwo highways, that which descends towards evil, and that which ascendstowards the good? This niggardly man, however, makes no attempt to scalethe heights. What is it to ascend the upward road? It is to free theprisoner, to feed the hungry, to defend the orphan who is akin, and thedown-trodden poor. Besides this, it is enjoined that men believe inAllah and His Prophet; that they encourage each other to be steadfast inthe faith, exercising mutual consideration and sympathy. All such as dothese things shall be the people of the right hand. But all those whodisbelieve Our signs shall be the companions of the left hand, over whomshall be a vault of fire. (90. )

_MUHAMMAD COMMANDED TO ARISE AND PREACH_

O thou mantle-wrapped one, arise and warn the people, and magnify theLord. The Day of Judgment will be a sad day for unbelievers. Leave thouthine enemy in Mine hands, and let Me visit upon him his well deservedpunishment. For he has ridiculed the Koran; he has said: "This isnothing else than magic, they are the words of a man. " I [God] will casthim into Hell, where he shall burn in torment. The fires of this Hellleave nothing unconsumed. It scorches men's flesh. We have appointednineteen angels as guardians over Hell fire. But why nineteen? Thatbelievers may be sure of the veracity of this Book, and that unbelieversmay have occasion for denying the divinity of the Koran, saying: "Whatmeans this number?" (74. )

_THE KORAN GIVEN TO MUHAMMAD_

Verily, We have brought down to Muhammad the Koran on the Night ofPower. [18] This one Night of Power is better than a thousand months. Onthat night did Gabriel and the angels descend and reveal to Our Prophetall the words of the Koran. (97. )

_MUHAMMAD NOT MAD NOR AN IMPOSTOR_

Believe thou not, O Messenger of Mine, when they say, "Thou art bereftof thy senses, " when they charge thee with imposture. Thy Lord knowethwho are bereft of their senses, and who are the impostors. Warn thouthose maligners of the awful judgment which awaits them. (68. )

_GOD'S PROMISE TO HELP MUHAMMAD TO RECITE THE KORAN_

We [Allah] shall enable thee to remember all the parts of the Koran, sothat thou mayest recite them for the encouragement of those who believeand as a warning to all unbelievers. Nor shalt thou forget aught of thisRevelation except what We please. [19] All those who fear God willreceive the prophet's warning, but all those who disbelieve shall becast into terrible fire where they will neither live nor die. Thisdoctrine which We command thee to preach is that taught in the ancientBooks, the Books of Abraham and of Moses, who were faithful Muslims. (87. )

_THE KORAN INSPIRED_

By the falling star, your comrade Muhammad does not err, nor does hespeak his own mind. What he utters has been revealed to him. The Koranis from God through Gabriel; it is not the work of man. Why worship yegoddesses like Allat and Al'Uzza and Manah? There are no goddesses. [20](53. )

_THE TREATMENT OF WOMEN BELIEVERS_

When believing women come to you as fugitives, leaving behind themunbelieving husbands, send them not back to the infidels, but test theirfaith, and if they are found true Muslims, pay back to their husbandsthe dowries which they have expended. Then may ye marry them, providedye give them the accustomed dowries. (60. )

_GOD'S UNITY_[21]

Say "He is but one God, the everlasting God who begets not, [22] nor isbegotten, and there is none like unto Him. " (10. )

_FORMULæ OF EXORCISM_

I flee for refuge to the Lord, that He may protect me against the evilthings which He has created. Against night goblins when the night comeson, and from witches who bind by their magic knots, and from such asinjure by the evil eye; I seek refuge with the Lord from charmers, fromjinns [demons], and from evil men. (113. )

_THE HEAVEN OF THE MUSLIMS_

All who believe in Allah and His Prophet shall be admitted hereafterinto delightful gardens [Paradise]. They shall repose for ever oncouches decked with gold and precious stones, being supplied withabundance of luscious wine, fruits of the choicest variety, and theflesh of birds. They shall be accompanied by damsels of unsurpassedbeauty, with large black, pearl-like eyes. (56. )

II. --SECOND PERIOD (A. D. 617-619)

_WINDS AND DEMONS SUBJECT TO SOLOMON_

And We made a strong wind subject to Solomon, so that it conveyed himwhither he would. We also gave him the power of commanding demons, sothat they dived into the sea to bring him pearls, and did everythingelse that he wished. [23] (21. )

_THE MIRACULOUS BIRTH OF JESUS_

Remember Mary, who preserved her virginity, and into whom We breathedOur own spirit, so that when her son Isa [Jesus] was born, mother andson became a sign unto all mankind. (21. )

_THE VIRGIN MARY_

After Mary, the Virgin, had begotten her son Isa [Jesus] she was foundone day carrying the child in her arms when some pious men met her andrebuked her, saying: "O Mary, thou sister of Aaron, [24] what is thisstrange thing thou hast done? Thy father Amram was an upright man, andthy mother was no harlot, as thou seemest to be. " In answer to all thisthe infant child, not having previously lisped a syllable, said, "Verily, I am the servant of Allah, who has given me the Book of theGospel, and appointed me to be His Prophet. He has made me blessed, andto be a blessing. Happy the day wherein I was born, and the day whereinI shall die, and the day whereon I shall be raised again. " (19. )

_DEVILS SENT BY GOD TO MAKE MEN SIN_

De ye not know that We [God] send devils against the unbelievers to movethem, by their suggestions, to the sin of which these unbelievers becomeguilty? (19. )

_SOLOMON'S ARMY OF MEN, BIRDS, AND JINNS (DEMONS)_

Solomon was able to understand the speech of birds and to make themunderstand his speech. [25] There gathered to him on a certain day hisentire army of men, birds, and jinns in the Valley of Ants. The crowdwas so great that one of the ants said to his fellows, "Get you at onceinto your ant-homes, or you will be trampled to death by one of thesemyriad feet. "

_THE QUEEN OF SHEBA'S VISIT TO SOLOMON_

Solomon, one day reviewing his varied troops, missed among the birds thehoopoe, and asked whither this bird had gone, threatening all manner ofpunishments for his absence. Soon the missing bird came flying to theking, uttering the words, "I have just come from Sheba, where I havelooked upon the most wonderful queen, sitting upon the most magnificentthrone that I have ever set eyes on. But this queen and her subjects, unfortunately, worshipped not Allah, the true God, but the sun. "

"I will test the truth of thy words!" replied the angry monarch. "Takethou this note of mine to the queen thou laudest so highly, bidding hercome to my kingdom to acknowledge my authority. "

Almost in a twinkling the hoopoe was back with the queen's answerconsenting to visit Solomon and his dominions. Solomon, having receivedthis answer, asked the nobles of his kingdom, "Which of you will bringme at once the Queen of Sheba's throne, to be here before she arrives?"

"I will!" said one of the wickedest of the jinns. 

"And so will I, in a whiff!" answered a jinn that was well acquaintedwith the Scriptures. 

In a very short time the throne was in Solomon's palace. "Alter ye it, "said the king, "as much as ye may, to see whether she has anysupernatural knowledge to identify it. "

When the queen arrived, she was asked, "What throne is this?"

She replied, "It is mine--strangely mine. " After she had witnessed theglory and wisdom of Solomon, she gave up her idols, and became theworshipper of Allah, the true God. (27. )

III. --THIRD PERIOD (A. D. 619-622)

_PUNISHMENT FOR VIOLATING THE SABBATH_

Ye know how We tested and proved those wicked people who dwelt in Elathon the Red Sea. On the Sabbath day We made the fish come right up tothem, as if asking to be caught; but not so on other days. Those whoyielded to the temptation, and thus violated the sanctity of the sacredday, We turned into apes as a punishment for their wrong-doing. (7. )

_MOUNT SINAI SHAKEN ABOVE THE ISRAELITES_

When the Israelites doubted the authority of the Law which We had giventhem through Moses, Our servant, We caused Mount Sinai to rear itselfabove them as a covering, so that the people feared it was going to fallupon them. And We said to them, "Receive ye with reverence that Lawwhich We have given you, and remember what is contained therein, takingheed thereto. "[26] (7. )

MEDINAH SURAS

_SALVATION FOR OTHERS THAN MUSLIMS_

All such as believe in Allah and in the last day, and who do that whichis right, whether they are Jews, Christians, Sabeans, or Muslims, shallhave their reward from Allah, who will take away from them all fear andgrief. (3. )

_Muslims Only to be Saved_

No one that follows any other religion than Islam will be accepted byGod or saved from perishing in the life that is to come. (2. )

_ABRAHAM, ISHMAEL, ISAAC, JACOB, AND THE TRIBES OF ISRAEL ALL MUSLIMS_

Do ye Jews say that Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the tribes ofIsrael were Jews, or do ye Christians say that they were Christians? ButGod knows better, and has revealed to you the truth that all these wereMuslims, followers of the religion of Islam. But God is cognisant ofyour unbelief, and will bring you to account. (2. )

_THE QIBLAH CHANGED FROM JERUSALEM TO MEKKA_

Foolish men will say, "Why have they changed the Qiblah[27] fromJerusalem to the Kaabah[28] in Mekka?" Say to them, "God's is the eastand the west, and He has commanded us to turn our face, when we pray, tothe sacred mosque at Mekka. " (2. )

_AGAINST JEWS AND CHRISTIANS, WHO CAPRICIOUSLY CHOOSE AND REJECT WHATDIVINE REVELATIONS THEY PLEASE_

Why, then, do ye believe part only of the Book, and deny that part whichauthenticates the mission of the Prophet of Allah? All those who areguilty of this sin shall have shame in this life, and on theResurrection Day shall be driven into the most excrutiating torments. (2. )

_THE MEKKA TEMPLE FOUNDED BY ABRAHAM_

It was Abraham, our father, who first entered the Kaabah sanctuary atMekka, and it is our bounden duty, if at all able, to visit this sacredhouse. (3. )

_JESUS PREDICTS THE COMING OF MUHAMMAD_

Jesus, Mary's Son, said, "O Israelites, I am Allah's Apostle, sent toconfirm the Law of the Old Testament, and to bring you good tidings of agreat Apostle to come after me, whose name is Ahmad. "[29] (61. )

_MUHAMMAD THE LAST AND GREATEST OF GOD'S MESSENGERS_

In the former times We sent Our apostles with convincing arguments andall decisive miracles, and We gave them the Scriptures. We sent to menNoah, Abraham, and the prophets, but many believed not. Then We sent Ourapostles, after whom came Jesus, Son of Mary. Then, last of all, cameOur great apostle, Muhammad. O all ye believers, fear God and obey thewords of Allah's messenger. (57. )

_THE KORAN CONSISTENT THROUGHOUT_

Why do they not carefully and impartially consider the Koran? If it hadnot been wholly of God, unbelievers would have been able to find outcontradictions. (4. )

_MUHAMMAD CONTRADICTS THE FACT OF THE CRUCIFIXION OF CHRIST_

Christians say that Christ Jesus, Son of Mary, was slain. But He was notslain, nor crucified, but another was taken for Him. The true Isa[Jesus] was taken up by God unto Himself, not seeing death. (4. )

_MUHAMMAD ADMITS THE FACT OF THE CRUCIFIXION OF CHRIST_

And God said, "O Isa [Jesus], I will cause Thee to die, but I will takeThee up to Myself and deliver Thee from unbelievers!" (4. )

_ONE GOD, NOT THREE GODS, ACCORDING TO THE SCRIPTURE_

O ye who have received the Scriptures, do not believe more than thesesacred writings teach! Jesus, Son of Mary, was God's Apostle, His Word, a spirit proceeding from God. Do not say there are three gods--Allah, Isa, and Mary. [30] There is but one God, and He can have no son. (4. )

_FORBIDDEN FOOD_

Ye are forbidden to eat that which dies of itself, blood, swine's flesh, and that on which the name of any other god than Allah has beeninvoked;[31] that which has been strangled, or killed by a blow, or by afall, or what has been gored to death, and whatever has been sacrificedto idols. (5. )

_DIVINATION BY ARROWS CONDEMNED_

It is not allowed you to make division by casting lots with arrows. 

_DENIAL OF THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST AND THE TRINITY_

Those are unbelievers who say that God is the Christ [lit. , Messiah], Son of Mary. Nay, this Christ Himself said, "O Israelites, worship God, My Lord and yours!" He who associates with God any companion His equalshall be excluded from Paradise, and have his place in Hell fire. (5. )

_Jesus Denies that He and His Mother were Gods_

At the last day God will say unto Isa, "O Isa, Son of Mary, didst Thousay unto men, 'Take Me and My Mother for two Gods in addition toAllah'?" And He shall answer, "Praise be unto Thee. Thou knowest allthings, and Thou knowest that I commanded men to worship Allah alone. "

 * * * * *

CARDINAL NEWMAN

APOLOGIA PRO VITâ SUA

 That most remarkable ecclesiastic of the nineteenth century, John Henry Newman, born in London on February 21, 1801, was of Dutch extraction, but the name itself, at one time spelt "Newmann, " suggests Hebrew origin. His mother came of a Huguenot family, long established in England as engravers and paper manufacturers. His early education he obtained at a school at Ealing, where he distinguished himself by diligence and good conduct, as also by a certain aloofness and shyness. The only important incident Newman connects with this period is his "conversion, " an incident more certain to him "than that he had hands and feet. " In 1820 he graduated at Trinity College, Oxford. The various phases of his religious career are amply set forth in his famous "Apologia pro Vitâ Sua" ("Apology for His Life"), afterwards called "A History of my Religious Opinions. " The work was called out by an attack, in January, 1864, by Charles Kingsley, in a review of Froude's "History of England. " Kingsley wrote: "Truth, for its own sake, had never been a virtue with the Roman clergy. Father Newman informs us that it need not, and, on the whole, ought not to be. " Challenged to withdraw or substantiate this charge, Kingsley did neither, whereupon Newman, after much correspondence, wrote his "Apologia, " which was published in bi-monthly parts. Newman died on August 11, 1890. 

_I. --HISTORY OF MY RELIGIOUS OPINIONS TO 1833_

I was brought up to delight in the Bible, but I had no formed religiousconvictions till I was fifteen. Of course, Ï had a perfect knowledge ofmy Catechism. But when I was fifteen I fell under the influence of adefinite creed, and believed that the inward conversion of which I wasconscious, and of which I am still more certain than that I have handsand feet, would last into the next life, and that I was elected toeternal glory. This belief faded away at the age of twenty-one; but ithad had some influence on my opinions, in isolating me from the objectswhich surrounded me, in confirming my mistrust of the reality ofmaterial phenomena, and in making me rest in the thought of two, and twoonly, absolute and luminously self-evident beings, myself and myCreator. At the age of fifteen also I was deeply impressed by the worksof Thomas Scott, by Law's "Serious Call, " by Joseph Milner's "ChurchHistory, " and by Newton, "On the Prophecies. " Newton's book stained myimagination, till 1843, with the doctrine that the Pope was Antichrist. At this same time, the autumn of 1816, I realised that it would be thewill of God that I should lead a single life, and this anticipationstrengthened my feeling of separation from the visible world. 

In 1822, at Oxford, I came under new influences. Dr. Hawkins, then vicarof St. Mary's, a man of most exact mind, led me to the doctrine oftradition, and taught me to anticipate that before many years therewould be an attack made upon the books and the canon of Scripture. Hegave me Summer's "Treatise on Apostolic Preaching, " by which I was ledto give up my remaining Calvinism, and to receive the doctrine ofbaptismal regeneration. I now read Butler's "Analogy, " from which Ilearned two principles which underlie much of my teaching: first, thatthe idea of an analogy between the separate works of God leads to theconclusion that the less important system is sacramentally connectedwith the more momentous system; and secondly, Butler's doctrine thatprobability is the guide of life led me to the question of the logicalcogency of faith. 

I owe much to Dr. Whately, who taught me the existence of the Church asa substantive corporation, and fixed in me those anti-Erastian views ofChurch polity which characterized the Tractarian movement. Thatmovement, unknown to ourselves, was taking form. Its true author, JohnKeble, had left Oxford for a country parish, but his "Christian Year"had waked a new music in the hearts of thousands. His creative mindrepeated, in a new form, Butler's two principles: that materialphenomena are the types and instruments of real things unseen; and that, in religious certitude, faith and love give to probability a force whichit has not in itself. 

Hurrell Froude, one of his pupils and a man of high genius, taught me tovenerate the Church of Rome and to dislike the Reformation. About 1830 Iset to work on "The Arians of the Fourth Century, " and the broadphilosophy of Clement and Origen, based on the mystical or sacramentalprinciple, came like music to my inward ear. 

Great events were now happening at home and abroad. There had been arevolution in France, and the reform agitation was going on around me asI wrote. The vital question was, how were we to keep the Church frombeing liberalised? I saw that reformation principles were powerless torescue her. I ever kept before me that there was something greater thanthe Establishd Church, and that was the Church Catholic and Apostolic, of which she was but the local presence and the organ. She was nothing, unless she was this. I was now disengaged from college duties; my healthhad suffered from work; and in December, 1832, I joined Hurrell Froudeand his father, who were going to the south of Europe. I went to variouscoasts of the Mediterranean. I saw nothing but what was external; of thehidden life of Catholics I knew nothing. England was in my thoughtssolely, and the success of the liberal cause fretted me. The thoughtcame upon me that deliverance is wrought not by the many but by the few, not by bodies but by persons. 

I began to think that I had a mission. I reached England on July 9, andon July 14 Mr. Keble preached in the university pulpit on "NationalApostasy. " This day was the start of the religious movement of 1833. 

_II. --WITH THE TRACTARIANS_

A movement had begun in opposition to the danger of liberalism which wasthreatening the religion of the nation. Mr. Keble, Hurrell Froude, Mr. William Palmer, Mr. Arthur Purceval, Mr. Hugh Rose, and other zealous, and able men had united their counsels. I had the exultation of healthrestored, a joyous energy which I never had before or since. And I had asupreme confidence in our cause; we were upholding that primitiveChristianity which was delivered for all time by the early teachers ofthe Church. Owing to this supreme confidence, my behaviour had a mixturein it both of fierceness, and of sport, and on this account it gaveoffence to many. 

The three propositions about which I was so confident were as follow:First was the principle of dogma; my battle was with liberalism--and byliberalism I mean the anti-dogmatic principle and its developments. Ihave changed in many things, but not in this; religion, as a meresentiment, has been to me from childhood a dream and a mockery. Secondly, I was confident that there was a visible Church, withsacraments and rites which are the channels of invisible grace. Here, again, I have not changed. But, thirdly, I held a view of the Church ofRome which I have utterly renounced since. 

The attack of liberalism upon the university and upon the old orthodoxyof England began in 1834. Thus, in a pamphlet by Dr. Hampden it wasmaintained that religion is distinct from theological opinion, that itis but a common prejudice to identify theological propositions with thesimple religion of Christ; and so on. The tracts were widely read anddiscussed, but the counter-attack against liberalism was not a poweruntil Dr. Pusey joined us. His great learning, his immense diligence, his simple devotion to the cause of religion, no less than his greatinfluence in the university, at once gave us a position and a name. Hetaught us that there ought to be more sense of responsibility in thetracts and in the whole movement. Under his influence I wrote a workdefining our relation to the Church of Rome, namely, "The PropheticalOffice of the Church viewed relatively to Romanism and to PopularProtestantism. " The subject of this volume, published in 1837, is the"Via Media. " This was followed by my "Essay on Justification, " and otherworks; and so I went on for years up to 1841. It was, in a human pointof view, the happiest time of my life. We prospered and spread. 

But the movement was to come into collision with the nation, and withthe Church of the nation. In 1838 my bishop made some lightanimadversions on the tracts. But my tract on the Thirty-nine Articles, designed to show that the Articles do not oppose Catholic teaching, andbut partially oppose Roman dogma, while they do oppose the dominanterrors of Rome, brought down, in 1839, a storm of indignation throughoutthe country. I saw that my place in the movement was lost. 

_III. --A THEOLOGICAL DEATH-BED_

In the long vacation of 1839 I began to study the history of theMonophysites, and was-absorbed in the doctrinal question. It was duringthis course of reading that for the first time a doubt came upon me ofthe tenableness of Anglicism, and by the end of August I was seriouslyalarmed. My stronghold was antiquity; yet here, in the fifth century, Ifound Christendom of the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries reflected. 

The drama of religion and the combat of truth and error were ever oneand the same; the principles of the Roman Church now were those of theChurch then; the principles of heretics then were those of Protestantsnow; there was an awful similitude. Be my soul with the saints! In thesame month the words of St. Augustine were pointed out to me, _"Securusjudicat orbis terrarum";_ they struck me with a power which I had neverfelt from any words before; the theory of the "Via Media" was absolutelypulverised. 

In the summer of 1841, in retirement at Littlemore, I received threeblows which broke me. First, in the history of the Arians I found thesame phenomena which I had found in the Monophysites: the pure Arianswere the Protestants, the semi-Arians were the Anglicans, and Rome nowwas what it was then. Secondly, the bishops, one after another, began tocharge against me in a formal, determinate movement. Third, it wasproposed by Anglican authorities to establish an Anglican bishopric inJerusalem--a step which amounted to a formal denial that the AnglicanChurch was a branch of the Catholic Church, and to a formal assertionthat the Anglican was a Protestant Church. The Jerusalem bishopricbrought me to the beginning of the end. 

From the end of 1841 I was on my death-bed, as regards my membership ofthe Anglican Church, though at the time I became aware of it only bydegrees. A death-bed has scarcely a history; it is a tedious decline, with seasons of rallying and seasons of falling back. My position atfirst was this: I had given up my place in the movement in the spring of1841, but I could not give up my duties towards the many and variousminds who had been brought into it by me; I expected gradually to fallback into lay communion; I never contemplated leaving the Church ofEngland; I could not hold office in its service if I were not allowed tohold the Catholic sense of the Articles; I could not go to Rome whileshe suffered honours to be paid to the Blessed Virgin and the saintswhich I thought in my conscience to be incompatible with the supremeglory of the One, Infinite and Eternal; I desired a union with Romeunder conditions, Church with Church; I called Littlemore my TorresVedras, and thought that some day we might advance again within theAnglican Church; I kept back all persons who were disposed to go to Romewith all my might. 

The "Via Media" was now an impossible idea; I abandoned that old ground, and took another. I said, "Much as Roman Catholics may denounce us atpresent as schismatical, they could not resist us if the Anglicancommunion had but that one note of the Church upon it--sanctity. " I waspleased with my new view, but my friends were naturally offended at anovel line of argument which substituted a sort of methodisticself-contemplation for the plain and honest tokens of a divine missionin the Anglican Church. 

In spite of my ingrained fears of Rome, in spite of my affection forOxford and Oriel, yet I had a secret longing love of Rome, the Mother ofEnglish Christianity. It was the consciousness of this bias in myselfwhich made me preach so earnestly against the danger of being swayed inreligious inquiry by our sympathy rather than by our reason. I was ingreat perplexity, and hardly knew where I stood; I incurred the chargeof weakness from some men, and of mysteriousness and underhand dealingfrom the majority. But I have never had any suspicion of my own honesty. 

In July, 1844, I wrote to a friend: "I am far more certain, according tothe fathers, that we _are_ in a state of culpable separation than thatdevelopments do _not_ exist under the Gospel, and that the Romandevelopments are not the true ones. " I then saw that the principle ofdevelopment was discernible from the first years of the Catholicteaching up to the present day. I came to the conclusion that there wasno medium, in true philosophy, between atheism and Catholicity, and thata perfectly consistent mind must embrace either the one or the other. Isaw that no valid reasons could be assigned for continuing in theAnglican Church, and that no Valid objections could be taken to joiningthe Roman. 

In February, 1843, I had made a formal retraction of all the hard thingswhich I had said against the Church of Rome, and in September I hadresigned the living of St. Mary's, Littlemore included. I began my"Essay on the Development of Doctrine" in the beginning of 1845, and washard at it till October. Before I got to the end, I resolved to bereceived into the Catholic Church. Father Dominic came to Littlemore onOctober 8, and did for me this charitable service. I left Oxford forgood on February 23, 1846. 

_IV. --THE FAITH OF A CATHOLIC_

From the time that I became a Catholic of course I have no furtherhistory of my religious opinions to narrate. I do not mean that I havegiven up thinking on theological subjects, but that I have had novariations to record, and have had no anxiety of heart whatever. I havebeen in perfect peace; I never have had one doubt. 

Nor had I any trouble about receiving those additional articles whichare not found in the Anglican creed. I am far from denying that everyarticle of the Christian creed is beset with difficulties, and it issimple fact that I cannot answer those difficulties. But ten thousanddifficulties do not make one doubt. Of all points of faith, the being ofa God is encompassed with most difficulty, and yet borne in upon ourminds with most power. 

Starting, then, with the being of a God, which is as certain to me as myown existence, I look out of myself into the world of men, and there Isee a sight which fills me with unspeakable distress. The world seemssimply to give the lie to that great truth, of which my whole being isso full; I look into this living, busy world, and see no reflection ofits Creator. To consider the world in its length and breadth, itsvarious history; the progress of things, as if from unreasoningelements, not towards final causes; the greatness and littleness of man, his far-reaching aims, his short duration, the curtain hung over hisfuturity, the defeat of good, the prevalence and intensity of sin, thedreary, hopeless irreligion--all this is a vision to dizzy and appal, and inflicts upon the mind the sense of a profound mystery which isabsolutely beyond human solution. What shall be said to thisheart-piercing, reason-bewildering fact? I can only answer, that eitherthere is no Creator, or this living society of men is in a true sensediscarded from His presence. 

And now, supposing it were the blessed will of the Creator to interferein this anarchical condition of things, what would be the methods whichmight be necessarily or naturally involved in His purpose of mercy? Whatmust be the face-to-face antagonist, by which to withstand and bafflethe fierce energy and passion and the all-corroding, all-dissolvingscepticism of the intellect in religious inquiries? There is nothing tosurprise the mind, if He should think fit to introduce a power into theworld, invested with the prerogative of infallibility in religiousmatters. Such a provision would be a direct, immediate, active, andprompt means of withstanding the difficulty; and when I find that thisis the very claim of the Catholic Church, not only do I feel nodifficulty in admitting the idea, but there is a fitness in it whichrecommends it to my mind. 

I am defending myself from the charge that I, as a Catholic, not onlymake profession to hold doctrines which I cannot possibly believe in myheart, but that I also believe in a power on earth, which at its ownwill imposes upon men any new set of _credenda_, when it pleases, by aclaim to infallibility; and that the necessary effect of such acondition of mind must be a degrading bondage, or a bitter inwardrebellion relieving itself in secret infidelity, or the necessity ofignoring the whole subject of religion in a sort of disgust, and ofmechanically saying everything that the Church says. But this is farfrom the result; it is far from borne out by the history of the conflictbetween infallibility and reason in the past, and the prospect in thefuture. 

The energy of the human intellect thrives and is joyous, with a tough, elastic strength, under the terrible blows of the divinely fashionedweapon. Protestant writers consider that they have all the privatejudgment to themselves, and that we have the superincumbent oppressionof authority. But this is not so; it is the vast Catholic body itself, and it only, which affords an arena for both combatants in that awful, never-dying duel. St. Paul says that his apostolical power is given himto edification, and not to destruction. There can be no better accountof the infallibility of the Church. Its object is, and its effect also, not to enfeeble the freedom or vigour of human thought in religiousspeculation, but resist and control its extravagance. 

I will go on in fairness to say what I think _is_ the great trial to thereason when confronted with that august prerogative of the CatholicChurch. The Church claims, not only to judge infallibly on religiousquestions, but to animadvert on opinions in secular matters which bearupon religion, on matters of philosophy, of science, of literature, ofhistory, and it demands our submission to her claim. In this province, taken as a whole, it does not so much speak doctrinally, as enforcemeasures of discipline. 

I will go on to say further, that, in spite of all the most hostilecritics may urge about these verities of high ecclesiastics in timepast, in the use of their power, I think that the event has shown, afterall, that they were mainly in the right, and that those whom they werehard upon were mainly in the wrong. There is a time for everything, andmany a man desires a reformation of an abuse, or the fuller developmentof a doctrine, or the adoption of a particular policy, but forgets toask himself whether the right time for it is come. 

There is only one other subject which I think it necessary to introducehere, as bearing upon the vague suspicions which are attached in thiscountry to the Catholic priesthood. It is one of which my accusers havebefore now said much--the charge of reserve and economy. I come to thedirect question of truth, and of the truthfulness of Catholic priestsgenerally in their dealings with the world, as bearing on the generalquestion of their honesty, and of their internal belief in theirreligious professions. First, I will say that when I became a Catholic, nothing struck me more at once than the English outspoken manner of thepriests. There was nothing of that smoothness or mannerism which iscommonly imputed to them. Next, I was struck, when I had moreopportunity of judging of the priests, by the simple faith in theCatholic creed and system, of which they always give evidence, and whichthey never seemed to feel in any sense at all to be a burden. 

Vague charges against us are drawn from our books of moral theology. St. Alfonso Liguori, for instance, lays down that an equivocation isallowable in an extraordinary case. I avow at once that in thisdepartment of morality, I like the English rule of conduct better. Yet, great English authors, Jeremy Taylor, Milton, Paley, Johnson, distinctlysay that under extraordinary circumstances it is allowable to tell alie. Would anyone give ever so little weight to these statements, informing an estimate of the veracity of the writers? And, in fact, it isnotorious from St. Alfonso's life that he had one of the most scrupulousand anxious of consciences; and, further, he was originally in the law, and was betrayed on one occasion by accident into what seemed like adeceit, and this was the very occasion of his leaving the profession. 

If Protestants wish to know what our real teaching is, let them look atthe Catechism of the Council of Trent. Let me appeal also to the life ofSt. Philip Neri, founder of the Oratory: "As for liars, he could notendure them, and he was continually reminding his spiritual children toavoid them as they would a pestilence. "

These are the principles on which I have acted before I was a Catholic, these are the principles which, I trust, will be my stay and guidance tothe end. 

 * * * * *

THOMAS PAINE

THE AGE OF REASON

 In 1774, Thomas Paine, thirty-seven years of age, landed unknown and penniless in the American colonies. Born at Thetford, Norfolk, England, Jan. 29, 1737, of poor Quaker parents, he had tried many occupations, and had succeeded in none. Within two years he had become an intellectual leader of the American Revolution. Beginning his literary career with an attack on slavery, he continued it in 1776 by publishing his pamphlet "Common Sense, " which gave an electric inspiration to the cause of separation and republicanism among the colonists. After serving the new commonwealth in office and with his pen, he went to France on an official mission in 1781; then returned to his native England, intent on furthering his views. In 1793 Paine wrote the first part of "The Age of Reason, " which aroused a storm of indignation, but undaunted, he added a second and a third part to the work, consisting mostly of amplifications of some of the contentions advanced in the first part, in the writing of which Paine had no Bible to consult. The book, the first part of which was published in 1794, the second part in 1795, and the third in 1801, is an exposition of Deism on a purely scientific basis; the visible creation was everything to Paine in his reasonings, the religious hopes, fears and aspirations of men were nothing at all--this universal human phenomenon was curtly dismissed by him as a universal human delusion. Many of his comments on the Bible were rather crude anticipations of the modern Higher Criticism. But in dealing with the Bible, Paine showed the animus of a prosecuting counsel rather than the impartiality of a judge. His stormy life ended on July 8, 1809. (See also ECONOMICS, Vol. XIV. )

_I. --REVEALED RELIGION_

It has been my intention, for several years past, to publish my thoughtsupon religion. As several of my colleagues, and others of my fellowcitizens of France, have given me the example of making their voluntaryand individual profession of faith, I also will make mine; and I do thiswith all that sincerity and frankness with which the mind of mancommunicates with itself. 

I believe in one God, and no more; and I hope for happiness beyond thislife. 

I believe in the equality of man, and I believe that religious dutiesconsist in doing justice, loving mercy, and endeavouring to make ourfellow-creatures happy. 

I do not believe in the creed professed by the Jewish Church, by theRoman Church, by the Greek Church, by the Turkish Church, by theProtestant Church, nor by any church that I know of. My own mind is myown church. 

All national institutions of churches appear to me no other than humaninventions set up to terrify and enslave mankind, and monopolise powerand profit. 

Each of those churches show certain books which they call "revelation, "or the word of God. The Jews say that the word of God was given by Godto Moses face to face; the Christians say that their word of God came bydivine inspiration; and the Turks say their word of God (the Koran) wasbrought by an angel from heaven. Each of these churches accuses theother of unbelief; and, for my own part, I disbelieve them all. 

As it is necessary to affix right ideas to words, I will, before Iproceed further into the subject, offer some observations on the wordrevelation. Revelation, when applied to religion, means somethingcommunicated immediately from God to man. 

No one will deny or dispute the power of the Almighty to make such acommunication if he pleases. But admitting, for the sake of a case, thatsomething has been revealed to a certain person, and not revealed to anyother person, it is revelation to that person only. 

When he tells it to a second person, a second to a third, a third to afourth, and so on, it ceases to be a revelation to all those persons. Itis a revelation to the first person only, and hearsay to every other;consequently they are not obliged to believe it, for they have only theword of the first person that it was made to him. 

The world has been amused with the terms "revealed religion, " and thegenerality of priests apply this term to the books called the Old andNew Testament. There is no man that believes in revealed religionstronger than I do; but it is not the reveries of the Old and NewTestament that I dignify with that sacred title. That which is arevelation to me exists in something which no human mind can invent, nohuman hand can counterfeit or alter. 

The word of God is the Creation we behold; and this word of Godrevealeth to man all that is necessary for him to know of his Creator. 

Do we want to contemplate his power? We see it in the immensity of hiscreation. 

Do we want to contemplate his wisdom? We see it in the unchangeableorder by which the incomprehensible whole is governed. 

Do we want to contemplate his munificence? We see it in the abundancewith which he fills the earth. 

Do we want to contemplate his mercy? We see it in his not withholdingthat abundance even from the unthankful. 

Do we want to contemplate his will, so far as it respects man? Thegoodness he shows to all is a lesson for our conduct to each other. 

In fine, do we want to know what God is? Search not the book called theScripture, which any human hand might make, but the Scripture called theCreation. 

_II. --THEOLOGY AND RELIGION_

As to the Christian system of faith, it appears to me as a compound madeup chiefly of manism with but little Deism, and is near to Atheism astwilight is to darkness. 

That which is now called natural philosophy, embracing the whole circleof science, of which astronomy occupies the chief place, is the study ofthe works of God, and of the power and wisdom of God in his works, andis the true theology. 

As to the theology that is now studied in its place, it is the study ofhuman opinions and of human fancies concerning God. It is not the studyof God Himself in the works that He has made, but in the works orwritings that man has made; and it is not among the least of themischiefs that the Christian system has done to the world that it hasabandoned the original and beautiful system of theology, like abeautiful innocent, to distress and reproach, to make room for the bagof superstition. 

