THE TEACHER. 

 * * * * *

MORAL INFLUENCES

EMPLOYED IN

THE INSTRUCTION AND GOVERNMENT

OF

THE YOUNG. 

A NEW AND REVISED EDITION. 

BY JACOB ABBOTT. 

With Engravings. 

1873. 

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eighthundred and fifty-six, by

HARPER & BROTHERS, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District ofNew York. 

PREFACE. 

This book is intended to detail, in a familiar and practical manner, asystem of arrangements for the organization and management of a school, based on the employment, so far as is practicable, of _MoralInfluences_, as a means of effecting the objects in view. Its design is, not to bring forward new theories or new plans, but to develop andexplain, and to carry out to their practical applications suchprinciples as, among all skillful and experienced teachers, aregenerally admitted and acted upon. Of course it is not designed for theskillful and experienced themselves, but it is intended to embody whatthey already know, and to present it in a practical form for the use ofthose who are beginning the work, and who wish to avail themselves ofthe experience which others have acquired. 

Although moral influences are the chief foundations on which the powerof the teacher over the minds and hearts of his pupils is, according tothis treatise, to rest, still it must not be imagined that the systemhere recommended is one of persuasion. It is a system ofauthority--supreme and unlimited authority--a point essential in allplans for the supervision of the young; but it is authority secured andmaintained as far as possible by moral measures. There will be nodispute about the propriety of making the most of this class of means. Whatever difference of opinion there may be on the question whetherphysical force is necessary at all, every one will agree that, if everemployed, it must be only as a last resort, and that no teacher ought tomake war upon the body, unless it is proved that he can not conquerthrough the medium of the mind. 

In regard to the anecdotes and narratives which are very freelyintroduced to illustrate principles in this work, the writer ought tostate that, though they are all substantially true--that is, all exceptthose which are expressly introduced as mere suppositions, he has nothesitated to alter very freely, for obvious reasons, the unimportantcircumstances connected with them. He has endeavored thus to destroy thepersonality of the narratives without injuring or altering their moraleffect. 

From the very nature of our employment, and of the circumstances underwhich the preparation for it must be made, it is plain that, of the manythousands who are in the United States annually entering the work, avery large majority must depend for all their knowledge of the art, except what they acquire from their own observation and experience, onwhat they can obtain from books. It is desirable that the class of worksfrom which such knowledge can be obtained should be increased. Someexcellent and highly useful specimens have already appeared, and verymany more would be eagerly read by teachers, if properly prepared. It isessential, however, that they should be written by experiencedteachers, who have for some years been actively engaged and speciallyinterested in the work; that they should be written in a very practicaland familiar style, and that they should exhibit principles which areunquestionably true, and generally admitted by good teachers, and notthe new theories peculiar to the writer himself. In a word, utility andpractical effect should be the only aim. 

CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. INTEREST IN TEACHING. Source of enjoyment in teaching. --The boy and the steam-engine. --Hiscontrivance. --His pleasure, and the source of it. --Firing at themark. --Plan of clearing the galleries in the British House ofCommons. --Pleasure of experimenting, and exercising intellectual andmoral power. --The indifferent and inactive teacher. --His subsequentexperiments; means of awakening interest. --Offenses of pupils. --Different ways of regarding them. 

Teaching really attended with peculiar trials and difficulties. --1. Moral responsibility for the conduct of pupils. --2. Multiplicity of theobjects of attention. 

CHAPTER II. GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS. Objects to be aimed at in the general arrangements. --Systematizing theteacher's work. --Necessity of having only one thing to attend to at atime. 

1. Whispering and leaving seats. --An experiment. --Method of regulatingthis. --Introduction of the new plan. --Difficulties. --Dialogue withpupils. --Study-card. --Construction and use. 2. Mending pens. --Unnecessary trouble from this source. --Degree ofimportance to be attached to good pens. --Plan for providing them. 3. Answering questions. --Evils. --Each pupil's fair proportion oftime. --Questions about lessons. --When the teacher should refuse toanswer them. --Rendering assistance. --When to be refused. 4. Hearing recitations. --Regular arrangement ofthem. --Punctuality. --Plan and schedule. --General exercises. --Subjects tobe attended to at them. 

General arrangements of government. --Power to be delegated topupils. --Gardiner Lyceum. --Its government. --The trial. --Real republicangovernment impracticable in schools. --Delegated power. --Experiment withthe writing-books. --Quarrel about the nail. --Offices forpupils. --Cautions. --Danger of insubordination. --New plans to beintroduced gradually. 

CHAPTER III. INSTRUCTION. The three important branches. --The objects which are really mostimportant. --Advanced scholars. --Examination of school and scholars atthe outset. --Acting on numbers. --Extent to which it may becarried. --Recitation and Instruction. 

1. Recitation. --Its object. --Importance of a thorough examination of theclass. --Various modes. --Perfect regularity and order necessary. --Example. --Story of the pencils. --Time wasted by too minute anattention to individuals. --Example. --Answers given simultaneously tosave time. --Excuses. --Dangers in simultaneous recitation. --Means ofavoiding them. --Advantages of this mode. --Examples. --Written answers. 2. Instruction. --Means of excitinginterest. --Variety. --Examples. --Showing the connection between thestudies of school and the business of life. --Example from thecontroversy between general and state governments. --Mode of illustratingit. --Proper way of meeting difficulties. --Leading pupils to surmountthem. --True way to encourage the young to meet difficulties. --The boyand the wheel-barrow. --Difficult examples in arithmetic. 

Proper way of rendering assistance. --(1. ) Simply analyzing intricatesubjects. --Dialogue on longitude. --(2. ) Making previous truths perfectlyfamiliar. --Experiment with the multiplication table. --Latin Grammarlesson. --Geometry. 

3. General cautions. --Doing work _for_ the scholar. --Dullness. --Interestin _all_ the pupils. --Making all alike. --Faults of pupils. --Theteacher's own mental habits. --False pretensions. 

CHAPTER IV. MORAL DISCIPLINE. First impressions. --Story. --Danger of devoting too much attention toindividual instances. --The profane boy. --Case described. --Confession ofthe boys. --Success. --The untidy desk. --Measures in consequence. --Interesting the scholars in the good order of the school. --Securing amajority. --Example. --Reports about the desks. --The new Collegebuilding. --Modes of interesting the boys. --The irregular class. --Twoways of remedying the evil. --Boys' love of system and regularity. --Object of securing a majority, and particular means of doingit. --Making school pleasant. --Discipline should generally beprivate. --In all cases that are brought before the school, publicopinion in the teacher's favor should be secured. --Story of therescue. --Feelings of displeasure against what is wrong. --The teacherunder moral obligation, and governed, himself, by law. --Description ofthe _Moral Exercise_. --Prejudice. --The scholars' written remarks, andthe teacher's comments. --The spider. --List of subjects. --Anonymouswriting. --Specimens. --Marks of a bad scholar. --Consequences of beingbehindhand. --New scholars. --A satirical spirit. --Variety. 

Treatment of individual offenders. --Ascertaining who they are. --Studyingtheir characters. --Securing their personal attachment. --Askingassistance. --The whistle. --Open, frank dealing. --Example. --Dialogue withJames. --Communications in writing. 

CHAPTER V. RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE. The American mechanic at Paris. --A Congregational teacher amongQuakers. --Parents have the ultimate right to decide how their childrenshall be educated. 

Agreement in religious opinion in this country. --Principle which is toguide the teacher on this subject. --Limits and restrictions to religiousinfluence in school. --Religious truths which are generally admitted inthis country. --The existence of God. --Human responsibility. --Immortalityof the soul. --A revelation. --Nature of piety. --Salvation byChrist. --Teacher to do nothing on this subject but what he may do by thecommon consent of his employers. --Reasons for explaining distinctlythese limits. 

Particular measures proposed. --Opening exercises. --Prayer. --Singing. --Direct instruction. --Mode of giving it. --Example; arrangement of theEpistles in the New Testament. --Dialogue. --Another example; scene in thewoods. --Cautions. --Affected simplicity of language. --Evils ofit. --Minute details. --Example; motives to study. --Dialogue. --Minglingreligious influence with the direct discipline of the school. --Fallaciousindications of piety. --Sincerity of the teacher. 

CHAPTER VI. MOUNT VERNON SCHOOL. Reason for inserting the description. --Advantage of visiting schools, and of reading descriptions of them. --Addressed to a new scholar. --Herpersonal duty. --Study-card. --Rule. --But one rule. --Cases when this rulemaybe waived. --1. At the direction of teachers. --2. On extraordinaryemergencies. --Reasons for the rule. --Anecdote. --Punishments. --Incidentsdescribed. --Confession. 

2. Order of daily exercises. --Opening of the school. --Schedules. --Hoursof study and recess. --General exercises. --Business. --Examples. --Sections. 

3. Instruction and supervision ofpupils. --Classes. --Organization. --Sections. --Duties of superintendents. 

4. Officers. --Design in appointing them. --Their names andduties. --Example of the operation of the system. 

5. The court. --Its plan and design. --A trial described. 

6. Religious instruction. --Principles inculcated. --Measures. --Religiousexercises in school. --Meeting on Saturday afternoon. --Concludingremarks. 

CHAPTER VII. SCHEMING. Time lost upon fruitless schemes. --Proper province of ingenuity andenterprise. --Cautions. --Case supposed. --The spelling class; anexperiment with it; its success and its consequences. --System ofliterary institutions in this country. --Directions to a young teacher onthe subject of forming new plans. --New institutions; newschoolbooks. --Ingenuity and enterprise very useful, within properlimits. --Ways of making known new plans. --Periodicals. --Familynewspapers. --Teachers' meetings. 

Rights of committees, trustees, or patrons, in the control of theschool. --Principle which ought to govern. --Case supposed. --Extent towhich the teacher is bound by the wishes of his employers. 

CHAPTER VIII. REPORTS OF CASES. Plan of the chapter. --Hats and bonnets. --Injury to clothes. --Mistakes whichare not censurable. --Tardiness; plan for punishing it. --Helen'slesson. --Firmness in measures united with mildness of manner. --Insincereconfession: scene in a class. --Court. --Trial of a case. --Teacher'spersonal character. --The way to elevate the character of theemployment. --Six hours only to be devoted to school. --The chestnutburr. --Scene in the wood. --Dialogue in school. --An experiment. --Seriesof lessons in writing. --The correspondence. --Two kinds ofmanagement. --Plan of weekly reports. --The shopping exercise. --Example. --Artifices in recitations. --Keeping resolution notes ofteacher's lecture. --Topics. --Plan and illustration of the exercise. --Introduction of music. --Tabu. --Mental analysis. --Scene in a class. 

CHAPTER IX. THE TEACHER'S FIRST DAY. Embarrassments of young teachers in first entering upon theirduties. --Preliminary information to be acquired in respect to theschool. --Visits to the parents. --Making acquaintance with thescholars. --Opening the school. --Mode of setting the scholars at work onthe first day. --No sudden changes to be made. --Misconduct. --Mode ofdisposing of the cases of it. --Conclusion. 

THE TEACHER. 

CHAPTER I. 

INTEREST IN TEACHING. 

A most singular contrariety of opinion prevails in the community inregard to the _pleasantness_ of the business of teaching. Some teachersgo to their daily task merely upon compulsion; they regard it asintolerable drudgery. Others love the work: they hover around theschool-room as long as they can, and never cease to think, and seldom totalk, of their delightful labors. 

Unfortunately, there are too many of the former class, and the firstobject which, in this work, I shall attempt to accomplish, is to show myreaders, especially those who have been accustomed to look upon thebusiness of teaching as a weary and heartless toil, how it happens thatit is, in any case, so pleasant. The human mind is always essentiallythe same. That which is tedious and joyless to one, will be so toanother, if pursued in the same way, and under the same circumstances. And teaching, if it is pleasant, animating, and exciting to one, may beso to all. 

I am met, however, at the outset, in my effort to show why it is thatteaching is ever a pleasant work, by the want of a name for a certainfaculty or capacity of the human mind, through which most of theenjoyment of teaching finds its avenue. Every mind is so constituted asto take a positive pleasure in the exercise of ingenuity in adaptingmeans to an end, and in watching the operation of them--in accomplishingby the intervention of instruments what we could not accomplishwithout--in devising (when we see an object to be effected which is toogreat for our _direct_ and _immediate_ power) and setting at work some_instrumentality_ which may be sufficient to accomplish it. 

[Illustration: Steam Engine]

It is said that when the steam-engine was first put into operation, such was the imperfection of the machinery, that a boy was necessarilystationed at it to open and shut alternately the cock by which the steamwas now admitted and now shut out from the cylinder. One such boy, afterpatiently doing his work for many days, contrived to connect thisstop-cock with some of the moving parts of the engine by a wire, in sucha manner that the engine itself did the work which had been intrusted tohim; and after seeing that the whole business would go regularlyforward, he left the wire in charge, and went away to play. 

Such is the story. Now if it is true, how much pleasure the boy musthave experienced in devising and witnessing the successful operation ofhis scheme. I do not mean the pleasure of relieving himself from a dulland wearisome duty; I do not mean the pleasure of anticipated play; butI mean the strong interest he must have taken in _contriving andexecuting his plan_. When, wearied out with his dull, monotonous work, he first noticed those movements of the machinery which he thoughtadapted to his purpose, and the plan flashed into his mind, how must hiseye have brightened, and how quick must the weary listlessness of hisemployment have vanished. While he was maturing his plan and carrying itinto execution--while adjusting his wires, fitting them to the exactlength and to the exact position--and especially when, at last, he beganto watch the first successful operation of his contrivance, he must haveenjoyed a pleasure which very few even of the joyous sports of childhoodcould have supplied. 

It is not, however, exactly the pleasure of exercising _ingenuity incontrivance_ that I refer to here; for the teacher has not, after all, agreat deal of absolute _contriving_ to do, or, rather, his _principalbusiness_ is not contriving. The greatest and most permanent source ofpleasure to the boy, in such a case as I have described, is his feelingthat he is accomplishing a great effect by a slight effort of his own;the feeling of _power_; acting through the _intervention ofinstrumentality_, so as to multiply his power. So great would be thissatisfaction, that he would almost wish to have some other similar workassigned him, that he might have another opportunity to contrive someplan for its easy accomplishment. 

Looking at an object to be accomplished, or an evil to be remedied, thenstudying its nature and extent, and devising and executing some meansfor effecting the purpose desired, is, in all cases, a source ofpleasure; especially when, by the process, we bring to view or intooperation new powers, or powers heretofore hidden, whether they are ourown powers, or those of objects upon which we act. Experimenting has asort of magical fascination for all. Some do not like the trouble ofmaking preparations, but all are eager to see the results. Contrive anew machine, and every body will be interested to witness or to hear ofits operation. Develop any heretofore unknown properties of matter, orsecure some new useful effect from laws which men have not hithertoemployed for their purposes, and the interest of all around you will beexcited to observe your results; and, especially, you will yourself takea deep and permanent pleasure in guiding and controlling the power youhave thus obtained. 

This is peculiarly the case with experiments upon mind, or experimentsfor producing effects through the medium of voluntary acts of others, making it necessary that the contriver should take into considerationthe laws of mind in forming his plans. To illustrate this by rather achildish case: I once knew a boy who was employed by his father toremove all the loose small stones, which, from the peculiar nature ofthe ground, had accumulated in the road before the house. The boy wasset at work by his father to take them up, and throw them over into thepasture across the way. He soon got tired of picking up the stones oneby one, and so he sat down upon the bank to try to devise some bettermeans of accomplishing his work. He at length conceived and adopted thefollowing plan: He set up in the pasture a narrow board for a target, or, as boys would call it, a mark, and then, collecting all the boys ofthe neighborhood, he proposed to them an amusement which boys are alwaysready for--firing at a mark. The stones in the road furnished theammunition, and, of course, in a very short time the road was cleared;the boys working for the accomplishment of their leader's task, whenthey supposed they were only finding amusement for themselves. 

Here, now, is experimenting upon the mind--the production of usefuleffect with rapidity and ease by the intervention of properinstrumentality--the conversion, by means of a little knowledge of humannature, of that which would have otherwise been dull and fatiguing laborinto a most animating sport, giving pleasure to twenty instead oftedious labor to one. Now the contrivance and execution of such plans isa source of positive pleasure. It is always pleasant to bring even theproperties and powers of matter into requisition to promote our designs;but there is a far higher pleasure in controlling, and guiding, andmoulding to our purpose the movements of mind. 

It is this which gives interest to the plans and operation of humangovernments. Governments can, in fact, do little by actual force. Nearlyall the power that is held, even by the most despotic executive, must bebased on an adroit management of the principles of human nature, so asto lead men voluntarily to co-operate with the leader in his plans. Evenan army could not be got into battle, in many cases, without a mostingenious arrangement, by means of which half a dozen men can drive, literally drive, as many thousands into the very face of danger anddeath. The difficulty of leading men to battle must have been, for along time, a very perplexing one to generals. It was at last removed bythe very simple expedient of creating a greater danger behind than thereis before. Without ingenuity of contrivance like this, turning oneprinciple of human nature against another, and making it for themomentary interest of men to act in a given way, no government couldstand. 

I know of nothing which illustrates more perfectly the way by which aknowledge of human nature is to be turned to account in managing humanminds than a plan which was adopted for clearing the galleries of theBritish House of Commons many years ago, before the present Houses ofParliament were built. There was then, as now, a gallery appropriated tospectators, and it was customary to require these visitors to retirewhen a vote was to be taken or private business was to be transacted. When the officer in attendance was ordered to clear the gallery, it wassometimes found to be a very troublesome and slow operation; for thosewho first went out remained obstinately as close to the doors aspossible, so as to secure the opportunity to come in again first whenthe doors should be re-opened. The consequence was, there was so greatan accumulation around the doors outside, that it was almost impossiblefor the crowd to get out. The whole difficulty arose from the eagerdesire of every one to remain as near as possible to the door, _throughwhich they were to come back again_. Notwithstanding the utmost effortsof the officers, fifteen minutes were sometimes consumed in effectingthe object, when the order was given that the spectators should retire. 

The whole difficulty was removed by a very simple plan. One door onlywas opened when the crowd was to retire, and they were then admitted, when the gallery was opened again, through _the other_. The consequencewas, that as soon as the order was given to clear the galleries, everyone fled as fast as possible through the open door around to the onewhich was closed, so as to be ready to enter first, when that, in itsturn, should be opened. This was usually in a few minutes, as thepurpose for which the spectators were ordered to retire was in mostcases simply to allow time for taking a vote. Here it will be seenthat, by the operation of a very simple plan, the very eagerness of thecrowd to get back as soon as possible, which had been the _sole cause ofthe difficulty_, was turned to account most effectually to the removalof it. Before, the first that went out were so eager to return, thatthey crowded around the door of egress in such a manner as to preventothers going out; but by this simple plan of ejecting them by one doorand admitting them by another, that very eagerness made them clear thepassage at once, and caused every one to hurry away into the lobby themoment the command was given. 

The planner of this scheme must have taken great pleasure in witnessingits successful operation; though the officer who should go steadily on, endeavoring to remove the reluctant throng by dint of mere driving, might well have found his task unpleasant. But the exercise of ingenuityin studying the nature of the difficulty with which a man has tocontend, and bringing in some antagonist principle of human nature toremove it, or, if not an antagonist principle, a similar principle, operating, by a peculiar arrangement of circumstances, in an antagonistmanner, is always pleasant. From this source a large share of theenjoyment which men find in the active pursuits of life has its origin. 

The teacher has the whole field which this subject opens fully beforehim. He has human nature to deal with most directly. His whole work isone of experimenting upon mind; and the mind which is before him to bethe subject of his operation is exactly in the state to be most easilyand pleasantly operated upon. The reason now why some teachers findtheir work delightful, and some find it wearisomeness and tedium itself, is that some do and some do not take this view of the nature of it. Oneinstructor is like the engine-boy, turning, without cessation or change, his everlasting stop-cock, in the same ceaseless, mechanical, andmonotonous routine. Another is like the little workman in his brightermoments, arranging his invention, and watching with delight thesuccessful and easy accomplishment of his wishes by means of it. One islike the officer, driving by vociferations, and threats, anddemonstrations of violence, the spectators from the galleries. The otherlike the shrewd contriver, who converts the very desire to return, whichwas the sole cause of the difficulty, to a most successful and efficientmeans of its removal. 

These principles show how teaching may, in some cases, be a delightfulemployment, while in others its tasteless dullness is interrupted bynothing but its perplexities and cares. The school-room is in reality alittle empire of mind. If the one who presides in it sees it in its truelight; studies the nature and tendency of the minds which he has tocontrol; adapts his plans and his measures to the laws of human nature, and endeavors to accomplish his purposes for them, not by mere labor andforce, but by ingenuity and enterprise, he will take pleasure inadministering his little government. He will watch, with care andinterest, the operation of the moral and intellectual causes which hesets in operation, and find, as he accomplishes his various objects withincreasing facility and power, that he will derive a greater and greaterpleasure from his work. 

Now when a teacher thus looks upon his school as a field in which he isto exercise skill, and ingenuity, and enterprise; when he studies thelaws of human nature, and the character of those minds upon which he hasto act; when he explores deliberately the nature of the field which hehas to cultivate, and of the objects which he wishes to accomplish, andapplies means judiciously and skillfully adapted to the object, he mustnecessarily take a strong interest in his work. But when, on the otherhand, he goes to his employment only to perform a certain regular roundof daily toil, undertaking nothing and anticipating nothing but thisdull and unchangeable routine, and when he looks upon his pupils merelyas passive objects of his labors, whom he is to treat with simpleindifference while they obey his commands, and to whom he is only toapply reproaches and punishment when they do wrong, such a teacher nevercan take pleasure in the school. Weariness and dullness must reign inboth master and scholars when things, as he imagines, are going right, and mutual anger and crimination when they go wrong. 

[Illustration: School Master]

Scholars never can be successfully instructed by the power of any dullmechanical routine, nor can they be properly governed by the blind, naked strength of the master; such means must fail of the accomplishmentof the purposes designed, and consequently the teacher who tries such acourse must have constantly upon his mind the discouraging, disheartening burden of unsuccessful and almost useless labor. He iscontinually uneasy, dissatisfied, and filled with anxious cares, andsources of vexation and perplexity continually arise. He attempts toremove evils by waging against them a useless and most vexatious warfareof threatening and punishment; and he is trying continually _to drive_, when he might know that neither the intellect nor the heart are capableof being driven. 

I will simply state one case, to illustrate what I mean by thedifference between blind force and active ingenuity and enterprise inthe management of school. I once knew the teacher of a school who madeit his custom to have writing attended to in the afternoon. The schoolwas in the country, and it was the old times when quills, instead ofsteel pens, were universally used. The boys were accustomed to taketheir places at the appointed hour, and each one would set up his pen inthe front of his desk for the teacher to come and mend them. The teacherwould accordingly pass around the school-room, mending the pens, fromdesk to desk, thus enabling the boys, in succession, to begin theirtask. Of course, each boy, before the teacher came to his desk, wasnecessarily idle, and, almost necessarily, in mischief. Day after daythe teacher went through this regular routine. He sauntered slowly andlistlessly through the aisles, and among the benches of the room, wherever he saw the signal of a pen. He paid, of course, very littleattention to the writing, now and then reproving, with an impatienttone, some extraordinary instance of carelessness, or leaving his workto suppress some rising disorder. Ordinarily, however, he seemed to belost in vacancy of thought, dreaming, perhaps, of other scenes, orinwardly repining at the eternal monotony and tedium of a teacher'slife. His boys took no interest in their work, and of course made noprogress. They were sometimes unnecessarily idle, and sometimesmischievous, but never usefully or pleasantly employed, for the wholehour was passed before the pens could all be brought down. Wasted time, blotted books, and fretted tempers were all the results which the systemproduced. 

The same teacher afterward acted on a very different principle. Helooked over the field, and said to himself, "What are the objects whichI wish to accomplish in this writing exercise, and how can I bestaccomplish them? I wish to obtain the greatest possible amount ofindustrious and careful practice in writing. The first thing evidentlyis to save the wasted time. " He accordingly made preparation for mendingthe pens at a previous hour, so that all should be ready, at theappointed time, to commence the work together. This could be done quiteas conveniently when the boys were engaged in studying, by requestingthem to put out their pens at an appointed and _previous_ time. He satat his table, and the pens of a whole bench were brought to him, and, after being carefully mended, were returned, to be in readiness for thewriting hour. Thus the first difficulty, the loss of time, was obviated. 

"I must make them _industrious_ while they write, " was his next thought. After thinking of a variety of methods, he determined to try thefollowing: he required all to begin together at the top of the page, andwrite the same line, in a hand of the same size. They were all requiredto begin together, he himself beginning at the same time, and writingabout as fast as he thought they ought to write in order to secure thehighest improvement. When he had finished his line, he ascertained howmany had preceded him and how many were behind. He requested the firstto write slower, and the others faster; and by this means, after a fewtrials, he secured uniform, regular, systematic, and industriousemployment throughout the school. Probably there were, at first, difficulties in the operation of the plan, which he had to devise waysand means to surmount; but what I mean to present particularly to thereader is, that he was _interested in his experiments_. While sitting inhis desk, giving his command to _begin_ line after line, and noticingthe unbroken silence, and attention, and interest which prevailed (foreach boy was interested to see how nearly with the master he couldfinish his work), while presiding over such a scene he must have beeninterested. He must have been pleased with the exercise of his almostmilitary command, and to witness how effectually order and industry, andexcited and pleased attention, had taken the place of listless idlenessand mutual dissatisfaction. 

After a few days, he appointed one of the older and more judiciousscholars to give the word for beginning and ending the lines, and he satsurveying the scene, or walking from desk to desk, noticing faults, andconsidering what plans he could form for securing more and more fullythe end he had in view. He found that the great object of interest andattention among the boys was to come out right, and that less pains weretaken with the formation of the letters than there ought to be to securethe most rapid improvement. 

But how shall he secure greater pains? By stern commands and threats? Bygoing from desk to desk, scolding one, rapping the knuckles of another, and holding up to ridicule a third, making examples of such individualsas may chance to attract his special attention? No; he has learned thathe is operating upon a little empire of mind, and that he is not toendeavor to drive them as a man drives a herd, by mere peremptorycommand or half angry blows. He must study the nature of the effect thathe is to produce, and of the materials upon which he is to work, andadopt, after mature deliberation, a plan to accomplish his purposefounded upon the principles which ought always to regulate the actionof mind upon mind, and adapted to produce the _intellectual effect_which he wishes to accomplish. 

In the case supposed, the teacher concluded to appeal to emulation. While I describe the measure he adopted, let it be remembered that I amnow only approving of the resort to ingenuity and invention, and theemployment of moral and intellectual means for the accomplishment of hispurposes, and not of the measures themselves. I am not sure the plan Iam going to describe is a wise one; but I am sure that the teacher, while trying it, must _have been interested in his intellectualexperiment. _ His business, while pursued in such a way, could not havebeen a mere dull and uninteresting routine. 

He purchased, for three cents apiece, two long lead pencils--an articleof great value in the opinion of the boys of country schools--and heoffered them, as prizes, to the boy who would write most carefully; notto the one who should write _best_, but to the one whose book shouldexhibit most appearance of _effort_ and _care_ for a week. Afterannouncing his plan, he watched with strong interest its operation. Hewalked round the room while the writing was in progress, to observe theeffect of his measure. He did not reprove those who were writingcarelessly; he simply noticed who and how many they were. He did notcommend those who were evidently making effort; he noticed who and howmany they were, that he might understand how far, and upon what sort ofminds, his experiment was successful, and where it failed. He was takinga lesson in human nature--human nature as it exhibits itself inboys--and was preparing to operate more and more powerfully by futureplans. 

The lesson which he learned by the experiment was this, that one or twoprizes will not influence the majority of a large school. A few of theboys seemed to think that the pencils were possibly within their reach, and _they_ made vigorous efforts to secure them; but the rest wrote onas before. Thinking it certain that they should be surpassed by theothers, they gave up the contest at once in despair. 

The obvious remedy was to _multiply_ his prizes, so as to bring one ofthem within the reach of all. He reflected, too, that the real prize, insuch a case, is not the value of the pencil, but the _honor of thevictory_; and as the honor of the victory might as well be coupled withan object of less, as well as with one of greater value, the next weekhe divided his two pencils into quarters, and offered to his pupilseight prizes instead of two. He offered one to every five scholars, asthey sat on their benches, and every boy then saw that a reward wouldcertainly come within five of him. His chance, accordingly, instead ofbeing one in twenty, became one in five. 

Now is it possible for a teacher, after having philosophized upon thenature of the minds upon which he is operating, and surveyed the field, and ingeniously formed a plan, which plan he hopes will, through his ownintrinsic power, produce certain effects--is it possible for him, whenhe comes, for the first day, to witness its operations, to come withoutfeeling a strong interest in the result? It is not possible. Afterhaving formed such a plan, and made such arrangements, he will lookforward almost with impatience to the next writing-hour. He wishes tosee whether he has estimated the mental capacities and tendencies of hislittle community aright; and when the time comes, and he surveys thescene, and observes the operation of his measure, and sees many more arereached by it than were influenced before, he feels a stronggratification, and it is a gratification which is founded upon thenoblest principles of our nature. He is tracing, on a most interestingfield, the operation of cause and effect. From being the mere drudge, who drives, without intelligence or thought, a score or two of boys totheir daily tasks, he rises to the rank of an intellectual philosopher, exploring the laws and successfully controlling the tendencies of mind. 

It will be observed, too, that all the time this teacher was performingthese experiments, and watching with intense interest the results, hispupils were going on undisturbed in their pursuits. The exercises inwriting were not interrupted or deranged. This is a point of fundamentalimportance; for, if what I should say on the subject of exercisingingenuity and contrivance in teaching should be the means, in any case, of leading a teacher to break in upon the regular duties of his school, and destroy the steady uniformity with which the great objects of suchan institution should be pursued, my remarks had better never have beenwritten. There may be variety in methods and plan, but, through all thisvariety, the school, and every individual pupil of it, must go steadilyforward in the acquisition of that knowledge which is of greatestimportance in the business of future life. In other words, thevariations and changes admitted by the teacher ought to be mainlyconfined to the modes of accomplishing those permanent objects to whichall the exercises and arrangements of the school ought steadily to aim. More on this subject, however, in another chapter. 

I will mention one other circumstance, which will help to explain thedifference in interest and pleasure with which teachers engage in theirwork. I mean the different views they take _of the offenses of theirpupils_. One class of teachers seem never to make it a part of theircalculation that their pupils will do wrong, and when, any misconductoccurs they are discontented and irritated, and look and act as if someunexpected occurrence had broken in upon their plans. Others understandand consider all this beforehand. They seem to think a little, beforethey go into their school, what sort of beings boys and girls are, andany ordinary case of youthful delinquency or dullness does not surprisethem. I do not mean that they treat such cases with indifference orneglect, but that they _expect_ them, and _are prepared for them_. Sucha teacher knows that boys and girls are the _materials_ he has to workupon, and he takes care to make himself acquainted with these materials, _just as they are_. The other class, however, do not seem to know at allwhat sort of beings they have to deal with, or, if they know, do not_consider_. They expect from them what is not to be obtained, and thenare disappointed and vexed at the failure. It is as if a carpentershould attempt to support an entablature by pillars of wood too smalland weak for the weight, and then go on, from week to week, sufferinganxiety and irritation as he sees them swelling and splitting under theburden, and finding fault _with the wood_ instead of taking it tohimself; or as if a plowman were to attempt to work a hard and stonypiece of ground with a poor team and a small plow, and then, whenovercome by the difficulties of the task, should vent his vexation andanger in laying the blame on the ground instead of on the inadequate andinsufficient instrumentality which he had provided for subduing it. 

[Illustration]

It is, of course, one essential part of a man's duty, in engaging in anyundertaking, whether it will lead him to act upon matter or upon mind, to become first well acquainted with the circumstances of the case, thematerials he is to act upon, and the means which he may reasonablyexpect to have at his command. If he underrates his difficulties, oroverrates the power of his means of overcoming them, it is hismistake--a mistake for which _he_ is fully responsible. Whatever may bethe nature of the effect which he aims at accomplishing, he ought fullyto understand it, and to appreciate justly the difficulties which lie inthe way. 

Teachers, however, very often overlook this. A man comes home from hisschool at night perplexed and irritated by the petty misconduct which hehas witnessed, and been trying to check. He does not, however, lookforward and endeavor to prevent the occasions of such misconduct, adapting his measures to the nature of the material upon which he has tooperate, but he stands, like the carpenter at his columns, makinghimself miserable in looking at it after it occurs, and wondering whatto do. 

"Sir, " we might say to him, "what is the matter?"

"Why, I have such boys I can do nothing with them. Were it not for_their misconduct_, I might have a very good school. "

"Were it not for their misconduct? Why, is there any peculiar depravityin them which you could not have foreseen?"

"No; I suppose they are pretty much like all other boys, " he replies, despairingly; "they are all hair-brained and unmanageable. The plans Ihave formed for my school would be excellent if my boys would onlybehave properly. "

"Excellent plans, " might we not reply, "and yet not adapted to thematerials upon which they are to operate! No. It is your business toknow what sort of beings boys are, and to make your calculationsaccordingly. "

Two teachers may therefore manage their schools in totally differentways, so that one of them may necessarily find the business a dull, mechanical routine, except as it is occasionally varied by perplexityand irritation, and the other a prosperous and happy employment. The onegoes on mechanically the same, and depends for his power on violence, oron threats and demonstrations of violence. The other brings all hisingenuity and enterprise into the field to accomplish a steady purposeby means ever varying, and depends for his power on his knowledge ofhuman nature, and on the adroit adaptation of plans to her fixed anduniform tendencies. 

I am very sorry, however, to be obliged to say that probably the latterclass of teachers are decidedly in the minority. To practice the art insuch a way as to make it an agreeable employment is difficult, and itrequires much knowledge of human nature, much attention and skill. And, after all, there are some circumstances necessarily attending the workwhich constitute a heavy drawback on the pleasures which it mightotherwise afford. The almost universal impression that the business ofteaching is attended with peculiar trials and difficulties proves this. 

There must be some cause for an impression so general. It is not rightto call it a prejudice, for, although a single individual may conceive aprejudice, whole communities very seldom do, unless in some case whichis presented at once to the whole, so that, looking at it through acommon medium, all judge wrong together. But the general opinion inregard to teaching is composed of a vast number of _separate_ and_independent_ judgments, and there must be some good ground for theuniversal result. 

It is best, therefore, if there are any real and peculiar sources oftrial and difficulty in this pursuit, that they should be distinctlyknown and acknowledged at the outset. Count the cost before going towar. It is even better policy to overrate than to underrate it. Let ussee, then, what the real difficulties of teaching are. 

It is not, however, as is generally supposed, _the confinement. _ Ateacher is confined, it is true, but not more than men of otherprofessions and employments; not more than a merchant, and probably notas much. A physician is confined in a different way, but more closelythan a teacher: he can never leave home: he knows generally novacation, and nothing but accidental rest. 

The lawyer is confined as much. It is true there are not throughout theyear exact hours which he must keep, but, considering the imperiousdemands of his business, his personal liberty is probably restrained asmuch by it as that of the teacher. So with all the other professions. Although the nature of the confinement may vary, it amounts to about thesame in all. On the other hand, the teacher enjoys, in reference to thissubject of confinement, an advantage which scarcely any other class ofmen does or can enjoy. I mean vacations. A man in any other business may_force_ himself away from it for a time, but the cares and anxieties ofhis business will follow him wherever he goes. It seems to be reservedfor the teacher to enjoy alone the periodical luxury of a _real andentire release from business and care_. On the whole, as to confinement, it seems to me that the teacher has little ground of complaint. 

There are, however, some real and serious difficulties which alwayshave, and, it is to be feared, always will, cluster around thisemployment; and which must, for a long time, at least, lead most men todesire some other employment for the business of life. There may perhapsbe some who, by their peculiar skill, can overcome or avoid them, andperhaps the science of teaching may, at some future day, be so farimproved that all may avoid them. As I describe them, however, now, mostof the teachers into whose hands this treatise may fall will probablyfind that their own experience corresponds, in this respect, with mine. 

1. The first great difficulty which the teacher feels is a sort of_moral responsibility for the conduct of others_. If his pupils dowrong, he feels almost personal responsibility for it. As he walks outsome afternoon, wearied with his labors, and endeavoring to forget, fora little time, all his cares, he comes upon a group of boys in rude andnoisy quarrels, or engaged in mischief of some sort, and his heartsinks within him. It is hard enough for any one to witness their badconduct with a spirit unruffled and undisturbed, but for their teacherit is perhaps impossible. He feels _responsible_; in fact, he isresponsible. If his scholars are disorderly, or negligent, or idle, orquarrelsome, he feels _condemned himself_ almost as if he were himselfthe actual transgressor. 

This difficulty is, in a great degree, peculiar to a teacher. Aphysician is called upon to prescribe for a patient; he examines thecase, and writes his prescription. When this is done his duty is ended;and whether the patient obeys the prescription and lives, or neglects itand dies, the physician feels exonerated from all responsibility. Hemay, and in some cases does, feel _anxious concern_, and may regret theinfatuation by which, in some unhappy case, a valuable life may behazarded or destroyed. But he feels no _moral responsibility_ foranother's guilt. 

It is so with all the other employments in life. They do, indeed, oftenbring men into collision with other men. But, though sometimes vexed andirritated by the conduct of a neighbor, a client, or a patient, theyfeel not half the bitterness of the solicitude and anxiety which come tothe teacher through the criminality of his pupil. In ordinary cases henot only feels responsible for efforts, but for their results; and when, notwithstanding all his efforts, his pupils will do wrong, his spiritsinks with an intensity of anxious despondency which none but a teachercan understand. 

This feeling of something very like _moral accountability for the guiltof other persons_ is a continual burden. The teacher in the presence ofthe pupil never is free from it. It links him to them by a bond whichperhaps he ought not to sunder, and which he can not sunder if he would. And sometimes, when those committed to his charge are idle, orfaithless, or unprincipled, it wears away his spirits and his healthtogether. I think there is nothing analogous to this moral connectionbetween teacher and pupil unless it be in the case of a parent andchild. And here, on account of the comparative smallness of the numberunder the parent's care, the evil is so much diminished that it iseasily borne. 

2. The second great difficulty of the teacher's employments is _theimmense multiplicity of the objects of his attention and care_ duringthe time he is employed in his business. His scholars are individuals, and notwithstanding all that the most systematic can do in the way ofclassification, they must be attended to in a great measure asindividuals. A merchant keeps his commodities together, and looks upon acargo composed of ten thousand articles, and worth a hundred thousanddollars, as one; he speaks of it as one; and there is, in many cases, nomore perplexity in planning its destination than if it were a single boxof raisins. A lawyer may have a great many important cases, but he hasonly one at a time; that is, he _attends_ to but one at a time. The onemay be intricate, involving many facts, and requiring to be examined inmany aspects and relations. But he looks at but few of these facts andregards but few of these relations at a time. The points which demandhis attention come one after another in regular succession. His mind maythus be kept calm. He avoids confusion and perplexity. But no skill orclassification will turn the poor teacher's hundred scholars into one, or enable him, except to a very limited extent, and for a very limitedpurpose, to regard them as one. He has a distinct and, in many respects, a different work to do for every one of the crowd before him. Difficulties must be explained in detail, questions must be answered oneby one, and each scholar's own conduct must be considered by itself. Hiswork is thus made up of a thousand minute particulars, which are allcrowding upon his attention at once, and which he can not grouptogether, or combine, or simplify. He must, by some means or other, attend to them in all their distracting individuality. And, in a largeand complicated school, the endless multiplicity and variety of objectsof attention and care impose a task under which few intellects can longstand. 

I have said that this endless multiplicity and variety can not bereduced and simplified by classification. I mean, of course, that thiscan be done only to a very limited extent compared with what may beeffected in the other pursuits of mankind. Were it not for the art ofclassification and system, no school could have more than ten scholars, as I intend hereafter to show. The great reliance of the teacher is uponthis art, to reduce to some tolerable order what would otherwise be theinextricable confusion of his business. He _must be systematic_. He mustclassify and arrange; but, after he has done all that he can, he muststill expect that his daily business will continue to consist of a vastmultitude of minute particulars, from one to another of which the mindmust turn with a rapidity which few of the other employments of lifeever demand. 

These are the essential sources of difficulty with which the teacher hasto contend; but, as I shall endeavor to show in succeeding chapters, though they can not be entirely removed, they can be so far mitigated bythe appropriate means as to render the employment a happy one. I havethought it best, however, as this work will doubtless be read by manywho, when they read it, are yet to begin their labors, to describefrankly and fully to them the difficulties which beset the path they areabout to enter. "The wisdom of the prudent is to understand his way. " Itis often wisdom to understand it beforehand. 

CHAPTER II. 

GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS. 

The distraction and perplexity of the teacher's life are, as wasexplained in the last chapter, almost proverbial. There are otherpressing and exhausting pursuits, which wear away the spirit by theceaseless care which they impose, or perplex and bewilder the intellectby the multiplicity and intricacy of their details; but the business ofteaching, by a pre-eminence not very enviable, stands, almost by commonconsent, at the head of the catalogue. 

I have already alluded to this subject in the preceding chapter, andprobably the majority of actual teachers will admit the truth of theview there presented. Some will, however, doubtless say that they do notfind the business of teaching so perplexing and exhausting anemployment. They take things calmly. They do one thing at a time, andthat without useless solicitude and anxiety. So that teaching, withthem, though it has, indeed, its solicitudes and cares, as every otherresponsible employment must necessarily have, is, after all, a calm andquiet pursuit, which they follow from month to month, and from year toyear, without any extraordinary agitations, or any unusual burdens ofanxiety and care. 

There are, indeed, such cases, but they are exceptions, andunquestionably a considerable majority, especially of those who arebeginners in the work, find it such as I have described. I think it neednot be so, or, rather, I think the evil may be avoided to _a very greatdegree_. In this chapter I shall endeavor to show how order may beproduced out of that almost inextricable mass of confusion into which somany teachers, on commencing their labors, find themselves plunged. 

The objects, then, to be aimed at in the general arrangements of schoolsare twofold:

 1. That the teacher may be left uninterrupted, to attend to one thing at a time. 

 2. That the individual scholars may have constant employment, and such an amount and such kinds of study as shall be suited to the circumstances and capacities of each. 

I shall examine each in their order. 

 1. The following are the principal things which, in a vast number of schools, are all the time pressing upon the teacher; or, rather, they are the things which must every where press upon the teacher, except so far as, by the skill of his arrangements, he contrives to remove them. 

 1. Giving leave to whisper or to leave seats. 2. Distributing and changing pens. 3. Answering questions in regard to studies. 4. Hearing recitations. 5. Watching the behavior of the scholars. 6. Administering reproof and punishment for offenses as they occur. 

A pretty large number of objects of attention and care, one would say, to be pressing upon the mind of the teacher at one and the sametime--and _all the time_ too! Hundreds and hundreds of teachers in everypart of our country, there is no doubt, have all these crowding uponthem from morning to night, with no cessation, except perhaps someaccidental and momentary respite. During the winter months, while theprincipal common schools in our country are in operation, it is sad toreflect how many teachers come home every evening with bewildered andaching heads, having been vainly trying all the day to do six things ata time, while He who made the human mind has determined that it shall dobut one. How many become discouraged and disheartened by what theyconsider the unavoidable trials of a teacher's life, and give up indespair, just because their faculties will not sustain a six-fold task. There are multitudes who, in early life, attempted teaching, and, afterhaving been worried, almost to distraction, by the simultaneous pressureof these multifarious cares, gave up the employment in disgust, and nowunceasingly wonder how any body can like teaching. I know multitudes ofpersons to whom the above description will exactly apply. 

I once heard a teacher who had been very successful, even in largeschools, say that he could hear two classes recite, mend pens, and watchhis school all at the same time, and that without any distraction ofmind or any unusual fatigue. Of course the recitations in such a casemust be from memory. There are very few minds, however, which can thusperform triple or quadruple work, and probably none which can safely betasked so severely. For my part, I can do but one thing at a time; and Ihave no question that the true policy for all is to learn not _to doevery thing at once_, but so to classify and arrange their work that_they shall have but one thing at once to do_. Instead of vainlyattempting to attend simultaneously to a dozen things, they should soplan their work that only _one_ will demand attention. 

Let us, then, examine the various particulars above mentioned insuccession, and see how each can be disposed of, so as not to be aconstant source of interruption and derangement. 

1. _Whispering_ and _leaving seats_. In regard to this subject thereare very different methods now in practice in different schools. Insome, especially in very small schools, the teacher allows the pupils toact according to their own discretion. They whisper and leave theirseats whenever they think it necessary. This plan may possibly beadmissible in a very small school, that is, in one of ten or twelvepupils. I am convinced, however, that it is a very bad plan even here. No vigilant watch which it is possible for any teacher to exert willprevent a vast amount of mere talk entirely foreign to the business ofthe school. I tried this plan very thoroughly, with high ideas of thedependence which might be placed upon conscience and a sense of duty, ifthese principles are properly brought out to action in an effort tosustain the system. I was told by distinguished teachers that it wouldnot be found to answer. But predictions of failure in such cases onlyprompt to greater exertions, and I persevered. But I was forced at lastto give up the point, and adopt another plan. My pupils would makeresolutions enough; they understood their duty well enough. They wereallowed to leave their seats and whisper to their companions whenever, _in their honest judgment, it was necessary for the prosecution of theirstudies_. I knew that it sometimes would be necessary, and I wasdesirous to adopt this plan to save myself the constant interruption ofhearing and replying to requests. But it would not do. Whenever, fromtime to time, I called them to account, I found that a large majority, according to their own confession, were in the habit of holding dailyand deliberate communication with each other on subjects entirelyforeign to the business of the school. A more experienced teacher wouldhave predicted this result; but I had very high ideas of the power ofcultivated conscience, and, in fact, still have. But then, like mostother persons who become possessed of a good idea, I could not besatisfied without carrying it to an extreme. 

Still it is necessary, in ordinary schools, to give pupils sometimesthe opportunity to whisper and leave seats. [1] Cases occur where this isunavoidable. It can not, therefore, be forbidden altogether. How, then, you will ask, can the teacher regulate this practice, so as to preventthe evils which will otherwise flow from it, without being continuallyinterrupted by the request for permission?

[Footnote 1: There are some large and peculiarly-organized schools incities and large towns to which this remark may perhaps not apply. ]

By a very simple method. _Appropriate particular times at which all thisbusiness is to be done_, and _forbid it altogether_ at every other time. It is well, on other accounts, to give the pupils of a school a littlerespite, at least every hour; and if this is done, an intermission ofstudy for two minutes each time will be sufficient. During this time_general_ permission should be given for the pupils to speak to eachother, or to leave their seats, provided they do nothing at such a timeto disturb the studies of others. This plan I have myself verythoroughly tested, and no arrangement which I ever made operated for solong a time so uninterruptedly and so entirely to my satisfaction asthis. It of course will require some little time, and no littlefirmness, to establish the new order of things where a school has beenaccustomed to another course; but where this is once done, I know no oneplan so simple and so easily put into execution which will do so muchtoward relieving the teacher of the distraction and perplexity of hispursuits. 

In making the change, however, it is of fundamental importance that thepupils should themselves be interested in it. Their co-operation, or, rather, the co-operation of the majority, which it is very easy toobtain, is absolutely essential to success. I say this is very easilyobtained. Let us suppose that some teacher, who has been accustomed torequire his pupils to ask and obtain permission every time they wish tospeak to a companion, is induced by these remarks to introduce thisplan. He says, accordingly, to his school, "You know that you are now accustomed to ask me whenever you wish toobtain permission to whisper to a companion or to leave your seats; nowI have been thinking of a plan which will be better for both you and me. By our present plan you are sometimes obliged to wait before I canattend to your request. Sometimes I think it is unnecessary, and denyyou, when perhaps I was mistaken, and it was really necessary. At othertimes, I think it very probable that when it is quite desirable for youto leave your seat you do not ask, because you think you may not obtainpermission, and you do not wish to ask and be refused. Do you, or not, experience these inconveniences from our present plans?"

The pupils would undoubtedly answer in the affirmative. 

"I myself experience great inconvenience too. I am very frequentlyinterrupted when busily engaged, and it also occupies a great portion ofmy time and attention to consider and answer your requests forpermission to speak to one another and to leave your seats. It requiresas much mental effort to consider and decide whether I ought to allow apupil to leave his seat, as it would to determine a much more importantquestion; therefore I do not like our present plan, and I have anotherto propose. "

The pupils are now all attention to know what the new plan is. It willalways be of great advantage to the school for the teacher to proposehis new plans from time to time to his pupils in such a way as this. Itinterests them in the improvement of the school, exercises theirjudgment, establishes a common feeling between teacher and pupil, and inmany other ways assists very much in promoting the welfare of theschool. 

"My plan, " continues the teacher, "is this: to allow you all, besidesthe recess, a short time, two or three minutes perhaps, every hour" (orevery half hour, according to the character of the school, the age ofthe pupils, or other circumstances, to be judged of by the teacher), "during which you may all whisper or leave your seats _without_ askingpermission. "

Instead of deciding the question of the _frequency_ of this generalpermission, the teacher may, if he pleases, leave it to the pupils todecide. It is often useful to leave the decision of such a question tothem. On this subject, however, I shall speak in another place. It isonly necessary here to say that _this_ point may be safely left to them, since the time is so small which is to be thus appropriated. Even ifthey vote to have the general permission to whisper every half hour, itwill make but eight minutes in the forenoon. There being six half hoursin the forenoon, and one of them ending at the close of school, andanother at the recess, only _four_ of these _rests_, as a military manwould call them, would be necessary; and four, of two minutes each, would make eight minutes. If the teacher thinks that evil would resultfrom the interruption of the studies so often, he may offer the pupils_three_ minutes rest every _hour_ instead of _two_ minutes every _halfhour_, and let them take their choice; or he may decide the casealtogether himself. 

Such a change, from _particular permission on individual requests_ to_general permission_ at _stated times_, would unquestionably be popularin every school, if the teacher managed the business properly. And bypresenting it as an object of common interest, an arrangement proposedfor the common convenience of teacher and pupils, the latter may be muchinterested in carrying the plan into effect. We must not rely, however, entirely upon their _interest in it_. All that we can expect from suchan effort to interest them, as I have described and recommended, is toget a majority on our side, so that we may have only a small minority todeal with by other measures. Still, _we must calculate on having thisminority, and form our plans accordingly_, or we shall be greatlydisappointed. I shall, however, in another place, speak of thisprinciple of interesting the pupils in our plans for the purpose ofsecuring a majority in our favor, and explain the methods by which theminority is then to be governed. I only mean here to say that, by suchmeans, the teacher may easily interest a large proportion of thescholars in carrying his plans into effect, and that he must expect tobe prepared with other measures for those who will not be governed bythese. 

You can not reasonably expect, however, that, immediately after havingexplained your plan, it will at once go into full and completeoperation. Even those who are firmly determined to keep the rule will, from inadvertence, for a day or two, make communication with each other. They must be _trained_, not by threatening and punishment, but by yourgood-humored assistance, to their new duties. When I first adopted thisplan in my school, something like the following proceedings took place. 

"Do you suppose that you will perfectly keep this rule from this time?"

"No, sir, " was the answer. 

"I suppose you will not. Some, I am afraid, may not really be determinedto keep it, and others will forget. Now I wish that every one of youwould keep an exact account to-day of all the instances in which youspeak to another person, or leave your seat, out of the regular times, and be prepared to report them at the close of the school. Of course, there will be no punishment; but it will very much assist you to watchyourselves, if you expect to make a report at the end of the forenoon. Do you like this plan?"

"Yes, sir, " was the answer; and all seemed to enter into it with spirit. 

In order to mark more definitely the times for communication, I wrote, in large letters, on a piece of pasteboard, "STUDY HOURS, " and making ahole over the centre of it, I hung it upon a nail over my desk. At theclose of each half hour a little bell was to be struck, and this cardwas to be taken down. When it was up, they were, on no occasion whatever(except some such extraordinary occurrence as sickness, or my sendingone of them on a message to another, or something clearly out of thecommon course) to speak to each other; but were to wait, whatever theywanted, until the _Study Card_, as they called it, was taken down. 

"Suppose now, " said I, "that a young lady has come into school, and hasaccidentally left her book in the entry--the book from which she is tostudy during the first half hour of the school. She sits near the door, and she might, in a moment, slip out and obtain it. If she does not, shemust spend the half hour in idleness, and be unprepared in her lesson. What is it her duty to do?"

"To go, " "Not to go, " answered the scholars, simultaneously. 

"It would be her duty _not_ to go; but I suppose it will be verydifficult for me to convince you of it. 

"The reason is this, " I continued; "if the one case I have supposed werethe _only_ one which would be likely to occur, it would undoubtedly bebetter for her to go; but if it is understood that in such cases therule may be dispensed with, that understanding will tend very much tocause such cases to occur. Scholars will differ in regard to the degreeof inconvenience which they must submit to rather than break the rule. They will gradually do it on slighter and slighter occasions, until atlast the rule will be disregarded entirely. We must therefore draw a_precise line_, and individuals must submit to a little inconveniencesometimes to promote the general good. "

At the close of the day I requested all in the school to rise. Whilethey were standing, I called them to account in the following manner:

"Now it is very probable that some have, from inadvertence or fromdesign, omitted to keep an account of the number of transgressions ofthe rule which they have committed during the day; others, perhaps, donot wish to make a report of themselves. Now as this is a common andvoluntary effort, I wish to have none render assistance who do not, oftheir own accord, desire to do so. All those, therefore, who are notable to make a report, from not having been correct in keeping it, andall those who are unwilling to report themselves, may sit. "

A very small number hesitatingly took their seats. 

"I am afraid that all do not sit who really wish not to reportthemselves. Now I am honest in saying I wish you to do just as youplease. If a great majority of the school really wish to assist me inaccomplishing the object, why, of course, I am glad; still, I shall notcall upon any for such assistance unless it is freely and voluntarilyrendered. "

One or two more took their seats while these things were saying. Amongsuch there would generally be some who would refuse to have any thing todo with the measure simply from a desire to thwart and impede the plansof the teacher. If so, it is best to take no notice of them. If theteacher can contrive to obtain a great majority upon his side, so as tolet them see that any opposition which they can raise is of noconsequence and is not even noticed, they will soon be ashamed of it. 

The reports, then, of those who remained standing were called for;first, those who had whispered only once were requested to sit, thenthose who had whispered more than once and less than five times, and soon, until at last all were down. In such a case the pupils might, ifthought expedient, again be requested to rise for the purpose of askingsome other questions with reference to ascertaining whether they hadspoken most in the former or latter part of the forenoon. The number whohad spoken inadvertently, and the number who had done it by design, might be ascertained. These inquiries accustom the pupils to renderhonest and faithful accounts themselves. They become, by such means, familiarized to the practice, and by means of it the teacher can manytimes receive most important assistance. 

In all this, however, the teacher should speak in a pleasant tone, andmaintain a pleasant and cheerful air. The acknowledgments should beconsidered by the pupils not as confessions of guilt for which they areto be rebuked or punished, but as voluntary and free reports of theresult of _an experiment_ in which all were interested. 

Some will have been dishonest in their reports: to diminish the numberof these, the teacher may say, after the report is concluded, "We will drop the subject here to-day. To-morrow we will make anothereffort, when we shall be more successful. I have taken your reports asyou have offered them without any inquiry, because I had no doubt that agreat majority of this school would be honest at all hazards. They wouldnot, I am confident, make a false report even if, by a true one, theywere to bring upon themselves punishment; so that I think I may haveconfidence that nearly all these reports have been faithful. Still it isvery probable that among so large a number some may have made a reportwhich, they are now aware, was not perfectly fair and honest. I do notwish to know who they are; if there are any such cases, I only wish tosay to the rest how much pleasanter it is for you that you have beenhonest and open. The business is now all ended; you have done your duty;and, though you reported a little larger number than you would if youhad been disposed to conceal your faults, yet you go away from schoolwith a quiet conscience. On the other hand, how miserable must any boyfeel, if he has any nobleness of mind whatever, to go away from schoolto-day thinking that he has not been honest; that he has been trying toconceal his faults, and thus to obtain a credit which he did not justlydeserve. Always be honest, let the consequence be what it may. "

The reader will understand that the object of such measures is simply_to secure as large a majority as possible_ to make _voluntary_ effortsto observe the rule. I do not expect that by such measures _universal_obedience can be exacted. The teacher must follow up the plan after afew days by other measures for those pupils who will not yield to suchinducements as these. Upon this subject, however, I shall speak moreparticularly at a future time. 