It is an inconsistency, scarcely possible to be credited, that anythingshould exist under the name of a religion that held it to be irreligiousto study and contemplate the structure of the universe that God hadmade. But the fact is too well established to be denied. The event thatserved more than any other to break the first link in the long chain ofdespotic ignorance is that known by the name of the Reformation byLuther. From that time, though it does not appear to have made part ofthe intention of Luther, or of these who are called Reformers, thesciences began to revive, and liberality, their natural associate, beganto appear. This was the only public good the Reformation did; for withrespect to religious good it might as well not have taken place. Themythology still continued the same; and the multiplicity of nationalpopes grew out of the downfall of the Pope of Christendom. 

The prejudice of unfounded belief often degenerates into the prejudiceof custom, and becomes at last rank hypocrisy. When men from custom orfashion, or any worldly motive profess or pretend to believe what theydo not believe, nor can give any reason for believing, they unship thehelm of their morality, and, being no longer honest in their own minds, they feel no moral difficulty in being unjust to others. It is from theinfluence of this vice, hypocrisy, that we see so many church andmeeting-going professors and pretenders to religion so full of tricksand deceit in their dealings, and so loose in the performance of theirengagements that they are not to be trusted further than the laws of thecountry will bind them. Morality has no hold on their minds, norestraint on their actions. 

One set of preachers make salvation to consist in believing. They telltheir congregations that if they believe in Christ their sins shall beforgiven. This, in the first place, is an encouragement to sin; in thenext place, the doctrine these men preach cannot be true. 

Another set of preachers tell their congregations that God predestinedand selected from all eternity a certain number to be saved, and acertain number to be damned eternally. If this were true, the day ofjudgment is past; their preaching is in vain, and they had better workat some useful calling for their livelihood. 

Nothing that is here said can apply, even with the most distantdisrespect, to the real character of Jesus Christ. He was a virtuous andan amiable man. The morality that he preached and practised was of themost benevolent kind, and, though similar systems of morality had beenpreached by Confucius and by some of the Greek philosophers many yearsbefore, by the Quakers since, and by many good men in all ages, it hasnot been exceeded by any. 

_III. --THE BIBLE_

If we permit ourselves to conceive right ideas of things, we mustnecessarily affix the idea, not only of unchangeableness, but of theutter impossibility of any change taking place, by any means or accidentwhatever, in that which we would honour with the name of God; andtherefore the word of God cannot exist in any written or human language. 

The continually progressive change to which the meaning of words issubject, the want of an universal language which renders translationnecessary, the errors to which translations are again subject, themistakes of copyists and printers, together with the possibility ofwilful alteration, are of themselves evidences that human language, whether in speech or in print, cannot be the vehicle of the word of God. The word of God exists in something else. 

It has been the practice of all Christian commentators on the Bible, andof all Christian priests and preachers, to impose the Bible on the worldas a mass of truth, and as the word of God; they have disputed andwrangled, and have anathematised each other about the supposable meaningof particular parts and passages therein; one has said and insisted thatsuch a passage meant such a thing; another, that it meant directly thecontrary; and a third, that it meant neither the one nor the other, butsomething different from both; and this they have called understandingthe Bible. 

Now, instead of wasting their time, and heating themselves in fractiousdisputations about doctrinal points drawn from the Bible, these menought to know, and if they do not it is civility to inform them, thatthe first thing to be understood is, whether there is sufficientauthority for believing the Bible to be the word of God, or whetherthere is not. 

I therefore pass on to an examination of the Books called the Old andthe New Testament. The case historically appears to be as follows:

When the Church mythologists established their system, they collectedall the writings they could find and managed them as they pleased. It isa matter altogether of uncertainty to us whether such of the writings asnow appear under the name of the Old and the New Testament are in thesame state in which these collectors say they found them; or whetherthey added, altered, abridged, or dressed them up. 

Be this as it may, they decided by _vote_ which of the books out of thecollection they had made should be the word of God, and which shouldnot. They rejected several; they voted others to be doubtful, such asthe books called the Apocrypha; and those books which had a majority ofvotes they voted to be the word of God. Had they voted otherwise, allthe people since calling themselves Christians, had believed otherwise;for the belief of the one comes from the vote of the other. Who thepeople were that did all this we know nothing of; they call themselvesby the general name of the Church; and this is all we know of thematter. 

There are matters in the Bible, said to be done by the express commandof God, that are as shocking to humanity and to every idea we have ofmoral justice as anything done by Robespierre, by Carrier, by Joseph leBen, in France; by the English Government in the East Indies; or by anyother assassin in modern times. Are we sure that the Creator of mancommissioned these things to be done? Are we sure that the books thattell us so were written by His authority? To read the Bible withouthorror, we must undo everything that is tender, sympathising, andbenevolent in the heart of man. Speaking for myself, if I had no otherevidence that the Bible is fabulous than the sacrifice I must make tobelieve it to be true, that alone would be sufficient to determine mychoice. 

But it can be shown by internal evidence that the Bible is not entitledto credit as the word of God. It can readily be proved that the firstfive books of the Bible, attributed to Moses, were not written by himnor in his time, but several hundred years afterwards. Moses could nothave described his own death, nor mentioned that he was buried in avalley in the land of Moab. Similarly, the book of Joshua was notwritten by Joshua; it is manifest that Joshua could not write thatIsrael served the Lord not only in his days, but in the days of theelders that over-lived him. The book of Judges is anonymous on the faceof it. The books of Samuel were not written by Samuel, for they relatemany things that did not happen till after his death. 

The history in the two books of Kings, which is little more than ahistory of assassinations, treachery, and war, sometimes contradictsitself; and several of the most extraordinary matters related in Kingsare not mentioned in the companion books of Chronicles. The book of Jobhas no internal evidence of being a Hebrew book; it appears to have beentranslated from another language into Hebrew; and it is the only book inthe Bible that can be read without indignation or disgust. It is anerror to call the Psalms the Psalms of David because historical evidenceshows that some of them were not written until long after the time ofDavid. The books of the prophets are wild, disorderly, and obscurecompositions, the so-called prophecies in which do not refer to JesusChrist, but to circumstances the Jewish nation was in at the time theywere written or spoken. 

I now go on to the book called the New Testament. Had it been the objectof Jesus Christ to establish a new religion, he would undoubtedly havewritten the system himself, or procured it to be written in Hislifetime. But there is no publication extant authenticated with hisname. All the books called the New Testament were written after hisdeath. He was a Jew by birth and profession, and he was the Son of Godin like manner that every other person is; for the Creator is the Fatherof All. 

The first four books--Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John--are altogetheranecdotal. They relate events after they had taken place. They tell whatJesus Christ did and said, and what others did and said to him; and inseveral instances they relate the same event differently. Revelation, therefore, is out of the question with respect to these books. Thepresumption, moreover, is that they are written by other persons thanthese whose name they bear. 

The book of Acts of the Apostles belongs also to the anecdotal part. Allthe rest of the New Testament, except the book of enigmas called theRevelation, are a collection of letters under the name of epistles, andthe forgery of letters under the name of epistles. One thing, however, is certain, which is that out of the matters contained in these books, together with the assistance of some old stories, the Church has set upa system of religion very contradictory to the character of the personwhose name it bears. It has set up a religion of pomp and reverence inpretended imitation of a person whose life was humility and poverty. 

_IV. --MYSTERY, MIRACLE, AND PROPHECY_

I proceed to speak of the three principal means that have been employedin all ages and perhaps in all countries to impose upon mankind. 

These three means are mystery, miracle, and prophecy. The two first areincompatible with true religion, and the third ought always to besuspected. With respect to mystery, everything we behold is, in onesense, a mystery to us. Our own existence is a mystery, the wholevegetable world is a mystery. We know not how it is that the seed we sowunfolds and multiplies itself. 

The fact, however, as distinct from the operating cause, is not amystery, because we see it; and we know also the means we are to use, which is no other than putting the seed in the ground. We know, therefore, as much as is necessary for us to know; and that part of theoperation that we do not know, and which if we did we could not perform, the Creator takes upon Himself and performs it for us. 

But though every created thing is in this sense a mystery, the wordmystery cannot be applied to moral truth, any more than obscurity can beapplied to light. The God in whom we believe is a God of moral truth, and not of mystery. Mystery is the antagonist of truth. It is a fog ofhuman invention that obscures truth, and represents it in distortion. 

Religion, therefore, being the belief of a God, and the practice ofmoral truth, cannot have connection with mystery. The belief of a God, so far from having anything of mystery in it, is of all beliefs the mosteasy, becauses it arises to us out of necessity. And the practice ofmoral truth, or, in other words, a practical imitation of the goodnessof God, is no other than our acting towards each other as he actsbenignly towards all. 

When men, whether from policy or pious fraud, set up systems of religionincompatible with the word or works of God in the creation, they wereunder the necessity of inventing or adopting a word that should serve asa bar to all inquiries and speculations. The word "mystery" answeredthis purpose, and thus it has happened that religion, which in itself iswithout mystery, has been corrupted into a fog of mysteries. 

As mystery answered all general purposes, "miracle" followed as anoccasional auxiliary. Of all the modes of evidence that ever wereinvented to obtain belief to any system or opinion to which the name ofreligion has been given, that of miracle is the most inconsistent. For, in the first place, whenever recourse is had to show, for the purpose ofprocuring that belief, it implies a lameness or weakness in the doctrinethat is preached. And, in the second place, it is degrading the Almightyinto the character of a showman, playing tricks to amuse and make thepeople stare and wonder. It is also the most equivocal sort of evidencethat can be set up; for the belief is not to depend upon the thingcalled a miracle, but upon the credit of the reporter who says that hesaw it; and therefore the thing, were it true, would have no betterchance of being believed than if it were a lie. 

As mystery and miracle took charge of the past and the present, prophecytook charge of the future, and rounded the tenses of faith. The originalmeaning of the words "prophet" and "prophesying" has been changed, theOld Testament prophets were simply poets and musicians. It is owing tothis change in the meaning of the words that the flights and metaphorsof the Jewish poets, and phrases and expressions now rendered obscure byour not being acquainted with the local circumstances to which theyapplied at the time they were used, have been erected into prophecies, and made to bend explanations at the will and whimsical conceits ofsectaries, expounders, and commentators. Everything unintelligible wasprophetical. 

_V. --DEISM_

Fom the time I was capable of conceiving an idea, and acting upon it byreflection, I either doubted the truth of the Christian system orthought it to be a strange affair. It seems as if parents of theChristian profession were ashamed to tell their children anything aboutthe principles of their religion. They sometimes instruct them inmorals, and talk to them of the goodness of what they call Providence. But the Christian story of what they call God the Father putting his sonto death, or employing people to do it--for that is the plain languageof the story--cannot be told by a parent to a child; and to tell him itwas done to make mankind happier and better is making the story stillworse; and to tell him that all this is a mystery is only making anexcuse for the incredibility of it. 

How different is this from the pure and simple profession of deism! Thetrue deist has but one Deity, and his religion consists in contemplatingthe power, wisdom, and benignity of the Deity in his works, and inendeavouring to imitate him in everything moral, scientific, andmechanical. 

The religion that approaches the nearest of all others to true deism, inthe moral and benign part thereof, is that professed by the Quakers; butthey have contracted themselves too much by leaving the works of God outof their system. Though I reverence their philanthropy, I cannot helpsmiling at the conceit, that if the taste of the Quaker could have beenconsulted at the creation what a silent and drab-coloured creation itwould have been! Not a flower would have blossomed its gaieties, not abird been permitted to sing. 

Quitting these reflections, I proceed to other matters. Our ideas, notonly of the almightiness of the Creator, but of His wisdom and Hisbeneficence, become enlarged as we contemplate the extent and structureof the universe. The solitary idea of a solitary world rolling or atrest in the immense ocean of space gives place to the cheerful idea of asociety of worlds, so happily contrived as to administer, even by theirmotion, instruction to man. We see our own earth filled with abundance, but we forget to consider how much of that abundance is owing to thescientific knowledge the vast machinery of the universe has unfolded. 

But what are we to think of the Christian system of faith that formsitself upon the idea of only one world? Alas! what is this to the mightyocean of space and the almighty power of the Creator? From whence, then, could arise the solitary and strange conceit that the Almighty, who hadmillions of worlds equally dependent on His protection, should quit thecare of all the rest and come to die in our world, because they say oneman and one woman had eaten an apple?

It has been by rejecting the evidence that the word or works of God inthe creation affords to our senses, and the action of our reason uponthat evidence, that so many wild and whimsical systems of faith, and ofreligion, have been fabricated and set up. There may be many systems ofreligion that so far from being morally bad are in many respects morallygood; but there can be but one that is true, and that one necessarilymust, as it ever will, be in all things consistent with theever-existing word of God that we behold in His works. 

I shall close by giving a summary of the deistic belief:

First, that the creation we behold is the real word of God, in which wecannot be deceived. It proclaims His power, it demonstrates His wisdom, it manifests His goodness and beneficence. 

Secondly, that the moral duty of man consists in imitating the moralgoodness and beneficence of God manifested in the creation towards allHis creatures. That seeing, as we daily do, the goodness of God to allmen, it is an example calling upon all men to practise the same towardseach other, and consequently that everything of persecution and revengebetween man and man, and everything of cruelty to animals, is aviolation of moral duty. 

It is certain that, in one point, all nations of the earth and allreligions agree. All believe in a God. The things in which they disagreeare the redundancies annexed to that belief; and, therefore, if ever anuniversal religion should prevail, it will not be in believing anythingnew, but in getting rid of redundancies, and believing as man believedat first. But in the meantime let every man follow, as he has a right todo, the religion and the worship he prefers. 

 * * * * *

BLAISE PASCAL

LETTERS TO A PROVINCIAL

 Blaise Pascal, mathematician, theologian, and one of the greatest writers of French prose, was born on June 19, 1623, at Clermont-Ferrand, and died on August 19, 1662. His mother died in his fourth year, and the father, an eminent lawyer, took the boy with his two sisters to Paris. Pascal showed the most astonishing mathematical genius; he produced at the age of seventeen a profound work on conic sections, and devoted the following years to physical researches and to investigations in the higher mathematics. In 1654, Pascal, having experienced a remarkable vision, which he recorded on a parchment known as his "amulet, " renounced the world and entered on the ascetic life, in close relations with the Jansenist community. Hence, in the interests of Arnauld, the Jansenist leader, Pascal issued the famous "Letters Written to a Provincial" ("Lettres Écrites par Louis de Montalte à un Provincial de ses Amis"), a series of eighteen tracts directed with the keenest and bitterest irony against the casuistry of the Jesuits. The "Letters" appeared during a period of fourteen months, the first being dated January 23, 1656, and the last March 24, 1657. They took the form of little pamphlets, each of eight or twelve quarto pages; they had a very large circulation, and created an immense impression throughout Catholic countries. They are open letters, intended really for the public and not for any individual. 

_I. --LAX CASUISTS_

SIR, --I send you, as I promised, the chief outlines of the moralteaching of these good Jesuit fathers, these "men so eminent in doctrineand in wisdom, who are led by that divine wisdom which is moretrustworthy than all philosophy. " Possibly you think that I speak injest. I speak seriously, or, rather, it is they who have spoken thus ofthemselves. I only copy their words where they write, "It is a societyof men, or, rather, of angels, foretold by the prophet Isaiah. " Theyclaim to have changed the face of Christianity. We must believe it, since they have told us so; and, indeed, you will see how far they havedone so, when you have mastered their maxims. 

I took care to be instructed by themselves and trusted to nothing whichmy friend had told me. I had been told such strange things that I couldhardly believe them, until I was shown them in their own books; and thenI could say nothing in their defence, except that these must be theprinciples of certain isolated Jesuits, and not those of the wholesociety. Indeed, I was able to say that I knew Jesuits who were assevere as these were lax. 

It was on that occasion that the spirit of the society was explained tome, for it is not by any means known to every one. I was told asfollows:

"You imagine that you are speaking in their favour when you say thatthere are among them fathers who are as obedient to the principles ofthe Gospel as others are distant from those principles, and you concludetherefore that these loose opinions do not characterise the wholesociety. That is true. But since the society admits of so licentious adoctrine within it, you must conclude that its spirit is not one ofChristian severity. "

"But what then, " said I, "is the purpose of the whole institution? Is itthat everyone should be free to say whatever he may happen to think?"

"That is not so, " was the reply. "So great a society could not existwithout discipline, and without one spirit governing and ruling all itsmovements. "

The objects of the Jesuits is not to corrupt morals, but, on the otherhand, they have not in view as their single object the reformation ofmorals, because they would find this a political disadvantage. Theirprinciple is this: they have so high an opinion of themselves as tobelieve that it is advantageous, and even necessary, to the good ofreligion that their credit should extend everywhere and that they shouldgovern all consciences. And as the severe maxims of the Gospel aresuitable for governing certain temperaments, they make use of thesewhenever they serve their purpose. But since these same maxims do not atall suit the wishes of the generality of mankind, they usually put themaside so as to be able to please everyone. 

Therefore, having to do with people of all sorts and conditions, and ofdiverse nationalities, they need casuists suited to all this diversity. From this principle you will easily see that if they had none but laxcasuists they would defeat their chief purpose, which is to include thewhole world. Truly pious people seek a more severe direction, but asthere are not many who are truly pious the Jesuits do not need manystrict directors to guide them. They have a few for the few who needthem. On the other hand, the vast number of their lax casuists are atthe service of the innumerable multitude who seek the broad and easyway. 

It is by this obliging and accommodating conduct that they open theirarms to all the world. Thus, if someone comes to them already determinedto make restitution of goods which he has wrongly acquired, you need notfear that they will dissuade him. On the contrary, they will praise andconfirm his holy resolution. But if another should come wishing to haveabsolution without making restitution, their position would be adifficult one, if they had not the means of giving him his desire. It isthus that they keep all their friends and defend themselves againsttheir enemies. And if anyone accuses them of extreme laxity, theyimmediately bring forward their most austere directors, and certainbooks which they have written on the severity of the Christian law; andsimple and uninquiring people are contented with these proofs. 

They have proofs for all sorts of people, and make such ingeniousreplies to every question that when they find themselves in countrieswhere a crucified God seems like madness, they suppress the scandal ofthe Cross and preach only Christ in glory. This they have done in Indiaand China, where they even condone idolatry by a subtle device; theyallow their people to carry with them hidden images of Christ, to whichthey should address the public worship ostensibly paid to their idols. This conduct led to their being forbidden under pain of excommunicationto permit the adoration of idols, under any pretext, or to hide themystery of the Cross from those whom they instruct in religion, and theyhave been forbidden to receive anyone in baptism until he has thisknowledge, and are enjoined to erect in their churches the image of thecrucifix. 

Thus they have spread over the whole earth in the strength of theirdoctrine of "probable opinions, " which is the fount and origin of allthese irregularities. You may learn of this from themselves, for theytake no pains to hide it, except that they cover their human andpolitical prudence with the pretence of a divine and Christian prudence. They act as if the faith and the tradition which maintains it were notfor ever invariable at all times and in all places, and as if nothingmore were required, in order to remove the stains of guilt, than tocorrupt the law of the Lord, instead of regarding that stainless andholy law as itself the instrument of conversion, and conforming humansouls to its salutary precepts. 

_II. --THE DOCTRINE OF INTENTION_

Sir, --I must now let you know what the good Jesuit father told me aboutthe maxims of their casuists, with regard to the "point of honour" amonggentlemen. "You know, " said he, "that this point of honour is thedominating passion of men in that rank of life, and is constantlyleading them into acts of violence which appear quite contrary toChristian piety. Indeed, we should have to exclude all of them from ourconfessionals, if our fathers had not in some degree relaxed theseverity of religion and accommodated it to the weakness of men. Butsince they wished to remain attached to the Gospel by their duty towardsGod, and to men of the world by their charity towards their neighbour, they had to seek expedients by which they might make it possible for aman to maintain his honour in the ordinary way of the world withoutwounding his conscience. They had to preserve, at the same time, twothings which are apparently so opposed to one another as piety andhonour. But, however valuable their purpose might be, its execution wasexceedingly difficult. "

"I am surprised, " I said, "that you find it difficult. "

"Are you?" he replied. "Do you not know that on the one hand the law ofthe Gospel commands us never to render evil for evil, and to leavevengeance to God; and that on the other hand the laws of the worldforbid that we should suffer injury without executing justice, even bythe death of our enemies? Is it possible that two precepts should bemore contrary to one another?"

"What I meant to say was, that after what I have seen of your fathers, Iknow that they can easily do things which are impossible to other men. Iam quite ready to believe that they have discovered some means ofreconciling these two precepts, and I beg of you to inform me what itis. "

"You must know, then, " he replied, "that this wonderful principle is ourgrand method of _directing the intention, _ a principle of greatimportance in our moral system. You have already seen certain examplesof it. Thus, when I explained to you how servants could carry with aclear conscience certain harmful messages, you must have seen that itwas by diverting their intention from the evil of which they are thebearers and by turning it to the gain which they receive for theirservice. This is what we call 'directing the intention. ' In the same wayyou have seen that those who give money in return for benefices would beguilty of simony unless they diverted their intention from thetransaction. But I am going to show you this grand method in all itsbeauty in relation to homicide, which it justifies under a thousandcircumstances. "

"I am ready to believe, " I said, "that your principle will permiteverything, and that nothing will escape it. "

"Not at all, " he replied; "you are always running from one extreme tothe other. We by no means permit everything. For instance, we neverpermit the formal intention of sin, for the mere sake of sinning, and wewill have nothing to do with anyone who persists in seeking evil as anend in itself, for that is a devilish intention, in whatever age, sex, or rank it may be found. But so long as there is no such unhappydisposition as that, we try to put in practice our method of directingintention, which consists in proposing a lawful object as the end ofone's actions. In so far as it is in our power, we turn away fromforbidden things; but when we are unable to prevent the action, we atleast try to purify the intention, and so correct the vice of the meansby the purity of the end. 

"That is how our fathers have been able to permit the acts of violencewhich are committed in the defence of honour. It is only necessary toturn away one's intention from the desire of vengeance, which iscriminal, and to restrict it to the desire of defending one's honour, which is a lawful desire. It is thus that our fathers are able to fulfiltheir duties towards God and towards men alike. They please the world bypermitting the actions, and they satisfy the Gospel by purifying theintentions. It is a method which was unknown to the ancients, and isentirely due to our fathers. Do you understand it now?"

"I understand it very well, " I said. "You allow to men the external andmaterial effect of the action, and you give to God the internal andspiritual movement of intention, and thus reconcile the human with thedivine law. But though I understand your principle well enough, I shouldlike to know what are its consequences. --I should like to know, forinstance, all the cases in which your method permits one to kill. Youhave told me that whoever receives a blow may repay it with asword-thrust without the guilt of vengeance, but you have not yet toldme how far one may go. "

"You can hardly make a mistake, " said the father. "You may go as far asto kill the man. One of our authorities speaks: 'It is permitted to killa man who has given a blow, even though he runs away, on the conditionthat it is not done through hatred or through vengeance, and that one'sactions do not lead to murders which are excessive and harmful to thestate. ' The reason is, that one may thus run after one's honour as ifafter a stolen object. For though your honour is not exactly in thehands of your enemy as if it were something which he had picked up, youcan yet recover it in the same way by giving a proof of greatness and ofauthority, and by thus acquiring human esteem. Indeed, he continues: 'Isit not true that he who has received a blow is considered disgraceduntil he has slain his enemy?'"

This appeared to me so horrible that I had difficulty in restrainingmyself. I felt that I had heard enough. 

_III. --THE CHARGE OF RAILLERY_

Reverend Fathers, --I have read the letters which you have published inanswer to some of mine on the subject of your moral principles; and Ifind that one of the principal points in your defence is that I have notspoken seriously enough of your maxims. You repeat this charge in allyour writings, and you go so far as to say that I have turned holythings into ridicule. 

This is a surprising and very unjust reproach; for where is a passage tobe found in which I have treated holy things with raillery? It is truethat I have spoken with little respect of the teachings of certain amongyou, but do you suppose that the imaginations of your authors are to betaken as the verities of the faith? Is it impossible to laugh atpassages of Escobar, and at the very fantastic and unchristianconclusions of others of your authors without being accused ofridiculing religion? Are you not afraid lest your reproaches should giveme a new subject for ridicule, or lest it should be seen that when Imake sport of your moral principles I am as far from laughing at holythings as the doctrine of your casuists is far from the holy teaching ofthe Evangel!

Truly, fathers, there is a great difference between laughing atreligion, and laughing at those whose extravagant opinions are itsprofanation. It would be impious to be wanting in respect for the truthswhich the Spirit of God has revealed, but it would hardly be lessimpious that we should not show our contempt for the falsities which thehuman spirit has opposed to them. 

I pray you to consider that just as Christian truth is worthy of loveand of respect, the errors that are contrary to it deserve our contemptand hatred. For there are two qualities in the truths of our religion, adivine beauty which compels our love, and a holy majesty that demandsour veneration; and there are two qualities in error, the impiety whichmakes it horrible, and the impertinence which renders it absurd. 

Do not hope, therefore, to persuade the world that it is unworthy ofChristians to deal with errors as absurdities, since this method hasbeen common to the early fathers of the church, and is authorised byHoly Scriptures, by the example of the greatest saints, and even by thatof God himself. For do we not see that God at the same time hates anddespises sinners in such a degree that at the hour of their death, whentheir condition is at its saddest and most deplorable, the divine wisdomis said to unite mockery and laughter with the vengeance and fury whichcondemns them to perpetual torments. 

Nay, it is worthy of our notice that in the first words which God spaketo man after the fall the fathers of the church have discovered a toneof mockery, a stinging irony. After Adam had disobeyed, in the hope thatthe devil had given that he would then be made like a God, it appearsfrom Scripture that God's punishment made him subject to death, and thatafter having reduced Adam to the miserable condition which his sin haddeserved, God mocked him with words of piercing irony, saying: "There isthe man who has become as one of us. "

You see, therefore, that mockery is sometimes designed to turn men fromtheir follies, and is then an act of righteousness. Thus Jeremiah saysthat the deeds of the foolish are worthy of laughter because of theirvanity. And, again, St. Augustine says that the wise laugh at thefoolish because they are wise, but in virtue not of their own wisdom, but of the divine wisdom which will mock at the death of the wicked. 

What? Must we call in Scripture and tradition to prove that cutting downone's enemy from behind, and in an ambush is a treacherous murder? Orthat giving a present of money to secure an ecclesiastical benefice isto purchase it? Of course, there are teachings which deserve ourcontempt, and can only be dealt with by mockery. Are you, fathers, to bepermitted to teach that it is lawful to slay in order to avoid a blowand an affront, yet are we to be forbidden to refute publicly so gravean error? Are you to be at liberty to say that a judge mayconscientiously retain a bribe given him to purchase injustice, yet maywe never contradict you? Are you formally to pronounce that a man may besaved without ever having loved God, and yet close the mouths of thosewho would defend the truth of the faith, on the ground that theirdefence must wound fraternal charity by attacking you, and must grieveChristian modesty by laughing at your maxims?

_IV. --THE SIN OF SIMONY_

Reverend Fathers, --I was about to write to you concerning theaccusations which you have so long brought against me, wherein you callme impious, buffoon, rogue, impostor, calumniator, swindler, heretic, disguised Calvinist, one possessed of a legion of devils. I wish theworld to know why you speak thus, for I should be sorry that anyoneshould think thus of me; and I had already made up my mind to complainpublicly of your calumnies and impostures when I saw your replies, wherein you bring the same charges against me. You have thus forced meto change my purpose. Yet I shall still carry it out in some degree, inasmuch as I hope that my defence will convict you of more realimpostures which you have imputed to me. Truly, fathers, your positionis more open to suspicion than mine, for it is very unlikely that I, being alone as I am, and without strength or human support against sopowerful a society as yours, and being sustained only by truth andsincerity, should have exposed myself to the risk of losing all, byexposing myself to a conviction of imposture. But your position, fathers, is different; you can say of me what you please, and I can findno one to whom I may complain. Well, you have chosen your ground, andthe war shall be made in your country and at your expense. Do not fearthat I shall be tedious; there is something so diverting about yourmaxims that they never fail to rejoice the world. 

Let me closely explain, for instance, your doctrine with regard tosimony. Finding yourself in a dilemma between the canons of the church, which forbid with the severest penalties any trade in ecclesiasticalbenefices, and the avarice of so many people who promote this infamoustraffic, you have followed your ordinary method, which is to give to menwhat they desire, and to offer to God nothing but words and appearances. For what do simonfacal persons demand, if not that they shall receivemoney in return for their benefices?

But that is precisely the transaction which you have cleared from theguilt of simony. Yet, since you cannot do away with the name of simony, and there must be some matter to which the name attaches, you havedevised for that purpose an imaginary idea, which never enters the mindsof simoniacs at all, and indeed would be quite useless to them. This is, that simony consists in valuing the money, considered in itself, ashighly as the spiritual privilege, considered in itself. Who would everdream of comparing things which are so disproportionate and of suchdifferent kinds? Yet, according to your authors, so long as a man doesnot entertain this metaphysical comparison, he may give his benefice toanother, and may receive money in return, without incurring the guilt ofsimony. It is thus that you make game of religion in order to pander tohuman passions. 

The abusive language which you utter against me will never clear up ourdifferences, nor shall any of your threats restrain me from defendingmyself. You trust in your strength and impunity, but I believe that Ipossess truth and innocence. The war by which violence attempts tooppress the truth is a strange and a long one, for all the efforts ofviolence are unable to weaken truth, and serve only to make it moreevident. On the other hand, all the light of truth can do nothing toarrest violence, but rather inflames it. When force combats force, thestronger destroys the weaker; when argument is opposed to argument, trueand convincing reasoning confounds that which is based on vanity andlies; but violence and truth have, no power one over the other. That isnot to say that these two things are equal. There is this extremedifference between them: the career of violence is limited by the divineorder, which determines its effects to the glory of the truth which itattacks; but truth, on the other hand, exists externally, and triumphsat last over its enemies, because it is eternal and powerful as GodHimself. 

_V. --HOMICIDE_

Let us now see, fathers, how you value that life of man, which is sojealously safeguarded by human justice. It appears from your novel lawsthat there is only one judge in a case of affront or injury, and thatthis judge is to be he who has received the offence. He is to be at thesame time judge, plaintiff, and executioner. He demands the death of theoffender, sentences him to death, and immediately executes the sentence;and so, without respect either for the body or for the soul of hisbrother, slays and imperils the salvation of him for whom Christ died. And all this is to be done to avoid a blow, a slander, an insultingword, or some other offence for which neither the law nor any authorisedjudge could assign the penalty of death. 

Not only so, but even a priest is held to have contracted neither sinnor irregularity in this infliction of death without authority andagainst law. Can these be religious men and priests who speak in thisway? Are they Christians or Turks--men or demons? Spread over the wholeearth, according to St. Augustine, there are two peoples and twoworlds--the world of the children of God, who form one body, of whichJesus Christ is king, and the world of the enemies of God, of whom thedevil is king. 

Now, Christ has founded honour on suffering; the devil has founded it onthe refusal to suffer. Christ has taught those who receive a blow tooffer the other cheek; but the devil has taught those who are in dangerof a blow to kill the enemy who threatens them. 

Consider, therefore, fathers, to which of these two kingdoms you belong. You have heard the language of the city of peace, which is called themystical Jerusalem, and you have heard the language of the city ofturmoil, which is called in the Scriptures the spiritual Sodom. Which ofthese two languages do you understand? According to St. Paul, those whobelong to Christ act and speak on his principles; and, according to thewords of Christ, those who are the children of the devil, who has been amurderer from the beginning of the world, follow his maxims. We listen, therefore, to the language of your teachers, and ask of them whetherwhen a blow is threatened, we ought to suffer it rather than slay theoffender, or whether we may kill him in order to escape the affront?

Lessius, Molina, Escobar, and other Jesuits say that it is lawful tokill the man who threatens a blow. Is that the language of Jesus Christ?

 * * * * *

WILLIAM PENN

SOME FRUITS OF SOLITUDE

 William Penn was born in London on October 14, 1644. In early life he joined the Quakers, and while still a young man underwent imprisonment for the expression of his religious views. For "A Sandy Foundation Shaken, " an attack on the Athanasian Creed, he was in 1668 sent to the Tower, where he wrote, "No Cross, No Crown. " Under James II. , however, he was high in the favour of the court, and received a grant of the region afterwards known as Pennsylvania, whither he went with a number of his co-religionists in 1682. After his return to England, he suffered by the fall of James II. , but under William III. Was acquitted of treason, and spent his later years in retirement. He died at Ruscombe, in Berkshire, on July 30, 1718. "Some Fruits of Solitude, or the Maxims of William Penn, " evidently the result of one of his sojourns in prison, was licensed in 1693. It was followed by "More Fruits of Solitude. " The whole forms a collection of maxims which are shrewd, wise, and charitable, informed with a good courage for life, and a contempt for mean ends, if in their variety they do not always escape the touch of the commonplace. The book has become known as a favourite of R. L. Stevenson, who said of it that "there is not the man living--no, nor recently dead--that could put, with so lovely a spirit, so much honest, kind wisdom into words. "

_TO THE READER_

Reader, this Enchiridion I present thee which is the fruit of solitude;a school few care to learn in, though none instructs us better. Someparts of it are the result of serious reflection; others the flashingsof lucid intervals. Writ for private satisfaction, and now published foran help to human conduct. 

The author blesseth God for his retirement, and kisses that Gentle Handwhich led him into it; for though it should prove barren to the world, it can never do so to him. 

He has now had some time he could call his own; a property he was neverso much master of before; in which he has taken a view of himself andthe world; and observed wherein he hath hit and mist the mark; whatmight have been done, what mended, and what avoided in his humanconduct; together with the omissions and excesses of others, as wellsocieties and governments, as private families and persons. And heverily thinks, were he to live over his life again, he could not only, with God's grace, serve Him, but his neighbour and himself, better thanhe hath done, and have seven years of his time to spare. And yet perhapshe hath not been the worst or the idlest man in the world, nor is he theoldest. And this is the rather said, that it might quicken thee, reader, to lose none of the time that is yet thine. 

There is nothing of which we are apt to be so lavish as of time, andabout which we ought to be more solicitous; since without it we can donothing in this world. Time is what we want most, but what, alas! we useworst; and for which God will certainly most strictly reckon with us, when time shall be no more. 

The author does not pretend to deliver thee an exact piece; his businessnot being ostentation, but charity. 'Tis miscellaneous in the matter ofit, and by no means artificial in the composure. But it contains hintsthat may serve thee for texts to preach to thyself upon, and whichcomprehend much of the course of human life. Since whatever be thyinclination or aversion, practice or duty, thou wilt find something notunsuitably said for thy direction and advantage. Accept and improve whatdeserves thy notice; the rest excuse, and place to account of good willto thee and the whole creation of God. 

_IGNORANCE_

It is admirable to consider how many millions of people come into and goout of the world ignorant of themselves and of the world they have livedin. If one went to see Windsor Castle or Hampton Court it would bestrange not to observe and remember the situation, the building, thegardens, fountains, etc. , that make up the beauty and pleasure of such aseat. And yet few people know themselves; no, not their own bodies, thehouses of their minds, the most curious structure of the world, a livingwalking tabernacle: nor the world of which it was made, and out of whichit is fed; which would be so much our benefit as well as our pleasure toknow. We cannot doubt of this when we are told the Invisible things ofGod are brought to light by the things that are seen; and consequentlywe read our duty in them as often as we look upon them, to Him that isthe Great and Wise Author of them, if we look as we should do. 

The world is certainly a great and stately volume of natural things; andmay not be improperly styled the hieroglyphics of a better. But, alas!how very few leaves of it do we really turn over! This ought to be thesubject of the education of our youth, who at twenty, when they shouldbe fit for business, know little or nothing of it. 

_EDUCATION_

We are in pain to make them scholars, but not men; to talk rather thanto know, which is true canting. The first thing obvious to children iswhat is sensible; and that we make no part of their rudiments. 

We press their memory too soon, and puzzle, strain, and load them withwords and rules; to know grammar and rhetoric, and a strange tongue ortwo, that it is ten to one may never be useful to them; leaving theirnatural genius to mechanical and physical, or natural knowledgeuncultivated and neglected; which would be of exceeding use and pleasureto them through the whole course of their life. 

To be sure, languages are not to be despised or neglected; but thingsare still to be preferred. 

Children had rather be making of tools and instruments of play; shaping, drawing, framing, and building, etc. , than getting some rules ofpropriety of speech by heart; and those also would follow with morejudgment and less trouble and time. 

It were happy if we studied nature more in natural things, and actedaccording to nature; whose rules are few, plain, and most reasonable. 

Let us begin where she begins, go her pace, and close always where sheends, and we cannot miss of being good naturalists. 

The creation would not be longer a riddle to us: the heavens, earth, andwaters, with their respective, various, and numerous inhabitants: theirproductions, natures, seasons, sympathies, and antipathies; their use, benefit, and pleasure would be better understood by us: and an eternalwisdom, power, majesty, and goodness very conspicuous to us throughthose sensible and passing forms: the world wearing the mark of itsMaker, whose stamp is everywhere visible, and the characters verylegible to the children of wisdom. 

And it would go a great way to caution and direct people in their use ofthe world that they were better studied and known in the creation of it. 

For how could man find the confidence to abuse it, while they shouldfind the Great Creator stare them in the face, in all and every partthereof?

Their ignorance makes them insensible and that insensibility hardy inmisusing this noble creation, that has the stamp and voice of a Deityeverywhere, and in everything to the observing. 

It is pity, therefore, that books have not been composed for youth, bysome curious and careful naturalists, and also mechanics, in the Latintongue, to be used in schools, that they might learn things with words:things obvious and familiar to them, and which would make the tongueeasier to be obtained by them. 

Many able gardeners and husbandmen are yet ignorant of the reason oftheir calling; as most artificers are of the reason of their own rulesthat govern their excellent workmanship. But a naturalist and mechanickof this sort is master of the reason of both, and might be of thepractice, too, if his industry kept pace with his speculation; whichwere very commendable, and without which he cannot be said to be acomplete naturalist or mechanic. 

Finally, if man be the index or epitome of the world, as philosopherstell us, we have only to read ourselves well to be learned in it. Butbecause there is nothing we less regard than the characters of the Powerthat made us, which are so clearly written upon us and the world He hasgiven us, and can best tell us what we are and should be, we are evenstrangers to our own genius; the glass in which we should see that trueinstructing and agreeable variety, which is to be observed in nature, tothe admiration of that wisdom and adoration of that Power which made usall. 

_FRUGALITY OR BOUNTY_

Frugality is good, if liberality be joined with it. The first is leavingoff superfluous expenses; the last bestowing them to the benefit ofothers that need. The first without the last begins covetousness; thelast without the first begins prodigality. Both together make anexcellent temper. Happy the place wherever that is found. 

Were it universal, we should be cured of two extremes, want and excess:and the one would supply the other, and so bring both nearer to a mean;the just degree of earthly happiness. 

It is a reproach to religion and government to suffer so much povertyand excess. 

Were the superfluities of a nation valued, and made a perpetual tax onbenevolence, there were be more alms-houses than poor, schools thanscholars; and enough to spare for government besides. 

_INDUSTRY_

Love labour; for if thou dost not want it for food thou mayest forphysick. It is wholesome for thy body, and good for thy mind. Itprevents the fruits of idleness, which many times come of having nothingto do, and lead too many to do what is worse than nothing. 

A garden, an elaboratory, a work-house, improvements and breeding, arepleasant and profitable diversions to the idle and ingenious; for herethey miss ill company, and converse with nature and art; whose varietyare equally grateful and instructing; and preserve a good constitutionof body and mind. 

_KNOWLEDGE_

Knowledge is the treature, but judgment the treasurer of a wise man. 

He that has more knowledge than judgment is made for another man's usemore than his own. 

It cannot be a good constitution, where the appetite is great and thedigestion is weak. 

There are some men like dictionaries; to be looked into upon occasions, but have no connection, and are little entertaining. 

Less knowledge than judgment will always have the advantage over theinjudicious knowing man. 

A wise man makes what he learns his own, t'other shows he's but a copy, or a collection at most. 

_ON THE GOVERNMENT OF THOUGHTS_

Man being made a reasonable, and so a thinking creature, there isnothing more worthy of his being than the right direction and employmentof his thoughts; since upon this depends both his usefulness to thepublick and his own present and future benefit in all respects. 

The consideration of this has often obliged me to lament the unhappinessof mankind, that through too great a mixture and confusion of thoughtshave been hardly able to make a right or mature judgment of things. 

Clear, therefore, thy head, and rally, and manage thy thoughts rightly, and thou wilt save time, and see and do thy business well; for thyjudgment will be distinct, thy mind free, and the faculties strong andregular. 

Always remember to bound thy thoughts to the present occasion. 

Make not more business necessary than is so; and rather lessen thanaugment work for thyself. 

Upon the whole matter employ thy thoughts as thy business requires, andlet that have place according to merit and urgency, giving everything areview and due digestion, and thou wilt prevent many errors andvexations, as well as save much time to thyself in the course of thylife. 

_FRIENDSHIP_

Friendship is an union of spirits, a marriage of hearts, and the bondthereof virtue. 

There can be no friendship where there is no freedom. Friendship loves afree air, and will not be penned up in strait and narrow enclosures. Itwill speak freely, and act so too; and take nothing ill where no ill ismeant; nay, where it is 'twill easily forgive, and forget, too, uponsmall acknowledgements. 

Friends are true twins in soul; they sympathise in everything, and havethe same love and aversion. 

One is not happy without the other, nor can either be miserable alone. As if they could change bodies, they take their turns in pain as well asin pleasure; relieving one another in their most adverse conditions. 

What one enjoys the other cannot want. Like the primitive Christians, they have all things in common, and no property but in one another. 

They that love beyond the world cannot be separated by it. 

Death cannot kill what never dies. 

Nor can spirits ever be divided that love and live in the same divineprinciple, the root and record of their friendship. 

If absence be not death, neither is theirs. 

Death is but crossing the world, as friends do the seas; they live inone another still. 

For they must needs be present that love and live in that which isomnipresent. In this divine glass they see face to face; and theirconverse is free, as well as pure. 

This is the comfort of friends, that though they may be said to die yettheir friendship and society are in the best sense ever present, becauseimmortal. 

_OF CHARITY_

Charity has various senses, but is excellent in all of them. 

It imports, first, the commiseration of the poor and unhappy of mankind, and extends an helping hand to mend their condition. 

Next, charity makes the best construction of things and persons; itmakes the best of everything, forgives everybody, serves all, and hopesto the end. 

It is an universal remedy against discord, an holy cement for mankind. 

And, lastly, 'tis love to God and the brethren which raises the soulabove all earthly considerations; and as it gives a taste of heaven uponearth, so 'tis heaven in the fulness of it hereafter to the trulycharitable here. 

This is the noblest sense charity has, after which all should press asbeing the more excellent way. 

Would God this divine virtue were more implanted and diffused amongmankind, the pretenders to Christianity especially; and then we shouldcertainly mind piety more than controversy, and exercise love andcompassion instead of censuring and persecuting one another in anymanner whatsoever. 

 * * * * *

ERNEST RENAN

LIFE OF JESUS

 Ernest Renan, the most widely read writer of religious history in his day, was forty years old when the "Vie de Jésus, " his most popular book, appeared as the first volume of a "History of the Origins of Christianity. " He was born at Tréguier in Brittany, France, Feb. 27, 1823, a Breton through his father and a Gascon through his mother. Educated for the Church, under priestly tutelage, he specialised in the study of Oriental languages, with the result that he found it impossible to accept the traditional view of Christian and Jewish history. After holding an appointment in the Department of Manuscripts in the Bibliothèque Nationale, he became Professor of Hebrew in the Collège de France. At the age of 55 he was elected a member of the French Academy. His works include "A History of Semitic Languages, " a "History of the Origins of Christianity, " and a "History of the People of Israel, " besides many volumes of essays and criticism, and several autobiographical books of great charm. Everybody read Renan, and disagreed with him. The orthodox rejected his opinions, and the unorthodox his sentiment. But his books marked an epoch in religious criticism. "The Life of Jesus" was the outcome of a visit to Palestine in pursuance of research studies of Phoenician civilisation. A feature is the importance given to scenic surroundings which he could so happily describe. Renan died on October 2, 1892, widely admired, honoured, and also condemned, and was buried in the Pantheon. 

_THE HOUR AND THE MAN_

The principal event in the history of the world is the revolution bywhich the noblest portions of humanity have forsaken the ancientreligions of Paganism for a religion founded on the Divine Unity, theTrinity, and the Incarnation of the Son of God. Nearly a thousand yearswere required to achieve this conversion. The new religion itself tookat least three hundred years in its formation. But the origin of therevolution is a historical event which happened in the reigns ofAugustus and Tiberius. At that time there lived a man of supremepersonality, who, by his bold originality, and by the love which he wasable to inspire, became the object, and settled the direction, of thefuture faith of mankind. 

The great empires which succeeded each other in Western Asia annihilatedall the hopes of the Jewish race for a terrestial kingdom, and cast itback on religious dreams, which it cherished with a kind of sombrepassion. The establishment of the Roman empire exalted men'simaginations, and the great era of peace on which the world was enteringgave birth to illimitable hopes. This confused medley of dreams found atlength an interpretation in the peerless man to whom the universalconscience has decreed the title of the Son of God, and that withjustice, since he gave religion an impetus greater than that which anyother man has been capable of giving--an impetus with which, in allprobability, no further advance will be comparable. 

_YOUTH AND EDUCATION_

Jesus was born at Nazareth, a small town in Galilee, which before histime was not known to fame. The precise date of his birth is unknown. Ittook place in the reign of Augustus, probably some years before the yearone of the era which all civilised peoples date from the day of hisbirth. Jesus came from the ranks of the common folk. His father, Joseph, and his mother, Mary, were people in humble circumstances, artisansliving by their handiwork in the state, so usual in the East, which isneither ease nor poverty. The family was somewhat large. Jesus hadbrothers and sisters who seem to have been younger than he. They allremained obscure. The four men who were called his brothers, and amongwhom one at least, James, became of great importance in the early yearsof the development of Christianity, were his cousins-german. The sistersof Jesus were married at Nazareth, and there he spent the early years ofhis youth. 

The town must have presented the poverty-stricken aspect stillcharacteristic of villages in the East. We see to-day the streets whereJesus played as a child in the stony paths or little lanes whichseparate the dwellings from each other. No doubt the house of Josephmuch resembled these poor domiciles, lighted only by the doorway, serving at once as workshop, kitchen, and bedroom, and having forfurniture a mat, some cushions on the ground, one or two clay pots, anda painted chest. But the surroundings are charming, and no place in theworld could be so well adapted for dreams of perfect happiness. If weascend to the plateau, swept by a perpetual breeze, above the highesthouses, the landscape is magnificent. An enchanted circle, cradle of theKingdom of God, was for years the horizon of Jesus, and indeed duringhis whole life he went but little beyond these, the familiar bounds ofhis childhood. 

No doubt he learnt to read and write according to the Eastern method;but it is doubtful if he understood the Hebrew writings in theiroriginal tongue. His biographers make him cite translations in theAramean language. Nevertheless, it would be a great error to imaginethat Jesus was what we should call an ignorant man. Refinement ofmanners and acuteness of intellect have, in the East, nothing in commonwith what we call education. In all probability Jesus did not knowGreek. His mother tongue was the Syrian dialect, mingled with Hebrew. Noelement of secular teaching reached him. He was ignorant of all beyondJudaism; his mind kept that free innocence which an extended and variedculture always weakens. Happily, he was also ignorant of the grotesquescholasticism which was taught at Jerusalem, and which was soon toconstitute the Talmud. The reading of the books of the Old Testamentmade a deep impression on him, especially the book of Daniel, and thereligious poetry of the Psalms was in marvellous accordance with hislyrical soul, and all his life was his sustenance and support. That hehad no knowledge of the general state of the world is evident from everyfeature of his most authentic discourses, and he never conceived ofaristocratic society, save as a young villager who sees the worldthrough the prism of his simplicity. Although born at a time when theprinciples of positive science had already been proclaimed, he lived inentirely supernatural ideas. To him the marvellous was not theexceptional but the normal statf of things, since to him the wholecourse of things was the result of the free-will of the Deity. This ledto a profound conception of the close relations of man with God. 

_IDYLLIC SURROUNDINGS_

A mighty dream haunted the Jewish people for centuries, constantlyrenewing its youth. Judaea believed that she possessed divine promisesof a boundless future. In combination with the belief in the Messiah andthe doctrine of an approaching renewal of all things, the dogma of theresurrection had emerged and produced a great fermentation from one endof the Jewish world to the other. Jesus, as soon as he had any thoughtof his own, entered into the burning atmosphere created in Palestine bythese ideas, and his soul was soon filled with them. A beautiful naturalenvironment imprinted a charming and idyllic character on all the dreamsof Galilee. During the months of March and April that green, shady, smiling land is a carpet of flowers of an incomparable variety ofcolours. The animals are small and extremely gentle--delicate andplayful turtle-doves, blackbirds so light that they rest on a blade ofgrass without bending it, tufted larks which almost venture under thefeet of the traveller, little river-tortoises with mild bright eyes, storks of gravely modest mien, which, casting aside all timidity, allowmen to come quite near them, and indeed seem to invite his approach. Inno country in the world do the mountains extend with more harmoniousoutlines, or inspire higher thought. Jesus seems to have had an especiallove for them. The most important events of his divine career took placeupon the mountains. This beautiful country in his time was filled withprosperity and gaiety. There Jesus lived and grew up. True, every yearhe knew the sweet solemnity of the pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and it isbelieved that early in life the wilderness had some influence on hisdevelopment, but it was when he returned into his beloved Galilee thathe once more found his Heavenly Father in the midst of green hills andclear fountains, and women and children who with joyous soul awaited thesalvation of Israel. 

_A CHARACTER TO LOVE_

Jesus followed the trade of his father, which was that of a carpenter. In this there was nothing irksome or humiliating. The Jewish customrequired that a man devoted to intellectual work should learn ahandicraft. Jesus never married. His whole capacity for love wasconcentrated upon that which he felt was his heavenly vocation. He wasno doubt more beloved than loving. Thus, as often happens in very loftynatures, tenderness of heart was in him transformed into an infinitesweetness, a vague poetry, a universal charm. 

Through what stages did the ideas of Jesus progress during this obscureearly period of his life? A high conception of the Divinity, thecreation of his own great mind, was the guiding principle to which hispower was due. God did not speak to him as to one outside of himself;God was in him; he felt himself with God, and from his own heart drewall he said of his Father. The highest consciousness of God which everexisted in the heart of man was that of Jesus; but he never once gaveutterance to the sacrilegious idea that he was God. From the first helooked upon his relationship with God as that of a son with his father. Herein was his great originality; in this he had nothing in common withhis race. Neither Jew nor Musselman has understood this sweet theologyof love. The God of Jesus is our Father. He is the God of humanity. TheJesus who founded the true Kingdom of God, the kingdom of the humble andmeek, was the Jesus of early life--of those chaste and simple days whenthe voice of his Father re-echoed within him in clearer tones. It wasthen, for some months, perhaps a year, that God truly dwelt on earth. 

_A STIMULATING ACQUAINTANCE_

An extraordinary man, whose position remains to some extent enigmatical, appeared about this time and unquestionably had some intercourse withJesus. About the year 28 of our era there spread through the whole ofPalestine the reputation of a certain John, a young ascetic, full offervour and passion. The fundamental practice which characterised hissect was baptism; but baptism with John was only a sign to impress theminds of the people and to prepare them for some great movement. Therecan be no doubt he was possessed in the highest degree with hope for thecoming of the Messiah. He was of the same age as Jesus, and the twoyoung enthusiasts, full of the same hopes and the same hatreds, wereable to lend each other mutual support, Jesus recognizing John as hissuperior, and timidly developing his own individual genius. John wassoon cut short in his prophetic career, and cast into prison, fromwhich, however, he still exercised a wide influence. 

Jesus returned from the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea and the Jordan toGalilee, his true home, ripened by intercourse with a great man of verydifferent nature, and having acquired full consciousness of his ownoriginality. From that time he preached with greater power and made themultitude feel his authority. The persuasion that he was to make Godreign upon earth took absolute possession of his spirit. He looked uponhimself as the universal reformer. He aimed at founding the Kingdom ofGod, or, in other words, the Kingdom of the Soul. Jesus was, in somerespects, an anarchist, for he had no idea of civil government. He nevershowed any desire to put himself in the place of the rich and mighty. The idea of being all-powerful by suffering and resignation, and oftriumphing over force by purity of heart was his peculiar idea. Thefounders of the Kingdom of God are the simple--not the rich, not thelearned, not the priests; but women, common folk, the humble, and theyoung. He now boldly announced "the good tidings of the Kingdom of God, "and himself as that "Son of Man, " whom Daniel in his vision had beheldas the divine herald of the last and supreme revelation. 

_EARLY SUCCESSES_

The success of the new prophet's teaching was decisive. A group of menand women, all characterised by the same spirit of childish franknessand simple innocence, adhered to him, and said, "Thou art the Messiah. "The centre of his operations was the little town of Capernaum, on theshore of the Lake of Genesareth. Jesus was much attached to the town andmade it a second home. He had attempted to begin the work at Nazareth, but without success. The fact that his family, which was of humble rank, was known in the district lessened his authority too much; and it ismoreover remarkable that his family were strongly opposed to him, andflatly declined to believe in his mission. In Capernaum he was much morefavourably received, and it became "his own city. " These good Galileanshad never heard preaching so well adapted to their cheerfulimaginations. They admired him, they encouraged him, they found that hespoke well, and that his reasons were convincing. The almost poeticalharmony of his discourses won their affections. The authority of theyoung master increased day by day, and naturally the more that peoplebelieved in him the more he believed in himself. Four or five largevillages, lying at half an hour's journey from one another, formed thelittle world of Jesus at this time. Sometimes, however, he wanderedbeyond his favourite region, once in the direction of Tyre and Sidon, acountry which must have been marvellously prosperous at that time. Buthe returned always to his well-beloved shore of Genesareth. Themotherland of his thoughts was there; there he found faith and love. 

In this earthly paradise lived a population in perfect harmony with theland itself, active, honest, joyous, and tender of heart, and here Jesusbecame the centre of a little circle which adored him. In this friendlygroup he evidently had his favourites. Peter, for whom his affection wasvery deep, James, son of Zebedee, and John, his brother, formed a sortof privy council. Jesus owed his conquests to the infinite charm of hispersonality and speech. Everyone thought that he lived in a spherehigher than that of humanity. The aristocracy of the group wasrepresented by a customs-officer, and by the wife of one of Herod'sstewards. The rest were fishermen and common folk. Jesus lived with hisdisciples almost always in the open air, the faithful band leading ajoyous wandering life, and gathering the inspirations of the Master intheir first bloom. His preaching was soft and gentle, inspired with afeeling for nature and the perfume of the fields. It was above all inparable that the Master excelled. There was nothing in Judaism to givehim a model for this delightful feature. He created it. In freeing manfrom what he called "the cares of this world" Jesus might go to excessand injure the essential conditions of human society; but he foundedthat spiritual exaltation which for centuries has filled souls with joyin the midst of this vale of tears. In our busy civilisation the memoryof the free life of Galilee has been like perfume from another world, like the "dew of Hermon, " which has kept drought and grossness fromentirely invading the fields of God. 

_A GOSPEL FOR THE POOR_

Jesus very soon understood that the official world of his time would byno means lend its support to his kingdom. He took his resolution withextreme daring. Leaving the world, with its hard heart and narrowprejudices, on one side, he turned towards the simple. A vastrearrangement of classes was to take place. The Kingdom of God was madefor children, and those like them; for the world's outcasts, victims ofthat social arrogance which repulses the good but humble man; forheretics and schismatics, publicans, Samaritans, and the pagans of Tyreand Sidon. That the reign of the poor is at hand was the doctrine ofJesus. This exaggerated taste for poverty could not last very long, butalthough it quickly passed, poverty remained an ideal from which truedescendants of Jesus were never afterwards separated. 

Like all great men, Jesus was fond of common folk, and felt at his easewith them. He particularly esteemed all those whom orthodox Judaismdisdained. Love of the people, pity for their powerlessness, the feelingof the democratic leader who has the spirit of the multitude quickwithin him, reveal themselves at every instant in his acts and sayings. He had no external affection, and made no display of austerity. He didnot shun pleasure; but went willingly to marriage feasts. His gentlegaiety found constant expression in amiable pleasantries. Thus hejourneyed through Galilee in the midst of continual festivities. When heentered a house, it was considered a joy and a blessing. Children andwomen adored him. The children, indeed, were like a young guard abouthim, for the inauguration of his innocent kingship, and gave him littleovations. It was childhood, in fact, in its divine spontaneity, in itssimple bewilderment of joy, that took possession of the earth. 

How long did this intoxication last? We cannot tell. But whether itfilled years or months, the dream was so beautiful that humanity haslived upon it ever since. Happy he to whom it has been granted to beholdwith his own eyes this divine blossoming, and to share, if but for aday, the incomparable illusion! But yet more happy, Jesus would tell us, shall he be who, by the uprightness of his will, and the poetry of hissoul, shall be able to create anew in his own heart the true Kingdom ofGod!

_THE PRIEST IN THE PATH_

Nearly every year Jesus went to Jerusalem for the feast of the Passover. It was, it appears, in the year 31 that the most important of thesevisits took place. Jesus felt that to play a leading part he must leaveGalilee and attack Judaism in its stronghold, Jerusalem. There thelittle Galilean community was far from feeling at home. Jerusalem was acity of pedantry, acrimony, disputation, hatreds, and pettiness of mind. Its fanaticism was extreme. All the religious discussions of the Jewishschools, all the canonical instruction, even the legal business andcivil actions--in a word, all form of national activity, wereconcentrated in the temple. The Romans refrained from entering thesactuary; the surveillance of the Temple was in the hands of the Jews. It was in the Temple that Jesus spent his days during his sojourn atJerusalem, and all that he saw aroused his aversion. These old Jewishinstitutions displeased him, and the necessity of conforming to themgave him pain. He who gave forgiveness to all men, provided they lovedhim, could find nothing congenial in vain disputations and obsoletesacrifices, and apparently he brought from Jerusalem one ideathenceforth rooted in his mind--that there was no understanding possiblebetween him and the ancient Jewish religion. He no longer took his standas a Jewish reformer, but as a destroyer of Judaism. In other words, Jesus is no longer a Jew. He is, in the highest degree, a revolutionary;he calls all men to a worship founded solely on the ground of theirbeing children of God. Love of God, charity, and mutual forgiveness--inthese consisted his whole law. Nothing could be less sacerdotal. It wason his return from Jerusalem, as he passed near Shechem, and whentalking with a Samaritan woman, that Jesus gave utterance to the sayingupon which will rest the edifice of eternal religion--Believe me, thehour cometh when neither in this mountain nor in Jerusalem shall yeworship the Father . .. But the hour cometh, and now is, when the trueworshippers shall worship the Father in spirit and in truth. On the daywhen he said these words he was truly Son of God. 

Jesus returned to Galilee full of revolutionary ardour. His innocentaphorisms and beautiful moral precepts now culminated in a decidedpolicy. The law is to be abolished, and it is he that will abolish it. The Messiah is come, and it is he that is the Messiah. The Kingdom ofGod is about to be revealed, and it is he that will reveal it. He knewwell that he would be the victim of his own audacity, but it was bycries and the rending of hearts that the kingdom had to be established. 

The proposition "Jesus is the Messiah" was followed by the proposition"Jesus is the Son of David, " and, by an entirely spontaneous conspiracy, fictitious genealogies arose in the imaginations of his partisans, whilehe was still alive, to prove his royal descent. We cannot tell whetherhe knew anything of these legends. He never designated himself Son ofDavid. That he ever dreamed of making himself pass for an incarnation ofGod is a matter about which no doubt can exist. Such an idea wasentirely foreign to the Jewish mind. He believed himself to be more thanan ordinary man, but separated by an infinite distance from God. He wasthe Son of God, but all men are, or may become so in divers degrees. Jesus apparently remained a stranger to the theological subtleties whichwere soon to fill the world with sterile disputations. 

_TIME-WORM PROOFS_

Two means of proof--miracles and the accomplishment of prophecies--couldalone establish a supernatural mission in the opinion of thecontemporaries of Jesus. He himself, but more especially his disciples, employed these two methods of demonstration in perfect good faith. For along time Jesus had recognised himself in the sacred oracles of theprophets. As to miracles, they were considered at this epoch theindispensable mark of the divine, and the sign of the propheticvocation. Jesus, therefore, was compelled either to renounce his missionor become a thaumaturgist. It must be remembered that not only did hebelieve in miracles, but he had not the least idea of an order of natureunder the reign of law. On that point, his knowledge was in no waysuperior to that of his contemporaries. Indeed, one of his mostdeeply-rooted opinions was that by faith and prayer man had entire powerover nature. Almost all the miracles Jesus believed he performed seem tohave been miracles of healing. The kind of healing which he most oftenpractised was exorcism, or the expulsion of demons. There can be nodoubt that he had in his lifetime the reputation of possessing thegreatest secrets of the art. There were many lunatics in Judaeawandering at large, and no doubt Jesus had great influence over theseunhappy beings. Circumstances seem to indicate that he became athaumaturgist late in life and against his own inclinations. He acceptedmiracles exacted by public opinion rather than performed them. 

_THE NEW KINGDOM OF GOD_

During the eighteen months between the return from the Passover of theyear 31 and his journey to the feast of tabernacles in the year 32, allthat was within Jesus developed with an ever-increasing degree of powerand audacity. The fundamental idea of Jesus from his earliest days wasthe establishment of the Kingdom of God. This kingdom he appears to haveunderstood in divers senses. At times it is the literal consummation ofapocalyptic visions relating to the Messiah. At other times it is thespiritual kingdom, and the deliverance at hand is the deliverance of thesoul. The revolution desired by Jesus in this last sense is the onewhich has really taken place. That the coming of the end of the worldand the appearance of the Messiah in judgment was taken literally by thedisciples, and at certain moments by the Master himself, appearsabsolutely clear. These formal declarations absorbed the minds of theChristian family for nearly seventy years. The world has not ended, asJesus announced, and as his disciples believed it would end. But it hasbeen renewed and in one sense renewed as Jesus desired. By the side ofthe false, cold, impossible idea of an ostentatious advent, he conceivedthe real City of God, the raising up of the weak, the love of thepeople, esteem for the poor, and the restoration of all that is humbleand true and simple. This restoration he has depicted, as anincomparable artist, in touches which will last for eternity. HisKingdom of God was doubtless the apocalypse which was soon to beunfolded in the heavens. But besides this, and probably above all, wasthe soul's kingdom, founded on freedom, and on the feeling of sonshipwhich the good man knows in his rest on the bosom of his Father. This iswhat was destined to live. This is what has lived. 

_THE CLASH OF OLD AND NEW_

Throughout the first epoch of his career, it seems as though Jesus metwith no serious opposition; but when he entered upon a path brilliantwith public successes the first mutterings of the storm began to makethemselves heard. He recognised only the religion of the heart, whilethe religion of the Pharisees almost exclusively consisted ofobservances. As his mission proceeded, his conflicts with officialhypocrisy became incessant. His goal was in the future, not in the past. He was more than the reformer of an obsolete religion; he was thecreator of the eternal religion of humanity. A hatred which death alonecould satisfy was the consequence of these controversies. The war was tothe death. Judaea drew him as by a charm; he wished to attempt one lasteffort to win the rebellious city, and seemed anxious to fulfil theproverb that a prophet ought not to die outside Jerusalem. 

At the feast of tabernacles in the year 32, his relatives, alwaysmalevolent and sceptical, pressed him to go there. He set out on thejourney unknown to every one and almost alone, and never again saw hisbeloved northern land. 

In Jerusalem, Jesus was a stranger. There he felt a wall of resistancehe could not penetrate. At every step he met with obstinate scepticism. The arrogance of the priests made the courts of the Temple disagreeableto him, and his criticisms naturally exasperated the sacerdotal caste. Imagine a reformer going, in our own time, to preach the overthrow ofIslamism round the Mosque of Omar! His teaching in this new world wasgreatly modified; he had to become controversialist, jurist, theologian, though when alone with his disciples his gentle and irresistible geniusinspired him with accents full of tenderness. 

_APPROACHING THE CRISIS_

Jesus spent the autumn and part of the winter in Jerusalem. In the newyear he undertook a journey to the banks of the Jordan, the district hehad visited when he followed the school of John. After this pilgrimagehe returned to Bethany, a place he especially loved, and where he knew afamily whose friendship had a great charm for him. In impure anddepressing Jerusalem, Jesus was no longer himself. His mission weighedhim down, and he let himself be carried away by the torrent. Thecontrast between his ever-increasing exaltation and the indifference ofthe Jews became wider day by day. At the same time the publicauthorities began to be bitter against him. In February, or early inMarch, the council of the chief priests asked clearly the question "CanJesus and Judaism exist together?" The High Priest was Joseph Kaiapha, but beside and behind him we always see another man, Hanan, hisfather-in-law. He had been High Priest, and in reality kept all theauthority of the office. During fifty years the pontificate remained inhis family almost without interruption. The family spirit was haughty, bold, and cruel. It was Hanan, his family, and the party he represented, who really put Jesus to death. After the death of Jesus was decided, heescaped for a short time by withdrawing to an obscure town, Ephron, andletting the storm pass over; but when the feast of the Passover drewnigh, he set out to see for the last time the unbelieving city. Hisfollowers all believed that the Kingdom of God was about to be realisedthere. As to Jesus, he grew confirmed in the conviction that he wasabout to die, but that his death would save the world. 

During these last days a deep sadness appears to have filled the soul ofJesus, which was generally so joyous and serene. The enormous weight ofthe mission he had accepted bore cruelly upon him. All these inwardtroubles were evidently a sealed chapter to his disciples. His divinenature, however, soon gained the supremacy, and henceforth we behold himentirely himself and with his character unclouded. Each moment of thisperiod is solemn, and counts more than whole ages in the history ofhumanity. A lofty feeling of love, of concord, of charity, and of mutualdeference, animated the memories cherished of these last hours. 

_VICTORY THROUGH DEFEAT_

It was in the garden of Gethsemane that the guards of the Temple, supported by a detachment of Roman soldiers, executed the warrant ofarrest. The course which the priests had determined to take againstJesus was in perfect conformity with the established law. The warrant ofarrest probably came from Hanan, and before this powerful man Jesus wasfirst brought for examination as to his doctrine. Jesus, with justpride, declined to enter into long explanations--he asked the ex-highpriest to question those who had listened to him. Hanan then sent him tohis son-in-law, Kaiapha, at whose house the Sanhedrim was assembled. Itis probable that here, too, he kept silence. The sentence was alreadydecided, and they only sought for pretexts. With one voice the assemblydeclared him guilty of a capital crime. The point now was to get Pilateto ratify the sentence. On being informed of the accusation, Pilateshowed his annoyance at being mixed up in the matter, and called upon toplay a cruel part for the sake of a law he detested. Perhaps thedignified and calm attitude of the accused made an impression upon him. To excite the suspicion of the Roman authorities, the charges now madewere those of sedition and treason against the government. Nothing couldbe more unjust, for Jesus had always recognised the Roman government asthe established power. Asked by Pilate if he really were the king of theJews, Jesus, according to the fourth gospel, avowed his kingship, bututtered at the same time the profound saying, "My kingdom is not of thisworld. " Of this lofty idealism Pilate understood nothing. No doubt Jesusimpressed him as being a harmless dreamer. When, however, the peoplebegan to denounce Pilate's lack of zeal, in protecting an enemy ofCaesar, he surrendered, throwing on the Jews the responsibility for whatwas about to take place. It was not Pilate who condemned Jesus. It wasthe old Jewish party; it was the Mosaic law. Intolerance is a Jewishcharacteristic. The Pentateuch has been the first code of religiousterrorism in the world. It was, however, the chimerical "King of theJews, " not the heteradox dogmatist, who was punished, and the executiontook the Roman form of crucifixion, carried out by Roman soldiers. 

The horrors of that ignominious death were suffered by Jesus in alltheir atrocity. For a moment, according to certain narratives, his heartfailed him; a cloud hid from him the face of his Father; he endured anagony of despair more acute a thousand times than all his torments. Buthis divine instinct again sustained him. In measure as the life of thebody flickered out, his soul grew serene, and by degrees returned to itsheavenly source. He regained the idea of his mission, in his death hesaw the salvation of the world; the hideous spectacle spread at his feetmelted from his sight, and profoundly united to his Father, he beganupon the gibbet the divine life which he was to live in the heart ofhumanity through infinite years. 

Rest now in thy glory, noble pioneer! Thy work is achieved, thy divinityestablished. At the price of a few hours of suffering, which have noteven touched thy mighty soul, thou hast purchased the fullestimmortality. For thousands of years the world will depend upon thee! Athousand times more alive, a thousand times more loved since thy deaththan during the days of thy pilgrimage here below, thou shalt become sotruly the cornerstone of humanity that to tear thy name from this worldwere to shake it to its foundations. 

Whatever the unexpected phenomena of the future, Jesus will never besurpassed. His worship will constantly renew its youth; the legend ofhis life will bring ceaseless tears; his sufferings will soften the besthearts; all the ages will proclaim that amongst the sons of men none hasbeen born who is greater than Jesus. 