In my own school it required two or three weeks to exclude whisperingand communication by signs. The period necessary to effect therevolution will be longer or shorter, according to the circumstances ofthe school and the dexterity of the teacher; and, after all, the teachermust not hope _entirely_ to exclude it. Approximation to excellence isall that we can expect; for unprincipled and deceiving characters willperhaps always be found, and no system whatever can prevent theirexistence. Proper treatment may indeed be the means of theirreformation, but before this process has arrived at a successful result, others similar in character will have entered the school, so that theteacher can never expect perfection in the operation of any of hisplans. 

I found so much relief from the change which this plan introduced, thatI soon took measures for rendering it permanent; and though I am notmuch in favor of efforts to bring all teachers and all schools to thesame plans, this principle of _whispering at limited and prescribedtimes alone_ seems to me well suited to universal adoption. 

The following simple apparatus has been used in several schools wherethis principle has been adopted. A drawing and description of it isinserted here, as by this means some teachers, who may like to try thecourse here recommended, may be saved the time and trouble of contrivingsomething of the kind themselves. 

The figure _a a a a_ on the next page is a board about 18 inches by 12, to which the other parts of the apparatus are to be attached, and whichis to be secured to the wall at the height of about 8 feet, and _b c dc_ is a plate of tin or brass, 8 inches by 12, of the form representedin the drawing. At _c c_, the lower extremities of the parts at thesides, the metal is bent round, so as to clasp a wire which runs from_c_ to _c_, the ends of which wire are bent at right angles, and runinto the board. The plate will consequently turn on this axis as on ahinge. At the top of the plate, _d_, a small projection of the tin turnsinward, and to this one end of the cord, _m m_, is attached. This cordpasses back from _d_ to a small pulley at the upper part of the board, and at the lower end of it a tassel, loaded so as to be an exactcounterpoise to the card, is attached. By raising the tassel, the platewill of course fall over forward till it is stopped by the part _b_striking the board, when it will be in a horizontal position. On theother hand, by pulling down the tassel, the plate will be raised anddrawn upward against the board, so as to present its convex surface, with the words STUDY HOURS upon it, distinctly to the school. In thedrawing it is represented in an inclined position, being not quite drawnup, that the parts might more easily be seen. At _d_ there is a smallprojection of the tin upward, which touches the clapper of the bellsuspended above every time the plate passes up or down, and thus givesnotice of its motions. 

[Illustration]

Of course the construction may be varied very much, and it may be moreor less expensive, according to the wishes of the teacher. In the firstapparatus of this kind which I used, the plate was simply a card ofpasteboard, from which the machine took its name. This was cut out witha penknife, and, after being covered with marble-paper, a strip of whitepaper was pasted along the middle with the inscription upon it. The wire_c c_, and a similar one at the top of the plate, were passed through aperforation in the pasteboard, and then passed into the board. Insteadof a pulley, the cord, which was a piece of twine, was passed through alittle staple made of wire and driven into the board. The whole was madein one or two recesses in school, with such tools and materials as Icould then command. The bell was a common table bell, with a wirepassing through the handle. The whole was attached to such a piece ofpine board as I could get on the occasion. This coarse contrivance was, for more than a year, the grand regulator of all the movements of theschool. 

I afterward caused one to be made in a better manner. The plate was oftin, gilded, the border and the letters of the inscription being black. A parlor bell-rope was carried over a brass pulley, and then passeddownward in a groove made in the mahogany board to which the card wasattached. 

A little reflection will, however, show the teacher that the form andconstruction of the apparatus for marking the times of study and of restmay be greatly varied. The chief point is simply to secure the_principle_ of whispering at definite and limited times, and at thosealone. If such an arrangement is adopted, and carried faithfully intoeffect, it will be found to relieve the teacher of more than half of theconfusion and perplexity which would otherwise be his hourly lot. I havedetailed thus particularly the method to be pursued in carrying thisprinciple into effect, because I am convinced of its importance, and theincalculable assistance which such an arrangement will afford to theteacher in all his plans. Of course, I would not be understood to recommendits adoption in those cases where teachers, from their own experience, have devised and adopted _other_ plans which accomplish as effectuallythe same purpose. All that I mean is to insist upon the absolutenecessity of _some_ plan, to remove this very common source ofinterruption and confusion, and I recommend this mode where a better isnot known. 

2. The second of the sources of interruption, as I have enumerated them, is the distribution of pens and of stationery. This business ought, ifpossible, to have a specific time assigned to it. Scholars are, ingeneral, far too particular in regard to their pens. The teacher oughtto explain to them that, in the transaction of the ordinary business oflife, they can not always have exactly such a pen as they would like. They must learn to write with various kinds of pens, and when furnishedwith one that the teacher himself would consider suitable to write aletter to a friend with, he must be content. They should understand thatthe _form_ of the letters is what is important in learning to write, notthe smoothness and clearness of the hair lines; and that though writinglooks better when executed with a perfect pen, a person may _learn_ towrite nearly as well with one which is not absolutely perfect. Socertain is this, though often overlooked, that a person would perhapslearn faster with chalk, upon a black board, than with the bestgoose-quill ever sharpened. 

I do not make these remarks to show that it is of no consequence whetherscholars have good or bad pens, but only that this subject deserves verymuch less of the time and attention of the teacher than it usuallyreceives. When the scholars are allowed, as they very often are, to comewhen they please to change their pens, breaking in upon anybusiness--interrupting any classes--perplexing and embarrassing theteacher, however he may be employed, there is a very serious obstructionto the progress of the scholars, which is by no means repaid by theimprovement in this branch. 

To guard against these evils, a regular and well-considered systemshould be adopted for the distribution of pens and stationary, and whenadopted it should be strictly and steadily adhered to. 

3. Answering questions about studies. A teacher who does not adopt somesystem in regard to this subject will be always at the mercy of hisscholars. One boy will want to know how to parse a word, another wherethe lesson is, another to have a sum explained, and a fourth will wishto show his work to see if it is right. The teacher does not like todiscourage such inquiries. Each one, as it comes up, seems necessary;each one, too, is answered in a moment; but the endless number and thecontinual repetition of them consume his time and exhaust his patience. 

There is another view of the subject which ought to be taken. Perhaps itwould not be far from the truth to estimate the average number ofscholars in the schools in our country at fifty. At any rate, this willbe near enough for our present purpose. There are three hours in eachsession, according to the usual arrangement, making one hundred andeighty minutes, which, divided among fifty, give about three minutes anda half to each individual. If the reader has, in his own school, agreater or a less number, he can easily correct the above calculation, so as to adapt it to his own case, and ascertain the portion which mayjustly be appropriated to each pupil. It will probably vary from two tofour minutes. Now a period of four minutes slips away very fast while aman is looking over perplexing figures on a slate, and if he exceedsthat time at all in individual attention to any one scholar, he is doinginjustice to his other pupils. I do not mean that a man is to confinehimself rigidly to the principle suggested by this calculation ofcautiously appropriating no more time to any one of his pupils than sucha calculation would assign to each, but simply that this is a pointwhich should be kept in view, and should have a very strong influence indeciding how far it is right to devote attention exclusively toindividuals. It seems to me that it shows very clearly that one oughtto teach his pupils, as much as possible, _in masses_, and as little aspossible by private attention to individual cases. 

The following directions will help the teacher to carry these principlesinto effect. When you assign a lesson, glance over it yourself, andconsider what difficulties are likely to arise. You know the progresswhich your pupils have made, and can easily anticipate theirdifficulties. Tell them all together, in the class, what theirdifficulties will be, and how they may surmount them. Give themdirections how they are to act in the emergencies which will be likelyto occur. This simple step will remove a vast number of the questionswhich would otherwise become occasions for interrupting you. With regardto other difficulties, which can not be foreseen and guarded against, direct the pupils to bring them to the class at the next recitation. Half a dozen of the class might, and very probably would, meet with thesame difficulty. If they bring this difficulty to you one by one, youhave to explain it over and over again, whereas, when it is brought tothe class, one explanation answers for all. 

As to all questions about the lesson--where it is, what it is, and howlong it is--never answer them. Require each pupil to remember forhimself, and if he was absent when the lesson was assigned, let him askhis class-mate in a rest. 

You _may_ refuse to give particular individuals the private assistancethey ask for in such a way as to discourage and irritate them, but thisis by no means necessary. It can be done in such a manner that the pupilwill see the propriety of it, and acquiesce pleasantly in it. 

A child comes to you, for example, and says, "Will you tell me, sir, where the next lesson is?"

"Were you not in the class at the time?"

"Yes, sir; but I have forgotten. "

"Well, I have forgotten too. I have a great many classes to hear, and, of course, great many lessons to assign, and I never remember them. Itis not necessary for me to remember. "

"May I speak to one of the class to ask about it?"

"You can not speak, you know, till the Study Card is down; you maythen. "

"But I want to get my lesson now. "

"I don't know what you will do, then. I am sorry you don't remember. 

"Besides, " continues the teacher, looking pleasantly, however, while hesays it, "if I knew, I think I ought not to tell you. "

"Why, sir?"

"Because, you know, I have said I wish the scholars to remember wherethe lessons are, and not come to me. You know it would be very unwisefor me, after assigning a lesson once for all in the class, to spend mytime here at my desk in assigning it over again to each individual oneby one. Now if I should tell _you_ where the lesson is now, I shouldhave to tell others, and thus should adopt a practice which I havecondemned. "

Take another case. You assign to a class of little girls a subject ofcomposition, requesting them to copy their writing upon a sheet ofpaper, leaving a margin an inch wide at the top, and one of half an inchat the sides and bottom. The class take their seats, and, after a shorttime, one of them comes to you, saying she does not know how long aninch is. 

"Don't you know any thing about it?"

"No, sir, not much. "

"Should you think _that_ is more or less than an inch?" (pointing to aspace on a piece of paper much too large). 

"More. "

"Then you know something about it. Now I did not tell you to make themargins _exactly_ an inch and half an inch, but only as near as youcould judge?"

"Would _that_ be about right?" asks the girl, showing a distance. 

"I must not tell you, because, you know, I never in such cases helpindividuals; if that is as near as you can get it, you may make it so. "

It may be well, after assigning a lesson to a class, to say that allthose who do not distinctly understand what they have to do may remainafter the class have taken their seats, and ask: the task may then bedistinctly assigned again, and the difficulties, so far as they can beforeseen, explained. 

By such means these sources of interruption and difficulty may, like theothers, be almost entirely removed. Perhaps not altogether, for manycases may occur where the teacher may choose to give a particular classpermission to come to him for help. Such permission, however, oughtnever to be given unless it is absolutely necessary, and should never beallowed to be taken unless it is distinctly given. 

4. Hearing recitations. I am aware that many attempt to do somethingelse at the same time that they are hearing a recitation, and there mayperhaps be some individuals who can succeed in this. If the exercise towhich the teacher is attending consists merely in listening to thereciting word for word some passage committed to memory, it can be done. I hope, however, to show in a future chapter that there are other andfar higher objects which every teacher ought to have in view in hisrecitations, and he who understands these objects, and aims ataccomplishing them--who endeavors to _instruct_ his class, to enlargeand elevate their ideas, to awaken a deep and paramount interest in thesubject which they are examining, will find that his time must be hisown, and his attention uninterrupted while he is presiding at a class. All the other exercises and arrangements of the school are, in fact, preparatory and subsidiary to this. Here, that is, in the classes, thereal business of teaching is to be done. Here the teacher comes incontact with his scholars mind with mind, and here, consequently, hemust be uninterrupted and undisturbed. I shall speak more particularlyon this subject hereafter under the head of instruction; all I wish tosecure in this place is that the teacher should make such arrangementsthat he can devote his exclusive attention to his classes while he isactually engaged with them. 

Each recitation, too, should have its specified time, which should beadhered to with rigid accuracy. If any thing like the plan I havesuggested for allowing rests of a minute or two every half hour shouldbe adopted, it will mark off the forenoon into parts which ought to beprecisely and carefully observed. I was formerly accustomed to thinkthat I could not limit the time for my recitations without greatinconvenience, and occasionally allowed one exercise to encroach uponthe succeeding, and this upon the next, and thus sometimes the last wasexcluded altogether. But such a lax and irregular method of procedure isruinous to the discipline of a school. On perceiving it at last, I putthe bell into the hands of a pupil, commissioning her to ring regularly, having myself fixed the times, saying that I would show my pupils that Icould be confined myself to system as well as they. At first Iexperienced a little inconvenience; but this soon disappeared, and atlast the hours and half hours of our artificial division entirelysuperseded, in the school-room, the divisions of the clock face. Ifound, too, that it exerted an extremely favorable influence upon thescholars in respect to their willingness to submit readily to thenecessary restrictions imposed upon them in school, to show them thatthe teacher was subject to law as well as they. 

But, in order that I may be specific and definite, I will draw up a planfor the regular division of time, for a common school, not to be_adopted_, but to be _imitated_; that is, I do not recommend exactlythis plan, but that some plan, precise and specific, should bedetermined upon, and exhibited to the school by a diagram like thefollowing:

FORENOON. IX. X. XI. XII. +---------+---------+---+---+------------+|READING. |WRITING. |R. |G. |ARITHMETIC. |+----+----+----+----+---+---+-----+------+| | | | | | | | || | | | | | | | || | | | | | | | || | | | | | | | |+----+----+----+----+---+---+-----+------+

AFTERNOON. 

II. III. IV. V. +-----------+---------+---+---+----------+|GEOGRAPHY. |WRITING. |R. |G. |GRAMMAR. |+-----+-----+----+----+---+---+----+-----+| | | | | | | | || | | | | | | | || | | | | | | | || | | | | | | | |+-----+-----+----+----+---+---+----+-----+A drawing on a large sheet, made by some of the older scholars (for ateacher should never do any thing of this kind which his scholars can dofor him), should be made and pasted up to view, the names of the classesbeing inserted in the columns under their respective heads. At thedouble lines at ten and three, there might be a rest of two minutes, anofficer appointed for the purpose ringing a bell at each of the periodsmarked on the plan, and making the signal for the _rest_, whateversignal might be determined upon. It is a good plan to have the bell_touched_ five minutes before each half hour expires, and then exactlyat its close. The first bell would notify the teacher or teachers, ifthere are more than one in the school, that the time for theirrespective recitations is drawing to a close. At the second bell the newclasses should take their places without waiting to be called for. Thescholars will thus see that the arrangements of the school are basedupon system, to which the teacher himself conforms, and not subjected tohis own varying will. They will thus not only go on more regularly, butthey will themselves yield more easily and pleasantly to the necessaryarrangements. 

The fact is, children love system and regularity. Each one is sometimesa little uneasy under the restraint which it imposes upon himindividually, but they all love to see its operation upon others, andthey are generally very willing to submit to its laws, if the rest ofthe community are required to submit too. They show this in their loveof military parade; what allures them is chiefly the _order_ of it; andeven a little child creeping upon the floor will be pleased when he getshis playthings in a row. A teacher may turn this principle to mostuseful account in forming his plans for his school, in observing thatthe teacher is governed by them too as well as they. 

It will be seen by reference to the foregoing plan that I have markedthe time for the recesses by the letter R. At the top. Immediately afterthem, both in the forenoon and in the afternoon, twenty minutes areleft, marked G. , the initial standing for general exercise. They areintended to denote periods during which all the scholars are in theirseats, with their work laid aside, ready to attend to whatever theteacher may desire to bring before the whole school. There are so manyoccasions on which it is necessary to address the whole school, that itis very desirable to appropriate a particular time for it. In most ofthe best schools I believe this plan is adopted. I will mention some ofthe subjects which would come up at such a time. 

1. There are some studies which can be advantageously attended to by thewhole school together, such as Punctuation, and, to some extent, Spelling. 

2. Cases of discipline which it is necessary to bring before the wholeschool ought to come up at a regularly-appointed time. By attending tothem here, there will be a greater importance attached to them. Whateverthe teacher does will seem to be more deliberate, and, in fact, _willbe_ more deliberate. 

3. General remarks, bringing up classes of faults which prevail; alsogeneral directions, which may at any time be needed; and, in fact, anybusiness relating to the general arrangements of the school. 

4. Familiar lectures from the teacher on various subjects. Theselectures, though necessarily brief and quite familiar in their form, maystill be very exact and thorough in respect to the knowledge conveyed. When they are upon scientific subjects they may sometimes be illustratedby experiments, more or less imposing, according to the ingenuity of theteacher, the capacity of the older scholars to assist him in thepreparations, or the means and facilities at his command. [2]

[Illustration]

[Footnote 2: In some of the larger institutions of the country theteacher will have convenient apparatus at his disposal, and a roomspecially adapted to the purpose of experiments. The engravingrepresents a room at the Spingler Institute at New York. But let not theteacher suppose that these special facilities are essential to enablehim to give instruction to his pupils in such a way. I have known a muchlarger balloon than the one represented in the engraving to beconstructed by the teacher and pupils of a common country school fromdirections in Rees's Cyclopedia, and sent up in the open air. Theaeronaut that accompanied it was a hen--poor thing!] The design of suchlectures should be to extend the _general knowledge_ of the pupils inregard to those subjects on which they will need information in theirprogress through life. In regard to each of these particulars I shallspeak more particularly hereafter, in the chapters to which theyrespectively belong. My only object here is to show, in the generalarrangements of the school, how a place is to be found for them. Mypractice has been to have two periods of short duration, each day, appropriated to these objects: the first to the _business of theschool_, and the second to such studies or lectures as could be mostprofitably attended to at such a time. 

We come now to one of the most important subjects which presentthemselves to the teacher's attention in settling the principles uponwhich he shall govern his school. I mean the degree of influence whichthe boys themselves shall have in the management of its affairs. Shallthe government of school be a _monarchy_ or a _republic?_ To thisquestion, after much inquiry and many experiments, I answer, a monarchy;an absolute, unlimited monarchy; the teacher possessing exclusive poweras far as the pupils are concerned, though strictly responsible to thecommittee or to the trustees under whom he holds his office. 

While, however, it is thus distinctly understood that the power of theteacher is supreme, that all the power rests in him, and that he aloneis responsible for its exercise, there ought to be a very free andcontinual _delegation_ of power to the pupils. As much business as ispossible should be committed to them. They should be interested as muchas possible in the affairs of the school, and led to take an active partin carrying them forward; though they should, all the time, distinctlyunderstand that it is only _delegated_ power which they exercise, andthat the teacher can, at any time, revoke what he has granted, and alteror annul at pleasure any of their decisions. By this plan we have theresponsibility resting where it ought to rest, and yet the boys aretrained to business, and led to take an active interest in the welfareof the school. Trust is reposed in them, which may be greater or less, as they are able to bear. All the good effects of reposing trust andconfidence, and committing the management of important business to thepupils will be secured, without the dangers which would result from theentire surrender of the management of the institution into their hands. 

There have been, in several cases, experiments made with reference toascertaining how far a government strictly republican would beadmissible in a school. A very fair experiment of this kind was madesome years since at the Gardiner Lyceum, in Maine. At the time of itsestablishment, nothing was said of the mode of government which it wasintended to adopt. For some time the attention of the instructors wasoccupied in arranging the course of study, and attending to the otherconcerns of the institution; and, in the infant state of the Lyceum, fewcases of discipline occurred, and no regular system of government wasnecessary. 

Before long, however, complaints were made that the students at theLyceum were guilty of breaking windows in an old building used as atown-house. The principal called the students together, mentioned thereports, and said that he did not know, and did not wish to know whowere the guilty individuals. It was necessary, however, that the thingshould be examined into, and that restitution should be made, and, relying on their faithfulness and ability, he should leave them tomanage the business alone. For this purpose, he nominated one of thestudents as judge, some others as jurymen, and appointed the otherofficers necessary in the same manner. He told them that, in order togive them time to make a thorough investigation, they were excused fromfarther exercises during the day. 

The principal then left them, and they entered on the trial. The resultwas that they discovered the guilty individuals, ascertained the amountof mischief done by each, and sent to the selectmen a message, by whichthey agreed to pay a sum equal to three times the value of the injurysustained. 

The students were soon after informed that this mode of bringingoffenders to justice would hereafter be always pursued, and arrangementswere made for organizing a _regular republican government_ among theyoung men. By this government all laws which related to the internalpolice of the institution were to be made, all officers were appointed, and all criminal cases were to be tried. The students finding the partof a judge too difficult for them to sustain, one of the professors wasappointed to hold that office, and, for similar reasons, another of theprofessors was made president of the legislative assembly. The principalwas the executive, with power to _pardon_, but not to _sentence_, oreven _accuse_. 

Some time after this a student was indicted for profane swearing; he wastried, convicted, and punished. After this he evinced a strong hostilityto the government. He made great exertions to bring it into contempt, and when the next trial came on, he endeavored to persuade the witnessesthat giving evidence was dishonorable, and he so far succeeded that thedefendant was acquitted for want of evidence, when it was generallyunderstood that there was proof of his guilt, which would have beensatisfactory if it could have been brought forward. For some time afterthis the prospect was rather unfavorable, though many of the studentsthemselves opposed with great earnestness these efforts, and were muchalarmed lest they should lose their free government through theperverseness of one of their number. The attorney general, at thisjuncture, conceived the idea of indicting the individual alluded to foran attempt to overturn the government. He obtained the approbation ofthe principal, and the grand jury found a bill. The court, as the casewas so important, invited some of the trustees, who were in town, toattend the trial. The parent of the defendant was also informed of thecircumstances and requested to be present, and he accordingly attended. The prisoner was tried, found guilty, and sentenced, if I mistake not, to expulsion. At his earnest request, however, to be permitted to remainin the Lyceum and redeem his character, he was pardoned and restored, and from that time he became perfectly exemplary in his conduct andcharacter. After this occurrence the system went on in successfuloperation for some time. 

The legislative power was vested in the hands of a general committee, consisting of eight or ten, chosen by the students from their ownnumber. They met about once a week to transact such business asappointing officers, making and repealing regulations, and inquiringinto the state of the Lyceum. The instructors had a negative upon alltheir proceedings, but no direct and positive power. They could pardon, but they could assign no punishments, nor make laws inflicting any. 

Now such a plan as this may succeed for a short time, and under veryfavorable circumstances; and the circumstance which it is chieflyimportant should be favorable is, that the man who is called to presideover such an association should possess such talents of _generalship_that he can really manage the institution _himself_, while the power is_nominally_ and _apparently_ in the hands of the boys. Should this notbe the case, or should the teacher, from any cause, lose his personalinfluence in the school, so that the institution should really besurrendered into the hands of the pupils, things must be on a veryunstable footing. And, accordingly, where such a plan has been adopted, it has, I believe, in every instance, been ultimately abandoned. 

_Real self-government_ is an experiment sufficiently hazardous amongmen, though Providence, in making a daily supply of food necessary forevery human being, has imposed a most powerful check upon the tendencyto anarchy and confusion. Let the populace of Paris or of Londonmaterially interrupt the order and break in upon the arrangements of thecommunity, and in eight-and-forty hours nearly the whole of the mightymass will be in the hands of the devourer, hunger, and they will be soonbrought to submission. On the other hand, a month's anarchy andconfusion in a college or an academy would be delight to half thestudents, or else times have greatly changed since I was within collegewalls. 

Although it is thus evident that the important concerns of a literaryinstitution can not be safely committed into the hands of the students, very great benefits will result from calling upon them to act upon andto decide questions relative to the school within such limits and undersuch restrictions as are safe and proper. Such a practice will assistthe teacher very much if he manages it with any degree of dexterity; forit will interest his pupils in the success of the school, and secure, toa very considerable extent, their co-operation in the government of it. It will teach them self-control and self-government, and will accustomthem to submit to the majority--that lesson which, of all others, it isimportant for a republican to learn. 

In endeavoring to interest the pupils of a school in the work ofco-operating with the teacher in its administration, no little dexteritywill be necessary at the outset. In all probability, the formalannouncement of this principle, and the endeavor to introduce it by asudden revolution, would totally fail. Boys, like men, must be graduallyprepared for; power, and they must exercise it only so far as they areprepared. This, however, can very easily be done. The teacher should saynothing of his general design, but, when some suitable opportunitypresents, he should endeavor to lead his pupils to co-operate with himin some particular instance. 

For example, let us suppose that he has been accustomed to distributethe writing-books with his own hand when the writing-hour arrives, andthat he concludes to delegate this simple business first to hisscholars. He accordingly states to them, just before the writingexercise of the day on which he proposes the experiment, as follows:

"I have thought that time will be saved if you will help me distributethe books, and I will accordingly appoint four distributors, one foreach division of the seats, who may come to me and receive the books, and distribute them each to his own division. Are you willing to adoptthis plan?"

The boys answer "Yes, sir, " and the teacher then looks carefully aroundthe room, and selects four pleasant and popular boys--boys who he knowswould gladly assist him, and who would, at the same time, be agreeableto their school-mates. This latter point is necessary in order to securethe popularity and success of the plan. 

Unless the boys are very different from any I have ever met with, theywill be pleased with the duty thus assigned them. They will learn systemand regularity by being taught to perform this simple duty in a propermanner. After a week, the teacher may consider their term of service ashaving expired, and thanking them in public for the assistance they haverendered him, he may ask the scholars if they are willing to continuethe plan, and if the vote is in favor of it, as it unquestionably wouldbe, each boy probably hoping that he should be appointed to the office, the teacher may nominate four others, including, perhaps, upon the list, some boy popular among his companions, but whom he has suspected to benot very friendly to himself or the school. I think the most scrupulousstatesman would not object to securing influence by conferring office insuch a case. If difficulties arise from the operation of such a measure, the plan can easily be modified to avoid or correct them. If it issuccessful, it may be continued, and the principle may be extended, soas in the end to affect very considerably all the arrangements and thewhole management of the school. 

Or, let us imagine the following scene to have been the commencement ofthe introduction of the principle of limited self-government into aschool. 

The preceptor of an academy was sitting at his desk, at the close ofschool, while the pupils were putting up their books and leaving theroom. A boy came in with angry looks, and, with his hat in his handsbruised and dusty, advanced to the master's desk, and complained thatone of his companions had thrown down his hat upon the floor, and hadalmost spoiled it. 

The teacher looked calmly at the mischief, and then asked how ithappened. 

"I don't know, sir. I hung it on my nail, and he pulled it down. "

"I wish you would ask him to come here, " said the teacher. "Ask himpleasantly. "

The accused soon came in, and the two boys stood together before themaster. 

"There seems to be some difficulty between you boys about a nail to hangyour hats upon. I suppose each of you think it is your own nail. "

"Yes, sir, " said both the boys. 

"It will be more convenient for me to talk with you about this to-morrowthan to-night, if you are willing to wait. Besides, we can examine itmore calmly then. But if we put it off till then, you must not talkabout it in the mean time, blaming one another, and keeping up theirritation that you feel. Are you both willing to leave it just where itis till to-morrow, and try to forget all about it till then? I expect Ishall find you both a little to blame. "

The boys rather reluctantly consented. The next day the master heard thecase, and settled it so far as it related to the two boys. It was easilysettled in the morning, for they had had time to get calm, and were, after sleeping away their anger, rather ashamed of the whole affair, andvery desirous to have it forgotten. 

That day, when the hour for the transaction of general business came, the teacher stated to the school that it was necessary to take somemeasures to provide each boy with a nail for his hat. In order to showthat it was necessary, he related the circumstances of the quarrel whichhad occurred the day before. He did this, not with such an air andmanner as to convey the impression that his object was to find faultwith the boys, or to expose their misconduct, but to show the necessityof doing something to remedy the evil which had been the cause of sounpleasant an occurrence. Still, though he said nothing in the way ofreproof or reprehension, and did not name the boys, but merely gave acool and impartial narrative of the facts, the effect, very evidently, was to bring such quarrels into discredit. A calm review of misconduct, after the excitement has gone by, will do more to bring it into disgracethan the most violent invectives and reproaches directed against theindividuals guilty of it at the time. 

"Now, boys, " continued the master, "will you assist me in makingarrangements to prevent the recurrence of all temptations of this kindhereafter? It is plain that every boy ought to have a nail appropriatedexpressly to his use. The first thing to be done is to ascertain whetherthere are enough for all. I should like, therefore, to have twocommittees appointed: one to count and report the number of nails in theentry, and also how much room there is for more; the other to ascertainthe number of scholars in school. They can count all who are here, and, by observing the vacant desks, they can ascertain the number absent. When this investigation is made, I will tell you what to do next. "

The boys seemed pleased with the plan, and the committees wereappointed, two members on each. The master took care to give thequarrelers some share in the work, apparently forgetting, from thistime, the unpleasant occurrence which had brought up the subject. 

When the boys came to inform him of the result of their inquiries, heasked them to make a little memorandum of it in writing, as he mightforget the numbers, he said, before the time came for reading them. Theboys brought him, presently, a rough scrap of paper, with the figuresmarked upon it. He told them he should forget which was the number ofnails, and which the number of scholars, unless they wrote it down. 

"It is the custom among men, " said he, "to make out their report, insuch a case, fully, so that it would explain itself; and I should liketo have you, if you are willing, make out yours a little moredistinctly. "

Accordingly, after a little additional explanation, the boys madeanother attempt, and presently returned with something like thefollowing:

"The committee for counting the nails report as follows: Number of nails. . . . 35 Room for more . . . . 15. "

The other report was very similar, though somewhat rudely written andexpressed, and both were perfectly satisfactory to the preceptor, as heplainly showed by the manner in which he received them. 

I need not finish the description of this case by narrating particularlythe reading of the reports, the appointment of a committee to assign thenails, and to paste up the names of the scholars, one to each. The work, in such a case, might be done in recesses, and out of school hours; andthough, at first, the teacher will find that it is as much trouble toaccomplish business in this way as it would be to attend to it directlyhimself, yet, after a very little experience, he will find that hispupils will acquire dexterity and readiness, and will be able to renderhim very material assistance in the accomplishment of his plans. 

This, however--the assistance rendered to the teacher--is not the mainobject of the adoption of such measures as this. The main design is tointerest the pupils in the management and the welfare of the school--toidentify them, as it were, with it. And such measures as the above willaccomplish this object; and every teacher who will try the experiment, and carry it into effect with any tolerable degree of skill, will findthat it will, in a short time, change the whole aspect of the school inregard to the feelings subsisting between himself and his pupils. 

Each teacher who tries such an experiment will find himself insensiblyrepeating it, and after a time he may have quite a number of officersand committees who are intrusted with various departments of business. He will have a secretary, chosen by ballot by the scholars, to keep arecord of all the important transactions in the school for each day. Atfirst he will dictate to the secretary, thus directing him preciselywhat to say, or even writing it for him, and then merely requiring himto copy it into the book provided for the purpose. Afterward he willgive the pupil less and less assistance, till he can keep the recordproperly himself. The record of each day will be read on the succeedingday at the hour for business. The teacher will perhaps have a committeeto take care of the fire, and another to see that the room is constantlyin good order. He will have distributors for each division of seats, todistribute books, and compositions, and pens, and to collect votes. Andthus, in a short time, his school will become _regularly organized as asociety or legislative assembly_. The boys will learn submission to themajority in such unimportant things as may be committed to them; theywill learn system and regularity, and every thing else, indeed, thatbelongs to the science of political self-government. 

There are dangers, however. What useful practice has not its dangers?One of these is, that the teacher will allow these arrangements to takeup too much time. He must guard against this. I have found fromexperience that fifteen minutes each day, with a school of 135, isenough. This ought never to be exceeded. 

Another danger is, that the boys will be so engaged in the duties oftheir _offices_ as to neglect their _studies_. This would be, and oughtto be, fatal to the whole plan. This danger may be avoided in thefollowing manner. State publicly that you will not appoint any to officewho are not good scholars, always punctual, and always prepared; andwhen any boy who holds an office is going behindhand in his studies, sayto him kindly, "You have not time to get your lessons, and I am afraidit is owing to the fact that you spend so much time in helping me. Nowif you wish to resign your office, so as to have more time for yourlessons, you can. In fact, I think you ought to do it. You may try itfor a day or two, and I will notice how you recite, and then we candecide. "

Such a communication will generally be found to have a powerful effect. If it does not remedy the evil, the resignation must be insisted on. Afew decided cases of this kind will effectually remove the evil I amconsidering. 

Another difficulty which is likely to attend the plan of allowing thepupils of a school to take some part in this way in the administrationof it is that it may tend to make them insubordinate, so that they will, in many instances, submit with less good humor to such decisions as youmay consider necessary. I do not mean that this will be the case withall, but that there will be a few who will be ungenerous enough, if youallow them to decide sometimes what shall be done, to endeavor to maketrouble, or at least to show symptoms of impatience and vexation becauseyou do not allow them always to decide. 

Sometimes this feeling may show itself by the discontented looks, orgestures, or even words with which some unwelcome regulation or order onthe part of the teacher will be received. Such a spirit should beimmediately and decidedly checked whenever it appears. It will not bedifficult to check, and even entirely to remove it. On one occasionwhen, after learning the wish of the scholars on some subject which hadbeen brought before them, I decided contrary to it, there arose a murmurof discontent all over the room. This was the more distinct, because Ihave always accustomed my pupils to answer questions asked, and toexpress their wishes and feelings on any subject I may present to themwith great freedom. 

I asked all those who had expressed their dissatisfaction to rise. 

About one third of the scholars arose. 

"Perhaps you understood that when I put the question to vote I meant toabide by your decision, and that, consequently, I ought not to havereversed it, as I did afterward?"

"Yes, sir, " "Yes, sir, " they replied. 

Do you suppose it would be safe to leave the decision of importantquestions to the scholars in this school?"

"Yes, sir;" "No, sir. " The majority were, however, in the affirmative. 

Thus far, only those who were standing had answered. I told them that, as they were divided in opinion, they might sit, and I would put thequestion to the whole school. 

"You know, " I continued, addressing the whole, "what sort of persons thegirls who compose this school are. You know about how many are governedhabitually by steady principle, and how many by impulse and feeling. Youknow, too, what proportion have judgment and foresight necessary toconsider and decide independently such questions as continually arise inthe management of a school. Now suppose I should resign the school intoyour own hands as to its management, and only come in to giveinstruction to the classes, leaving all general control of itsarrangements with you, would it go on safely or not?"

As might have been foreseen, there was, when the question was fairlyproposed, scarcely a solitary vote in favor of government by scholars. They seemed to see clearly the absurdity of such a scheme. 

"Besides, " I continued, "the trustees of this school have committed itto my charge; they hold me responsible; the public hold _me_responsible, not you. Now if I should surrender it into your hands, andyou, from any cause, should manage the trust unfaithfully orunskillfully, I should necessarily be held accountable. I could nevershift the responsibility upon you. Now it plainly is not just or rightthat one party should hold the power, and another be held accountablefor its exercise. It is clear, therefore, in every view of the subject, that I should retain the management of this school in my own hands. Areyou not satisfied that it is?"

The scholars universally answered "Yes, sir. " They seemed satisfied, anddoubtless were. 

It was then stated to them that the object in asking them to vote was, in some cases, to obtain an expression of their opinion or their wishesin order to help _me_ decide, and only in those cases where it wasexpressly stated did I mean to give the final decision to them. 

Still, however, if cases are often referred to them, the feeling willgradually creep in that the school is managed on republican principles, as they call it, and they will, unless this point is specially guarded, gradually lose that spirit of entire and cordial subordination sonecessary for the success of any school. It should often be distinctlyexplained to them that a republican government is one where the poweressentially resides in the community, and is exercised by a ruler onlyso far as the community delegates it to him, whereas in the school thegovernment is based on the principle that the power, primarily andessentially, resides in the teacher, the scholars exercising only suchas _he_ may delegate to _them_. 

With these limitations and restrictions, and with this expressunderstanding in regard to what is, in all cases, the ultimateauthority, I think there will be no danger in throwing a very largeshare of the business which will, from time to time, come up in theschool, upon the scholars themselves for decision. In my own experiencethis plan has been adopted with the happiest results. In the MountVernon School a small red morocco wrapper lies constantly on a littleshelf, accessible to all. By its side is a little pile of papers, aboutone inch by six, on which any one may write her motion, or her_proposition_, as the scholars call it, whatever it may be, and whenwritten it is inclosed in the wrapper, to be brought to me at theappointed time for attending to the general business of the school. Through this wrapper all questions are asked, all complaints entered, all proposals made. Is there discontent in the school? It shows itselfby "_propositions_" in the wrapper. Is any body aggrieved or injured? Ilearn it through the wrapper. In fact, it is a little safety-valve, which lets off what, if confined, might threaten explosion---an index--athermometer, which reveals to me, from day to day, more of the state ofpublic opinion in the little community than any thing beside. 

These propositions are generally read aloud. Some cases are referred tothe scholars for decision; some I decide myself; others are laid asidewithout notice of any kind; others still, merely suggest remarks on thesubjects to which they allude. 

The principles, then, which this chapter has been intended to establish, are simply these: in making your general arrangements, look carefullyover your ground, consider all the objects which you have to accomplish, and the proper degree of time and attention which each deserves. Thenact upon system. Let the mass of particulars which would otherwisecrowd upon you in promiscuous confusion be arranged and classified. Leteach be assigned to its proper time and place, so that your time may beyour own, under your own command, and not, as is too often the case, atthe mercy of the thousand accidental circumstances which may occur. 

In a word, be, in the government of your school, yourself supreme, andlet your supremacy be that of _authority_; but delegate power, as freelyas possible, to those under your care. Show them that you are desirousof reposing trust in them just so far as they show themselves capable ofexercising it. Thus interest them in your plans, and make them feel thatthey participate in the honor or the disgrace of success or failure. 

I have gone much into detail in this chapter, proposing definitemeasures by which the principles I have recommended may be carried intoeffect. I wish, however, that it may be distinctly understood that all Icontend for is the _principles_ themselves, no matter what theparticular measures are by which they are secured. Every good schoolmust be systematic, but all need not be on precisely the same system. Asthis work is intended almost exclusively for beginners, much detail hasbeen admitted, and many of the specific measures here proposed mayperhaps be safely adopted where no others are established. There mayalso, perhaps, be cases where teachers, whose schools are already insuccessful operation, may ingraft upon their own plans some things whichare here proposed. If they should attempt it, it must be done cautiouslyand gradually. There is no other way by which they can be safelyintroduced, or even introduced at all. This is a point of so muchimportance, that I must devote a paragraph to it before closing thechapter. 

Let a teacher propose to his pupils, formally, from his desk, the planof writing propositions, for example, as explained above, and procurehis wrapper, and put it in its place, and what would be the result?Why, not a single paper, probably, could he get, from one end of theweek to the other. But let him, on the other hand, when a boy comes tohim to ask some question, the answer to which many in the school wouldequally wish to hear, say to the inquirer, "Will you be so good as to write that question, and put it on my desk, and then, at the regular time, I will answer it to all the school. "

When he reads it, let him state that it was written at his request, andgive the other boys permission to leave their proposals or questions onhis desk in the same way. In a few days he will have another, and thusthe plan may be gently and gradually introduced. 

So with officers. They should be appointed among the scholars only _asfast as they are actually needed_, and the plan should thus becautiously carried only so far as it proves good on trial. Be alwayscautious about innovations and changes. Make no rash experiments on alarge scale, but always test your principle in the small way, and then, if it proves good, gradually extend its operation as circumstances seemto require. 

By thus cautiously and slowly introducing plans, founded on thesystematic principles here brought to view, a very considerable degreeof quiet, and order, and regularity may be introduced into the largestand most miscellaneous schools. And this order and quiet are absolutelynecessary to enable the teacher to find that interest and enjoyment inhis work which were exhibited in the last chapter; the pleasure of_directing and controlling mind_, and doing it, not by useless andanxious complaints, or stern threats and painful punishments, but byregarding the scene of labor in its true light, as a community ofintellectual and moral beings, and governing it by moral andintellectual power. It is, in fact, the pleasure of exercising _power_. I do not mean arbitrary, personal authority, but the power to produce, by successful but quiet contrivance, extensive and happy results; thepleasure of calmly considering every difficulty, and, without irritationor anger, devising the proper moral means to remedy the moral evil; andthen the interest and pleasure of witnessing its effects. 

CHAPTER III. 

INSTRUCTION. 

[Illustration]

We come now to consider the subject of Instruction. 

There are three kinds of human knowledge which stand strikingly distinctfrom all the rest. They lie at the foundation. They constitute the rootsof the tree. In other words, they are the _means_ by which all otherknowledge is attained. I need not say that I mean Reading, Writing, andCalculation. 

Teachers do not perhaps always consider how entirely and essentiallydistinct these three branches of learning are from all the rest. Theyare arts; the acquisition of them is not to be considered as knowledge, so much as the means by which knowledge may be obtained. A child who isstudying Geography, or History, or Natural Science, is learning_facts_--gaining information; on the other hand, the one who is learningto write, or to read, or to calculate, may be adding little or nothingto his stock of knowledge. He is acquiring _skill_, which, at somefuture time, he may make the means of increasing his knowledge to anyextent. 

This distinction ought to be kept constantly in view, and the teachershould feel that these three fundamental branches stand by themselves, and stand first in importance. I do not mean to undervalue the others, but only to insist upon the superior value and importance of these. Teaching a pupil to read before he enters upon the active business oflife is like giving a new settler an axe as he goes to seek his new homein the forest. Teaching him a lesson in history is, on the other hand, only cutting down a tree or two for him. A knowledge of natural historyis like a few bushels of grain gratuitously placed in his barn; but theart of ready reckoning is the plow which will remain by him for years, and help him to draw out from the soil a new treasure every year of hislife. 

The great object, then, of the common schools in our country is to teachthe whole population to read, to write, and to calculate. In fact, soessential is it that the accomplishment of these objects should besecured, that it is even a question whether common schools should not beconfined to them. I say it is a _question_, for it is sometimes made so, though public opinion has decided that some portion of attention, atleast, should be paid to the acquisition of additional knowledge. But, after all, the amount of _knowledge_ which is actually acquired atschools is very small. It must be very small. The true policy is to aimat making all the pupils good readers, writers, and calculators, and toconsider the other studies of the school important chiefly as practicein turning these arts to useful account. In other words, the scholarsshould be taught these arts thoroughly first of all, and in the otherstudies the main design should be to show them how to use, and interestthem in using, the arts they have thus acquired. 

A great many teachers feel a much stronger interest in the one or twoscholars they may have in Surveying or in Latin than they do in thelarge classes in the elementary branches which fill the school. But amoment's reflection will show that such a preference is founded on avery mistaken view. Leading forward one or two minds from step to stepin an advanced study is certainly far inferior in real dignity andimportance to opening all the stores of written knowledge to fifty or ahundred. The man who neglects the interests of his school in these greatbranches to devote his time to two or three, or half a dozen olderscholars, is unjust both to his employers and to himself. 

It is the duty, therefore, of every teacher who commences a commondistrict school for a single season to make, when he commences, anestimate of the state of his pupils in reference to these threebranches. How do they all write? How do they all read? How do theycalculate? It would be well if he would make a careful examination ofthe school in this respect. Let them all write a specimen. Let all read, and let him make a memorandum of the manner, noticing how many readfluently, how many with difficulty, how many know only their letters, and how many are to be taught these. Let him ascertain, also, whatprogress they have made in arithmetic--how many can readily perform theelementary processes, and what number need instruction in these. Afterthus surveying the ground, let him form his plan, and lay out his wholestrength in carrying forward as rapidly as possible the _whole school_in these studies. By this means he is acting most directly andpowerfully on the intelligence of the whole future community in thatplace. He is opening to fifty or a hundred minds stores of knowledgewhich they will go on exploring for years to come. What a descent nowfrom such a work as this to the mere hearing of the recitation of two orthree boys in Trigonometry!

I repeat it, that a thorough and enlightened survey of the whole schoolshould be taken, and plans formed for elevating the whole mass in thosegreat branches of knowledge which are to be of immediate practical useto them in future life. 

If the school is one more advanced in respect to the age and studies ofthe pupils, the teacher should, in the same manner, before he forms hisplans, consider well what are the great objects which he has toaccomplish. He should ascertain what is the existing state of hisschool both as to knowledge and character; how long, generally, hispupils are to remain under his care; what are to be their futurestations and conditions in life, and what objects he can reasonably hopeto effect for them while they remain under his influence. By means ofthis forethought and consideration he will be enabled to workunderstandingly. 

It is desirable, too, that what I have recommended in reference to thewhole school should be done in respect to the case of each individual. When a new pupil comes under your charge, ascertain (by other means, however, than formal examination) to what stage his education hasadvanced, and deliberately consider what objects you can reasonablyexpect to effect for him while he remains under your care. You can not, indeed, always form your plans to suit so exactly your general views inregard to the school and to individuals as you could wish. But thesegeneral views will, in a thousand cases, modify your plans, or affect ina greater or less degree all your arrangements. They will keep you to asteady purpose, and your work will go on far more systematically andregularly than it would do if, as in fact many teachers do, you were tocome headlong into your school, take things just as you find them, andcarry them forward at random without end or aim. 

This survey of your field being made, you are prepared to commencedefinite operations, and the great difficulty in carrying your plansinto effect is how to act more efficiently on _the greatest numbers at atime. _ The whole business of public instruction, if it goes on at all, must go on by the teacher's skill in multiplying his power, by acting on_numbers at once. _ In most books on education we are taught, almostexclusively, how to operate on the _individual_. It is the error intowhich theoretic writers almost always fall. We meet in every periodical, and in every treatise, and, in fact, in almost every conversation on thesubject, with remarks which sound very well by the fireside, but theyare totally inefficient and useless in school, from their beingapparently based upon the supposition that the teacher has but _one_pupil to attend to at a time. The great question in the management ofschools is not how you can take _one_ scholar, and lead him forward mostrapidly in a prescribed course, but how you can classify and arrange_numbers_, comprising every possible variety both as to knowledge andcapacity, so as to carry them all forward effectually together. 

The extent to which a teacher may multiply his power by acting onnumbers at a time is very great. In order to estimate it, we mustconsider carefully what it is when carried to the greatest extent towhich it is capable of being carried under the most favorablecircumstances. Now it is possible for a teacher to speak so as to beeasily heard by three hundred persons, and three hundred pupils can beeasily so seated as to see his illustrations or diagrams. Now supposethat three hundred pupils, all ignorant of the method of reducingfractions to a common denominator, and yet all old enough to learn, arecollected in one room. Suppose they are all attentive and desirous oflearning, it is very plain that the process may be explained to thewhole at once, so that half an hour spent in that exercise would enablea very large proportion of them to understand the subject. So, if ateacher is explaining to a class in Grammar the difference between anoun and verb, the explanation would do as well for several hundred asfor the dozen who constitute the class, if arrangements could only bemade to have the hundreds hear it; but there are, perhaps, only ahundred pupils in the school, and of these a large part understandalready the point to be explained, and another large part are too youngto attend to it. I wish the object of these remarks not to bemisunderstood. I do not recommend the attempt to teach on so extensive ascale; I admit that it is impracticable; I only mean to show in what theimpracticability consists, namely, in the difficulty of making sucharrangements as to derive the full benefit from the instructionsrendered. The instructions of the teacher are, _in the nature ofthings, _ available to the extent I have represented, but in actualpractice the full benefit can not be derived. Now, so far as we thusfall short of this full benefit, so far there is, of course, waste; andit is difficult or impossible to make such arrangements as will avoidthe waste, in this manner, of a large portion of every effort which theteacher makes. 

A very small class instructed by an able teacher is like a factory of ahundred spindles, with a water-wheel of power sufficient for a thousand. In such a case, even if the owner, from want of capital or any othercause, can not add the other nine hundred, he ought to know how much ofhis power is in fact unemployed, and make arrangements to bring it intouseful exercise as soon as he can. The teacher, in the same manner, should understand what is the full beneficial effect which it ispossible, _in theory_, to derive from his instructions. He shouldunderstand, too, that just so far as he falls short of this full effectthere is waste. It may be unavoidable; part of it unquestionably is, like the friction of machinery, unavoidable. Still, it is waste; and itought to be so understood, that, by the gradual perfection of themachinery, it may be more and more fully prevented. 

Always bear in mind, then, when you are devoting your time to two orthree individuals in a class, that your are losing a large part of yourlabor. Your instructions are conducive to good effect only to the onetenth or one twentieth of the extent to which, under more favorablecircumstances, they might be made available. And though you can notalways avoid this loss, you ought to be aware of it, and so to shapeyour measures as to diminish it as much as possible. 

We come now to consider the particular measures to be adopted in givinginstruction. 

The objects which are to be secured in the management of the classesare twofold:

1. Recitation. 2. Instruction. 

These two objects are, it is plain, entirely distinct. Under the latteris included all the explanation, and assistance, and additionalinformation which the teacher may give his pupils, and under the former, such an _examination_ of individuals as is necessary to secure theircareful attention to their lessons. It is unsafe to neglect either ofthese points. If the class meetings are mere _recitations_, they soonbecome dull and mechanical; the pupils generally take little interest intheir studies, and imbibe no literary spirit. Their intellectualprogress will, accordingly, suddenly cease the moment they leave school, and so cease to be called upon to recite lessons. On the other hand, if_instruction_ is all that is aimed at, and _recitation_ (by which Imean, as above explained, such an examination of individuals as isnecessary to ascertain that they have faithfully performed the tasksassigned) is neglected, the exercise soon becomes not much more than alecture, to which those, and those only, will attend who please. 

The business, therefore, of a thorough examination of the class must notbe omitted. I do not mean that each individual scholar must every day beexamined, but simply that the teacher must, in some way or other, satisfy himself by reasonable evidence that the whole class are reallyprepared. A great deal of ingenuity may be exercised in contriving meansfor effecting this object in the shortest possible time. I know of nopart of the field of a teacher's labors which may be more facilitated bya little ingenuity than this. 

One teacher, for instance, has a spelling lesson to hear. He begins atthe head of the line, and putting one word to each boy, goes regularlydown, each successive pupil calculating the chances whether a word whichhe can accidentally spell will or will not come to him. If he spells it, the teacher can not tell whether he is prepared or not. That word isonly one among fifty constituting the lesson. If he misses it, theteacher can not decide that he was unprepared. It might have been asingle accidental error. 

Another teacher, hearing the same lesson, requests the boys to bringtheir slates, and, as he dictates the words one after another, requiresall to write them. After they are all written, he calls upon the pupilsto spell them aloud as they have written them, simultaneously, pausing amoment after each, to give those who are wrong an opportunity toindicate it by some mark opposite the word misspelled. They all countthe number of errors and report them. He passes down the class, glancinghis eye at the work of each one to see that all is right, noticingparticularly those slates which, from the character of the boys, need amore careful inspection. A teacher who had never tried this experimentwould be surprised at the rapidity with which such work will beperformed by a class after a little practice. 

Now how different are these two methods in their actual results! In thelatter case the whole class are thoroughly examined. In the former not asingle member of it is. Let me not be understood to recommend exactlythis method of teaching spelling as the best one to be adopted in allcases. I only bring it forward as an illustration of the idea that alittle machinery, a little ingenuity in contriving ways of acting on the_whole_ rather than on individuals, will very much promote the teacher'sdesigns. 

In order to facilitate such plans, it is highly desirable that theclasses should be trained to military precision and exactness in thesemanipulations. What I mean by this may perhaps be best illustrated bydescribing a case: it will show, in another branch, how much will begained by acting upon numbers at once instead of upon each individual insuccession. 

Imagine, then, that a teacher requested all the pupils of his school whocould write to take out their slates at the hour for a generalexercise. As soon as the first bustle of opening and shutting the deskswas over, he looked around the room, and saw some ruling lines acrosstheir slates, others wiping them all over on both sides with sponges, others scribbling, or writing, or making figures. 

"All those, " says he, speaking, however, with a pleasant tone and with apleasant look, "who have taken out any thing besides slates, may rise. "

Several, in various parts of the room, stood up. 

"All those who have written any thing since they took out their slatesmay rise too, and those who have wiped their slates. "

"When all were up, he said to them, though not with a frown or a scowl, as if they had committed a great offense, "Suppose a company of soldiers should be ordered to _form a line_, andinstead of simply obeying that order they should all set at work, eachin his own way, doing something else. One man at one end of the linebegins to load and fire his gun; another takes out his knapsack andbegins to eat his luncheon; a third amuses himself by going as fast aspossible through the exercise; and another still, begins to march abouthither and thither, facing to the right and left, and performing all theevolutions he can think of. What should you say to such a company asthat?"

The boys laughed. 

"It is better, " said the teacher, "when numbers are acting under thedirection of one, that they should all act _exactly together_. In thisway we advance much faster than we otherwise should. Be careful, therefore, to do exactly what I command, and nothing more. 

"_Provide a place on your slates large enough to write a single line_, "added the teacher, in a distinct voice. I print his orders in Italics, and his remarks and explanations in Roman letters. 

"_Prepare to write_. 

"I mean by this, " he continued, "that you place your slates before youwith your pencils at the place where you are to begin, so that all maycommence precisely at the same instant. "

The teacher who tries such an experiment as this will find at such ajuncture an expression of fixed and pleasant attention upon everycountenance in school. All will be intent, all will be interested. Boyslove order, and system, and acting in concert, and they will obey withgreat alacrity such commands as these if they are good-humoredly, thoughdecidedly expressed. 

The teacher observed in one part of the room a hand raised, indicatingthat the boy wished to speak to him. He gave him liberty by pronouncinghis name. 

"I have no pencil, " said the boy. 

A dozen hands all around him were immediately seen fumbling in pocketsand desks, and in a few minutes several pencils were reached out for hisacceptance. 

The boy looked at the pencils and then at the teacher; he did notexactly know whether he was to take one or not. 

"All those boys, " said the teacher, pleasantly, "who have taken outpencils, may rise. 

"Have these boys done right or wrong?"

"Right;" "Wrong;" "Right, " answered their companions, variously. 

"Their motive was to help their class-mate out of his difficulties; thatis a good feeling, certainly. "

"Yes, sir, right;" "Right. "

"But I thought you promised me a moment ago, " replied the teacher, "notto do any thing unless I commanded it. Did I ask for pencils?"

A pause. 

"I do not blame these boys at all in this case; still, it is better toadhere rigidly to the principle of _exact obedience _ when numbers areacting together. I thank them, therefore, for being so ready to assista companion, but they must put their pencils away, as they were takenout without orders. "

Now such a dialogue as this, if the teacher speaks in a good-humored, though decided manner, would be universally well received in any school. Whenever strictness of discipline is unpopular, it is rendered so simplyby the ill-humored and ill-judged means by which it is attempted to beintroduced. But all children will love strict discipline if it ispleasantly, though firmly maintained. It is a great, though veryprevalent mistake, to imagine that boys and girls like a lax andinefficient government, and dislike the pressure of steady control. Whatthey dislike is sour looks and irritating language, and they thereforevery naturally dislike every thing introduced or sustained by means ofthem. If, however, exactness and precision in all the operations of aclass and of the school are introduced and enforced in the propermanner, that is, by a firm, but mild and good-humored authority, scholars will universally be pleased with them. They like to see theuniform appearance, the straight line, the simultaneous movement. Theylike to feel the operation of system, and to realize, while they are atthe school-room, that they form a community, governed by fixed andsteady laws, firmly but kindly administered. On the other hand, laxityof discipline, and the disorder which will result from it, will onlylead the pupils to contemn their teacher and to hate their school. 

By introducing and maintaining such a discipline as I have described, great facilities will be secured for examining the classes. For example, to take a case different from the one before described, let us supposethat a class have been performing a number of examples in Addition. Theycome together to the recitation, and, under one mode of managingclasses, the teacher is immediately beset by a number of the pupils withexcuses. One had no slate; another was absent when the lesson wasassigned; a third performed the work, but it got rubbed out, and afourth did not know what was to be done. The teacher stops to hear allthese, and to talk about them, fretting himself, and fretting thedelinquents by his impatient remarks. The rest of the class are waiting, and, having nothing good to do, the temptation is almost irresistible todo something bad. One boy is drawing pictures on his slate to make hisneighbors laugh, another is whispering, and two more are at play. Thedisorder continues while the teacher goes round examining slate afterslate, his whole attention being engrossed by each individual, as thepupils come to him successively, while the rest are left to themselves, interrupted only by an occasional harsh, or even angry, but utterlyuseless rebuke from him. 

But, under another mode of managing classes and schools, a verydifferent result would be produced. 

A boy approaches the teacher to render an excuse; the teacher replies, addressing himself, however, to the whole class, "I shall give all anopportunity to offer their excuses presently. No one must come till heis called. "

The class then regularly take their places in the recitation seats, theprepared and unprepared together. The following commands are given andobeyed promptly. They are spoken pleasantly, but still in the tone ofcommand. 

"The class may rise. 

"All those that are not fully prepared with this lesson may sit. "

A number sit; and others, doubtful whether they are prepared or not, orthinking that there is something peculiar in their cases, which theywish to state, raise their hands, or make any other signal which iscustomary to indicate a wish to speak. Such a signal ought always to beagreed upon, and understood in school. 

The teacher shakes his head, saying, "I will hear you presently. Ifthere is, on any account whatever, any doubt whether you are prepared, you must sit. 

"Those that are standing may read their answers to No. 1. Unit figure?"

_Boys. _ "Five. "

_Teacher. _ "Tens?"

_B. _ "Six. "

_T. _ "Hundreds?"

_B. _ "Seven. "

While these numbers are thus reading, the teacher looks at the boys, andcan easily see whether any are not reading their own answers, but onlyfollowing the rest. If they have been trained to speak exactly together, his ear will also at once detect any erroneous answer which any one maygive. He takes down the figures given by the majority on his own slate, and reads them aloud. 

"This is the answer obtained by the majority; it is undoubtedly right. Those who have different answers may sit. "

These directions, if understood and obeyed, would divide the classevidently into two portions. Those standing have their work done, anddone correctly, and those sitting have some excuse or error to beexamined. A new lesson may now be assigned, and the first portion may bedismissed, which in a well-regulated school will be two thirds of theclass. Their slates may be slightly examined as they pass by the teacheron their way to their seats to see that all is fair; but it will be safeto take it for granted that a result in which a majority agree will beright. Truth is consistent with itself, but error, in such a case, neveris. This the teacher can at any time show by comparing the answers thatare wrong; they will always be found, not only to differ from thecorrect result, but to contradict each other. 

The teacher may now, if he pleases, after the majority of the class havegone, hear the reasons of those who were unprepared, and look for theerrors of those whose work was incorrect; but it is better to spend aslittle time as possible in such a way. If a scholar is not prepared, itis not of much consequence whether it is because he forgot his book ormistook the lesson; or if it is ascertained that his answer isincorrect, it is ordinarily a mere waste of time to search for theparticular error. 

"I have looked over my work, sir, " says the boy, perhaps, "and I can notfind where it is wrong. " He means by it that he does not believe that itis wrong. 

"It is no matter if you can not, " would be the proper reply, "since itcertainly is wrong; you have made a mistake in adding somewhere, but itis not worth while for me to spend two or three minutes apiece with allof you to ascertain where. Try to be careful next time. "

Indeed the teacher should understand and remember what many teachers arevery prone to forget, namely, that the mere fact of finding anarithmetical error in a pupil's work on the slate, and pointing it outto him, has very little effect in correcting the false habit in his mindfrom which it arose. 

The cases of those who are unprepared at a recitation ought by no meansto be passed by unnoticed, although it would be unwise to spend muchtime in examining each in detail. 

"It is not of much consequence, " the teacher might say, "whether youhave good excuses or bad, so long as you are not prepared. In futurelife you will certainly be unsuccessful if you fail, no matter for whatreason, to discharge the duties which devolve upon you. A carpenter, forinstance, would certainly lose his custom if he should not perform hiswork faithfully and in season. Excuses, no matter how reasonable, willdo him little good. It is just so in respect to punctuality in time aswell as in respect to performance of duty. What we want is that everyboy should be in his place at the proper moment; not that he should belate, and have good excuses for it. When you come to be men, tardinesswill always be punished. Excuses will not help the matter at all. Suppose, hereafter, when you are about to take a journey, you reach thepier five minutes after the steamer has gone, what good will excuses doyou? There you are, left hopelessly behind, no matter if your excusesare the best in the world. So in this school. I want good punctualityand good recitations, not good excuses. I hope every one will beprepared to-morrow. "

[Illustration]

It is not probable, however, that every one would be prepared the nextday in such a case, but by acting steadily on these principles thenumber of delinquencies would be so much diminished that the very fewwhich should be left could easily be examined in detail, and theremedies applied. 

Simultaneous recitation, by which I mean the practice of addressing aquestion to all the class to be answered by all together, is a practicewhich has been for some years rapidly extending in our schools, and, ifadopted with proper limits and restrictions, is attended with greatadvantage. The teacher must guard against some dangers, however, whichwill be likely to attend it. 

1. Some will answer very eagerly, instantly after the question iscompleted. They wish to show their superior readiness. Let the teachermention this, expose kindly the motive which leads to it, and tell themit is as irregular to answer before the rest as after them. 

2. Some will defer their answers until they can catch those of theircomrades for a guide. Let the teacher mention this fault, expose themotive which leads to it, and tell them that if they do not answerindependently and at once, they had better not answer at all. 

3. Some will not answer at all. The teacher can see by looking aroundthe room who do not, for they can not counterfeit the proper motion ofthe lips with promptness and decision unless they know what the answeris to be. He ought occasionally to say to such a one, "I perceive you donot answer, " and ask him questions individually. 

4. In some cases there is danger of confusion in the answers, from thefact that the question may be of such a nature that the answer is long, and may by different individuals be differently expressed. This evilmust be guarded against by so shaping the question as to admit of areply in a single word. In reading large numbers, for example, eachfigure may be called for by itself, or they may be given one afteranother, the pupils keeping exact time. When it is desirable to ask aquestion to which the answer is necessarily long it may be addressed toan individual, or the whole class may write their replies, which maythen be read in succession. 

In a great many cases where simultaneous answering is practiced, after ashort time the evils above specified are allowed to grow, until at lastsome half a dozen bright members of a class answer for all, the restdragging after them, echoing their replies, or ceasing to take anyinterest in an exercise which brings no personal and individualresponsibility upon them. To prevent this, the teacher should exercisedouble vigilance at such a time. He should often address questions toindividuals alone, especially to those most likely to be inattentive andcareless, and guard against the ingress of every abuse which might, without close vigilance, appear. 

With these cautions, the method here alluded to will be found to be ofvery great advantage in many studies; for example, all the arithmeticaltables may be recited in this way; words may be spelled, answers to sumsgiven, columns of figures added, or numbers multiplied, and manyquestions in history, geography, and other miscellaneous studiesanswered, especially the general questions asked for the purpose of areview. 

But, besides being useful as a mode of examination, this plan ofanswering questions simultaneously is a very important means of fixingin the mind any facts which the teacher may communicate to his pupils. If, for instance, he says some day to a class that Vasco de Gama was thediscoverer of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, and leaves ithere, in a few days not one in twenty will recollect the name. But lethim call upon them all to spell it simultaneously, and then to pronounceit distinctly three or four times in concert, and the word will be verystrongly impressed upon their minds. The reflecting teacher will find athousand cases in the instruction of his classes, and in his generalexercises in the school, in which this principle will be of greatutility. It is universal in its application. What we _say_ we fix, bythe very act of saying it, in the mind. Hence, reading aloud, though aslower, is a far more thorough method of acquiring knowledge thanreading silently, and it is better, in almost all cases, whether in thefamily, or in Sabbath or common schools, when general instructions aregiven, to have the leading points fixed in the mind by questionsanswered simultaneously. 

But we are wandering a little from our subject, which is, in this partof our chapter, the methods of _examining_ a class, not of giving orfixing instructions. 

Another mode of examining classes, which it is important to describe, consists in requiring _written answers_ to the questions asked. The formand manner in which this plan may be adopted is various. The class maybring their slates to the recitation, and the teacher may proposequestions successively, the answers to which all the class may write, numbering them carefully. After a dozen answers are written, the teachermay call at random for them, or he may repeat a question, and ask eachpupil to read the answer he had written, or he may examine the slates. Perhaps this method may be very successfully employed in reviews bydictating to the class a list of questions relating to the ground theyhave gone over for a week, and then instructing them to prepare answerswritten out at length, and to bring them in at the next exercise. Thismethod may be made more formal still by requiring a class to write afull and regular abstract of all they have learned during a specifiedtime. The practice of thus reducing to writing what has been learnedwill be attended with many advantages so obvious that they need not bedescribed. 

It will be perceived that three methods of examining classes have nowbeen named, and these will afford the teacher the means of introducing avery great variety in his mode of conducting his recitations, while hestill carries his class forward steadily in their prescribed course. Each is attended with its peculiar advantages. The _single replies, _coming from individuals specially addressed, are more rigid, and more tobe relied upon, but they consume a great deal of time, and, while one isquestioned, it requires much skill to keep up interest in the rest. The_simultaneous answers_ of a class awaken more general interest, but itis difficult, without special care, to secure by this means a specialexamination of all. The _written replies_ are more thorough, but theyrequire more time and attention, and while they habituate the pupil toexpress himself in writing, they would, if exclusively adopted, fail toaccustom him to an equally important practice, that of the oralcommunication of his thoughts. A constant variety, of which these threemethods should be the elements, is unquestionably the best mode. We notonly, by this means, secure in a great degree the advantages which eachis fitted to produce, but we gain also the additional advantage andinterest of variety. 

By these, and perhaps by other means, it is the duty of the teacher tosatisfy himself that his pupils are really attentive to their duties. It is not perhaps necessary that every individual should be every dayminutely examined; this is, in many cases, impossible; but the system ofexamination should be so framed and so administered as to be daily feltby all, and to bring upon every one a daily responsibility. 

 * * * * *

We come now to consider the second general head which was to bediscussed in this chapter. 

The study of books alone is insufficient to give knowledge to the young. In the first stage, learning to read a book is of no use whateverwithout the voice of the living teacher. The child can not take a stepalone. As the pupil, however, advances in his course, his dependenceupon his teacher for guidance and help continually diminishes, until atlast the scholar sits in his solitary study, with no companion but hisbooks, and desiring, for a solution of every difficulty, nothing but alarger library. In schools, however, the pupils have made so littleprogress in this course, that they all need more or less of the oralassistance of a teacher. Difficulties must be explained; questions mustbe answered; the path must be smoothed, and the way pointed out by aguide who has traveled it before, or it will be impossible for the pupilto go on. This is the part of our subject which we now approach. 

The great principle which is to guide the teacher in this part of hisduty is this: _Assist your pupils in such a way as to lead them, as soonas possible, to do without assistance. _ This is fundamental. In a shorttime they will be away from your reach; they will have no teacher toconsult; and unless you teach them how to understand books themselves, they must necessarily stop suddenly in their course the moment you ceaseto help them forward. I shall proceed, therefore, to consider thesubject in the following plan:

1. Means of exciting interest in study. 

2. The kind and decree of assistance to be rendered. 

3. Miscellaneous suggestions. 

1. Interesting the pupils in their studies. There are variousprinciples of human nature which may be of great avail in accomplishingthis object. Making intellectual effort and acquiring knowledge arealways pleasant to the human mind, unless some peculiar circumstancesrender them otherwise. The teacher has, therefore, only to removeobstructions and sources of pain, and the employment of his pupils willbe of itself a pleasure. 

"I am going to give you a new exercise to-day, " said a teacher to aclass of boys in Latin. "I am going to have you parse your whole lessonin writing. It will be difficult, but I think you may be able toaccomplish it. "

The class looked surprised. They did not know _what parsing in writing_could be. 

"You may first, when you take your seats, and are ready to prepare thelesson, write upon your slates a list of the ten first nouns that youfind in the lesson, arranging them in a column. Do you understand sofar?"

"Yes, sir. "

"Then rule lines for another column, just beyond this. In parsing nouns, what is the first particular to be named?"

"What the noun is from. "

"Yes; that is, its nominative. Now you may write, at the head of thefirst column, the word _Nouns_, and at the head of the second, _Nom. _, for nominative. Then rule a line for the third column. What shall thiscontain!" "The declension. " "Yes; and the fourth?" "Gender. " "Thefifth?" "Number. "

In the same manner the other columns were designated. The sixth was tocontain case; the seventh, the word with which the noun was connected inconstruction; and the eighth, a reference to the rule. 

"Now I wish you, " continued the teacher, "to fill up such a table asthis with _ten_ nouns. Do you understand how I mean?"

"Yes, sir;" "No, sir, " they answered, variously. 

"All who do understand may take their seats, as I wish to give as littleexplanation as possible. The more you can depend upon yourselves, thebetter. "

Those who saw clearly what was to be done left the class, and theteacher continued his explanation to those who were left behind. He madethe plan perfectly clear to them by taking a particular noun and runningit through the table, showing what should be written opposite to theword in all the columns, and then dismissed them. 

The class separated, as every class would, in such a case, with a strongfeeling of interest in the work before them. It was not so difficult asto perplex them, and yet it required attention and care. They wereinterested and pleased--pleased with the effort which it required themto make, and they anticipated, with interest and pleasure, the time ofcoming again to the class to report and compare their work. 

When the time for the class came, the teacher addressed them somewhat asfollows:

"Before looking at your slates, I am going to predict what the faultsare. I have not seen any of your work, but shall judge altogether frommy general knowledge of school-boys, and the difficulties I know theymeet with. Do you think I shall succeed?"

The scholars made no reply, and an unskillful teacher would imagine thattime spent in such remarks would be wholly wasted. By no means. Theinfluence of them was to awaken universal interest in the approachingexamination of the slates. Every scholar would be intent, watching, witheager interest, to see whether the imagined faults would be found uponhis work. The class was, by that single pleasant remark, put into thebest possible state for receiving the criticisms of the teacher. 

"The first fault which I suppose will be found is that some areunfinished. "

The scholars looked surprised. They did not expect to have that calleda fault. 

"How many plead guilty to it?"

A few raised their hands, and the teacher continued:

"I suppose that some will be found partly effaced. The slates were notlaid away carefully, or they were not clean, so that the writing is notdistinct. How many find this the case with their work?"

"I suppose that, in some cases, the lines will not be perpendicular, butwill slant, probably toward the left, like writing. 

"I suppose, also, that, in some cases, the writing will be careless, sothat I can not easily read it. How many plead guilty to this?"

After mentioning such other faults as occurred to him, relating chieflyto the form of the table, and the mere mechanical execution of the work, he said, "I think I shall not look at your slates to-day. You can all see, I haveno doubt, how you can considerably improve them in mechanical executionin your next lesson; and I suppose you would a little prefer that Ishould not see your first imperfect efforts. In fact, I should rathernot see them. At the next recitation they probably will be much better. "

One important means by which the teacher may make his scholars carefulof their reputation is to show them, thus, that he is careful of ithimself. 

Now in such a case as this, for it is, except in the principles which itis intended to illustrate, imaginary, a very strong interest would beawakened in the class in the work assigned them. Intellectual effort innew and constantly varied modes is in itself a pleasure, and thispleasure the teacher may deepen and increase very easily by a littledexterous management, designed to awaken curiosity and concentrateattention. It ought, however, to be constantly borne in mind that thisvariety should be confined to the modes of pursuing an object--theobject itself being permanent, and constant, and steadily pursued. Forinstance, if a little class are to be taught simple addition, after theprocess is once explained, which may be done, perhaps, in two or threelessons, they will need many days of patient practice to render itfamiliar, to impress it firmly in their recollection, and to enable themto work with rapidity. Now this object must be steadily pursued. Itwould be very unwise for the teacher to say to himself, My class aretired of addition; I must carry them on to subtraction, or give themsome other study. It would be equally unwise to keep them many daysperforming example after example in monotonous succession, each lesson amere repetition of the last. He must steadily pursue his object offamiliarizing them fully with this elementary process, but he may givevariety and spirit to the work by changing occasionally the modes. Oneweek He may dictate examples to them, and let them come together tocompare their results, one of the class being appointed to keep a listof all who are correct each day. At another time each one may write anexample, which he may read aloud to all the others, to be performed andbrought in at the next time. Again, he may let them work on paper withpen and ink, that he may see how few mistakes they make, as mistakes inink can not be easily removed. He may excite interest by devisingingenious examples, such as finding out how much all the numbers fromone to fifty will make when added together, or the amount of the ages ofthe whole class, or any such investigation, the result of which theymight feel an interest in learning. Thus the object is steadily pursued, though the means of pursuing it are constantly changing. We have theadvantage of regular progress in the acquisition of knowledge trulyvaluable, while this progress is made with all the spirit and interestwhich variety can give. 

The necessity of making such efforts as this, however, to keep up theinterest of the class in their work, and to make it pleasant to them, will depend altogether upon circumstances; or, rather, it will varymuch with circumstances. A class of pupils somewhat advanced in theirstudies, and understanding and feeling the value of knowledge, will needvery little of such effort as this; while young and giddy children, whohave been accustomed to dislike books and school, and every thingconnected with them, will need more. It ought, however, in all cases, tobe made a means, not an end--the means to lead on a pupil to an_interest in progress in knowledge itself, _ which is, after all, thegreat motive which ought to be brought as soon and as extensively aspossible to operate in the school-room. 

Another way to awaken interest in the studies of the school is to bringout, as frequently and as distinctly as possible, the connection betweenthese studies and the practical business of life. The events which areoccurring around you, and which interest the community in which you areplaced, may, by a little ingenuity, be connected in a thousand ways withthe studies of the school. If the practice, which has been alreadyrepeatedly recommended, of appropriating a quarter of an hour each dayto a general exercise, should be adopted, it will afford greatfacilities for doing this. 

There is no branch of study attended to in school which may, byjudicious efforts, be made more effectual in accomplishing this object, leading the pupils to see the practical utility and the value ofknowledge, than composition. If such subjects as are suitable themes for_moral essays_ are assigned, the scholars will indeed dislike the workof writing, and derive little benefit from it. The mass of pupils in ourschools are not to be writers of moral essays or orations, and they donot need to form that style of empty, florid, verbose declamation whichthe practice of writing composition in our schools, as it is toofrequently managed, tends to form. Assign practical subjects--subjectsrelating to the business of the school, or the events taking placearound you. Is there a question before the community on the subject ofthe location of a new school-house? Assign it to your pupils as aquestion for discussion, and direct them not to write empty declamation, but to obtain from their parents the real arguments in the case, and topresent them distinctly and clearly, and in simple language, to theircompanions. Was a building burned by lightning in the neighborhood? Letthose who saw the scene describe it, their productions to be read by theteacher aloud, and let them see that clear descriptions please, and thatgood legible writing can be read fluently, and that correct spelling, and punctuation, and grammar make the article go smoothly andpleasantly, and enable it to produce its full effect. Is the erection ofa public building going forward in the neighborhood of your school? Youcan make it a very fruitful source of subjects and questions to giveinterest and impulse to the studies of the school-room. Your classes ingeometry may measure, your arithmeticians may calculate and makeestimates, your writers may describe its progress from week to week, andanticipate the scenes which it will in future years exhibit. 

By such means the practical bearings and relations of the studies of theschool-room may be constantly kept in view; but I ought to guard theteacher, while on this subject, most distinctly against the danger ofmaking the school-room a scene of literary amusement instead of study. These means of awakening interest and relieving the tedium of theuninterrupted and monotonous study of text-books must not encroach onthe regular duties of the school. They must be brought forward withjudgment and moderation, and made subordinate and subservient to theseregular duties. Their design is to give spirit and interest, and afeeling of practical utility to what the pupils are doing; and ifresorted to with these restrictions and within these limits, they willproduce powerful, but safe results. 

Another way to excite interest, and that of the right kind, in school, is not to _remove_ difficulties, but to teach the pupils how to_surmount_ them. A text-book so contrived as to make study mere play, and to dispense with thought and effort, is the worst text-book that canbe made, and the surest to be, in the end, a dull one. The great sourceof literary enjoyment, which is the successful exercise of intellectualpower, is, by such a mode of presenting a subject, cut off. Secure, therefore, severe study. Let the pupil see that you are aiming to secureit, and that the pleasure which you expect that they will receive isthat of firmly and patiently encountering and overcoming difficulty; ofpenetrating, by steady and persevering effort, into regions from whichthe idle and the inefficient are debarred, and that it is your provinceto lead them forward, not to carry them. They will soon understand this, and like it. 

Never underrate the difficulties which your pupils will have toencounter, or try to persuade them that what you assign is _easy_. Doingeasy things is generally dull work, and it is especially discouragingand disheartening for a pupil to spend his strength in doing what isreally difficult for him when his instructor, by calling his work easy, gives him no credit for what may have been severe and protracted labor. If a thing is really hard for the pupil, his teacher ought to know itand admit it. The child then feels that he has some sympathy. 

It is astonishing how great an influence may be exerted over a child byhis simply knowing that his efforts are observed and appreciated. Youpass a boy in the street wheeling a heavy load in a barrow; now simplystop to look at him, with a countenance which says, "That is a heavyload; I should not think that boy could wheel it;" and how quick willyour look give fresh strength and vigor to his efforts. On the otherhand, when, in such a case, the boy is faltering under his load, try theeffect of telling him, "Why, that is not heavy; you can wheel it easilyenough; trundle it along. " The poor boy will drop his load, disheartenedand discouraged, and sit down upon it in despair. It is so in respectto the action of the young in all cases. They are animated and incitedby being told _in the right way_ that they have something difficult todo. A boy is performing some service for you. He is watering your horse, perhaps, at a well by the road-side as you are traveling. Say to him, "Hold up the pail high, so that the horse can drink; it is not heavy. "

[Illustration]

He will be discouraged, and will be ready to set the pail down. Say tohim, on the other hand, "I had better dismount myself. I don't think youcan hold the pail up. It is very heavy;" and his eye will brighten up atonce. "Oh no, sir, " he will reply, "I can hold it very easily. " Hence, even if the work you are assigning to a class _is_ easy, do not tellthem so unless you wish to destroy all their spirit and interest indoing it; and if you wish to excite their spirit and interest, make yourwork difficult, and let them see that you know it is so; not sodifficult as to tax their powers too heavily, but enough so to require avigorous and persevering effort. Let them distinctly understand, too, that you know it is difficult, that you mean to make it so, but thatthey have your sympathy and encouragement in the efforts which it callsthem to make. 

You may satisfy yourself that human nature is, in this respect, what Ihave described by some such experiment as the following. Select twoclasses not very familiar with elementary arithmetic, and offer to eachof them the following example in addition:

 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 etc. , etc. 

The numbers may be continued, according to the obvious law regulatingthe above, until each one of the nine digits has commenced the line. Or, if you choose Multiplication, let the example be this:

 Multiply 123456789 by 123456789 ---------

Now, when you bring the example to one of the classes, address thepupils as follows:

"I have contrived for you a very difficult sum. It is the most difficultone that can be made with the number of figures contained in it, and Ido not think that any of you can do it, but you may try. I shall not besurprised if every answer should contain mistakes. "

To the other class say as follows:

"I have prepared an example for you, which I wish you to be very carefulto perform correctly. It is a little longer than those you have hadheretofore, but it is to be performed upon the same principles, and youcan all do it correctly, if you really try. "

Now under such circumstances the first class will go to their seats withardor and alacrity, determined to show you that they can do work, evenif it is difficult; and if they succeed, they come to the class the nextday with pride and pleasure. They have accomplished something which youadmit it was not easy to accomplish. On the other hand, the second classwill go to their seats with murmuring looks and words, and with ahearty dislike of the task you have assigned them. They know that theyhave something to do, which, however easy it may be to the teacher, isreally difficult for them; and they have to be perplexed and weariedwith the work, without having, at last, even the little satisfaction ofknowing that the teacher appreciates the difficulties with which theyhad to contend. 

2. We now come to consider the subject of rendering assistance to thepupil, which is one of the most important and delicate parts of ateacher's work. The great difference which exists among teachers inregard to the skill they possess in this part of their duty, is sostriking that it is very often noticed by others; and perhaps skill hereis of more avail in deciding the question of success or failure than anything besides. The first great principle is, however, simple andeffectual. 

_(1. ) Divide and subdivide a difficult process, until your steps are soshort that the pupil can easily take them. _

Most teachers forget the difference between the pupil's capacity andtheir own, and they pass rapidly forward, through a difficult train ofthought, in their own ordinary gait, their unfortunate followers vainlytrying to keep up with them. The case is precisely analogous to that ofthe father, who walks with the step of a man, while his little son is byhis side, wearying and exhausting himself with fruitless efforts toreach his feet as far, and to move them as rapidly as a full-grown man. 

But to show what I mean by subdividing a difficult process so as to makeeach step simple, I will take a case which may serve as an example. Iwill suppose that the teacher of a common school undertakes to show hisboys, who, we will suppose, are acquainted with nothing but elementaryarithmetic, how longitude is determined by means of the eclipses ofJupiter's satellites; not a very simple question, but still one which, like all others, may be, merely by the power of the subdivision alludedto, easily explained. I will suppose that the subject has come up at ageneral exercise; perhaps the question was asked in writing by one ofthe older boys. I will present the explanation chiefly in the form ofquestion and answer, that it may be seen that the steps are so shortthat the boys may take them themselves. 

"Which way, " asks the teacher, "are the Rocky Mountains from us?"

"West, " answer two or three of the boys. 

In such cases as this, it is very desirable that the answers should begeneral, so that throughout the school there should be a spiritedinterest in the questions and replies. This will never be the case if asmall number of the boys only take part in the answers, and manyteachers complain that when they try this experiment they can seldominduce many of the pupils to take a part. 

The reason ordinarily is that they say that _any_ of the boys may answerinstead of that _all_ of them may. The boys do not get the idea that itis wished that a universal reply should come from all parts of the room, in which every one's voice should be heard. If the answers were feeblein the instance we are supposing, the teacher would perhaps say, "I only heard one or two answers; do not more of you know where theRocky Mountains are? Will you all think and answer together? Which wayare they from us?"

"West, " answer a large number of boys. 

"You do not answer fully enough yet; I do not think more than fortyanswered, and there are about sixty here. I should like to have _everyone in the room_ answer, and all precisely together. "

He then repeats the question, and obtains a full response. A similareffort will always succeed. 

"Now does the sun, in going round the earth, pass over the RockyMountains, or over us, first?"

To this question the teacher hears a confused answer. Some do notreply; some say, "Over the Rocky Mountains;" others, "Over us;" andothers still, "The sun does not move at all. "

"It is true that the sun, strictly speaking, does not move; the earthturns round, presenting the various countries in succession to the sun, but the effect is precisely the same as it would be if the sun moved, and, accordingly, I use that language. Now how long does it take the sunto pass round the earth?"

"Twenty-four hours. "

"Does he go toward the west or toward the east from us?"

"Toward the west. "

But it is not necessary to give the replies; the questions alone will besufficient. The reader will observe that they inevitably lead the pupil, by short and simple steps, to a clear understanding of the point to beexplained. 

"Will the sun go toward or from the Rocky Mountains after leaving us?"

"How long did you say it takes the sun to go round the globe and come tous again?"

"How long to go half round?" "Quarter round?"

"How long will it take him to go to the Rocky Mountains?"

No answer. 

"You can not tell. It would depend upon the distance. Suppose, then, theRocky Mountains were half round the globe, how long would it take thesun to go to them?" "Suppose they were quarter round?"

"The whole distance is divided into portions called degrees--360 in all. How many will the sun pass in going half round?" "In going quarterround?"

"Ninety degrees, then, make one quarter of the circumference of theglobe. This, you have already said, will take six hours. In one hour, then, how many degrees will the sun pass over?"

Perhaps no answer. If so, the teacher will subdivide the question on theprinciple we are explaining, so as to make the steps such that thepupils _can_ take them. 

"How many degrees will the sun pass over in three hours?"

"Forty-five. "

"How large a part of that, then, will he pass in one hour?"

"One third of it. "

"And what is one third of forty-five?"

The boys would readily answer fifteen, and the teacher would then dwellfor a moment on the general truth thus deduced, that the sun, in passinground the earth, passes over fifteen degrees every hour. 

"Suppose, then, it takes the sun one hour to go from us to the RiverMississippi, how many degrees west of us would the river be?"

Having thus familiarized the pupils to the fact that the motion of thesun is a proper measure of the difference of longitude between twoplaces, the teacher must dismiss the subject for a day, and when thenext opportunity of bringing it forward occurs, he would, perhaps, takeup the subject of the sun's motion as a measure _of time. _

"Is the sun ever exactly over our heads?"

"Is he ever exactly south of us?"

"When he is exactly south of us, or, in other words, exactly opposite tous in his course round the earth, he is said to be in our meridian; forthe word meridian means a line drawn exactly north or south from anyplace. "

There is no limit to the simplicity which may be imparted, even to themost difficult subjects, by subdividing the steps. This point, forinstance, the meaning of meridian, may be the subject, if it werenecessary, of many questions, which would render it simple to theyoungest child. The teacher may point to the various articles in theroom, or buildings, or other objects without, and ask if they are or arenot in his meridian. But to proceed:

"When the sun is exactly opposite to us, in the south, at the highestpoint to which he rises, what o'clock is it?"

"When the sun is exactly opposite to us, can he be opposite to the RockyMountains?"

"Does he get opposite to the Rocky Mountains before or after he isopposite to us?"

"When he is opposite to the Rocky Mountains, what o'clock is it there?"

"Is it twelve o'clock here, then, before or after it is twelve o'clockthere?"

"Suppose the River Mississippi is fifteen degrees from us, how long isit twelve o'clock here before it is twelve o'clock there?"

"When it is twelve o'clock here, then, what time will it be there?"

Some will probably answer "one, " and some "eleven. " If so, the step istoo long, and may be subdivided thus:

"When it is noon here, is the sun going toward the Mississippi, or hashe passed it?"

"Then has noon gone by at that river, or has it not yet come?"

"Then will it be one hour before or one hour after noon?"

"Then will it be eleven or one?"

Such minuteness and simplicity would, in ordinary cases, not benecessary. I go into it here merely to show how, by simply subdividingthe steps, a subject ordinarily perplexing may be made plain. The readerwill observe that in the above there are no explanations by theteacher--there are not even leading questions; that is, there are noquestions the form of which suggests the answers desired. The pupil goeson from step to step simply because he has but one short step to take ata time. 

"Can it be noon, then, " continues the teacher, "here and at a placefifteen degrees west of us at the same time?"

"Can it be noon here and at a place ten miles west of us at the sametime?"

It is unnecessary to continue the illustration, for it will be veryevident to every reader that, by going forward in this way, the wholesubject may be laid out before the pupils so that they shall perfectlyunderstand it. They can, by a series of questions like the above, be ledto see, by their own reasoning, that time, as denoted by the clock, mustdiffer in every two places not upon the same meridian, and that thedifference must be exactly proportional to the difference of longitude. So that a watch which is right in one place can not, strictly speaking, be right in any other place east or west of the first; and that, if thetime of day at two places can be compared, either by taking achronometer from one to another, or by observing some celestialphenomenon, like the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, and ascertainingprecisely the time of their occurrence, according to the reckoning atboth, the distance east or west by degrees may be determined. The readerwill observe, too, that the method by which this explanation is made isstrictly in accordance with the principle I am illustrating, which is bysimply _dividing the process into short steps. _ There is no ingeniousreasoning on the part of the teacher, no happy illustrations, noapparatus, no diagrams. It is a pure process of mathematical reasoning, made clear and easy by _simple analysis. _

In applying this method, however, the teacher should be very careful notto subdivide too much. It is best that the pupils should walk as fast asthey can. The object of the teacher should be to smooth the path notmuch more than barely enough to enable the pupil to go on. He should notendeavor to make it very easy. 

(2. ) Truths must not only be taught to the pupils, but they must_fixed_, and _made familiar. _ This is a point which seems to be verygenerally overlooked. 

"Can you say the Multiplication Table?" said a teacher to a boy who wasstanding before him in his class. 

"Yes, sir. "

"Well, I should like to have you say the line beginning nine times one. "

The boy repeated it slowly, but correctly. 

"Now I should like to have you try again, and I will, at the same time, say another line, to see if I can put you out. "

The boy looked surprised. The idea of his teacher's trying to perplexand embarrass him was entirely new. 

"You must not be afraid, " said the teacher. "You will undoubtedly notsucceed in getting through, but you will not be to blame for thefailure. I only try it as a sort of intellectual experiment. "

The boy accordingly began again, but was soon completely confused by theteacher's accompaniment. He stopped in the middle of his line, saying, "I could say it, only you put me out. "

"Well, now try to say the Alphabet, and let me see if I can put you outthere. "

As might have been expected, the teacher failed. The boy went regularlyonward to the end. 

"You see, now, " said the teacher to the class who had witnessed theexperiment, "that this boy knows his Alphabet in a different sense fromthat in which he knows his Multiplication Table. In the latter, hisknowledge is only imperfectly his own; he can make use of it only underfavorable circumstances. In the former it is entirely his own;circumstances have no control over him. "

A child has a lesson in Latin Grammar to recite. She hesitates andstammers, miscalls the cases, and then corrects herself, and, if shegets through at last, she considers herself as having recited well, andvery many teachers would consider it well too. If she hesitates a littlelonger than usual in trying to summon to her recollection a particularword, she says, perhaps, "Don't tell me, " and if she happens at last toguess right, she takes her book with a countenance beaming withsatisfaction. 

"Suppose you had the care of an infant school, " might the instructor sayto such a scholar, "and were endeavoring to teach a little child tocount, and she should recite her lesson to you in this way, 'One, two, four--no, three--one, two, three----stop, don't tell me--five--no, four--four--five--------I shall think in a minute--six--is that right?five, six, ' &c. Should you call that reciting well?"

Nothing is more common than for pupils to say, when they fail ofreciting their lesson, that they could say it at their seats, but thatthey can not now say it before the class. When such a thing is said forthe first time it should not be severely reproved, because nine childrenin ten honestly think that if the lesson were learned so that it couldbe recited any where, their duty is discharged. But it should be kindly, though distinctly explained to them, that in the business of life theymust have their knowledge so much at command that they can use it at alltimes and in all circumstances, or it will do them little good. 

One of the most common cases of difficulty in pursuing mathematicalstudies, or studies of any kind where the succeeding lessons depend uponthose which precede, is the fact that the pupil, though he mayunderstand what precedes, is not _familiar_ with it. This is verystrikingly the case with Geometry. The class study the definitions, andthe teacher supposes they fully understand them; in fact, they do_understand_ them, but the name and the thing are so feebly connected intheir minds that a direct effort and a short pause are necessary torecall the idea when they hear or see the word. When they come on, therefore, to the demonstrations, which in themselves would be difficultenough, they have double duty to perform. The words used do not readilysuggest the idea, and the connection of the ideas requires carefulstudy. Under this double burden many a young geometrician sinksdiscouraged. 

A class should go on slowly, and dwell on details so long as to fixfirmly and make perfectly familiar whatever they undertake to learn. Inthis manner the knowledge they acquire will become their own. It will beincorporated, as it were, into their very minds, and they can notafterward be deprived of it. 

The exercises which have for their object this rendering familiar whathas been learned may be so varied as to interest the pupil very much, instead of being tiresome, as it might at first be supposed. 

Suppose, for instance, a teacher has explained to a large class ingrammar the difference between an adjective and an adverb; if he leaveit here, in a fortnight one half of the pupils would have forgotten thedistinction, but by dwelling upon it a few lessons he may fix itforever. The first lesson might be to require the pupils to write twentyshort sentences containing only adjectives. The second to write twentycontaining only adverbs. The third to write sentences in two forms, onecontaining the adjective, and the other expressing the same idea bymeans of the adverb, arranging them in two columns, thus:

 He writes well. | His writing is good. 

Again, they may make out a list of adjectives, with the adverbs derivedfrom each in another column. Then they may classify adverbs on theprinciple of their meaning, or according to their termination. Theexercise may be infinitely varied, and yet the object of the whole maybe to make _perfectly familiar_, and to fix forever in the mind thedistinction explained. 

These two points seem to me to be fundamental, so far as assistingpupils through the difficulties which lie in their way is concerned. Diminish the difficulties as far as is necessary by shortening andsimplifying the steps, and make thorough work as you go on. Theseprinciples, carried steadily into practice, will be effectual in leadingany mind through any difficulties which may occur. And though they cannot, perhaps, be fully applied to every mind in a large school, yet theycan be so far acted upon in reference to the whole mass as to accomplishthe object for a very large majority. 

3. _General cautions_. A few miscellaneous suggestions, which we shallinclude under this head, will conclude this chapter. 

(1. ) Never do any thing _for_ a scholar, but teach him to do it forhimself. How many cases occur in the schools of our country where theboy brings his slate to the teacher, saying he can not do a certain sum. The teacher takes the slate and pencil, performs the work in silence, brings the result, and returns the slate to the hands of his pupil, whowalks off to his seat, and goes to work on the next example, perfectlysatisfied with the manner in which he is passing on. A man who has notdone this a hundred times himself will hardly believe it possible thatsuch a practice can prevail, it is so evidently a mere waste of timeboth for master and scholar. 

(2. ) Never get out of patience with dullness. Perhaps I ought to say, never get out of patience with any thing. That would, perhaps, be thewisest rule. But, above all things, remember that dullness andstupidity--and you will certainly find them in every school--are thevery last things to get out of patience with. If the Creator has soformed the mind of a boy that he must go through life slowly and withdifficulty, impeded by obstructions which others do not feel, anddepressed by discouragements which others never know, his lot is surelyhard enough without having you to add to it the trials and sufferingwhich sarcasm and reproach from you can heap upon him. Look over yourschool-room, therefore, and wherever you find one whom you perceive theCreator to have endued with less intellectual power than others, fixyour eye upon him with an expression of kindness and sympathy. Such aboy will have suffering enough from the selfish tyranny of hiscompanions; he ought to find in you a protector and friend. One of thegreatest enjoyments which a teacher's life affords is the interest ofseeking out such a one, bowed down with burdens of depression anddiscouragement, unaccustomed to sympathy and kindness, and expectingnothing for the future but a weary continuation of the cheerless toilswhich have imbittered the past; and the pleasure of taking off theburden, of surprising the timid, disheartened sufferer by kind words andcheering looks, and of seeing in his countenance the expression of easeand even of happiness gradually returning. 

(3. ) The teacher should be interested in _all_ his scholars, and aimequally to secure the progress of all. Let there be no neglected ones inthe school-room. We should always remember that, however unpleasant incountenance and manners that bashful boy in the corner may be, orhowever repulsive in appearance, or unhappy in disposition, that girl, seeming to be interested in nobody, and nobody appearing interested inher, they still have, each of them, a mother, who loves her own child, and takes a deep and constant interest in its history. Those mothershave a right, too, that their children should receive their full shareof attention in a school which has been established for the common andequal benefit of all. 

(4. ) Do not hope or attempt to make all your pupils alike. Providencehas determined that human minds should differ from each other for thevery purpose of giving variety and interest to this busy scene of life. Now if it were possible for a teacher so to plan his operations as tosend his pupils forth upon the community formed on the same model, as ifthey were made by machinery, he would do so much toward spoiling one ofthe wisest of the plans which the Almighty has formed for making thisworld a happy scene. Let it be the teacher's aim to co-operate with, notvainly to attempt to thwart, the designs of Providence. We should bringout those powers with which the Creator has endued the minds placedunder our control. We must open our garden to such influences as shallbring forward all the plants, each in a way corresponding to its ownnature. It is impossible if it were wise, and it would be foolish if itwere possible, to stimulate, by artificial means, the rose, in hope ofits reaching the size and magnitude of the apple-tree, or to try tocultivate the fig and the orange where wheat only will grow. No; itshould be the teacher's main design to shelter his pupils from everydeleterious influence, and to bring every thing to bear upon thecommunity of minds before him which will encourage in each one thedevelopment of its own native powers. For the rest, he must rememberthat his province is to cultivate, not to create. 

Error on this point is very common. Many teachers, even among those whohave taken high rank through the success with which they have labored inthe field, have wasted much time in attempting to do what never can bedone, to form the character of those brought under their influence aftera certain uniform model, which they have conceived as the standard ofexcellence. Their pupils must write just such a hand, they must composein just such a style, they must be similar in sentiment and feeling, andtheir manners must be formed according to a fixed and uniform model; andwhen, in such a case, a pupil comes under their charge whom Providencehas designed to be entirely different from the beau ideal adopted as thestandard, more time, and pains, and anxious solicitude is wasted in vainattempts to produce the desired conformity than half the school requirebeside. 

(5. ) Do not allow the faults or obliquities of character, or theintellectual or moral wants of any individual of your pupils to engrossa disproportionate share of your time. I have already said that thosewho are peculiarly in need of sympathy or help should receive thespecial attention they seem to require; what I mean to say now is, donot carry this to an extreme. When a parent sends you a pupil who, inconsequence of neglect or mismanagement at home, has become wild andungovernable, and full of all sorts of wickedness, he has no right toexpect that you shall turn your attention away from the wide fieldwhich, in your whole school-room, lies before you, to spend your time, and exhaust your spirits and strength in endeavoring to repair theinjuries which his own neglect has occasioned. When you open a school, you do not engage, either openly or tacitly, to make every pupil who maybe sent to you a learned or a virtuous man. You do engage to give themall faithful instruction, and to bestow upon each such a degree ofattention as is consistent with the claims of the rest. But it is bothunwise and unjust to neglect the many trees in your nursery which, byordinary attention, may be made to grow straight and tall, and to beargood fruit, that you may waste your labor upon a crooked stick, fromwhich all your toil can secure very little beauty or fruitfulness. 

Let no one now understand me to say that such cases are to be neglected. I admit the propriety, and, in fact, have urged the duty, of paying tothem a little more than their due share of attention. What I now condemnis the practice, of which all teachers are in danger, of devoting such adisproportionate and unreasonable degree of attention to them as toencroach upon their duties to others. The school, the whole school, isyour field, the elevation _of the mass_ in knowledge and virtue, and noindividual instance, either of dullness or precocity, should draw youaway from its steady pursuit. 

(6. ) The teacher should guard against unnecessarily imbibing thosefaulty mental habits to which his station and employment expose him. Accustomed to command, and to hold intercourse with minds which areimmature and feeble compared with our own, we gradually acquire habitsthat the rough collisions and the friction of active life prevent fromgathering around other men. Narrow-minded prejudices and prepossessionsare imbibed through the facility with which, in our own littlecommunity, we adopt and maintain opinions. A too strong confidence inour own views on every subject almost inevitably comes from neverhearing our opinions contradicted or called in question, and we expressthose opinions in a tone of authority, and even sometimes of arrogance, which we acquire in the school-room, for there, when we speak, nobodycan reply. 

These peculiarities show themselves first, and, in fact, most commonly, in the school-room; and the opinions thus formed very often relate tothe studies and management of the school. One has a peculiar mode ofteaching spelling, which is successful almost entirely through the magicinfluence of his interest in it, and he thinks no other mode of teachingthis branch is even tolerable. Another must have all his pupils write onthe angular system, or the anti-angular system, and he enters with allthe zeal into a controversy on the subject, as if the destiny of thewhole rising generation depended upon its decision. Tell him that allthat is of any consequence in any handwriting is that it should belegible, rapid, and uniform, and that, for the rest, it would be betterthat every human being should write a different hand, and he looks uponyou with astonishment, wondering that you can not see the vitalimportance of the question whether the vertex of an _o_ should, bepointed or round. So in every thing. He has _his way_ in every minuteparticular--a way from which he can not deviate, and to which he wishesevery one else to conform. 

This set, formal mannerism is entirely inconsistent with that commandingintellectual influence which the teacher should exert in theadministration of his school. He should work with what an artist callsboldness and freedom of touch. Activity and enterprise of mind shouldcharacterize all his measures if he wishes to make bold, original, andefficient men. 

(7. ) Assume no false appearances in your school either as to knowledgeor character. Perhaps it may justly be said to be the common practice ofteachers in this country to affect a dignity of deportment in thepresence of their pupils which in other cases is laid aside, and topretend to superiority in knowledge and an infallibility of judgmentwhich no sensible man would claim before other sensible men, but whichan absurd fashion seems to require of the teacher. It can, however, scarcely be said to be a fashion, for the temptation is almostexclusively confined to the young and the ignorant, who think they mustmake up by appearance what they want in reality. Very few of the older, and more experienced, and successful instructors in our country fallinto it at all; but some young beginner, whose knowledge is verylimited, and who, in manner and habits, has only just ceased to be aboy, walks into his school-room with a countenance of forced gravity, and with a dignified and solemn step, which is ludicrous even tohimself. I describe accurately, for I describe from recollection. Thisunnatural, and forced, and ludicrous dignity cleaves to him like adisease through the whole period of his duty. In the presence of hisscholars he is always under restraint, assuming a stiff and formaldignity which is as ridiculous as it is unnatural. He is also obliged toresort to arts which are certainly not very honorable to conceal hisignorance. 

A scholar, for example, brings him a sum in arithmetic which he does notknow how to perform. This may be the case with a most excellent teacher, and one well qualified for his business. In order to be successful as ateacher, it is not necessary to understand every thing. Instead, however, of saying frankly, "I do not understand that example; I willexamine it, " he looks at it embarrassed and perplexed, not knowing howhe shall escape the exposure of his ignorance. His first thought is togive some general directions to the pupil, and send him to his seat tomake a new experiment, hoping that in some way or other, he scarcelyknows how, he will get through; and, at any rate, if he should not, theteacher thinks that he himself at least gains time by the manoeuvre, andhe is glad to postpone his trouble, though he knows it must soon return. 

All efforts to conceal ignorance, and all affectation of knowledge notpossessed, are as unwise as they are dishonest. If a scholar asks aquestion which you can not answer, or brings you a difficulty which youcan not solve, say frankly, "I do not know. " It is the only way to avoidcontinual anxiety and irritation, and the surest means of securing realrespect. Let the scholars understand that the superiority of the teacherdoes not consist in his infallibility, or in his universal acquisitions, but in a well-balanced mind, where the boundary between knowledge andignorance is distinctly marked; in a strong desire to go forward inmental improvement, and in fixed principles of action and systematichabits. You may even take up in school a study entirely new to you, andhave it understood at the outset that you know no more of it than theclass commencing, but that you can be their guide on account of thesuperior maturity and discipline of your powers, and the comparativeease with which you can meet and overcome difficulties. This is theunderstanding which ought always to exist between master and scholars. The fact that the teacher does not know every thing can not long beconcealed if he tries to conceal it, and in this, as in every othercase, HONESTY IS THE BEST POLICY. 

CHAPTER IV. 

MORAL DISCIPLINE. 

Under the title which I have placed at the head of this chapter I intendto discuss the methods by which the teacher is to secure a moralascendency over his pupils, so that he may lead them to do what isright, and bring them back to duty when they do what is wrong. I shalluse, in what I have to say, a very plain and familiar style; and as verymuch depends not only on the general principles by which the teacher isactuated, but also on the tone and manner in which, in cases ofdiscipline, he addresses his pupils, I shall describe particular cases, real and imaginary, because by this method I can better illustrate thecourse to be pursued. I shall also present and illustrate the variousprinciples which I consider important, and in the order in which theyoccur to my mind. 

1. The first duty, then, of the teacher when he enters his school is tobeware of the danger of making an unfavorable impression at first uponhis pupils. Many years ago, when I was a child, the teacher of theschool where my early studies were performed closed his connection withthe establishment, and after a short vacation another was expected. Onthe appointed day the boys began to collect, some from curiosity, at anearly hour, and many speculations were started as to the character ofthe new instructor. We were standing near a table with our hats on--andour position, and the exact appearance of the group, is indelibly fixedon my memory--when a small and youthful-looking man entered the room, and walked up toward us. Supposing him to be some stranger, or, rather, not making any supposition at all, we stood looking at him as heapproached, and were thunder-struck at hearing him accost us with astern voice and sterner brow, "Take off your hats. Take off your hatsand go to your seats. " The conviction immediately rushed upon our mindsthat this must be our new teacher. The first emotion was that ofsurprise, and the second was that of the ludicrous, though I believe wecontrived to smother the laugh until we got out into the open air. 

So long since was this little occurrence that I have entirely forgottenthe name of the teacher, and have not the slightest recollection of anyother act in his administration of the school. But this recollection ofhis first greeting of his pupils, and the expression of his countenanceat the moment, will go with me to the end of life. So strong are firstimpressions. 

Be careful, then, when you first see your pupils, that you meet themwith a smile. I do not mean a pretended cordiality, which has noexistence in the heart, but think of the relation which you are tosustain to them, and think of the very interesting circumstances underwhich, for some months at least, your destinies are to be united totheirs, until you can not help feeling a strong interest in them. Shutyour eyes for a day or two to their faults, if possible, and take aninterest in all their pleasures and pursuits, that the first attitude inwhich you exhibit yourself before them may be one which shall allure, not repel. 

2. In endeavoring to correct the faults of your pupils, do not, as manyteachers do, seize only upon _those particular cases_ of transgressionwhich may happen to come under your notice. These individual instancesare very few, probably, compared with the whole number of faults againstwhich you ought to exert an influence. And though you perhaps ought notto neglect those which may accidentally come under your notice, yet theobserving and punishing such cases is a very small part of your duty. 

You accidentally hear, I will suppose, as you are walking home fromschool, two of your boys in earnest conversation, and one of them usesprofane language. Now the course to be pursued in such a case is, mostevidently, not to call the boy to you the next day and punish him, andthere let the matter rest. This would, perhaps, be better than nothing. But the chief impression which it would make upon the individual andupon the other scholars would be, "I must take care how I _let themaster hear me_ use such language again. " A wise teacher, who takesenlarged and extended views of his duty in regard to the moral progressof his pupils, would act very differently. He would look at the wholesubject. "Does this fault, " he would say to himself, "prevail among mypupils? If so, how extensively? It is comparatively of littleconsequence to punish the particular transgression. The great point isto devise some plan to reach the whole evil, and to correct it ifpossible. "

In one case where such a circumstance occurred, the teacher managed itmost successfully in the following manner. 

He said nothing to the boy, and, in fact, the boy did not know that hewas overheard. He allowed a day or two to elapse, so that theconversation might be forgotten, and then took an opportunity one day, after school, when all things had gone on pleasantly, and the school wasabout to be closed, to bring forward the whole subject. He told the boysthat he had something to say to them after they had laid by their booksand were ready to go home. The desks were soon closed, and every face inthe room was turned toward the master with a look of fixed attention. It was almost evening. The sun had gone down. The boys' labors wereover. Their duties for the day were over; their minds were at rest, andevery thing was favorable for making a deep and permanent impression. 

"A few days ago, " says the teacher, when all was still, "I accidentallyoverheard some conversation between two of the boys of this school, andone of them swore. "

There was a pause. 

"Perhaps you expect that I am now going to call the boy out and punishhim. Is that what I ought to do?"

There was no answer. 

"I think a boy who uses bad language of any kind does what he knows iswrong. He breaks God's commands. He does what he knows would bedispleasing to his parents, and he sets a bad example. He does wrong, therefore, and justly deserves punishment. "

There were, of course, many boys who felt that they were in danger. Every one who had used profane language was aware that he might be theone who had been overheard, and, of course, all were deeply interestedin what the teacher was saying. 

"He might, I say, " continued the teacher, "justly be punished; but I amnot going to punish him; for if I should, I am afraid that it would onlymake him a little more careful hereafter not to commit this sin when Icould possibly be within hearing, instead of persuading him, as I wishto, to avoid such a sin in future altogether. I am satisfied that thatboy would be far happier, even in this world, if he would make it aprinciple always to do his duty, and never, in any case, to do wrong. And then, when I think how soon he and all of us will be in anotherworld, where we shall all be judged for what we do here, I feel stronglydesirous of persuading him to abandon entirely this practice. I amafraid that punishing him now would not do that. 

"Besides, " continues the teacher, "I think it very probable that thereare many other boys in this school who are sometimes guilty of thisfault, and I have thought that it would be a great deal better andhappier for us all if, instead of punishing this particular boy whom Ihave accidentally overheard, and who probably is not more to blame thanmany other boys in school, I should bring up the whole subject, andendeavor to persuade all the boys to reform. "

I am aware that there are, unfortunately, in our country a great manyteachers from whose lips such an appeal as this would be wholly in vain. The man who is accustomed to scold, and storm, and punish with unsparingseverity every transgression, under the influence of irritation andanger, must not expect that he can win over his pupils to confidence inhim and to the principles of duty by a word. But such an appeal will notbe lost when it comes from a man whose daily and habitual managementcorresponds with it. But to return to the story:

The teacher made some farther remarks, explaining the nature of the sin, not in the language of execration and affected abhorrence, but calmly, temperately, and without any disposition to make the worst of theoccurrence which had taken place. In concluding what he said, headdressed the boys as follows:

"Now, boys, the question is, do you wish to abandon this habit or not?If you do, all is well. I shall immediately forget all the past, andwill do all I can to help you resist and overcome temptation in future. But all I can do is only to help you; and the first thing to be done, ifyou wish to engage in this work of reform, is to acknowledge your fault;and I should like to know how many are willing to do this. "

"I wish all those who are willing to tell me whether they use profanelanguage would rise. "

Every individual but one rose. 

"I am very glad to see so large a number, " said the teacher; "and Ihope you will find that the work of confessing and forsaking your faultsis, on the whole, pleasant, not painful business. Now those who cantruly and honestly say that they never do use profane language of anykind may take their seats. "

Three only of the whole number, which consisted of not far from twenty, sat down. It was in a sea-port town, where the temptation to yield tothis vice is even greater than would be, in the interior of our country, supposed possible. 

"Those who are now standing, " pursued the teacher, "admit that they do, sometimes at least, commit this sin. I suppose all, however, aredetermined to reform; for I do not know what else should induce you torise and acknowledge it here, unless it is a desire hereafter to breakyourselves of the habit. But do you suppose that it will be enough foryou merely to resolve here that you will reform?"

"No, sir, " said the boys. 

"Why not? If you now sincerely determine never more to use a profaneword, will you not easily avoid it?"

The boys were silent. Some said faintly, "No, sir. "

"It will not be easy for you to avoid the sin hereafter, " continued theteacher, "even if you do now sincerely and resolutely determine to doso. You have formed the habit of sin, and the habit will not be easilyovercome. But I have detained you long enough now. I will try to devisesome method by which you may carry your plan into effect, and to-morrowI will tell you what it is. "

So the boys were dismissed for the day; the pleasant countenance andcheerful tone of the teacher conveying to them the impression that theywere engaging in the common effort to accomplish a most desirablepurpose, in which they were to receive the teacher's help, not that hewas pursuing them, with threatening and punishment, into the forbiddenpractice into which they had wickedly strayed. Great caution is, however, in such a case, necessary to guard against the danger that theteacher, in attempting to avoid the tones of irritation and anger, should so speak of the sin as to blunt his pupils' sense of its guilt, and lull their consciences into a slumber. 

At the appointed time on the following day the subject was again broughtbefore the school, and some plans proposed by which the resolutions nowformed might be more certainly kept. These plans were readily andcheerfully adopted by the boys, and in a short time the vice ofprofaneness was, in a great degree, banished from the school. 

I hope the reader will keep in mind the object of the aboveillustration, which is to show that it is the true policy of the teachernot to waste his time and strength in contending against _suchaccidental instances_ of transgression as may chance to fall under hisnotice, but to take an enlarged and extended view of the whole ground, endeavoring to remove _whole classes of faults_--to elevate and improve_multitudes together_. 

By these means, his labors will not only be more effectual, but far morepleasant. You can not come into collision with an individual scholar, topunish him for a mischievous spirit, or even to rebuke him for somesingle act by which he has given you trouble, without an uncomfortableand uneasy feeling, which makes, in ordinary cases, the discipline of aschool the most unpleasant part of a teacher's duty. But you can plan acampaign against a whole class of faults, and put into operation asystem of measures to correct them, and watch from day to day theoperation of that system with all the spirit and interest of a game. Itis, in fact, a game where your ingenuity and moral power are broughtinto the field, in opposition to the evil tendencies of the hearts whichare under your influence. You will notice the success or the failure ofthe means you may put into operation with all the interest with whichthe experimental philosopher observes the curious processes he guides, though your interest may be much purer and higher, for he works uponmatter, but you are experimenting upon mind. 

Remember, then, as for the first time you take your new station at thehead of your school, that it is not your duty simply to watch with aneagle eye for those accidental instances of transgression which maychance to fall under your notice. You are to look over the whole ground. You are to make yourself acquainted, as soon as possible, with theclasses of character and classes of faults which may prevail in yourdominions, and to form deliberate and well-digested plans for improvingthe one and correcting the other. 

And this is to be the course pursued not only with great delinquencies, such as those to which I have already alluded, but to every littletransgression against the rules of order and propriety. You can correctthem far more easily and pleasantly in the mass than in detail. 