 * * * * *

EMANUEL SWEDENBORG

HEAVEN AND HELL

 Emanuel Swedenborg, author of a strange system of mystical theology, was of Swedish nationality and was born at Stockholm on January 29, 1688. He was educated at Upsala, and after travelling for several years in Western Europe was appointed to a post in the Swedish College of Mines. Thenceforth, until he was 55 years of age, Swedenborg pursued, with equal industry and ingenuity, the career of a man of science, doing valuable work in mathematics, astronomy, navigation, engineering, chemistry, and especially in mining and metallurgy. These inquiries were followed by studies in philosophy and anatomy and physiology. But about the year 1744 certain visions and other mystical experiences began to take hold of his mind, and three years later Swedenborg had come to regard himself as the medium of a new revelation of divine truth. His message, or theory, or vision, was first promulgated in the eight quarto volumes of the "Heavenly Arcana, " published in London from 1749 to 1756, and this was followed by "Heaven and Hell, " 1758, the work now before us, the full title of which is "Heaven and Its Wonders, the World of Spirits, and Hell: described by one who had heard and seen what he relates, " and several other apocalyptic books, all of which were written in Latin. The main features of Swedenborg's theology were a strong emphasis on the divinity of Christ, the proclamation of the immediate advent of the "New Jerusalem, " foretold by the seer of Patmos, and the conception of correspondences between the natural, spiritual, and mental worlds. His followers, known as Swedenborgians, or more properly as "The New Church signified by the New Jerusalem in the Revelation, " are widely spread but not very numerous, in England and in the United States. Swedenborg died in London on March 29, 1772. 

_I. --OF HEAVEN_

The first thing necessary to be known is, who is the God of heaven; foreverything else depends on this. In the universal heaven, no other isacknowledged for its God, but the Lord Alone; they say there, as HeHimself taught, that He is One with the Father; that the Father is inHim, and He in the Father; that whosoever seeth Him, seeth the Father;and that everything holy proceeds from Him. I have often conversed withthe angels on this subject, and they constantly declared that they areunable to divide the Divine Being into three, because they know andperceive that the Divine Being is one, and that He is One in the Lord. 

The angels, taken collectively, are called heaven, because they composeit: but still it is the Divine Sphere proceeding from the Lord, whichenters the angels by influx, and is by them received, which essentiallyconstitutes it, both in general and in particular. The Divine Sphereproceeding from the Lord is the good of love and the truth of faith: inproportion, therefore, as the angels receive good and truth from theLord, so far they are angels, and so far they are heaven. 

As in heaven there are infinite varieties, and no society is exactlylike another, nor indeed any angel, therefore heaven is divided in ageneral, in a specific, and in a particular manner. It is divided, ingeneral, into two kingdoms, specifically, into three heavens, and inparticular, into innumerable societies. 

There are angels who receive the Divine Sphere proceeding from the Lordmore and less interiorly. They who receive it more interiorly are calledcelestial angels; but they who receive it less interiorly are calledspiritual angels. Hence, heaven is divided into two kingdoms, one ofwhich is called the Celestial Kingdom, and the other, the SpiritualKingdom. 

The angels of each heaven do not dwell all together in one place, butare divided into larger and smaller societies, according to thedifference of the good of love and faith in which they are grounded;those who are grounded in similar good forming one society. There is aninfinite variety of kinds of good in the heavens; and every angel issuch in quality as is the good belonging to him. 

That heaven, viewed collectively, is in form as one man, is a mysterywhich is not yet known to the world: but it is well known in theheavens; for the knowledge of this mystery, with the particular and mostparticular circumstances relating to it, is the chief article of theintelligence of the angels; since many other things depend upon it, which, without a knowledge of this as their common centre, could notpossibly enter distinctly and clearly into their ideas. As they knowthat all the heavens together with their societies are in form as oneman, they also call heaven THE GRAND AND DIVINE MAN; divine, because theDivine Sphere of the Lord constitutes heaven. 

From my experience, which I have enjoyed for many years, I can affirmthat angels are in every respect men; that they have faces, eyes, ears, a body, arms, hands, and that they see, hear, and converse with eachother; in short they are deficient in nothing that belongs to a manexcept that they are not super-invested with a material body. 

Their habitations are exactly like our houses on earth, but morebeautiful. They contain chambers, with-drawing-rooms, and bed-chambers, in great numbers, and are encompassed with gardens and flower-beds. Where the angels live together in societies the habitations arecontiguous, and arranged in the form of a city, with streets, squares, and churches. It has also been granted to me to walk through them, andto look about on all sides, and occasionally to enter the houses. Thisoccurred to me when wide awake, my interior sight being open at thetime. 

That it is by derelation from the Lord's Divine Humanity that heaven, both in whole and in parts, is in form as a man, follows as a conclusionfrom all that has been advanced. 

There is a correspondence between all things belonging to heaven and allthings belonging to man. It is unknown at this day what correspondenceis. This ignorance is owing to various causes; the chief of which is, that man has removed himself from heaven, through cherishing the love ofself and of the world. For he that supremely loves himself and the worldcares only for worldly things, because they soothe the external sensesand are agreeable to his natural disposition; but has no concern aboutspiritual things, because these only soothe the internal senses and areagreeable to the internal or rational mind. These, therefore, they castaside, saying that they are too high for man's comprehension. Not so didthe ancients. With them the science of correspondences was the chief ofall sciences: by means of its discoveries, also, they imbibedintelligence and wisdom, and such of them as belonged to the church hadby it communication with heaven; for the science of correspondences isthe science of angels. 

It shall first be stated what correspondence is. The whole natural worldcorresponds to the spiritual world; and not only the natural worldcollectively, but also in its individual parts: wherefore every objectin the natural world, existing from something in the spiritual world, iscalled its correspondent. The natural world exists and subsists from thespiritual world, just as the effect exists from the efficient cause. 

Since man is both a heaven and a world in miniature, he has belonging tohim both a spiritual world and a natural world. The interiors, whichbelong to his mind, and have relation to his understanding and will, constitute his spiritual world; but his exteriors, which belong to hisbody, and have reference to its senses and actions, constitute hisnatural world. 

The nature of correspondence may be seen from the face of man. In acountenance which has not been taught to dissemble, all the affectionsof the mind display themselves vividly, in a natural form, as in theirtype; whence the face is called the index of the mind. Thus man'sspiritual world shows itself in its natural world. All things, therefore, which take effect in the body, whether in the countenance, the speech, or the gestures, are called correspondences. 

The angels rejoice that it has pleased the Lord to reveal manyparticulars to mankind. They desire me to state from their lips, thatthere does not exist, in the universal heaven, a single angel who wascreated such from the first, nor any devil in hell who was created anangel of light and afterwards cast down thither; but that all theinhabitants, both of heaven and of hell, are derived from the humanrace; the inhabitants of heaven being those who had lived in heavenlylove and faith, and those of hell who had lived in infernal love andfaith. 

_II--OF THE WORLD OF SPIRITS_

The world of spirits is not heaven nor yet hell, but is a place or stateintermediate between the two. Thither man goes after death; and havingcompleted the period of his stay there, according to his life in theworld he is either elevated into heaven or cast into hell. 

The world of spirits contains a great number of inhabitants, because itis the region in which all first assemble, and where all are examinedand are prepared for their final abode. Their stay there is not limitedto any fixed period: some do but just enter it, and are presently eithertaken up to heaven or cast down to hell: some remain there only a fewweeks; and some for several years, but never more than thirty. Thevarieties in the length of their stay depend upon the correspondence, ornoncorrespondence between their interiors and their exteriors. 

As men enter the world of spirits, they are distinguished by the Lordinto classes. The wicked are immediately connected by invisible bondswith the society of hell, and the good, in a similar way, with thesociety of heaven, but notwithstanding these bonds, they meet andconverse together. I saw a father conversing with his six sons, all ofwhom he recognised; but as they were different in disposition, resultingfrom their course of life in the world, after a short time they wereparted. 

The spirit of a man, when first he enters the world of spirits, issimilar in countenance and in the tone of his voice to what he was inthe world. The reason is, because he is then in the state of hisexteriors and his interiors are not yet laid open. This is the firststate of man after death. But afterwards his countenance is changed;being rendered similar to his governing affection or love, which is thatin which the interiors belonging to his mind had been grounded while inthe world, and which had reigned in his spirit while this was in thebody. For the face of a man's spirit differs exceedingly from that ofhis body; the face of his body being derived from his parents, but thatof his spirit from his affection, of which it is the image. 

That his own life remains with everyone after death is known to everyChristian from the Word. Everyone, also, who thinks under the influenceof good and of real truth, has no other idea than that he who has livedwell will go to heaven, and he who has lived ill will go to hell. 

But by deeds and works are not merely meant deeds and works as theyappear in their external form, but as they appear internally. Everyoneknows, that every deed or work proceeds from the will and thought of thedoer; for otherwise they would be mere motions, such as are performed byautomatons and images. The deed or work, then, viewed in itself, isnothing but an effect, which derives its soul and life from the will andthought from which it is performed; and so completely is this the casethat the deed or work is the will and thought in their effect, and is, consequently, the will and thought in their external form. It hencefollows, that such as are, in quality, the will and thought whichproduce the deed or work, such, also, is the deed or work itself; andthat if the thought and will are good the deeds or works are good; andif the thought and will are evil the deeds and works are evil, notwithstanding in their external form they appear like the former. 

To sum up the truths concerning man's state after death, I will say, first: that man, after death, is his own love, or his own will;secondly: that, in quality, man remains to eternity, such as he is withrespect to his will or governing love; thirdly: that the man whose loveis celestial and spiritual goes to heaven, but that the man whose loveis corporeal and worldly, destitute of such as is celestial andspiritual, goes to hell; fourthly: that faith does not remain with man, if not grounded in heavenly love; fifthly: that what remains with man islove in act, consequently his life. 

_III. --OF HELL_

When treating above respecting heaven, it has everywhere been shown, that the Lord is the God of heaven, and thus that the whole governmentof the heavens is that of the Lord. Now as the relation which heavenbears to hell, and that which hell bears to heaven, is such as existsbetween two opposites, which mutually act against each other, and theresult of whose action and reaction is a state of equilibrium, in whichall things may subsist, therefore, in order that all and everythingshould be maintained in equilibrium, it is necessary that he who governsthe one should also govern the other. For unless the same ruler were torestrain the assaults made by the hells, and to keep down the insanitieswhich rage in them, the equilibrium would be destroyed, and with it thewhole universe. 

It is this spiritual equilibrium that causes man to enjoy freedom inthinking and willing. For whatever a man thinks and wills has referenceeither to evil and the falsity proceeding from it, or to good and thetruth which comes from that source: consequently, when he is placed inthat equilibrium he enjoys the liberty of either, admitting andreceiving evil and its falsity from hell, or good in its truth fromheaven. Every man is maintained in this equilibrium by the Lord, becausehe governs both--heaven as well as hell. 

Hell, like heaven, is divided into societies; and every society inheaven has a society opposite to it in hell; which is provided for thepreservation of the equilibrium. 

It is by influence from hell that man does evil, and by influence fromthe Lord that he does good. But as man believes that whatever he does, he does from himself, the consequence is that the evil which he doesadheres to him as his own. It hence follows that the cause of his ownevil lies with man, and not at all with the Lord. Evil as existing withman is hell, as existing with him: for whether you say evil or hell, amounts to the same thing. Now since the cause of his own evil lies withman himself, it follows that it is he who casts himself into hell, andnot the Lord; and so far is the Lord from leading man into hell, that hedelivers from hell, so far as the man does not will and loves to abidein his own evil. But the whole of man's will and love remains with himafter death: whoever wills and loves evil in the world, wills and lovesthe same evil in the other life; and he then no longer suffers himselfto be withdrawn from it. It hence results, that the man who is immersedin evil is connected by invisible bonds with hell: he is also actuallythere as to his spirit; and, after death, he desires nothing moreearnestly than to be where his evil is. 

From an inspection of the monstrous forms belonging to the spirits inthe hells, it was made evident to me that they all, in general, areforms of self-love and the love of the world, and that the evils, ofwhich in particular they are the forms, derive their origin from thosetwo loves. It has also been told me from heaven, and proved to me bymuch experimental evidence, that those two loves--self-love and the loveof the world--reign in the hells and also constitute them; whereas loveto the Lord and love towards the neighbour reign in the heavens and alsoconstitute them: and that the two former loves, which are the loves ofhell, and the two latter, which are the loves of heaven, arediametrically opposite to each other. 

As by the fire of hell is to be understood all the lust of doing evilflowing from self-love, by the same is also meant torment, such asexists in the hells. For the lust flowing from that love is, in thosewho are inflamed by it, the lust of doing injury to all who do nothonour, respect, and pay court to them; and in proportion to the angerwhich they thence conceive against such individuals, and to the hatredand revenge inspired by such anger, is their lust of committing outragesagainst them. Now when such a lust rages in everyone in a society, andthey have no external bond to keep them under restraint, such as thefear of the law, and of the loss of character, of honour, of gain, andof the like, everyone under the influence of his own evil attractsanother and, so far as he is strong enough, subjugates him, subjects therest to his own authority, and exercises ferocious outrages with delightupon all who do not submit to him. All the hells are societies of thisdescription: on which account, every spirit, and every society, cherishes hatred in his heart against every other, and, under theinfluence of such hatred, breaks out into savage outrages against him, as far as he is able to inflict them. These outrages, and the tormentsso occasioned, are also meant by hell fire; for they are the effects ofthe lusts which there prevail. 

In order that man may be in a state of liberty, as necessary to hisbeing reformed, he is connected, as to his spirit, with heaven and withhell: for spirits from hell, and angels from heaven, are attendant onevery man. By the spirits from hell, man is held in his evil; but by theAngels from heaven, he is held in good by the Lord. 

Thus he is preserved in spiritual equilibrium, that is, in freedom orliberty. 

The particulars which have been delivered in this work respectingheaven, the world of spirits, and hell, will appear obscure to those whotake no pleasure in acquiring a knowledge of spiritual truths; but theywill appear clear to those who take pleasure in that acquirement; andespecially those who cherish an affection of truth for its ownsake, --that is, who love truth because it is truth. For everything thatis loved enters with light into the ideas of the mind: and this iseminently the case, when that which is loved is truth: for all truthdwells in light. 

 * * * * *

THE TALMUD

 The word "Talmud, " from the Hebrew verb _lamad_, equalling "to learn, " denotes literally "what-is-learning. " Then it comes to mean "instruction, " "teaching, " "doctrine. " What is usually called the Talmud consists of two parts: 1. The Mishnah (literally, "tradition" and then "traditional doctrine") a code of Jewish laws, civil, criminal, religious, and so forth; based ostensibly on the Pentateuch, expounding, applying, and developing the laws contained in the so-called five books of Moses. 2. The Gemara, a word which means literally "completion, " or "supplement, " _i. E. _, in reference to the Mishnah. Some, however, explain the word as meaning "teaching. " The word is used technically to denote the expansion, exposition, and illustration of the Mishnah which is found in the Talmud. Strictly speaking, the word "Talmud" denotes the Gemara only, but in its ordinary sense the word denotes the Mishnah together with its completion in the Gemara. In the Talmud itself, as usually printed, the section of the Mishnah to be commented on and illustrated is followed by the Gemara in which the opinions of the great Rabbi are stated and discussed. 

 As in the case of the Mishnah, so, also, the Talmud has six principal divisions: these will be followed in the subsequent epitomes and need not, therefore, be given here. There are two versions or forms of the Talmud: 1. The Babylonian, or that due to the studies and discussions of the Jewish doctors in the various Hebrew colleges of Babylon (Sura, Pumbaditha, and so forth): in this the Gemara is some ten times as large as the Mishnah. When we speak of the Talmud it is that of Babylon which is always meant. Its language is Eastern Aramaic. 2. The Palestinian Talmud, compiled and edited by the heads of the Hebrew schools in Palestine, Tiberius, Sepphoris, and so forth. Its language is Western Aramaic, and its final editor is said to be Rabbi Ashe, who died A. D. 427. This is often erroneously called the Jerusalem Talmud. In its present form it is only about one-fourth as large as the Babylonian Talmud. The latter discusses nearly every section of the Mishnah, whereas the Palestine Talmud passes by a large proportion of the Mishnah without note or comment. That is, however, because much of this latter Talmud has been lost, for, in the time of Maimonides (died at Cairo A. D. 1204) the Gemara of the Jerusalem Talmud discussed nearly every part of the Mishnah. The Mishnah is usually said to have been completed by Rabbi Jehudah Hannasi, or the Prince (Hannasi), called simply "Rabbi" by way of preeminence, who died in A. D. 210 in his sixtieth year. But there are parts of the Mishnah which are older, and parts also at least a century later than the death of that great scholar. There is no absolute proof that the Mishnah was committed to writing until some time after the completion of the Palestinian (about A. D. 400) or even of the Babylonian (about A. D. 500) Talmud, for, in neither Gemara is there any reference to a written Mishnah, nor is a written form of the Mishnah implied anywhere. The preservation of this wonderful code of Jewish laws was due to memory alone, men being appointed in the various synagogues to learn the Mishnaic sections and to recite them whenever it was necessary. Extracts will be given below from the Mishnah and also from the Gemara, the letters M and G preceding paragraphs indicating which of the two is summarised. 

_DIVISION I. --CALLED SEEDS_

[This part deals first of all with prayer, and then most of all with thevarious tithes and donations which are due to the priests, Levites, andthe poor, from the products of the land. ]

SECTION I. TREATISE ON BLESSINGS _(Berakot)_. The time for reading orreciting the Shemang. [32]

_M_. At what time in the evening may shemang be read? From the time whenthe priests, having cleansed themselves, enter the sanctuary to partakeof the offering (2) (_i. E. _, when the stars come out) until the end ofthe first watch (about 10 p. M. ). So says Rabbi Eliezar, but otherwisemen extend the time until midnight. Rabbi Gameliel makes the time reacheven to the dawn of the following day. It happened once that his sonsreturned home at midnight without having read the shemang. On askingtheir father if it was too late he replied that the obligation toperform the duties of each day is valid until the first light of morningshows itself. 

The morning Shemang. 

_M_. From what time may the morning shemang be read? From the momentwhen there is light enough to distinguish between purple-blue and white. Rabbi Eliezar says "between purple-blue and leek-green" (which areharder to distinguish) (3). Up to when may the morning shemang be read?Until the sun has risen. Rabbi Jose says "until the end of the thirdhour after sunrise, for it is the custom of kings' sons to rise in thethird hour of the day. Yet a good act, such as shemang is, never losesits virtue whenever it is performed. "

The attitude in which the shemang should be read. 

_M_. The (strict) School of Shammai say men ought to bow in reading theevening shemang, but to stand upright when saying shemang in themorning, their scripture warrant being Deut. Vi, 7, "when thou liestdown and when thou risest up. " But according to (the more liberal)School of Hillel, people must be allowed to read the shemang in whateverattitude they choose, referring to the words in the same passage: "Whenthou sittest in thy house and when thou walkest in the way. " Why thenthe words "when thou liest down and when thou risest up?" Because theseare the acts that men perform when the shemang would be usually read. Rabbi Tarphon said that once when journeying of an evening, he stoopedin order to read the shemang, with the result that his goods were almosttaken from him by unsuspected robbers. He was told that he would havedeserved it, had he been actually robbed, for not having followed thedecision of the Hillel School. The Gemara on the above Mishnahs givesthe opinions of a large number of Rabbis, reporting also discussions inwhich they took part. 

The benedictions before and after the Shemang. 

_M_. Two benedictions (4) are to be said before the morning shemang, andone after it. 

When the Shemang is rightly read. 

_M_. He who reads the shemang without hearing his own voice has yetdischarged his duty if only his heart has gone with the reading. 

Persons not to read the Shemang:

Women, slaves, and minors are not commanded to read the Shemang, or towear phylacteries. They are, however, expected to recite the eighteenbenedictions, the grace after meat, and also to see that the Mezuza isattached to the doorpost. [33]. 

_G_. Where are we taught that the Shechinah rests upon _one_ who studiesthe law? In Exodus xx, 24, where it is written: "In all places where Irecord my name I will come unto _thee_, and I will bless _thee_. " ThePalestine Talmud paraphrases thus: "In every place in which ye shallmemorialise My holy name, My word shall be revealed unto _you_, andshall bless _you_. " Hear, O Israel, Jehovah our God, even Jehovah isone. Deut. Vi, 4. Whoever prolongs the utterance of the word _one_ (Heb. _ekhad_), his days and years shall be prolonged. 

Once, the Rabbis say, the Roman government decreed that no Israeliteshould be allowed to study the Law. Immediately after, Rabbi Agiba wasfound teaching the Law to crowds of people who had gathered around him. Some one passing by asked him "Fearest thou not the Roman government?"To which he said, "I will answer by a parable: A fox was once walking bya river side when he saw the fish rushing distractedly hither andthither. On asking them the cause of all their perturbation, theyreplied: 'We are afraid of the nets which wicked men are ever setting tocatch us. ' 'Why, then, ' said the fox, 'do you not leave that dangerouselement and try the dry land with me?' 'Surely, ' replied the fish, 'thouart in this most foolish and unfoxlike, for if it is dangerous for us todwell in this, our native element, how much more would it be if we leftit for the dry land?' So, " continued Agiba, "all those who study the Lawhave the Divine Promise, " Deut. Xxx, 20: "He is thy life and the lengthof thy days. "

_DIVISION II--FEASTS_ (MONGëD)

[contains directions for observing the festivals, including the Sabbath. The aim in all is professedly to make explicit what is implicit in thePentateuch. But many late ideas and customs are brought into thisdivision, of which the Pentateuch knows nothing. Even the feast of Purimmentioned here it quite unmencioned in the Pentateuch. ]

1. TREATISE ON THE SABBATH. Law regarding transfer of goods on theSabbath. 

_M_. It is commanded in Exodus xvi, 29, that no man go out of his placeon the Sabbath day. This implies that no one is to take goods from hisown premises to those of another. (6). What, however, constitutes one'sown premises? _(Reshut). _ There are many cases to be considered. Supposea beggar stand outside and the master of the house inside. If the firstreaches his hand through a window or door to the second, or takessomething out of the hand of the latter, the beggar is guilty, but themaster is absolved. If, on the other hand, the master puts his handoutside the house, and places something in the beggar's hands, he isguilty, but the beggar is absolved. 

[There are in all four cases treating of the man inside and four of theman outside. ]

_G_. Rabbi Mathra said to Abazi, "There are eight or even ten cases oftransfer. " Rab questioned Rabbi, "Suppose one from the outside wereladen in the house with food, fruit, etc. How stands the law? Is theremoval of his body tantamount to the removal of a thing from itsplace?" "Yes, " said Rabbi; "this is not like the case of removing thehand, because the latter was not at rest, while in the former, the body, before and after removal, was entirely at rest. " "Suppose, " said oneRabbi to another, "that a person has put bread into an oven and it isnot done by the time the Sabbath begins. May he take it out before it isspoiled?" "He may lawfully do so if he put it there, believing it wouldbe fully baked before the Sabbath arrived. "

Acts forbidden on Sabbath eve. 

_M_. Just before the time of Sabbath evening prayer (7), a man is notallowed to sit to a barber, to enter a bath, a tanyard, to sit to ameal, or to begin to act as judge in a Law Court. He must first of allperform his devotions. But supposing that one has commenced any one ofthese acts, then let them be finished. 

_G_. A man begins the act of haircutting when the barber's cloth isspread over him. Bathing has begun if the outer coat has been pulledoff. A man has commenced to tan if his working apron has been tiedaround him. A meal begins when the hands are washed or (as some say)when the girdle has been removed. The process of judging has begun whenthe judges have donned their professional robes, or (as some have it)directly the litigants begin pleading. 

The Jew and a non-Jew. 

_M_. The school of Shammai forbids a Jew to sell anything to a non-Jewon the Sabbath eve, or to help him with a load unless the Jew can reachsome neighbouring village before the Sabbath fully sets in. The Schoolof Hillel, however, allows it. 

Miscellaneous prohibitions. 

_M_. A tailor must not go out on the Sabbath eve with his needle, lesthe forget it and carry it during the Sabbath. Nor must the professionalwriter (scribe) go out with his writing reed on the Sabbath eve. According to the School of Shammai it is unlawful on the Sabbath eve todeliver skins to a heathen tanner, or clothes to be washed to anon-Jewish laundress, unless there be time enough for them to be gotquite ready before the Sabbath begins. But the School of Hillel allowedperfect freedom in the matter. Rabbi Simeon ben Gemaliel says, "it wasthe custom in my parental home to hand over to the non-Jewish laundressthings to be washed, three days before the Sabbath. " It is forbidden tofry meat, onions, or eggs, on the Sabbath eve, unless they can becompletely cooked before the Sabbath begins. Bread must not be put intothe oven, nor cakes on the coal, unless there is time before the Sabbathcomes in for the surface to become encrusted. 

Concerning the Sabbath lamp. [34]. 

_M_. Wherewith may one light the Sabbath lamp? Not with wicks made withcedar moss, or raw flax, or silk fibre, or weeds growing in water, orship moss. Nor shall pitch, wax, cottonseed oil, or oil of rejectedofferings, or oil from sheeptail fat, be used for these lamps. 

_G_. The Rabbis allowed the aforementioned ingredients to be used forthe Sabbath fires, though not for the Sabbath lamps. Why are wicks madeof the above materials prohibited? Because they give but a flickeringlight. The oily substances mentioned are forbidden because they do notadhere to the wick. 

About extinguishing the Sabbath lamp. 

_M_. He who extinguishes the Sabbath lamp for fear of non-Jews orrobbers or of evil spirits, or in order that the sick may sleep, is freefrom guilt. But if the object is merely to save expense the lampextinguisher stands condemned. 

Three things to say on the Sabbath eve. 

_M_. I. Have ye tithed the food to be eaten on the

Sabbath? 2. Have ye made the _erub?_ 3. Light ye the Sabbath lamp. 

Man's two Sabbath angels. 

_G_. As he returns home from the Synagogue on the Sabbath eve, every manis accompanied by two angels, one good, the other evil. If, on cominghome, the man finds the lamp lit, the tables spread, and everything inorder, the good angel says, "May the coming Sabbath be as this presentone. " To which the evil angel is compelled reluctantly to respond"Amen. " But if everything be in disorder the bad angel says, "May thecoming Sabbath be as the present one. " To which the good angel isobliged reluctantly to respond, "Amen. "

The overturning of Mount Sinai. (9). 

_G_. When the Israelites refused to believe the words of Moses after hehad returned from the mountain, the Holy One, blessed be He, invertedthe mountain above them like a top, and said unto them, "If ye receivethe Law, well, but if not, your graves shall be here. "

Lucky and unlucky birthdays. 

_G_. Rabbi Simon ben Levi said that whoever is born on the first day ofthe week (Sunday) will be either thoroughly good or thoroughly bad, because on that day light and darkness were created. If on the secondday of the week, he will be stingy, because the waters were divided onthat day. If on the third day, he will be rich and prosperous, becauseon that day abundant vegetation was created. If on the fourth day, hewill be wise and happy, because on that day the luminaries were fixed. If on the fifth day, he will be good-natured, because fishes and fowlswere then created, and these are fed by God alone. If on the sixth day, he will be likely to give himself to good works, because that is theSabbath preparation day. If, however, he be born on the Sabbath, he willalso die on the Sabbath, as a punishment for his desecration of thatsacred day by his birth. 

2. TREATISE ON THE PASSOVER (_Pesakhin_). No. 3 in order. 

_M. _ On the eve of the fourteenth Nisan, search must be made for leavenby the light of a lamp (10). 

_G. _ What means the Hebrew word _or_? (Translated above "on the eveof"). Rabbi Huna says it means, "when the day begins to dawn": butaccording to Rabbi Jehuda it means "at night, " but in Genesis xliv, 3, and 2nd Sam. Xxiii, 4, the verb means "to get day, to dawn, " so thatRabbi Huna is right. Abazi said that no student should enter upon hisstudies just before the dawn of the fourteenth Nizan, lest he forget tosearch for leaven. 

_G. _ To Amorain (11) propose the following question: "Suppose a man leta house to another, telling him that he had removed all leaven butsubsequently it was found that some leaven had been left. Is theagreement to take the house binding?" Abazi said, "Yes, it is, for it isbetter that each householder sees for himself that all leaven has beenremoved. Before beginning the search for leaven a blessing must be said, as, indeed, before any religious act is performed. "

By the light of the lamp. 

_G. _ The light of the sun or of the moon or of a flame of fire may notbe used in searching for leaven, as the Rabbis say is taught inZephaniah i, 12 (I will search Jerusalem with lights), and Prov. Xx, 27(Man's soul is Jehovah's lamp searching the inner chambers of the body. )

3. TREATISE ON NEW YEAR'S DAY (_Rosh Hashshanah_). No. 8 in order. 

_G. _ The generation before the flood was punished with boiling water. (12). 

4. TREATISE ON THE ROLL (13) _(Megillah). _ No. 10 in order. 

_M_. The Megillah _(i. E. _, Esther) is sometimes read on the 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, or 15th of the month Adar, not earlier nor later (fordetails see the Mishnah and Gemara). 

_G_. Rabbi Jehuda says on the authority of Samuel, that the book ofEsther does not defile the hands (14), _i. E. _, that this book was notgiven by the inspiration of God. Samuel, however, explained that Estherwas dictated by the Spirit of God, but only to be orally repeated, andnot to be written. 

_G_. When a scroll of the Law has become through age unfit for use it isto be buried in an earthen vessel, as is said in Jeremiah xxii, 14, "Andput them in an earthen vessel, that they may continue many days. " Ascroll of the Law ought never to be sold unless the object be to enablethe seller to study the Law better, or to take himself a wife. RabbiSimon ben Gemaliel said "whoever sells a scroll of the Law, or adaughter, though he does it because he has nothing to eat, will have nogood from the purchase money. "

5. TREATISE DEALING WITH THE LAWS ABOUT FESTIVAL OFFERINGS. _(Khagiga). _No. 12 in order. 

Those under an obligation to offer the burnt offerings during the three_great_ annual Feasts. 

_M_. Everyone is under an obligation to offer the burnt offering exceptthe following: A deaf man, a fool, a child, one of doubtful sex, one ofdouble sex, a woman, a slave, a lame man, a blind man, a sick man. 

What is meant by a child? One not able to ride upon his father'sshoulders in order to go up from Jerusalem to the Temple. So say theSchool of Shammai, but the Hillel School define child, "One unable totake hold of his father's hand to go from Jerusalem to the Temple. "

_G_. What does the expression "everyone" include?

Him who is half a slave and half free and also him who is lame on thefirst day and well on the second day, as well as the man who is blind inone eye, except the deaf man, a fool, and à child, and so forth. A deafman is like a fool and a child, for he is not responsible for hisactions any more than they are. 

THE WORD TOHU RIGHTLY TRANSLATED "VOID" IN GENESIS i. 2. 

_G_. Tohu is a green line (Heb. Qav or Qaw) which surrounds the entireworld, and from which darkness proceeds. (15). 

THE SEVEN HEAVENS (16). 

_G_. Resh Lagish used to say, "There are seven heavens, named asfollows: 1. Vilon (equals Velum, a curtain). 2. Ragiang. 3. Sheklagim. 4. Zebul. 5. Mangon. 6. Makon. 7. Ngarabot. "

SATAN AND HIS COMPANIONS ENDEAVOURING TO STEAL A HEARING OF GOD'S WORDS. 

_G_. Satan and his fellow-fallen angels are in the habit of listeningfrom behind a curtain to the words which God speaks to the angels inheaven (17). 

_III. --WOMEN (NASHIM)_

[This division deals with betrothals, marriage, divorce, and the like. One treatise discusses vows. ]

1. TREATISE ON WIDOWS UNDER AN OBLIGATION TO UNDERGO THE LEVIRITEMARRIAGE _(Yebamot). _ No. I in order (18). 

_M_. A childless widow is under an obligation to marry the eldestunmarried brother of her deceased husband. If that brother-in-lawrefuses to marry her, she is allowed in the presence of the nation'sleaders to loose his shoe from his foot, to spit in his face, and to sayto him, "Thus shall be done to the man who will not build up hisbrother's house. " (see Deut. Xxii, 9). 

The following classes of women are released from the necessity ofmarrying any brother-in-law: 1. The illegitimate daughter of thebrother. 2. Her daughter. 3. The daughter of his illegitimate son. 4. His wife's daughter. 5. Her son's daughter. 6. Her daughter's daughter. 7. His mother-in-law. 8. The mother of his mother-in-law. 9. The motherof his father-in-law, and so forth. 

2. TREATISE ON VOWS (_Nedarim_). No. 3 in order. 

The Scriptures Given as a Punishment for Men's Sin. 

_G. _ If the Israelites had not been guilty of sin they would never haverequired more Scripture than the Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua. Thelast is indispensable as it records the way in which the land wasdivided among the Israelites. The other Scriptures (the Prophets and theWriting) because in much wisdom there is grief. (Eccles. I, 18). 

3. TREATISE ON BETROTHALS (_Qidushin_). No. 7 in order. 

The Families Who went up from Babylon to Jerusalem. 

_M. _ Ten kinds of families left Babylon for Palestine after the edict ofCyrus went forth in B. C. 538 permitting the nation to return. These wereas follows: 1. Priests. 2. Levites. 3. Israelites. 4. Degraded Priests(lit. Profaned ones). 5. Proselytes (19). 6. Freedmen. 7. Bastards. 8. Netinim. 9. Those of unknown lineage. 10. Foundlings. The three firstare allowed to intermarry: the last six may also intermarry. All thosewhose mother is known but not their father are said to be of unknownlineage. A foundling is one picked up in the streets whose parents areboth unknown. 

The Evil of Idolatry. 

_G_. The worship of idols is so grave a sin that he who renounces ordisavows it does as much as if he confessed his belief in the whole law. 

Sons More Desirable than Daughters. 

_G_. The world cannot exist without males and females, yet blessed is hewhose children are boys, and unlucky he whose children are girls. Cf. Baba Bathra, p. 113, col. I:--"Whoever does not leave a son to be heir, God will heap wrath upon him. "

_IV. --CONCERNING PENALTIES_ (NEZIKIN)

[In this division the principal part of the civil and criminal court ofthe Hebrews is included. See especially the treatise "Sanhedrin. "]

1. TREATISE CALLED LIT. Chap. I, or THE FIRST GATE. (20)(Heb. _BabaQama_. )

Damages to be made good by those responsible for them. 

_M_. There are four principal causes of damage to life and property. I. The Ox. 2. The Uncovered Pit. 3. The Man who sets fire to anything. 4. The Fire which starts of its own accord through neglect. 

Whenever damage is done in any of these four ways the one that isresponsible for it must make the loss good. 

_G_. The Rabbis teach that there are many specific forms of the abovefour kinds of injuries, _i. E. _, the ox can do an injury with his horns, his teeth, or his feet. 

Accident through falling over a jug or barrel. 

_M_. If anyone places a jug on a public road and another person stumblesover it and breaks it, the latter is not liable for the breakage. But ifhe is injured by the fall, the owner of the barrel is liable for thedamage. 

_G_. The Mishnah uses "jug" in the first clause and "barrel" in thesecond. Rabbi Papa said that the same thing is meant in both cases. 

On breaking a jug full of water on a public road. 

_M_. If a jug full of water breaks on a public road and its contentscause a person to slip, or if in any way one is injured by the pieces, he who carries the jug is liable for any injury. Rabbi Jehuda, however, says he is only liable if he breaks it intentionally. 