To illustrate this principle by another case. A teacher, who takes thecourse I am condemning, approaches the seat of one of his pupils, andasks to see one of his books. As the boy opens his desk, the teacherobserves that it is in complete disorder. Books, maps, papers, play-things, are there in promiscuous confusion, and, from the impulseof the moment, the displeased teacher pours out upon the poor boy atorrent of reproach. 

"What a looking desk! Why, John, I am really ashamed of you! Look!"continues he, holding up the lid, so that the boys in the neighborhoodcan look in; "see what a mass of disorder and confusion. If ever I seeyour desk in such a state again, I shall most certainly punish you. "

The boys around laugh, very equivocally, however, for, with the feelingof amusement, there is mingled the fear that the angry master may takeit into his head to inspect their domains. The boy accidentally exposedlooks sullen, and begins to throw his books into some sort ofarrangement, just enough to shield himself from the charge of absolutelydisobeying the injunction that he has received, and there the matterends. 

Another teacher takes no apparent notice of the confusion which he thusaccidentally witnesses. "I must take up, " thinks he to himself, "thesubject of order before the whole school. I have not yet spoken of it. "He thanks the boy for the book he borrowed, and goes away. He makes amemorandum of the subject, and the boy does not know that the conditionof his desk was noticed; perhaps he does not even know that there wasany thing amiss. 

A day or two after, at a time regularly appropriated to such subjects, he addresses the boys as follows:

"In our efforts to improve the school as much as possible, there is onesubject which we must not forget. I mean the order of the desks. "

The boys all begin to open their desk lids. 

"You may stop a moment, " says the teacher. "I shall give you all anopportunity to examine your desks presently. 

"I do not know what the condition of your desks is. I have not examinedthem, and have not, in fact, seen the inside of more than one or two. AsI have not brought up this subject before, I presume that there are agreat many which can be arranged better than they are. Will you all nowlook into your desks, and see whether you consider them in good order?Stop a moment, however. Let me tell you what good order is. All thosethings which are alike should be arranged together. Books should be inone place, papers in another, and thus every thing should be classified. Again, every thing should be so placed that it can be taken out withoutdisturbing other things. There is another principle, also, which I willmention: the various articles should have _constant_ places, that is, they should not be changed from day to day. By this means you soonremember where every thing belongs, and you can put away your thingsmuch more easily every night than if you had every night to arrange themin a new way. Now will you look into your desks, and tell me whetherthey are, on these three principles, well arranged?"

The boys of most schools, where this subject had not been regularlyattended to, would nearly all answer in the negative. 

"I will allow you, then, some time to-day, fifteen minutes to arrangeyour desks, and I hope you will try to keep them in good orderhereafter. A few days hence I shall examine them. If any of you wish forassistance or advice from me in putting them in order, I shall be happyto render it. "

By such a plan, which will occupy but little more time than theirritating and useless scolding which I supposed in the other case, howmuch more will be accomplished. Such an address would of itself, probably, be the means of putting in order, and keeping in order, atleast one half of the desks in the room, and following up the plan inthe same manner and in the same spirit with which it was begun wouldsecure the rest. 

I repeat it, therefore, make it a principle in all cases to aim as muchas possible at the correction of those faults which are likely to begeneral by _general measures_. You avoid by this means a vast amount ofirritation and impatience, both on your own part and on the part of yourscholars, and you produce twenty times the useful effect. 

3. The next principle which occurs to me as deserving the teacher'sattention in the outset of his course is this:

Interest your scholars in doing something themselves to elevate themoral character of the school, so as to secure a _decided majority whowill, of their own accord, co-operate with you. _

Let your pupils understand, not by any formal speech which you make tothat effect, but by the manner in which, from time to time, youincidentally allude to the subject, that you consider the school, whenyou commence it, as _at par_, so to speak--that is, on a level withother schools, and that your various plans for improving and amending itare not to be considered in the light of finding fault, and punishingtransgressions, and controlling evil propensities, so as just to keepthings in a tolerable state, but as efforts to improve and carryforward the institution to a still higher state of excellence. Such isthe tone and manner of some teachers that they never appear to be morethan merely satisfied. When the scholars do right, nothing is said aboutit. The teacher seems to consider that a matter of course. It does notappear to interest or please him at all. Nothing arouses him but whenthey do wrong, and that only excites him to anger and frowns. Now insuch a case there can, of course, be no stimulus to effort on the partof the pupils but the cold and heartless stimulus of fear. 

Now it is wrong for the teacher to expect that things will go right inhis school as a matter of course. All that he can expect _as a matter ofcourse_ is, that things should go on as well as they do ordinarily inschools--the ordinary amount of idleness, the ordinary amount ofmisconduct. This is the most that he can expect to come as a matter ofcourse. He should feel this, and then all he can gain which will bebetter than this will be a source of positive pleasure; a pleasure whichhis pupils have procured for him, and which, consequently, they shouldshare. They should understand that the teacher is engaged in variousplans for improving the school, in which they should be invited toengage, not from the selfish desire of thereby saving him trouble, butbecause it will really be happy employment for them to engage in such anenterprise, and because, by such efforts, their own moral powers will beexerted and strengthened in the best possible way. 

In another chapter I have explained to what extent, and in what manner, the assistance of the pupils may be usefully and successfully employedin carrying forward the general arrangements of the school. The same_principles_ will apply here, though perhaps a little more careful anddelicate management is necessary in interesting them in subjects whichrelate to moral discipline. 

One important method of accomplishing this end is to present theseplans before the minds of the scholars as experiments--moralexperiments, whose commencement, progress, and results they may take agreat interest in witnessing. Let us take, for example, the case alludedto under the last head--the plan of effecting a reform in regard tokeeping desks in order. Suppose the teacher were to say, when the timehad arrived at which he had promised to give them an opportunity to putthe desks in order, "I think it would be a good plan to keep some account of our efforts forimproving the school in this respect. We might make a record of what wedo to-day, noting the day of the month and the number of desks which maybe found to be disorderly. Then, at the end of any time you may propose, we will have the desks examined again, and see how many are disorderlythen. We can thus see how much improvement has been made in that time. Should you like to adopt the plan?"

If the boys should appear not much interested in the proposal, theteacher might, at his own discretion, waive it. In all probability, however, they would like it, and would indicate their interest by theircountenances, or perhaps by a response. If so, the teacher mightproceed. 

"You may all examine your desks, then, and decide whether they are inorder or not. I do not know, however, but that we ought to appoint acommittee to examine them; for perhaps all the boys would not be honest, and report their desks as they really are. "

"Yes, sir;" "yes, sir, " say the boys. 

"Do you mean that you will be honest, or that you would like to have acommittee appointed?"

There was a confused murmur. Some answer one, and some the other. 

"I think, " proceeds the teacher, "the boys will be honest, and reporttheir desks just as they are. At any rate, the number of dishonest boysin this school can not be so large as materially to affect the result. I think we had better take your own statements. As soon as the desks areall examined, those who have found theirs in a condition which does notsatisfy them are requested to rise and be counted. "

The teacher then looks around the room, and selecting some intelligentboy who has influence among his companions, and whose influence he isparticularly desirous of enlisting on the side of good order, says, "Shall I nominate some one to keep an account of the number?"

"Yes, sir, " say the boys. 

"Well, I nominate William Jones. How many are in favor of requestingWilliam Jones to perform this duty?"

"It is a vote. William, I will thank you to write upon a piece of paperthat on the 8th of December the subject of order in the desks wasbrought up, and that the boys resolved on making an effort to improvethe school in this respect. Then say that the boys reported all theirdesks which they thought were disorderly, and that the number wasthirty-five; and that after a week or two, the desks are to be examinedagain, and the disorderly ones counted, that we may see how much we haveimproved. After you have written it you may bring it to me, and I willtell you whether it is right. "

"How many desks do you think will be found to be disorderly when we cometo make the examination?"

The boys hesitate. 

The teacher names successively several numbers, and asks whether theythink the real number will be greater or less. He notices their votesupon them, and at last fixes upon one which seems to be about thegeneral sense of the school. Then the teacher himself mentions thenumber which he supposes will be found to be disorderly. His estimatewill ordinarily be larger than that of the scholars, because he knowsbetter how easily resolutions are broken. This number, too, is recorded, and then the whole subject is dismissed. 

Now, of course, no reader of these remarks will understand me to berecommending, by this imaginary dialogue, a particular course to betaken in regard to this subject, far less the particular language to beused. All I mean is to show by a familiar illustration how the teacheris to endeavor to enlist the interest and to excite the curiosity of hispupils in his plans for the improvement of his school, by presentingthem as moral experiments, which they are to assist him intrying--experiments whose progress they are to watch, and whose resultsthey are to predict. If the precise steps which I have described shouldactually be taken, although it would occupy but a few minutes, and wouldcause no thought and no perplexing care, yet it would undoubtedly be themeans of awakening a very general interest in the subject of orderthroughout the school. All would be interested in the work ofarrangement. 

All would watch, too, with interest the progress and the result of theexperiment; and if, a few days afterward, the teacher shouldaccidentally, in recess, see a disorderly desk, a good-humored remarkmade with a smile to the by-standers, "I suspect my prediction will turnout the correct one, " would have far more effect than the most severereproaches, or the tingling of a rap over the knuckles with a ratan. 

I know from experience that scholars of every kind can be led by suchmeasures as these, or rather by such a spirit as this, to take an activeinterest, and to exert a most powerful influence in regard to the wholecondition of the institution. I have seen the experiment successful inboys' schools and in girls' schools, among very little children, andamong the seniors and juniors at college. 

In one of the colleges of New England a new and beautiful edifice waserected. The lecture-rooms were fitted up in handsome style, and theofficers, when the time for the occupation of the building approached, were anticipating with regret what seemed to be the unavoidabledefacing, and cutting, and marking of the seats and walls. It was, however, thought that if the subject was properly presented to thestudents, they would take an interest in preserving the property frominjury. They were accordingly addressed somewhat as follows:

"It seems, young gentlemen, to be generally the custom in colleges forthe students to ornament the walls and benches of their recitation-roomswith various inscriptions and caricatures, so that after the premiseshave been for a short time in the possession of a class, every thingwithin reach, which will take an impression from a penknife or a tracefrom a pencil, is covered with names, and dates, and heads, andinscriptions of every kind. The faculty do not know what you wish inthis respect in regard to the new accommodations which the trustees havenow provided for you, and which you are soon to enter. They have hadthem fitted up for you handsomely, and if you wish to have them kept ingood order, we will assist you. If the students think proper to expressby a vote, or in any other way, their wish to keep them in good order, we will engage to have such incidental injuries as may from time totime occur immediately repaired. Such injuries will, of course, be done;for, whatever may be the wish and general opinion of the whole, it isnot to be expected that every individual in so large a community will becareful. If, however, as a body, you wish to have the building preservedin its present state, and will, as a body, take the necessaryprecautions, we will do our part. "

[Illustration]

The students responded to this appeal most heartily. They passed a voteexpressing a desire to preserve the premises in order, and for manyyears, and, for aught I know, to the present hour, the whole is kept asa room occupied by gentlemen should be kept. At some other colleges, andthose, too, sustaining the very highest rank among the institutions ofthe country, the doors of the public buildings are sometimes _studdedwith nails as thick as they can possibly be driven, and then coveredwith a thick coat of sand dried into the paint, as a protection from theknives of the students!!_

The particular methods by which the teacher is to interest his pupils inhis various plans for their improvement can not be fully described here. In fact, it does not depend so much on the methods he adopts as upon theview which he himself takes of these plans, and the _tone and manner inwhich he speaks of them to his pupils_. 

A teacher, for example, perhaps on the first day of his labors in a newschool, calls a class to read. They pretend to form a line, but itcrooks in every direction. One boy is leaning back against a desk;another comes forward as far as possible, to get near the fire; the restlounge in every position and in every attitude. John is holding up hisbook high before his face to conceal an apple from which he isendeavoring to secure an enormous bite. James is, by the same sagaciousdevice, concealing a whisper which he is addressing to his nextneighbor, and Moses is seeking amusement by crowding and elbowing thelittle boy who is unluckily standing next him. 

"What a spectacle!" says the master to himself, as he looks at this saddisplay. "What shall I do?" The first impulse is to break forth uponthem at once with all the artillery of reproof, and threatening, andpunishment. I have seen, in such a case, a scolding and frowning masterwalk up and down before such a class with a stern and angry air, commanding this one to stand back, and that one to come forward, ordering one boy to put down his book, and scolding at a second forhaving lost his place, and knocking the knees of another with his rulerbecause he was out of the line. The boys scowl at their teacher, and, with ill-natured reluctance, they obey just enough to escape punishment. 

Another teacher looks calmly at the scene, and says to himself, "Whatshall I do to remove effectually these evils? If I can but interest theboys in reform, it will be far more easy to effect it than if I attemptto accomplish it by the mere exercise of my authority. "

In the mean time things go on during the reading in their own way. Theteacher simply _observes_. He is in no haste to commence his operations. He looks for the faults; watches, without seeming to watch, themovements which he is attempting to control. He studies the materialswith which he is to work, and lets their true character develop itself. He tries to find something to approve in the exercise as it proceeds, and endeavors to interest the class by narrating some fact connectedwith the reading, or making some explanation which interests the boys. At the end of the exercise he addresses them, perhaps, as follows:

"I have observed, boys, in some military companies, that the officersare very strict, requiring implicit and precise obedience. The men arerequired to form a precise line. " (Here there is a sort of involuntarymovement all along the line, by which it is very sensibly straightened. )"They make all the men stand erect" (at this word heads go up, andstraggling feet draw in all along the class), "in the true militaryposture. They allow nothing to be done in the ranks but to attend tothe exercise" (John hastily crowds his apple into his pocket), "and thusthey regulate every thing in exact and steady discipline, so that allthings go on in a most systematic and scientific manner. This disciplineis so admirable in some countries, especially in Europe, where muchgreater attention is paid to military tactics than in our country, thatI have heard it said by travelers that some of the soldiers who mountguard at public places look as much like statues as they do like livingmen. 

"Other commanders act differently. They let the men do pretty much asthey please. So you will see such a company lounging into a line whenthe drum beats, as if they took little interest in what was going on. While the captain is giving his commands, one is eating his luncheon, another is talking with his next neighbor. Part are out of the line;part lounge on one foot; they hold their guns in every position; and, onthe whole, present a very disorderly and unsoldier-like appearance. 

"I have observed, too, that boys very generally prefer to _see_ thestrict companies, but perhaps they would prefer to _belong_ to the laxones. "

"No, sir;" "No, sir, " say the boys. 

"Suppose you all had your choice either to belong to a company like thefirst one I described, where the captain was strict in all hisrequirements, or to one like the latter, where you could do pretty muchas you pleased, which should you prefer?"

Unless I am entirely mistaken in my idea of the inclinations of boys, itwould be very difficult to get a single honest expression of preferencefor the latter. They would say with one voice, "The first. "

"I suppose it would be so. You would be put to some inconvenience by thestrict commands of the captain, but then you would be more than paid bythe beauty of regularity and order which you would all witness. There isnothing so pleasant as regularity, and nobody likes regularity more thanboys do. To show this, I should like to have you now form a line asexact as you can. "

After some unnecessary shoving and pushing, increased by the disorderlyconduct of a few bad boys, a line is formed. Most of the class arepleased with the experiment, and the teacher takes no notice of the fewexceptions. The time to attend to _them_ will come by-and-by. 

"Hands down. " The boys obey. 

"Shoulders back. "

"There; there is a very perfect line. "

"Do you stand easily in that position?"

"Yes, sir. "

"I believe your position is the military one now, pretty nearly; andmilitary men study the postures of the human body for the sake offinding the one most easy; for they wish to preserve as much as possibleof the soldiers' strength for the time of battle. I should like to trythe experiment of your standing thus at the next lesson. It is a verygreat improvement upon your common mode. Are you willing to do it?"

"Yes, sir, " say the boys. 

"You will get tired, I have no doubt; for the military position, thoughmost convenient and easy in the end, is not to be learned and fixed inpractice without effort. In fact, I do not expect you will succeed thefirst day very well. You will probably become restless and uneasy beforethe end of the lesson, especially the smaller boys. I must excuse it, Isuppose, if you do, as it will be the first time. "

By such methods as these the teacher will certainly secure a majority infavor of all his plans. But perhaps some experienced teacher, who knowsfrom his own repeated difficulties with bad boys what sort of spiritsthe teacher of district schools has sometimes to deal with, may ask, ashe reads this, "Do you expect that such a method as this will succeed in keeping yourschool in order? Why there are boys in almost every school whom youwould no more coax into obedience and order in this way than you wouldpersuade the northeast wind to change its course by reasoning. "

I know there are. And my readers are requested to bear in mind that myobject is not to show how the whole government of the school may besecured, but how one important advantage may be gained, which willassist in accomplishing the object. All I should expect or hope for, bysuch measures as these, is _to interest and gain over to our side themajority_. What is to be done with those who can not be reached by suchkinds of influence I shall endeavor presently to show. The object now issimply to gain the _majority_--to awaken a general interest, which youcan make effectual in promoting your plans, and thus to narrow the fieldof discipline by getting those right who can be got right by suchmeasures. 

Thus securing a majority to be on your side in the generaladministration of the school is absolutely indispensable to success. Ateacher may, indeed, by the force of mere authority, so control hispupils as to preserve order in the schoolroom, and secure a tolerableprogress in study, but the progress will be slow, and the cultivation ofmoral principle must be, in such a case, entirely neglected. Theprinciples of duty can not be inculcated by fear; and though pain andterror must in many instances be called in to coerce an individualoffender, whom milder measures will not reach, yet these agents, andothers like them, can never be successfully employed as the ordinarymotives to action. They can not produce any thing but mere external andheartless obedience in the presence of the teacher, with an inclinationto throw off all restraint when the pressure of stern authority isremoved. 

We should all remember that our pupils are but for a very short timeunder our direct control. Even when they are in school the most untiringvigilance will not enable us to watch, except for a very small portionof the time, any one individual. Many hours of the day, too, they areentirely removed from our inspection, and a few months will take themaway from us altogether. Subjecting them, then, to mere externalrestraint is a very inadequate remedy for the moral evil to which theyare exposed. What we aim at is to bring forward and strengthen aninternal principle which will act when both parent and teacher are away, and control where external circumstances are all unfavorable. 

I have thus far, under this head, been endeavoring to show theimportance of securing, by gentle measures, a majority of the scholarsto cooperate with the teacher in his plans. The particular methods ofdoing this demand a little attention. 

(1. ) The teacher should study human nature as it exhibits itself in theschool-room by taking an interest in the sports and enjoyments of thepupils, and connecting, as much as possible, what is interesting andagreeable with the pursuits of the school, so as to lead the scholars tolike the place. An attachment to the institution, and to the duties ofit, will give the teacher a very strong hold upon the community of mindwhich exists there. 

(2. ) Every thing which is unpleasant in the discipline of the schoolshould be attended to, as far as possible, privately. Sometimes it isnecessary to bring a case forward in public for reproof or punishment, but this is seldom required. In some schools it is the custom topostpone cases of discipline till the close of the day, and then, justbefore the boys are dismissed at night, all the difficulties aresettled. Thus, day after day, the impression which is last made upontheir minds is received from a season of suffering, and terror, andtears. 

Now such a practice may be attended with many advantages, but it seemsto be, on the whole, unwise. Awing the pupils, by showing them thepainful consequences of doing wrong, should be very seldom resorted to. It is far better to allure them by showing them the pleasures of doingright. Doing right is pleasant to every body, and no persons are soeasily convinced of this, or, rather, so easily led to see it, aschildren. Now the true policy is to let them experience the pleasure ofdoing their duty, and they will easily be allured to it. 

In many cases, where a fault has been publicly committed, it seems, atfirst view, to be necessary that it should be publicly punished; but theend will, in most cases, be answered if it is _noticed_ publicly, sothat the pupils may know that it received attention, and then theultimate disposal of the case may be made a private affair between theteacher and the individual concerned. If, however, every case ofdisobedience, or idleness, or disorder, is brought out publicly beforethe school, so that all witness the teacher's displeasure and feel theeffects of it (for to witness it is to feel its most unpleasanteffects), the school becomes, in a short time, hardened to such scenes. Unpleasant associations become connected with the management of theschool, and the scholars are prepared to do wrong with less reluctance, since the consequence is only a repetition of what they are obliged tosee every day. 

Besides, if a boy does something wrong, and you severely reprove him inthe presence of his class, you punish the class almost as much as you dohim. In fact, in many cases you punish them more; for I believe it isalmost invariably more unpleasant for a good boy to stand by and listento rebukes, than for a bad boy to take them. Keep these things, therefore, as much as possible out of sight. Never bring forward casesof discipline except on mature deliberation, and for a distinct andwell-defined purpose. 

(3. ) Never bring forward a case of discipline of this kind unless youare sure that public opinion will go in your favor. If a case comes upin which the sympathy of the scholars is excited for the criminal insuch a way as to be against yourself, the punishment will always do moreharm than good. Now this, unless there is great caution, will oftenhappen. In fact, it is probable that a very large proportion of thepunishments which are ordinarily inflicted in schools only prepare theway for more offenses. 

It is, however, possible to bring forward individual cases in such a wayas to produce a very strong moral effect of the right kind. This is tobe done by seizing upon those peculiar emergencies which will arise inthe course of the administration of a school, and which each teachermust watch for and discover himself. They can not be pointed out. I may, however, give a clearer idea of what is meant by such emergencies by anexample. It is a case which actually occurred as here narrated. 

In a school where nearly all the pupils were faithful and docile, therewere one or two boys who were determined to find amusement in thosemischievous tricks so common in schools and colleges. There was one boy, in particular, who was the life and soul of all these plans. Devoid ofprinciple, idle as a scholar, morose and sullen in his manners, he was, in every respect, a true specimen of the whole class of mischief-makers, wherever they are to be found. His mischief consisted, as usual, in suchexploits as stopping up the keyhole of the door, upsetting the teacher'sinkstand, or fixing something to his desk to make a noise and interruptthe school. 

It so happened that there was a standing feud between the boys of hisneighborhood and those of another situated a mile or two from it. By hismalicious activity he had stimulated this quarrel to a high pitch, andwas very obnoxious to the boys of the other party. One day, when takinga walk, the teacher observed a number of boys with excited looks, andarmed with sticks and stones, standing around a shoemaker's shop, towhich his poor pupil had gone for refuge from them. They had got himcompletely within their power, and were going to wait until he should bewearied with his confinement and come out, when they were going toinflict upon him the punishment they thought he deserved. 

The teacher interfered, and by the united influence of authority, management, and persuasion, succeeded in effecting a rescue. The boywould probably have preferred to owe his safety to any one else than tothe teacher whom he had so often tried to tease, but he was glad toescape in any way. The teacher said nothing about the subject, and theboy soon supposed it was entirely forgotten. 

But it was not forgotten. The teacher knew perfectly well that the boywould before long be at his old tricks again, and was reserving thisstory as the means of turning the whole current of public opinionagainst such tricks, should they again occur. 

One day he came to school in the afternoon, and found the room filledwith smoke; the doors and windows were all closed, though, as soon as hecame in, some of the boys opened them. He knew by this circumstance thatit was roguery, not accident, which caused the smoke. He appeared not tonotice it, however, said he was sorry it smoked, and asked themischievous boy--for he was sure to be always near in such a case--toassist him in putting up the wood of the fire more compactly. The boysupposed that the smoke was understood to be accidental, and perhapssecretly laughed at the dullness of his master. 

In the course of the afternoon, the teacher ascertained by privateinquiries that his suspicions were correct as to the author of themischief. At the close of school, when the studies were ended, and thebooks laid away, he said to the scholars that he wanted to tell them astory. 

He then, with a pleasant tone and manner, gave a very minute, and, tothe boys, a very interesting narrative of his adventure two or threeweeks before, when he rescued this boy from his danger. He called him, however, simply _a boy_, without mentioning his name, or even hintingthat he was a member of the school. No narrative could excite a strongerinterest among an audience of school-boys than such a one as this, andno act of kindness from a teacher would make as vivid an impression asinterfering to rescue a trembling captive from such a situation as theone this boy had been in. 

The scholars listened with profound interest and attention, and thoughthe teacher said little about his share in the affair, and spoke of whathe did as if it were a matter of course that he should thus befriend aboy in distress, an impression very favorable to himself must have beenmade. After he had finished his narrative, he said, "Now should you like to know who this boy was?"

"Yes, sir, " "Yes, sir, " said they, eagerly. 

"It was a boy that you all know. "

The boys looked around upon one another. Who could it be?

"He is a member of this school. "

There was an expression of fixed, and eager, and increasing interest onevery face in the room. 

"He is here now, " said the teacher, winding up the interest andcuriosity of the scholars, by these words, to the highest pitch. 

"But I can not tell you his name; for what return do you think he madeto me? To be sure it was no very great favor that I did him; I shouldhave been unworthy the name of teacher if I had not done it for him, orfor any boy in my school. But, at any rate, it showed my good wishes forhim; it showed that I was his friend; and what return do you think hemade me for it? Why, to-day he spent his time between schools in fillingthe room with smoke, that he might torment his companions here, and giveme trouble, and anxiety, and suffering when I should come. If I shouldtell you his name, the whole school would turn against him for hisingratitude. "

The business ended here, and it put a stop, a final stop, to allmalicious tricks in the school. Now it is not very often that so fine anopportunity occurs to kill, by a single blow, the disposition to dowillful, wanton injury, as this circumstance afforded; but the principleillustrated by it, bringing forward individual cases of transgression ina public manner, only for the sake of the general effect, and soarranging what is said and done as to produce the desired effect uponthe public mind in the highest degree, may very frequently be actedupon. Cases are continually occurring, and if the teacher will keep itconstantly in mind, that when a particular case comes before the wholeschool, the object is an influence upon the whole, and not thepunishment or reform of the guilty individual, he will insensibly soshape his measures as to produce the desired result. 

(4. ) There should be a great difference made between the _measures whichyou take_ to prevent wrong, and the _feelings of displeasure which youexpress_ against the wrong when it is done. The former should be strict, authoritative, unbending; the latter should be mild and gentle. Yourmeasures, if uniform and systematic, will never give offense, howeverpowerfully you may restrain and control those subject to them. It is themorose look, the harsh expression, the tone of irritation andfretfulness, which is so unpopular in school. The sins of childhood areby nine tenths of mankind enormously overrated, and perhaps noneoverrate them more extravagantly than teachers. We confound the troublethey give us with their real moral turpitude, and measure the one by theother. Now if a fault prevails in school, one teacher will scold andfret himself about it day after day, until his scholars are tired bothof school and of him; and yet he will _do_ nothing effectual to removeit. Another will take efficient and decided measures, and yet say verylittle on the subject, and the whole evil will be removed withoutsuspending for a moment the good-humor and pleasant feeling which shouldprevail in school. 

The expression of your displeasure on account of any thing that is wrongwill seldom or never do any good. The scholars consider it scolding; itis scolding; and though it may, in many cases, contain many soundarguments and eloquent expostulations, it operates simply as apunishment. It is unpleasant to hear it. General instruction must indeedbe given, but not general reproof. 

(5. ) Feel that in the management of the school _you_ are underobligation as well as the scholars, and let this feeling appear in allthat you do. Your scholars wish you to dismiss school earlier than usualon some particular occasion, or to allow them an extra holiday. Show bythe manner in which you consider and speak of the question that yourmain inquiry is what is _your duty_. Speak often of your responsibilityto your employers--not formally, but incidentally and naturally, as youwill speak if you feel this responsibility. 

It will assist very much, too, in securing cheerful, good-humoredobedience to the regulations of the school, if you extend theirauthority over yourself. Not that the teacher is to have no liberty fromwhich the scholars are debarred; this would be impossible. But theteacher should submit, himself, to every thing which he requires of hisscholars, unless it is in cases where a different course is necessary. 

Suppose, for instance, a study-card, like the one described in apreceding chapter, is made so as to mark the time of recess and ofstudy. The teacher, near the close of recess, is sitting with a group ofhis pupils around him, telling them some story. They are all interested, and they see he is interested. He looks at his watch, and shows by hismanner that he is desirous of finishing what he is saying, but that heknows that the striking of the bell will cut short his story. Perhapshe says not a word about it, but his pupils see that he is submitting tothe control which is placed over them; and when the card goes up, and hestops instantly in the middle of his sentence and rises with the rest, each one to go to his own place, to engage at once in their severalduties, he teaches them a most important lesson, and in the mosteffectual way. Such a lesson of fidelity and obedience, and such anexample of it, will have more influence than half an hour's scoldingabout whispering without leave, or a dozen public punishments. At leastso I found it, for I have tried both. 

Show then continually that you see and enjoy the beauty of system andstrict discipline, and that you submit to law yourself as well asrequire submission of others. 

(6. ) Lead your pupils to see that they must share with you the credit orthe disgrace which success or failure in the management of the schoolmay bring. Lead them to feel this, not by telling them so, for there arevery few things which can be impressed upon children by direct effortsto impress them, but by so speaking of the subject, from time to time, as to lead them to see that you understand it so. 

Repeat, with judicious caution, what is said of the school, both for andagainst it, and thus endeavor to interest the scholars in its publicreputation. This feeling of interest in the institution may very easilybe awakened. It sometimes springs up spontaneously, and, where it is notguided aright by the teacher, sometimes produces very bad effects uponthe minds of the pupils in rival institutions. When two schools aresituated near each other, evil consequences will result from thisfeeling, unless the teacher manages it so as to deduce goodconsequences. I recollect that in my boyish days there was a standingquarrel between the boys of a town school and an academy which were inthe same village. We were all ready at any time, when out of school, tofight for the honor of our respective institutions, each for his own, but very few were ready to be diligent and faithful when in it, thoughit would seem that that might have been rather a more effectual means ofestablishing the point. If the scholars are led to understand that theschool is to a great extent their institution, that they must assist tosustain its character, and that they share the honor of its excellence, if any honor is acquired, a feeling will prevail in the school which maybe turned to a most useful account. 

(7. ) In giving instruction on moral duty, the subject should generallybe taken up in reference to imaginary cases, or cases which are unknownto most of the scholars. If this is done, the pupils feel that theobject of bringing up the subject is to do good; whereas, if questionsof moral duty are only introduced from time to time, when someprevailing or accidental fault in school calls for reproof, the feelingwill be that the teacher is only endeavoring to remove from his own patha source of inconvenience and trouble. The most successful mode ofgiving general moral instruction that I have known, and which has beenadopted in many schools with occasional variations of form, is thefollowing:

When the time has arrived, a subject is assigned, and small papers aredistributed to the whole school, that all may write something concerningit. These are then read and commented on by the teacher, and become theoccasion of any remarks which he may wish to make. The interest of thepupils is strongly excited to hear the papers read, and the instructionwhich the teacher may give produces a deeper effect when ingrafted thusupon something which originates in the minds of the pupils. 

To take a particular case. A teacher addresses his scholars thus: "Thesubject for the moral exercise to-day is _Prejudice_. Each one may takeone of the papers which have been distributed, and you may write uponthem any thing you please relating to the subject. As many as havethought of any thing to write may raise their hands. "

One or two only of the older scholars gave the signal. 

"I will mention the kinds of communications you can make, and perhapswhat I say will suggest something to you. As fast as you think of anything, you may raise your hands, and as soon as I see a sufficientnumber up, I will give directions to begin. 

"You can describe any case in which you have been prejudiced yourselveseither against persons or things. "

Here a number of the hands went up. 

"You can mention any facts relating to antipathies of any kind, or anycases where you know other persons to be prejudiced. You can ask anyquestions in regard to the subject--questions about the nature ofprejudice, or the causes of it, or the remedy for it. "

As he said this, many hands were successively raised, and at lastdirections were given for all to begin to write. Five minutes wereallowed, and at the end of that time the papers were collected and read. The following specimens, transcribed verbatim from the originals, withthe remarks made as nearly as could be remembered immediately after theexercise, will give an idea of the ordinary operation of this plan. 

"I am very much prejudiced against spiders and every insect in the knownworld with scarcely an exception. There is a horrid sensation created bytheir ugly forms that makes me wish them all to Jericho. The butterfly'swings are pretty, but he is dreadful ugly. The is no affectation in this, for my pride will not permit me to show this prejudice to any great degreewhen I can help it. I do not fear the little wretches, but I do hate them. ANTI-SPIDER-SPARER. "

"This is not expressed very well; the phrases '_to Jericho?_' and'_dreadful ugly_' are vulgar, and not in good taste. Such a dislike, too, is more commonly called an antipathy than a prejudice, thoughperhaps it comes under the general head of prejudices. "

"How may we overcome prejudice? I think that when we are prejudicedagainst a person, it is the hardest thing in the world to overcome it. "

A prejudice is usually founded on some unpleasant associationconnected with the subject of it. The best way to overcome theprejudice, therefore, is to connect some pleasant association with it. 

For example (to take the case of the antipathy to the spider, alludedto in the last article), the reason why that young lady dislikes spidersis undoubtedly because she has some unpleasant idea associated with thethought of that animal, perhaps, for example, the idea of their crawlingupon her, which is certainly not a very pleasant one for any body. Nowthe way to correct such a prejudice is to try to connect some pleasantthoughts with the sight of the animal. 

I once found a spider in an empty apartment hanging in its web on thewall, with a large ball of eggs which it had suspended by its side. Mycompanion and myself cautiously brought up a tumbler under the web, andpressed it suddenly against the wall, so as to inclose both spider andeggs within it. We then contrived to run in a pair of shears, so as tocut off the web, and let both the animal and its treasure fall down intothe tumbler. We put a book over the top, and walked off with our prizeto a table to see what the spider would do. 

At first it tried to climb up the side of the tumbler, but its feetslipped on account of the smoothness of the glass. We then inclined theglass so as to favor its climbing, and to enable it to reach the book atthe top. As soon as it touched the book, it was safe. It could cling tothe book easily, and we placed the tumbler again upright to watch itsmotions. 

It attached a thread to the book, and let itself down by it to thebottom of the tumbler, and walked round and round the ball of eggs, apparently in great trouble. Presently it ascended by its thread, andthen came down again. It attached a new thread to the ball, and thenwent up, drawing the ball with it. It hung the ball at a proper distancefrom the book, and bound it firmly in its place by threads running fromit in every direction to the parts of the book which were near, and thenthe animal took its place quietly by its side. 

Now I do not say that if any body had a strong antipathy to a spider, seeing one perform such a work as this would entirely remove it, but itwould certainly soften it. It would _tend_ to remove it. It wouldconnect an interesting and pleasant association with the object. So ifshe should watch a spider in the fields making his web. You have allseen those beautiful regular webs in the morning dew ("Yes, sir;" "Yes, sir"), composed of concentric circles, and radii diverging in everydirection. ("Yes, sir. ") Well, watch a spider when making one of these, or observe his artful ingenuity and vigilance when he is lying in waitfor a fly. By thus connecting pleasant ideas with the sight of theanimal, you will destroy the unpleasant association which constitutesthe prejudice. In the same manner, if I wished to create an antipathy toa spider in a child, it would be very easily done. I would tie her handsbehind her, and put three or four upon her to crawl over her face. 

[Illustration]

"Thus you must destroy prejudices in all cases by connecting pleasantthoughts and associations with the objects of them. "

"I am very often prejudiced against new scholars without knowing why. "

"We sometimes hear a person talk in this way: 'I do not like such orsuch a person at all. '

"'Why?'

"'Oh, I don't know; I do not like her at all. I can't bear her. '

"'But why not? What is your objection to her?'

"'Oh, I don't know; I have not any particular reason, but I never didlike her. '

"Now, whenever you hear any person talk so, you may be sure that heropinion on any subject is worth nothing at all. She forms opinions inone case without grounds, and it depends merely upon accident whethershe does or not in other cases. "

"Why is it that so many of our countrymen _are_, or seem to be, prejudiced against the unfortunate children of Africa? Almost every _largewhite_ boy who meets a _small black_ boy insults him in some way or other. "

"It is so hard to _overcome_ prejudices, that we ought to be careful howwe _form_ them. "

"When I see a new scholar enter this school, and she does not happen tosuit me exactly in her ways and manners, I very often get prejudicedagainst her; though sometimes I find her a valuable friend after I getacquainted with her. "

"There is an inquiry I should like very much to make, though I supposeit would not be quite right to make it. I should like to ask all thosewho have some particular friend in school, and who can recollect theimpression which the individual made upon them when they first saw her, to rise, and then I should like to inquire in how many cases the firstimpression was favorable, and in how many unfavorable. "

"Yes, sir;" "Yes, sir. "

"Do you mean you would like to have the inquiry made?"

"Yes, sir. "

"All, then, who have intimate friends, and can recollect the impressionwhich they first made upon them, may rise. "

[About thirty rose; more than two thirds of whom voted that the firstimpression made by the persons who had since become their particularfriends was unfavorable. ]

"This shows how much dependence you can justly place on firstimpressions. "

"It was the next Monday morning after I had attained the wise ageof four years that I was called up into my mother's room, and told thatI was the next day going to school. 

"I called forth all my reasoning powers, and with all the ability of achild of four years, I reasoned with my mother, but to no purpose. Itold her that I _hated_ the school-mistress then, though I had neverseen her. The very first day I tottered under the weight of the mightyfool's-cap. I only attended her school two quarters; with prejudice Iwent, and with prejudice I came away. 

"The old school-house is now torn down, and a large brick house takesthe place of it. But I never pass by without remembering my teacher. Iam prejudiced to [against] the very spot. "

"Is it not right to allow prejudice to have influence over our minds asfar as this? If any thing comes to our knowledge with which wrong_seems_ to be connected, and one in whom we have always felt confidenceis engaged in it, is it not right to allow our prejudice in favor ofthis individual to have so much influence over us as to cause us tobelieve that all is really right, though every circumstance which hascome to our knowledge is against such a conclusion? I felt thisinfluence, not many weeks since, in a very great degree. "

"The disposition to judge favorably of a fraud in such a case would notbe prejudice; or, at least, if it were so, it would not be a sufficientground to justify us in withholding blame. Well-grounded confidence insuch a person, if there was reason for it, ought to have such an effect, but not prejudice. "

The above may be considered as a fair specimen of the ordinaryoperation of such an exercise. It is taken as an illustration, not byselection, from the large number of similar exercises which I havewitnessed, but simply because it was an exercise occurring at the timewhen a description was to be written. Besides the articles quoted above, there were thirty or forty others which were read and commented on. Theabove will, however, be sufficient to give the reader a clear idea ofthe exercise, and to show what is the nature of the moral effect it iscalculated to produce. 

The subjects which may be advantageously brought forward in such a wayare, of course, very numerous. They are such as the following:

1. DUTIES TO PARENTS. --Anecdotes of good or bad conduct at home. Questions. Cases where it is most difficult to obey. Dialogues betweenparents and children. Excuses which are often made for disobedience. 

2. SELFISHNESS. --Cases of selfishness any of the pupils have observed. Dialogues they have heard exhibiting it. Questions about its nature. Indications of selfishness. 

3. FAULTS OF THE SCHOOL. --Any bad practices the scholars may haveobserved in regard to general deportment, recitations, habits of study, or the scholars' treatment of one another. Each scholar may write whatis his own greatest trouble in school, and whether he thinks any thingcan be done to remove it. Any thing they think can be improved in themanagement of the school by the teacher. Unfavorable things they haveheard said about it out of school, though without names. 

4. EXCELLENCES OF THE SCHOOL. --Good practices which ought to bepersevered in. Any little incidents the scholars may have noticedillustrating good character. Cases which have occurred in which scholarshave done right in temptation, or when others around were doing wrong. Favorable reports in regard to the school in the community around. 

5. THE SABBATH. --Any thing the scholars may have known to be done on theSabbath which they doubt whether right or wrong. Questions in regard tothe subject. Various opinions they have heard expressed. Difficultiesthey have in regard to proper ways of spending the Sabbath. 

(8. ) We have one other method to describe by which a favorable moralinfluence may be exerted in school. The method can, however, go intofull effect only where there are several pupils who have madeconsiderable advances in mental cultivation. 

It is to provide a way by which teachers and pupils may writeanonymously for the school. This may be done by having a place ofdeposit for such articles as may be written, where any person may leavewhat he wishes to have read, nominating by a memorandum upon the articleitself the reader. If a proper feeling on the subject of good disciplineand the formation of good character prevails in school, many articles, which will have a great deal of effect upon the pupils, will find theirway through such an avenue once opened. The teacher can himself oftenbring forward in this way his suggestions with more effect than heotherwise could do. Such a plan is, in fact, like the plan of anewspaper for an ordinary community, where sentiments and opinions standon their own basis, and influence the community just in proportion totheir intrinsic merits, unassisted by the authority of the writer'sname, and unimpeded by any prejudice which may exist against him. 

The following articles, which were really offered for such a purpose inthe Mount Vernon school, will serve as specimens to illustrate theactual operation of the plan. One or two of them were written byteachers. I do not know the authors of the others. I do not offer themas remarkable compositions: every teacher will see that they are not so. The design of inserting them is merely to show that the ordinaryliterary ability to be found in every school may be turned to usefulaccount by simply opening a channel for it, and to furnish such teachersas may be inclined to try the experiment the means of making the planclearly understood by their pupils. 

MARKS OF A BAD SCHOLAR. 

"At the time when she should be ready to take her seat at school, shecommences preparation for leaving home. To the extreme annoyance ofthose about her, all is now hurry, and bustle, and ill-humor. Thoroughsearch is to be made for every book or paper for which she has occasion;some are found in one place, some in another, and others are forgottenaltogether. Being finally equipped, she casts her eye at the clock, hopes to be in tolerable good season (notwithstanding that the hour foropening the school has already arrived), and sets out in the mostviolent hurry. 

"After so much haste, she is unfitted for attending properly to theduties of the school until a considerable time after her arrival. Ifpresent at the devotional exercises, she finds it difficult to commandher attention even when desirous of so doing, and her deportment at thishour is, accordingly, marked with an unbecoming listlessness andabstraction. 

"When called to recitations, she recollects that some task was assigned, which, till that moment, she had forgotten; of others she had mistakenthe extent, most commonly thinking them to be shorter than hercompanions suppose. In her answers to questions with which she should befamiliar, she always manifests more or less of hesitation, and what sheventures to express is very commonly in the form of a question. Inthese, as in all exercises, there is an inattention to generalinstructions. Unless what is said be addressed particularly to herself, her eyes are directed toward another part of the room; it may be, herthoughts are employed about something not at all connected with theschool. If reproved by her teacher for negligence in any respects, sheis generally provided with an abundance of excuses, and however mild thereproof, she receives it as a piece of extreme severity. 

"Throughout her whole deportment there is an air of indolence and a wantof interest in those exercises which should engage her attention. In herseat, she most commonly sits in some lazy posture--either with herelbows upon her desk, her head leaning upon her hands, or with her seattipped forward or backward. When she has occasion to leave her seat, itis in a sauntering, lingering gait--perhaps some trick is contrived onthe way for exciting the mirth of her companions. 

"About every thing in which it is possible to be so, she is untidy. Herbooks are carelessly used, and placed in her desk without order. If shehas a piece of waste paper to dispose of, she finds it much moreconvenient to tear it into small pieces and scatter it about her desk, than to put it in a proper place. Her hands and clothes are usuallycovered with ink. Her written exercises are blotted and full ofmistakes. "

THE CONSEQUENCES OF BEING BEHINDHAND. 

"The following incident, which I witnessed on a late journey, illustrates an important principle, and I will relate it. 

"When our steam-boat started from the wharf, all our passengers had notcome. After we had proceeded a few yards, there appeared among the crowdon the wharf a man with his trunk under his arm, out of breath, and witha most disappointed and disconsolate air. The captain determined to stopfor him; but stopping an immense steam-boat, moving swiftly through thewater, is not to be done in a moment; so we took a grand sweep, wheelingmajestically around an English ship which was at anchor in the harbor. As we came toward the wharf again, we saw the man in a small boat comingoff from it. As the steam-boat swept round, they barely succeeded incatching a rope from the stern, and then immediately the steam-enginebegan its work again, and we pressed forward, the little boat followingus so swiftly that the water around her was all in a foam. 

"They pulled upon the rope attached to the little boat until they drewit alongside. They then let down a rope, with a hook in the end of it, from an iron crane which projected over the side of the steam-boat, andhooked it into a staple in the front of the small boat. '_Hoist away_!'said the captain. The sailors hoisted, and the front part of the littleboat began to rise, the stern plowing and foaming through the water, and the man still in it, with his trunk under his arm. They 'hoistedaway' until I began to think that the poor man would actually tumble outbehind. He clung to the seat, and looked as though he was saying tohimself, 'I will take care how I am tardy the next time. ' However, aftera while, they hoisted up the stern of the boat, and he got safely onboard. 

"_Moral_--Though coming to school a few minutes earlier or later may notin itself be a matter of much consequence, yet the habit of being fiveminutes too late, if once formed, will, in actual life, be a source ofgreat inconvenience, and sometimes of lasting injury. "

NEW SCHOLARS. 

There is at ------ a young ladies' school, taught by Mr. ------. 

 * * * * *

"But, with all these excellences, there is one fault, which I considereda great one, and which does not comport with the general character ofthe school for kindness and good feeling. It is the little effort madeby the scholars to become acquainted with the new ones who enter. Whoever goes there must push herself forward, or she will never feel athome. The young ladies seem to forget that the new-comer must feelrather unpleasantly in the midst of a hundred persons to whom she iswholly a stranger, and with no one to speak to. Two or three will standtogether, and instead of deciding upon some plan by which the individualmay be made to feel at ease, something like the following conversationtakes place:

"_Miss X. _ How do you like the looks of Miss A. , who entered schoolto-day?

"_Miss Y. _ I don't think she is very pretty, but she looks as if shemight be a good scholar. 

"_Miss X. _ She does not strike me very pleasantly. Did you ever seesuch a face? And her complexion is so dark, I should think she hadalways lived in the open air; and what a queer voice she has!

"_Miss Y. _ I wonder if she has a taste for Arithmetic?

"_Miss X. _ She does not look as if she had much taste for any thing. Seehow strangely she arranges her hair!

"_Miss S. _ Whether she has much taste or not, some one of us ought to goand get acquainted with her. See how unpleasantly she feels!

"_Miss X. _ I don't want to get acquainted with her until I know whetherI shall like her or not. 

"Thus nothing is done to relieve her. When she does become acquainted, all her first strange appearance is forgotten; but this is sometimes notthe case for several weeks. It depends entirely on the character of theindividual herself. If she is forward, and willing to make the necessaryeffort, she can find many friends; but if she is diffident, she has muchto suffer. This arises principally from thoughtlessness. The youngladies do not seem to realize that there is any thing for them to do. They feel enough at home themselves, and the remembrance of the timewhen they entered school does not seem to arise in their minds. "

A SATIRICAL SPIRIT. 

I witnessed, a short time since, a meeting between two friends, who hadhad but little intercourse before for a long while. I thought a part oftheir conversation might be useful, and I shall therefore relate it, asnearly as I can recollect, leaving each individual to draw her owninferences. 

For some time I sat silent, but not uninterested, while the days of'Auld Lang Syne' came up to the remembrance of the two friends. Afterspeaking of several individuals who were among their formeracquaintances, one asked, 'Do you remember Miss W. ? 'Yes, ' replied theformer, I remember her as the fear, terror, and abhorrence of all whoknew her. ' _I_ knew the lady by report, and asked why she was soregarded. The reply was, 'Because she was so severe, so satirical in herremarks upon others. She spared neither friend nor foe. '

"The friends resumed their conversation. 'Did you know, ' said the onewho had first spoken of Miss W. , 'that she sometimes had seasons ofbitter repentance for indulging in this unhappy propensity of hers? Shewould, at such times, resolve to be more on her guard, but, after allher good resolutions, she would yield to the slightest temptations. Whenshe was expressing, and apparently really _feeling_ sorrow for havingwounded the feelings of others, those who knew her would not venture toexpress any sympathy, for, very likely, the next moment _that_ would beturned into ridicule. No confidence could be placed in her. '

"A few more facts will be stated respecting the same individual, which Ibelieve are strictly true. Miss W. Possessed a fine and well-cultivatedmind, great penetration, and a tact at discriminating character rarelyequaled. She could, if she chose, impart a charm to her conversationthat would interest and even fascinate those who listened to it; still, she was not beloved. Weaknesses and foibles met with unmercifulseverity, and well-meaning intentions and kind actions did not alwaysescape without the keen sarcasm which it is so difficult for the bestregulated mind to bear unmoved. The mild and gentle seemed to shrinkfrom her; and thus she, who might have been the bright and belovedornament of the circle in which she moved, was regarded with distrust, fear, and even hatred. This dangerous habit of making satirical remarkswas evinced in childhood; it was cherished; it 'grew with her growth, and strengthened with her strength, ' until she became what I havedescribed. LAURA. "

Though such a satirical spirit is justly condemned, a littlegood-humored raillery may sometimes be allowed as a mode of attackingfaults in school which can not be reached by graver methods. The teachermust not be surprised if some things connected with his ownadministration come in sometimes for a share. 

VARIETY. 

"I was walking out a few days since, and not being particularly inhaste, I concluded to visit a certain school for an hour or two. In afew minutes after I had seated myself on the sofa, the '_Study Card_'was dropped, and the general noise and confusion indicated that recesshad arrived. A line of military characters, bearing the title of the'Freedom's Band, ' was soon called out, headed by one of their ownnumber. The tune chosen to guide them was Kendall's March. 

"'Please to form a regular line, ' said the lady commander. 'Rememberthat there is to be no speaking in the ranks. Do not begin to step untilI strike the bell. Miss B. , I requested you not to step until I gave thesignal. '

"Presently the command was given, and the whole line _stepped_ for a fewminutes to all intents and purposes. Again the bell sounded. 'Some ofyou have lost the step, ' said the general. 'Look at me, and begin again. Left! right! left! right!' The line was once more in order, and Iobserved a new army on the opposite side of the room, performing thesame manoeuvres, always to the tune of 'Kendall's March. ' After a timethe recess closed, and order was again restored. In about half an hour Iapproached a class which was reciting behind the railing. 'Miss A. , 'said a teacher, 'how many kinds of magnitude are there?' _Miss A. _(Answer inaudible. ) _Several voices. _ 'We can't hear. ' _Teacher. _ 'Willyou try to speak a little louder, Miss A. ?"

"Some of the class at length seemed _to guess_ the meaning of the younglady, but _I_ was unable to do even that until the answer was repeatedby the teacher. Finding that I should derive little instruction fromthe recitation, I returned to the sofa. 

"In a short time the _propositions_ were read. 'Proposed, that thecommittee be impeached for not providing suitable pens. ' 'Lost, apencil, with a piece of India-rubber attached to it by a blue ribbon, '&c. , &c. 

"Recess was again announced, and the lines commenced their evolutions tothe tune of 'Kendall's March. ' Thought I, 'Oh that there were a new tuneunder the sun!'

"Before the close of school some compositions were read. One wasentitled 'The Magic King, ' and commenced, 'As I was sitting alone lastevening, I heard a gentle tap on the door, and immediately a beautifulfairy appeared before me. She placed a ring on my finger, and left me. 'The next began, 'It is my week to write composition, but I do not knowwhat to say. However, I must write something, so it shall be adialogue. ' Another was entitled the 'Magical Shoe, ' and contained amarvelous narration of adventures made in a pair of shoes more valuablethan the far-famed 'seven-league boots. ' A fourth began, 'Are youacquainted with that new scholar?' 'No; but I don't believe I shall likeher. ' And soon the 'Magical Thimble, ' the 'Magical Eye-glass, ' &c. , wereread in succession, until I could not but exclaim, 'How pleasing isvariety!' School was at length closed, and the young ladies againattacked the piano. 'Oh, ' repeated I to myself, '_how pleasing isvariety!_ as I left the room to the tune of Kendall's March. "

By means like these, and others similar to them, it will not bedifficult for any teacher to obtain so far an ascendency over the mindsof his pupils as to secure an overwhelming majority in favor of goodorder and co-operation with him in his plans for elevating the characterof the school. But let it be distinctly understood that this, and thisonly, has been the object of this chapter thus far. The first pointbrought up was the desirableness of making at first a favorableimpression; the second, the necessity of taking general views of thecondition of the school, and aiming to improve it in the mass, and notmerely to rebuke or punish accidental faults; and the third, theimportance and the means of gaining a general influence and ascendencyover the minds of the pupils. But, though an overwhelming majority canbe reached by such methods as these, all can not. We must have themajority secured, however, in order to enable us to reach and to reducethe others. But to this work we must come at last. 

4. I am, therefore, now to consider, under a fourth general head, whatcourse is to be taken with _individual_ offenders whom the generalinfluences of the school-room will not control. 

The teacher must always expect that there will be such cases. They arealways to be found in the best and most skillfully-managed schools. Thefollowing suggestions will perhaps assist the teacher in dealing withthem. 

(1. ) The first point to be attended to is to ascertain who they are. Notby appearing suspiciously to watch any individuals, for this would bealmost sufficient to make them bad, if they were not so before. Observe, however; notice, from day to day, the conduct of individuals, not forthe purpose of reproving or punishing their faults, but to enable you tounderstand their characters. This work will often require greatadroitness and very close scrutiny, and you will find, as the results ofit, a considerable variety of character, which the general influencesabove described will not be sufficient to control. The number ofindividuals will not be great, but the diversity of character comprisedin it will be such as to call into exercise all your powers of vigilanceand discrimination. On one seat you will find a coarse, rough-lookingboy, who openly disobeys your commands and opposes your wishes while inschool, and makes himself a continual source of trouble and annoyanceduring play-hours by bullying and hectoring every gentle and timidschoolmate. On another sits a more sly rogue, whose demure andsubmissive look is assumed to conceal a mischief-making disposition. Here is one whose giddy spirit is always leading him into difficulty, but who is of so open and frank a disposition that you will most easilylead him back to duty; but there is another who, when reproved, will flyinto a passion; and then a third, who will stand sullen and silentbefore you when he has done wrong, and is not to be touched by kindnessnor awed by authority. 

[Illustration]

Now all these characters must be studied. It is true that the cautiongiven in a preceding part of this chapter, against devoting undue anddisproportionate attention to such persons, must not be forgotten. Still, these individuals will require, and it is right that they shouldreceive, a far greater degree of attention, so far as the moraladministration of the school is concerned, than their mere numbers wouldappear to justify. This is the field in which the teacher is to studyhuman nature, for here it shows itself without disguise. It is throughthis class, too, that a very powerful moral influence is to be exertedupon the rest of the school. The manner in which such individuals aremanaged, the tone the teacher assumes toward them, the gentleness withwhich he speaks of their faults, and the unbending decision with whichhe restrains them from wrong, will have a most powerful effect upon therest of the school. That he may occupy this field, therefore, to thebest advantage, it is necessary that he should first thoroughly exploreit. 

By understanding the dispositions and characters of such a class ofpupils as I have described, I do not mean merely watching them withvigilance in school, so that none of their transgressions shall gounobserved and unpunished. I intend a far deeper and more thoroughexamination of character. Every boy has something or other which is goodin his disposition and character which he is aware of, and on which heprides himself; find out what it is, for it may often be made thefoundation on which you may build the superstructure of reform. Everyone has his peculiar sources of enjoyment and objects of pursuit, whichare before his mind from day to day. Find out what they are, that bytaking an interest in what interests him, and perhaps sometimesassisting him in his plans, you can bind him to you. Every boy is, fromthe circumstances in which he is placed at home, exposed to temptationswhich have perhaps had far greater influence in the formation of hischaracter than any deliberate and intentional depravity of his own;ascertain what these temptations are, that you may know where to pityhim and where to blame. The knowledge which such an examination ofcharacter will give you, will not be confined to making you acquaintedwith the individual. It will be the most valuable knowledge which a mancan possess, both to assist him in the general administration of theschool and in his intercourse among mankind in the business of life. Menare but boys, only with somewhat loftier objects of pursuit. Theirprinciples, motives, and ruling passions are essentially the same. Extended commercial speculations are, so far as the human heart isconcerned, substantially what trading in jack-knives and toys is atschool, and building a snow fort, to its own architects, the same aserecting a monument of marble. 

(2. ) After exploring the ground, the first thing to be done as apreparation for reforming individual character in school is to securethe personal attachment of the individuals to be reformed. This must notbe attempted by professions and affected smiles, and still less by thatsort of obsequiousness, common in such cases, which produces no effectbut to make the bad boy suppose that his teacher is afraid of him;which, by the way, is, in fact, in such cases, usually true. Approachthe pupil in a bold and manly, but frank and pleasant manner. Approachhim as his superior, but still as his friend; desirous to make himhappy, not merely to obtain his good-will. And the best way to securethese appearances is just to secure the reality. Actually be the boy'sfriend. Really desire to make him happy--happy, too, in his own way, notin yours. Feel that you are his superior, and that you must and willenforce obedience; but with this, feel that probably obedience will berendered without any contest. If these are really the feelings whichreign within you, the boy will see it, and they will exert a stronginfluence over him; but you can not counterfeit appearances. 