2. TREATISE CALLED THE MIDDLE CHAPTER (Heb. _Baba Metsia_). 2nd inorder. 

_G_. It was Elijah's custom to frequent the Rabbi's council chamber. Onone occasion, being later than usual, Rabbi asked him to explain hisdelay. Elijah answered as follows: "It is my business to wake upAbraham, Isaac, and Jacob one after the other, to wash each one's hand, and to wait until each one has said his prayers and returned to rest. ""But, " said Rabbi, "why don't they all rise at the same time?""Because, " was Elijah's reply, "if they all three prayed at once, theirunited prayers would precipitate the advent of the Messiah before itsappointed time. " "Then, " said Rabbi, "have we amongst us such prayingpeople?" Elijah said there were, mentioning Rabbi Khizah and his sons. Rabbi then proclaimed a fast, which Rabbi Khizah and his sons came toobserve. When repeating the 18 benedictions (21) they were about to say"Thou restorest life to the dead" when the world was convulsed and itwas asked in Heaven who revealed to them the secret. Elijah was thenbeaten sixty times with a rod of fire. He afterwards came down like afiery bear and scattered the congregation. 

3. TREATISE CALLED THE LAST CHAPTER _(Baba Bathra_). No. 3 in order. 

_G_. The members of the Great Synagogue who wrote the Book of Ezekiel, the Books of the twelve minor prophets, the Book of Daniel, and the Bookof Ezra (22). 

4. TREATISE CALLED SANHEDRIN. NO. 4 in order. [It treats at length ofthe institution of the municipal and provincial courts called Sanhedrinfrom a Greek word, and also of the great Sanhedrin, or _Bethdin_, atJerusalem. ]

Jewish Courts and their Constitution. 

_G_. [The Sanhedrin was composed of 71 members. If an Israelite had apoint of law to decide, he first proposed it to the Court which met inhis own city. If they failed to decide the matter, it was submitted tothe judgment of the Court of the next city. If the Justices of theimmediate district failed to come to a decision, the case was laidbefore the Court which met at the entrance of the Temple area. In theevent of their failing to decide, they appealed to the Court which metat the entrance to the ante-court. Failure in this Court was followed byan appeal to the Supreme Court of 71, where the matter was finallydisposed of by a majority of votes. 

The Sanhedrin sat in a semicircle in order that the members might beable to see one another. There were two notaries, one on the right andthe other on the left, to count the "Ayes" and "Noes" in all cases ofvoting. ]

The authorship of the BOOK OF EZRA. 

_G_. [The Book of Ezra was written by Nehemiah. He does not attach hisname to it because he gave too much attention to his own merits, as itis written (Neh. V, 19) "Think upon me, my God, for good, according toall that I have done for my people. "

5. TREATISE ON IDOLATRY _(Aboda Zara_). No. 8 in order. 

_M_. It is forbidden to have any dealings with non-Jews for three daysbefore they hold their unholy festivals (23). One must not lend them anymoney, for that could be useful to them in preparing for the festival. Nor must one borrow from them, for they would gain thereby and be moreable, out of the interest, to meet the expenses of their coming feasts. Similarly, one must not pay them any money, even though due, nor inreturn must payment be received. 

Rabbi Jehuda, however, maintains that payment should be allowed becausethat is a displeasure and a disadvantage to those who pay. 

_M_. When there is an idol in the city one may go to that city, providing that the road does not lead to the idol alone. Jews are notallowed to sell to non-Jews any of the following things, because theycan be used for purposes of heathen worship:--Fir cones, white figs, ortheir stems, frankincense, and a white cock. A white cock may, however, be sold if one of its claws has been cut off, since non-Jews do notsacrifice an animal when an organ is lacking. 

THE BOOK OF YASHAR (see 2nd Sam. I, 18). 

_G_. What is meant by the Book of Yashar? Rabbi Khyiah bar Abba on theauthority of Rabbi Jokhanan says "It is the book of Abraham, Isaac andJacob, they being called righteous _(yesharim), _ and concerning whom itis written, Numb, xxiii, 10, 'Let me die the death of the righteous'"_(yesharim). _

6. TREATISE CALLED "SENTENCES OF THE FATHERS" (Heb. _Pirga Abot_). No. 9in order. 

[This treatise, on which no Gemara has been handed down, contains moralprecepts, aphorisms, and so forth, of the elder Tannain. It has beenoften translated, an excellent rendering by the late Dr. Charles Taylorhaving been published by the Cambridge Press. ]

The Two Tables of the Law. 

_M_. The two Tables of the Law, handed to Moses on Mount Sinai, werecreated, along with nine other things, at the time when the world wasmade, and at sunset, before the first Sabbath began. 

_V. --SACRED THINGS, SACRIFICES, MEASUREMENTS OF THE TEMPLE, ETC. _

1. TREATISE ON THE MEASUREMENTS OF THE TEMPLE _(Middot). _ 10th in order. 

Extent of the Temple Area. 

_M_. The Temple Mount was 500 cubits square. The space was largest onthe south, next largest on the east, the third largest being on thenorth, and the least, westward. All who entered this area did so on thesouth side, going round and passing on to the left. 

_VI. --LEGAL PURIFICATIONS, LAWS OF CLEAN AND UNCLEAN, ETC. _ (TEHAROT)

1. TREATISE ON PRESERVING THE HANDS FROM CEREMONIAL UNCLEANNESS. _(Jadaim). _

The Aramaic passages in Ezra and Daniel make the hands unclean (25). ButAramaic written in Hebrew characters and Hebrew written in Aramaic(Syriac) characters, or in the primitive Hebrew characters (much likethe Phoenician) do not make the hands unclean. Scriptures, though thematter is the same, never make the hands unclean unless the charactersor letters, in which they are written, are the square Assyrian lettersintroduced by Ezra, the second Moses. 

 * * * * *

ZOROASTRIANISM

ZEND AVESTA

 Zoroastrianism, or, more correctly, Zarathustraism, is derived from Zoroaster, or, more strictly, Zarathustra, the founder of the religion. Modern scholarship inclines to the belief that this great religious leader was born in West Media about B. C. 600, and carried on his great work in Bactria. The religion with which his name is connected is really a reformed and spiritualised kind of that Magism which prevailed in Media and contiguous countries. The priests, who are called "Atharvans, " fire-priests, in the Avesta (compare the same name in Hinduism, the Atharvan Veda, etc. ) are identical with the Magi, priests of the religion which Zarathustra (Zoroaster) found in his original and adopted home. According to some, the founder of Zarathustrianism lived at a very much earlier time, and there are great scholars (Tiele, Darmesteter, Edouard Meyer) who wholly deny the historicity of such a character. No doubt, in later years, there gathered around Zarathustra an immense number of fictitious and silly legends, as was the case with Buddha, Jesus, and even Muhammad; but that each one of these religious teachers lived and wrought is beyond the reach of reasonable doubt. 

_INTRODUCTORY_

This is the Bible of the Zarathustrians and of their modernrepresentatives, the Parsees, who flourish for the most part in Bombay. The title "Zend Avesta" is an anomaly, for "Zend" is not the name of alanguage at all, but means "commentary, " the word "Avesta" connoting theoriginal text on which the commentary is written. The original titledenotes Avesta and Zend, which is a correct description, for what is nowknown as the Zend Avesta is really a combination of text (Avesta) andcommentary (Zend), just as the Jewish Talmud is a combination of Mishnah(text) and Gemara (commentary, or, literally, completion). The word"Avesta" denotes (perhaps literally) knowledge, being cognate with theSanscrit word "Veda. " But A. V. W. Jackson derives it from a form_Upasta_, denoting "the original text. " Darmesteter makes the word OldPersian, denoting "law. "

The existing Avesta is more like a prayer book than a Bible, for it isas a liturgical work that it took on its present form, and as such thatit is now generally used, though the part called "Vendidad" includes alarge number of laws for religious ceremonies and the like. 

What is known to modern scholars as the Avesta is, however, only aportion of the original work, the latter having been largely lostthrough the conquests over Persia of Alexander the Great, and especiallyowing to the more thorough subjugation of the Sassanid Persians by theMuslims in A. D. 632. The latter were much more bigoted anduncompromising in their treatment of other religions and theirliteratures than were Alexander the Great and his successors. Theoriginal Avesta, as described in Pahlavi text which have come down tous, contain twenty-one Nasks or books. These existed, in a more or lessincomplete state, down to the ninth century of our era, to which centurythe Pahlavi work "Dindard" belongs. 

The Avesta which exists to-day may be divided thus:--

I. The strictly canonical parts, including the following, which will bemore fully described in connection with the summaries. 

 1. Yasnas, including the Gathas. 2. Vispereds. 3. Vendidads. 

II. The Apocryphal Avesta usually called the Khorda Avesta, or the shortAvesta. This is much less esteemed than the Avesta proper. It comprises, 1. Yashts (invocation). 2. Minor Prayers. 

The language of the Avesta can be correctly described only as Avestan, for no other literature in the same language exists. It resembles thePahlavi, or Ancient Persian, but it is identical with no language. TheZend, or commentary, is written in the Pahlavi language. 

The present writer wishes to express his obligation to the translationof the Avesta by Spiegel (in German); Hang in his "Essays on SacredLanguage, Writing, and Religion of the Parsees "; and also to those byDarmesteter and L. H. Mills in the "Sacred Books of the East, " volumesiv, xxiii, xxxiii. On the question whether or not the Achaemenian kingsof Persia, Cyrus I. , and so forth, were Zarathustrians, see "CenturyBible, "--Ezra--Nehemiah--Esther. 

_I. --YASNAS, OR SACRIFICIAL PRAYERS AND SONGS_

[This section of the Avesta constitutes the principal liturgicaltext-book of the great Yasna ceremony, which is made up chiefly of thepreparation and offering of the Parahoma (the juice of the homa or somaplant mixed with milk and aromatic ingredients). There are seventy-twochapters in the Yasnas, though they contain a good number ofrepetitions. It is in this main part of the Avesta that the fivemetrical Gathas are to be found, these being the oldest and by far themost important of the Avesta. ]

CHAPTER I. THE PROCLAMATION OF SALVATION. I (Zarathustra) make known toAhura-Mazda the Great God, that I am about to offer him my prayers andsacrifices. (Yasnas. ) He is the greatest and best, the most powerful andwise. I pay homage, also, to the bountiful immortals (theAmensha-Spentas), the guardians of the world. And to the body of thesacred cow and its soul; (i) to Ahura (Jupiter), Mithra the sun, to thestar Sirius; and to the Fravashis (guardian angels of the saints). If Ihave offended thee, oh thou greatest one, Ahura-Mazda, or if I havediminished ought of the sacrifices (Yasnas) due to thee, forgive me, Oforgive me, thou unerring one. I declare myself to be a Mazdaist, aZarathustrian, a sworn foe to the Daevas (2) and a worshipper ofAhura-Mazda. 

CHAPTER 4. We present as offerings, pure thoughts, kind words, beneficent works, the Homa (Soma) flesh-offerings, zaothras (3), theholy veresma (4), suitable prayers, Gatha hymns, and mathra (the Vedicmantra) sacred songs--these all we present as sacrifices to Ahura-Mazda, the holy Srosh (5), to the bountiful immortals, to the Fravashis, andsouls of the pure, and also to the sacred fire of Ahura-Mazda. 

CHAPTER 8. I offer to thee, O Ahura-Mazda, sacrifices of all kinds. Mayest thou, O all-powerful, all-wise one, rule over thy creatures, overall waters and trees, all empires and dominions, causing fertility, happiness, and universal justice to abound in the world. In allconflicts between light and darkness, between the good and the bad, letthe right prevail, O thou king of righteousness. I, Zarathustra, urgeheads of families, chiefs of clans, and rulers of states, to follow thetrue religion, that revealed by Ahura-Mazda and proclaimed by hisprophet Zarathustra. 

CHAPTERS 9 AND 10. [In some manuscripts these chapters are designatedHoma-Yashts, because they celebrate the praises of Homa and have theform of Yashts. In these chapters Homa is personified, as, also, in theVedas, is the Sanscrit Soma. In the period before the separation of theIranians and Indians the worship of the Homa plant (the god ofinspiration, etc. ) bulked largely. It died out, however, among theIranians at an early period, perhaps owing to its prevalence among theirIndian rivals, who traced to it that very courage with which theycontended against the Iranians. The present chapters belong to theperiod of the revival of the Homa cult among the Mazdaists orZarathustrians. This comparatively late date is confirmed by thevocabulary and style of the chapters. ]

When Zarathustra was engaged in singing the Dathas and attending thesacred fire, Homa appeared before him in resplendently supernaturalguise and explained "I am Homa, whom thou shouldst worship as the sagesand prophets of old have done. " "Tell me, " replied Zarathustra, "who wasit that first worshipped thee by extracting thy juice from the plant?""The first, " said Homa, "was Vivan-Ghvant whose reward was the birth ofhis august and renowned son, Yima, (6) the king, in whose reign therewas neither death, nor scorching heat, nor benumbing cold, but whenfulness of life, perfection of happiness, and unfailing justiceprevailed. The second to worship me, " said Homa, "was Athwya, theblessed one, and to him as a reward was born Thraetaona, who slew thethree-mouthed, three-tailed, six-eyed, thousand-scaled dragon thatwrought such dire havoc in the world. The third to worship me wasThrita, to whom, in recompense, were born two sons of illustrious name, one great as ruler of men, and the other a brave warrior who slew theman-and-horse-swallowing dragon. The fourth was thine own distinguishedfather, Pourushasha, and the reward that he received was to have thee, Ogreat prophet of men, for his son. " On hearing which Zarathustraimmediately set about walking around the sacred fire singing lustily thepraises of the god Homa, whom his father had worshipped. "It is Homa, "sang the prophet, "that gives men knowledge of things new and old. Evenmen buried under a weight of book-lore receive from him inspiration andperception of truth that no books can impart. It is Homa that gives kindand wealthy husbands to unwed maidens; that fills the sky with cloudsand refreshes the ground with life-giving showers, causing the plants togrow on the lofty mountains on whose brow thine own sacred plant(asclepias) flourishes. "

CHAPTER 12. [Profession of faith on the part of the new convert, utteredby the ancient Iranians on their giving up the worship of Daevas and thenomad life, and on their being received into the religious communityestablished by Zarathustra. ]

Now cease I to be a Daeva worshipper and make profession of the religionof Ahura-Mazda, proclaimed by Zarathustra. I ascribe all good thingseverywhere to Ahura-Mazda, the true, shining and holy one. I will nevermore molest Mazdaists. I will forsake the Daevas, the false and wickedoriginators of all the mischief in the universe. I forsake also allDaeva like beings, witches, wizards, and the like. I belong to theMazdaist religion, and will support it to my dying day. There is no joyof virtue but has come from Ahura-Mazda. 

CHAPTER 19. The importance and value of the Ahuna-Vairya prayer, saidZarathustra to Ahura-Mazda "O holiest and best of beings, what wordstaughtest thou me before the world was, or human life began itshistory?" "It was, " responded the supreme being, "the Ahuna-Vairyaprayer. Whoever, O Zarathustra, recites this prayer or intones it, oreven whispers it under his breath, I will carry him safely across thebridge which leads to paradise. But whoever cuts this prayer short by ahalf, a third, a fourth, or by any quantity, his soul shall I keep outof paradise and it shall wander in sorrow for ever. "

CHAPTER 22. ADORATION OF THE FRAVASHIS (GUARDIAN ANGELS OF THE SAINTS). I will praise the Fravashis, who have existed from time immemorial. Those of the houses, villages, and provinces, who preserve order in theheavens above, on the earth, and in the waters. I praise the Fravashisof Ahura-Mazda, the Fravashis of the bountiful immortals, and those ofZarathustra and of the Holy Counsellors. All good Yazads (7) deservehomage and sacrifice. 

CHAPTER 35. AHURA-MAZDA AND THE IMMORTALS ADORED AND SUPPLICATED. Weadore thee, O thou great God, Ahura-Mazda, and also the bountifulimmortals. We laud all good thoughts and words and deeds that have been, are, or will be. It is our duty to live the good life, for that is bestfor both worlds. Thine, O lofty spirit, is the kingdom, thine the power, and thine the glory. Thy righteous rule surpasses every other rule; thypraise all other praise; thy hymns are the loftiest and best. 

CHAPTER 57. IN HONOUR OF SROSH. We pay homage to thee, Srosh, theobedient and blessed one, the first of creatures to worship Ahura-Mazda, the Creator. Thou didst also worship the bountiful immortals, and wastthe first to brandish the veresma and to sing the Gathas. Thou didstslay the all-destroying demon, and thou protectest the world and itsdenizens. Thou sleepest not, nor slumberest day or night. Thou teachestmen the true religion--that of Ahura-Mazda. 

THE FIVE GATHAS

[_Gatha_ means "song, " and is the same word as the Sanscrit _Gita_ (Cf. P. 61 Bhagavad-Gita). These five gathas include yasnas 28-34, 43-46, 47-50, and 51-53. In metre, vocabulary, and matter, the gathas provethemselves to be the oldest part of the Avesta. The doctrines taught arelikewise purer and more rational. Note the following:--I. There is onesupreme good deity, Ahura-Mazda, the conception of whom is so loftythat, in order to save his character, a spirit of evil (Ahriman) hasbeen invented. To the supreme good spirit are ascribed six attributeswhich are often personified. In the later parts of the Avesta theseattributes are made independent persons (the bountiful immortals, or theAmesha Spentas). But in the Gathas they form with Ahura-Mazda a unitymuch resembling the Sabellian trinity. 2. The doctrine of reward andpunishment that is taught in the Gathas is subjective, _i. E. _, it makesa man's reward and punishment consist in change of character, disposition, etc. 

It is a strange coincidence that the highest form of Indian and Iranianbelief is to be found in the earliest literature of these religions, _i. E. _, the Vedas and the Gathas. This does not agree with the opinionthat most prevails, that in religions there is ever progress from lowerto higher forms. 

In these Gathas there is a unity of thought and feeling suggestingstrongly unity of authorship. There is general agreement that the oneauthor to whom at least the great bulk of the Gathas is due isZarathustra himself. Roth, L. H. Mills, and other scholars date theGathas as they would the Vedas, somewhere between B. C. 1200 and 1500, and they therefore fix upon the same date for the work of Zarathustrahimself. Other Avestan scholars (A. V. W. Jackson, etc. ) fix the date ofZarathustra's life, and therefore of the Gathas, some time near B. C. 600. If the latter opinion is held, it is probable that the substance ofthe Gathas is much older than the form which they take in the Avesta. ]

GATHA I, Yasnas 28-34, 29, which is earlier than 28. 

THE CALL OF ZARATHUSTRA. The afflicted people cry out aloud to thee, OAhura-Mazda, and also to the Asha, the author of the divine order. Whywere we made to be exposed to the attacks of suffering and of sin? Thedivine one asked Asha "Hast thou appointed a guardian over this peopleto defend them from evil?" Said Asha: "There is no man in this worldthat has to bear his lot of suffering and to resist moral adversaries, but the great Creator knows all about his life, and demands from him allthat he is capable of. No man can choose anyone who is able to securejustice and happiness in the world. " "But I, " said Ahura-Mazda, "havechosen one for this great task, it is Zarathustra, the prophet andpriest. " On hearing of his divine appointment, Zarathustra prayed to hisgod, saying, "Do thou, O all-wise one, aid me, directing my thoughts, choosing for me my words, and guiding my steps, for without thee I cando nothing. "

28. ZARATHUSTRA'S PRAYER FOR HELP. Teach me, O loftiest one, thy ways, and encourage me by thy promises to observe thy ceremonies. When shall Ibecome acquainted with thine own pure mind, and know what is truly good?When shall I realise thee in my own soul, and have fellowship with theewithout the mediation of man or angels? I do not ask for riches, orbooty, or worldly prosperity, but for righteousness. 

GRATITUDE FOR BLESSINGS ALREADY RECEIVED. Thou hast granted my requests, and given me the boon which I asked for. May I never offend thee, nor beungrateful! Supply my lot with what thou knowest to be best, and notwith what I desire. Make thou clear to me the laws which govern thykingdom, that I may be a safe guide to others. 

30. THE CREED WHICH ZARATHUSTRA IS TO PREACH. I announce to all whodesire to know, the true doctrine about the Creation. Let all thatlisten give heed and shape their ways according to this teaching:--Therewere at the beginning two spirits and nothing more--a better principleand a worse. This pair existed independently each of the other. The goodspirit (Ahura-Mazda) made all that he created perfect and just, likehimself, but the evil spirit (Ahriman) created things that were evil. Why have the Daevas-worshippers perverted the truth and gone astray fromthe right path? Because the creator of evil has taken possession ofthem. All such as make their thoughts, words, and deeds conform to thewill of the good spirit have an eternal reward, and their salvation hasalready begun. But such as yield to the evil impulses prompted byAhriman shall abide eternally in woe and misery. 

31. THE TWO PARTIES. Many there are who hiss at this teaching of mine, and will have none of it, but the people of Ahura give heed thereto. Osupreme spirit of good, grant me by the sacred fire and the holy ritualsome sign that will convince and convert men, so that all may be broughtto thee and be made to abandon their Daevas. O ye bountiful immortals, will ye give me prophetic knowledge that I may lead men aside from theerror of their ways; what punishment shall be his who strives to set upin our midst a king belonging to the Daeva party?

GATHA 2. 43-46. 

[This part of the Avesta gives a fuller and correcter view of the workand teaching of Zarathustra than any other. ]

43. The Theophany of Ahura-Mazda to Zarathustra. I saw Ahura-Mazda onhigh and he made known to me his truth, that I may tell it to men. 

44. A PRAYER FOR KNOWLEDGE. Speak thou truly to me, O Ahura-Mazda, andnot falsely as the Daevas do to their worshippers. How came this presentworld to be, and to be supported, if not through thee? Who made the sunand moon and stars, and the waters and the winds and the trees, who, ifnot thou? Reveal thou to me, O great one, the inner truth of things. 

O ye crowds of men, when will ye call evil, evil, and good, good, instead of the contrary? Have the Daevas ever supplied good rulers?

_II. --VISPEREDS_

[The word Vispered means "all the lords, " and this section is so calledbecause it contains invocations to all the lords or gods. It consistsalmost entirely of extracts from other parts of the Avesta, especiallyfrom the Yasnas. What is not found elsewhere has no special value andneed not be summarised. ]

_III. --VENDIDADS_ (LIT. "LAWS AGAINST DEMONS")

[This is not strictly a liturgical work, but a priestly code describingthe various purifications, penalties and expiations by which faults ofvarious kinds are atoned for, or their consequences annulled. Theexisting Vendidads agree almost exactly with Nask (19) of the originalAvesta, the only part of the Avesta in which one of the Nasks has beencompletely preserved. The Vendidads are divided into twenty-two Fargads, or sections. ]

FARGAD 3. THE SANCTITY OF AGRICULTURE. The earth should be cultivated, 1. That it may bring forth food for man and beast, 2. Because itpromotes human piety. "How is it, O great creator, " asks Zarathustra, "that religion is to be spread?" "By cultivating barley, " was theanswer, "for he who cultivates barley, cultivates purity. When barley isthreshed or ground, and when flour is produced, devils whistle, whine, and waste away, knowing full well that man's idleness is their onlyopportunity. " (Cf. Compare Dr. Watts' line "Satan finds some mischiefstill, for idle hands to do. ")

FARGAD 4. CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAW. Whoever refuses to restore property toone to whom he knows it belongs by right, is a thief. Every day andnight that he keeps this property he is guilty of theft. "How many kindsof property are there?" asked Zarathustra. "These six, " was the answer. "1. That made by mere words. 2. That made by striking hands. 3. Thatmade by depositing a sheep as security. 4, 5, 6. Those cases in whichthe security is respectively an ox, a man's value, and the value of afull field. " Then there follow details of penalties for violating theseseveral contracts:--_e. G. _, for breaking the first--300 stripes of therod, and so forth. 

FARGADS 5-18, give the laws for the treatment of dead bodies. The twodetermining principles are--1. That a dead body is impure. 2. Theelements earth, fire, and water, are absolutely pure and sacred. Bodiesare not, therefore, to be buried, or they would pollute the earth; norare they to be burnt, or they would pollute fire, nor thrown into waterof any kind. They must be carried up to a lofty mountain, placed onstones, or iron plates, and exposed to dogs and vultures. Impurity fromcontact with a dead body, etc. , is removed by pure water (Cf. The waterof baptism). Then there follow laws prescribing the counter-charms to beused against evil spirits; the methods by which the sacred fire must bemade and used, and so forth. 

FARGAD 19, treats of the fate of the soul after death. 

The Aprocryphal or Khorda Avesta

[The Yashts resemble closely the prayers of the Yasnas and theVispereds, differing only in this, that each one of the twenty-fourextant is devoted to the traits of a single deity, or at least of oneclass of divine beings (the bountiful immortals, and so forth). Theusual word in the Yashts for the superhuman beings at rest is Yazads. ]

YASHT I. The names of Ahura-Mazda and their efficacy. 

Asked Zarathustra, "What, O Most High, are the most effectivecounter-charms (mantras) against evil spirits?" He received for answerthat the pronunciation of the twenty different names of Ahura-Mazda arethe best and strongest spells. These are the following:--1. TheRevealer. 2. The Herd-giver, etc. , etc. The twentieth and last is Mazda, the All-knowing One. 

 * * * * *

_PHILOSOPHY_

 * * * * *

 ARISTOTLE

THE ETHICS OF ARISTOTLE

 Aristotle was born at Stagira, a Greek colony on the Macedonian frontier, in 384 B. C. , when Plato was forty-three, fifteen years after the death of Socrates. Going to Athens, he became one of Plato's pupils in philosophy at the age of twenty. In 342 he became tutor to the future Alexander the Great, and some years later opened, again at Athens, his own school, whose disciples were called the Peripatetics. He died in 322 B. C. His works laid the systematic foundations of every science known in his time. His various treatises on logic were comprised in the "Organon"; he dealt with psychology and metaphysics; with rhetoric and the principles of literary criticism. He also systematised the natural sciences; and the two works here given, "the Ethics" and "Politics, " have profoundly influenced ethical and political thought from his own day to ours. In particular, his classification of the virtues, and his doctrine that virtue lies in a "mean, " have dominated a vast amount of moral speculation. The treatises as we know them are so crabbed and condensed in style as to give the impression that they are to a large extent not the finished works, but notes and summaries. 

_I. --THE END OF LIFE AND THE MEANING OF VIRTUE_

Every art and science, every action, has for its end some good, whetherthis be a form of activity or an actual product. The ends of minor artsare only means to the ends of superior arts. If there is one supremeend, this is The Good, inquiry into which belongs to the supreme SocialScience [for which the Greek term is Politics]. The name given to thissupreme good, the attainment of which is the object of Politics, isHappiness, good living, or welfare. 

But Happiness itself is variously defined; some identify it withPleasure, others with Honour--the first a degrading, and the second aninadequate view. Platonists find it in an abstract Idea of Good, aUniversal which precludes particulars. There is a great deal to be saidagainst this doctrine, even as a question of logic or metaphysic; butapart from that, the theory is out of court, for the all sufficientreason that its practical value is _nil_--knowledge of the greatUniversal Good in the abstract is of no practical use whatever ineveryday life, which is a fundamental point for us. 

If, then, there is a supreme dominating Good to be aimed at, what arethe essential characteristics it must display? The Good of all Goods, the Best, must be complete in itself, a consummation. Whatsoever is ameans to some end beyond fails so far of completeness; when we say thatour end must be "complete, " it follows that it must always be an end, never a means. It is not merely one amongst others of which it is thebest, but the one in which all the others are summed up. It is of itselfquite sufficient for the individual, and that not merely in isolation, but as a member of society--which it is his nature to be. 

Let us then define Happiness as Man's _Work_--the performance of hisfunction as man. Everything has some specific function, the performanceof which is its Good, and man, too, must have a specific function. Now, this cannot be the kind of life which he shares with the vegetable orwith the brute creation, therefore it must be the active life of hisdistinctive--_i. Q. , _ his rational--part, exercised in accordance withthe virtue or virtues which perfect it, and in his life as a whole, notmerely at moments. 

Testing our conclusions by the judgments of common experience, we gathersupport from them. Goods external, and goods of the body, are reckonedinferior to goods of the soul, which is recognised as the seat ofactivities. The identification of happiness with virtue, however, necessitates the distinction between active virtue and virtuousness. Asconducing to active virtue, the other kinds of goods are elements inhappiness. We must assume it to be not something granted to us, outsideour own control, but attainable by effort and education. 

Virtues are of two kinds: of the intellect, acquired by study; andmoral, acquired by practice. The moral virtues are not implanted bynature, but we have the capacity for them by nature, and achieve them bypractice, as by practice we acquire excellence in the arts, or controlover our passions. Education, then, is of the utmost importance, sincethe state or habit of virtue is the outcome of virtue in act. 

The manner, the "how" of action, must be in accord with Right Reason, whereof we shall speak elsewhere. Here we must recognise that we are notlaying down universal propositions, but general rules which are modifiedby circumstances. Our activities must lie in a mean between the twoextremes of excess and defect, and this applies both to the process ofgenerating virtue, and to its manifestation. The virtues are concernedwith pleasure and pain, because these act as inducements or opposinginfluences; Beauty, Advantage, and Pleasure being the three standinginducements, and Pleasure entering into both the others; so that in oneaspect Virtue is the Best action in respect to pleasure. 

But it does not lie in the mere act; the act must be born of knowledgeand of choice done for its own sake, and persistently--the first, knowledge, being the least important; to make it the most important is aspeculative error. 

Now, there are three modes of mind: feeling or passion, faculty, andhabit. We do not praise or blame passion in itself, or the faculty;therefore virtue can lie in neither, but must be found in habit orcondition. The virtuous habit or condition is what enables that whereofit is the virtue to perform its function, which, in the case of man, isthe activity of the soul, preserving always a middle course betweenexcess and deficiency, by choice. 

In another sense, however, we must remember that there are qualities inthemselves wrong, and that virtue may be presented as not somethingintermediate, but a consummation. But when we name each of thesevirtues--Courage, Temperance, Liberality, etc. ; the social virtues, orgood manners; the virtues concerned with the passions--we can name thecorresponding excess or deficiency. Justice and the intellectual virtuesdemand a separate analysis. 

Each virtue stands in opposition to each of the extremes, and each ofthese to the other extreme, though in some cases the virtue may be moreantagonistic to one extreme than to the other, as courage to cowardicemore than to rashness. In individual cases, it is difficult to avoidbeing deflected towards one or other of the extremes. 

Before proceeding with this analysis, we must examine the question ofchoice. To be praiseworthy, an act must be voluntary. An act is notvoluntary if it is the outcome of external compulsion. Where there is amargin of choice, an act must still, on the whole, be regarded asvoluntary, though done "against our will. " Of properly involuntary acts, we must distinguish between the unintentional and the unwilling, meaningby the latter, in effect, what the agent would not have done if he hadknown. 

Choice is not the same thing as a voluntary act; nor is it desire, oremotion, or exactly "wish, " since we may wish for, but cannot makechoice of, the unattainable. Nor is it Deliberation--rather, it is theact of decision following deliberation. If man has the power to say yes, he has equally the power to say no, and is master of his own action. Ifwe make a wrong choice through ignorance for which we are ourselvesresponsible, the ignorance itself is culpable, and cannot excuse thewrong choice; and so, when the choice is the outcome of a judgmentdisordered by bad habits, men cannot escape by saying they were madeso--they made themselves so. To say they "could not help" doing wrongthings is only an evasion. 

_II. --THE MORAL VIRTUES EXAMINED_

Virtues, then, are habits, issuing in acts corresponding to those bywhich the habit was established, directed by Right Reason, every suchact being voluntary, and the whole process a voluntary process. 

We may now turn to the analysis of the several virtues. 

Courage has to do with fear. Not all kinds; for there are some things weought to fear, such as dishonour and pauperism, the fear of which iscompatible with dauntless courage, while the coward may not fear them. Fearlessness of what is in our control, and endurance of what is not, for the sake of true honour, constitute the courageous habit. Its excessis rashness or foolhardiness, the deficiency cowardice. Akin to it, butstill spurious, is the courage of which the motive is not Honour buthonours or reputation. Spurious also is the courage which arises fromthe knowledge that the danger is infinitesimal; so is that which is bornof blind anger, or of elated self-confidence, or of mere unconsciousnessof danger. True Courage lies in resisting a temptation to pleasure or toescaping pain, and, above all, death, for Honour's sake. The exercise ofa virtue may be very far from pleasant, except, of course, in so far asthe end for which it was exercised is achieved. 

Temperance is concerned with pleasures of the senses; mainly of touch, in a much less degree of taste; but not of sight, hearing, or smell, except indirectly. Of carnal pleasures, some are common to all, somehave an individual application. Temperance lies in being content to dowithout them, and desiring them only so far as they conduce to healthand comfort. The characteristic of intemperance is that it has to dowith pleasures only, not with pains. Hence, it is more purely voluntarythan cowardice, as being less influenced by perturbing outwardcircumstances as concerns the particular case, though not the habit. 

Liberality is concerned with money matters, and lies betweenextravagance and meanness. Really it means the right treatment of money, both in spending and receiving it--the former rather than the latter. Aman is not really liberal who lavishes money for baser purposes, ortakes it whence he should not, or fails to take due care of hisproperty. The liberal man tends to err in the direction of lavishness. Extravagance is curable, but is frequently accompanied by carelessnessas to the objects on which the money is spent and the sources from whichit is obtained. The habit of meanness is apt to be ineradicable, and isdisplayed both in the acquisition and in the hoarding of money. 

Munificence is a virtue concerned only with expenditure on a largescale, and it implies liberality. It lies between vulgar ostentation andniggardliness. It is possible only for the wealthy, and is concernedmainly with public works, but also with private occasions of ceremony. The error of vulgar ostentation is misdirection of expenditure, notexcess. Niggardliness abstains from a proper expenditure. 

Magnanimity is the virtue of the aristocrat; its excess isself-glorification, its deficiency self-depreciation. The magnanimousman will bate nothing of his claim to honour, power and wealth, not ascaring greatly for them, but as demanding what he knows to be his due. This character involves the possession of the virtues; the man must actin the grand manner and on the grand scale. He knows his ownsuperiority, does not conceal it, and acts up to it. Self-glorificationoverrates its own capacities; self-depreciation underrates them andshuns its responsibilities, being the more reprehensible of the two. 

There is a nameless virtue which stands to magnanimity in the samerelation as that of liberality to munificence; these being concernedwith honours, as those with money. The excess is ambition, thedeficiency is the lack of it; but here terminology fails us. 

Good temper is a mean between ill-temper--whether of the irascible, thesulky, or the cantankerous kind--and something for which we have no name(poor-spiritedness). Friendliness comes between the excessive desire toplease and boorishness. It is a social virtue which might be defined asgoodwill _plus_ tact. Sincerity [there is no English term quitecorresponding to the Greek] is the quality opposed on the one side toboastfulness, and on the other to mock-modesty; it is displayed by theman who acknowledges, but who never exaggerates his own merits. In thesocial display of wit and humour, there is a marked mean between thebuffoon and the dullard or prig. Shame is a term implying a feelingrather than a habit; like fear, it has a physical effect, producingblushes, and seems, in fact, to be fear of disrepute. To the young, itis a safeguard against vice; the virtuous man need never feel it; to beunable to feel it implies the habit of vice. Continence is not properlyin the category of moral virtues. 

_III. --JUSTICE_

We come now to Justice. A specific habit differs from a specific facultyor science, as each of the latter covers opposites, _e. G. _, the scienceof health is also the science of sickness; whereas the habit of Justicedoes not cover but is opposed to the habit of Injustice. Justice itselfis a term used in various senses; and the senses in which injustice isused vary correspondingly. Confusion is apt to arise from these varyingsenses not being distinguished. Injustice includes law-breaking, grasping and unfairness. Grasping is taking too much of what is goodonly; unfairness is concerned with both what is good and what isinjurious. But in the legal sense, whatever law lays down is assumed tobe just. Law, however, covers the whole field of virtuous action as itaffects our neighbours, so that in this general sense justice is aninclusive term equivalent to righteousness. We, however, must confineourselves to the specific sense of the terms. 

Grasping is, in fact, included in unfairness, which is the real oppositeof specific justice; it includes law-breaking only so far as the law isbroken for the sake of gain. The justice with which we are concerned hastwo branches: Distributive, of honours and the like among citizens bythe State, and of private property by contract and agreement; andCorrective, the remedying of unfair distribution. There are always twoparties, and justice is the mean between the unfairness which favours Aand the unfairness which favours B. Distributive justice takes intoconsideration the merits of the parties; corrective justice is concernedonly with restoring a balance which has been disturbed. The distributionis a question not of equality, but of right proportion; and this appliesto retribution, which is recognised as one of its aspects, _e. G. _, theretribution for an officer striking a private and for a private strikingan officer. Proportional requital is the economic basis of society, arrived at by the existence of a comparatively unfluctuating currencywhich provides a criterion. 

In the State, as such, justice is obtained from the law and itsadministrators; justice is the virtue of the magistrate. Since he hasnothing to gain or lose himself, it has been supposed that justice is"another's good, " not our own. In the family, justice does not come in, the whole household being, in a sense, parts of the _pater familias_;and as you cannot be unjust to yourself, you cannot be unjust to yourhousehold. In the State, what is just is fixed partly by the nature ofthings, partly by law or convention. 

As to individual acts, injury may arise from a miscalculation, or froman incalculable accident; it becomes a wrong when it was intentional butnot premeditated, an injustice when premeditated. An act _prima facie_unjust is not so if done with the free consent of the person injured. Itis the agent of distribution, not the recipient, who is unjust (whenthey are different persons); and similarly, the agent, not theinstrument. And even the agent of unjust distribution is not reallyunjust unless he was really actuated by motives of personal gain. 

The performance of a particular act is easy. To perform it rightly asthe outcome of a right habit, is not; nor is it easy to be confident asto what is right in the particular case. The man who is just, having thehabit, does not find it easy to act unjustly. 

What we must call equity may be opposed to justice, but only in thelegal sense of that term. It is justice freed from the errors incidentalto the particular case, for which the law cannot provide. Injustice, again, is found in self-injury or suicide; which the law penalises, notbecause the individual thereby treats himself unjustly, but because hedoes an injustice to the community. It is only by metaphor that a manmay be called unjust to himself, an expression which means that therelation between one part of him and another part of him is analogous tothe unjust relation between persons. 

_IV. --WISDOM, PRUDENCE AND CONTINENCE_

The ensuing discussion of intellectual virtue requires some remarks onthe soul. We distinguish in the rational part, that which knows, concerned, with the unchanging; and that which reasons, concerned withthe changing. Our intellects and our propensions--not oursense-perceptions, which are shared with animals--guide our actions andour apprehension of truth. Attraction and repulsion, in correspondencewith affirmation and denial, combine to form right choice; thepractical--as opposed to the pure--reason having an external object, andbeing a motive power. 

There are five modes of attaining truth: (1) Concerning thingsunalterable, defined as demonstrative science; (2) concerning the makingof things changeable, art; (3) concerning the doing--not making--ofthings changeable, prudence; (4) intuitive reason, the basis ofdemonstrative science; (5) wisdom, the union of intuitive reason andscience. 

Wisdom and prudence are the two virtues of the intellect. Wisdom impliesintuitive reason, which grasps undemonstrable first principles; it isconcerned with the interests not of the moment, the individual, or thelocality. Whereas prudence is concerned precisely with these; it isessentially practical. Wisdom cannot be identified with statesmanship;which, again, is not the same as prudence--which applies to the self, and to the family, as well as to the State; it differs from wisdom asrequiring experience. 

Wisdom, knowledge of the ultimate bases, is equally without practicalbearing for those who have acquired a right habit and for those who havenot; just as a knowledge of medical theory is of no use to the averageman. But being an activity of the soul, _ipso facto_, it conduces tohappiness. The general conclusion is that what we have called "prudence"shows the means to the end which the moral virtues aim at. It is not amoral virtue, but the moral virtues accord with it. Both are necessaryto the achievement of goodness. 

We come now to a second group of qualities, concerned with conduct. Wehave dealt with the virtues and their opposing vices. We pass by theinfra-human and the supra-human bestiality and holiness; but have stillto deal with Continence and its contrasted qualities, which areconcerned with the passions. 

In the popular view, continence, self-control, is adherence to ourformed judgment. Incontinence is yielding to passion where we know it tobe wrong, and may be indulged in the pursuit of vengeance, honour, orgain. A number of _prima facie_ contradictions are started out of thepopular views. We find that a man does not act against completeknowledge or knowledge of which he is fully conscious. The knowledgemay, so to speak, be there, but is in abeyance, a condition which ispalpably exemplified in a drunken man. Now, incontinence is concernedwith pleasures, which are necessary--as for sustenance of life--andunnecessary but, _per se_, desirable, as honour. Incontinence is a termapplied only by analogy in the case of the latter; its properconcern--as with the moral vice, which we call intemperance--is with theformer. It implies, however, violent desire, which intemperance doesnot. We have examples of such desires in a morbid or diseased form, species of mania; but here again the term incontinence is only appliedby analogy. Its legitimate application, in short, is restricted to thenormal. 

Incontinence in respect of anger is not so bad as in respect of desire. It is often constitutional, it is in itself painful, and it is notwanton, being in all three points unlike the other. What we spoke of asbestiality is more horrible than vice or incontinence, as being inhuman;but it does less harm. Incontinence means transgressing the ordinarystandards in respect of pleasure and pain. Such transgression, when ofset purpose, and not followed by repentance--consequently, incurable--isthe moral vice of intemperance; which, being characterised by theabsence of violent desire, is worse than incontinence. The latter isopen, and is curable. The confusion between the two is due to theirissuing in like acts; the passionate impulse is temporary; it is not aformed habit of wrong choice. 

Continence is acting on conviction in resistance to passion; not merelysticking to any and every opinion, which is really rather more likeincontinence. The other extreme, of actual apathy, is rare. Continencediffers from temperance, as implying resistance to strong desires;whereas temperance implies that such desires are not active. Prudence--but not the acuteness which is sometimes confused withprudence--is incompatible with incontinence, which is least curable whenthe outcome of weakness. 

Here it becomes necessary to make some inquiry as to Pleasure and Pain. Some maintain that pleasure is never good, some that it is partly goodand partly not; some that it is good, but not the best But it cannot bebad _per se_, since it may be defined as the unimpeded activity of aformed faculty. Pleasure, as such, is not a hindrance to any activity, but its fulfilment; _e. G. , _ the pleasure of speculative inquiry does nothinder it. As a matter of fact, everyone does pursue pleasure; thedenial that it is good results from thinking of it as meaning onlybodily pleasures. And even they are not evil, but only the excessivepursuit of them. As to pleasure being fleeting, that is only becausecircumstances vary. The pleasure of the unchanging would be permanent. 

_V. --FRIENDSHIP_

A quality rendered as "Friendship"--though the Greek and English termsare not identical in content--now comes under examination. It is arelation to some other person or persons without which life is hardlyworth living. Some account for it on the principle of "like to like, "others on the opposite theory. Now, lovableness comes of goodness, orpleasantness, or usefulness. Love is not bestowed on the inanimate, andit must be mutual; it is to be distinguished from goodwill or devotion, which need not be reciprocated. 

Genuine friendship must be based on goodness; what rests on pleasantness(as with the young), or on utility (as with the old), is only to berecognised conventionally as friendship. In perfection it cannot subsistwithout perfect mutual knowledge, and only between the good; hence it isnot possible for anyone to have many real friends. Of the conventionalforms, that which is born of intellectual sympathy is more enduring thanwhat springs from sexual attraction; while what comes of utility isquite accidental. The former may develop into genuine friendship ifthere be virtue in both parties. Companionship is a necessary condition, in any case. 

Variants of friendship, however, may subsist between unequals, asbetween parents and children, princes and subjects, men and women, wherethere is a difference in the character of the affection of the twoparties. A certain degree of inequality--though we cannot lay down thelimitation--makes "friendship" a misnomer. One would not desire theactual apotheosis of a friend, because that would take him out of reach;it would end friendship. Friendship lies rather in the active lovingthan in being loved, though most people are more anxious to be lovedthan to love. 

Every form of social community--typified in the State--involvesrelationships into which friendship enters. The relationships in thefamily correspond to those in states; monarch to subjects as father tochildren, tyrant to subjects as master to slaves; autocratic rule tothat of the husband, oligarchic rule to that of the wife; what we callTimocracy to the fraternal relation, and Democracy to the entirelyunregulated household. In some kinds of association, friendship takesthe form of _esprit de corps_. It may be seen that quarrels arise mostreadily in those friendships between equals which are based uponinterest, and in friendships between unequals. 

Friendship is a kind of exchange--equal between equals, and proportionalbetween unequals; a repayment. This suggests various questions as topriority of claim--_e. G. , _ between paying your father's ransom andrepaying a loan, both being in a sort the repayment of a debt. No fixedlaw can be laid down--_i. E. , _ it cannot be said that one obligation atall times and in all circumstances overrides all others. 

The dissolution of friendship is warranted when one party has becomedepraved, since he has changed from being the person who was the objectof friendship. But he should not be given up while there is hope ofrestoring his character. Again, if one develops a great superiority, friendship proper cannot persist--at least, in its first form. Ourrelations with a friend are much like those with our own selves; thetrue friend is a sort of _alter ego_. Friendship is not to be identifiedwith goodwill, though the latter is a condition precedent; we may feelgoodwill, but not friendship, towards a person we have never seen orspoken to. Unanimity of feeling--not as to facts, but as to ends andmeans--is a sort of equivalent to friendship in the body politic. Thereason why conferring a benefit creates more affection than receiving itseems to be that the benefactor feels himself the maker of the other; weall incline to love what we produced--as parents their children, or theartist his own creations. 

Self-love is wrong in a sense--the usual sense in which the term isused, of giving priority to oneself in the acquisition of materialpleasures. But the seeking of the noblest things for oneself is reallyself-love, and may involve giving others, especially friends, thepriority in respect of desirable things--even to resigning to anotherthe opportunity of doing a noble deed. In this higher sense, self-loveis praiseworthy. 

The good man is self-sufficing, but friends are desirable, if notactually necessary to him, as giving scope for the exercise ofbeneficent activities, not as conferring benefits upon him. Besides, man's highest activities must be exercised not in isolation, but as amember of society, and such life lacks completeness if without friends. Finally, friendship attains its completest realisation where comradeshipis complete; that is to say, in a common life. 

_VI. --CONCLUSION_

We must revert once more to the question of Pleasure and Pain. To saythat pleasure is not good is absurd; he who does so stultifies himselfby his own acts. Eudoxus thought it was _the_ good, his opinion beingthe weightier because of his temperateness. 

It is desired for its own sake; its opposite is admittedly undesirable. But since it may be added to other good things, it cannot be _the_ good:though to say that what every one desires is not good at all is folly. That it is not "a quality, " or that it is "indeterminate, " areirrelevant arguments, both statements applying to what are admittedlyamong "goods. " The doctrine that it is a process, again, will not holdwater. Pleasure is a thing complete; whereas a process is complete at nomoment unless it be that of its termination. It is the completion of itsappropriate activity; not in the sense that a habit makes the activitycomplete, but as its accompaniment and complement. Continuous it is not, just as the activity is not. It is not the complete life, but isinseparable from it. Pleasures, however, differ specifically and invalue, as do the qualities with whose activities they are associated. The pleasures proper to men are those associated with the activitiesproper to man as man, those shared with other animals being so only in aless degree. 

It remains to recapitulate the sum of our conclusions regarding Happiness. It is not a habit, but lies in the habitual activities--desirable inand for themselves not as means--exercised deliberately, excluding mereamusement. Man's highest faculty being intelligence, its activity is hishighest happiness--contemplation--constant, sufficient, and sought notas a means, but as an end. 

This kind of happiness belongs to the gods also. Exclusively human, butbelow the other, is the fulfilment of the moral life, conditioned byhuman society, and more affected by environments and material wants. Forcontemplative activity, the barest material needs suffice. But this doesnot of itself induce the moral life, being apart from conduct. To inducemorality, not only knowledge, but the right habit of action--which doesnot follow from knowledge and may be implanted without it--is absolutelynecessary. Compulsion may successfully establish the habit whereargument might fail. Compulsion, therefore, is the proper course for theState to take. 

 * * * * *

MARCUS AURELIUS

HIS DISCOURSES WITH HIMSELF

 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher, was born on April 20, 121 A. D. Having been adopted by Antoninus Pius, whose daughter Faustina he married, he succeeded him as emperor in 161, but freely shared the imperial throne with Lucius Verus, who also had been adopted by Pius. Marcus Aurelius reigned until his death, on March 17, 180, in almost uninterrupted conflict with rebellious provinces, and often heavily burdened with the internal troubles of Rome. But the serenity of this august mind, and his constancy to wisdom, virtue and religion, were never shaken. For magnanimity, fidelity, resignation, fortitude and mercy, he stands unrivalled by any other figure of the pagan world. Nor did that world produce any other book which, like his, remains as an unfailing companion to every generation of the modern age. The charm of these fragmentary meditations depends greatly on their convincing candour; there is not a trace of the cant and exaggeration that so taint the moralisings of lesser men. It depends also on their iron stoicism; there are here no doubtful comforts, no rosy illusions. But it depends chiefly on the admirable and lovable human character which is revealed in them. They were written in Greek, and were probably jotted down at odd moments under the most various circumstances. Tradition says that they were intended for the guidance of his son. 

_BOOK I_

The example of my grandfather Verus taught me to be candid and tocontrol my temper. By the memory of my father's character I learned tobe modest and manly. My mother taught me regard for religion, to begenerous and open-handed, and neither to do an ill turn to anyone noreven to think of it. She bred me also to a plain and inexpensive way ofliving. I owe it to my grandfather that I had not a public education, but had good masters at home. From my tutor I learned not to identifymyself with popular sporting interests, but to work hard, endurefatigue, and not to meddle with other people's affairs. Diognetus taughtme to bear freedom and plain dealing in others, and gave me a taste forphilosophy. Rusticus first set me to improve my character, and preventedme from running after the vanity of the Sophists, and from concerningmyself with rhetorical and poetic conceits, or with the affectations ofa dandy. He taught me to read an author carefully, and gave me a copy ofEpictetus. Apollonius showed me how to give my mind its due freedom, todisregard everything that was not true and reasonable, and to maintainan equable temper under the most trying circumstances. Sextus taught megood humour, to be obliging, and to bear with the ignorant andthoughtless. From Maximus I learned to command myself, and to putthrough business efficiently, without drudging or complaint. From myadoptive father I learned a smooth and inoffensive temper, and agreatness proof against vanity and the impressions of pomp and power; Ilearned that it was the part of a prince to check flattery, to have hisexchequer well furnished, to be frugal in his expenses, not to worshipthe gods to superstition, but to be reserved, vigilant and well poised. 

I thank the gods that my grandfathers, parents, sister, preceptors, relatives, friends and domestics were almost all persons of probity, andthat I never happened to disoblige any of them. By the goodness of thegods I was not provoked to expose my infirmities. I owe it to them alsothat my wife is so deferential, affectionate and frugal; and that when Ihad a mind to look into philosophy I did not spend too much time inreading or logic-chopping. All these points could never have beenguarded without a protection from above. 

_BOOK II_

Put yourself in mind, every morning, that before night you will meetwith some meddlesome, ungrateful and abusive fellow, with some enviousor unsociable churl. Remember that their perversity proceeds fromignorance of good and evil; and that since it has fallen to my share tounderstand the natural beauty of a good action and the deformity of anill one; since I am satisfied that the disobliging person is of kin tome, our minds being both extracted from the Deity; since no man can dome a real injury because no man can force me to misbehave myself; Icannot therefore hate or be angry with one of my own nature and family. For we are all made for mutual assistance, no less than the parts of thebody are for the service of the whole; whence it follows that clashingand opposition are utterly unnatural. This being of mine consists ofbody, breath, and that part which governs. Put away your books and facethe matter itself. As for your body, value it no more than if you werejust expiring; it is nothing but a little blood and bones. Your breathis but a little air pumped in and out. But the third part is your mind. Here make a stand. Consider that you are an old man, and do not let thisnoble part of you languish in slavery any longer. Let it not beoverborne with selfish passions; let it not quarrel with fate, or beuneasy at the present, or afraid of the future. Providence shinesclearly through the work of the gods. Let these reflections satisfy you, and make them your rule to live by. As for books, cease to be eager forthem, that you may die in good humour, heartily thanking the gods forwhat you have had. 

Remember that you are a man and a Roman, and let your actions be donewith dignity, gravity, humanity, freedom and justice; let every actionbe done as though it were your last. Have neither insincerity norself-love. Man has to gain but few points in order to live a happy andgodlike life. And what, after all, is there to be afraid of in death? Ifthe gods exist, you can suffer no harm; and if they do not exist, ortake no care of us mortals, a world without gods or Providence is notworth a man's while to live in. But the being of the gods, and theirconcern in human affairs, is beyond dispute; and they have put it inevery man's power not to fall into any calamity properly so called. Living and dying, honour and infamy, pleasure and pain, riches andpoverty--all these are common to the virtuous and the depraved, and aretherefore intrinsically neither good nor evil. We live but for a moment;our being is in a perpetual flux, our faculties are dim, our bodies tendever to corruption; the soul is an eddy, fortune is not to be guessedat, and posthumous fame is oblivion. To what, then, may we trust? Why, to nothing but philosophy. This is, to keep the interior divinity frominjury and disgrace, and superior to pleasure and pain, and to acquiescein one's appointed lot. 

_BOOK III_

Observe that the least things and effects in Nature are not withoutcharm and beauty, as the little cracks in the crust of a loaf, thoughnot intended by the baker, are agreeable and invite the appetite. Thusfigs, when they are ripest, open and gape; and olives, when they arenear decaying, are peculiarly attractive. The bending of an ear of corn, the frown of a lion, the foam of a boar, and many other like things, ifyou take them singly, are far from beautiful; but seen in their naturalrelations are characteristic and effective. So if a man have butinclination and thought to examine the product of the universe, he willfind that the most unpromising appearances have their own appropriatecharm. 

Do not spend your thoughts upon other people, nor pry into the talk, fancies and projects of another, nor guess at what he is about, or whyhe is doing it. Think upon nothing but what you could willingly tellabout, so that if your soul were laid open there would appear nothingbut what was sincere, good-natured, and public-spirited. A man thusqualified is a sort of priest and minister of the gods, and makes aright use of the divinity within him. Be cheerful; depend not at all onforeign supports, nor beg your happiness of another; don't throw awayyour legs to stand upon crutches. 

If, in the whole compass of human life, you find anything preferable tojustice and truth, temperance and fortitude, or to a mind self-satisfiedwith its own rational conduct and entirely resigned to fate, then turnto it as to your supreme happiness. But if there be nothing morevaluable than the divinity within you, if all things are trifles incomparison with this, then don't divide your allegiance. Let your choicerun all one way, and be resolute for that which is best. As for otherspeculations, throw them once for all out of your hand. 

_BOOK IV_

It is the custom of people to go to unfrequented places and to theseashore and to the hills for retirement; and you yourself have oftenwished this solitude. But, after all, this is only a vulgar fancy, forit is in your power to withdraw into yourself whenever you have a mindto it. One's own heart is a place the most free from crowd and noise inthe world if only one's thoughts are serene and the mind well ordered. Make, therefore, frequent use of this retirement, therein to refreshyour virtue. And to this end be always provided with a few short, uncontested notions, to keep your understanding true. Do not forget toretire to this solitude of yours; let there be no straining orstruggling in the matter, but move at ease. 

If understanding be common to us all, then reason, its cause, must becommon, too. And so also must the reason which governs conduct bycommands and prohibitions be common to us all. Mankind is thereforeunder one common law, and so are fellow-citizens; and the whole world isbut one commonwealth, for there is no other society in which mankind canbe incorporated. 

Do not suppose that you are hurt, and your complaint will cease. 

If a man affronts you, do not defer to his opinion, or think just as hewould have you do. No; look upon things as reality presents them. Whenincense is thrown upon the altar, one grain usually falls beforeanother; but it matters not. 

Adhere to the principles of wisdom, and those who now take you for amonkey or a beast will make a god of you in a week. 

A thing is neither better nor worse for being praised. Do virtues standin need of a good word, or are they the worse for a bad one? An emeraldwill shine none the less though its worth be not spoken of. 

Whatever is agreeable to You, O Universe, is so to me, too. Youroperations are never mistimed. Whatever Your seasons bring is fruit forme, O Nature. From You all things proceed, subsist in You, and return toYou. The poet said, "Dear City of Cecrops"; shall we not say, "Dear Cityof God"?

The greater part of what we say and do is unnecessary; and if this wereonly retrenched we should have more leisure and less disturbance. Thisapplies to our thoughts also, for impertinence of thought leads tounnecessary action. 

Mankind are poor, transitory things: one day in life, and the nextturned to mummy or ashes. Therefore manage this minute wisely, and partwith it cheerfully; and like a ripe fruit, when you drop, make youracknowledgments to the tree that bore you. 

_BOOK V_

When you feel unwilling to rise early in the morning, make this shortspeech to yourself: "I am getting up now to do the business of a man;and am I out of humour for going about that I was made for, and for thesake of which I was sent into the world? Was I then designed for nothingbut to doze beneath the counterpane?" Surely action is the end of yourbeing. Look upon the plants and birds, the ants, spiders and bees, andyou will see that they are all exerting their nature, and busy in theirstation. Shall not a man act like a man?

Be not ashamed of any action which is in accordance with Nature, andnever be misled by the fear of censure or reproach. Where honestyprompts you to say or do anything, let not the opinion of others holdyou back. Go forward by the straight path, pursuing your own and thecommon interest. 

Some men, when they do you a kindness, ask for the payment of gratitude;others, more modest, remember the favour and look upon you as theirdebtor. But there are yet other benefactors who forget their good deeds;and these are like the vine, which is satisfied by being fruitful in itskind, and bears a bunch of grapes without expecting any thanks for it. Atruly kind man never talks of a good turn that he has done, but doesanother as soon as he can, just like a vine that bears again the nextseason. 

We commonly say that Aesculapius has prescribed riding for one patient, walking for another, a cold bath for a third. In the same way we may saythat the nature of the Universe has ordered this or that person adisease, loss of limbs or estate, or some such other calamity. For as, in the first case, the word "prescribed" means a direction for thehealth of the patient, so, in the latter, it means an applicationsuitable for his constitution and destiny. 

Be not uneasy, discouraged or out of humour, because practice fallsshort of precept in some particulars. If you happen to be vanquished, come on again, and be glad if most of what you do is worthy of a man. 

We ought to live with the gods. This is done by being contented with theappointments of Providence, and by obeying the orders of that divinitywhich is God's deputy; and this divine authority is no more nor lessthan that soul and reason which every man carries within him. 

_BOOK VI_

The best way of revenge is not to imitate the injury. Be always doingsomething serviceable to mankind; and let this constant generosity beyour only pleasure, not forgetting a due regard to God. 

The world is either an aggregation of atoms, or it is a unity ruled byLaw and Providence. If the first, what should I stay for, where Natureis a chaos and things are blindly jumbled together? But if there is aProvidence, then I adore the great Governor of the world, and am at easeand cheerful in the prospect of protection. 

Suppose you had a stepmother and a mother at the same time; though youwould pay regard to the first, your converse would be principally withthe latter. Let the court and philosophy represent these two relationsto me. 

If an antagonist in the circus tears our flesh with his nails, or tiltsagainst us with his head, we do not cry out foul play, nor are weoffended, nor do we suspect him afterwards as a dangerous person. Let usact thus in the other instances of life. When we receive a blow, let usthink that we are but at a trial of skill, and depart without malice orill-will. 

It is enough to do my duty; as for other things, I will not be disturbedabout them. 

The vast continents of Europe and of Asia are but corners of thecreation; the ocean is but a drop, and Mount Athos but a grain inrespect of the universe; and the present instant of time is but a pointto the extent of eternity. 

When you have a mind to divert your fancy, try to consider the goodqualities of your acquaintance--such as the enterprising vigour of thisman, the modesty of another, the liberality of a third, and so on. Letthis practice be always at hand. 

_BOOK VII_

What is wickedness? It is nothing new. When you are in danger of beingshocked, consider that the sight is nothing but what you have frequentlyseen already. All ages and histories, towns and families, are full ofthe same stories; there is nothing new to be met with, but all thingsare common and quickly over. 

Nature works up the matter of the universe like wax; now it is a horse;soon afterwards you will find it melted down and run into the figure ofa tree; then it is a man; and so on. Only for a brief time is it fixedin any species. 

Antisthenes said: "It is the fate of princes to be ill spoken of fortheir good deeds. "

Consider the course of the stars as if you were driving through the skyand kept them company. Such contemplations as these scour off the rustcontracted by conversing here below. 

Rational creatures are designed for the advantage of each other. Asociable temper is that for which human nature was principally intended. 

It is a saying of Plato's that no one misses the truth by his owngoodwill. The same may be said of honesty, sobriety, good nature, andthe like. Remember this, for it will help to sweeten your temper. 

Though the gods are immortal, and have had their patience tried throughso many ages, yet they not only bear with a wicked world, but evenprovide liberally for it. And are you tired with evil men already, though you are one of those unhappy mortals yourself?

_BOOK VIII_

Every man has three relations to acquit himself in: his body is one, Godis another, and his neighbours are the third. Have you seen a hand or afoot cut off and removed from the body? Just such a thing is the man whois discontented with destiny or cuts himself off by selfishness from theinterest of mankind. But here is the fortunate aspect of the case--itlies in his power to set the limb on again. Consider the peculiar bountyof God to man in this privilege: He has set him above the necessity ofbreaking off from Nature and Providence at all; but supposing thismisfortune to have occurred, it is in man's power to rejoin the body, and grow together again, and recover the advantage of being the samemember that he was at first. 

Do not take your whole life into your head at a time, nor burdenyourself with the weight of the future, nor form an image of allprobable misfortunes. Neither what is past nor what is to come needafflict you, for you have only to deal with the present; and this isstrangely lessened if you take it singly and by itself. Chide yourfancy, therefore, if it offers to grow faint under so slender a trial. 

Throw me into what climate or state you please, for all that I will keepmy soul content. Is any misadventure big enough to ruffle my peace, orto make my mind mean, craving and servile? What is there that canjustify such disorders?

Be not heavy in business, nor disturbed in conversation, nor rambling inthought. Do not burden yourself with too much employment. Do men curseyou? This cannot prevent you from keeping a wise, temperate, and uprightmind. If a man standing by a lovely spring should rail at it, the wateris none the worse for his foul language; and if he throw in dirt it willquickly disappear, and the fountain will be as wholesome as ever. Howare you to keep your springs always running, and never stagnate into apool? You must persevere in the virtues of freedom, sincerity, moderation, and good nature. 

_BOOK IX_

Do not drudge like a galley-slave, nor do business in a laboriousmanner, as if you wish to be pitied or wondered at. 

As virtue and vice consist in action, and not in the impressions of thesenses, so it is not what they feel, but what they do, which makesmankind either happy or miserable. 

This man prays that he may gain such a woman; but do you rather praythat you may have no such inclination. Another invokes the gods to sethim free from some troublesome circumstance; but let it be your petitionthat your mind may not be set upon such a wish. A third is devout inorder to prevent the loss of his son; but I would have you pray ratheragainst the fear of losing him. Let this be the rule for your devotions, and watch the event. 

_BOOK X_

O my soul, are you ever to be rightly good, sincere, and uniform, andmade more visible to yourself than the body that hangs about you? Areyou ever likely to relish good nature and general kindness as you ought?Will you ever be fully satisfied, rise above wanting and wishing, andnever desire to obtain your pleasure out of anything foreign, eitherliving or inanimate? Are you ever likely to be so happily qualified asto converse with the gods and men in such a manner as neither tocomplain of them nor to be condemned by them?

Put it out of the power of all men to give you a bad name, and if anyonereports you not to be an honest or a good man let your practice give himthe lie. This is quite feasible; for who can hinder you from being justand sincere?

There is no one so happy in his family and friends but that some ofthem, when they see him going, will rejoice at a good riddance. Let himbe a person of never so much probity and prudence, yet someone will sayat his grave: "Well, our man of order and gravity is gone; we shall beno more troubled with his discipline. " This is the best treatment a goodman must expect. 

_BOOK XI_

What a brave soul it is that is always ready to depart from the body, and is unconcerned as to whether she will be extinguished, scattered, orremoved! But she must be prepared upon reasonable grounds, and not outof mere obstinacy like the Christians; her fortitude must have nothingof noise or of tragic ostentation, but must be grave and seemly. 

How fulsome and hollow does that man seem who cries: "I'm resolved todeal sincerely with you!" Hark you, friend, what need of all thisflourish? Let your actions speak. Your face ought to vouch for you. Iwould have virtue look out of the eye no less apparently than love does. A man of integrity and good nature can never be concealed, for hischaracter is wrought into his countenance. 

Gentleness and good humour are invincible, provided they are of theright stamp and without hypocrisy. This is the way to disarm the mostoutrageous person--to continue kind and unmoved under ill usage, and tostrike in at the right opportunity with advice. But let all be done outof mere love and kindness. 

_BOOK XII_

I have often wondered how it is that everyone should love himself best, and yet value his neighbour's opinion of him more than his own. If anyman should be ordered to turn his inside outwards, and publish everythought and fancy as fast as they come into his head, he would notsubmit to so much as a day of this discipline. Thus it is that we dreadour neighbour's judgment more than our own. 

What a mighty privilege man is born to, since it is in his power not todo anything but what God Almighty approves, and to be satisfied with allthe distributions of Providence!

Reflect upon those who have made the most glorious figure or have metwith the greatest misfortunes. Where are they all now? They are vanishedlike a little smoke. The prize is insignificant, and the play not worththe candle. It is much more becoming to a philosopher to stand clear ofaffectation, to be honest and moderate upon all occasions, and to followcheerfully wherever the gods lead on, remembering that nothing is morescandalous than a man who is proud of his humility. 

Listen, friend! You have been a burgher of this great city. What matterthough you have lived in it fewer years or more? If you have kept thelaws of the corporation, the length or shortness of the time makes nodifference. Where is the hardship, then, if Nature, that planted youhere, orders your removal? You cannot say you are sent off by an unjusttyrant No! You quit the stage as fairly as a player does who has hisdischarge from the master of the revels. "But I have only gone throughthree acts, and not held out to the end of the fifth!" True; but in lifethree acts may complete the play. He is the only judge of completenesswho first ordered your entrance and now your exit; you are accountablefor neither the one nor the other. Retire therefore, in serenity, as Hewho dismisses you is serene. 

 * * * * *

FRANCIS BACON

THE ADVANCEMENT OF LEARNING

 Francis Bacon, English philosopher and Chancellor, was born on January 22, 1561, the son of Lord Keeper Bacon, was sent to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1573, and entered Gray's Inn in 1576. He had already become profoundly dissatisfied at Cambridge with the Aristotelian philosophy, and the conception of a humble and methodical study of Nature had early become the dominant passion of his life. Bacon became a member of parliament in 1584, and nine years later distinguished himself by coming forward as the champion of the privileges of the House of Commons against the Lords. The "Essays" were published in 1597. Bacon was knighted in 1603, on the accession of James I. In October, 1605, he published the "Advancement of Learning, " a work designed to interest the king in the new philosophy, of which book we here give a summary. This review of the existing state of knowledge was intended to be made, later, into the first part of the "Instauratio Magna" under the title of "Partitiones Scientiarum. " For this purpose Bacon was constantly revising it, and eventually he had it translated into Latin, and it was so published, greatly enlarged, in 1623, under the title of "De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum. " The summit of his career was reached in 1621, when he became Viscount St. Albans. His fall, on a charge of corruptions in the Court of Chancery, took place in the following March, and from this period until his death, on April 9, 1626, he devoted himself to his philosophical and literary works. 

_First Book_

Let us weigh the dignity of knowledge in the balance with other things. In its archetype it is the Divine wisdom, or sapience, manifested in thecreation. In the celestial hierarchy the supposed Dionysius of Athensplaces the angels of knowledge and illumination before those of officeand domination. Then, the first material form that was created waslight, which corresponds in corporal things to knowledge in incorporai. The day wherein God contemplated His own works was blessed above thedays wherein He accomplished them. Man's first employment in Paradiseconsisted of the two chief parts of knowledge, the view of creatures, and the imposition of names. In the age before the Flood, Scripturehonours the names of the inventors of music and of works in metal. Moseswas accomplished in all the learning of the Egyptians. The book of Jobis pregnant with natural philosophy. In Solomon, the gift of wisdom andlearning is preferred before all other earthly and temporal felicity. 

Our Saviour first showed His power to subdue ignorance by His conferencewith the doctors, before He showed His power to subdue Nature bymiracles; and the coming of the Holy Spirit was chiefly figured in thegift of tongues, which are the vehicles of knowledge. St. Paul, mostlearned of the apostles, had his pen most used in the New Testament. Many of the ancient fathers of the Church were excellently read in allthe learning of the heathen; and that heathen learning was preserved, amid Scythian and Saracen invasions, in the sacred bosom of the Church. And in our own day, when God has called the Roman Church to account fordegenerate manners and obnoxious doctrines. He has also ordained arenovation of all other knowledges; and, on the other side, the Jesuits, by quickening the state of learning, have done notable service to theRoman See. Wherefore two principal services are performed to religion byhuman learning: first, the contemplation of God's works is an effectualinducement to the exaltation of His glory; and, secondly, true learningis a singular preservative against unbelief and error. 

To pass now to human proofs of the dignity of learning, we find thatamong the heathen the inventors of new arts, such as Ceres, Bacchus, andApollo, were consecrated among the gods themselves by apotheosis. Thefable of Orpheus, wherein quarrelsome beasts stood sociably listening tothe harp, aptly described the nature of men among whom peace ismaintained so long as they give ear to precepts, laws, and religion. Ithas been said that people would then be happy, when kings werephilosophers, or philosophers kings; and history shows that the besttimes have ever been under learned princes. 