A most effectual way to secure the good-will of a scholar is to ask himto assist you. The Creator has so formed the human heart that doing goodmust be a source of pleasure, and he who tastes this pleasure once willalmost always wish to taste it again. To do good to any individualcreates or increases the desire to do it. 

There is a boy in your school who is famous for his skill in makingwhistles from the green branches of the poplar. He is a bad boy, andlikes to turn his ingenuity to purposes of mischief. You observe himsome day in school, when he thinks your attention is engaged in anotherway, blowing softly upon one which he has concealed in his desk for thepurpose of amusing his neighbors without attracting the attention of theteacher. Now there are two remedies. Will you try the physical one? Thencall him out into the floor, inflict painful punishment, and send himsmarting to his seat, with his heart full of anger and revenge, to plotsome new and less dangerous scheme of annoyance. Will you try the moralone? Then wait till the recess, and while he is out at his play, send amessage out by another boy, saying that you have heard he is veryskillful in making whistles, and asking him to make one for you to carryhome to a little child at your boarding-house. What would, in ordinarycases, be the effect? It would certainly be a very simple application, but its effect would be to open an entirely new train of thought andfeeling for the boy. "What!" he would say to himself, while at work onhis task, "give the master _pleasure_ by making whistles! Who would haveconceived of it? I never thought of any thing but giving him trouble andpain. I wonder who told him I could make whistles?" He would find, too, that the new enjoyment was far higher and purer than the old, and wouldhave little disposition to return to the latter. 

I do not mean by this illustration that such a measure as this would bethe only notice that ought to be taken of such an act of willfuldisturbance in school. Probably it would not. What measures in directreference to the fault committed would be necessary would depend uponthe circumstances of the case. It is not necessary to our purpose thatthey should be described here. 

The teacher can awaken in the hearts of his pupils a personal attachmentfor him by asking in various ways their assistance in school, and thenappearing honestly gratified with the assistance rendered. Boys andgirls are delighted to have what powers and attainments they possessbrought out into action, especially where they can lead to usefulresults. They love to be of some consequence in the world, and will beespecially gratified to be able to assist their teacher. Even if thestudies of a turbulent boy are occasionally interrupted for half anhour, that he might help you arrange papers, or rule books, ordistribute exercises, it will be time well spent. Get him to co-operatewith you in any thing, and he will feel how much more pleasant it is toco-operate than to thwart and oppose; and, by judicious measures of thiskind, almost any boy may be brought over to your side. 

Another means of securing the personal attachment of boys is to noticethem, to take an interest in their pursuits, and the qualities andpowers which they value in one another. It is astonishing what aninfluence is exerted by such little circumstances as stopping at aplay-ground a moment to notice with interest, though perhaps withoutsaying a word, speed of running, or exactness of aim, the force withwhich a ball is struck, or the dexterity with which it is caught orthrown. The teacher must, indeed, in all his intercourse with hispupils, never forget his station, nor allow them to lay aside therespect, without which authority can not be maintained. But he may be, notwithstanding this, on the most intimate and familiar footing withthem all. He may take a strong and open interest in all theirenjoyments, and thus awaken on their part a personal attachment tohimself, which will exert over them a constant and powerful control. 

(3. ) The efforts described under the last head for gaining a personalinfluence over those who, from their disposition and character, are mostin danger of doing wrong, will not be sufficient entirely to preventtransgression. Cases of deliberate, intentional wrong will occur, andthe question will rise, What is the duty of the teacher in such anemergency? When such cases occur, the course to be taken is, first ofall, to come to a distinct understanding on the subject with the guiltyindividual. Think of the case calmly, until you have obtained just andclear ideas of it. Endeavor to understand precisely in what the guilt ofit consists. Notice every palliating circumstance, and take as favorablea view of the thing as you can, while, at the same time, you fix mostfirmly in your mind the determination to put a stop to it. Then go tothe individual, and lay the subject before him, for the purpose ofunderstanding distinctly from his own lips what he intends to do. I can, however, as usual, explain more fully what I mean by describing aparticular case, substantially true. 

The teacher of a school observed himself, and learned from severalquarters, that a certain boy was in the habit of causing disturbanceduring time of prayer, at the opening and close of school, bywhispering, playing, making gestures to the other boys, and throwingthings about from seat to seat. The teacher's first step was to speak ofthe subject generally before the whole school, not alluding, however, toany particular instance which had come under his notice. These generalremarks produced, as he expected, but little effect. 

He waited for some days, and the difficulty still continued. Had theirregularity been very great, it would have been necessary to have takenmore immediate measures, but he thought the case admitted of a littledelay. In the mean time, he took pains to cultivate the acquaintance ofthe boy, to discover, and to show that he noticed, what was good in hischaracter and conduct, occasionally to ask some assistance from him, andthus to gain some personal ascendency over him. 

One day, when every thing had gone smoothly and prosperously, theteacher told the boy, at the close of the school, that he wished to talkwith him a little, and asked him to walk home with him. It was notuncommon for the teacher to associate thus with his pupils out ofschool, and this request, accordingly, attracted no special attention. On the walk the teacher thus accosted the criminal:

"Do you like frank, open dealing, James?"

James hesitated a moment, and then answered, faintly, "Yes, sir. "

"Most boys do, and I do, and I supposed that you would prefer beingtreated in that way. Do you?"

"Yes, sir. "

"Well, I am going to tell you of one of your faults. I have asked you towalk with me, because I supposed it would be more agreeable for you tohave me see you privately than to bring it up in school. "

James said it would be more agreeable. 

"Well, the fault is being disorderly at prayer-time. Now, if you likefrank and open dealing, and are willing to deal so with me, I shouldlike to talk with you a little about it, but if you are not willing, Iwill dismiss the subject. I do not wish to talk with you now about itunless you yourself desire it; but if we talk at all, we must both beopen, and honest, and sincere. Now, should you rather have me talk withyou or not?"

"Yes, sir, I should rather have you talk with me now than in school. "

The teacher then described his conduct in a mild manner, using the styleof simple narration, admitting no harsh epithets, no terms of reproach. The boy was surprised, for he supposed that he had not been noticed. Hethought, perhaps, that he should have been punished if he had beenobserved. The teacher said, in conclusion, "Now, James, I do not suppose you have done this from any designedirreverence toward God, or deliberate intention of giving me trouble andpain. You have several times lately assisted me in various ways, and Iknow, from the cheerful manner with which you comply with my wishes, that your prevailing desire is to give me pleasure, not pain. You havefallen into this practice through thoughtlessness, but that does notalter the character of the sin. To do so is a great sin against God, anda great offense against good order in school. You see, yourself, that myduty to the school will require me to adopt the most decided measures toprevent the continuance and the spread of such a practice. I should beimperiously bound to do it, even if the individual was the very bestfriend I had in school, and if the measures necessary should bring uponhim great disgrace and suffering. Do you not think it would be so?"

"Yes, sir, " said James, seriously, "I suppose it would. "

"I wish to remove the evil, however, in the pleasantest way. Do youremember my speaking on this subject in school the other day?"

"Yes, sir. "

"Well, my object in what I said then was almost entirely to persuade youto reform without having to speak to you directly. I thought it would bepleasanter to you to be reminded of your duty in that way. But I do notthink it did you much good. Did it?"

"I don't think I have played _so much_ since then. "

"Nor I. You have improved a little, but you have not decidedly andthoroughly reformed. So I was obliged to take the next step which wouldbe least unpleasant to you, that is, talking with you alone. Now youtold me when we began that you would deal honestly and sincerely withme, if I would with you. I have been honest and open. I have told youall about it so far as I am concerned. Now I wish you to be honest, andtell me what you are going to do. If you think, from this conversation, that you have done wrong, and if you are fully determined to do so nomore, and to break off at once, and forever, from this practice, Ishould like to have you tell me, and then the whole thing will besettled. On the other hand, if you feel about it pretty much as you havedone, I should like to have you tell me that too, honestly and frankly, that we may have a distinct understanding, and that I may be consideringwhat to do next. I shall not be offended with you for giving me eitherof these answers, but be sure that you are honest; you promised to beso. "

The boy looked up in his master's face, and said, with greatearnestness, "Mr T. I _will_ do better. I _will not_ trouble you any more. "

I have detailed this case thus particularly because it exhibits clearlywhat I mean by going directly and frankly to the individual, and comingat once to a full understanding. In nine cases out of ten this coursewill be effectual. For four years, with a very large school, I foundthis sufficient in every case of discipline which occurred, except inthree or four instances, where something more was required. To make itsuccessful, however, the work must be done properly. Several things arenecessary. It must be deliberate; generally better after a little delay. It must be indulgent, so far as the view which the teacher takes of theguilt of the pupil is concerned; every palliating consideration must befelt. It must be firm and decided in regard to the necessity of achange, and the determination of the teacher to effect it. It must alsobe open and frank; no insinuations, no hints, no surmises, but plain, honest, open dealing. 

In many cases the communication may be made most delicately and mostsuccessfully in writing. The more delicately you touch the feelings ofyour pupils, the more tender these feelings will become. Many a teacherhardens and stupefies the moral sense of his pupils by the harsh andrough exposures to which he drags out the private feelings of the heart. A man may easily produce such a state of feeling in his schoolroom, thatto address even the gentlest reproof to any individual, in the hearingof the next, would be a most severe punishment; and, on the other hand, he may so destroy that sensitiveness that his vociferated reproacheswill be as unheeded as the idle wind. 

If, now, the teacher has taken the course recommended in thischapter--if he has, by his general influence in the school, done all inhis power to bring the majority of his pupils to the side of order anddiscipline--if he has then studied, attentively and impartially, thecharacters of those who can not thus be led--if he has endeavored tomake them his friends, and to acquire, by every means, a personalinfluence over them--if, finally, when they do wrong, he goes plainly, but in a gentle and delicate manner, to them, and lays before them thewhole case--if he has done all this, he has gone as far as moralinfluence will carry him. My opinion is, that this course, faithfullyand judiciously pursued, will, in almost all instances, succeed; but itwill not in all; and where it fails, there must be other, and morevigorous and decided measures. What these measures of restraint orpunishment shall be must depend upon the circumstances of the case; butin resorting to them, the teacher must be decided and unbending. 

The course above recommended is not trying lax and inefficient measuresfor a long time in hopes of their being ultimately successful, and then, when they are found not to be so, changing the policy. There should be, through the whole, the tone and manner of _authority_, not of_persuasion_. The teacher must be a _monarch_, and, while he is gentleand forbearing, always looking on the favorable side of conduct so faras guilt is concerned; he must have an eagle eye and an efficient hand, so far as relates to arresting the evil and stopping the consequences. He may slowly and cautiously, and even tenderly, approach a delinquent. He may be several days in gathering around him the circumstances ofwhich he is ultimately to avail himself in bringing him to submission;but, while he proceeds thus slowly and tenderly, he must come with theair of authority and power. The fact that the teacher bases all hisplans on the idea of his ultimate authority in every case may beperfectly evident to all the pupils, while he proceeds with moderationand gentleness in all his specific measures. Let it be seen, then, thatthe constitution of your school is a monarchy, absolute and unlimited;but let it also be seen that the one who holds the power is himselfunder the control of moral principle in all that he does, and that heendeavors to make the same moral principle which guides him go as far asit is possible to make it go in the government of his subjects. 

CHAPTER V. 

RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE. 

[Illustration]

In consequence of the unexampled religious freedom possessed in thiscountry, for which it is happily distinguished above all other countrieson the face of the earth, there necessarily results a vast variety ofreligious sentiment and action. We can not enjoy the blessings withoutthe inconveniences of freedom. Where every man is allowed to believe ashe pleases, some will, undoubtedly, believe wrong, and others will bedivided, by embracing views of a subject which are different, thoughperhaps equally consistent with truth. Hence we have among us everyshade and every variety of religious opinion, and, in many cases, contention and strife, resulting from hopeless efforts to produceuniformity. 

A stranger who should come among us would suppose, from the tone of ourreligious journals, and from the general aspect of society on thesubject of religion, that the whole community was divided into athousand contending sects, who hold nothing in common, and whose soleobjects are the annoyance and destruction of each other. But if we leaveout of view some hundreds, or, if you please, some thousands oftheological controversialists who manage the public discussions, and sayand do all that really comes before the public on this subject, it willbe found that there is vastly more religious truth admitted by commonconsent among the people of New England than is generally supposed. Thiscommon ground I shall endeavor briefly to describe; for it is very plainthat the teacher must, in ordinary cases, confine himself to it. Bycommon consent, however, I do not mean the consent of every body; I meanthat of the great majority of serious, thinking men. 

But let us examine first, for a moment, what right any member of thecommunity has to express and to disseminate his opinions with a view tothe inquiry whether the teacher is really bound to confine himself towhat he can do on this subject with the common consent of his employers. 

The various monarchical nations of Europe have been for many years, asis well known, strongly agitated with questions of politics. It is withdifficulty that public tranquillity is preserved. Every man takes sides. Now, in this state of things, a wealthy gentleman residing in one ofthese countries is opposed to the revolutionary projects so constantlygrowing up there, and being, both from principle and feeling, stronglyattached to monarchical government, wishes to bring up his children withthe same feelings which he himself cherishes. He has a right to do so. No matter if his opinions are wrong. He ought, it will be generallysupposed in this country, to be republican. I suppose him to adoptopinions which will generally, by my readers, be considered wrong, thatI may bring more distinctly to view the right he has to educate hischildren as _he thinks_ it proper that they should be educated. He maybe wrong to _form_ such opinions; but the opinions once formed, he has aright, with which no human power can justly interfere, to educate hischildren in conformity with those opinions. It is alike the law of Godand nature that the father should control, as he alone is responsible, the education of his child. 

Now, under these circumstances, he employs an American mechanic, who isresiding in Paris, to come to his house and teach his children the useof the lathe. After some time he comes into their little work-shop, andis astonished to find the lathe standing still, and the boys gatheredround the Republican turner, who is relating to them stories of thetyranny of kings, the happiness of republicans, and the glory of war. The parent remonstrates. The mechanic defends himself. 

"I am a Republican, " he says, "upon principle, and wherever I go I mustexert all the influence in my power to promote free principles, and toexpose the usurpations and the tyranny of kings. "

To this the monarchist might very properly reply, "In your efforts to promote your principles, you are limited, or youought to be limited, to modes that are proper and honorable. I employyou for a distinct and specific purpose, which has nothing to do withquestions of government, and you ought not to allow your love ofrepublican principles to lead you to take advantage of the position inwhich I place you, and interfere with my plans for the politicaleducation of my children. "

Now for the parallel case. A member of a Congregational society isemployed to teach a school in a district occupied exclusively byFriends--a case not uncommon. He is employed there, not as a religiousteacher, but for another specific and well-defined object. It is for thepurpose of teaching the children of that district _reading, writing, _and _calculation_, and for such other purposes analogous to this as thelaw providing for the establishment of district schools contemplated. Now, when he is placed in such a situation, with such a trust confidedto him, and such duties to discharge, it is not right for him to makeuse of the influence which this official station gives him over theminds of the children committed to his care for the accomplishment of_any other purposes whatever_ which the parents would disapprove. Itwould not be considered right by men of the world to attempt toaccomplish any other purposes in such a case; and are the pure and holyprinciples of piety to be extended by methods more exceptionable thanthose by which political and party contests are managed?

There is a very great and obvious distinction between the generalinfluence which the teacher exerts as a member of the community and thatwhich he can employ in his school-room as teacher. He has unquestionablya right to exert _upon the community, by such means as he shares incommon with every other citizen_, as much influence as he can commandfor the dissemination of his own political, or religious, or scientificopinions. But the strong ascendency which, in consequence of hisofficial station, he has obtained over the minds of his pupils, issacred. He has no right to use it for any purpose _foreign to thespecific objects_ for which he is employed, unless _by the consent, expressed or implied_, of those by whom he is intrusted with his charge. The parents who send their children to him to be taught to read, towrite, and to calculate, may have erroneous views of their duty asparents in other respects. He _may know_ that their views are erroneous. They may be taking a, course which the teacher _knows_ is wrong. But hehas not, on this account, a right to step in between the parent andchild, to guide the latter according to his own opinions, and to violatethe wishes and thwart the plans of the former. 

God has constituted the relation between the parent and the child, andaccording to any view which a rational man can take of this relation, the parent is alone responsible for the guidance he gives to that mind, so entirely in his power. He is responsible to God; and where ouropinions in regard to the manner in which any of the duties arisingfrom the relation are to be performed, differ from his, we have no rightto interfere, without his consent, to rectify what we thus imagine to bewrong. I know of but one exception which any man whatever would beinclined to make to this principle, and that is where the parent would, if left to himself, take such a course as would ultimately make hischildren _unsafe members of society. _ The _community_ have a right tointerfere in such a case, as they in fact do by requiring every man toprovide for the instruction of his children, and in some other wayswhich need not now be specified. Beyond this, however, no interferencecontrary to the parent's consent is justifiable. Where parents will dowrong, notwithstanding any persuasions which we can address to them, wemust not violate the principles of an arrangement which God has himselfmade, but must submit patiently to the awful consequences which will insome cases occur, reflecting that the responsibility for theseconsequences is on the head of those who neglect their duty, and thatthe being who makes them liable will settle the account. 

Whatever, then, the teacher attempts to do beyond the _specific_ and_defined_ duties which are included among the objects for which he isemployed, must be done _by permission_--by the voluntary consent, whether tacit or openly expressed, of those by whom he is employed. This, of course, confines him to what is generally common ground amonghis particular employers. In a republican country, where all his patronsare republican, he may, without impropriety, explain and commend to hispupils, as occasion may occur, the principles of free governments, andthe blessings which may be expected to flow from them. But it would notbe justifiable for him to do this under a monarchy, or in a communitydivided in regard to this subject, because this question does not comewithin the objects for the promotion of which his patrons haveassociated and employed him, and consequently he has no right, whilecontinuing their teacher, to go into it without their consent. In thesame manner, an Episcopal teacher, in a private school formed andsupported by Episcopalians, may use and commend forms of prayer, andexplain the various usages of that church, exhibiting their excellence, and their adaptation to the purposes for which they are intended. He mayproperly do this, because, in the case supposed, the patrons of theschool are _united_ on this subject, and their _tacit consent_ may besupposed to be given. But place the same teacher over a school ofFriends, whose parents dislike forms and ceremonies of every kind inreligion, and his duty would be changed altogether. So, if a RomanCatholic is intrusted with the instruction of a common district schoolin a community composed of many Protestant denominations, it would beplainly his duty to avoid all influence, direct or indirect, over theminds of his pupils, except in those religious sentiments and opinionswhich are common to himself and all his employers. I repeat theprinciple. _He is employed for a specific purpose, and he has no rightto wander from that purpose, except as far as he can go with the commonconsent of his employers. _

Now the common ground on religious subjects in this country is verybroad. There are, indeed, many principles which are, in my view, essential parts of Christianity, which are subjects of active discussionamong us. But, setting these aside, there are other principles equallyessential, in regard to which the whole community are agreed; or, atleast, if there is a dissenting minority, it is so small that it ishardly to be considered. Let us look at some of these principles. 

1. Our community is agreed that _there is a God. _ There is probably nota school in our country where the parents of the scholars would not wishto have the teacher, in his conversation with his pupils, take this forgranted, and allude reverently to that great Being, with the design ofleading them to realize his existence and to feel his authority. 

2. Our community are agreed that _we are responsible to God for all ourconduct. _ Though some persons absurdly pretend to believe that the Beingwho formed this world, if, indeed, they think there is any such Being, has left it and its inhabitants to themselves, not inspecting theirconduct, and never intending to call them to account, they are too fewamong us to need consideration. A difference of opinion on this subjectmight embarrass the teacher in France, and in other countries in Europe, but not here. However negligent men may be in _obeying_ God's commands, they do almost universally in our country admit in theory the authorityfrom which they come, and believing this, the parent, even if he isaware that he himself does not obey these commands, chooses to have hischildren taught to respect them. The teacher will thus be acting withthe consent of his employers, in almost any part of our country, inendeavoring to influence his pupils to perform moral duties, not merelyfrom worldly motives, nor from mere abstract principles of right andwrong, but _from regard to the authority of God. _

3. The community are agreed, too, in the belief of _the immortality ofthe soul. _ They believe, almost without exception, that there is afuture state of being to which this is introductory and preparatory, andalmost every father and mother in our country wish to have theirchildren keep this in mind, and to be influenced by it in all theirconduct. 

4. The community are agreed that _we have a revelation from Heaven. _ Ibelieve there are very few instances where the parents would not be gladto have the Bible read from time to time, its geographical andhistorical meanings illustrated, and its moral lessons brought to bearupon the hearts and lives of their children. Of course, if the teacheris so unwise as to make such a privilege, if it were allowed him, theoccasion of exerting an influence upon one side or the other of somequestion which divides the community around him, he must expect toexcite jealousy and distrust, and to be excluded from a privilege whichhe might otherwise have been permitted freely to enjoy. There may, alas!be some cases where the use of the Scriptures is altogether forbidden inschool; but probably in almost every such case it would be found that itis from fear of its perversion to sect or party purposes, and not fromany unwillingness to have the Bible used in the way I have described. 

5. The community are agreed, in theory, that _personal attachment to theSupreme Being is the duty of every human soul;_ and every parent, withexceptions so few that they are not worth naming, wishes that hischildren should cherish that affection, and yield their hearts to itsinfluence. He is willing, therefore, that the teacher, of course withoutinterfering with the regular duties for the performance of which heholds his office, should, from time to time, so speak of this duty, ofGod's goodness to men, of his daily protection and his promised favors, as to awaken, if possible, this attachment in the hearts of hischildren. Of course, it is very easy for the teacher, if he is sodisposed, to abuse this privilege also. He can, under pretense ofawakening and cherishing the spirit of piety in the hearts of hispupils, present the subject in such aspects and relations as to arousethe sectarian or denominational feelings of some of his employers; but Ibelieve, if this was honestly and fully avoided, there are few, if anyparents in our country who would not be gratified to have the greatprinciple of love to God manifest itself in the instructions of theschool-room, and showing itself, by its genuine indications, in thehearts and conduct of their children. 

6. The community are agreed not only in believing that piety consistsprimarily in love to God, but that _the life of piety is to be commencedby penitence for past sins, and forgiveness, in some way or other, through a Savior. _ I am aware that one class of theological writers, inthe heat of controversy, charge the other with believing that JesusChrist was nothing more nor less than a teacher of religion, and thereare unquestionably individuals who take this view. But theseindividuals are few. There are very few in our community who do not insome sense look upon Jesus Christ as our _Savior_--our Redeemer; who donot feel themselves _in some way_ indebted to him for the offer ofpardon. There may be here and there a theological student, or acontributor to the columns of a polemical magazine, who ranks JesusChrist with Moses and with Paul. But the great mass of the fathers andmothers, of every name and denomination through all the ranks ofsociety, look up to the Savior of sinners with something at least of thefeeling that he is the object of extraordinary affection and reverence. I am aware, however, that I am approaching the limit which, in manyparts of our country, ought to bound the religious influence of theteacher in a public school, and on this subject, as on every other, heought to do nothing directly or indirectly which would be displeasing tothose who have intrusted children to his care. 

So much ground, it seems, the teacher may occupy, by common consent, inthis country, and it certainly is a great deal. It may be doubtedwhether, after all our disputes, there is a country in the world whoseinhabitants have so much in common in regard to religious belief. Thereis, perhaps, no country in the world where the teacher may be allowed todo so much toward leading his pupils to fear God and to obey hiscommands, with the cordial consent of parents, as he can here. [3]

[Footnote 3: In speaking of this common ground, and in commenting uponit, I wish not to be understood that I consider these truths ascomprising all that is essential in Christianity. Very far from it. Afull expression of the Christian faith would go far in advance of allhere presented. We must not confound, however, what is essential toprepare the way for the forgiveness of sin with what is essential that achild should understand in order to secure his penitence andforgiveness. The former is a great deal, the latter very little. ]

The ground which I have been laying out is common all over our country;in particular places there will be even much more that is common. Ofcourse the teacher, in such cases, will be at much greater liberty. If aRoman Catholic community establish a school, and appoint a RomanCatholic teacher, he may properly, in his intercourse with his scholars, allude, with commendation, to the opinions and practices of that church. If a college is established by the Methodist denomination, the teacherof that institution may, of course, explain and enforce there the viewsof that society. Each teacher is confined only to _those views which arecommon to the founders and supporters of the particular institution towhich he is attached. _

I trust the principle which I have been attempting to enforce is fullybefore the reader's mind, namely, that moral and religious instructionin a school being in a great degree extra-official in its nature, mustbe carried no farther than the teacher can go with the common consent, either expressed or implied, of those who have founded, and who supporthis school. Of course, if those founders forbid it altogether, they havea right to do so, and the teacher must submit. The only question thatcan justly arise is whether he will remain in such a situation, or goand seek employment where a door of usefulness, here closed against him, will be opened. While he remains, he must honestly and fully submit tothe wishes of those in whose hands Providence has placed the ultimateresponsibility of training up the children of his school. It is only fora partial and specific purpose that they are placed under his care. 

The religious reader may inquire why I am so anxious to restrain, ratherthan to urge on, the exercise of religious influence in schools. "Thereis far too little, " some one will say, "instead of too much, andteachers need to be encouraged and led on in this duty, not to berestrained from it. " There is, indeed, far too little religiousinfluence exerted in common schools. What I have said has been intendedto prepare the way for an increase of it. My view of it is this:

If teachers do universally confine themselves to the limits which I havebeen attempting to define, they may accomplish within these limits avast amount of good. By attempting, however, to exceed them, theconfidence of parents is destroyed or weakened, and the door is closed. In this way, injury to a very great extent has been done in many partsof our country. Parents are led to associate with the very idea ofreligion, indirect and perhaps secret efforts to influence theirchildren in a way which they themselves would disapprove. They transferto the cause of piety itself the dislike which was first awakened byexceptionable means to promote it; and other teachers, seeing these evileffects, are deterred from attempting what they might easily haveaccomplished. Before, therefore, attempting to enforce the duty and toexplain the methods of exerting religious influence in school, I thoughtproper distinctly to state with what restrictions and within what limitsthe work is to be done. 

There are many teachers who profess to cherish the spirit and toentertain the hopes of piety, who yet make no effort whatever to extendits influence to the hearts of their pupils. Others appeal sometimes toreligious truth merely to assist them in the government of the school. They perhaps bring it before the minds of disobedient pupils in a vaineffort to make an impression upon the conscience of one who has donewrong, and who can not by other means be brought to submission. But thepupil in such cases understands, or at least he believes, that theteacher applies to religious truth only to eke out his own authority, and of course it produces no effect. Another teacher thinks he must, todischarge his duty, give a certain amount, weekly, of what he considersreligious instruction. Pie accordingly appropriates a regular portion oftime to a formal lecture or exhortation, which he delivers withoutregard to the mental habits of thought and feeling which prevail amonghis charge. He forgets that the heart must be led, not driven to piety, and that unless his efforts are adapted to the nature of the minds he isacting upon, and suited to influence them, he must as certainly fail ofsuccess as when there is a want of adaptedness between the means and theend in any other undertaking whatever. 

The arrangement which seems to me as well calculated as any for thereligious exercises of a school is this:

1. In the morning, open the school with a very short prayer, resemblingin its object and length the opening prayer in the morning atCongregational churches. The posture which, from some considerableexperience, I would recommend at this exercise, is sitting with the headreclined upon the desk. The prayer, besides being short, should besimple in its language and specific in its petitions. A degree ofparticularity and familiarity which would be improper elsewhere is notonly allowable here, but necessary to the production of the propereffect. That the reader may understand to what extent I mean to beunderstood to recommend this, I will subjoin a form, such as in spirit Isuppose such a prayer ought to be. 

"Our Father in Heaven, who hast kindly preserved the pupils and theteacher of this school during the past night, come and grant us acontinuance of thy protection and blessing during this day. We can notspend the day prosperously and happily without thee. Come, then, and, bein this school-room during this day, and help us all to be faithful andsuccessful in duty. 

"Guide the teacher in all that he may do. Give him wisdom, and patience, and faithfulness. May he treat all his pupils with kindness; and if anyof them should do any thing that is wrong, wilt thou help him, gentlybut firmly, to endeavor to bring him back to duty. May he sympathizewith the difficulties and trials of all, and promote the presenthappiness as well as the intellectual progress of all who are committedto his care. 

"Take care of the pupils too. May they spend the day pleasantly andhappily together. Wilt thou, who didst originally give us all ourpowers, direct and assist us all, this day, in the use and improvementof them. Remove difficulties from our path, and give us all fidelity andpatience in every duty. Let no one of us destroy our peace and happinessthis day by breaking any of thy commands, or encouraging our companionsin sins, or neglecting, in any respect, our duty. We ask all in the nameof our great Redeemer. Amen. "

Of course the prayer of each day will be varied, unless in special casesthe teacher prefers to read some form like the above. But let every onebe _minute and particular, _ relating especially to school--to schooltemptations, and trials, and difficulties. Let every one be filled withexpressions relating to school, so that it will bear upon every sentencethe impression that it is the petition of a teacher and his pupils atthe throne of grace. 

2. If the pupils can sing, there may be a single verse, or sometimes twoverses, of some well-known hymn sung after the prayer at the opening ofthe school. Teachers will find it much easier to introduce this practicethan it would at first be supposed. In almost every school there areenough who can sing to begin, especially if the first experiment is madein a recess, or before or after school; and the beginning once made, thedifficulty is over. If but few tunes are sung, a very large proportionof the scholars will soon learn them. 

3. Let there be no other regular exercise until the close of theafternoon school. When that hour has arrived, let the teacher devote avery short period, five minutes perhaps, to religious _instruction_, given in various ways. At one time he may explain and illustrate someimportant truth. At another, read and comment upon a very short portionof Scripture. At another, relate an anecdote or fact which will tend tointerest the scholars in the performance of duty. The teacher should bevery careful not to imitate on these occasions the formal style ofexhortation from the pulpit. Let him use no cant and hackneyed phrases, and never approach the subject of personal piety, or speak of suchfeelings as penitence for sin, trust in God, and love for the Savior, unless his own heart is really at the time warmed by the emotions whichhe wishes to awaken in others. Children very easily detect hypocrisy. They know very well when a parent or teacher is talking to them onreligious subjects merely as a matter of course for the sake of effect, and such constrained and formal efforts never do any good. 

Let, then, every thing which you do in reference to this subject be donewith proper regard to the character and condition of the youthful mind, and in such a way as shall be calculated to _interest_ as well as to_instruct_. A cold and formal exhortation, or even an apparently earnestone, delivered in a tone of affected solemnity, will produce no goodeffect. Perhaps I ought not to say it will produce _no_ good effect, forgood does sometimes result as a sort of accidental consequence fromalmost any thing. I mean it will have no effectual _tendency_ to dogood. You must vary your method, too, in order to interest your pupils. Watch their countenances when you are addressing them, and see if theylook interested. If they do not, be assured that there is somethingwrong, or at least something ill-judged or inefficient in your manner ofexplaining the truths which you wish to have produce an effect upontheir minds. 

That you may be prepared to bring moral and religious truths beforetheir minds in the way I have described, your own mind must take astrong interest in this class of truths. You must habituate yourself tolook at the moral and religious aspects and relations of all that yousee and hear. When you are reading, notice such facts and remember suchnarratives as you can turn to good account in this way. In the same way, treasure up in your mind such occurrences as may come under your ownpersonal observation when traveling, or when mixing with society. 

That the spirit and manner of these religious exercises may be the moredistinctly understood, I will give some examples. 

Let us suppose, then, that the hour for closing school has come. Thebooks are laid aside; the room is still; the boys expect the few wordswhich the teacher is accustomed to address to them, and, looking up tohim, they listen to hear what he has to say. 

"You may take your Bibles. "

The boys, by a simultaneous movement, open their desks, and take fromthem their copies of the sacred volume. 

"What is the first book of the New Testament?"

"Matthew, " they all answer at once. 

"The second?" "Mark. " "The third?" "Luke. " "The next?" "John. " "Thenext?" "The Acts. " "The next?"

Many answer, "Romans. "

"The next?"

A few voices say faintly, and with hesitation, "First of Corinthians. "

"I perceive your answers become fainter and fainter. Do you know what isthe last book of the New Testament?"

The boys answer promptly, "Revelations. "

"Do you know what books are between the Acts and the book ofRevelation?"

Some say "No, sir;" some begin to enumerate such books as occur to them, and some, perhaps, begin to name them promptly and in their regularorder. 

"I do not mean, " interrupts the teacher, "the _names_ of the books, butthe _kinds_ of books. "

The boys hesitate. 

"They are epistles or letters. Do you know who wrote the letters?"

"Paul, " "Peter, " answer many voices at once. 

"Yes, there were several writers. Now the point which I wish to bringbefore you is this; do you know in what order, I mean on whatprinciples, the books are arranged?"

"No, sir, " is the universal reply. 

I will tell you. First come all Paul's epistles. If you turn over theleaves of the Testament, you will see that Paul's letters are all puttogether after the book of the Acts; and what I wish you to notice is, that they are arranged in the _order_ of _their length_. The longestcomes first, and then the next, and so on to the shortest, which is theepistle to Philemon. This, of course, comes last--no, I am wrong insaying it is the last of Paul's epistles; there is one more to theHebrews; and this comes after all the others, for there has been a gooddeal of dispute whether it was really written by Paul. You will see thathis name is not at the beginning of it, as it is in his other epistles:so it was put last. 

Then comes the Epistle of James. Will you see whether it is longer thanany that come after it? The boys, after a minute's examination, answer, "Yes, sir;" "Yes, sir. "

"What comes next?"

"The epistles of Peter. "

"Yes; and you will see that the longest of Peter's epistles is next inlength to that of James's; and, indeed, all his are arranged in theorder of their length. "

"Yes, sir. "

"What comes next?"

"John's. "

"Yes; and they are arranged in the order of their length. Do you nowunderstand the principle of the arrangement of the epistles?"

"Yes, sir. "

"I should like to have any of you who are interested in it to try toexpress this principle in a few sentences, on paper, and lay it on mydesk to-morrow, and I will read what you write. You will find it verydifficult to express it. Now you may lay aside your books. It will bepleasanter for you if you do it silently. "

Intelligent children will be interested even in so simple a point asthis--much more interested than a maturer mind, unacquainted with thepeculiarities of children, would suppose. By bringing up from time totime some such literary inquiry as this, they will be led insensibly toregard the Bible as opening a field for interesting intellectualresearch, and will more easily be led to study it. 

At another time the teacher spends his five minutes in aiming toaccomplish a very different object. I will suppose it to be one of thoseafternoons when all has gone smoothly and pleasantly in school. Therehas been nothing to excite strong interest or emotion; and there hasbeen (as every teacher knows there sometimes will be), without anyassignable cause which he can perceive, a calm, and quiet, and happyspirit diffused over the minds and countenances of the little assembly. His evening communication should accord with this feeling, and he shouldmake it the occasion to promote those pure and hallowed emotions inwhich every immortal mind must find its happiness, if it is to enjoy anyworth possessing. 

When all is still, the teacher addresses his pupils as follows:

"I have nothing but a simple story to tell you to-night. It is true, andthe fact interested me very much when I witnessed it, but I do not knowthat it will interest you now merely to hear it repeated. It is this:

"Last vacation, I was traveling in a remote and thinly-settled country, among the mountains, in another state. I was riding with a gentleman onan almost unfrequented road. Forests were all around us, and the houseswere small and very few. 

"At length, as we were passing an humble and solitary dwelling, thegentleman said to me, 'There is a young woman sick in this house; shouldyou like to go in and see her?' 'Yes, sir, ' said I, 'very much. She canhave very few visitors, I think, in this lonely place, and if you thinkshe would like to see us, I should like to go. '

"We turned our horses toward the door, and as we were riding up, Iasked what was the matter with the young woman. 

"'Consumption, ' the gentleman replied; 'and I suppose she will not livelong. '

"At that moment we dismounted and entered the house. It was a verypleasant summer afternoon, and the door was open. We entered, and werereceived by an elderly lady, who seemed glad to see us. In one corner ofthe room was a bed, on which was lying the patient whom we had come tovisit. She was pale and thin in her countenance, but there was a verycalm and happy expression beaming in her eye. I went up to her bedside, and asked her how she did. 

"I talked with her some time, and found that she was a Christian. Shedid not seem to know whether she would get well again or not, and, infact, she did not appear to care much about it. She was evidently happythen, and she believed that she should continue so. She had beenpenitent for her sins, and had sought and obtained forgiveness, andenjoyed, in her loneliness, not only the protection of God, but also hispresence in her heart, diffusing peace and happiness there. When I cameinto the house, I said to myself, 'I pity, I am sure, a person who isconfined by sickness in this lonely place, with nothing to interest oramuse her;' but when I came out, I said to myself, 'I do not pity her atall. '"

Never destroy the effect of such a communication as this by attemptingto follow it up with an exhortation, or with general remarks, vainlyattempting to strengthen the impression. 

_Never_, do I say? Perhaps there may be some exceptions. But childrenare not reached by formal exhortations; their hearts are touched andaffected in other ways. Sometimes you must reprove, sometimes you mustcondemn; but indiscriminate and perpetual harangues about the guilt ofimpenitence, and earnest entreaties to begin a life of piety, onlyharden the hearts they are intended to soften, and consequently confirmthose who hear them in the habits of sin. 

In the same way a multitude of other subjects, infinite in number andvariety, may be brought before your pupils at stated seasons forreligious instruction. It is unnecessary to give any more particularexamples, but still it may not be amiss to suggest a few generalprinciples, which ought to guide those who are addressing the young onevery subject, and especially on the subject of religion. 

1. _Make no effort to simplify language when addressing the young. _Children always observe this, and are always displeased with it, unlessthey are very young; and it is not necessary. They can understandordinary language well enough, if the _subject_ is within theircomprehension, and treated in a manner adapted to their powers. If youdoubt whether children can understand language, tell such a story asthis, with ardor of tone and proper gesticulation, to a child only twoor three years old:

"I saw an enormous dog in the street the other day. He was saunteringalong slowly, until he saw a huge piece of meat lying down on theground. He grasped it instantly between his teeth, and ran away with allspeed, until he disappeared around a corner so that I could see him nomore. "

In such a description there is a large number of words which such achild would not understand if they stood alone, but the wholedescription would be perfectly intelligible. The reason is, the_subject_ is simple; the facts are such as a very little child would beinterested in; and the connection of each new word, in almost everyinstance, explains its meaning. That is the way by which children learnall language. They learn the meaning of words, not by definitions, butby their connection in the sentences in which they hear them; and, bylong practice, they acquire an astonishing facility of doing this. It istrue they sometimes mistake, but not often, and the teacher of childrenof almost any age need not be afraid that he shall not be understood. There is no danger from his using the _language_ of men, if his subject, and the manner in which he treats it, and the form and structure of hissentences, are what they ought to be. Of course there may be cases, infact there often will be cases, where particular words will requirespecial explanation, but they will be comparatively few, and instead ofmaking efforts to avoid them, it will be better to let them come. Thepupils will be interested and profited by the explanation. 

Perhaps some may ask what harm it will do to simplify language whentalking to children. "It certainly can do no injury, " they may say, "andit diminishes all possibility of being misunderstood. " It does injury inat least three ways:

(1. ) It disgusts the young persons to whom it is addressed, and preventstheir being interested in what is said. I once met two children, twelveyears of age, who had just returned from hearing a very able discourse, delivered before a number of Sabbath-schools assembled on some publicoccasion. "How did you like the discourse?" said I. 

"Very well indeed, " they replied; "only, " said one of them, smiling, "hetalked to us as if we were all little children. "

Girls and boys, however young, never consider themselves littlechildren, for they can always look down upon some younger thanthemselves. They are mortified when treated as though they could notunderstand what is really within the reach of their faculties. They donot like to have their powers underrated, and they are right in thisfeeling. It is common to all, old and young. 

(2. ) Children are kept back in learning language if their teacher makeseffort to _come down, _ as it is called, to their comprehension in theuse of words. Notice that I say _in the use of words;_ for, as I shallshow presently, it is absolutely necessary to come down to thecomprehension of children in some other respects. If, however, in theuse of words, those who address children confine themselves to suchwords as children already understand, how are they to make progress inthat most important of all studies, the knowledge of language? Many amother keeps back her child, in this way, to a degree that is hardlyconceivable, thus doing all in her power to perpetuate in the child anignorance of its mother tongue. 

Teachers ought to make constant efforts to increase their scholars'stock of words by using new ones from time to time, taking care toexplain them when the connection does not do it for them; so that, instead of _coming down_ to the language of childhood, they ought ratherto go as far away from it as they can, without leaving their pupilsbehind them. 

(3. ) But perhaps the greatest evil of this practice is, it satisfies theteacher. He thinks he addresses his pupils in the right manner, andoverlooks altogether the real peculiarities in which the power tointerest the young depends. He talks to them in simple language, andwonders why they are not interested. He certainly is _plain_ enough. Heis vexed with them for not attending to what he says, attributing it totheir dullness or regardlessness of all that is useful or good, insteadof perceiving that the great difficulty is his own want of skill. Thesethree evils are sufficient to deter the teacher from the practice. 

2. Present your subject, not in its _general views_, but in its _minutedetails_. This is the great secret of interesting the young. Present itin its details and in its practical exemplifications; do this with anysubject whatever, and children will always be interested. 

To illustrate this, let us suppose two teachers wishing to explain totheir pupils the same subject, and taking the following opposite methodsof doing it. One, at the close of school, addresses his charge asfollows:

"The moral character of any action, that is, whether it is right orwrong, depends upon the _motives_ with which it is performed. Men lookonly at the outward conduct, but God looks at the heart. In order, now, that any action should be pleasing to God, it is necessary it should beperformed from the motive of a desire to please him. 

"Now there are a great many other motives of action which prevail amongmankind besides this right one. There is love of praise, love of money, affection for friends, and many others. "

By the time the teacher has proceeded thus far, he finds, as he looksaround the room, that the countenances of his pupils are assuming alistless and inattentive air. One is restless in his seat, evidentlypaying no attention. Another has reclined his head upon his desk, lostin a reverie, and others are looking round the room at one another, orat the door, restless and impatient, hoping that the dull lecture willsoon be over. 

The other teacher says:

"I have thought of an experiment I might try, which would illustrate toyou a very important subject. Suppose I should call one of the boys, A, to me, and should say to him, 'I wish you to go to your seat, andtranscribe a piece of poetry as handsomely as you can. If it is writtenas well as you can possibly write it, I will give you a quarter of adollar. Suppose I say this to him privately, so that none of the rest ofthe boys can hear, and he goes to take his seat and begins to work. Youperceive that I have presented to him a motive to exertion. "

"Yes, sir, " say the boys, all looking with interest at the teacher, wondering how this experiment is going to end. 

"Well, what would that motive be?"

"Money. " "The quarter of a dollar. " "Love of money, " or perhaps otheranswers, are heard from the various parts of the room. 

"Yes, love of money it is called. Now suppose I should call another boy, one with whom I was particularly acquainted, and who I should knowwould make an effort to please me, and should say to him, 'For aparticular reason, I want you to copy this poetry'--giving him thesame--'I wish you to copy it handsomely, for I wish to send it away, andhave not time to copy it myself. Can you do it for me?'

"Suppose the boy should say he could, and should take it to his seat andbegin, neither of the boys knowing what the other was doing. I shouldnow have offered to this second boy a motive. Would it be the same withthe other?"

"No, sir. "

"What was the other?"

"Love of money. "

"What is this?"

The boys hesitate. 

"It might be called, " continues the teacher, "friendship. It is themotive of a vast number of the actions which are performed in thisworld. 

"Do you think of any other common motive of action besides love of moneyand friendship?"

"Love of honor, " says one; "fear, " says another. 

"Yes, " continues the teacher, "both these are common motives. I might, to exhibit them, call two more boys, one after the other, and say to theone, 'I will thank you to go and copy this piece of poetry as well asyou can. I want to send it to the school committee as a specimen ofimprovement made in this school. '

"To the other I might say, 'You have been a careless boy to-day; youhave not got your lessons well. Now take your seat and copy this poetry. Do it carefully. Unless you take pains, and do it as well as youpossibly can, I shall punish you severely before you go home. '

"How many motives have I got now? Four, I believe. "

"Yes, sir, " say the boys. 

"Love of money, friendship, love of honor, and fear. We called the firstboy A; let us call the others B, C, and D; no, we shall remember betterto call them by the name of their motives. We will call the first M, formoney; the second, F, for friendship; the third, H, for honor; and thelast, F--we have got an F already; what shall we do? On the whole, it isof no consequence; we will have two F's, but we will take care not toconfound them. 

"But there are a great many other motives entirely distinct from these. For example, suppose I should say to a fifth boy, 'Will you copy thispiece of poetry? It belongs to one of the little boys in school: hewants a copy of it, and I told him I would try to get some one to copyit for him. ' This motive, now, would be benevolence; that is, if the boywho was asked to copy it was not particularly acquainted with the other, and did it chiefly to oblige him. We will call this boy B, forBenevolence. 

"Now suppose I call a sixth boy, and say to him, 'I have set four orfive boys to work copying this piece of poetry; now I wish you to sitdown, and see if you can not do it better than any of them. After allare done, I will compare them, and see if yours is not the best. ' Thiswould be trying to excite emulation. We must call this boy, then, E. Butthe time I intended to devote to talking with you on this subject forto-day is expired. Perhaps to-morrow I will take up the subject again. "

The reader now will observe that the grand peculiarity of theinstructions given by this last teacher, as distinguished from those ofthe first, consists in this, that the parts of the subject are presented_in detail_, and _in particular exemplification. _ In the first case, thewhole subject was dispatched in a single, general, and comprehensivedescription; in the latter, it is examined minutely, one point beingbrought forward at a time. The discussions are enlivened, too, bymeeting and removing such little difficulties as will naturally come upin such an investigation. Boys and girls will take an interest in such alecture; they will regret to have it come to a conclusion, and willgive their attention when the subject is again brought forward on thefollowing day. Let us suppose the time for continuing the exercise tohave arrived. The teacher resumes the discussion thus:

"I was talking to you yesterday about the motives of action. How manyhad I made?"

Some say "Four, " some "Five, " some "Six. "

"Can you name any of them?"

The boys attempt to recollect them, and they give the names in the orderin which they accidentally occur to the various individuals. Of coursethe words Fear, Emulation, Honor, Friendship, and others, come inconfused and irregular sounds from every part of the school-room. 

"You do not recollect the order, " says the teacher, "and it is of noconsequence, for the order I named was only accidental. Now to go onwith my account: suppose all these boys to sit down and go to writing, each one acting under the impulse of the motive which had been presentedto him individually. But, in order to make the supposition answer mypurpose, I must add two other cases. I will imagine that one of theseboys is called away a few minutes, and leaves his paper on his desk, andthat another boy, of an ill-natured and morose disposition, happening topass by and see his paper, thinks he will sit down and write upon it afew lines, just to tease and vex the one who was called away. We willalso suppose that I call another boy to me, who I have reason to believeis a sincere Christian, and say to him, 'Here is a new duty for you toperform this afternoon. This piece of poetry is to be copied; now do itcarefully and faithfully. You know that this morning you committedyourself to God's care during the day; now remember that he has beenwatching you all the time thus far, and that he will be noticing you allthe time you are doing this; he will be pleased if you do your dutyfaithfully. '

"The boys thus all go to writing. Now suppose a stranger should comein, and, seeing them all busy, should say to me, "'What are all these boys doing?'

"'They are writing. '

"'What are they writing?'

"'They are writing a piece of poetry. '

"'They seem to be very busy; they are very industrious, good boys. '

"'Oh no! it is not by any means certain that they are _good_ boys. '

"'I mean that they are good boys _now_; that they are doing right at_this time_. "

'_That_ is not certain; some of them are doing right and some are doingvery wrong, though they are all writing the same piece of poetry. '

The stranger would perhaps look surprised while I said this, and wouldask an explanation, and I might properly reply as follows:

'Whether the boys are at this moment doing right or wrong depends notso much upon what they are doing as upon the feelings of the heart withwhich they are doing it. I acknowledge that they are all doing the samething outwardly; they are all writing the same extract, and they are alldoing it attentively and carefully, but they are thinking of verydifferent things. '

'What are they thinking of?'

'Do you see that boy?' I might say, pointing to one of them. 'His nameis M. He is writing for money. He is saying to himself all the time, "Ihope I shall get the quarter of a dollar. " He is calculating what heshall buy with it, and every good or bad letter that he makes, he isconsidering the chance whether he shall succeed or fail in obtainingit. '

'What is the next boy to him thinking of?'

'His name is B. He is copying to oblige a little fellow whom hescarcely knows, and is trying to make his copy handsome, so as to givehim pleasure. He is thinking how gratified his schoolmate will be whenhe receives it, and is forming plans to get acquainted with him. 

"'Do you see that boy in the back seat? He has maliciously taken anotherboy's place just to spoil his work. He knows, too, that he is breakingthe rules of the school in being out of his place, but he staysnotwithstanding, and is delighting himself with thinking howdisappointed and sad his schoolmate will be when he comes in and findshis work spoiled by having another handwriting in it, when he wasdepending on doing it all himself. '

"'I see, ' the stranger might say by this time, 'that there is a greatdifference among these boys; have you told me about them all?'

"'No, ' I might reply, 'there are several others. I will only mention onemore. He sits in the middle of the second desk. He is writing carefully, simply because he wishes to do his duty and please God. He thinks thatGod is present, and loves him, and takes care of him, and he is obedientand grateful in return. I do not mean that he is all the time thinkingof God, but love to him is his motive of effort. '

"Do you see now, boys, what I mean to teach you by this longsupposition?"

"Yes, sir. "

"I presume you do. Perhaps it would be difficult for you to express itin words; I can express it in general terms thus:

"_Our characters depend, not on what we do, but on the spirit and motivewith which we do it. _ What I have been saying throws light upon oneimportant verse in the Bible, which I should like to have read. James, have you a Bible in your desk?"

"Yes, sir. "

"Will you turn to 1 Samuel, xvi. , 7, and then rise and read it? Read itloud, so that all the school can hear. "

James read as follows:

"MAN LOOKETH ON THE OUTWARD APPEARANCE, BUT GOD LOOKETH ON THE HEART. "

This is the way to reach the intellect and the heart of the young. Go_into detail. _ Explain truth and duty, not in an abstract form, butexhibit it _in actual and living examples. _

(3. ) Be very cautious how you bring in the awful sanctions of religionto assist you directly in the discipline of your school. You will derivea most powerful indirect assistance from the influence of religion inthe little community which you govern, but this will be through theprevalence of its spirit in the hearts of your pupils, and not from anyassistance which you can usually derive from it in managing particularcases of transgression. Many teachers make great mistakes in thisrespect. A bad boy, who has done something openly and directlysubversive of the good order of the school, or the rights of hiscompanions, is called before the master, who thinks that the mostpowerful weapon to wield against him is the Bible. So, while thetrembling culprit stands before him, he administers to him a reproof, which consists of an almost ludicrous mixture of scolding, entreaty, religious instruction, and threatening of punishment. But such anoccasion as this is no time to touch a bad boy's heart. He is steeled atsuch a moment against any thing but mortification and the desire to getout of the hands of the master, and he has an impression that theteacher appeals to religious principles only to assist him to sustainhis own authority. Of course, religious truth, at such a time, can makeno good impression. There may be exceptions to this rule. Theredoubtless are. I have found some; and every successful teacher who readsthis will probably call to mind some which have occurred in the courseof his own experience. I am only speaking of what ought to be thegeneral rule, which is to reserve religious truths for moments of adifferent character altogether. Bring the principles of the Bibleforward when the mind is calm, when the emotions are quieted, and allwithin is at rest; and in exhibiting them, be actuated, not by a desireto make your duties of government easier, but to promote the real andpermanent happiness of your charge. 

(4. ) Do not be eager to draw from your pupils an expression of theirpersonal interest in religious truth. Lay before them, and enforce, byall the means in your power, the principles of Christian duty, but donot converse with them for the purpose of gratifying your curiosity inregard to their piety, or your spiritual pride by counting up thenumbers of those who have been led to piety by your influence. Beginningto act from Christian principle is the beginning of a new life, and itmay be an interesting subject of inquiry to you to ascertain how many ofyour pupils have experienced the change; but, in many cases, it wouldmerely gratify curiosity to know. There is no question, too, that, invery many instances, the faint glimmering of religious interest, whichwould have kindled into a bright flame, is extinguished at once, andperhaps forever, by the rough inquiries of a religious friend. Besides, if you make inquiries, and form a definite opinion of your pupils, theywill know that this is your practice, and many a one will repose in thebelief that you consider him or her a Christian, and you will thusincrease the number, already unfortunately too large, of those whomaintain the form and pretenses of piety without its power; whose heartsare filled with self-sufficiency and spiritual pride, and perhaps zealfor the truths and external duties of religion, while the real spirit ofpiety has no place there. They trust to some imaginary change, longsince passed by, and which has proved to be spurious by its failing ofits fruits. The best way--in fact, the only way--to guard against thisdanger, especially with the young, is to show, by your manner ofspeaking and acting on this subject at all times, that you regard atruly religious life as the only evidence of piety, and that, consequently, however much interest your pupils may apparently take inreligious instruction, they can not know, and you can not know, whetherChristian principle reigns within them in any other way than byfollowing them through life, and observing how, and with what spirit, the various duties which devolve upon them are performed. 

There are very many fallacious indications of piety, so fallacious andso plausible that there are very few, even among intelligent Christians, who are not often greatly deceived. "By their fruits ye shall knowthem, " said the Savior; a direction sufficiently plain, one would think, and pointing to a test sufficiently easy to be applied. But it is slowand tedious work to wait for fruits, and we accordingly seek a criterionwhich will help us quicker to a result. You see your pupil serious andthoughtful. It is well; but it is not proof of piety. You see him deeplyinterested when you speak of his obligations to his Maker, and theduties he owes to Him. This is well, but it is no proof of piety. Youknow he reads his Bible daily, and offers his morning and eveningprayers. When you speak to him of God's goodness, and of his pastingratitude, his bosom heaves with emotion, and the tear stands in hiseye. It is all well. You may hope that he is going to devote his life tothe service of God; but you can not know, you can not even believe withany great confidence. These appearances are not piety. They are notconclusive evidences of it. They are only, in the young, faint groundsof hope that the genuine fruits of piety will appear. 

I am aware that there are many persons so habituated to judging withconfidence of the piety of others from some such indications as I havedescribed, that they will think I carry my cautions to the extreme. Perhaps I do; but the Savior said, "By their fruits ye shall know them, "and it is safest to follow his direction. 

By the word "fruits, " however, our Savior unquestionably does not meanthe mere moral virtues of this life. The fruits to be looked at are thefruits of _piety_, that is, indications of permanent attachment to theCreator, and a desire to obey his commands. We must look for these. 

There is no objection to your giving particular individuals specialinstruction adapted to their wants and circumstances. You may do this bywriting or in other ways, but do not lead them to make up their mindsfully that they are Christians in such a sense as to induce them to feelthat the work is done. Let them understand that becoming a Christian is_beginning_ a work, not _finishing_ it. Be cautious how you form anopinion even yourself on the question of the genuineness of their piety. Be content not to know. You will be more faithful and watchful if youconsider it uncertain, and they will be more faithful and watchful too. 

(5. ) Bring very fully and frequently before your pupils the practicalduties of religion in all their details, especially their duties athome, to their parents, and to their brothers and sisters. Do not, however, allow them to mistake morality for religion. Show them clearlywhat piety is in its essence, and this you can do most successfully byexhibiting its effects. 

(6. ) Finally, let me insert as the keystone of all that I have beensaying in this chapter, be sincere, and ardent, and consistent in yourown piety. The whole structure which I have been attempting to buildwill tumble into ruins without this. Be constantly watchful and careful, not only to maintain intimate communion with God, and to renew it dailyin your seasons of retirement, but to guard your conduct. Let pietycontrol and regulate it. Show your pupils that it makes you amiable, patient, forbearing, benevolent in little things as well as in greatthings, and your example will co-operate with your instructions, andallure your pupils to walk in the paths which you tread. But noclearness and faithfulness in religious teaching will atone for theinjury which a bad example will effect. Conduct speaks louder thanwords, and no persons are more shrewd than the young to discover thehollowness of empty professions, and the heartlessness of merepretended interest in their good. 

I am aware that this book may fall into the hands of some who may takelittle interest in the subject of this chapter. To such I may perhapsowe an apology for having thus fully discussed a topic in which only apart of my readers can be supposed to be interested. My apology is this:It is obvious and unquestionable that we all owe allegiance to theSupreme. It is so obvious and unquestionable as to be entirely beyondthe necessity of proof, for it is plain that nothing but such a bond ofunion can keep the peace among the millions of distinct intelligenceswith which the creation is filled. It is therefore the plain duty ofevery man to establish that connection himself and his Maker which theBible requires, and to do what he can to bring others to the peace andhappiness of piety. These truths are so plain that they admit of nodiscussion and no denial, and it seems to me highly unsafe for any manto neglect or to postpone the performance of the duty which arises fromthem. A still greater hazard is incurred when such a man, having fortyor fifty fellow-beings almost entirely under his influence, leads them, by his example, away from their Maker, and so far that he must, in manycases, hopelessly confirm the separation. With these views, I could not, when writing on the duties of a teacher of the young, refrain frombringing distinctly to view this which has so imperious a claim. 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE MOUNT VERNON SCHOOL. 

Perhaps there is no way by which teachers can, in a given time, do moreto acquire a knowledge of their art, and an interest in it, than byvisiting each others' schools. 

It is not always the case that any thing is observed by the visitorwhich he can directly and wholly introduce into his own school, but whathe sees suggests to him modifications or changes, and it gives him, atany rate, renewed strength and resolution in his work to see how similarobjects are accomplished, or similar difficulties removed by others. Ihave often thought that there ought, on this account, to be far greaterfreedom and frequency in the inter-change of visits than there is. 

Next, however, to a visit to a school, comes the reading of a vividdescription of it. I do not mean a cold, theoretical exposition of thegeneral principles of its management and instruction, for these areessentially the same in all good schools. I mean a minute account of theplans and arrangements by which these general principles are applied. Suppose twenty of the most successful teachers in New England wouldwrite such a description, each of his own school, how valuable would bethe volume which should contain them!

With these views, I have concluded to devote one chapter to thedescription of a school which was for several years under my care. [4]The account was originally prepared and _printed_, but not published, for the purpose of distribution among the scholars, simply because thisseemed to be the easiest and surest method of making them, on theiradmission to the school, acquainted with its arrangements and plans. Itis addressed, therefore, throughout to a pupil, and I preserve itsoriginal form, as, by its being addressed to pupils, and intended toinfluence them, it is an example of the mode of address and the kind ofinfluence recommended in this work. It was chiefly designed for newscholars; a copy of it was presented to each on the day of her admissionto the school, and it was made her first duty to read it attentively. 

[Footnote 4: The author was still connected with this school at the timewhen this work was written. ]

The system which it describes is one which gradually grew up in theinstitution under the writer's care. The school was commenced with asmall number of pupils, and without any system or plan whatever, and theone here described was formed insensibly and by slow degrees, throughthe influence of various and accidental circumstances. I have no ideathat it is superior to the plans of government and instruction adoptedin many other schools. It is true that there must necessarily be _some_system in every large institution; but various instructors will fallupon different principles of organization, which will naturally be suchas are adapted to the habits of thought and manner of instruction oftheir respective authors, and consequently each will be best for its ownplace. While, therefore, some system--some methodical arrangement isnecessary in all schools, it is not necessary that it should be the samein all. It is not even desirable that it should be. I consider this planas only one among a multitude of others, each of which will besuccessful, not by the power of its intrinsic qualities, but just inproportion to the ability and faithfulness with which it is carried intoeffect. 

There may be features of this plan which teachers who may read it may beinclined to adopt. In other cases, suggestions may occur to the mind ofthe reader, which may modify in some degree his present plans. Othersmay merely be interested in seeing how others effect what they, by othermethods, are equally successful in effecting. 

It is in these and similar ways that I have often myself been highlybenefited in visiting schools and, in reading descriptions of them, andit is for such purposes that I insert the account here. 

TO A NEW SCHOLAR ON HER ADMISSION TO THE MOUNT VERNON SCHOOL. 

As a large school is necessarily somewhat complicated in its plan, andas new scholars usually find that it requires some time and gives themno little trouble to understand the arrangements they find in operationhere, I have concluded to write a brief description of thesearrangements, by help of which you will, I hope, the sooner feel at homein your new place of duty. That I may be more distinct and specific, Ishall class what I have to say under separate heads. 

I. YOUR PERSONAL DUTY. 

Your first anxiety as you come into the school-room, and take your seatamong the busy multitude, if you are conscientiously desirous of doingyour duty, will be, lest, ignorant as you are of the whole plan and ofall the regulations of the institution, you should inadvertently do whatwill be considered wrong. I wish first, then, to put you at rest on thisscore. There is but one rule of this school. That you can easily keep. 

You will observe on one side of my desk a clock upon the wall, and notfar from it a piece of apparatus that is probably new to you. It is ametallic plate, upon which are marked, in gilded letters, the words"_Study Hours. "_ This is upright, but it is so attached by its loweredge to its support by means of a hinge that it can fall over fromabove, and thus be in a _horizontal_ position; or it will rest in an_inclined_ position--_half down, _ as it is called. It is drawn up andlet down by a cord passing over a pulley. When it passes either way, itsupper part touches a bell, which gives all in the room notice of itsmotion. 

Now when this "_Study Card"_ [5] as the scholars call it, is _up_, sothat the words "STUDY HOURS" are presented to the view of the school, itis the signal for silence and study. THERE IS THEN TO BE NOCOMMUNICATION AND NO LEAVING OF SEATS EXCEPT AT THE DIRECTION OFTEACHERS. When it is _half down, _ each scholar may leave her seat andwhisper, but she must do nothing which will disturb others. When it is_down_, all the duties of school are suspended, and scholars are leftentirely to their liberty. 

[Footnote 5: This apparatus has been previously described. See p. 47. ]

As this is the only rule of the school, it deserves a little more fullexplanation; for not only your progress in study, but your influence inpromoting the welfare of the school, and, consequently, your peace andhappiness while you are a member of it, will depend upon the strictnesswith which you observe it. 

Whenever, then, the study card goes up, and you hear the sound of itslittle bell, immediately and instantaneously stop, whatever you aresaying. If you are away from your seat, go directly to it and thereremain, and forget in your own silent and solitary studies, so far asyou can, all that are around you. You will remember that all_communication_ is forbidden. Whispering, making signs, writing uponpaper or a slate, bowing to any one, and, in fact, _every_ possible wayby which one person may have any sort of mental intercourse withanother, is wrong. A large number of the scholars take a pride andpleasure in carrying this rule into as perfect an observance aspossible. They say that as this is the only rule with which I troublethem, they ought certainly to observe this faithfully. I myself, however, put it upon other ground. I am satisfied that it is better andpleasanter for you to observe it most rigidly, if it is attempted to beenforced at all. 

You will ask, "Can not we obtain permission of you or of the teachers toleave our seats or to whisper if it is necessary?" The answer is "No. "You must never ask permission of me or of the teachers. You can leaveseats or speak at the _direction_ of the teachers, that is, when they oftheir own accord ask you to do it, but you are never to ask theirpermission. If you should, and if any teachers should give youpermission, it would be of no avail. I have never given them authorityto grant any permissions of the kind. 

You will then say, "Are we never, on any occasion whatever, to leave ourseats in study hours?" Yes, you are. There are two ways:

1. _At the direction of teachers. _--Going to and from recitations isconsidered as at the _direction_ of teachers. So, if a person isrequested by a teacher to transact any business, or is elected to apublic office, or appointed upon a committee, leaving seats or speaking, so far as is really necessary for the accomplishing such a purpose, isconsidered as at the direction of teachers, and is consequently right. In the same manner, if a teacher should ask you individually, or givegeneral notice to the members of a class, to come to her seat forprivate instruction, or to go to any part of the school-room for her, itwould be right to do it. The distinction, you observe, is this: theteacher may, _of her own accord, _ direct any leaving of seats which shemay think necessary to accomplish the objects of the school. She mustnot, however, _at the request of an individual, _ for the sake of hermere private convenience, give her permission to speak or to leave herseat. If, for example, a teacher should say to you in your class, "Assoon as you have performed a certain work you may bring it to me, " youwould, in bringing it, be acting under her _direction_, and wouldconsequently do right. If, however, you should want a pencil, and shouldask her to give you leave to borrow it, even if she should give youleave you would do wrong to go, for you would not be acting at her_direction, _ but simply by her _consent_, and she has no authority togrant consent. 

2. The second case in which you may leave your seat is when some veryuncommon occurrence takes place, which is sufficient reason forsuspending all rules. If your neighbor is faint, you may speak to her, and, if necessary, lead her out. If your mother or some other friendshould come into the school-room, you can go and sit with her upon thesofa, and talk about the school. [6] And so in many other similar cases. Be very careful not to abuse this privilege, and make slight causes thegrounds of your exceptions. It ought to be a very clear case. If a younglady is unwell in a trifling degree, so as to need no assistance, youwould evidently do wrong to talk to her. The rule, in fact, is verysimilar to that which all well-bred people observe at church. They neverspeak or leave their seats unless some really important cause, such assickness, requires them to break over all rules and go out. You have, inthe same manner, in really important cases, such as serious sickness inyour own case or in that of your companions, or the coming in of astranger, or any thing else equally extraordinary, power to lay asideany rule, and to act as the emergency may require. In using thisdiscretion, however, be sure to be on the safe side. In such cases, never ask permission. You must act on your own responsibility. 

[Footnote 6: A sofa was placed against the wall, by the side of theteachers' for the accommodation of visitors. ]

_Reasons for this rule. _--When the school was first established, therewas no absolute prohibition of whispering. Each scholar was allowed towhisper in relation to her studies. They were often, very often, enjoined to be conscientious and faithful, but, as might have beenanticipated, the experiment failed. It was almost universally thepractice to whisper more or less about subjects entirely foreign to thebusiness of the school. This all the scholars repeatedly acknowledged;and they almost unanimously admitted that the good of the schoolrequired the prohibition of all communication during certain hours. Igave them their choice, either always to ask permission when they wishedto speak, or to have a certain time allowed for the purpose, duringwhich free intercommunication might be allowed to all the school, withthe understanding, however, that, out of this time, no permission shouldever be asked or granted. They very wisely chose the latter plan, andthe Study Card was constructed and put up, to mark the times of freecommunication and of silent study. The card was at first down every halfhour for one or two minutes. The scholars afterward thinking that theirintellectual habits would be improved and the welfare of the schoolpromoted by their having a longer time for uninterrupted study, of theirown accord, without any influence from me, proposed that the card shouldbe down only once an hour. This plan was adopted by them by vote. I wishit to be understood that it was not _my_ plan, but _theirs_; and that Iam at any time willing to have the Study Card down once in half an hour, whenever a majority of the scholars, voting by ballot, desire it. 

You will find that this system of having a distinct time for whispering, when all may whisper freely, all communication being entirely excludedat other times, will at first give you some trouble. It will be hard foryou, if you are not accustomed to it, to learn conscientiously andfaithfully to comply. Besides, at first you will often need some littleinformation or desire to ask for an article which you might obtain in amoment, but which you can not innocently ask for till the card is down, and this might keep you waiting an hour. You will, however, after a fewsuch instances, soon learn to make your preparations beforehand, and ifyou are a girl of enlarged views and elevated feelings, you willgood-humoredly acquiesce in suffering a little inconvenience yourselffor the sake of helping to preserve those _distinct_ and well _defined_lines by which all boundaries must be marked in a large establishment, if order and system are to be preserved at all. 

Though at first you may experience a little inconvenience, you will soontake pleasure in the scientific strictness of the plan. It will gratifyyou to observe the profound stillness of the room where a hundred arestudying. You will take pleasure in observing the sudden transition fromthe silence of study hours to the joyful sounds and the animatingactivity of recess when the Study Card goes down; and then when it risesagain at the close of the recess, you will be gratified to observe howsuddenly the sounds which have filled the air, and made the room solively a scene, are hushed into silence by the single and almostinaudible touch of that little bell. You will take pleasure in this; foryoung and old always take pleasure in the strict and rigid operation of_system_ rather than in laxity and disorder. I am convinced, also, thatthe scholars do like the operation of this plan, for I do not have tomake any efforts to sustain it. With the exception that occasionally, usually not oftener than once in several months, I allude to thesubject, and that chiefly on account of a few careless and unfaithfulindividuals, I have little to say or to do to maintain the authority ofthe Study Card. Most of the scholars obey it of their own accord, implicitly and cordially. And I believe they consider this faithfulmonitor not only one of the most useful, but one of the most agreeablefriends they have. We should not only regret its services, but miss itscompany if it should be taken away. 

This regulation then, namely, to abstain from all communication withone another, and from all leaving of seats, at certain times which aremarked by the position of the Study Card, is the only one which canproperly be called a _rule_ of the school. There are a great manyarrangements and plans relating to the _instruction_ of the pupils, butno other specific _rules_ relating to _their conduct. _ You are, ofcourse, while in the school, under the same moral obligations which restupon you elsewhere. You must be kind to one another, respectful tosuperiors, and quiet and orderly in your deportment. You must do nothingto encroach upon another's rights, or to interrupt and disturb yourcompanions in their pursuits. You must not produce disorder, or bewasteful of the public property, or do any thing else which you mightknow is in itself wrong. But you are to avoid these things, not becausethere are any rules in this school against them, for there are none, butbecause they are in _themselves wrong_--in all places and under allcircumstances, wrong. The universal and unchangeable principles of dutyare the same here as elsewhere. I do not make rules pointing them out, but expect that you will, through your own conscience and moralprinciple, discover and obey them. 

It is wrong, for instance, for you to speak harshly or unkindly to yourcompanions, or to do any thing to wound their feelings unnecessarily, inany way. But this is a universal principle of duty, not a rule ofschool. 

So it is wrong for you to be rude and noisy, and thus disturb others whoare studying, or to brush by them carelessly, so as to jostle them attheir writing or derange their books. But to be careful not to do injuryto others in the reckless pursuit of our own pleasures is a universalprinciple of duty, not a rule of school. 

Such a case as this, for example, once occurred. A number of littlegirls began to amuse themselves in recess with running about among thedesks in pursuit of one another, and they told me, in excuse for it, when I called them to account, that they did not know that it was"_against the rule"_. 

[Illustration]

"It is not against the rule, " said I; "I have never made any ruleagainst running about among the desks. "

"Then, " asked they, "did we do wrong?"

"Do you think it would be a good plan, " I inquired, "to have it a commonamusement in the recess for the girls to hunt each other among thedesks?"

"No, sir, " they replied, simultaneously. 

"Why not? There are some reasons. I do not know, however, whether youwill have the ingenuity to think of them. "

"We may start the desks from their places, " said one. 

"Yes, " said I, "they are fastened down very slightly, so that I mayeasily alter their position. "

"We might upset the inkstands, " said another. 

"Sometimes, " added a third, "we run against the scholars who are sittingin their seats. "

"It seems, then, you have ingenuity enough to discover the reasons. Whydid not these reasons prevent your doing it?"

"We did not think of them before. "

"True; that is the exact state of the case. Now, when persons are soeager to promote their own enjoyment as to forget the rights and thecomforts of others, it is _selfishness. _ Now is there any rule in thisschool against selfishness?"

"No, sir. "

"You are right. There is not. But selfishness is wrong, very wrong, inwhatever form it appears, here and every where else, and that whether Imake any rules against it or not. "

You will see, from this anecdote, that, though there is but one rule ofthe school, I by no means intend to say that there is only _one way ofdoing wrong here. _ That would be very absurd. You _must not do any thingwhich you may know, by proper reflection, to be in itself wrong. _ This, however, is a universal principle of duty, not a _rule_ of the MountVernon School. If I should attempt to make rules which would specify andprohibit every possible way by which you might do wrong, my laws wouldbe innumerable, and even then I should fail of securing my object, unless you had the disposition to do your duty. No legislation can enactlaws as fast as a perverted ingenuity can find means to evade them. 

You will perhaps ask what will be the consequence if we transgresseither the single rule of the school or any of the great principles ofduty. In other words, What are the punishments which are resorted to inthe Mount Vernon School? The answer is, there are no punishments. I donot say that I should not, in case all other means should fail, resortto the most decisive measures to secure obedience and subordination. Most certainly I should do so, as it would plainly be my duty to do it. If you should at any time be so unhappy as to violate your obligationsto yourself, to your companions, or to me--should you misimprove yourtime, or exhibit an unkind or a selfish spirit, or be disrespectful orinsubordinate to your teachers, I should go frankly and openly, butkindly to you, and endeavor to convince you of your fault. I should veryprobably do this by addressing a note to you, as I suppose this would beless unpleasant to you than a conversation. In such a case, I shall hopethat you will as frankly and openly reply, telling me whether you admityour fault and are determined to amend, or else informing me of thecontrary. I shall wish you to be _sincere_, and then I shall know whatcourse to take next. But as to the consequences which may result to youif you should persist in what is wrong, it is not necessary that youshould know them beforehand. They who wander from duty always plungethemselves into troubles which they do not anticipate; and if you dowhat, at the time you are doing it, you know to be wrong, it will not beunjust that you should suffer the consequences, even if they were notbeforehand understood and expected. This will be the case with you allthrough life, and it will be the case here. 

I say it _will_ be the case here; I ought rather to say that it will bethe case should you be so unhappy as to do wrong and to persist in it. Such persistance, however, never occurs--at least it occurs so seldom, and at intervals so great, that every thing of the nature of punishment, that is, the depriving a pupil of any enjoyment, or subjecting her toany disgrace, or giving her pain in any way in consequence of herfaults, except the simple pain of awakening conscience in her bosom, isalmost entirely unknown. I hope that you will always be ready to confessand forsake your faults, and endeavor, while you remain in school, toimprove in character, and attain, as far as possible, every moralexcellence. 

I ought to remark, before dismissing this topic, that I place very greatconfidence in the scholars in regard to their moral conduct anddeportment, and they fully deserve it. I have no care and no trouble inwhat is commonly called _the government of the school. _ Neither myselfnor any one else is employed in any way in watching the scholars, orkeeping any sort of account of them. I should not at any time hesitateto call all the teachers into an adjoining room, leaving the schoolalone for half an hour, and I should be confident that, at such a time, order, and stillness, and attention to study would prevail as much asever. The scholars would not look to see whether I was in my desk, butwhether the Study Card was up. The school was left in this way, half anhour every day, during a quarter, that we might have a teachers'meeting, and the studies went on generally quite as well, to say theleast, as when the teachers were present. One or two instances ofirregular conduct occurred. I do not now recollect precisely what theywere. They were, however, fully acknowledged and not repeated, and Ibelieve the scholars were generally more scrupulous and faithful thenthan at other times. They would not betray the confidence reposed inthem. This plan was continued until it was found more convenient to havethe teachers' meetings in the afternoons. 

When any thing wrong is done in school, I generally state the case, andrequest the individuals who have done it to let me know who they are. They inform me sometimes by notes and sometimes in conversation; butthey always inform me. The plan _always_ succeeds. The scholars all knowthat there is nothing to be feared from confessing faults to me; butthat, on the other hand, it is a most direct and certain way to securereturning peace and happiness. 

I can illustrate this by describing a case which actually occurred, though the description is not to be considered so much an accurateaccount of what took place in a particular instance as an illustrationof the _general spirit and manner_ in which such cases are disposed of. I accidentally understood that some of the younger scholars were in thehabit, during recesses and after school, of ringing the door-bell andthen running away, to amuse themselves with the perplexity of theircompanions who should go to the door and find no one there. I explainedin a few words, one day, to the school, that this was wrong. 

"How many, " I then asked, "have ever been put to the trouble to go tothe door when the bell has thus been rung? They may rise. "

A very large number of scholars stood up. Those who had done themischief were evidently surprised at the extent of the trouble they hadoccasioned. 

"Now, " I continued, "I think all will be convinced that the troublewhich this practice has occasioned to the fifty or sixty young ladies, who can not be expected to find amusement in such a way, is far greaterthan the pleasure it can have given to the few who are young enough tohave enjoyed it. Therefore it was wrong. Do you think that the girls whorang the bell might have known this by proper reflection?"

"Yes, sir, " the school generally answered. 

"I do not mean, " said I, "if they had set themselves formally at work tothink about the subject, but with such a degree of reflection as oughtreasonably to be expected of little girls in the hilarity of recess andof play. "

"Yes, sir, " was still the reply, but fainter than before. 

"There is one way by which I might ascertain whether you were old enoughto know that this was wrong, and that is by asking those who haverefrained from doing this, because they supposed it would be wrong, torise. Then, if some of the youngest scholars in school should stand up, as I have no doubt they would, it would prove that all might have known, if they had been equally conscientious. But if I ask those to rise whohave _not_ rung the bell, I shall make known to the whole school whothey are that have done it, and I wish that the exposure of faultsshould be private, unless it is _necessary_ that it should be public. Iwill, therefore, not do it. I have myself, however, no doubt that allmight have known that it was wrong. 

"There is, " continued I, "another injury which must grow out of such apractice. This I should not have expected the little girls could thinkof. In fact, I doubt whether any in school will think of it. Can any onetell me what it is?"

No one replied. 

"I should suppose that it would lead you to disregard the bell when itrings, and that consequently a gentleman or lady might sometimes ring invain, the scholars near the door saying, 'Oh, it is only the littlegirls. '"

"Yes, sir, " was heard from all parts of the room. 

I found, from farther inquiry, that this had been the case, and I closedby saying, "I am satisfied that those who have inadvertently fallen into thispractice are sorry for it, and that if I should leave it here, no morecases of it would occur, and this is all I wish. At the same time, theywho have done this will feel more effectually relieved from the painwhich having done wrong must necessarily give them, if they individuallyacknowledge it to me. I wish, therefore, that all who have thus rung thebell in play would write me notes stating the facts. If any one does notdo it, she will punish herself severely, for she will feel for many daysto come that while her companions were willing to acknowledge theirfaults, she wished to conceal and cover hers. Conscience will reproachher bitterly for her insincerity, and, whenever she hears the sound ofthe door-bell, it will remind her not only of her fault, but of what isfar worse, _her willingness to appear innocent when she was reallyguilty. "_

Before the close of the school I had eight or ten notes acknowledgingthe fault, describing the circumstances of each case, and expressingpromises to do so no more. 

It is by such methods as this, rather than by threatening andpunishment, that I manage the cases of discipline which from time totime occur; but even such as this, slight as it is, occur very seldom. Weeks and weeks sometimes elapse without one. When they do occur, theyare always easily settled by confession and reform. Sometimes I am askedto _forgive_ the offense. But I have no power to forgive. God mustforgive you when you do wrong, or the burden must remain. My duty is totake measures to prevent future transgression, and to lead those whohave been guilty of it to God for pardon. If they do not go to Him, though they may satisfy me, as principal of a school, by not repeatingthe offence, they must remain _unforgiven_. I can _forget_, and I doforget. For example, in this last case I have not the slightestrecollection of any individual who was engaged in it. The evil wasentirely removed, and had it not afforded me a convenient illustrationhere, perhaps I should never have thought of it again; still, it may notyet be _forgiven. _ It may seem strange that I should speak so seriouslyof God's forgiveness for such a trifle as that. Does He notice a child'sringing a door-bell in play? He notices when a child is willing to yieldto temptation to do what she knows to be wrong, and to act even in theslightest trifle from a selfish disregard for the convenience of others. This spirit He always notices, and though I may stop any particular formof its exhibition, it is for Him alone to forgive it and to purify theheart from its power. But I shall speak more particularly on thissubject under the head of Religious Instruction. 

II. ORDER OF DAILY EXERCISES. 

There will be given you, when you enter the school, a blank schedule, inwhich the divisions of each forenoon for one week are marked, and inwhich your own employments for every half hour are to be written. (Acopy of this is inserted on page 222. )

This schedule, when filled up, forms a sort of a map for the week, inwhich you can readily find what are your duties for any particulartime. The following description will enable you better to understand it. 

_Opening of the School. _

The first thing which will call your attention as the hour for thecommencement of the school approaches in the morning is the ringing of abell five minutes before the time arrives by the regulator, who sits atthe curtained desk before the Study Card. One minute before the time thebell is rung again, which is the signal for all to take their seats andprepare for the opening of the school. When the precise moment arrives, the Study Card is drawn up, and at the sound of its little bell, all thescholars recline their heads upon their desks, and unite with me in avery short prayer for God's protection and blessing during the day. Iadopted the plan of allowing the scholars to sit, because I thought itwould be pleasanter for them, and they have, in return, been generally, so far as I know, faithful in complying with my wish that they would allassume the posture proposed, so that the school may present the uniformand serious aspect which is proper when we are engaged in so solemn aduty. If you move your chair back a little, you will find the posturenot inconvenient; but the only reward you will have for faithfullycomplying with the general custom is the pleasure of doing your duty, for no one watches you, and you would not be called to account shouldyou neglect to conform to the usage of the school. 

I hope, however, that you will conform to it. Indeed, all truly refinedand well-bred people make it a universal rule of life to conform to theinnocent religious usages of those around them, wherever they may be. 

After the prayer we sing one or two verses of a hymn. The music is ledby a piano, and we wish all to join in it who can sing. The exerciseswhich follow are exhibited to the eye by the diagram on the next page. 

MOUNT VERNON SCHOOL

SCHEDULE OF STUDIES. 1833. 

_Miss_

+---------+---------------+-----------+-----+-----------+-----+-----------+| |FIRST HOUR. |SECOND HOUR| |THIRD HOUR | |FOURTH HOUR|| +---------------+-----------+--+--+-----------+--+--+-----------+| |EVENING LESSONS|LANGUAGES. |G. |R. |MATHEMATICS|G. |R. |SECTIONS. |+---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+--+-----+-----+--+--+-----------+|MONDAY | | | | | | | | | | | |+---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+ +-----+-----+--+ +-----------+|TUESDAY | | | | | | | | | | | |+---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+ +-----+-----+--+ +-----------+|WEDNESDAY| | | | | | | | | | | |+---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+ +-----+-----+--+ +-----------+|THURSDAY | | | | | | | | | | | |+---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+ +-----+-----+--+ +-----------+|FRIDAY | | | | | | | | | | | |+---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+ +-----+-----+--+ +-----------+|SATURDAY | | | | | | | | | | | |+---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+--+-----+-----+--+--+-----------+

I now proceed to describe in detail the several hours, as representedin the diagram. 

_First Hour. _--_Evening Lessons. _

The first hour of the day, as you will see by the schedule, is markedevening lessons, because most, though not all, of the studies assignedto it are intended to be prepared out of school. These studies aremiscellaneous in their character, comprising Geography, History, Naturaland Intellectual Philosophy, and Natural History. This hour, like allthe other hours for study, is divided into two equal parts, some classesreciting in the first part, and others in the second. A bell is alwaysrung _five minutes before_ the time for closing the recitation, to givethe teachers notice that their time is nearly expired, and then again_at the time, _ to give notice to new classes to take their places. Thusyou will observe that five minutes before the half hour expires the bellwill ring, soon after which the classes in recitation will take theirseats. Precisely at the end of the half hour it will ring again, whennew classes will take their places. In the same manner, notice is givenfive minutes before the second half of the hour expires, and so in allthe other three hours. 

At the end of the first hour the Study Card will be let half down fiveminutes, and you will perceive that the sound of its bell willimmediately produce a decided change in the whole aspect of the room. Itis the signal, as has been before explained, for universal permission towhisper and to leave seats, though not for loud talking or play, so thatthose who wish to continue their studies may do so without interruption. When the five-minute period has expired the card goes up again, and itssound immediately restores silence and order. 

_Second Hour. _--_Languages. _ We then commence the second hour of theschool. This is devoted to the study of the languages. The Latin, French, and English classes recite at this time. By English classes Imean those studying the English _as a language, _ that is, classes inGrammar, Rhetoric, and Composition. The hour is divided as the firsthour is, and the bell is rung in the same way, that is, at the close ofeach half hour, and also five minutes before the close, to give theclasses notice that the time for recitation is about to expire. 

_First General Exercise. _

You will observe, then, that there follows upon the schedule a quarterof an hour marked G. That initial stands for General Exercise, and whenit arrives each pupil is to lay aside her work, and attend to anyexercise which may be proposed. This quarter of an hour is appropriatedto a great variety of purposes. Sometimes I give a short and familiarlecture on some useful subject connected with science or art, or theprinciples of duty. Sometimes we have a general reading lesson. Sometimes we turn the school into a Bible class. Again, the time isoccupied in attending to some _general_ business of the school. The bellis rung one minute before the close of the time, and when the periodappropriated to this purpose has actually expired, the Study Card, forthe first time in the morning, is let entirely down, and the room is atonce suddenly transformed into a scene of life, and motion, and gayety. 

_First Recess. _

The time for the recess is a quarter of an hour, and, as you will see, it is marked R. On the schedule. We have various modes of amusingourselves, and finding exercise and recreation in recesses. Sometimesthe girls bring their battledores to school. Sometimes they have a largenumber of soft balls with which they amuse themselves. A more commonamusement is marching to the music of the piano. For this purpose a setof signals by the whistle has been devised, by which commands arecommunicated to the school. 

In these and similar amusements the recesses pass away, and one minutebefore it expires the bell is rung to give notice of the approach ofstudy hours. 

At this signal the scholars begin to prepare for a return to theordinary duties of school, and when, at the full expiration of therecess, the Study Card again goes up, silence, and attention, and orderis immediately restored. 

_Third Hour. --Mathematics_. 

There follows next, as you will see by reference to the schedule, anhour marked Mathematics. It is time for studying and recitingArithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, and similar studies. It is divided, asthe previous hours were, into two equal parts, and the bell is rung, ashas been described, five minutes before the close, and also precisely atthe close of each half hour. 

_Second General Exercise. --Business_. 

Then follow two quarter hours, appropriated like those heretoforedescribed, the first to a General Exercise, the second to a recess. Atthe first of these the general business of the school is transacted. Asthis business will probably appear new to you, and will attract yourattention, I will describe its nature and design. 

At first you will observe a young lady rise at the secretary's desk toread a journal of what was done the day before. The notices which Igave, the arrangements I made, the subjects discussed and decided, and, in fact, every thing important and interesting in the business oroccurrences of the preceding day, is recorded by the secretary of theschool, and read at this time. This journal ought not to be a mere dryrecord of votes and business, but, as far as possible, an interestingdescription, in a narrative style, of the occurrences of the day. Thesecretary must keep a memorandum, and ascertain that every thingimportant really finds a place in the record, but she may employ anygood writer in school to prepare, from her minutes, the full account. 

After the record is read, you will observe me take from a little redmorocco wrapper which has been brought to my desk a number of narrowslips of paper, which I am to read aloud. In most assemblies, it iscustomary for any person wishing it to rise in his place and propose anyplan, or, as it is called, "make any motion" that he pleases. It wouldbe unpleasant for a young lady to do this in presence of a hundredcompanions, and we have consequently resorted to another plan. The redwrapper is placed in a part of the room accessible to all, and any onewho pleases writes upon a narrow slip of paper any thing she wishes tolay before the school, and deposits it there, and at the appointed timethe whole are brought to me. These propositions are of various kinds. Ican, perhaps, best give you an idea of them by such specimens as occurto me. 

"A. B. Resigns her office of copyist, as she is about to leave school. "

"Proposed that a class in Botany be formed. There are many who wouldlike to join it. "

"When will vacation commence?"

"Proposed that a music committee be appointed, so that we can have somemarching in recess. "

"Proposed that school begin at nine o'clock. "

"Mr. Abbott, will you have the goodness to explain to us what is meantby the Veto Message?"

"Proposed that we have locks upon our desks. "

You see that the variety is very great, and there are usually from fouror five to ten or fifteen of such papers daily. You will be at libertyto make in this way any suggestion or inquiry, or to propose any changeyou please in any part of the instruction or administration of theschool. If any thing dissatisfies you, you ought not to murmur at it inprivate, or complain of it to your companions, thus injuring to nopurpose both your own peace and happiness and theirs, but you oughtimmediately to bring up the subject in the way above described, that theevil may be removed. I receive some of the most valuable suggestions inthis way from the older and most reflecting pupils. These suggestionsare read. Sometimes I decide the question that arises myself. SometimesI say that the pupils may decide it. Sometimes I ask their opinion andwishes, and then, after taking them into consideration, come to aconclusion. 

For example, I will insert a few of these propositions, as these papersare called, describing the way in which they would be disposed of. Mostof them are real cases. 

"Mr. Abbott, the first class in Geography is so large that we have notroom in the recitation seats. Can not we have another place?"

After reading this, I should perhaps say, "The class in Geography mayrise and be counted. " They rise. Those in each division are counted bythe proper officer, as will hereafter be explained, and the numbers arereported aloud to me. It is all done in a moment. 

"How many of you think you need better accommodations?"

If a majority of hands are raised, I say, "I wish the teacher of thatclass would ascertain whether any other place of recitation is vacant, or occupied by a smaller class at that time, and report the case to me. "

"Proposed that we be allowed to walk upon the common in the recesses. "

"I should like to have some plan formed by which you can walk on thecommon in recesses, but there are difficulties. If all should go outtogether, it is probable that some would be rude and noisy, and thatothers would come back tardy and out of breath. Besides, as the recessis short, so many would be in haste to prepare to go out, that therewould be a great crowd and much confusion in the ante-room andpassage-ways. I do not mention these as insuperable objections, butonly as difficulties which there must be some plan to avoid. Perhaps, however, they can not be avoided. Do any of you think of any plan?"

I see, perhaps, two or three hands raised, and call upon the individualsby name, and they express their opinions. One says that a part can goout at a time. Another proposes that those who are tardy one day shouldnot go out again, &c. 

"I think it possible that a plan can be formed on these or some suchprinciples. If you will appoint a committee who will prepare a plan, andmature its details, and take charge of the execution of it, you may trythe experiment. I will allow it to go on as long as you avoid the evilsI have above alluded to. "

A committee is then raised, to report in writing at the business hour ofthe following day. 

"Proposed that the Study Card be down every half hour. "

"You may decide this question yourselves. That you may vote more freely, I wish you to vote by ballot. The boxes will be open during the nextrecess. The vote-receivers will write the question and place it upon theboxes. All who feel interested in the subject may carry in their votes, Aye or Nay. When the result is reported to me I will read it to theschool. "

In this and similar ways the various business brought up is disposed of. This custom is useful to the scholars, for it exercises and strengthenstheir judgment and their reflecting powers more than almost any thingbesides; so that, if interesting them in this way in the management ofthe school were of no benefit to me, I should retain the practice asmost valuable to them. But it is most useful to me and to the school. Ithink that nothing has contributed more to its prosperity than theactive interest which the scholars have always taken in its concerns, and the assistance they have rendered me in carrying my plans intoeffect. 

You will observe that in transacting this business very little isactually done by myself, except making the ultimate decision. All thedetails of business are assigned to teachers, or to officers andcommittees appointed for the purpose. By this means we dispatch businessvery rapidly. The system of offices will be explained in another place;but I may say here that all appointments and elections are made in thisquarter hour, and by means of the assistance of these officers thetransaction of business is so facilitated that much more can sometimesbe accomplished than you would suppose possible. I consider this periodas one of the most important in the whole morning. 

_Second Recess. _

After the expiration of the quarter hour above described, the Study Cardis dropped, and a recess succeeds. 

_Fourth Hour. _--_Sections_. 

In all the former part of the day the scholars are divided into_classes_, according to their proficiency in particular branches ofstudy, and they resort to their _recitations_ for _instruction. _ Theynow are divided into six _sections_, as we call them, and placed underthe care of _superintendents_, not for instruction, but for what may becalled supervision. _Teaching_ a pupil is not all that is necessary tobe done for her in school. There are many other things to be attendedto, such as supplying her with the various articles necessary for heruse, seeing that her desk is convenient, that her time is well arranged, that she has not too much to do nor too little, and that no difficultywhich can be removed obstructs her progress in study or her happiness inschool. The last hour is appropriated to this purpose, with theunderstanding, however, that such a portion of it as is not wanted bythe superintendent is to be spent in study. You will see, then, when thelast hour arrives, that all the scholars go in various directions to themeetings of their respective sections. Here they remain as long as thesuperintendent retains them. Sometimes they adjourn almost immediately, perhaps after having simply attended to the distribution of pens for thenext day; at other times they remain during the hour, attending to suchexercises as the superintendent may plan. The design, however, andnature of this whole arrangement I shall explain more fully in anotherplace. 

_Close of the School. _

As the end of the hour approaches, five minutes' notice is given by thebell, and when the time arrives the Study Card is half dropped for amoment before the closing exercises. When it rises again the room isrestored to silence and order. We then sing a verse or two of a hymn, and commend ourselves to God's protection in a short prayer. As thescholars raise their heads from the posture of reverence which they haveassumed, they pause a moment till the regulator lets down the StudyCard, and the sound of its bell is the signal that our duties at schoolare ended for the day. 

III. INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION OF PUPILS. 

For the instruction of the pupils the school is divided into _classes_, and for their general supervision into _sections_, as has been intimatedunder the preceding caption. The head of a _class_ is called a_teacher_, and the head of a _section_ a _superintendent_. The sameindividual may be both the teacher of a class and the superintendent ofa section. The two offices are, however, entirely distinct in theirnature and design. As you will perceive by recalling to mind the dailyorder of exercises, the classes meet and recite during the first threehours of the school, and the sections assemble on the fourth and last. We shall give each a separate description. 

1. CLASSES. 

The object of the division into classes is _instruction_. Whenever it isdesirable that several individuals should pursue a particular study, alist of their names is made out, a book selected, a time for recitationassigned, a teacher appointed, and the exercises begin. In this way alarge number of classes have been formed, and the wishes of parents, orthe opinion of the principal, and, in many cases, that of the pupil, determines how many and what shall be assigned to each individual. Alist of these classes, with the average age of the members, the name ofthe teacher, and the time of recitation, is posted in a conspicuousplace, and public notice is given whenever a new class is formed. Youwill therefore have the opportunity to know all the arrangements ofschool in this respect, and I wish you to exercise your own judgment anddiscretion a great deal in regard to your studies. I do not mean Iexpect you to _decide_, but to _reflect_ upon them. Look at the list, and consider what are most useful for you. Propose to me or to yourparents changes, whenever you think they are necessary; and when youfinish one study, reflect carefully, yourself, on the question what youshall next commence. 

The scholars prepare their lessons when they please. They are expectedto be present and prepared at the time of recitation, but they make thepreparation when it is most convenient. The more methodical andsystematic of the young ladies mark the times of _study_ as well as of_recitation_ upon their schedules, so that the employment of their wholetime at school is regulated by a systematic plan. You will observe, too, that by this plan of having a great many classes reciting through thefirst three hours of the morning, every pupil can be employed as much oras little as her parents desire. In a case of ill health, she may, ashas often been done in such cases at the request of parents, join one ortwo classes only, and occupy the whole forenoon in preparing for them, and be entirely free from school duties at home. Or she may, as is muchmore frequently the case, choose to join a great many classes, so as tofill up, perhaps, her whole schedule with recitations, in which case shemust prepare all her lessons at home. It is the duty of teachers to takecare, however, when a pupil pleads want of time as a reason for beingunprepared in any lesson, that the case is fully examined, in order thatit may be ascertained whether the individual has joined too manyclasses, in which case some one should be dropped, and thus the time andthe employments of each individual should be so adjusted as to give herconstant occupation _in school, _ and as much more as her parents maydesire. By this plan of the classes, each scholar advances just asrapidly in her studies as her time, and talents, and health will allow. No one is kept back by the rest. Each class goes on regularly andsystematically, all its members keeping exactly together in that study;but the various members of it will have joined a greater or less numberof other classes, according to their age, or abilities, or progress instudy, so that all will or may have full employment for their time. 

When you first enter the school, you will, for a day or two, be assignedto but few classes, for your mind will be distracted by the excitementof new scenes and pursuits, and the intellectual effort necessary for_joining_ a class is greater than that requisite for _going on_ with itafter being once under way. After a few days you will come to me andsay, perhaps (for this is ordinarily the process), "Mr. Abbott, I think I have time for some more studies. "

"I will thank you to bring me your schedule, " I say in reply, "so that Ican see what you have now to do. "

By glancing my eye over the schedule in such a case, I see in a momentwhat duties have been already assigned you, and from my generalschedule, containing all the studies of the school, I select what wouldbe most suitable for you after conferring with you about your pastpursuits, and your own wishes or those of your parents in regard to yourfuture course. Additions are thus made until your time is fullyoccupied. 

The manner of recitation in the classes is almost boundlessly varied. The design is not to have you commit to memory what the book contains, but to understand and digest it--to incorporate it fully into your ownmind, that it may come up in future life in such a form as you wish itfor use. Do not then, in ordinary cases, endeavor to fix _words_, but_ideas_ in your minds. Conceive clearly--paint distinctly to yourimagination what is described--contemplate facts in all their bearingsand relations, and thus endeavor to exercise the judgment, and thethinking and reasoning powers, rather than the mere memory, upon thesubjects which will come before you. 

2. SECTIONS. 

In describing the order of daily exercises, I alluded to the _sections_which assemble in the last hour of the school. It is necessary that Ishould fully describe the system of sections, as it constitutes a veryimportant part of the plan of the school. 

Besides giving the scholars the necessary intellectual instruction, there are, as I have already remarked, a great many other points whichmust receive attention in order to promote their progress, and to securethe regular operation and general welfare of the school. These variouspoints have something common in their nature, but it is difficult togive them a common name. They are such as supplying the pupils with pensand paper, and stationery of other kinds; becoming acquainted with eachindividual; ascertaining that she has enough and not too much to do;arranging her work so that no one of her duties shall interfere withanother; assisting her to discover and correct her faults, and removingany sources of difficulty or causes of discontent which may graduallycome in her way. These, and a multitude of similar points, constitutingwhat may be called the general _administration_ of the school, become, when the number of pupils is large, a most important branch of theteacher's duty. 

To accomplish these objects more effectually, the school is divided intosix sections, arranged, not according to proficiency in particularstudies, as the several classes are, but according to _age and generalmaturity of mind. _ Each one of these sections is assigned to the care ofa superintendent. These superintendents, it is true, during most ofschool hours, are also teachers. Their duties, however, as _Teachers_and as _Superintendents_, are entirely distinct. I shall brieflyenumerate the duties which devolve upon her in the latter capacity. 

1. A superintendent ought to prepare an exact list of the members of hersection, and to become intimately acquainted with them, so as to be asfar as possible their friend and confidante, and to feel a strongerinterest in their progress in study and their happiness in school, and agreater personal attachment to them than to any other scholars. 

2. She is to superintend the preparation of their schedules; to see thateach one has enough and not too much to do, by making known to me thenecessity of a change, where such necessity exists; to see that theschedules are submitted to the parents, and that their opinion orsuggestions, if they wish to make any, are reported to me. 

3. She is to take care that all the daily wants of her section aresupplied--that all have pens and paper, and desks of suitable height. Ifany are new scholars, she ought to interest herself in assisting them tobecome acquainted in school; if they are friendless and alone, to findcompanions for them, and to endeavor in every way to make their timepass pleasantly and happily. 

4. To watch the characters of the members of her section. To inquire oftheir several teachers as to the progress they make in study, and thefaithfulness and punctuality with which they prepare their lessons. Sheought to ascertain whether they are punctual at school and regular intheir habits--whether their desks are neat and well arranged, and theirexercises carefully executed. She ought to correct, through her owninfluence, any evils of this kind she may find, or else immediately torefer the cases where this can not be done to me. 

The better and the more pleasantly to accomplish the object of exertinga favorable influence upon the characters of the members of theirsection, the superintendents ought often to bring up subjects connectedwith moral and religious duty in section meetings. This may be done inthe form of subjects assigned for composition, or proposed for freediscussion in writing or conversation, or the superintendents may writethemselves, and read to the section the instructions they wish to give. 

When subjects for written composition are thus assigned, they should beso presented to the pupils as to lead their minds to a very practicalmode of regarding them. For example, instead of simply assigning thesubject _Truth_ as the theme of an abstract moral essay, bring updefinite points of a practical character, such especially as areconnected with the trials and temptations of early life. "I wish youwould all give me your opinions, " the teacher might say in such a case, "on the question, What is the most frequent inducement that leadschildren to tell falsehoods? Also, do you think it is right to telluntruths to very little children, as many persons do, or to people whoare sick? Also, whether it would be right to tell a falsehood to aninsane man in order to manage him?"

Sometimes, instead of assigning a subject of composition _verbally_, thesuperintendent exhibits an engraving, and the several members of theclass then write any thing they please which is suggested to them bythe engraving. For example, suppose the picture thus exhibited were torepresent a girl sewing in an attic. The compositions to which it wouldgive rise might be very various. One pupil would perhaps simply give anaccount of the picture itself, describing the arrangements of the room, and specifying the particular articles of furniture contained in it. Another would give a soliloquy supposed to be spoken by the sewing-girlas she sits at her work. Another would narrate the history of her life, of course an imaginary one. Another would write an essay on theadvantages of industry and independence. 

This is a very good way of assigning subjects of composition, and, ifwell managed, it may be the means of awakening a great interest inwriting among almost all the pupils of a school. 

5. Though the superintendents, as such, have, necessarily speaking, no_teaching_ to do, still they ought particularly to secure the progressof every pupil in what may be called the _essential_ studies, such asreading, writing, and spelling. For this purpose, they either see thattheir pupils are going on successfully in classes in school in thesebranches, or they may attend to them in the section, provided that theynever allow such instruction to interfere with their more appropriateand important duties. 

In a word, the superintendents are to consider the members of theirsections as pupils confided to their care, and they are not merely todischarge mechanically any mere routine of duty, such as can be herepointed out, but to exert all their powers, their ingenuity, theirknowledge of human character, their judgment and discretion, in everyway, to secure for each of those committed to their care the highestbenefits which the institution to which they belong can afford. They areto keep a careful and faithful record of their plans and of the historyof their respective sections, and to endeavor as faithfully and asdiligently to advance the interests of the members of them as if thesections were separate and independent schools of their own. 

A great responsibility is thus evidently intrusted to them, but not a greatdeal of _power_. They ought not to make changes, except in very plaincases, without referring the subject to me. They ought not to make rashexperiments, or even to try many new plans, without first obtaining myapproval of them. They ought to refer all cases which they can not easilymanage to my care. They ought to understand the distinction between _seeingthat a thing is done_ and _doing it_. For example, if a superintendentthinks that one of her section is in too high a class in Arithmetic, herduty is not to undertake, by her own authority, to remove her to a lowerone, for, as superintendent, she has no authority over Arithmetic classes, nor should she go to the opposite extreme of saying, "I have no authorityover Arithmetic classes, and therefore I have nothing to do with thiscase. " She ought to go to the teacher of the class to which her pupilhad been unwisely assigned, converse with her, obtain her opinion, thenfind some other class more suited to her attainments, and after fullyascertaining all the facts in the case, bring them to me, that I maymake the change. This is _superintendence--looking over_ the conditionand progress of the scholar. The superintendents have thus greatresponsibility, and yet, comparatively, little power. They accomplish agreat deal of good, and, in its ordinary course, it is by their directpersonal efforts; but in making changes, and remedying defects andevils, they act generally in a different way. 

The last hour of school is devoted to the sections. No classes recitethen, but the sections meet, if the superintendents wish, and attend tosuch exercises as they provide. Each section has its own organization, its own officers and plans. These arrangements of course vary in theircharacter according to the ingenuity and enterprise of thesuperintendents, and more especially according to the talents andintellectual ardor of the members of the section. 

The two upper sections are called senior, the next two middle, and thetwo younger junior. The senior sections are distinguished by using paperfor section purposes with a light blue tinge. To the middle sections isassigned a light straw color; and to the junior, pink. These colors areused for the schedules of the members, and for the records and otherdocuments of the section. 

This account, though it is brief, will be sufficient to explain to youthe general principles of the plan. You will soon become acquainted withthe exercises and arrangements of the particular section to which youwill be assigned, and by taking an active interest in them, andendeavoring to cooperate with the superintendent in all her measures andto comply with her wishes, you will very materially add to herhappiness, and do your part toward elevating the character of thecircle to which you will belong. 

IV. OFFICERS. 

In consequence of the disposition early manifested by the scholars torender me every assistance in their power in carrying into effect theplans of the school and promoting its prosperity, I gradually adoptedthe plan of assigning to various officers and committees, a number ofspecific duties relating to the general business of the school. Theseofficers have gradually multiplied as the school has increased and asbusiness has accumulated. The system has, from time to time, beenrevised, condensed, and simplified, and at the present time it is thusarranged. The particular duties of each officer are minutely describedto the individuals themselves at the time of their election; all Iintend here is to give a general view of the plan, such as is necessaryfor the scholars at large. 

There are, then, _five departments_ of business intrusted to officers ofthe school. The names of the officers, and a brief exposition of theirduties, are as follows:

[I omit the particular explanation of the duties of the officers, as thearrangement must vary in different schools, and the details of any oneplan can only be useful in the school-room to which it belongs. It willbe sufficient to name the officers of each department, with theirduties, in general terms. ]

1. REGULATORS. --To assist in the ordinary routine of business in school:ringing the bells; managing the Study Card; distributing and collectingpapers; counting votes, &c. 

2. SECRETARIES. --Keeping the records, and executing writing of variouskinds. 

3. ACCOUNTANTS. --Keeping a register of the scholars, and various otherduties connected with the accounts. 

4. LIBRARIANS. --To take charge of books and stationery. 

5. CURATORS. --To secure neatness and good order in the apartments. 

The secretaries and accountants are appointed by the principal, andwill generally be chosen from the teachers. The first in each of theother departments are chosen by ballot, by the scholars. Each one thuschosen nominates the second in her department, and they two theassistants. These nominations must be approved at a teachers' meeting;for, if a scholar is inattentive to her studies, disorderly in her desk, or careless and troublesome in her manners, she evidently ought not tobe appointed to public office. No person can hold an office in two ofthese departments. She can, if she pleases, however, resign one toaccept another. Each of these departments ought often to assemble andconsult together, and form plans for carrying into effect with greaterefficiency the objects intrusted to them. They are to keep a record ofall their proceedings, the head of the department acting as secretaryfor this purpose. 

The following may be given as an example of the manner in which businessis transacted by means of these officers. On the day that the abovedescription of their duties was written, I wished for a sort ofdirectory to assist the collector employed to receive payments for thebills, and, to obtain it, I took the following steps:

At the business quarter hour I issued the following order:

"Before the close of school, I wish the distributors to leave upon eachof the desks a piece of paper" (the size I described). "It is for apurpose which I shall then explain. "

Accordingly, at some leisure moment before the close of school, each oneof the regulators went with her box to the stationery shelves, which youwill see in the corners of the room, where a supply of paper of all thevarious sizes used in school is kept, and, taking out a sufficientnumber, they supplied all the desks in their respective divisions. 

When the time for closing school arrived, I requested each young lady towrite the name of her parent or guardian upon the paper, and oppositeto it his place of business. This was done in a minute or two. 

"All those whose parent's or guardian's name begins with a letter above_m_ may rise. "

They rose. 

"The distributors may collect the papers. "

The officers then passed round in regular order, each through her owndivision, and collected the papers. 

"Deliver them at the accountants' desk. "

They were accordingly carried there, and received by the accountants. 

In the same manner, the others were collected and received by theaccountants, but kept separate. 

"I wish now the second accountant would copy these in a little book Ihave prepared for the purpose, arranging them alphabetically, referringall doubtful cases again to me. "

The second accountant then arranged the papers, and prepared them to gointo the book, and the writer who belongs to the department copied themfairly. 

I describe this case, because it was one which occurred at the time Iwas writing the above description, and not because there is any thingotherwise peculiar in it. Such cases are continually taking place, andby the division of labor above illustrated, I am very much assisted in agreat many of the duties which would otherwise consume a great portionof my time. 

Any of the scholars may at any time make suggestions in writing to anyof these officers or to the whole school; and if an officer should bepartial, or unfaithful, or negligent in her duty, any scholar maypropose her impeachment. After hearing what she chooses to write in herdefense, a vote is taken on sustaining the impeachment. If it issustained, she is deprived of the office, and another appointed to fillher place. 

V. THE COURT. 

I have already described how all serious cases of doing wrong or neglectof duty are managed in the school. I manage them myself, by coming asdirectly and as openly as I can to the heart and conscience of theoffender. There are, however, a number of little transgressions, toosmall to be individually worthy of serious attention, but which are yettroublesome to the community when frequently repeated. These relatechiefly to _order in the school-rooms_. These misdemeanors are tried, half in jest and half in earnest, by a sort of _court_, whose forms ofprocess might make a legal gentleman smile. They, however, fully answerour purpose. I can best give you an idea of the court by describing anactual trial. I ought, however, first to say that any young lady whochooses to be free from the jurisdiction of the court can signify thatwish to me, and she is safe from it. This, however, is never done. Theyall see the useful influence of it, and wish to sustain it. 

Near the close of school, I find, perhaps, on my desk a paper, of whichthe following may be considered a copy. It is called the indictment. 

We accuse Miss A. B. Of having waste papers in the aisle opposite her desk, at 11 o'clock, on Friday, Oct. 12. C. D. } E. F. } Witnesses. 

I give notice after school that a case is to be tried. Those interested, twenty or thirty perhaps, gather around my desk, while the sheriff goesto summon the accused and the witnesses. A certain space is marked offas the precincts of the court, within which no one must enter in theslightest degree, on pain of imprisonment, that is, confinement to herseat until court adjourns. 

"Miss A. B. , you are accused of having an untidy floor about your desk. Have you any objection to the indictment?"

While she is looking over the indictment to discover a misspelled word, or an error in the date, or some other latent flaw, I appoint any two ofthe by-standers jury. The jury come forward to listen to the cause. 

The accused returns the indictment, saying she has no objection, and thewitnesses are called upon to present their testimony. 

Perhaps the prisoner alleges in defense that the papers were out _in theaisle_, not _under her desk_, or that she did not put them there, orthat they were too few or too small to deserve attention. 

My charge to the jury would be somewhat as follows:

"You are to consider and decide whether she was guilty of disorder, taking into view the testimony of the witnesses and also her defense. Itis considered here that each young lady is responsible not only for theappearance of the carpet _under her desk_, but also for _the aisleopposite to it_, so that her first ground of defense must be abandoned. So, also, with the second, that she did not put them there. She oughtnot to _have_ them there. Each scholar must keep her own place in aproper condition; so that if disorder is found there, no matter who madeit, she is responsible if she only had time to remove it. As to thethird, you must judge whether enough has been proved by the witnesses tomake out real disorder. " The jury write _guilty_ or _not guilty_ uponthe paper, and it is returned to me. If sentence is pronounced, it isusually confinement to the seat during a recess, or part of a recess, orsomething that requires a slight effort or sacrifice for the publicgood. The sentence is always something _real_, though always _slight_, and the court has a great deal of influence in a double way--makingamusement and preserving order. 

The cases tried are very various, but none of the serious business ofthe school is intrusted to it. Its sessions are always held out ofschool hours, and, in fact, it is hardly considered by the scholars as aconstituent part of the arrangements of the school; so much so, that Ihesitated much about inserting an account of it in this description. 

VI. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 

In giving you this account, brief as it is, I ought not to omit to speakof one feature of our plan, which we have always intended should be oneof the most prominent and distinctive characteristics of the school. Thegentlemen who originally interested themselves in its establishment hadmainly in view the exertion, by the principal, of a decided moral andreligious influence over the hearts of the pupils. Knowing, as they did, how much more dutiful and affectionate at home you would be, how muchmore successful in your studies at school, how much happier in yourintercourse with each other, and in your prospects for the future bothhere and hereafter, if your hearts could be brought under the influenceof Christian principle, they were strongly desirous that the schoolshould be so conducted that its religious influence, though gentle andalluring in its character, should be frank, and open, and decided. Ineed not say that I myself entered very cordially into these views. Ithas been my constant effort, and one of the greatest sources of myenjoyment, to try to win my pupils to piety, and to create such anatmosphere in school that conscience, and moral principle, and affectionfor the unseen Jehovah should reign here. You can easily see how muchpleasanter it is for me to have the school controlled by such influence, than if it were necessary for me to hire you to diligence in duty byprizes or rewards, or to deter you from neglect or from transgression byreproaches, and threatenings, and punishments. 