As for the services of knowledge to private virtue, it takes away alllevity, temerity, and insolence by copious suggestion of all doubts anddifficulties, and acquainting the mind to balance reasons on both sides. It takes away vain admiration of anything, which is the root of allweakness. No man can marvel at the play of puppets that goes behind thecurtain. And certainly, if a man meditate much upon the universal frameof Nature, the earth with men upon it (the divineness of souls except)will not seem much other than an ant-hill, where some ants carry corn, and some carry their young, and some go empty, and all to and fro alittle heap of dust. But especially learning disposes the mind to becapable of growth and reformation. For the unlearned man knows not whatit is to descend into himself or to call himself to account, nor thepleasure of feeling himself each day a better man than he was the daybefore; he is like an ill mower, that mows on still and never whets hisscythe. Knowledge crowns man's nature with power. It even gives fortuneto particular persons; and it is hard to say whether arms or learninghave advanced greater numbers. As for the pleasure and delight thereof, in knowledge there is no satiety. "It is a pleasure incomparable, " saysLucretius, "for the mind of man to be settled, landed, and fortified inthe certainty of truth; and from thence to descry the errors andperturbations of other men. "

Lastly, by learning man excels man in that wherein man excels beasts. The great dignity of knowledge lies in immortality or continuance, andthe monuments of learning are more durable than the monuments of power. Have not the verses of Homer continued twenty-five hundred years ormore, without the loss of a syllable or letter, during which timeinfinite palaces, temples, castles, cities, have been decayed anddemolished?

If the invention of the ship was thought so noble, which carries richesand commodities from place to place, and consociates the most remoteregions in participation of their fruits, how much more are letters tobe magnified? Popular and mistaken judgments will continue as they haveever been, but so will that also continue whereupon learning has everrelied, and which fails not. 

"Wisdom is justified of her children. "

_SECOND BOOK_

The parts of human learning have reference to the three parts of man'sunderstanding--history to his memory, poetry to his imagination, andphilosophy to his reason. Divine learning receives the samedistribution, so that theology consisteth of history of the Church; ofparables, which are divine poetry; and of holy doctrine or precept. Forprophecy is but divine history, in which the narrative is before thefact. 

History is "natural, " "civil, " "ecclesiastical, " and "literary ";whereof the first three are extant, but the fourth is deficient. A truehistory of learning throughout the ages is wanting. History of Nature isof three sorts--of Nature in course, of Nature erring or varying, and ofNature altered or worked; that is, history of creatures, history ofmarvels, and history of arts. The first of these is extant in goodperfection; the two others are handled so weakly that I note them asdeficient. The history of arts is of great use towards naturalphilosophy such as shall be operative to the benefit of man's life. Civil history is of three kinds: "memorials, " "perfect histories, " and"antiquities, " comparable to unfinished, perfect and defaced pictures. Just or perfect history represents a time, a person, or an action. Thefirst we call "chronicles"; the second, "lives"; and the third, "narrations, " or "relations. "

Of modern histories the greater part are beneath mediocrity. Annals andjournals are a kind of history not to be forgotten; and there is alsoruminated history, wherein political discourse and observations aremingled with the history of the events themselves. The history ofcosmography is compounded of natural history, civil history, andmathematics. Ecclesiastical history receives the same divisions withcivil history, but may further be divided into history of the Church, history of prophecy, and history of Providence. The first of these isnot deficient, only I would that the sincerity of it were proportionateto its mass and quantity. The history of prophecy, sorting everyprophecy with the event fulfilling the same, is deficient; but thehistory of Providence, and the notable examples of God's judgments anddeliverances have passed through the labour of many. Orations, letters, and brief sayings, or apophthegms, are appendices to history. Thus muchconcerning history, which answers to memory. 

Poetry refers to the imagination. In respect of its words it is but acharacter of style, but in respect of its matter it is nothing else butfeigned history, which may as well be in prose as in verse. The use ofthis feigned history is to give some shadow of satisfaction to the mindof man in those points wherein the nature of things denies it; poetryserves magnanimity, morality, and delectation. It is divided intonarrative, representative, and allusive or parabolical poetry. In poetryI can report no deficience; it has sprung up and spread abroad more thanany other kind of learning. 

In philosophy, the contemplations of man either penetrate unto God, orare circumferred to Nature, or are reflected upon himself; whence arisethree knowledges--divine philosophy, natural philosophy, and humanphilosophy or humanity. But it is good to erect one universal science, _Philosophia Prima, _ "primitive" or "summary philosophy, " before we comewhere the ways part and divide; and this universal philosophy is areceptacle for all such profitable observations and axioms as do notfall within the compass of any of the special parts of philosophy orsciences, but are common and of a higher stage. Divine philosophy, ornatural theology, is that knowledge concerning God which may be obtainedby the contemplation of His creatures; and in this I note an excessrather than a deficience, because of the extreme prejudice which bothreligion and philosophy have received by being mixed together, making anheretical religion and a fabulous philosophy. 

Of natural philosophy there are two parts, the inquisition of causes andthe production of effects; speculative and operative; natural scienceand natural prudence. Natural science is divided into physic andmetaphysic. But since I have already defined a summary philosophy, and, again, a natural theology, both of which are commonly confounded withmetaphysic, what is there remaining for metaphysic? This, that physicinquires concerning the material and efficient causes, but metaphysichandles the formal and final causes. So physic is in a middle termbetween natural history and metaphysic; for natural history describesthe variety of things, physic the variable or respective causes, andmetaphysic the fixed and constant causes. Of metaphysic I find that itis partly omitted and partly misplaced. In mathematics, which I place asa part of metaphysic, I can report no deficience. But natural prudence, or the operative part of natural philosophy, is very deficient. It weredesirable that there should be a calendar or inventory made of all theinventions whereof man is possessed, with a note of useful things notyet invented. A calendar, also, of doubts, and another of popularerrors, are to be desired. 

We come now to the knowledge of ourselves--that is, to human philosophyor humanity. First, a general study of human nature will have regard tothe sympathies and concordances between mind and body. Then, since thegood of man's body is of four kinds--health, beauty, strength, andpleasure--the knowledge of the body is also of four kinds--medicine, decoration or cosmetic, athletic, and the art voluptuary. Medicine hasbeen more professed than laboured, and more laboured than advanced, thelabour having been rather in circle than in progression. 

As for human knowledge concerning the mind, it has two parts, oneinquiring of the substance or nature of the soul, and the other of itsfaculties or functions. I believe that the first of these may be moresoundly inquired than it has been, yet I hold that in the end it must bebounded by religion. It has two appendices, concerning divination andfascination; these have rather vapoured forth fables than kindled truth. The knowledge respecting the faculties of the mind is of two kinds, theone respecting understanding and reason, and the other respecting will, appetite, and affection, the imagination being active in both provinces. The intellectual arts are four--inquiry or invention, examination orjudgment, custody or memory, and elocution or tradition; and these areseverally divided into various sciences and arts. The knowledge of theappetite and will, or moral philosophy, leading to the culture andregiment of the mind, is very deficient. 

Civil knowledge has three parts--conversation, negotiation, andgovernment--since man seeks in society comfort, use, and protection. Thefirst of these is well laboured, the second and third are deficient. Thus we conclude human philosophy, and turn to the sacred and inspireddivinity, the port of all men's labours and peregrinations. 

Sacred theology, or divinity, is grounded only upon the word and oracleof God, and not upon the light of Nature. Herein there has not beensufficiently inquired the true limits and use of reason in spiritualthings. Exposition of Scriptures, on the other hand, is not deficient. Divinity has four main branches--faith, manners, liturgy, andgovernment--in which I can find no ground vacant and unsown, so diligenthave men been, either in sowing of seed or tares. 

 * * * * *

GEORGE BERKELEY

PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE

 George Berkeley, the metaphysician, was born on March 12, 1685, near Thomastown, Kilkenny, the son of a collector of revenue. He entered Trinity College, Dublin, at the age of fifteen, and was admitted Fellow in 1707. In that year he published two mathematical essays; two years later, his "Theory of Vision, " and in 1710 his "Principles of Human Knowledge. " In 1713, in London, where he had published further philosophical papers, he formed the acquaintance of Steele, Swift, and Pope. After travels in Europe he became chaplain to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland in 1721, and a few years after emigrated to Newport, Rhode Island, with a view to the establishment of a college in Bermuda for the education of Indians. This scheme fell through, because of the failure of the promised government support. Berkeley returned to London, and in 1734, by desire of Queen Caroline, was consecrated Bishop of Cloyne, in Ireland. Here he lived until 1752, but spent his last months in retirement at Oxford, where he died on January 14, 1753. Berkeley's "Principles of Human Knowledge" is one of the most eminent of that sequence of metaphysical systems which, beginning with Descartes, constitutes what is known as modern philosophy. 

_I. --THE ANALYSIS OF PERCEPTION_

It is evident to anyone who takes a survey of the objects of humanknowledge that they are either ideas actually imprinted on the senses, or else such as are perceived by attending to the passions andoperations of the mind; or, lastly, ideas formed by help of memory andimagination, either compounding, dividing, or representing thoseoriginally perceived in the aforesaid ways. By sight, touch, and othersenses, I receive various sensations; and any group of sensations, frequently accompanying one another, come to be known as one thing. Thusa certain colour, taste, smell, figure, and consistence, having beenobserved to go together, are accounted one distinct thing--for instance, an apple. 

But, besides this endless variety of objects of knowledge, there is alsothe "mind, " "spirit, " "soul, " or "myself, " which perceives them. Neitherour thoughts or imaginations, nor even the sensations which compose theobjects of perception, can exist otherwise than in a mind perceivingthem. It is impossible that objects should have any existence out of theminds for which they exist; to conceive them as existing unperceived isa mere abstraction. Whence it follows that there is no other substancebut spirit, or that which perceives. 

Some, indeed, distinguish between "primary" and "secondary" qualities, and hold that the former, such as extension, figure, motion, andsolidity, have some existence outside of the mind in an unthinkingsubstance which they call "matter. " But extension, figure, and motionare only ideas existing in the mind, and neither these ideas nor theirarchetypes can exist in an unperceiving substance. The very notion ofwhat is called "matter" involves a contradiction within it. Not onlyprimary and secondary qualities alike, but also "great" and "small, ""swift" and "slow, " "extension, " "number, " and even "unity" itself, being all of them purely relative, exist only in the mind. Theconception of "material substance" has no meaning but that of "being" ingeneral. 

Even if we were to give to the materialists their "external bodies, "they are by their own confession no nearer to knowledge how our ideasare produced, since they own themselves unable to comprehend in whatmanner body can act upon spirit, or how it is possible that it shouldimprint any idea on the mind. 

It is evident that the production of ideas in our minds can be no reasonwhy we should suppose corporeal substances to exist, since the rise ofthose ideas is acknowledged to remain equally inexplicable with orwithout the supposition of material existences. In short, if there wereexternal bodies, it is impossible that we should ever come to know it;and if there were not, we should have the same reasons to think therewere, that we have now. We perceive a continual succession of ideas;some are anew excited, others are changed or totally disappear. Thereis, therefore, some cause of these ideas, whereon they depend, whichproduces and changes them. This cause must be a substance; but it hasbeen shown that there is no corporeal or material substance. It remains, therefore, that the cause of ideas is an incorporeal active substance orspirit. 

A spirit is one simple, undivided, active being; as it perceives ideasit is called the "understanding, " and as it produces or otherwiseoperates about them, it is called the "will. " Such is the nature ofspirit that it cannot be of itself perceived, but only by the effectswhich it produceth. 

The ideas of sense are more strong, lively, and distinct than those ofthe imagination; they have likewise a steadiness, order, and coherence, and are excited in a regular series, the admirable connection whereofsufficiently testifies the wisdom and benevolence of its Author. The setrules or established methods, wherein the mind that we depend on excitesin us the ideas of sense, are called the "laws of Nature. "

These we learn by experience, and so obtain a sort of foresight whichenables us to regulate our actions for the benefit of life. In general, to obtain such or such ends such or such means are conducive; and allthis we know, not by discovering any necessary connection between ourideas, but only by the observation of the laws of Nature. 

And yet this constant uniform working, which so evidently displays thegoodness and wisdom of that governing spirit whose will constitutes thelaws of Nature, is so far from leading our thoughts to Him that itrather sends them wandering after second causes. For when we perceivecertain ideas of sense constantly followed by other ideas, and we knowthat it is not of our own doing, we forthwith attribute power and agencyto the ideas themselves, and make one the cause of another, than whichnothing can be more absurd. 

_II. --THE ROOTS OF SCEPTICISM_

Several difficult and obscure questions, on which abundance ofspeculation hath been thrown away, are by our own principles entirelybanished from philosophy. "Whether corporeal substance can think, ""whether matter be infinitely divisible, " "how matter operates onspirit"--these and the like inquiries have given infinfte amusement tophilosophers in all ages. But since they depend on the existence ofmatter, they have no longer any place in our principles. It follows, also, that human knowledge may be reduced to two heads--knowledge ofideas, and knowledge of spirits. Our knowledge of the former hath beenmuch obscured and confounded, and we have been led into very dangerouserrors, by supposing a twofold existence of the objects of sense, theone "intelligible, " or in the mind, the other "real, " and without themind; whereby unthinking things are thought to have a naturalsubsistence of their own, distinct from being perceived by spirits. 

This is the very root of scepticism; for so long as men thought thatreal things subsisted without the mind, and that their knowledge wasonly so far "real" as it was conformable to "real things, " they couldnot be certain that they had any real knowledge at all. 

So long as we attribute a real existence to unthinking things, distinctfrom their being perceived, it is not only impossible for us to know thenature of any real unthinking being, but it is impossible for us even toknow that it exists. Hence it is that we see philosophers distrust theirsenses, and doubt of the existence of heaven and earth, of everythingthey see or feel. But all this doubtfulness, which so bewilders andconfounds the mind, vanishes if we annex a meaning to our words and donot amuse ourselves with the terms "absolute, " "external, " "exist, " andsuch like, signifying we know not what. I can as well doubt of my ownbeing as of the being of those things which I perceive by sense; thevery existence of unthinking beings consists in their being perceived. 

It were a mistake to think that what is here said derogates in the leastfrom the reality of things. The unthinking beings perceived by senseexist in those unextended, indivisible substances, or spirits, whichact, think, and perceive them; whereas philosophers vulgarly hold thatthe sensible qualities exist in an inert, extended, unperceivingsubstance, which they call "matter, " to which they attribute a naturalsubsistence distinct from being perceived by any mind whatsoever, eventhe eternal mind of the Creator. 

As we have shown the doctrine of matter to have been the main support ofscepticism, so likewise upon the same foundation have been raised allthe impious schemes of atheism and irreligion. All these monstroussystems have so visible and necessary a dependence on this supposedmaterial substance that, when this cornerstone is once removed, thewhole fabric cannot choose but fall to the ground. 

On the same principle does not only fatalism but also idolatry depend inall its varying forms. Did men but consider that the sun, moon, andstars, and every other object of the senses, are only so many sensationsin their minds, which have no other existence but barely beingperceived, they would never fall down and worship their own ideas, butrather address their homage to that Eternal Invisible Mind whichproduces and sustains all things. 

As in reading books, a wise man will choose to fix his thoughts on thesense rather than lay them out on grammatical remarks; so, in perusingthe volume of Nature, it seems beneath the dignity of the mind to affectan exactness in reducing each particular phenomenon to general rules, orshowing how it follows from them. We should propose to ourselves noblerviews, such as to recreate and exalt the mind, with a prospect of thebeauty, order, extent, and variety, of natural things; hence, by properinferences, to enlarge our notions of the grandeur, wisdom, andbeneficence of the Creator. 

The reason that is assigned for our being thought ignorant of the natureof spirits is our not having an idea of them. But it is manifestlyimpossible that there should be any such idea. A spirit is the onlysubstance or support wherein the unthinking beings or ideas can exist;but that this substance which supports or perceives ideas should itselfbe an idea is absurd. 

From the opinion that spirits are to be known after the manner of anidea or sensation have arisen many heterodox tenets and much scepticismabout the nature of the soul. It is even probable that this opinion mayhave produced a doubt in some whether they had any soul at all distinctfrom their body, since they could not find that they had an idea of it. But the spirit is a real thing, which is neither an idea nor like anidea. What I am myself, that which I denote by the term "I, " is what wemean by soul or spiritual substance; and we know other spirits by meansof our own soul, which in that sense is an image or idea of them. 

By the natural immortality of the soul we mean that it is not liable tobe either broken or dissolved by the ordinary laws of Nature or motion. The soul itself is indivisible, incorporeal, unextended, and isconsequently incorruptible. 

_III. --OUR KNOWLEDGE OF GOD_

Though there be some things which convince us that human agents areconcerned in producing them, yet it is evident to everyone that thosethings which are called the works of Nature--that is, the far greaterpart of the ideas or sensations perceived by us--are not produced by, nor dependent on, the wills of men. There is, therefore, some otherspirit that causes them, since they cannot subsist themselves. 

If we attentively consider the constant regularity, order, andconcatenation of natural things, the surprising magnificence, beauty, and perfection of the larger, and the exquisite contrivance of thesmaller parts together with the exact harmony and correspondence of thewhole--I say, if we consider all these things, and at the same timeattend to the import of the attributes, one eternal, infinitely wise, good, and perfect, we shall clearly perceive that they belong to theaforesaid Spirit, who works all in all, and by whom all things consist. 

Hence it is evident that God is known as certainly and immediately asany other mind or spirit whatsoever, distinct from ourselves. We mayeven assert that the existence of God is far more evidently perceivedthan the existence of men, because the effects of Nature are infinitelymore numerous and considerable than those ascribed to human agents. There is not any one mark that denotes a man, or effect produced by him, which does not more strongly evince the being of that Spirit who is theAuthor of Nature. 

It seems to be a general pretence of the unthinking herd that theycannot see God. Could we but see Him, say they, as we see a man, weshould believe that He is, and, believing, obey His commands. But weneed only open our eyes to see the sovereign Lord of all things with amore full and clear view than we do any one of our fellow-creatures. Wedo not see a man, if by "man" is meant that which lives, moves, perceives, and thinks as we do; but only such a collection of ideas asdirects us to think there is a distinct principle of thought and motionlike to ourselves, accompanying and represented by it. And after thesame manner we see God. 

Men are surrounded with such clear manifestations of Deity, yet are solittle affected by them that they seem, as it were, blinded with excessof light. 

 * * * * *

DESCARTES

DISCOURSE ON METHOD

 René Descartes was born March 31, 1596, at La Haye, in the ancient province of Touraine, France, of a noble family of Touraine; and was educated at the College of La Flêche by the Jesuits. The decisive crisis of his life arrived in 1619, while he was serving as a volunteer with Prince Maurice of Nassau, and the next nine years may be regarded as the period of his formation. The most fruitful years of his life were spent in Holland, whence he made occasional excursions into France, and perhaps paid a visit to England. In 1633 he finished his treatise on "The World; or on Light, " an epitome of his "Physics, " which, however, he deemed it wise, in view of Galileo's fate, to withhold from publication during his lifetime. Besides the "Discourse on Method" (1637), with the treatises on dioptrics, meteors, and geometry, his principal works were his "Meditations" addressed to the Deans of the Faculty of Theology in the University of Paris; the "Principia Philosophiae, " and the "Traité des Passions de L'Ame, " in which, he handled morals. Descartes died at Stockholm, whither he had been summoned by Queen Christina, on February 11, 1649. His work stands a landmark in the modern history of philosophic thought. 

_I. --THE AIM OF THIS DISCOURSE_

Good sense or reason must be better distributed than anything else inthe world, for no man desires more of it than he already has. This showsthat reason is by nature equal in all men. If there is diversity ofopinion, this arises from the fact that we conduct our thought bydifferent ways, and consider not the same things. It does not sufficethat the understanding be good--it must be well applied. 

My mind is no better than another's, but I have been lucky enough tochance on certain ways, which have led me to a certain method by meansof which it seems to me that I may by degrees augment my knowledge tothe modest measure of my intellect and my length of days. I shall bevery glad to make plain in this discourse the paths I have followed, andto picture my life so that all may judge of it, and by the setting forthof their opinions may furnish me with yet other means of improvement. 

It is my design not to teach the method which each man ought to followfor the right guidance of his reason, but only to show in what manner Ihave tried to conduct my own. 

I had been nourished on letters from my infancy, but as soon as I hadfinished the customary course of study, I found myself hampered by somany doubts and errors that I seemed to have reaped no benefits, exceptthat I had observed more and more of my ignorance: Yet I was at one ofthe most celebrated schools in Europe, and I was not held inferior to myfellow-students, some of whom were destined to take the place of ourmasters; nor did our age seem less fruitful of good wits than any whichhad gone before. Though I did not cease to esteem the studies of theschools, I began to think that I had given enough time to languages, enough also to ancient books, their stories and their fables; for when aman spends too much time in travelling abroad he becomes a stranger inhis own country; and so, when he is too curious concerning what went onin past ages, he is apt to remain ignorant of what is taking place inhis own day. I set a high price on eloquence, and I was in love withpoetry; above all, I rejoiced in mathematics, but I knew nothing of itstrue use. 

I revered our theology, but, since the way to heaven lies open to theignorant no less than to the learned, and the revealed truths which leadthither are beyond our intelligence, I did not dare to submit them to myfeeble reasonings. 

In philosophy there is no truth which is not disputed, and which, consequently, is not doubtful; and, as to the other sciences, they allborrow their principles from philosophy. 

Therefore, I entirely gave up the study of letters, and employed therest of my youth in travelling, being resolved to seek no other sciencethan that which I might find within myself, or in the Great Book of theWorld. 

Here the best lesson that I learned was not to believe too firmlyanything of which I had learnt merely by example and custom; and thuslittle by little was delivered from many errors which are liable toobscure the light of nature, and to diminish our capacity of hearingreason. Finally, I resolved one day to study myself in the same way, andin this it seems to me I succeeded much better than if I had neverdeparted from either my country or my books. 

_II. --THE INTELLECTUAL CRISIS_

Being in Germany, on my way to rejoin the army after the coronation ofthe Emperor [Ferdinand II. ], I was lying at an inn where, in default ofother conversation, I was at liberty to entertain my own thoughts. Ofthese, one of the first was that often there is less perfection in workswhich are composite than in those which issue from a single hand. Suchwas the case with buildings, cities, states; for a people which has madeits laws from time to time to meet particular occasions will enjoy aless perfect polity than a people which from the beginning has observedthe constitution of a far-sighted legislator. This is very certain, thatthe estate of true religion, which God alone has ordained, must beincomparably better guided than any other. And again, I considered thatas, during our childhood, we had been governed by our appetites and ourtutors, which are often at variance, which neither of them perhapsalways gave us the best counsel, it is almost impossible that ourjudgments should be so pure and so solid as they would have been if wehad had the perfect use of our reason from the time of our birth, andhad never been guided by anything else. 

Hence, as regarded the opinions that I had received into my belief, Ithought that, as a private person may pull down his own house to build afiner, so I could not do better than remove them therefrom in order toreplace them by sounder, or, after I should have adjusted them to thelevel of reason, to establish the same once more. 

When I was younger I had studied logic, analytical geometry, andalgebra. Of these, I found that logic served rather for explainingthings we already know; while of geometry and algebra, the former is sotied to the consideration of figures that it cannot exercise theunderstanding without wearying the imagination, and the latter is sobound down to certain rules and ciphers that it has been made a confusedand obscure art which hampers the mind instead of a science whichcultivates it. And as a state is better governed which has but few laws, and those laws strictly observed, I believed that I should findsufficient four precepts which follow. 

The first was never to accept anything as true when I did not recogniseit clearly to be so--that is to say, carefully to avoid precipitationand prejudice, but to include in my opinions nothing beyond that whichshould present itself so clearly and distinctly to my mind that I mighthave no occasion to doubt it. 

The second was to divide up the difficulties which I should examine intoas many parts as possible, and as should be required for their bettersolution. 

The third was to conduct my thoughts in order, by beginning with thesimplest objects and those most easy to know, so as to mount little bylittle, by stages, to the most complex knowledge, even supposing anorder among things which did not naturally stand in an order ofantecedent and consequent. 

And the last was to make everywhere enumerations so complete, andsurveys so wide, that I should be sure of omitting nothing. 

Exact observation of these precepts gave me such facility in unravellingthe questions comprehended in geometrical analysis and in algebra, thatin two or three months not only did I find my way through many which Ihad formerly accounted too hard for me, but, towards the end, I seemedto be able to determine, in those which were new to me, by what meansand to what extent it was possible to resolve them. And so I promisedmyself that I would apply my system with equal success to thedifficulties of other sciences; but since their principles must all beborrowed from philosophy, in which I found no certain principles of itsown, I thought that before all else I must try to establish sometherein. By way of preparation (for I was then but twenty-three yearsold) I must root up from my mind my previous bad opinion of it, and mustpractise my method in order that I might be confirmed in it more andmore. 

_III. --A RULE OF LIFE_

Meanwhile I must have a rule of life as a shelter while my new house wasin building, and this consisted of three or four maxims. 

The first was to conform myself to the laws and customs of my country, and to hold to the religion in which, by God's grace, I had been broughtup; guiding myself, for the rest, by the least extreme opinions of themost intelligent. Among extremes I counted all promises by which a mancurtails anything of his liberty; for I should have deemed it a gravefault against good sense if, because I approved something in a givenmoment, I had bound myself to accept it as good for ever after. 

My second maxim was to follow resolutely even doubtful opinions whensure opinions were not available, just as the traveller, lost in someforest, had better walk straight forward, though in a chance direction;for thus he will arrive, if not precisely at the place where he desiresto be, at least probably at a better place than the middle of a forest. 

My third maxim was to endeavour always to conquer myself rather thanfortune, and to change my desires rather than the order of the world, and in general to bring myself to believe that there is nothing whollyin our power except our thoughts. And I believe that herein lay thesecret of those philosophers who, in the days of old, could withdrawfrom the domination of fortune, and, despite pain and poverty, challengethe felicity of their gods. 

Finally, after looking out upon the divers occupations of men, Ipondered that I could do no better than persevere in that which I hadchosen--so deep was my content in discovering every day by its meanstruths which seemed to me important, yet were unknown to the world. 

Having thus made myself sure of these maxims, and having set them aparttogether with the verities of faith, I judged that for the rest of myopinions I might set freely to work to divest myself of them. For nineyears, therefore, I went up and down the world a spectator rather thanan actor. These nine years slipped away before I had begun to seek forthe foundations of any philosophy more certain, nor perhaps should Ihave dared to undertake the quest had it not been put about that I hadalready succeeded. 

_IV. --"I THINK, THEREFORE I AM"_

I had long since remarked that in matters of conduct it is necessarysometimes to follow opinions known to be uncertain, as if they were notsubject to doubt; but, because now I was desirous to devote myself tothe search after truth, I considered that I must do just the contrary, and reject as absolutely false everything concerning which I couldimagine the least doubt to exist. 

Thus, because our senses sometimes deceive us I would suppose thatnothing is such as they make us to imagine it; and because I was aslikely to err as another in reasoning, I rejected as false all thereasons which I had formerly accepted as demonstrative; and finally, considering that all the thoughts we have when awake can come to us alsowhen we sleep without any of them being true, I resolved to feign thateverything which had ever entered into my mind was no more truth thanthe illusion of my dreams. 

But I observed that, while I was thus resolved to feign that everythingwas false, I who thought must of necessity be somewhat; and remarkingthis truth--"_I think, therefore I am_"--was so firm and so assured thatall the most extravagant suppositions of the sceptics were unable toshake it, I judged that I could unhesitatingly accept it as the firstprinciple of the philosophy I was seeking. I could feign that there wasno world, I could not feign that I did not exist. And I judged that Imight take it as a general rule that the things which we conceive veryclearly and very distinctly are all true, and that the only difficultylies in the way of discerning which those things are that we conceivedistinctly. 

After this, reflecting upon the fact that I doubted, and thatconsequently my being was not quite perfected (for I saw that to _know_is a greater perfection than to _doubt_), I bethought me to inquirewhence I had learned to think of something more perfect than myself; andit was clear to me that this must come from some nature which was infact more perfect. For other things I could regard as dependencies of mynature if they were real, and if they were not real they might proceedfrom nothing--that is to say, they might exist in me by way of defect. But it could not be the same with the idea of a being more perfect thanmy own; for to derive it from nothing was manifestly impossible; and, because it is no less repugnant that the more perfect should follow anddepend upon the less perfect than that something should come forth outof nothing, I could not derive it from myself. 

It remained, then, to conclude that it was put into me by a nature trulymore perfect than was I, and possessing in itself all the perfections ofwhat I could form an idea--in a word, by God. To which I added that, since I knew some perfections which I did not possess, I was not theonly being who existed, but that there must of necessity be some otherbeing, more perfect, on whom I depended, and from whom I had acquiredall that I possessed; for if I had existed alone and independent of allother, so that I had of myself all this little whereby I participated inthe Perfect Being, I should have been able to have in myself all thoseother qualities which I knew myself to lack, and so to be infinite, eternal, immutable, omniscient, almighty--in fine, to possess all theperfections which I could observe in God. 

Proposing to myself the geometer's subject matter, and then turningagain to examine my idea of a Perfect Being, I found that existence wascomprehended in that idea just as, in the idea of a triangle iscomprehended the notion that the sum of its angles is equal to two rightangles; and that consequently it is as certain that God, this PerfectBeing, is or exists, as any geometrical demonstration could be. 

That there are many who persuade themselves that there is a difficultyin knowing Him is due to the scholastic maxim that there is nothing inthe understanding which has not first been in the senses; where theideas of God and the soul have never been. 

Than the existence of God all other things, even those which it seems toa man extravagant to doubt, such as his having a body, are less certain. Nor is there any reason sufficient to remove such doubt but such aspresupposes the existence of God. From His existence it follows that ourideas or notions, being real things, and coming from God, cannot but betrue in so far as they are clear and distinct. In so far as they containfalsity, they are confused and obscure, there is in them an element ofmere negation (_elles participent du néant_); that is to say, they arethus confused in us because we ourselves are not all perfect. And it isevident that falsity or imperfection can no more come forth from Godthan can perfection proceed from nothingness. But, did we not know thatall which is in us of the real and the true comes from a perfect andinfinite being, however clear and distinct our ideas might be, we shouldhave no reason for assurance that they possessed the finalperfection--truth. 

Reason instructs us that all our ideas must have some foundation oftruth, for it could not be that the All-Perfect and the All-True shouldotherwise have put them into us; and because our reasonings are never soevident or so complete when we sleep as when we wake, although sometimesduring sleep our imagination may be more vivid and positive, it alsoinstructs us that such truth as our thoughts have will assuredly be inour waking thoughts rather than in our dreams. 

_V. --WHY I DO NOT PUBLISH "THE WORLD"_

I have always remained firm in my resolve to assume no other principlethan that which I have used to demonstrate the existence of God and ofthe soul, and to receive nothing which did not seem to me clearer andmore certain than the demonstrations of the philosophers had seemedbefore; yet not only have I found means of satisfying myself with regardto the principal difficulties which are usually treated of inphilosophy, but also I have remarked certain laws which God has soestablished in nature, and of which He has implanted such notions in oursouls, that we cannot doubt that they are observed in all which happensin the world. 

The principal truths which flow from these I have tried to unfold in atreatise ("On the World, or on Light"), which certain considerationsprevent me from publishing. This I concluded three years ago, and hadbegun to revise it for the printer when I learned that certain personsto whom I defer had disapproved an opinion on physics published a shorttime before by a certain person [Galileo, condemned by the RomanInquisition in 1633], in which opinion I had noticed nothing prejudicialto religion; and this made me fear that there might be some among myopinions in which I was mistaken. 

I now believe that I ought to continue to write all the things which Ijudge of importance, but ought in no wise to consent to theirpublication during my life. For my experience of the objections whichmight be made forbids me to hope for any profit from them. I have triedboth friends and enemies, yet it has seldom happened that they haveoffered any objection which I had not in some measure foreseen; so thatI have never, I may say, found a critic who did not seem to be eitherless rigorous or less fair-minded than myself. 

Whereupon I gladly take this opportunity to beg those who shall comeafter us never to believe that the things which they are told come fromme unless I have divulged them myself; and I am in nowise astonished atthe extravagances attributed to those old philosophers whose writingshave not come down to us. They were the greatest minds of their time, but have been ill-reported. Why, I am sure that the most devoted ofthose who now follow Aristotle would esteem themselves happy if they hadas much knowledge of nature as he had, even on the condition that theyshould never have more! They are like ivy, which never mounts higherthan the trees which support it, and which even comes down again afterit has attained their summit. So at least, it seems to me, do they who, not content with knowing all that is explained by their author, wouldfind in him the solution also of many difficulties of which he saysnothing, and of which, perhaps, he never thought. 

Yet their method of philosophising is very convenient for those who havebut middling minds, for the obscurity of the distinctions and principleswhich they employ enables them to speak of all things as boldly as ifthey had knowledge of them, and sustain all they have to say against themost subtle and skilful without there being any means of convincingthem; wherein they seem to me like a blind man who, in order to fight onequal terms with a man who has his sight, invites him into the depths ofa cavern. And I may say that it is to their interest that I shouldabstain from publishing the principles of the philosophy which I employ, for so simple and so evident are they that to publish them would be likeopening windows into their caverns and letting in the day. But if theyprefer acquaintance with a little truth, and desire to follow a planlike mine, there is no need for me to say to them any more in thisdiscourse than I have already said. 

For if they are capable of passing beyond what I have done, much ratherwill they be able to discover for themselves whatever I believe myselfto have found out; besides which, the practice which they will acquirein seeking out easy things and thence passing to others which are moredifficult, will stead them better than all my instructions. 

But if some of the matters spoken about at the beginning of the"Dioptrics" and the "Meteors" [published with the "Discourse on Method"]should at first give offence because I have called them "suppositions, "and have shown no desire to prove them, let the reader have patience toread the whole attentively, and I have hope that he will be satisfied. 

The time remaining to me I have resolved to employ in trying to acquiresome knowledge of nature, such that we may be able to draw from it morecertain rules for medicine than those which up to the present wepossess. And I hereby declare that I shall always hold myself moreobliged to those by whose favour I enjoy my leisure undisturbed than Ishould be to any who should offer me the most esteemed employments inthe world. 

 * * * * *

RALPH WALDO EMERSON

NATURE

 Ralph Waldo Emerson, the American writer and moralist, was born at Boston on May 25, 1803, of English stock and a family of preachers. He was educated at Harvard for the Unitarian ministry, and became a settled pastor in Boston before he was twenty-six. Three years later he resigned his charge owing to theological disagreements. In 1833 he visited Europe and England as a hero worshipper, his desire being to meet Landor, Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Carlyle. He saw them all, and formed a lifelong friendship with Carlyle. Returning to America, he settled at Concord, where he lived till his death, on April. 27, 1882. His public work took the form of lectures, of which his books are reproductions. In 1836 he published his first book, "Nature, " anonymously. "Nature" was the germ essay from which all Emerson's later work sprang, a first expression of thoughts that were expanded and developed later. It was published in 1836, when its writer was thirty-three years of age, and known only as a preacher who had become a lecturer. Already Emerson had adopted the methods of a seer rather than those of the consecutive thinker. "Nature" was one of the first-written books of great writers that made a deep impression on the understanding few, but had only a few readers. It presaged the greatness to be; and indeed its poetical quality carries a charm, which Emerson sometimes failed to reproduce and never afterwards surpassed. 