The influence which the school has thus exerted has always beencordially welcomed by my pupils, and approved, so far as I have known, by their parents, though four or five denominations, and fifteen ortwenty different congregations, have been from time to time representedin the school. There are few parents who would not like to have theirchildren _Christians_--sincerely and practically so; for everythingwhich a parent can desire in a child is promoted just in proportion asshe opens her heart to the influence of the spirit of piety. But thatyou may understand what course is taken, I shall describe, first, what Iwish to effect in the hearts of my pupils, and then what means I take toaccomplish the object. 

1. A large number of young persons of your age, and in circumstancessimilar to those in which you are placed, perform with some fidelitytheir various outward duties, _but maintain no habitual and dailycommunion with God_. It is very wrong for them to live thus without God, but they do not see, or, rather, do not feel the guilt of it. They onlythink of their accountability to _human beings_ like themselves; forexample, their parents, teachers, brothers and sisters, and friends. Consequently, they think most of their _external_ conduct, which is allthat human beings can see. Their i>hearts_ are neglected, and becomevery impure, full of evil thoughts, and desires, and passions, which arenot repented of, and consequently not forgiven. Now what I wish toaccomplish in regard to all my pupils is, that they should begin to_feel their accountability to God_, and to act according to it; thatthey should explore their _hearts_, and ask God's forgiveness for alltheir past sins, through Jesus Christ, who died for them that they mightbe forgiven; and that they should from this time try to live _near toGod_, feel his presence, and enjoy that solid peace and happiness whichflows from a sense of his protection. When such a change takes place, itrelieves the mind from that constant and irritating uneasiness which thegreat mass of mankind feel as a constant burden; the ceaselessforebodings of a troubled conscience reproaching them for their pastaccumulated guilt, and warning them of a judgment to come. The changewhich I endeavor to promote relieves the heart both of the presentsuffering and of the future danger. 

After endeavoring to induce you to begin to act from Christianprinciple, I wish to explain to you your various duties to yourselves, your parents, and to God. 

2. The measures to which I resort to accomplish these objects are three:

First, _Religious Exercises in School_. --We open and close the schoolwith a very short prayer and one or two verses of a hymn. Sometimes Ioccupy ten or fifteen minutes at one of the general exercises, or at theclose of the school, in giving instruction upon practical religiousduty. The subjects are sometimes suggested by a passage of Scriptureread for the purpose, but more commonly in another way. 

You will observe often, at the close of the school or at an appointedgeneral exercise, that a scholar will bring to my desk a dark-coloredmorocco wrapper containing several small strips of paper, upon whichquestions relating to moral or religious duty, or subjects for remarksfrom me, or anecdotes, or short statements of facts, giving rise toinquiries of various kinds, are written. This wrapper is deposited in aplace accessible to all the scholars, and any one who pleases depositsin it any question or suggestion on religious subjects which may occurto her. You can at any time do this yourself, thus presenting any doubt, or difficulty, or inquiry which may at any time occur to you. 

Secondly, _Religious Exercise on Saturday afternoon_. --In order to bringup more distinctly and systematically the subject of religious duty, Iestablished, a long time ago, a religious meeting on Saturday afternoon. It is intended for those who feel interested in receiving suchinstruction, and who can conveniently attend at that time. If you haveno other engagements, and if your parents approve of it, I should behappy to have you attend. There will be very little to interest youexcept the subject itself, for I make all the instructions which I givethere as plain, direct, and practical as is in my power. A considerablenumber of the scholars usually attend, and frequently bring with themmany of their female friends. You can at any time invite any one whomyou please to come to the meeting. It commences at half past three, andcontinues about half an hour. 

Thirdly, _Personal Religious Instruction. _--In consequence of the largenumber of my pupils, and the constant occupation of my time in school, Ihave scarcely any opportunity of religious conversation with them, evenwith those who particularly desire it. The practice has thereforearisen, and gradually extended itself almost universally in school, ofwriting to me on the subject. These communications are usually briefnotes, expressing the writer's interest in the duties of piety, orbringing forward her own peculiar practical difficulties, or makingspecific inquiries, or asking particular instruction in regard to somebranch of religious duty. I answer in a similar way, very briefly andconcisely, however, for the number of notes of this kind which I receiveis very large, and the time which I can devote to such a correspondencenecessarily limited. I should like to receive such communications fromall my pupils; for advice or instruction communicated in reply, beingdirectly personal, is far more likely to produce effect. Besides, myremarks, being in writing, can be read a second time, and be moreattentively considered and reconsidered than when words are merelyspoken. These communications must always be begun by the pupil. I never(unless there may be occasional exceptions in some few very peculiarcases) commence. I am prevented from doing this both by my unwillingnessto obtrude such a subject personally upon those who might not welcomeit, and by want of time. I have scarcely time to write to all those whoare willing first to write to me. Many cases have occurred whereindividuals have strongly desired some private communication with me, but have hesitated long, and shrunk reluctantly from the first step. Ihope it will not be so with you. Should you ever wish to receive fromme any direct religious instruction, I hope you will write immediatelyand freely. I shall very probably not even notice that it is the firsttime I have received such a communication from you. So numerous and sofrequent are these communications, that I seldom observe, when I receiveone from any individual for the first time, that it comes from one whohas not written me before. 

Such are the means to which I resort in endeavoring to lead my pupils toGod and to duty, and you will observe that the whole design of them isto win and to allure, not to compel. The regular devotional exercises ofschool are all which you will _necessarily_ witness. These are veryshort, occupying much less time than many of the pupils think desirable. The rest is all private and voluntary. I never make any effort to urgeany one to attend the Saturday meeting, nor do I, except in a few rareand peculiar cases, ever address any one personally, unless she desiresto be so addressed. You will be left, therefore, in this school, unmolested, to choose your own way. If you should choose to neglectreligious duty, and to wander away from God, I shall still do all in mypower to make you happy in school, and to secure for you in future lifesuch a measure of enjoyment as can fall to the share of one over whoseprospects in another world there hangs so gloomy a cloud. I shall neverreproach you, and perhaps may not even know what your choice is. Shouldyou, on the other hand, prefer the peace and happiness of piety, and bewilling to begin to walk in its paths, you will find many, both amongthe teachers and pupils of the Mount Vernon School, to sympathize withyou, and to encourage and help you on your way. 

CHAPTER VII. 

SCHEMING. 

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Some of the best teachers in our country, or, rather, of those who mightbe the best, lose a great deal of their time, and endanger, or perhapsentirely destroy, their hopes of success by a scheming spirit, which isalways reaching forward to something new. One has in his mind some newschool-book by which Arithmetic, Grammar, or Geography are to be taughtwith unexampled rapidity, and his own purse to be filled in a much moreeasy way than by waiting for the rewards of patient industry. Anotherhas the plan of a school, bringing into operation new principles ofmanagement or instruction, which he is to establish on some favoredspot, and which is to become, in a few years, a second Hofwyl. Anotherhas some royal road to learning, and, though he is trammeled and helddown by what he calls the ignorance and stupidity of his trustees or hisschool committee, yet, if he could fairly put his principles and methodsto the test, he is certain of advancing the science of education half acentury at least at a single leap. 

Ingenuity in devising new ways, and enterprise in following them, areamong the happiest characteristics of a new country rapidly filling witha thriving population. Without these qualities there could be noadvance; society must be stationary; and from a stationary to aretrograde condition, the progress is inevitable. The disposition tomake improvements and changes may, however, be too great. If so, it mustbe checked. On the other hand, a slavish attachment to old establishedpractices may prevail. Then the spirit of enterprise and experiment mustbe awakened and encouraged. Which of these two is to be the duty of awriter at any time will of course depend upon the situation of thecommunity at the time when he writes, and of the class of readers forwhich he takes his pen. Now, at the present time, it is undoubtedlytrue, that while among the great mass of teachers there may be toolittle originality and enterprise, there is still among many a spirit ofinnovation and change to which a caution ought to be addressed. But, before I proceed, let me protect myself from misconception by one or tworemarks. 

1. There are a few individuals in various parts of our country who, byingenuity and enterprise, have made real and important improvements inmany departments of our science, and are still making them. The scienceis to be carried forward by such men. Let them not, therefore, understand that any thing which I shall say applies at all to those realimprovements which are from time to time brought before the public. Asexamples of this, there might easily be mentioned, were it necessary, several new modes of study, and new text-books, and literaryinstitutions on new plans, which have been brought forward within a fewyears, and have proved, on actual trial, to be of real and permanentvalue. 

These are, or rather they were, when first conceived by the originalprojectors, new schemes, and the result has proved that they were goodones. Every teacher, too, must hope that such improvements will continueto be made. Let nothing, therefore, which shall be said on the subjectof scheming in this chapter be interpreted as intended to condemn realimprovements of this kind, or to check those which may now be inprogress by men of age or experience, or of sound judgment, who arecapable of distinguishing between a real improvement and a whimsicalinnovation which can never live any longer than it is sustained by theenthusiasm of the original inventor. 

2. There are a great many teachers in our country who make theirbusiness a mere dull and formal routine, through which they plod on, month after month, and year after year, without variety or change, andwho are inclined to stigmatize with the appellation of idle scheming allplans, of whatever kind, to give variety or interest to the exercises ofthe school. Now whatever may be said in this chapter against unnecessaryinnovation and change does not apply to efforts to secure variety in thedetails of daily study, while the great leading objects are steadilypursued. This subject has already been discussed in the chapter onInstruction, where it has been shown that every wise teacher, while hepursues the same great object, and adopts in substance the same leadingmeasures at all times, will exercise all the ingenuity he possesses, andbring all his inventive powers into requisition to give variety andinterest to the minute details. 

To explain now what is meant by such scheming as is to be condemned, letus suppose a case which is riot very uncommon. A young man, whilepreparing for college, takes a school. When he first enters upon theduties of his office, he is diffident and timid, and walks cautiously inthe steps which precedent has marked out for him. Distrusting himself, he seeks guidance in the example which others have set for him, and, very probably, he imitates precisely, though it may be insensibly andinvoluntarily, the manners and the plans of his own last teacher. Thisservitude soon, however, if he is a man of natural abilities, passesaway; he learns to try one experiment after another, until he insensiblyfinds that a plan may succeed, even if it was not pursued by his formerteacher. So far it is well. He throws greater interest into his school, and into all its exercises, by the spirit with which he conducts them. He is successful. After the period of his services has expired, hereturns to the pursuit of his studies, encouraged by his success, andanticipating farther triumphs in his subsequent attempts. 

He goes on through college, we will suppose, teaching from time to timein the vacations, as opportunity occurs, taking more and more interestin the employment, and meeting with greater and greater success. Thissuccess is owing in a very great degree to the _freedom_ of hispractice, that is, to his escape from the thraldom of imitation. So longas he leaves the great objects of the school untouched, and the greatfeatures of its organization unchanged, his many plans for accomplishingthese objects in new and various ways awaken interest and spirit both inhimself and in his scholars, and all goes on well. 

Now in such a case as this, a young teacher, philosophizing upon hissuccess and the causes of it, will almost invariably make this mistake, namely, he will attribute to something essentially excellent in hisplans the success which, in fact, results from the novelty of them. 

When he proposes something new to a class, they all take an interest init because it is _new_. He takes, too, a special interest in it becauseit is an experiment which he is trying, and he feels a sort of pride andpleasure in securing its success. The new method which he adopts may notbe, _in itself, _ in the least degree better than old methods, yet it maysucceed vastly better in his hands than any old method he had triedbefore. And why? Why, because it is new. It awakens interest in hisclass, because it offers them variety; and it awakens interest in him, because it is a plan which he has devised, and for whose success, therefore, he feels that his credit is at stake. Either of thesecircumstances is abundantly sufficient to account for its success. Either of these would secure success, unless the plan was a very bad oneindeed. 

This may easily be illustrated by supposing a particular case. Theteacher has, we will imagine, been accustomed to teach spelling in theusual way, by assigning a lesson in the spelling-book, which thescholars, after studying it in their seats, recite by having the wordsput to them individually in the class. After some time, he finds thatone class has lost its interest in this study. He can compel them tostudy the lesson, it is true, but he perceives, perhaps, that it is aweary task to them. Of course, they proceed with less alacrity, andconsequently with less rapidity and success. He thinks, very justly, that it is highly desirable to secure cheerful, not forced, reluctantefforts from his pupils, and he thinks of trying some new plan. Accordingly, he says to them, "Boys, I am going to try a new plan for this class. "

The mere annunciation of a new plan awakens universal attention. Theboys all look up, wondering what it is to be. 

"Instead of having you study your lessons in your seats, as heretofore, I am going to let you all go together into one corner of the room, andchoose some one to read the lesson to you, spelling all the words aloud. You will all listen, and endeavor to remember how the difficult ones arespelled. Do you think you can remember?"

"Yes, sir, " say the boys. Children always think they _can_ do everything which is proposed to them as a new plan or experiment, though theyare very often inclined to think they _can not_ do what is required ofthem as a task. 

"You may have, " continues the teacher, "the words read to you once ortwice, just as you please. Only, if you have them read but once, youmust take a shorter lesson. "

He pauses and looks round upon the class. Some say "Once, " some "Twice. "

"I am willing that you should decide this question. How many are infavor of having shorter lessons, and having them read but once? How manyprefer longer lessons, and having them read twice?"

After comparing the numbers, it is decided according to the majority, and the teacher assigns or allows them to assign a lesson. 

"Now, " he proceeds, "I am not only going to have you study in adifferent way, but recite in a different way too. You may take yourslates with you, and after you have had time to hear the lesson readslowly and carefully twice, I shall come and dictate to you the wordsaloud, and you will all write them from my dictation. Then I shallexamine your slates, and see how many mistakes are made. "

Any class of boys, now, would be exceedingly interested in such aproposal as this, especially if the master's ordinary principles ofgovernment and instruction had been such as to interest the pupils inthe welfare of the school and in their own progress in study. They willcome together in the place assigned, and listen to the one who isappointed to read the words to them, with every faculty aroused, andtheir whole souls engrossed in the new duties assigned them. Theteacher, too, feels a special interest in his experiment. Whatever elsehe may be employed about, his eye turns instinctively to this group withan intensity of interest which an experienced teacher who has long beenin the field, and who has tried experiments of this sort a hundredtimes, can scarcely conceive; for let it be remembered that I amdescribing the acts and feelings of a new beginner, of one who iscommencing his work with a feeble and trembling step, and perhaps thisis his first step away from the beaten path in which he has beenaccustomed to walk. 

This new plan is continued, we will suppose, for a week, during whichtime the interest of the pupils continues. They get longer lessons andmake fewer mistakes than they did by the old method. Now, inspeculating on this subject, the teacher reasons very justly that it isof no consequence whether the pupil receives his knowledge through theeye or through the ear; whether they study in solitude or in company. The point is to secure their progress in learning to spell the words ofthe English language, and as this point is secured far more rapidly andeffectually by his new method, the inference is to his mind veryobvious, that he has made a great improvement--one of real and permanentvalue. Perhaps he will consider it an extraordinary discovery. 

But the truth is, that in almost all such cases as this, the secret ofthe success is not that the teacher has discovered a _better_ methodthan the ordinary ones, but that he has discovered a _new_ one. Theexperiment will succeed in producing more successful results just aslong as the novelty of it continues to excite unusual interest andattention in the class, or the thought that it is a plan of theteacher's own invention leads him to take a peculiar interest in it. Andthis may be a month, or perhaps a quarter; and precisely the sameeffects would have been produced if the whole had been reversed, thatis, if the plan of dictation had been the old one, which in process oftime had, in this supposed school, lost its interest, and the teacher, by his ingenuity and enterprise, had discovered and introduced what isnow the common mode. 

"Very well, " perhaps my reader will reply, "it is surely somethinggained to awaken and continue interest in a dull study for a quarter, oreven a month. The experiment is worth something as a pleasant and usefulchange, even if it is not permanently superior to the other. "

It is indeed worth something. It is worth a great deal; and the teacherwho can devise and execute such plans, _understanding their real placeand value, and adhering steadily through them all to the great objectwhich ought to engage his attention, _ is in the almost certain road tosuccess as an instructor. What I wish is not to discourage such efforts;they ought to be encouraged to the utmost; but to have their realnature and design, and the real secret of their success fullyunderstood, and to have the teacher, above all, take good care that allhis new plans are made, not the substitutes for the great objects whichhe ought to keep steadily in view, but only the means by which he maycarry them into more full and complete effect. 

In the case we are supposing, however, we will imagine that the teacherdoes not do this. He fancies that he has made an important discovery, and begins to inquire whether _the principle, _ as he calls it, can notbe applied to some other studies. He goes to philosophizing upon it, andcan find many reasons why knowledge received through the ear makes amore ready and lasting impression than when it comes through the eye. Heattempts to apply the method to Arithmetic and Geography, and in a shorttime is forming plans for the complete metamorphosis of his school. Whenengaged in hearing a recitation, his mind is distracted with his schemesand plans, and instead of devoting his attention fully to the work hemay have in hand, his thoughts are wandering continually to new schemesand fancied improvements, which agitate and perplex him, and which eludehis efforts to give them a distinct and definite form. He thinks hemust, however, carry out his _principle_. He thinks of its applicabilityto a thousand other cases. He revolves over and over again in his mindplans for changing the whole arrangement of his school. He is again andagain lost in perplexity, his mind is engrossed and distracted, and hispresent duties are performed with no interest, and consequently withlittle spirit or success. 

Now his error is in allowing a new idea, which ought only to havesuggested to him an agreeable change for a time in one of his classes, to swell itself into undue and exaggerated importance, and to draw offhis mind from what ought to be the objects of his steady pursuit. 

Perhaps some teacher of steady intellectual habits and a well-balancedmind may think that this picture is fanciful, and that there is littledanger that such consequences will ever actually result from such acause. But, far from having exasperated the results. I am of opinionthat I might have gone much farther. There is no doubt that a great manyinstances have occurred in which some simple idea like the one I havealluded to has led the unlucky conceiver of it, in his eager pursuit, far deeper into the difficulty than I have here supposed. He gets into acontention with the school committee, that formidable foe to theprojects of all scheming teachers; and it would not be very difficult tofind many actual cases where the individual has, in consequence of somesuch idea, quietly planned and taken measures to establish some newinstitution, where he can carry on unmolested his plans, and let theworld see the full results of his wonderful discoveries. 

We have in our country a very complete system of literary institutions, so far as external organization will go, and the prospect of success isfar more favorable in efforts to carry these institutions into morecomplete and prosperous operation, than in plans for changing them, orsubstituting others in their stead. Were it not that such a course wouldbe unjust to individuals, a long and melancholy catalogue might easilybe made out of abortive plans which have sprung up in the minds of youngmen in the manner I have described, and which, after perhaps temporarysuccess, have resulted in partial or total failure. These failures areof every kind. Some are school-books on a new plan, which succeeds inthe inventor's hand chiefly on account of the spirit which carried itinto effect, but which in ordinary hands, and under ordinarycircumstances, and especially after long-continued use, have failed ofexhibiting any superiority. Others are institutions, commenced withgreat zeal by the projectors, and which prosper just as long as thatzeal continues. Zeal will make any thing succeed for a time. Others arenew plans of instruction or government, generally founded on some goodprinciple carried to an extreme, or made to grow into exaggerated anddisproportionate importance. Examples almost innumerable of these thingsmight be particularized, if it were proper, and it would be found, uponexamination, that the amount of ingenuity and labor wasted upon suchattempts would have been sufficient, if properly expended, to haveelevated very considerably the standard of education, and to have placedexisting institutions in a far more prosperous and thriving state thanthey now exhibit. 

The reader will perhaps ask, Shall we make no efforts at improvement?Must every thing in education go on in a uniform and monotonous manner, and, while all else is advancing, shall our cause alone stand still? Byno means. It must advance; but let it advance mainly by the industry andfidelity of those who are employed in it; by changes slowly andcautiously made; not by great efforts to reach forward to brilliantdiscoveries, which will draw off the attention from essential duties, and, after leading the projector through perplexities and difficultieswithout number, end in mortification and failure. 

Were I to give a few concise and summary directions in regard to thissubject to a young teacher, they would be the following:

1. Examine thoroughly the system of public and private schools as nowconstituted in most of the states of this Union, until you fullyunderstand it and appreciate its excellences and its completeness; seehow fully it provides for the wants of the various classes of ourpopulation. 

By this I mean to refer only to the completeness of the _system_ as asystem of organization. I do not refer at all to the internal managementof these institutions; this last is, of course, a field for immediateand universal effort at progress and improvement. 

2. If, after fully understanding this system as it now exists, you areof opinion that something more is necessary; if you think some classesof the community are not fully provided for, or that some of ourinstitutions may be advantageously exchanged for others, the plan ofwhich you have in mind, consider whether your age, and experience, andstanding as an instructor are such as to enable you to place confidencein your opinion. 

I do not mean by this that a young man may not make a useful discovery, but only that he may be led away by the ardor of early life to fancythat essential and important which is really not so. It is importantthat each one should determine whether this is not the case withhimself, if his mind is revolving some new plan. 

3. Perhaps you are contemplating only a single new institution, which isto depend for its success on yourself and some coadjutors whom you havein mind and whom you well know. If this is the case, consider whetherthe establishment you are contemplating can be carried on, after youshall have left it, by such men as can ordinarily be obtained. If theplan is founded on some peculiar notions of your own, which would enableyou to succeed in it when others, who might also be interested in such ascheme, would probably fail, consider whether there may not be dangerthat your plan may be imitated by others who can not carry it intosuccessful operation, so that it may be the indirect means of doinginjury. A man is, in some degree, responsible for his example and forthe consequences which may indirectly flow from his course, as well asfor the immediate results which he produces. The Fellenberg school atHofwyl was perhaps, by its direct results, as successful for a time asany other institution in the world; but there is a great offset to thegood which it has thus done to be found in the history of the thousandwretched imitations of it which have been started only to linger alittle while and die, and in which a vast amount of time, and talent, and money have been wasted. 

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4. Consider the influence you may have upon the other institutions ofour country, by attaching yourself to some one under the existingorganization. If you take an academy or a private school, constitutedand organized like other similar institutions, success in your own willgive you influence over others. A successful teacher of an academyraises the general standard of academic instruction. A collegeprofessor, if he brings extraordinary talents to bear upon the regularduties of that office, throws light, universally, upon the whole scienceof college discipline and instruction, and thus aids in infusing acontinually renewed life and vigor into those venerable seats oflearning that might otherwise sink into decrepitude and decay. By going, however, to some new field, establishing some new and fancifulinstitution, you take yourself from such a sphere; you exert noinfluence over others, except upon feeble imitators, who fail in theirattempts, and bring discredit upon your plans by the awkwardness withwhich they attempt to adopt them. How much more service, then, to thecause of education will a man of genius render, by falling in with theregularly organized institutions of the country and elevating them, thanif in early life he were to devote his powers to some magnificentproject of an establishment to which his talents would unquestionablyhave given temporary success, but which would have taken him away fromthe community of teachers, and confined the results of his labors to themore immediate effects which his daily duties might produce. 

5. Perhaps, however, your plan is not the establishment of some newinstitution, but the introduction of some new study or pursuit into theone with which you are connected. Before, however, you interrupt theregular arrangements of your school to make such a change, considercarefully what is the real and appropriate object of your institution. Every thing is not to be done in school. The principles of division oflabor apply with peculiar force to this employment; so that you must notonly consider whether the branch which you are now disposed to introduceis important, but whether it is really such an one as it is on the wholebest to include among the objects to be pursued in such an institution. Many teachers seem to imagine that if any thing is in itself important, and especially if it is an important branch of education, the questionis settled of its being a proper object of attention in school. But thisis very far from being the case. The whole work of education can neverbe intrusted to the teacher. Much must of course remain in the hands ofthe parent; it ought so to remain. The object of a school is not to takechildren out of the parental hands, substituting the watch andguardianship of a stranger for the natural care of father and mother. Far from it. It is only the association of the children for thosepurposes which can be more successfully accomplished by association. Itis a union for few, specific, and limited objects, for theaccomplishment of that part (and it is comparatively a small part ofthe general objects of education) which can be most successfullyeffected by public institutions and in assemblies of the young. 

6. If the branch which you are desiring to introduce appears to you tobe an important part of education, and if it seems to you that it can bemost successfully attended to in schools, then consider whether theintroduction of it, _and of all the other branches having equal claims_, will or will not give to the common schools too great a complexity. Consider whether it will succeed in the hands of ordinary teachers. Consider whether it will require so much time and effort as will drawoff in any considerable degree, the attention of the teacher from themore essential parts of his duty. All will admit that it is highlyimportant that every school should be simple in its plan--as simple asits size and general circumstances will permit, and especially that thepublic schools in every town and village of our country should neverlose sight of what is and must be, after all, their greatdesign--_teaching the whole population to ready write, and calculate. _

7. If it is a school-book which you are wishing to introduce, considerwell before you waste your time in preparing it, and your spirits in thevexatious work of getting it through the press; whether it is, _forgeneral use_, so superior to those already published as to induceteachers to make a change in favor of yours. I have italicized the words_for general use_, for no delusion is more common than for a teacher tosuppose that because a text-book which he has prepared and uses inmanuscript is better for _him_ than any other work which he can obtain, it will therefore be better for _general circulation_. Every man, if hehas any originality of mind, has of course some peculiar method of hisown, and he can of course prepare a text-book which will be betteradapted to this method than those ordinarily in use. The history of avast number of text-books, Arithmetics, Geographies, and Grammars, isthis: A man of somewhat ingenious mind, adopts some peculiar mode ofinstruction in one of these branches, and is quite successful, notbecause the method has any very peculiar excellence, but simply becausehe takes a greater interest in it, both on account of its novelty andalso from the fact that it is his own invention. He conceives the planof writing a text-book to develop and illustrate this method. He hurriesthrough the work. By some means or other he gets it printed. In due timeit is regularly advertised. The journals of education give notice of it;the author sends a few copies to his friends, and that is the end of it. Perhaps a few schools may make a trial of it, and if, for any reason, the teachers who try it are interested in the work, probably in theirhands it succeeds. But it does not succeed so well as to attract generalattention, and consequently does not get into general circulation. Theauthor loses his time and his patience. The publisher, unless, unfortunately, it was published on the author's account, loses hispaper, and in a few months scarcely any body knows that such a book eversaw the light. 

It is in this way that the great multitude of school-books which are nowconstantly issuing from the press take their origin. Far be it from meto discourage the preparation of good school-books. This department ofour literature offers a fine field for the efforts of learning andgenius. What I contend against is the endless multiplicity of uselessworks, hastily conceived and carelessly executed, and which serve nopurpose but to employ uselessly talents which, if properly applied, might greatly benefit both the community and the possessor. 

8. If, however, after mature deliberation, you conclude that you havethe plan of a school-book which you ought to try to mature and execute, be slow and cautious about it. Remember that so great is now thecompetition in this branch, nothing but superior excellence or veryextraordinary exertions will secure the favorable reception of a work. Examine all that your predecessors have done before you. Obtain, whatever may be the trouble and expense, all other text-books on thesubject, and examine them thoroughly. If you see that you can make avery decided advance on all that has been done, and that the public willprobably submit to the inconvenience and expense of a change to securethe result of your labors, go forward slowly and carefully in your work, no matter how much investigation, how much time and labor it mayrequire. The more difficulty you may find in gaining the eminence, theless likely will you be to be followed by successful competitors. 

9. Consider, in forming your text-book, not merely the whole subject onwhich you are to write, but also look extensively and thoroughly at theinstitutions throughout the country, and consider carefully thecharacter of the teachers by whom you expect it to be used. Sometimes aman publishes a text-book, and when it fails on trial, he says "it isbecause they did not know how to use it. The book in itself was good. The whole fault was in the awkwardness and ignorance of the teacher. "How absurd! As if, to make a good text-book, it was not as necessary toadapt it to teachers as to scholars. A _good text-book, which theteachers for whom it was intended did not know how to use!!_ In otherwords, a good contrivance, but entirely unfit for the purpose for whichit was intended. 

10. Lastly, in every new plan, consider carefully whether its success inyour hands, after you have tried it and found it successful, be owing toits novelty and to your own special interest in it, or to its own innateand intrinsic superiority. If the former, use it so long as it willlast, simply to give variety and interest to your plans. Recommend it inconversation or in other ways to teachers with whom you are acquainted, not as a wonderful discovery, which is going to change the whole scienceof education, but as one method among others which may be introducedfrom time to time to relieve the monotony of the teacher's labors. 

In a word, do not go away from the established institutions of ourcountry, or deviate from the great objects which are at present, andought continually to be pursued by them, without great caution, circumspection, and deliberate inquiry. But, within these limits, exercise ingenuity and invention as much as you will. Pursue steadilythe great objects which demand the teacher's attention. They are simpleand few. Never lose sight of them, nor turn to the right or to the leftto follow any ignis fatuus which may arise to allure you away, butexercise as much ingenuity and enterprise as you please in givingvariety and interest to the modes by which these objects are pursued. 

If planning and scheming are confined within these limits, and conductedon these principles, the teacher will save all the agitating perplexityand care which will otherwise be his continual portion. He can goforward peaceably and quietly, and while his own success is greatlyincreased, he may be of essential service to the cause in which he isengaged, by making known his various experiments and plans to others. For this purpose, it seems to me highly desirable that every teachershould KEEP A JOURNAL of all his plans. In these should be carefullyentered all his experiments; the new methods he adopts; the course hetakes in regard to difficulties which may arise, and any interestingincidents which may occur which it would be useful for him to refer toat some future time. These, or the most interesting of them, should bemade known to other teachers. This may be done in several ways:

(1. ) By publishing them in periodicals devoted to education. Suchcontributions, furnished by judicious men, would be among the mostvaluable articles in such a work. They would be far more valuable thanany general speculations, however well conceived or expressed. 

(2. ) In newspapers intended for general circulation. There are very feweditors whose papers circulate in families who would not gladly receivearticles of this kind to fill a teacher's department in their columns. If properly written, they would be read with interest and profit bymultitudes of parents, and would throw much light on family governmentand instruction. 

(3. ) By reading them in teachers' meetings. If half a dozen teachers whoare associated in the same vicinity would meet once a fortnight, simplyto hear each other's journals, they would be amply repaid for their timeand labor. Teachers' meetings will be interesting and useful, when thosewho come forward in them will give up the prevailing practice ofdelivering orations, and come down at once to the scenes and to thebusiness of the school-room. 

There is one topic connected with the subject of this chapter whichdeserves a few paragraphs. I refer to the rights of the committee, orthe trustees, or patrons in the control of the school. The right to suchcontrol, when claimed at all, is usually claimed in reference to theteacher's new plans, which renders it proper to allude to the subjecthere; and it ought not to be omitted, for a great many cases occur inwhich teachers have difficulties with the trustees or committee of theirschool. Sometimes these difficulties result at last in an open rupture;at other times in only a slight and temporary misunderstanding, arisingfrom what the teacher calls an unwise and unwarrantable interference onthe part of the committee or the trustees in the arrangements of theschool. Difficulties of some sort very often arise. In fact, a rightunderstanding of this subject is, in most cases, absolutely essential tothe harmony and co-operation of the teacher and the representatives ofhis patrons. 

There are then, it must be recollected, three different partiesconnected with every establishment for education: the parents of thescholars, the teacher, and the pupils themselves. Sometimes, as, forexample, in a common private school, the parents are not organized, andwhatever influence they exert they must exert in their individualcapacity. At other times, as in a common district or town school, theyare by law organized, and the school committee chosen for this purposeare their legal representatives. In other instances, a board of trusteesare constituted by the appointment of the founders of the institution, or by the Legislature of a state, to whom is committed the oversight ofits concerns, and who are consequently the representatives of thefounders and patrons of the school. 

There are differences between these various modes of organization whichI shall not now stop to examine, as it will be sufficiently correct formy purpose to consider them all as only various ways of organizing the_employers_ in the contract by which the teacher is employed. Theteacher is the agent; the patrons represented in these several ways arethe principals. When, therefore, in the following paragraphs I use theword _employers_, I mean to be understood to speak of the committee, orthe trustees, or the visitors, or the parents themselves, as the case ineach particular institution may be; that is, the persons for whosepurpose and at whose expense the institution is maintained, or theirrepresentatives. 

Now there is a very reasonable and almost universally established rule, which teachers are very frequently prone to forget, namely, _theemployed ought always to be responsible to the employers, and to beunder their direction. _ So obviously reasonable is this rule, and, infact, so absolutely indispensable in the transaction of all the businessof life, that it would be idle to attempt to establish and illustrate ithere. It has, however, limitations, and it is applicable to a muchgreater extent, in some departments of human labor than in others. It is_applicable_ to the business of teaching, and though I confess that itis somewhat less absolute and imperious here, still it is obligatory, Ibelieve, to a far greater extent than teachers have been generallywilling to admit. 

A young lady, I will imagine, wishes to introduce the study of Botanyinto her school. The parents or the committee object; they say that theywish the children to confine their attention exclusively to theelementary branches of education. "It will do them no good, " says thechairman of the committee, "to learn by heart some dozen or two oflearned names. We want them to read well, to write well, and tocalculate well, and not to waste their time in studying about pistils, and stamens, and nonsense. "

Now what is the duty of the teacher in such a case? Why, very plainlyher duty is the same as that of the governor of a state, where thepeople, through their representatives, regularly chosen, negative aproposal which he considers calculated to promote the public good. It ishis duty to submit to the public will; and, though he may properly doall in his power to present the subject to his employers in such a lightas to lead them to regard it as he does, he must still, until they do soregard it, bow to their authority; and every magistrate who takes anenlarged and comprehensive view of his duties as the executive of arepublican community, will do this without any humiliating feelings ofsubmission to unauthorized interference with his plans. He will, on theother hand, enjoy the satisfaction of feeling that he confines himselfto his proper sphere, and leave to others the full possession of rightswhich properly pertain to them. 

It is so with every case where the relation of employer and employedsubsists. You engage a carpenter to erect a house for you, and youpresent your plan; instead of going to work and executing your ordersaccording to your wishes, he falls to criticising and condemning it; hefinds fault with this, and ridicules that, and tells you you ought tomake such and such an alteration in it. It is perfectly right for him togive his opinion, in the tone and spirit of _recommendation orsuggestion_, with a distinct understanding that with his employer reststhe power and the right to decide. But how many teachers takepossession of their school-room as though it was an empire in which theyare supreme, who resist every interference of their employers as theywould an attack upon their personal freedom, and who feel that in regardto every thing connected with school they have really no actualresponsibility. 

In most cases, the employers, knowing how sensitive teachers veryfrequently are on this point, acquiesce in it, and leave them tothemselves. Whenever, in any case, they think that the state of theschool requires their interference, they come cautiously and fearfullyto the teacher, as if they were encroaching upon his rights, instead ofadvancing with the confidence and directness with which employers havealways a right to approach the employed; and the teacher, with the viewhe has insensibly taken of the subject, being perhaps confirmed by thetone and manner which his employers use, makes the conversation quite asoften an occasion of resentment and offense as of improvement. He issilent, perhaps, but in his heart he accuses his committee or histrustees of improper interference in _his_ concerns, as though it was nopart of _their_ business to look after work which is going forward fortheir advantage, and for which they pay. 

Perhaps some individuals who have had some collision with their trusteesor committee will ask me if I mean that a teacher ought to be entirelyand immediately under the supervision and control of the trustees, justas a mechanic is when employed by another man. By no means. There arevarious circumstances connected with the nature of this employment, suchas the impossibility of the employers fully understanding it in all itsdetails, and the character and the standing of the teacher himself, which always will, in matter of fact, prevent this. The employers alwayswill, in a great many respects, place more confidence in the teacher andin his views than they will in their own. But still, the ultimate poweris theirs. Even if they err, if they wish to have a course pursuedwhich is manifestly inexpedient and wrong, _they still have a right todecide. _ It is their work; it is going on at their instance and at theirexpense, and the power of ultimate decision on all disputed questionsmust, from the very nature of the case, rest with them. The teacher may, it is true, have his option either to comply with their wishes or toseek employment in another sphere; but while he remains in the employ ofany persons, whether in teaching or in any other service, he is bound toyield to the wishes of his employers when they insist upon it, and tosubmit good-humoredly to their direction when they shall claim theirundoubted right to direct. 

This is to be done, it must be remembered, when they are wrong as wellas when they are right. The obligation of the teacher is not foundedupon _the superior wisdom_ of his employers in reference to the businessfor which they have engaged him, for they are very probably hisinferiors in this respect, but _upon their right as employers_ todetermine _how their own work shall be done. _ A gardener, we willsuppose, is engaged by a gentleman to lay out his grounds. The gardenergoes to work, and, after a few hours, the gentleman comes out to see howhe goes on and to give directions. He proposes something which thegardener, who, to make the case stronger, we will suppose knows betterthan the proprietor of the grounds, considers ridiculous and absurd;nay, we will suppose _it is_ ridiculous and absurd. Now what can thegardener do? There are obviously two courses. He can say to theproprietor, after a vain attempt to convince him he is wrong, "Well, sir, I will do just as you say. The grounds are yours: I have nointerest in it or responsibility, except to accomplish your wishes. "This would be right. Or he might say, "Sir, you have a right to directupon your own grounds, and I do not wish to interfere with your plans;but I must ask you to obtain another gardener. I have a reputation atstake, and this work, if I do it even at your direction, will beconsidered as a specimen of my taste and of my planning, so that I must, in justice to myself, decline remaining in your employment. " This, too, would be right, though probably, both in the business of gardening andof teaching, the case ought to be a strong one to render it expedient. 

But it would not be right for him, after his employer should have goneaway, to say to himself, with a feeling of resentment at the imaginary_interference_, "I shall not follow any such directions; I understand myown trade, and shall receive no instructions in it from him, " and then, disobeying all directions, go on and do the work contrary to the ordersof his employer, who alone has a right to decide. 

And yet a great many teachers take a course as absurd and unjustifiableas this would be. Whenever the parents, or the committee, or thetrustees express, however mildly and properly, their wishes in regard tothe manner in which they desire to have their own work performed, theirpride is at once aroused. They seem to feel it an indignity to act inany other way than just in accordance with their own will and pleasure;and they absolutely refuse to comply, resenting the interference as aninsult; or else, if they apparently yield, it is with mere coldcivility, and entirely without any honest desire to carry the wishesthus expressed into actual effect. 

Parents may, indeed, often misjudge. A good teacher will, however, soonsecure their confidence, and they may acquiesce in his opinion. But theyought to be watchful, and the teacher ought to feel and acknowledgetheir authority on all questions connected with the education of theirchildren. They have originally entire power in regard to the coursewhich is to be pursued with them. Providence has made the parentsresponsible, and wholly responsible, for the manner in which theirchildren are prepared for the duties of this life, and it is interestingto observe how very cautious the laws of society are about interferingwith the parent's wishes in regard to the education of the child. Thereare many cases in which enlightened governments might make arrangementswhich would be better than those made by the parents if they are left tothemselves. But they will not do it; they ought not to do it. God hasplaced the responsibility in the hands of the father and mother, andunless the manner in which it is exercised is calculated to endanger orto injure the community, there can rightfully be no interference exceptthat of argument and persuasion. 

It ought also to be considered that upon the parents will come theconsequences of the good or bad education of their children, and notupon the teacher, and consequently it is right that they should direct. The teacher remains, perhaps, a few months with his charge, and thengoes to other places, and perhaps hears of them no more. He has thusvery little at stake. The parent has every thing at stake; and it ismanifestly unjust to give one man the power of deciding, while heescapes all the consequences of his mistakes, if he makes any, and totake away all the _power_ from those upon whose heads all the sufferingwhich will follow an abuse of the power must descend. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

REPORTS OF CASES. 

There is, perhaps, no way by which a writer can more effectually explainhis views on the subject of education than by presenting a great varietyof actual cases, whether real or imaginary, and describing particularlythe course of treatment which he would recommend in each. This method ofcommunicating knowledge is very extensively resorted to in the medicalprofession, where writers detail particular cases, and report thesymptoms and the treatment for each succeeding day, so that the readermay almost fancy himself actually a visitor at the sick-bed, and thenature and effects of the various prescriptions become fixed in the mindwith almost as much distinctness and permanency as actual experiencewould give. 

This principle has been kept in view, the reader may perhaps think, tooclosely in all the chapters of this volume, almost every point broughtup having been illustrated by anecdotes and narratives. I propose, however, devoting one chapter now to presenting a number ofmiscellaneous cases, without any attempt to arrange them. Sometimes thecase will be merely stated, the reader being left to draw the inference;at others, such remarks will be added as the case suggests. All will, however, be intended to answer some useful purpose, either to exhibitgood or bad management and its consequences, or to bring to view sometrait of human nature, as it exhibits itself in children, which it maybe desirable for the teacher to know. Let it be understood, however, that these cases are not selected with reference to their being strangeor extraordinary. They are rather chosen because they are common; thatis, they, or cases similar, will be constantly occurring to the teacher, and reading such a chapter will be the best substitute for experiencewhich the teacher can have. Some are descriptions of literary exercisesor plans which the reader can adopt in classes or with a whole school;others are cases of discipline, good or bad management, which theteacher can imitate or avoid. The stories are from various sources, andare the results of the experience of several individuals. 

1. HATS AND BONNETS. --The master of a district school was accidentallylooking out of the window one day, and he saw one of the boys throwingstones at a hat, which was put up for that purpose upon the fence. Hesaid nothing about it at the time, but made a memorandum of theoccurrence, that he might bring it before the school at the proper time. When the hour set apart for attending to the general business of theschool had arrived, and all were still, he said, "I saw one of the boys throwing stones at a hat to-day: did he do rightor wrong?"

There were one or two faint murmurs which sounded like "_Wrong_" but theboys generally made no answer. 

"Perhaps it depends a little upon the question whose hat it was. Do youthink it does depend upon that?"

"Yes, sir. "

"Well, suppose then it was not his own hat, and he was throwing stonesat it without the owner's consent, would it be plain in that casewhether he was doing right or wrong?"

"Yes, sir; wrong, " was the universal reply. 

"Suppose it was his own hat, would he have been right? Has a boy a rightto do what he pleases with his own hat?"

"Yes, sir, " "Yes, sir;" "No, sir, " "No, sir, " answered the boys, confusedly. 

"I do not know whose hat it was. If the boy who did it is willing torise and tell me, it will help us to decide this question. "

The boy, knowing that a severe punishment was not in such a case to beanticipated, and, in fact, apparently pleased with the idea ofexonerating himself from the blame of willfully injuring the property ofanother, rose and said, "I suppose it was I, sir, who did it, and it was my own hat. "

"Well, " said the master, "I am glad that you are willing to tell franklyhow it was; but let us look at this case. There are two senses in whicha hat may be said to belong to any person. It may belong to him becausehe bought it and paid for it, or it may belong to him because it fitshim and he wears it. In other words, a person may have a hat as hisproperty, or he may have it only as a part of his dress. Now you seethat, according to the first of these senses, all the hats in thisschool belong to your fathers. There is not, in fact, a single boy inthis school who has a hat of his own. "

The boys laughed. 

"Is not this the fact?"

"Yes, sir. "

It certainly is so, though I suppose James did not consider it. Yourfathers bought your hats. They worked for them and paid for them. Youare only the wearers, and consequently every generous boy, and, in fact, every honest boy, will be careful of the property which is intrusted tohim, but which, strictly speaking, is not his own. 

2. MISTAKES. --A wide difference must always be made between mistakesarising from carelessness, and those resulting from circumstances beyondcontrol, such as want of sufficient data, and the like. The former arealways censurable; the latter never; for they may be the result ofcorrect reasoning from insufficient data, and it is the reasoning onlyfor which the child is responsible. 

"What do you suppose a prophet is?" said a teacher to a class of littleboys. The word occurred in their reading lesson. 

The scholars all hesitated; at last one ventured to reply:

"If a man should sell a yoke of oxen, and get more for them than theyare worth, he would be a prophet. "

"Yes, " said the instructor, "that is right; that is one kind of_profit_, but this is another and a little different, " and he proceededto explain the word, and the difference of the spelling. 

This child had, without doubt, heard of some transaction of the kindwhich he described, and had observed that the word _profit_ was appliedto it. Now the care which he had exercised in attending to it at thetime, and remembering it when the same word (for the difference in thespelling he of course knew nothing about) occurred again, was reallycommendable. The fact, which is a mere accident, that we affix verydifferent significations to the same sound, was unknown to him. Thefault, if any where, was in the language and not in him, for he reasonedcorrectly from the data he possessed, and he deserved credit for it. 

The teacher should always discriminate carefully between errors of thiskind, and those that result from culpable carelessness. 

3. TARDINESS. --"My duty to this school, " said a teacher to his pupils, "demands, as I suppose you all admit, that I should require you all tobe here punctually at the time appointed for the commencement of theschool. I have done nothing on this subject yet, for I wished to seewhether you would not come early on principle. I wish now, however, toinquire in regard to this subject, and to ascertain how many have beentardy, and to consider what must be done hereafter. "

He made the inquiries, and ascertained pretty nearly how many had beentardy, and how often within a week. 

The number was found to be so great that the scholars admitted thatsomething ought to be done. 

"What shall I do?" asked he. "Can any one propose a plan which willremedy the difficulty?"

There was no answer. 

"The easiest and pleasantest way to secure punctuality is for thescholars to come early of their own accord, upon principle. It isevident, from the reports, that many of you do so, but some do not. Nowthere is no other plan which will not be attended with very seriousdifficulty, but I am willing to adopt the one which will be mostagreeable to yourselves, if it will be likely to accomplish the object. Has any one any plan to propose?"

There was a pause. 

"It would evidently, " continued the teacher, "be the easiest for me toleave this subject, and do nothing about it. It is of no personalconsequence to me whether you come early or not, but as long as I holdthis office I must be faithful, and I have no doubt the schoolcommittee, if they knew how many of you were tardy, would think I oughtto do something to diminish the evil. 

"The best plan that I can think of is that all who are tardy should losetheir recess. "

The boys looked rather anxiously at one another, but continued silent. 

"There is a great objection to this plan from the fact that a boy issometimes necessarily absent, and by this rule he will lose his recesswith the rest, so that the innocent will be punished with the guilty. "

"I should think, sir, " said William, "that those who are _necessarily_tardy might be excused. "

"Yes, I should be very glad to excuse them, if I could find out who theyare. "

The boys seemed to be surprised at this remark, as if they thought itwould not be a difficult matter to decide. 

"How can I tell?" asked the master. 

"You can hear their excuses, and then decide. "

"Yes, " said the teacher: "but here are fifteen or twenty boys tardy thismorning; now how long would it take me to hear their excuses, andunderstand each case thoroughly, so that I could really tell whetherthey were tardy from good reasons or not?"

No answer. 

"Should you not think it would take a minute apiece?"

"Yes, sir. "

"It would, undoubtedly, and even then I could not in many cases tell. Itwould take fifteen minutes, at least. I can not do this in school hours, for I have not time, and if I do it in recess it will consume the wholeof every recess. Now I need the _rest_ of a recess as well as you, andit does not seem to me to be just that I should lose the whole of mineevery day, and spend it in a most unpleasant business, when I take painsmyself to come punctually every morning. Would it be just?"

"No, sir. "

"I think it would be less unjust to deprive all those of their recesswho are tardy; for then the loss of a recess by a boy who had not beento blame would not be very common, and the evil would be divided amongthe whole; but in the plan of my hearing the excuses it would all comeupon one. "

After a short pause one of the boys said that they might be required tobring written excuses. 

"Yes, that is another plan, " said the teacher; "but there are objectionsto it. Can any of you think what they are? I suppose you have all been, either at this school or at some other, required to bring writtenexcuses, so that you have seen the plan tried. Now have you nevernoticed any objection to it?"

One boy said that it gave the parents a great deal of trouble at home. 

"Yes, " said the teacher, "this is a great objection; it is often veryinconvenient to write. But that is not the greatest difficulty; can anyof you think of any other?"

There was a pause. 

"Do you think that these written excuses are, after all, a fair test ofthe real reasons for tardiness? I understand that sometimes boys willtease their fathers or mothers for an excuse when they do not deserveit, 'Yes, sir, ' and sometimes they will loiter about when sent of anerrand before school, knowing that they can get a written excuse, whenthey might easily have been punctual. "

"Yes, sir, " "Yes, sir, " said the boys. 

"Well, now, if we adopt this plan, some unprincipled boy would alwayscontrive to have an excuse, whether necessarily tardy or not; and, besides, each parent would have a different principle and a differentopinion as to what was a reasonable excuse, so that there would be nouniformity, and, consequently, no justice in the operation of thesystem. "

The boys admitted the truth of this, and, as no other plan waspresented, the rule was adopted of requiring all those who were tardy toremain in their seats during the recess, whether they were necessarilytardy or not. The plan very soon diminished the number of loiterers. 

4. HELEN'S LESSON. --The possibility of being inflexibly firm inmeasures, and, at the same time, gentle and mild in manners andlanguage, is happily illustrated in the following description, which isbased on an incident narrated by Mrs. Sherwood:

"Mrs. M. Had observed, even during the few days that Helen had beenunder her care, that she was totally unaccustomed to habits of diligenceand application. After making all due allowance for long-indulged habitsof indolence and inattention, she one morning assigned an easy lesson toher pupil, informing her at the same time that she should hear itimmediately before dinner. Helen made no objections to the plan, but shesilently resolved not to perform the required task. Being in somemeasure a stranger, she thought her aunt would not insist upon perfectobedience, and besides, in her estimation, she was too old to be treatedlike a child. 

"During the whole morning Helen exerted herself to be mild and obliging;her conduct toward her aunt was uncommonly affectionate. By these andvarious other artifices she endeavored to gain her first victory. Meanwhile Mrs. M. Quietly pursued her various avocations, withoutapparently noticing Helen's conduct. At length dinner-hour arrived; thelesson was called for, but Helen was unprepared. Mrs. M. Told Helen shewas sorry that she had not learned the lesson, and concluded by sayingthat she hoped she would be prepared before tea-time. 

"Helen, finding she was not to come to the table, began to be a littlealarmed. She was acquainted in some measure with the character of heraunt, still she hoped to be allowed to partake of the dessert, as shehad been accustomed to on similar occasions at home, and soon regainedher wonted composure. But the dinner-cloth was removed, and there satHelen, suffering not a little from hunger; still she would not complain;she meant to convince her aunt that she was not moved by trifles. 

"A walk had been proposed for the afternoon, and as the hour drew near, Helen made preparations to accompany the party. Mrs. M. Reminded her ofher lesson, but she just noticed the remark by a toss of the head, andwas soon in the green fields, apparently the gayest of the gay. Afterher return from the excursion she complained of a head-ache, which infact she had. She threw herself languidly on the sofa, sighed deeply, and took up her History. 

"Tea was now on the table, and most tempting looked the white loaf. Mrs. M. Again heard the pupil recite, but was sorry to find the lesson stillimperfectly prepared. She left her, saying she thought half an hour'sadditional study would conquer all the difficulties she found in thelesson. 

"During all this time Mrs. M. Appeared so perfectly calm, composed, andeven kind, and so regardless of sighs and doleful exclamations, thatHelen entirely lost her equanimity, and let her tears flow freely andabundantly. Her mother was always moved by her tears, and would not heraunt relent? No. Mrs. M. Quietly performed the duties of the table, andordered the tea-equipage to be removed. This latter movement broughtHelen to reflection. It is useless to resist, thought she; indeed, whyshould I wish to? Nothing too much has been required of me. Howridiculous I have made myself appear in the eyes of my aunt, and even ofthe domestics!

"In less than an hour she had the satisfaction of reciting her lessonperfectly; her aunt made no comments on the occasion, but assigned herthe next lesson, and went on sewing. Helen did not expect this; she hadanticipated a refreshing cup of tea after the long siege. She hadexpected that even something nicer than usual would be necessary tocompensate her for her past sufferings. At length, worn out bylong-continued watching and fasting, she went to the closet, providedherself with a cracker, and retired to bed to muse deliberately on thestrange character of her aunt. 

"Teachers not unfrequently threaten their pupils with some properpunishment, but, when obliged to put the threat into execution, contrivein some indirect way to abate its rigor, and thus destroy all itseffects. For example, a mother was in the habit, when her little boy ranbeyond his prescribed play-ground, of putting him into solitaryconfinement. On such occasions, she was very careful to have someamusing book or diverting plaything in a conspicuous part of the room, and not unfrequently a piece of gingerbread was given to solace therunaway. The mother thought it very strange her little boy should sooften transgress, when he knew what to expect from such a course ofconduct. The boy was wiser than the mother; he knew perfectly well howto manage the business. He could play with the boys beyond the gardengate, and if detected, to be sure he was obliged to spend a quiet hourin the pleasant parlor. But this was not intolerable as long as he couldexpect a paper of sugar-plums, a cake, or at least something amply tocompensate him for the loss of a game at marbles. "

5. COMPLAINTS or LONG LESSONS. --A college officer assigned lessons whichthe idle and ignorant members of the class thought too long. Theymurmured for a time, and at last openly complained. The other members ofthe class could say nothing in behalf of the professor, awed by thegreatest of all fears to a collegian, the fear of being called a"_fisher_" or a "_blueskin_" The professor paid no attention to thepetitions and complaints which were poured in upon him, and which, though originated by the idle, all were compelled to vote for. Hecoldly, and with uncompromising dignity, went on; the excitement in theclass increased, and what is called a college rebellion, with all itsdisastrous consequences to the infatuated rebels, ensued. 

Another professor had the dexterity to manage the case in a differentway. After hearing that there was dissatisfaction, he brought up thesubject as follows:

"I understand, gentlemen, that you consider your lessons too long. Perhaps I have overrated the abilities of the class, but I have notintended to assign you more than you can accomplish. I feel no otherinterest in the subject than the pride and pleasure it would give me tohave my class stand high, in respect to the amount of ground it has goneover, when you come to examination. I propose, therefore, that youappoint a committee, in whose abilities and judgment you can confide, and let them examine this subject and report. They might ascertain howmuch other classes have done, and how much is expedient for this classto attempt; and then, by estimating the number of recitations assignedto this study, they can easily determine what should be the length ofthe lessons. "

The plan was adopted, and the report put an end to the difficulty. 

6. ENGLISH COMPOSITION. --The great prevailing fault of writers in thiscountry is an affectation of eloquence. It is almost universally thefashion to aim, not at striking thoughts, simply and clearly expressed, but at splendid language, glowing imagery, and magnificent periods. Itarises, perhaps, from the fact that public speaking is the almostuniversal object of ambition, and, consequently, both at school and atcollege, nothing is thought of but oratory. Vain attempts at oratoryresult, in nine cases out of ten, in grandiloquence and emptyverbiage--common thoughts expressed in pompous periods. 

The teacher should guard against this, and assign to children suchsubjects as are within the field of childish observation. A little skillon his part will soon determine the question which kind of writing shallprevail in his school. The following specimens, both written with someskill, will illustrate the two kinds of writing alluded to. Both werewritten by pupils of the same age, twelve; one a boy, the other a girl. The subjects were assigned by the teacher. I need not say that thefollowing was the writer's first attempt at composition, and that it isprinted without alteration. 

THE PAINS OF A SAILOR'S LIFE. 

The joyful sailor embarks on board of his ship, the sails are spread tocatch the playful gale, swift as an arrow he cuts the rolling wave. Afew days thus sporting on the briny wave, when suddenly the sky isoverspread with clouds, the rain descends in torrents, the sails arelowered, the gale begins, the vessel is carried with great velocity, andthe shrouds, unable to support the tottering mast, gives way to thefurious tempest; the vessel is drove among the rocks, is sprung aleak;the sailor works at the pumps till, faint and weary, is heard frombelow, six feet of water in the hold; the boats are got ready, but, before they are into them, the vessel is dashed against a reef of rocks;some, in despair, throw themselves into the sea; others get on the rockswithout any clothes or provisions, and linger a few days, perhaps weeksor months, living on shell fish, or perhaps taken up by some ship;others get on pieces of the wreck, and perhaps be cast on some foreigncountry, where perhaps he may be taken by the natives, and sold intoslavery where he never more returns. 

In regard to the following specimen, it should be stated that when thesubject was assigned, the pupil was directed to see how precisely shecould imitate the language and conversation which two little childrenreally lost in the woods would use. While writing, therefore, her mindwas in pursuit of the natural and the simple, not of the eloquent. 

TWO CHILDREN LOST IN THE WOODS. 

_Emily_. Look here! see how many berries I've got. I don't believeyou've got so many. 