_I. --TO WHAT END IS NATURE?_

Our age is retrospective. It builds the sepulchres of the fathers. Itwrites biographies, histories, and criticisms. The foregoing generationsbeheld God face to face; we through their eyes. Why should not we alsohave an original relation to the universe? Why should we grope among thedry bones of the past, or put the living generation into masquerade outof its faded wardrobe? Let us interrogate the great apparition thatshines so peacefully around us. Let us inquire to what end is Nature. 

Philosophically considered, the universe is composed of Nature and Soul. Strictly speaking, therefore, all that is separate from us, all whichphilosophy distinguishes as _not me_, that is both Nature and Art, allother men and my own body, must be ranked under this name, Nature. Nature, in the common sense, refers to essences unchanged by man: space, the air, the river, the leaf. Art is applied to the mixture of his willwith the same things, as in a house, a canal, a statue, a picture. Buthis operations, taken together, are so insignificant, a little chipping, baking, patching, and washing, that in an impression so grand as that ofthe world on the human mind they do not vary the result. 

To go into solitude, a man needs to retire as much from his chamber asfrom society. But if a man would be alone let him look at the stars. Therays that come from those heavenly bodies will separate between him andwhat he touches. One might think the atmosphere was made transparentwith this design, to give man in the heavenly bodies the perpetualpresence of the sublime. Seen in the streets of cities, how great theyare! If the stars should appear one night in a thousand years, how menwould believe and adore, and preserve for many generations theremembrance of the city of God which had been shown! But every nightcome out these envoys of beauty, and light the universe with theiradmonishing smile. 

Nature never wears a mean appearance. Neither does the wisest man extorther secret, and lose his curiosity by finding out all her perfection. When we speak of Nature in this manner we have a distinct but mostpoetical sense in the mind. We mean the integrity of impression made bymanifold natural objects. The charming landscape which I saw thismorning is indubitably made up of some twenty or thirty farms. Millerowns this field, Locke that, and Manning the woodland beyond. But noneowns the landscape. There is a property in the horizon which no man hasbut he whose eye can integrate all the parts--that is, the poet. This isthe best part of these men's farms, yet to this their warranty-deedsgive no title. 

_II. --HER DELIGHT_

In the presence of Nature a wild delight runs through the man in spiteof real sorrow. Not the sun or the summer alone, but every hour andseason yields its tribute of delight; for every hour and changecorresponds to and authorises a different state of mind, from breathlessnoon to grimmest midnight. Crossing a bare common, in snow puddles, attwilight, under a clouded sky, without having in my thoughts anyoccurrence of special good fortune, I have enjoyed a perfectexhilaration. I am glad to the brink of fear. In the woods, too, a mancasts off his years as the snake his slough, and at what period soeverof life is always a child. Within these plantations of God a decorum andsanctity reign, a perennial festival is dressed, and the guest sees nothow he should tire of them in a thousand years. Standing on the bareground, my head bathed in the blithe air, and uplifted into infinitespace, all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eyeball; I amnothing; I see all; the currents of universal being circulate throughme; I am a part or particle of God. I am the lover of uncontained andimmortal beauty. 

Yet it is certain that the power to produce this delight does not residein Nature, but in man, or in a harmony of both. It is necessary to usethese pleasures with great temperance. For Nature is not always trickedin holiday attire, but the same scene which yesterday breathed perfumeand glittered as for the frolic of nymphs is overspread with melancholyto-day. Nature always wears the colours of the spirit. 

The misery of man appears like childish petulance when we explore thesteady and prodigal provision that has been made for his support anddelight on this green ball which floats him through the heavens. All theparts incessantly work into each other's hands for the profit of man. The wind sows the seed; the sun evaporates the sea; the wind blows thevapour to the field; the ice on the other side of the planet condensesthe rain on this; the plant feeds the animal; and thus the endlesscirculations of the divine charity nourish man. 

The useful arts are reproductions or new combinations by the wit of manof the same natural benefactors. The private poor man hath cities, ships, canals, bridges, built for him. He goes to the post-office, andthe human race run on his errands; to the book-shop, and the human raceread and write all that happens for him; to the court-house, and nationsrepair his wrongs. 

_III. --HER LOVELINESS_

A nobler want of man is served by Nature, namely, the love of beauty. Such is the constitution of all things, or such the plastic power of thehuman eye, that the primary forms, as the sky, the mountain, the tree, the animal, give us a delight in and for themselves, a pleasure arisingfrom art, line, colour, motion, and grouping. This seems partly owing tothe eye itself. The eye is the best of artists, as light is the first ofpainters. 

To the body and mind which have been cramped by noxious work or companyNature is medicinal, and restores their tone. But in other hours Naturesatisfies by her loveliness and without any mixture of corporealbenefit. I see the spectacle of morning from the hilltop over against myhouse from daybreak to sunrise with emotion which an angel might share. How does Nature deify us with a few and cheap elements. Give me healthand a day, and I will make the pomp of emperors ridiculous. The dawn ismy Assyria; the sunset and moonrise my Paphos, and unimaginable realmsof faerie; broad noon shall be my England of the senses and theunderstanding; the night shall be my Germany of mystic philosophy anddreams. 

The inhabitants of cities suppose that the country landscape is pleasantonly half the year. To the attentive eye each moment of the year has itsown beauty, and in the same fields it beholds every hour a picture whichwas never seen before, and which shall never be seen again. 

Every rational creature has all Nature for his dowry and estate. He maydivest himself of it, he may creep into a corner and abdicate hiskingdom, as most men do, but he is entitled to the world by hisconstitution. In proportion to the energy of his thought and will hetakes up the world into himself. 

_IV. --HER GIFT OF LANGUAGE_

Language is another use which Nature subserves to man. Words are signsof natural facts. The use of natural history is to give us aid insupernatural history. Every word which is used to express a moral orintellectual fact, if traced to its root, is found to be borrowed fromsome material appearance. Right means straight; wrong means twisted;transgression the crossing of a line. Most of the process by which thistransformation is made is hidden from us in the remote time whenlanguage was framed; but the same tendency may be daily observed inchildren. 

It is not words only that are emblematic, it is things. Every appearancein Nature corresponds to some state of mind, and that state of mind canonly be described by presenting that natural appearance as its picture. An enraged man is a lion, a cunning man is a fox, a firm man is a rock, a learned man is a torch. Visible distance behind and before us isrespectively an image of memory and hope. 

Man is conscious of a universal soul within or behind his individuallife, wherein, as in a firmament, the natures of justice, truth, love, freedom, arise and shine. This universal soul he calls reason: it is notmine, or thine, or his, but we are its; we are its property and men. Andthe blue sky in which the private earth is buried, the sky with itseternal calm and full of everlasting orbs is the type of reason. Thatwhich, intellectually considered, we call reason, considered in relationto Nature we call spirit. Spirit is the creator. Spirit hath life initself, and man in all ages and countries embodies it in his language asthe Father. 

As we go back in history language becomes more picturesque until itsinfancy, when it is all poetry. When simplicity of character and thesovereignty of ideas are broken up, new imagery ceases to be created andold words are perverted to stand for things which are not; a papercurrency is employed when there is no bullion in the vaults. 

_V. --HER MORAL DISCIPLINE_

In view of the significance of Nature we arrive at the fact that Natureis a discipline. What tedious training, day after day, year after year, never ending, to form the common sense; what continual reproduction ofannoyances, inconveniences, dilemmas; what rejoicing over us of littlemen, what disputing of prices, what reckoning of interest--and all toform the hand of the mind!

The exercise of will or the lesson of power is taught in every event. Nature is thoroughly mediate. It is made to serve. It receives thedominion of man as meekly as the ass on which the Saviour rode. Itoffers all its kingdoms to man as the raw material which he may mouldinto what is useful. And he is never weary of working it up. He forgesthe subtle and delicate air into wise and melodious words, and givesthem wings as angels of persuasion and command. One after another hisvictorious thought comes up with and reduces all things, until the worldbecomes at last a realised will. 

Every natural process is a version of a moral sentence. The moral lawlies at the centre of Nature and radiates to the circumference. What isa farm but a mute gospel? The chaff and the wheat, weeds and plants, blight, rain, insects, sun--it is a sacred emblem from the first furrowof spring to the last stack which the snow of winter overtakes in thefields. Who can guess how much firmness the sea-beaten rock has taughtthe fisherman? How much tranquillity has been reflected to man from theazure sky? How much industry and providence and affection we have caughtfrom the pantomime of brutes?

The unity of Nature meets us everywhere. Resemblances exist in thingswherein there is great superficial unlikeness. Thus architecture iscalled "frozen music" by Goethe. "A Gothic church, " said Coleridge, "ispetrified religion. " The law of harmonic sounds reappears in theharmonic colours. The granite is different in its laws only by the moreor less of heat from the river that wears it away. The river, as itflows, resembles the air that flows over it; the air resembles the lightthat traverses it with more subtle currents. 

Each creature is only a modification of the other, the likeness in themis more than the difference, and their radical law is one and the same. This unity pervades thought also. 

_VI. --IS NATURE REAL?_

A noble doubt suggests itself whether discipline be not the final causeof the universe, and whether Nature outwardly exists. The frivolous makethemselves merry with the ideal theory as if its consequences wereburlesque, as if it affected the stability of Nature. It surely doesnot. The wheels and springs of man are all set to the hypothesis of thepermanence of Nature. 

But while we acquiesce entirely in the permanence of natural laws, thequestion of the absolute existence of Nature still remains open. It isthe uniform effect of culture on the human mind to lead us to regardNature as a phenomenon, not a substance; to attribute necessaryexistence to spirit. 

Intellectual science fastens the attention upon immortal necessaryuncreated natures, that is, upon ideas; and in their presence we feelthat the outward circumstance is a dream and a shade. Whilst we wait inthis Olympus of the gods we think of Nature as an appendix to the soul. Finally, religion and ethics, which may be fitly called the practice ofideas, have an analogous effect. The first and last lesson of religionis: "The things that are seen are temporal; the things that are unseenare eternal. "

_VII. --THE SPIRIT BEHIND NATURE_

The aspect of Nature is devout. Like the figure of Jesus, she standswith bended head and hands folded on the breast. The happiest man is hewho learns from Nature the lesson of worship. Of that ineffable essencewe call spirit, he that thinks most will say least. We can foresee Godin the coarse, as it were, distant phenomena of matter; but when we tryto define and describe Himself, both language and thought desert us, andwe are as helpless as fools and savages. The noblest ministry of Natureis to stand as the apparition of God. It is the organ through which theuniversal spirit speaks to the individual, and strives to bring back theindividual to it. 

I conclude this essay with some traditions of man and Nature which acertain poet sang to me. 

The foundations of man are not in matter, but in spirit. And the elementof spirit is eternity. To it, therefore, the longest series of events, the oldest chronologies are young and recent. A man is a god in ruins. When men are innocent, life shall be longer and shall pass into theimmortal as gently as we awake from dreams. Infancy is the perpetualMessiah which comes into the arms of fallen men, and pleads with them toreturn to paradise. The problem of restoring to the world the originaland eternal beauty is solved by the redemption of the soul. The ruinthat we see when we look at Nature is in our own eye. Man cannot be anaturalist until he satisfies all the demands of the spirit. Love is asmuch its demand as perception. When a faithful thinker shall kindlescience with the fire of the holiest affection, then will God go forthanew into the creation. 

Nature is not fixed, but fluid. Spirit alters, moulds, makes it. Theimmobility, or bruteness, of Nature is the absence of spirit. Everyspirit builds itself a house, and beyond its house a world, and beyondits world a heaven. What we are, that only can we see. All that Adamhad, all that Caesar could, you have and can do. Adam called his househeaven and earth; Caesar called his house Rome; you, perhaps, call yoursa cobbler's trade, a hundred acres of ploughed land, or a scholar'sgarret. Yet, line for line, and point for point, your dominion is asgreat as theirs, though without fine names. Build, therefore, your ownworld. As fast as you conform your life to the pure idea in your mind, that will unfold its great proportions. 

 * * * * *

EPICTETUS

DISCOURSES AND ENCHEIRIDION

 The Stoic philosopher Epictetus was born about 50 A. D. , at Hierapolis, in Phrygia, at that time a Roman province of Asia Minor, and was at first a slave in Rome. On being freed he devoted himself to philosophy, and thereafter lived and taught at Nicopolis, in Epirus (then a portion of Macedonia, corresponding to Albania to-day), from about 90 A. D. To 138 A. D. He left no works, but his utterances have been collected in four books of "Discourses" or "Dissertations" by his pupil and friend Arrian. In the "Encheiridion Epictete"--a "Handbook to Epictetus" compiled and condensed from the chaos of the almost verbatim "Discourses"--Arrian gives the most authentic account of the philosophy of the Greek and Roman Stoics, the sect founded by Zeno about 300 years before the Christian era, which flourished until the decline of Rome. Arrian himself was born about 90 A. D. At Nicomedia. He wrote in the style of Xenophon the "Anabasis of Alexander, " a book on "Tactics, " and several histories which have been lost. He is chiefly of note, however, as the Boswell of Epictetus. He died about 180 A. D. 

_I. --OF THE WILL, AND OF GOD_

The reasoning faculty alone considers both itself and all other powers, and judges of the appearance of things. And, as was fit, this mostexcellent and superior faculty, the faculty of a right use of theappearances of things, is that alone which the gods have placed in ourown power, while all the other matters they have placed not in ourpower. Was it because they would not? I rather think that if they could, they had granted us these, too; but they certainly could not. For, placed upon earth, and confined to such a body and such companions, howwas it possible that we should not be hindered by things without us?

But what says Jupiter? "O Epictetus, if it were possible, I had madethis little body and possession of thine free, and not liable tohindrance. But now do not mistake; it is not thine own, but only a finermixture of clay. Since, then, I could not give thee this, I have giventhee a certain portion of myself--this faculty of exerting the powers ofpursuit and avoidance, of desire and aversion, and, in a word, the useof the appearances of things. Taking care of this point, and making whatis thy own to consist in this, thou wilt never be restrained, never behindered; thou wilt not groan, wilt not complain, wilt not flatteranyone. How then! Do all these advantages seem small to thee? Heavenforbid! Let them suffice thee, then, and thank the gods. "

But now, when it is in our power to take care of one thing, and applyourselves to it, we choose rather to encumber ourselves with many--body, property, brother, friend, child, slave--and thus we are burdened andweighed down. When the weather happens not to be fair for sailing, wesit screwing ourselves and perpetually looking out for the way of thewind. 

What then is to be done?

To make the best of what is in our power, and take the rest as itnaturally happens. 

And how is that?

As it pleases God. 

To a reasonable creature, that alone is unsupportable which isunreasonable; everything reasonable may be supported. When Vespasian hadsent to forbid Priscus Helvidius going to the senate, he answered, "Itis in your power to prevent my continuing a senator, but while I am oneI must go. "

"Well, then, at least be silent there. "

"Do not ask my opinion, and I will be silent. "

"But I must ask it. "

"And I must speak what appears to me to be right. "

"But if you do I will put you to death. "

"Did I ever tell you that I was immortal? You will do your part, and Imine; it is yours to kill, and mine to die intrepid; yours to banish me, mine to depart untroubled. "

What good, then, did Priscus do, who was but a single person? Why, whatgood does the purple do to the garment? What but the being a shiningcharacter in himself, and setting a good example to others? Another, perhaps, if in such circumstances Caesar had forbidden his going to thesenate, would have said, "I am obliged to you for excusing me. " But sucha one Caesar would not have forbidden, well knowing that he would eithersit like a statue, or, if he spoke, he would say what he knew to beagreeable to Caesar. 

Only consider at what price you sell your own will and choice, man--iffor nothing else, that you may not sell it for a trifle. 

If a person could be persuaded, as he ought of this principle, that weare all originally descended from God, and that He is the Father of godsand men, I conceive he never would think meanly or degeneratelyconcerning himself. Suppose Caesar were to adopt you, there would be nobearing your haughty looks. Will you not be elated on knowing yourselfto be the son of Jupiter, of God Himself? Yet, in fact, we are notelated; but having two things in our composition, intimately united, abody in common with the brutes, and reason and sentiment in common withthe gods, many of us incline to this unhappy and mortal kindred, andonly some few to the divine and happy one. 

By means of this animal kindred some of us, deviating towards it, becomelike wolves, faithless and insidious and mischievous; others like lions, wild and savage and untamed; but most of us like foxes, wretches evenamong brutes. For what else is a slanderous and ill-natured man than afox, or something still more wretched and mean?

To Triptolemus all men have raised temples and altars, because he gaveus a milder kind of food; but to Him who has discovered and communicatedto all the truth, the means not of living but of living well, who everraised an altar or built a statue?

If what philosophers say of the kindred between God and man be true, what has anyone to do but, like Socrates, when he is asked whatcountryman he is, never to say that he is a citizen of Athens, or ofCorinth, but of the world? Why may not he who has learned that from Godthe seeds of being are descended, not only to my father or grandfather, but to all things that are produced and born on the earth--andespecially to rational natures, as they alone are qualified to partakeof a communication with the Deity, being connected with Him byreason--why may not such a one call himself a citizen of the world? Whynot a son of God? And why shall he fear anything that happens among men?Shall kindred to Caesar, or any other of the great at Rome, enable a manto live secure, above contempt, and void of fear; and shall not thehaving God for our Maker and Father and Guardian free us from griefs andterrors?

_II. --THE CITIZEN OF THE WORLD AND HIS HIGH CALLING_

You are a distinct portion of the essence of God, and contain a certainpart of Him in yourself. Why do not you consider whence you came? Youcarry a god about with you, wretch, and know nothing of it. Do yousuppose I mean some god without you, of gold or silver? It is withinyourself you carry Him, and profane Him, without being sensible of it, by impure thoughts and unclean actions. If even the image of God werepresent, you would not dare to act as you do; when God Himself is withinyou, and hears and sees all, are not you ashamed to think and act thus, insensible of your own nature and hateful to God?

You are a citizen of the world, and a part of it; not a subservient, buta principal part. You are capable of comprehending the divine economyand of considering the connection of things. What, then, does thecharacter of a citizen promise? To hold no private interest, todeliberate of nothing as a separate individual, but like the hand or thefoot, which, if they had reason, and comprehended the constitution ofnature, would never pursue, or desire, but with a reference to thewhole. 

"Ah, when shall I see Athens and the citadel again?" Wretch, are not youcontented with what you see every day? Can you see anything better thanthe sun, the moon, the stars, the whole earth, the sea? If, besides, youcomprehend Him who administers the whole, and carry Him about inyourself, do you still long after pebbles and a fine rock?

Boldly make a desperate push, man, for prosperity, for freedom, formagnanimity. Lift up your head at last as free from slavery. Dare tolook up to God, and say, "Make use of me for the future as Thou wilt. Iam of the same mind; I am equal with Thee. I refuse nothing which seemsgood to Thee. Lead me whither Thou wilt. Clothe me in whatever dressThou wilt. Is it Thy will that I should be in a public or a privatecondition, dwell here or be banished, be poor or rich? Under all thesecircumstances I will make Thy defence to men. I will show what thenature of everything is. " No, rather sit alone in a warm place, and waittill your nurse comes to feed you. If Hercules had sat loitering athome, what would he have been? You are not Hercules, to extirpate theevils of others. Extirpate your own, then. Expel grief, fear, desire, envy, malevolence, avarice, effeminacy, intemperance, from your mind. 

But these can be no otherwise expelled than by looking up to God aloneas your pattern; by attaching yourself to Him alone and beingconsecrated to His commands. If you wish for anything else, you will, with sighs and groans, follow what is stronger than you, always seekingprosperity without, and never finding it. For you seek it where it isnot, and neglect to seek it where it is. 

_III. --"HIS WILL IS MY WILL"_

Have I ever been restrained from what I willed? Or compelled against mywill? How is this possible? I have ranged my pursuits under thedirection of God. Is it His will that I should have a fever? It is mywill too. Is it His will that I should pursue anything? It is my willtoo. Is it His will that I should desire? It is my will too. Is it Hiswill that I should obtain anything? It is mine too. Is it not His will?It is not mine. Is it His will that I should be tortured? Then it is mywill to be tortured. Is it His will that I should die? Then it is mywill to die. 

He has given me whatever depends upon choice. The things in my power Hehas made incapable of hindrance or restraint. But how could He make abody of clay incapable of hindrance? Therefore He hath subjected mybody, possessions, furniture, house, children, wife, to the revolutionof the universe. He who gave takes away. For whence had I these thingswhen I came into the world?

"But I would enjoy the feast still longer. " So perhaps would thespectators at Olympia see more combatants. But the solemnity is over. Goaway. Depart like a grateful and modest person; make room for others. 

Do not you know that sickness and death must overtake us? At whatemployment? The husbandman at his plough; the sailor on his voyage. Atwhat employment would you be taken? Indeed, at what employment ought youto be taken? For if there is any better employment at which you can betaken, follow that. 

For my own part, I would be engaged in nothing but the care of my ownfaculty of choice, how to render it undisturbed, unrestrained, uncompelled, free. I would be found studying this, that I may be able tosay to God, "Have I transgressed Thy commands? Have I perverted thepowers, the senses, the preconceptions which Thou hast given me? Have Iever accused Thee or censured Thy dispensations? I have been sick, because it was Thy pleasure. I have been poor, with joy. I have not beenin power, because it was not Thy will, and power I have never desired. Have I not always approached Thee cheerfully, prepared to execute Thycommands? Is it Thy pleasure that I depart from this assembly? I depart. I give Thee thanks that Thou hast thought me worthy to have a share init with Thee; to behold Thy works, and to join with Thee incomprehending Thy administration. " Let death overtake me while I amthinking, writing, reading such things as these. Of things, some are inour power, others not. In our power are opinion, pursuit, desire, accession; in a word, whatever are our own actions. Not in our power arebody, property, reputation, command; in a word, whatever are not our ownactions. 

Now, the things in our power are free, unrestrained, unhindered, whilethose not in our power are weak, slavish, restrained, belonging toothers. Remember, then, that if you suppose these latter things free, and what belongs to others your own, you will be hindered; you willlament; you will be disturbed; you will find fault with both gods andmen. But if you regard that only as your own which is your own, and whatis others, as theirs, no one will ever compel you; no one will restrainyou; you will find fault with no one; you will accuse no one; you willdo nothing against your will; you will have no enemy and will suffer noharm. 

Aiming, therefore, at great things, remember that you must not allowyourself to be carried out of your course, however slightly. 

Study to be able to say to every hostile appearance, "You are but anappearance, and not the thing you appear to be. " Then examine it by yourrules, and first and chiefly by this: whether it concerns the things inyour own power or those which are not. And if it concerns anything notin your own power, be prepared to say it is nothing to you. 

With regard to whatever objects either delight the mind, or contributeto use, or are loved with fondness, remember to tell yourself of whatnature they are, beginning from the most trifling things. If you arefond of an earthen cup, remind yourself it is an earthen cup of whichyou are fond; thus, if it be broken, you will not be disturbed. If youkiss your child, or your wife, remember you kiss a being subject to theaccidents of humanity; thus you will not be disturbed if either die. 

Men are disturbed, not by things, but by their own notions regardingthem. 

Be not elated over excellences not your own. If a horse should be elatedand say, "I am handsome, " it would be supportable. But when you areelated and say, "I have a handsome horse, " know that you are elated onwhat is, in fact, only the good of the horse. 

Require not things to happen as you wish, but wish them to happen asthey do happen. Then all will go well. 

In every happening, inquire of your mind how to turn it to properaccount. 

Never say of anything "I have lost it, " but "I have restored it. " Isyour child dead? It is restored. Is your wife dead? She is restored. Isyour estate taken away from you? Well, and is not that likewiserestored? "But he who took it away is a bad man. " What is it to you bywhose hands He who gave it hath demanded it again? While He gives you topossess it, take care of it, but as of something not your own, like apassenger in an inn. 

_IV. --OF TRANQUILLITY AND THE MEANS THERETO_

If you would improve, lay aside such reasonings as prevent tranquillity. It is better to die with hunger, exempt from grief and fear, than tolive in affluence with perturbation. It is better your servant should bebad than you unhappy. Is a little oil spilt? A little wine stolen? Sayto yourself, "This is the purchase paid for peace, for tranquillity, andnothing is to be had for nothing. " When you call your servant, considerit possible he may not come at your call; or if he doth, that he may notdo what you would have him do. He is by no means of such importance thatit should be in his power to give you disturbance. 

Be content to be thought foolish and stupid with regard to externals andunessentials. Do not wish to be thought to know. And though you appearto others to be somebody, distrust yourself. For be assured it is noteasy at once to preserve your faculty of choice in a state conformableto nature, and to secure externals, since while you are careful of theone you will neglect the other. 

Behave in life as at an entertainment. Is anything brought round to you?Put out your hand and take your share, with moderation. Doth it pass byyou? Do not stop it. Is it not yet come? Do not stretch forth yourdesire towards it, but wait till it reaches you. Thus do with regard tochildren, to a wife, to public posts, to riches, and you will be, sometime or other, a worthy partner of the feasts of the gods. And if you donot so much as take the things set before you, but are able even todespise them, then you will not only be a partner of the gods' feasts, but of their empire. 

Remember that you are an actor in a drama, of such a kind as the Authorpleases to make it. If short, of a short one; if long, of a long one. Ifit be His pleasure you should act a poor man, a cripple, a governor, ora private person, see that you act it naturally. For this is yourbusiness, to act well the character assigned you; to choose it isanother's. 

To me all the portents are lucky, if I will. For, whatever happens, itis in my power to derive advantage from it. 

Remember that not he who gives ill language or a blow affronts, but theprinciple which represents these things as affronting. When, therefore, anyone provokes you, be assured that it is your own opinion whichprovokes you. Try in the first place not to be hurried away with theappearance. For if you once gain time and respite you will more easilycommand yourself. 

Be assured that the essential property of piety towards the gods is toform right opinions concerning them as existing and as governing theuniverse with goodness and justice. And fix yourself in the resolutionto obey them, and yield to them, and willingly follow them in allevents, as produced by the most perfect understanding. For thus you willnever find fault with the gods, nor accuse them of neglecting you. Andit is not possible for this to be effected any other way than bywithdrawing yourself from things not in your own power and placing goodor evil in those only which are. For if you suppose any of the thingsnot in your own power to be either good or evil, when you aredisappointed at what you wish, or incur what you would avoid, you mustnecessarily find fault with and blame the authors. 

Be for the most part silent, or speak merely what is necessary, and infew words. We may sparingly enter into discourse when occasion calls forit, but not on the vulgar topics of gladiators, horse-races, feasts, andso on; above all, not of men, so as either to blame, praise, or makecomparisons. 

If anyone tells you such a person speaks ill of you, make no excuses, but answer, "He does not know my other faults, or he would not havementioned only these. "

When you do anything from a clear judgment that it ought to be done, never shun the being seen to do it, even though the world should make awrong supposition about it. For if you do not act right, shun the actionitself; and if you do, why be afraid of mistaken censure?

When any person does ill by you, or speaks ill of you, remember that heacts or speaks from a supposition of its being his duty. Now, it is notpossible that he should follow what appears right to you, but whatappears so to himself. Therefore, if he misjudges, he is the personhurt, for he is the one deceived. Meekly bear, then, a person whoreviles you, for you will say upon every occasion, "It seemed so tohim. "

The condition and characteristic of a vulgar person is that he neverexpects either benefit or hurt from himself, but from externals. Thecondition and characteristic of a philosopher is that he expects allhurt and benefit from himself. The marks of a proficient are that hecensures no one, praises no one, blames no one, accuses no one, saysnothing concerning himself as being anybody or knowing anything; when heis hindered or restrained, he accuses himself; when praised, he secretlylaughs; if censured, he makes no defence. He suppresses all desire;transfers his aversion to things only which thwart the proper use of hisown will; is gentle in all exercise of his powers; and does not care ifhe appears stupid and ignorant, but watches himself as an enemy, likeone in ambush. 

Whatever rules of life you have deliberately proposed to yourself, abideby them as laws, and as if it were impious to transgress them; and donot regard what anyone says of you; for this, after all, is no concernof yours. Let whatever appears to you to be the best be to you aninviolable law. Socrates became perfect, improving himself in everythingby attending to reason only. And though you be not yet a Socrates, liveas one who would become a Socrates. 

Upon all occasions we ought to have ready at hand these three maxims:

 Conduct me, God, and thou, O Destiny, Wherever your decrees have fixed my station. I follow cheerfully. And did I not, Wicked and wretched, I must follow still. 

 Whoe'er yields properly to Fate is deemed Wise among men and knows the laws of heaven. 

"O Crito, if it thus pleases the gods, thus let it be. Anytus andMelitus may kill me indeed, but hurt my soul they cannot. "

 * * * * *

FOOTNOTES

Footnote 1: The deceased speaks constantly as if he were Osiris or someother god. This is supposed to give him the privileges and power of thegod whose name he bears. 

Footnote 2: The Egyptians thought that in the lower world the heart orconscience was weighed, _i. E. , _ judged. 

Footnote 3: This chapter and the like are found on stone, wood, porcelain, etc. , figures, and attached to the mummy. It was supposed toact magically in transferring the tasks of the underworld from theperson. 

Footnote 4: The storm-god, the arch-fiend of Ra, the sun-god

Footnote 5: The suppliant has made a wax figure of Apepi, and, bysympathetic magic, imagines that by burning it he is destroying thepower of the original. Such wax figures of the gods made for magicalpurposes were generally illegal. 

Footnote 6: There are many examples in the Book of the Dead of themagical potency attached to names. To invoke a god by his name was tocontrol him. 

Footnote 7: The ass stands for Ra, the sun-god, and the eater of the assis darkness or some eclipse, represented as one of the foes of Ra, inthe vignette figured as a serpent on the back of an ass. Compare theBabylonian myth of Marduk and Tiamat. 

Footnote 8: The married name of Confucius. 

Footnote 9: Compare the method of Socrates in the investigation oftruth. 

Footnote 10: In the above four "difficulties, " note the reappearance ofthe law of reciprocity, the negative form of the Golden Rule. 

Footnote 11: A technical name for China, which was supposed to beenclosed by the four great oceans of the world. China is also called"The Middle Kingdom. "

Footnote 12: That is, those who have been invested with the sacredthread, which is a sign of having been initiated into the paternalcaste. This ceremony takes place at the age of seven or nine years, butis only observed by the three higher castes. It is to be compared withthe Christian rites of baptism and confirmation. Hindu boys, wheninvested with the sacred thread or cord, are said to be born again. 

Footnote 13: This spelling of the word ("Quran") represents the nativeArabic pronunciation if it be remembered that "q" stands for a "k" soundproceeding from the lower part of the throat. The initial sound istherefore to be distinguished from that of the Arabic and Hebrew lettersproperly transliterated "k. "

Footnote 14: The pronunciation heard by the present writer among theMuslim Arabs of Egypt, Syria, etc. The word means literally "The PraisedOne" or "The One to be Praised. " The "h, " however, in the word is notthe ordinary one, but that pronounced at the lower part of the throat, as the Arabic equivalent of "q" is. Hence this "h" is transliterated as"h" with a dot underneath it. 

Footnote 15: All the suras, except the ninth, begin with this formula, as, indeed, do most Arabic books, often even books of an immoral nature. 

Footnote 16: Muhammad's uncle, who, with his wife, rejected theprophet'» claims. 

Footnote 17: A word-play, Lahab meaning "flame. "

Footnote 18: Said by Muslim commentators to be one of the last tennights of Ramadhan, the seventh of those nights reckoning backwards. 

Footnote 19: The earliest mention of the doctrine of abrogation ofprevious revelations. When Muhammad was convinced that what he hadpreviously taught was erroneous he always professed to have received anew revelation annulling the earlier one bearing on the matter. 

Footnote 20: There is perhaps here an indirect reference to the allegeddeification of the Virgin Mary by the Christians with whom Muhammad camein contact. 

Footnote 21: This is from one of the oldest suras. A most importantMuslim tradition says that Muhammad declares this sura to be equal to athird of the rest of the Koran. Some say it represents the prophet'screed when he entered upon his mission. 

Footnote 22: This is directed against both the Mekkan belief that angelswere daughters of God and also against the Christian doctrine that Jesuswas the Son of God. Reference is also made, perhaps, to the Jewishdescription of Ezra as God's son. 

Footnote 23: Muhammad here adopts the Jewish and Arab myth that Solomonhad a seal with the divine name (Yahwe) inscribed on it giving himcontrol over winds and jinns, or demons. 

Footnote 24: In Arabic, Mary and Miriam are spelt exactly alike("Miriam"). This evidently misled Muhammad. In sura 56 he describes theVirgin as a daughter of Amram, the father of Aaron, Moses, and Miriam. (See Numbers xxvi. 59, and Exodus xv. 20. )

Footnote 25: This is a well-known Arab fable, based on amisunderstanding of I Kings iv. 33, influenced by the second Targum onEsther. See an English translation of this last in a commentary onEsther by Paul Cassel (T. & T. Clark), p. 263. This Targum is certainlyolder than the Koran, and it embodies Jewish legends of a still greaterantiquity. 

Footnote 26: This legend about Mount Sinai is contained twice in theJewish Talmud (Abodah Zarah Mishnah II, 2, and Shabbath Gemarahlxxxviii. 1). It is no doubt this Jewish tradition that suggested theabove passage. 

Footnote 27: The point to which men turn in prayer, Zoroastrians praytowards the east--the direction of the rising sun; Jews towardsJerusalem, where the Temple was; and Muslims, from the utterance of thissura, towards Mekka. At first Muhammad adopted no Qiblah. On reachingMedinah, in order to conciliate the Jews he adopted Jerusalem as theQiblah. But a year after reaching Medinah, he broke with the Jews andcommanded his people to make the Kaabah their Qiblah. 

Footnote 28: The cube-like building in the centre of the mosque atMekka, which contains the sacred black stone. 

Footnote 29: Ahmad and Muhammad have both the same meaning, _i. E. _, "thePraiseworthy One. " Muslim commentators hold that the Paraclete(Comforter) promised in John xvi. 7 means Muhammad. In order to makethis clear, however, they say we ought to read "Periklutos, " _i. E. _, virtually Ahmad and Muhammad, instead of "Paracletos. "

Footnote 30: According to the Koran, Mary was worshipped as God by theChristians of Arabia. 

Footnote 31: According to sura 2, verse 174, the _Bismillah_ (lit. "Inthe name of Allah, " etc. ) must be uttered before animals to be eaten arekilled.