_Charles_. Yes, I'm sure I have. My basket's almost full; and if wehurry, we shall get ever so many before we go home. So pick away as fastas you can, Emily. 

_Emily_. There, mine is full. Now we'll go and find some flowers formother. You know somebody told us there were some red ones close to thatrock. 

_Charles_. Well, so we will. We'll leave our baskets here, and come backand get them. 

_Emily_. But if we can't find our way back, what shall we do?

_Charles_. Poh! I can find the way back. I only want a quarter to sevenyears old, and I sha'n't lose myself, I know. 

_Emily_. Well, we've got flowers enough, and now I'm tired and want togo home. 

_Charles. I_ don't; but, if you are tired, we'll go and find ourbaskets. 

_Emily_. Where do you think they are? We've been looking a great whilefor them. I know we are lost, for when we went after the flowers weonly turned once, and coming back we have turned three times. 

_Charles_. Have we? Well, never mind, I guess we shall find them. 

_Emily_. I'm afraid we sha'n't. Do let's run. 

_Charles_. Well, so do. Oh, Emily! here's a brook, and I am sure wedidn't pass any brook going. 

_Emily_. Oh dear! we must be lost. Hark! Charles, didn't you hear thatdreadful noise just now? Wasn't it a bear?

_Charles_. Poh! I should love to see a bear here. I guess, if he shouldcome near me, I would give him one good slap that would make him feelpretty bad. I could kill him at the first hit. 

_Emily_. I should like to see you taking hold of a bear. Why, didn't youknow bears were stronger than men? But only see how dark it grows; wesha'n't see ma to-night, I'm afraid. 

_Charles_. So am I: do let's run some more. 

_Emily_. Oh, Charles, do you believe we shall ever find the way out ofthis dreadful long wood?

_Charles_. Let's scream, and see if somebody won't come. 

_Emily_. Well (screaming), ma! ma!

_Charles_ (screaming also). Pa! pa!

_Emily_. Oh dear! there's the sun setting. It will be dreadfully darkby-and-by, won't it?

We have given enough for a specimen. The composition, though faulty inmany respects, illustrates the point we had in view. 

7. Insincere Confession. --An assistant in a school informed theprincipal that she had some difficulty in preserving order in a certainclass composed of small children. The principal accordingly went intothe class, and something like the following dialogue ensued:

"Your teacher informs me, " said the principal, "that there is notperfect order in the class. Now if you are satisfied that there has notbeen order, and wish to help me discover and correct the fault, we cando it very easily. If, on the other hand, you do not wish to co-operatewith me, it will be a little more difficult for me to correct it, and Imust take a different course. Now I wish to know, at the outset, whetheryou do or do not wish to help me?"

A faint "Yes, sir, " was murmured through the class. 

"I do not wish you to assist me unless you really and honestly desire ityourselves; and if you undertake to do it, you must do it honestly. Thefirst thing which will be necessary will be an open and thoroughexposure of all which has been wrong, and this, you know, will beunpleasant. But I will put the question to vote by asking how many arewilling that I should know, entirely and fully, all that they have donein this class that has been wrong?"

Very nearly all the hands were raised at once, promptly, and the otherswere gradually brought up, though with more or less of hesitation. 

"Are you willing not only to tell me yourselves what you have done, butalso, in case any one has forgotten something which she has done, thatothers should tell me of it?"

The hands were all raised. 

After obtaining thus from the class a distinct and universal expressionof willingness that all the facts should be made known, the principalcalled upon all those who had any thing to state to raise their hands, and those who raised them had opportunity to say what they wished. Agreat number of very trifling incidents were mentioned, such as couldnot have produced any difficulty in the class, and, consequently, couldnot have been the real instances of disorder alluded to. Or at least itwas evident, if they were, that in the statement they must have been sopalliated and softened that a really honest confession had not beenmade. This result might, in such a case, have been expected. Such ishuman nature, that in nine cases out of ten, unless such a result hadbeen particularly guarded against, it would have inevitably followed. 

Not only will such a result follow in individual cases like this, but, unless the teacher watches and guards against it, it will grow into ahabit. I mean, boys will get a sort of an idea that it is a fine thingto confess their faults, and by a show of humility and frankness willdeceive their teacher, and perhaps themselves, by a sort ofacknowledgment, which in fact exposes nothing of the guilt which thetransgressor professes to expose. A great many cases occur whereteachers are pleased with the confession of faults, and scholarsperceive it, and the latter get into the habit of coming to the teacherwhen they have done something which they think may get them intodifficulty, and make a sort of half confession, which, by bringingforward every palliating circumstance, and suppressing every thing ofdifferent character, keeps entirely out of view all the real guilt ofthe transgression. The criminal is praised by the teacher for thefrankness and honesty of the confession, and his fault is freelyforgiven. He goes away, therefore, well satisfied with himself, when, infact, he has been only submitting to a little mortification, voluntarily, to avoid the danger of a greater; much in the same spiritwith that which leads a man to receive the small-pox by inoculation, toavoid the danger of taking it in the natural way. 

The teacher who accustoms his pupils to confess their faults voluntarilyought to guard carefully against this danger. When such a case as theone just described occurs, it will afford a favorable opportunity ofshowing distinctly to pupils the difference between an honest and ahypocritical confession. In this instance the teacher proceeded thus:

"Now there is one more question which I wish you all to answer by yourvotes honestly. It is this. Do you think that the real disorder whichhas been in this class--that is, the real cases which you referred towhen you stated to me that you thought that the class was not in goodorder--have been now really exposed, so that I honestly and fullyunderstand the case? How many suppose so?"

Not a single hand was raised. 

"How many of you think, and are willing to avow your opinion, that Ihave _not_ been fully informed of the case?"

A large proportion held up their hands. 

"Now it seems the class pretended to be willing that I should know allthe affair. You pretended to be willing to tell me the whole, but when Icall upon you for the information, instead of telling me honestly, youattempt to amuse me by little trifles, which in reality made nodisturbance, and you omit the things which you know were the realobjects of my inquiries. Am I right in my supposition?"

They were silent. After a moment's pause, one perhaps raised her hand, and began now to confess something which she had before concealed. 

The teacher, however, interrupted her by saying, "I do not wish to have the confession made now. I gave you all time todo that, and now I should rather not hear any more about the disorder. Igave an opportunity to have it acknowledged, but it was not honestlyimproved, and now I should rather not hear. I shall probably never know. 

"I wished to see whether this class would be honest--really honest, orwhether they would have the insincerity to pretend to be confessing whenthey were not doing so honestly, so as to get the credit of being frankand sincere, when in reality they are not so. Now am I not compelled toconclude that this latter is the case?"

Such an example will make a deep and lasting impression. It will showthat the teacher is upon his guard; and there are very few so hardenedin deception that they would not wish that they had been really sincererather than rest under such an imputation. 

8. Court. --A pupil, quite young (says a teacher), came to me one daywith a complaint that one of her companions had got her seat. There hadbeen some changes in the seats by my permission, and probably, from someinconsistency in the promises which I had made, there were two claimantsfor the same desk. The complainant came to me, and appealed to myrecollection of the circumstance. 

"I do not recollect any thing about it, " said I. 

"Why, Mr. B. !" replied she, with astonishment. 

"No, " said I; "you forget that I have, every day, arrangements, almostwithout number, of such a kind to make, and as soon as I have made one Iimmediately forget all about it. "

"Why, don't you remember that you got me a new baize?"

"No; I ordered a dozen new baizes at that time, but I do not rememberwho they were for. "

There was a pause; the disappointed complainant seemed not to know whatto do. 

"I will tell you what to do. Bring the case into court, and I will tryit regularly. "

"Why, Mr. B. , I do not like to do any thing like that about it; besides, I do not know how to write an indictment. "

"Oh, " I answered, "the scholars will like to have a good trial, and thiswill make a new sort of case. All our cases thus far have been for_offenses_--that is what they call criminal cases--and this will be onlyan examination of the conflicting claims of two individuals to the sameproperty, and it will excite a good deal of interest. I think you hadbetter bring it into court. "

She went slowly and thoughtfully to her seat, and presently returnedwith an indictment. 

"Mr. B. , is this right?"

It was as follows:

I accuse Miss A. B. Of coming to take away my seat--the one Mr. B. Gaveme. 

 Witnesses, { C. D. { E. T. 

"Why--yes--that will do; and yet it is not exactly right. You see thisis what they call a _civil_ case. "

"I don't think it is very _civil_. "

"No, I don't mean it was civil to take your seat, but this is not a casewhere a person is prosecuted for having done any thing wrong. "

The plaintiff looked a little perplexed, as if she could not understandhow it could be otherwise than wrong for a girl to usurp her seat. 

"I mean, you do not bring it into court as a case of wrong. You do notwant her to be punished, do you?"

"No, I only want her to give me up my seat; I don't want her to bepunished. "

"Well, then, you see that, although she may have done wrong to take yourseat, it is not in that point of view that you bring it into court. Itis a question about the right of property, and the lawyers call suchcases _civil_ cases, to distinguish them from cases where persons aretried for the purpose of being punished for doing wrong. These last arecalled criminal cases. "

The aggrieved party still looked perplexed. "Well, Mr. B. , " shecontinued, "what shall I do? How shall I write it? I can not say anything about _civil_ in it, can I?"

A form was given her which would be proper for the purpose, and the casewas brought forward, and the evidence on both sides examined. Theirritation of the quarrel was soon dissipated in the amusement of asemi-serious trial, and both parties good-humoredly acquiesced in thedecision. 

9. TEACHERS' PERSONAL CHARACTER. --Much has been said within a few years, by writers on the subject of education in this country, on thedesirableness of raising the business of teaching to the rank of alearned profession. There is but one way of doing this, and that israising the personal characters and attainments of the teachersthemselves. Whether an employment is elevated or otherwise in publicestimation, depends altogether on the associations, connected with it inthe public mind, and these depend altogether on the characters of theindividuals who are engaged in it. Franklin, by the simple fact that hewas a printer himself, has done more toward giving dignity andrespectability to the employment of printing, than a hundred orationson the intrinsic excellence of the art. In fact, all mechanicalemployments have, within a few years, risen in rank in this country, notthrough the influence of efforts to impress the community directly witha sense of their importance, but simply because mechanics themselveshave risen in intellectual and moral character. In the same manner, theemployment of the teacher will be raised most effectually in theestimation of the public, not by the individual who writes the mosteloquent oration on the intrinsic dignity of the art, but by the one whogoes forward most successfully in the exercise of it, and who, by hisgeneral attainments and public character, stands out most fully to theview of the public as a well-informed, liberal-minded, and useful man. 

If this is so--and it can not well be denied--it furnishes to everyteacher a strong motive to exertion for the improvement of his ownpersonal character. But there is a stronger motive still in the resultswhich flow directly to himself from such efforts. No man ought to engagein any business which, as mere business, will engross all his time andattention. The Creator has bestowed upon every one a mind, upon thecultivation of which our rank among intelligent beings, our happiness, our moral and intellectual power, every thing valuable to us, depend;and after all the cultivation which we can bestow, in this life, uponthis mysterious principle, it will still be in embryo. The progresswhich it is capable of making is entirely indefinite. If by ten years ofcultivation we can secure a certain degree of knowledge and power, byten more we can double, or more than double it, and every succeedingyear of effort is attended with equal success. There is no point ofattainment where we must stop, or beyond which effort will bring in aless valuable return. 

Look at that teacher, and consider for a moment his condition. He beganto teach when he was twenty years of age, and now he is forty. Betweenthe ages of fifteen and twenty he made a vigorous effort to acquiresuch an education as would fit him for these duties. He succeeded, andby these efforts he raised himself from being a mere laborer, receivingfor his daily toil a mere daily subsistence, to the respectability andthe comforts of an intellectual pursuit. But this change once produced, he stops short in his progress. Once seated in his desk, he issatisfied, and for twenty years he has been going through the sameroutine, without any effort to advance or to improve. He does notreflect that the same efforts, which so essentially altered hiscondition and prospects at twenty, would have carried him forward tohigher and higher sources of influence and enjoyment as long as heshould continue them. His efforts ceased when he obtained a situation asteacher at fifty dollars a month, and, though twenty years have glidedaway, he is now exactly what he was then. 

There is probably no employment whatever which affords so favorable anopportunity for personal improvement--for steady intellectual and moralprogress, as that of teaching. There are two reasons for this:

First, there is time for it. With an ordinary degree of health andstrength, the mind can be vigorously employed at least ten hours a day. As much as this is required of students in many literary institutions. In fact, ten hours to study, seven to sleep, and seven to food, exercise, and recreation, is perhaps as good an arrangement as can bemade; at any rate, very few persons will suppose that such a plan allowstoo little under the latter head. Now six hours is as much as isexpected of a teacher under ordinary circumstances, and it is as much asought ever to be bestowed; for, though he may labor four hours out ofschool in some new field, his health and spirits will soon sink underthe burden, if, after his weary labors during the day in school, hegives up his evenings to the same perplexities and cares. And it is notnecessary. No one who knows any thing of the nature of the human mind, and who will reflect a moment on the subject, can doubt that a man canmake a better school by expending six hours labor upon it with alacrityand ardor, than he can by driving himself on to ten. Every teacher, therefore, who is commencing his work, should begin with the firmdetermination of devoting only six hours daily to the pursuit. Make asgood a school, and accomplish as much for it as you can in six hours, and let the rest go. When you come from your school-room at night, leaveall your perplexities and cares behind you. No matter what unfinishedbusiness or unsettled difficulties remain, dismiss them till another sunshall rise, and the hour of duty for another day shall come. Carry noschool-work home with you, and do not even talk of your school-work athome. You will then get refreshment and rest. Your mind, during theevening, will be in a different world from that in which you have movedduring the day. At first this will be difficult. It will be hard foryou, unless your mind is uncommonly well disciplined, to dismiss allyour cares; and you will think, each evening, that some peculiaremergency demands your attention _just at that time, _ and that as soonas you have passed the crisis you will confine yourself to what youadmit are generally reasonable limits; but if you once allow school, with its perplexities and cares, to get possession of the rest of theday, it will keep possession. It will intrude itself into all yourwaking thoughts, and trouble you in your dreams. You will lose allcommand of your powers, and, besides cutting off from yourself all hopeof general intellectual progress, you will, in fact, destroy yoursuccess as a teacher. Exhaustion, weariness, and anxiety will be yourcontinual portion, and in such a state no business can be successfullyprosecuted. 

There need be no fear that employers will be dissatisfied if the teacheracts upon this principle. If he is faithful, and enters with all hisheart into the discharge of his duties during six hours, there will besomething in the ardor, and alacrity, and spirit with which his dutieswill be performed which parents and scholars will both be very glad toreceive in exchange for the languid, and dull, and heartless toil inwhich the other method must sooner or later result. 

 * * * * *

If the teacher, then, will confine himself to such a portion of time asis, in fact, all he can advantageously employ, there will be much leftwhich can be devoted to his own private employment--more than is usualin the other avocations of life. In most of these other avocations thereis not the same necessity for limiting the hours which a man may devoteto his business. A merchant, for example, may be employed nearly all theday at his counting-room, and so may a mechanic. A physician may spendall his waking hours in visiting patients, and feel little more thanhealthy fatigue. The reason is, that in all these employments, and, infact, in most of the employments of life, there is so much to diversify, so many little incidents constantly occurring to animate and relieve, and so much bodily exercise, which alternates with and suspends thefatigues of the mind, that the labors may be much longer continued, andwith less cessation, and yet the health not suffer. But the teacher, while engaged in his work, has his mind continually on the stretch. There is little relief, little respite, and he is almost entirelydeprived of bodily exercise. He must, consequently, limit his hours ofattending to his business, or his health will soon sink under laborswhich Providence never intended the human mind to bear. 

There is another circumstance which facilitates the progress of theteacher. It is a fact that all this general progress has a direct andimmediate bearing upon his pursuits. A lawyer may read in an evening aninteresting book of travels, and find nothing to help him with his case, the next day, in court; but almost every fact which the teacher thuslearns will come _at once into use_ in some of his recitations atschool. We do not mean to imply by this that the members of the legalprofession have not need of a great variety and extent of knowledge;they doubtless have. It is simply in the _directness_ and _certainty_with which the teacher's knowledge may be applied to his purpose thatthe business of teaching has the advantage over every other pursuit. 

This fact, now, has a very important influence in encouraging andleading forward the teacher to make constant intellectual progress, forevery step brings at once a direct reward. 

10. THE CHESTNUT BURR. --_A story for school-boys. _--One fine Saturdayafternoon, in the fall of the year, the master was taking a walk in thewoods, and he came to a place where a number of boys were gatheringchestnuts. 

One of the boys was sitting upon a bank trying to open some chestnutburrs which he had knocked off from the tree. The burrs were green, andhe was attempting to open them by pounding them with a stone. 

[Illustration]

He was a very impatient boy, and was scolding in a loud, angry, toneagainst the burrs. He did not see, he said, what in the world chestnutswere made to grow so for. They ought to grow right out in the open air, like apples, and not have such vile porcupine skins on them, just toplague the boys. So saying, he struck with all his might a fine largeburr, crushed it to pieces, and then jumped up, using at the same timeprofane and wicked words. As soon as he turned round he saw the masterstanding very near him. He felt very much ashamed and afraid, and hungdown his head. 

"Roger, " said the master (for this boy's name was Roger), "can you getme a chestnut burr?"

Roger looked up for a moment to see whether the master was in earnest, and then began to look around for a burr. 

A boy who was standing near the tree, with a red cap full of burrs inhis hand, held out one of them. Roger took the burr and handed it to themaster, who quietly put it into his pocket, and walked away withoutsaying a word. 

As soon as he was gone, the boy with the red cap said to Roger, "Iexpected that the master would have given you a good scolding fortalking so. "

"The master never scolds, " said another boy, who was sitting on a logpretty near, with a green satchel in his hand, "but you see if he doesnot remember it. " Roger looked as if he did not know what to think aboutit. 

"I wish, " said he, "I knew what he is going to do with that burr. "

That afternoon, when the lessons had been all recited, and it was abouttime to dismiss the school, the boys put away their books, and themaster read a few verses in the Bible, and then offered a prayer, inwhich he asked God to forgive all the sins which any of them hadcommitted that day, and to take care of them during the night. Afterthis he asked the boys all to sit down. He then took his handkerchiefout of his pocket and laid it on the desk, and afterward he put hishand into his pocket again, and took out the chestnut burr, and all theboys looked at it. 

"Boys, " said he, "do you know what this is?"

One of the boys in the back seat said, in a half whisper, "It is nothingbut a chestnut burr. "

"Lucy, " said the master to a bright-eyed little girl near him, "what isthis?"

"It is a chestnut burr, sir, " said she. 

"Do you know what it is for?"

"I suppose there are chestnuts in it. "

"But what is this rough, prickly covering for?"

Lucy did not know. 

"Does any body here know?" said the master. 

One of the boys said that he supposed it was to hold the chestnutstogether, and keep them up on the tree. 

"But I heard a boy say, " replied the master, "that they ought not to bemade to grow so. The nut itself, he thought, ought to hang alone on thebranches, without any prickly covering, just as apples do. "

"But the nuts themselves have no stems to be fastened by, " answered thesame boy. 

"That is true; but I suppose this boy thought that God could have madethem grow with stems, and that this would have been better than to havethem in burrs. "

After a little pause the master said that he would explain TO them whatthe chestnut burr was for, and wished them all to listen attentively. 

"How much of the chestnut is good to eat, William?" asked he, looking ata boy before him. 

"Only the meat. "

"How long does it take the meat to grow?"

"All summer, I suppose, it is growing. "

"Yes; it begins early in the summer, and gradually swells and growsuntil it has become of full size, and is ripe, in the fall. Now supposethere was a tree out here near the school-house, and the chestnut meatsshould grow upon it without any shell or covering; suppose, too, thatthey should taste like good ripe chestnuts at first, when they were verysmall. Do you think they would be safe?"

William said "No; the boys would pick and eat them before they had timeto grow. "

"Well, what harm would there be in that? Would it not be as well to havethe chestnuts early in the summer as to have them in the fall?"

William hesitated. Another boy who sat next to him said, "There would not be so much meat in the chestnuts if they were eatenbefore they had time to grow. "

"Right, " said the master; "but would not the boys know this, and so allagree to let the little chestnuts stay, and not eat them while they weresmall?"

William said he thought they would not. If the chestnuts were good, hewas afraid they would pick them off and eat them if they were small. 

All the rest of the boys in the school thought so too. 

"Here, then, " said the master, "is one reason for having prickles aroundthe chestnuts when they are small. But then it is not necessary to haveall chestnuts guarded from boys in this way; a great many of the treesare in the woods, which the boys do not see; what good do the burrs doin these trees?"

The boys hesitated. Presently the boy who had the green satchel underthe tree with Roger, who was sitting in one corner of the room, said, "I should think they would keep the squirrels from eating them. 

"And besides, " continued he, after thinking a moment, "I should suppose, if the meat of the chestnut had no covering, the rain would wet it andmake it rot, or the sun might dry and wither it. "

"Yes, " said the master, "these are very good reasons why the nut shouldbe carefully guarded. First the meats are packed away in a hard brownshell, which the water can not get through; this keeps it dry, and awayfrom dust and other things which might injure it. Then several nuts thusprotected grow closely together inside this green, prickly covering, which spreads over them and guards them from the larger animals and theboys. Where the chestnut gets its full growth and is ripe, thiscovering, you know, splits open, and the nuts drop out, and then anybody can get them and eat them. "

The boys were then all satisfied that it was better that chestnutsshould grow in burrs. 

"But why, " asked one of the boys, "do not apples grow so?"

"Can any body answer that question?" asked the master. 

The boy with the green satchel said that apples had a smooth, tightskin, which kept out the wet, but he did not see how they were guardedfrom animals. 

The master said it was by their taste. "They are hard and sour beforethey are full grown, and so the taste is not pleasant, and nobody wishesto eat them, except sometimes a few foolish boys, and these are punishedby being made sick. When the apples are full grown, they change fromsour to sweet, and become mellow--then they can be eaten. Can you tellme of any other fruits which are preserved in this way?"

One boy answered, "Strawberries and blackberries;" and another said, "Peaches and pears. "

Another boy asked why the peach-stone was not outside the peach, so asto keep it from being eaten; but the master said that he would explainthis another time. Then he dismissed the scholars, after asking Roger towait until the rest had gone, as he wished to see him alone. 

Several of the articles which follow were communicated for this work bydifferent teachers, at the request of the author. 

11. THE SERIES OF WRITING LESSONS. --Very many pupils soon become wearyof the dull and monotonous business of writing, unless some plans aredevised to give interest and variety to the exercise; and, on thisaccount, this branch of education, in which improvement may be mostrapid, is often the last and most tedious to be acquired. 

A teacher, by adopting the following plan, succeeded in awakening agreat degree of interest on the subject, and, consequently, of promotingrapid improvement. The plan was this: he prepared, on a large sheet ofpaper, a series of lessons in coarse-hand, beginning with straightlines, and proceeding to the elementary parts of the various letters, and finally to the letters themselves. This paper was posted up in apart of the room accessible to all. 

The writing-books were made of three sheets of foolscap paper, foldedinto a convenient size, making twenty-four pages in the book. The bookswere to be ruled by the pupil, for it was thought important that eachshould learn this art. Every pupil in school, then, being furnished withone of these writing-books, was required to commence this series, and topractice each lesson until he could write it well; then, and not tillthen, he was permitted to pass to the next. A few brief directions weregiven under each lesson on the large sheet. For example, under the lineof straight marks, which constituted the first lesson, was written asfollows:

_Straight, equidistant, parallel, smooth, well-terminated. _

These directions were to call the attention of the pupil to theexcellences which he must aim at, and when he supposed he had securedthem, his book was to be presented to the teacher for examination. Ifapproved, the word _Passed_, or, afterward, simply _P_. , was writtenunder the line, and he could then proceed to the next lesson. Otherrequisites were necessary, besides the correct formation of the letters, to enable one to pass; for example, the page must not be soiled orblotted, no paper must be wasted, and, in no case, a leaf torn out. Assoon as _one line_ was written in the manner required, the scholar wasallowed to pass. In a majority of cases, however, not less than a pagewould be practiced, and in many instances a sheet would be covered, before one line could be produced which would be approved. 

One peculiar excellency of this method was, that although the wholeschool were working under a regular and systematic plan, individualscould go on independently; that is, the progress of no scholar wasretarded by that of his companion; the one more advanced might easilypass the earlier lessons in a few days, while the others would requireweeks of practice to acquire the same degree of skill. 

During the writing-hour the scholars would practice each at the lessonwhere he left off before, and at a particular time each day the bookswere brought from the regular place of deposit and laid before theteacher for examination. Without some arrangement for an examination ofall the books together, the teacher would be liable to interruption atany time from individual questions and requests, which would consumemuch time, and benefit only a few. 

When a page of writing could not pass, a brief remark, calling theattention of the pupil to the faults which prevented it, was sometimesmade in pencil at the bottom of the page. In other cases, the fault wasof such a character as to require full and minute oral directions to thepupil. At last, to facilitate the criticism of the writing, a set ofarbitrary marks, indicative of the various faults, was devised andapplied, as occasion might require, to the writing-books, by means ofred ink. 

These marks, which were very simple in their character, were easilyremembered, for there was generally some connection between the signand the thing signified. For example, the mark denoting that letterswere too short was simply lengthening them in red ink; a faulty curvewas denoted by making a new curve over the old one, &c. The followingare the principal criticisms and directions for which marks werecontrived:

 Strokes rough. Too tall or too short. Curve wrong. Stems not straight. Bad termination Careless work. Too slanting, and the reverse. Paper wasted. Too broad, and the reverse. Almost well enough to pass. Not parallel. Bring your book to the teacher. Form of the letter bad. Former fault not corrected. Large stroke made too fine, and the reverse. 

A catalogue of these marks, with an explanation, was made out and placedwhere it was accessible to all, and by means of them the books could bevery easily and rapidly, but thoroughly criticised. 

After the plan had gone on for some time, and its operation was fullyunderstood, the teacher gave up the business of examining the books intothe hands of a committee, appointed by him from among the older and moreadvanced pupils. That the committee might be unbiased in their judgment, they were required to examine and decide upon the books without knowingthe names of the writers. Each scholar was, indeed, required to placeher name on the right hand upper corner of every page of herwriting-book, for the convenience of the distributors; but this cornerwas turned down when the book was brought in, that it might not be seenby the committee. 

This committee was invested with plenary powers, and there was no appealfrom their decision. In case they exercised their authority in animproper way, or failed on any account to give satisfaction, they wereliable to impeachment, but while they continued in office they were tobe strictly obeyed. 

This plan went on successfully for three months, and with very littlediminution of interest. The whole school went regularly through thelessons in coarse-hand, and afterward through a similar series infine-hand, and improvement in this branch was thought to be greater thanat any former period in the same length of time. 

The same principle of arranging the several steps of an art or a studyinto a series of lessons, and requiring the pupil to pass regularly fromone to the other, might easily be applied to other studies, and wouldafford an agreeable variety. 

12. THE CORRESPONDENCE. --A master of a district school was walkingthrough the room with a large rule in his hands, and as he came upbehind two small boys, he observed that they were playing with somepapers. He struck them once or twice, though not very severely, on thehead with the rule which he had in his hand. Tears started from the eyesof one. They were called forth by a mingled feeling of grief, mortification, and pain. The other, who was of "sterner stuff, " lookedsteadily into the master's face, and when his back was turned, shook hisfist at him and laughed in defiance. 

Another teacher, seeing a similar case, did nothing. The boys, when theysaw him, hastily gathered up their playthings and put them away. An houror two after, a little boy, who sat near the master, brought them a noteaddressed to them both. They opened it, and read as follows:

"To EDWARD AND JOHN, --I observed, when I passed you to-day, from yourconcerned looks, and your hurried manner of putting something into yourdesk, that you were doing something that you knew was wrong. When youattempt to do any thing whatever which conscience tells you is wrong, you only make yourself uneasy and anxious while you do it, and then youare forced to resort to concealment and deception when you see mecoming. You would be a great deal happier if you would always be doingyour duty, and then you would never be afraid. Your affectionateteacher, ----. "

As the teacher was arranging his papers in his desk at the close ofschool, he found a small piece of paper neatly folded up in the form ofa note, and addressed to him. He read as follows:

"DEAR TEACHER, --We are very much obliged to you for writing us a note. We were making a paper box. We know it was wrong, and are determined notto do so any more. We hope you will forgive us. 

"Your pupils, EDWARD, JOHN. "

Which of these teachers understood human nature best?

13. WEEKLY REPORTS. --The plan described by the following article, whichwas furnished by a teacher for insertion here, was originally adopted, so far as I know, in a school on the Kennebec. I have adopted it withgreat advantage. 

A teacher had one day been speaking to her scholars of certain cases ofslight disorder in the school, which, she remarked, had been graduallycreeping in, and which, as she thought, it devolved upon the scholars, by systematic efforts, to repress. She enumerated instances of disorderin the arrangement of the rooms, leaving the benches out of theirplaces, throwing waste papers upon the floor, having the desk indisorder inside, spilling water upon the entry floor, irregulardeportment, such as too loud talking or laughing in recess, or in theintermission at noon, or when coming to school, and making unnecessarynoise in going to or returning from recitations. 

"I have a plan to propose, " said the teacher, "which I think may be thepleasantest way of promoting a reform in things of this kind. It isthis. Let several of your number be chosen a committee to preparestatedly--perhaps as often as once a week--a written report of the stateof the school. The report might be read before the school at the closeof each week. The committee might consist, in the whole, of seven oreight, or even of eleven or twelve individuals, who should take thewhole business into their hands. This committee might appointindividuals of their number to write in turn each week. By thisarrangement, it would not be known to the school generally who are thewriters of any particular report, if the individuals wish to beanonymous. Two individuals might be appointed at the beginning of theweek, who should feel it their business to observe particularly thecourse of things from day to day with reference to the report. Individuals not members of the committee can render assistance by anysuggestions they may present to this committee. These should, however, generally be made in writing. 

"Subjects for such a report will be found to suggest themselves veryabundantly, though you may not perhaps think so at first. The committeemay be empowered not only to state the particulars in which things aregoing wrong, but the methods by which they may be made right. Let thempresent us with any suggestions they please. If we do not like them, weare not obliged to adopt them. For instance, it is generally the case, whenever a recitation is attended in the corner yonder, that an end ofone of the benches is put against the door, so as to occasion a seriousinterruption to the exercises when a person wishes to come in or go out. It would come within the province of the committee to attend to such acase as this, that is, to bring it up in the report. The remedy in sucha case is a very simple one. Suppose, however, that instead of the_simple_ remedy, our committee should propose that the classes recitingin the said corner should be dissolved and the studies abolished? Weshould know the proposal was an absurd one, but then it would do nohurt; we should have only to reject it. 

"Again, besides our faults, let our committee notice the respects inwhich we are doing particularly well, that we may be encouraged to go ondoing well, or even to do better. If they think, for example, that weare deserving of credit for the neatness with which books are kept--fortheir freedom from blots, or scribblings, or dog's-ears, by whichschool-books are so commonly defaced, let them tell us so. And the sameof any other excellence. "

With the plan as thus presented, the scholars were very much pleased. Itwas proposed by one individual that such a committee should be appointedimmediately, and a report prepared for the ensuing week. This was done. The committee were chosen by ballot. The following may be taken as aspecimen of their reports:

WEEKLY REPORT. 

"The Committee appointed to write the weekly report have noticed severalthings which they think wrong. In the first place, there have been agreater number of tardy scholars during the past week than usual. Muchof this tardiness, we suppose, is owing to the interest felt in buildingthe bower; but we think this business ought to be attended to only inplay-hours. If only one or two come in late when we are reading in themorning, or after we have composed ourselves to study at the close ofthe recess, every scholar must look up from her book--we do not say theyought to do so, but only that they will do so. However, we anticipate animprovement in this respect, as we know 'a word to the wise issufficient. '

"In the two back rows we are sorry to say that we have noticedwhispering. We know that this fact will very much distress our teacher, as she expects assistance, and not trouble, from our older scholars. Itis not our business to reprove any one's misconduct, but it is our dutyto mention it, however disagreeable it may be. We think the youngerscholars, during the past week, have much improved in this respect. Onlythree cases of whispering among them have occurred to our knowledge. 

"We remember some remarks made a few weeks ago by our teacher on thepractice of prompting each other in the classes. We wish she wouldrepeat them, for we fear that, by some, they are forgotten. In the classin Geography, particularly in the questions on the map, we have noticedsly whispers, which, we suppose, were the hints of some kind frienddesigned to refresh the memory of her less attentive companion. Wepropose that the following question be now put to vote. Shall thepractice of prompting in the classes be any longer continued?

"We would propose that we have a composition exercise _this_ weeksimilar to the one on Thursday last. It was very interesting, and wethink all would be willing to try their thinking powers once more. Wewould propose, also, that the readers of the compositions should sitnear the centre of the room, as last week many fine sentences escapedthe ears of those seated in the remote corners. 

"We were requested by a very public-spirited individual to mention oncemore the want of three nails, for bonnets, in the entry. Also, to saythat the air from the broken pane of glass on the east side of the roomis very unpleasant to those who sit near. 

"Proposed that the girls who exhibited so much taste and ingenuity inthe arrangement of the festoons of evergreen, and tumblers of flowersaround the teacher's desk, be now requested to remove the faded rosesand drooping violets. We have gazed on these sad emblems long enough. 

"Finally, proposed that greater care be taken by those who stay at noonto place their dinner-baskets in proper places. The contents of morethan one were partly strewed upon the entry floor this morning. "

If such a measure as this is adopted, it should not be continueduninterrupted for a very long time. Every thing of this sort should beoccasionally changed, or it sooner or later becomes only a form. 

14. THE SHOPPING EXERCISE. --I have often, when going a shopping, founddifficulty and trouble in making change. I could never calculate veryreadily, and in the hurry and perplexity of the moment I was alwaysmaking mistakes. I have heard others often make the same complaint, andI resolved to try the experiment of regularly teaching children to makechange. I had a bright little class in Arithmetic, the members of whichwere always ready to engage with interest in any thing new, and to themI proposed my plan. It was to be called the Shopping Exercise. I firstrequested each individual to write something upon her slate which shewould like to buy, if she was going a shopping, stating the quantity shewished and the price of it. To make the first lesson as simple aspossible, I requested no one to go above ten, either in the quantity orprice. When all were ready, I called upon some to read what she hadwritten. Her next neighbor was then requested to tell us how much thepurchase would amount to. Then the first one named a bill, which shesupposed to be offered in payment, and the second showed what change wasneeded. A short specimen of the exercise will probably make it clearerthan mere description. 

_Mary_. Eight ounces of candy at seven cents. 

_Susan_. Fifty-six cents. 

_Mary_. One dollar. 

_Susan_. Forty-four cents. 

 * * * * *

_Susan_. Nine yards of lace at eight cents. 

_Anna_. Seventy-two cents. 

_Susan_. Two dollars. 

_Anna_. One dollar and twenty-eight cents. 

 * * * * *

_Anna_. Three pieces of tape at five cents. 

_Jane_. Fifteen cents. 

_Anna_. Three dollars. 

_Jane_. Eighty-five cents. 

_Several voices_. Wrong. 

_Jane_. Two dollars and eighty-five cents. 

 * * * * *

_Jane_. Six pictures at eight cents. 

_Sarah_. Forty-two cents. 

_Several voices_. Wrong. 

_Sarah_. Forty-eight cents. 

_Jane_. One dollar. 

_Sarah_. Sixty-two cents. 

_Several voices_. Wrong. 

_Sarah_. Fifty-two cents. 

 * * * * *

It will be perceived that the same individual who names the article andthe price names also the bill which she would give in payment; and theone who sits next her, who calculated the amount, calculated also thechange to be returned. She then proposed _her_ example to the one nextin the line, with whom the same course was pursued, and thus it passeddown the class. 

The exercise went on for some time in this way, till the pupils hadbecome so familiar with it that I thought it best to allow them to takehigher numbers. They were always interested in it, and made greatimprovement in a short time, and I myself derived great advantage fromlistening to them. 

There is one more circumstance I will add which may contribute to theinterest of this account. While the class were confined, in what theypurchased, to the number ten, they were sometimes inclined to turn theexercise into a frolic. The variety of articles which they could findcosting less than ten cents was so small, that, for the sake of gettingsomething new, they would propose examples really ludicrous, such asthese: three meeting-houses at two cents; four pianos at nine cents. ButI soon found that if I allowed this at all, their attention was divertedfrom the main object, and occupied in seeking the most diverting andcurious examples. 

15. ARTIFICES IN RECITATIONS. --The teacher of a small newly-establishedschool had all of his scholars classed together in some of theirstudies. At recitations he usually sat in the middle of the room, whilethe scholars occupied the usual places at their desks, which werearranged around the sides. In the recitation in Rhetoric, the teacher, after a time, observed that one or two of the class seldom answeredappropriately the questions which came to them, but yet were alwaysready with some kind of answer--generally an exact quotation of thewords of the book. Upon noticing these individuals more particularly, hewas convinced that their books were open before them in some concealedsituation. Another practice not uncommon in the class was that of_prompting_ each other, either by whispers or writing. The teacher tookno notice publicly of these practices for some time, until, at the closeof an uncommonly good recitation, he remarked, "I think we have had afine recitation to-day. It is one of the most agreeable things that Iever do to hear a lesson that is learned as well as this. Do you thinkit would be possible for us to have as good an exercise every day?""Yes, sir, " answered several, faintly. "Do you think it would bereasonable for me to expect of every member of the class that she shouldalways be able to recite all her lessons without ever missing a singlequestion?" "No, sir, " answered all. "I do not expect it, " said theteacher. "All I wish is that each of you should be faithful in yourefforts to prepare your lessons. I wish you to study from a sense ofduty, and for the sake of your own improvement. You know I do not punishyou for failures. I have no going up or down, no system of marking. Youronly reward, when you have made faithful preparation for a recitation, is the feeling of satisfaction which you will always experience; andwhen you have been negligent, your only punishment is a sort of uneasyfeeling of self-reproach. I do not expect you all to be invariablyprepared with every question of your lessons. Sometimes you will beunavoidably prevented from studying them, and at other times, when youhave studied them very carefully, you may have forgotten, or you mayfail from some misapprehension of the meaning in some cases. Do not, insuch a case, feel troubled because you may not have appeared as well assome individual who has not been half as faithful as yourself. If youhave done your duty, that is enough. On the other hand, you ought tofeel no better satisfied with yourselves when your lesson has not beenstudied well, because you may have happened to know the parts which cameto you. Have I _done_ well? should always be the question, not, Have Imanaged to _appear_ well?

"I will say a word here, " continued the teacher, "upon a practice whichI have known to be very common in some schools, and which I have beensorry to notice occasionally in this. I mean that of prompting, orhelping each other along in some way at recitations. Now where a severepunishment is the consequence of a failure, there might seem to be somereasonableness in helping your companions out of difficulty, though eventhen such tricks are departures from honorable dealing. But, especiallywhere there is no purpose to be served but that of appearing to knowmore than you do, it certainly must be considered a very mean kind ofartifice. I think I have sometimes observed an individual to be promptedwhere evidently the assistance was not desired, and even where it wasnot needed. To whisper to an individual the answer to a question issometimes to pay her rather a poor compliment at least, for it is thesame as saying 'I am a better scholar than you are; let me help youalong a little. '

"Let us then, hereafter, have only fair, open, honest dealings with eachother; no attempts to appear to advantage by little artful manoeuvring;no prompting; no peeping into books. Be faithful and conscientious, andthen banish anxiety for your success. Do you not think you will findthis the best course?" "Yes, sir, " answered every scholar. "Are youwilling to pledge yourselves to adopt it?" "Yes, sir. " "Those who aremay raise their hands, " said the teacher. Every hand was raised; and thepledge, there was evidence to believe, was honorably sustained. 

16. KEEPING RESOLUTIONS. --The following are notes of a familiar lectureon this subject, given by a teacher at some general exercise in theschool. The practice of thus reducing to writing what the teacher maysay on such subjects will be attended with excellent effects. 

This is a subject upon which young persons find much difficulty. Thequestion is asked a thousand times, "How shall I ever learn to keep myresolutions?" Perhaps the great cause of your failures is this. You arenot sufficiently _definite_ in forming your purposes. You will resolveto do a thing without knowing with certainty whether it is even possibleto do it. Again, you make resolutions which are to run on indefinitely, so that, of course, they can never be fully kept. For instance, one ofyou will resolve to _rise earlier in the morning. _ You fix upon nodefinite hour, on any definite number of mornings, only you are goingto "_rise earlier_. " Morning comes, and finds you sleepy and disinclinedto rise. You remember your resolution of rising earlier. "But then it is_very_ early, " you say. You resolved to rise earlier, but you didn'tresolve to rise just then. And this, it may be, is the last of yourresolution. Or perhaps you are, for a few mornings, a little earlier;but then, at the end of a week or fortnight, you do not know exactlywhether your resolution has been broken or kept, for you had not decidedwhether to rise earlier for ten days or for ten years. 

In the same vague and general manner, a person will resolve to be _morestudious_ or more diligent. In the case of an individual of a mature andwell-disciplined mind, of acquired firmness of character, such aresolution might have effect. The individual will really devote moretime and attention to his pursuits. But for one of you to make such aresolution would do no sort of good. It would only be a source oftrouble and disquiet. You perceive there is nothing definite--nothingfixed about it. You have not decided what amount of additional time orattention to give to your studies, or when you will begin, or when youwill end. There is no one time when you will feel that you are breakingyour resolution, because there were no particular times when you were tostudy more. You waste one opportunity and another, and then, with afeeling of discouragement and self-reproach, conclude to abandon yourresolution. "Oh! It does no good to make resolutions, " you say; "I nevershall keep them. "

Now, if you would have the business of making resolutions a pleasant andinteresting instead of a discouraging, disquieting one, you must proceedin a different manner. Be definite and distinct in your plan; decideexactly what you will do, and how you will do it--when you will begin, and when you will end. Instead of resolving to "rise earlier, " resolveto rise at the ringing of the sunrise bells, or at some other definitetime. Resolve to try this, as an experiment, for one morning, or for oneweek, or fortnight. Decide positively, if you decide at all, and thenrise when the time comes, sleepy or not sleepy. Do not stop to repent ofyour resolution, or to consider the wisdom or folly of it, when the timefor acting under it has once arrived. 

In all cases, little and great, make this a principle--to consider wellbefore you begin to act, but after you have begun to act, never stop toconsider. Resolve as deliberately as you please, but be sure to keepyour resolution, whether a wise one or an unwise one, after it is oncemade. Never allow yourself to reconsider the question of getting up, after the morning has come, except it be for some unforeseencircumstance. Get up for that time, and be more careful how you makeresolutions again. 

17. TOPICS. --The plan of the Topic Exercise, as we called it, is this. Six or seven topics are given out, information upon which is to beobtained from any source, and communicated verbally before the wholeschool, or sometimes before a class formed for this purpose the nextday. The subjects are proposed both by teacher and scholars, and ifapproved, adopted. The exercise is intended to be voluntary, but oughtto be managed in a way sufficiently interesting to induce all to join. 

At the commencement of the exercise the teacher calls upon all who haveany information in regard to the topic assigned--suppose, for example, it is _Alabaster_--to rise. Perhaps twenty individuals out of fortyrise. The teacher may perhaps say to those in their seats, "Do you not know any thing of this subject? Have you neither seen norheard of alabaster, and had no means of ascertaining any thing in regardto it? If you have, you ought to rise. It is not necessary that youshould state a fact altogether new and unheard-of, but if you tell meits color, or some of the uses to which it is applied, you will becomplying with my request. "

After these remarks, perhaps a few more rise, and possibly the wholeschool. Individuals are then called upon at random, each to state onlyone particular in regard to the topic in question. This arrangement ismade so as to give all an opportunity to speak. If any scholar, afterhaving mentioned one fact, has something still farther to communicate, she remains standing till called upon again. As soon as an individualhas exhausted her stock of information, or if the facts that sheintended to mention are stated by another, she takes her seat. 

The topics at first most usually selected are the common objects bywhich we are surrounded--for example, glass, iron, mahogany, and thelike. The list will gradually extend itself, until it will embrace alarge number of subjects. 

The object of this exercise is to induce pupils to seek for generalinformation in an easy and pleasant manner, as by the perusal of books, newspapers, periodicals, and conversation with friends. It induces careand attention in reading, and discrimination in selecting the mostuseful and important facts from the mass of information. As individualsare called upon, also, to express their ideas _verbally_, they soonacquire by practice the power of expressing them with clearness andforce, and communicating with ease and confidence the knowledge theypossess. 

18. Music. --The girls of our school often amused themselves in recess bycollecting into little groups for singing. As there seemed to be asufficient power of voice, and a respectable number who were willing tojoin in the performance, it was proposed one day that singing should beintroduced as a part of the devotional exercises of the school. 

The first attempt nearly resulted in a failure; only a few tremblingvoices succeeded in singing Old Hundred to the words "Be thou, " etc. Onthe second day Peterborough was sung with much greater confidence on thepart of the increased number of singers. The experiment was tried withgreater and greater success for several days, when the teacher proposedthat a systematic plan should be formed, by which there might be singingregularly at the close of school. It was then proposed that a number ofsinging-books be obtained, and one of the scholars, who was wellacquainted with common tunes, be appointed as chorister. Her duty shouldbe to decide what particular tune may be sung each day, inform theteacher of the metre of the hymn, and take the lead in the exercise. This plan, being approved of by the scholars, was adopted, and put intoimmediate execution. Several brought copies of the Sabbath SchoolHymn-Book, which they had in their possession, and the plan succeededbeyond all expectation. The greatest difficulty in the way was to getsome one to lead. The chorister, however, was somewhat relieved from theembarrassment which she would naturally feel in making a beginning bythe appointment of one or two individuals with herself, who were to actas her assistants. These constituted the _leading_ committee, or, as itwas afterward termed, _Singing Committee_. 

Singing now became a regular and interesting exercise of the school, andthe committee succeeded in managing the business themselves. 

19. TABU. --An article was one day read in a school relating to the"Tabu" of the Sandwich Islanders. Tabu is a term with them whichsignifies consecrated--not to be touched--to be let alone--not to beviolated. Thus, according to their religious observances, a certain daywill be proclaimed _Tabu_; that is, one upon which there is to be nowork or no going out. 

A few days after this article was read, the scholars observed onemorning a flower stuck up in a conspicuous place against the wall, withthe word TABU in large characters above it. This excited considerablecuriosity. The teacher informed them, in explanation, that the flowerwas a very rare and beautiful specimen, brought by one of the scholars, which he wished all to examine. "You would naturally feel a dispositionto examine it by the touch, " said he, "but you will all see that, by thetime it was touched by sixty individuals, it would be likely to beinjured, if not destroyed. So I concluded to label it _Tabu_. And it hasoccurred to me that this will be a convenient mode of apprising yougenerally that any article must not be handled. You know we sometimeshave some apparatus exposed, which would be liable to injury fromdisturbance, where there are so many persons to touch it. I shall, insuch a case, just mention that an article is Tabu, and you willunderstand that it is not only not to be _injured_, but not even_touched_. "

A little delicate management of this sort will often have more influenceover young persons than the most vehement scolding, or the most watchfuland jealous precautions. The Tabu was always most scrupulously regarded, after this, whenever employed. 

20. MENTAL ANALYSIS. --Scene, a class in Arithmetic at recitation. Theteacher gives them an example in addition, requesting them, when theyhave performed it, to rise. Some finish it very soon, others are veryslow in accomplishing the work. 

"I should like to ascertain, " says the teacher, "how great is thedifference of rapidity with which different members of the class work inaddition. I will give you another example, and then notice by my watchthe shortest and longest time required to do it. "

The result of the experiment was that some members of the class were twoor three times as long in doing it as others. 

"Perhaps you think, " said the teacher, "that this difference isaltogether owing to difference of skill; but it is not. It is mainlyowing to the different methods adopted by various individuals. I amgoing to describe some of these, and, as I describe them, I wish youwould notice them carefully, and tell me which you practice. "

There are, then, three modes of adding up a column of figures, which Ishall describe. 

1. I shall call the first _counting_. You take the first figure, andthen add the next to it by counting up regularly. There are threedistinct ways of doing this. 

(a. ) "Counting by your fingers. " ("Yes, sir. ") "You take the firstfigure--suppose it is seven--and the one above it, eight. Now yourecollect that to add eight, you must count all the fingers of onehand, and all but two again. So you say 'seven--eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen. '"

"Yes, sir, yes, sir, " said the scholars. 

(b. ) The next mode of counting is to do it mentally, without using yourfingers at all; but, as it is necessary for you to have some plan tosecure your adding the right number, you divide the units into sets oftwo each. Thus you remember that eight consists of four twos, and youaccordingly say, when adding eight to seven, 'Seven; eight, nine; ten, eleven; twelve, thirteen, ' &c. 

(c. ) "The third mode is to add by threes in the same way. You recollectthat eight consists of two threes and a two; so you say, 'Seven; eight, nine, ten; eleven, twelve, thirteen; fourteen, fifteen. '"

The teacher here stops to ascertain how many of the class are accustomedto add in either of these modes. It is a majority. 

2. The next general method is _calculating_; that is, you do not uniteone number to another by the dull and tedious method of applying theunits, one by one, as in the ways described under the preceding head, but you come to a result more rapidly by some mode of calculating. Thesemodes are several. 

(a. ) "Doubling a number, and then adding or subtracting, as the case mayrequire. For instance, in the example already specified, in order to addseven and eight, you say, 'Twice seven are fourteen, and one arefifteen'" ("Yes, sir, yes, sir"); "or, 'Twice eight are sixteen, andtaking one off leaves fifteen. " ("Yes, sir. ")

(b. ) Another way of calculating is to skip about the column, addingthose numbers which you can combine most easily, and then bringing inthe rest as you best can. Thus, if you see three eights in one column, you say, 'Three times eight are twenty-four, ' and then you try to bringin the other numbers. Often, in such cases, you forget what you haveadded and what you have not, and get confused ("Yes, sir"), or you omitsomething in your work, and consequently it is incorrect. 

(c. ) If nines occur, you sometimes add ten, and then take off one, forit is very easy to add ten. 

(d. ) Another method of calculating, which is, however, not very common, is this: to take our old case, adding eight to seven, you take as muchfrom the eight to add to the seven as will be sufficient to make ten, and then it will be easy to add the rest. Thus you think in a minutethat three from the eight will make the seven a ten, and then there willbe five more to add, which will make fifteen. If the next number wasseven, you would say five of it will make twenty, and then there will betwo left, which will make twenty-two. ' This mode, though it may seemmore intricate than any of the others, is, in fact, more rapid than anyof them, when one is a little accustomed to it. 

"These are the four principal modes of calculating which occur to me. Pupils do not generally practice any of them exclusively, butoccasionally resort to each, according to the circumstances of theparticular case. "

The teacher here stopped to inquire how many of the class wereaccustomed to add by calculating in either of these ways or in anysimpler ways. 

3. "There is one more mode which I shall describe: it is by _memory_. Before I explain this mode, I wish to ask you some questions, which Ishould like to have you answer as quick as you can. 

"How much is four times five? Four _and_ five?

"How much is seven times nine? Seven _and_ nine?

"Eight times six? Eight _and_ six?

"Nine times seven? Nine _and_ seven?"

After asking a few questions of this kind, it was perceived that thepupils could tell much more readily what was the result when thenumbers were to be multiplied than when they were to be added. 

"The reason is, " said the teacher, "because you committed themultiplication table to memory, and have not committed the additiontable. Now many persons have committed the addition table, so that it isperfectly familiar to them, and when they see any two numbers, theamount which is produced when they are added together comes to mind inan instant. Adding in this way is the last of the three modes I was todescribe. 

"Now of these three methods the last is undoubtedly the best. If youonce commit the addition table thoroughly, you have it fixed for life;whereas if you do not, you have to make the calculation over again everytime, and thus lose a vast amount of labor. I have no doubt that thereare some in this class who are in the habit of _counting_, who haveascertained that seven and eight, for instance, make fifteen, bycounting up from seven to fifteen _hundreds of times_. Now how muchbetter it would be to spend a little time in fixing the fact in the mindonce for all, and then, when you come to the case, seven and eightare--say at once 'Fifteen, ' instead of mumbling over and over again, hundreds of times, 'Seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen. '

"The reason, then, that some of the class add so slowly, is not, probably, because they want skill and rapidity of execution, but becausethey work to a great disadvantage by working in the wrong way. I haveoften been surprised at the dexterity and speed with which some scholarscan count with their fingers when adding, and yet they could not getthrough the sum very quick--at least they would have done it in half thetime if the same effort had been made in traveling on a shorter road. Wewill therefore study the addition table now, in the class, before we goany farther. "

21. TARDINESS. --When only a few scholars in a school are tardy, it maybe their fault; but if a great many are so, it is the fault of theteacher or of the school. If a school is prosperous, and the childrenare going on well and happily in their studies, they will like theirwork in it; but we all come reluctantly to work which we are consciouswe are not successfully performing. 

There may be two boys in a school, both good boys; one, may be going onwell in his classes, while the other, from the concurrence of someaccidental train of circumstances, may be behindhand in his work, orwrongly classed, or so situated in other respects that his school dutiesperplex and harass him day by day. Now how different will be thefeelings of these two boys in respect to coming to school. The one willbe eager and prompt to reach his place and commence his duties, whilethe other will love much better to loiter in idleness and liberty in theopen air. Nor is he, under the circumstances of the case, to blame forthis preference. There is no one, old or young, who likes or can like todo what he himself and all around him think that he does not do well. Itis true the teacher can not rely wholly on the interest which hisscholars take in their studies to make them punctual at school; but ifhe finds among them any very general disposition to be tardy, he oughtto seek for the fault mainly in himself and not in them. 

The foregoing narratives and examples, it is hoped, may induce some ofthe readers of this book to keep journals of their own experiments, andof the incidents which may, from time to time, come under their notice, illustrating the principles of education, or simply the characteristicsand tendencies of the youthful mind. The business of teaching willexcite interest and afford pleasure just in proportion to the degree inwhich it is conducted by operations of mind upon mind, and the means ofmaking it most fully so are careful practice, based upon and regulatedby the results of careful observation. Every teacher, then, should makeobservations and experiments upon mind a part of his daily duty, andnothing will more facilitate this than keeping a record of results. There can be no opportunity for studying human nature more favorablethan the teacher enjoys. The materials are all before him; his verybusiness, from day to day, brings him to act directly upon them; and thestudy of the powers and tendencies of the human mind is not only themost interesting and the noblest that can engage human attention, butevery step of progress he makes in it imparts an interest and charm towhat would otherwise be a weary toil. It at once relieves his labors, while it doubles their efficiency and success. 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE TEACHER'S FIRST DAY. 

[Illustration]

The teacher enters upon the duties of his office by a much more suddentransition than is common in the other avocations and employments oflife. In ordinary cases, business comes at first by slow degrees, andthe beginner is introduced to the labors and responsibilities of hisemployment in a very gradual manner. The young teacher, however, entersby a single step into the very midst of his labors. Having, perhaps, never even heard a class recite before, he takes a short walk somewinter morning, and suddenly finds himself instated at the desk, hisfifty scholars around him, all looking him in the face, and waiting tobe employed. Every thing comes upon him at once. He can do nothing untilthe day and the hour for opening the school arrives--then he has everything to do. 

Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that the young teachershould look forward with unusual solicitude to his first day in school, and he desires, ordinarily, special instructions in respect to thisoccasion. Some such special instructions we propose to give in thischapter. The experienced teacher may think some of them too minute andtrivial. But he must remember that they are intended for the youngestbeginner in the humblest school; and if he recalls to mind his ownfeverish solicitude on the morning when he went to take his firstcommand in the district school, he will pardon the seeming minuteness ofdetail. 

1. It will be well for the young teacher to take opportunity, betweenthe time of his engaging his school and that of his commencing it, toacquire as much information in respect to it beforehand as possible, soas to be somewhat acquainted with the scene of his labors beforeentering upon it. Ascertain the names and the characters of theprincipal families in the district, their ideas and wishes in respect tothe government of the school, the kind of management adopted by one ortwo of the last teachers, the difficulties they fell into, the nature ofthe complaints made against them, if any, and the families with whomdifficulty has usually arisen. This information must, of course, beobtained in private conversation; a good deal of it must be, from itsvery nature, highly confidential; but it is very important that theteacher should be possessed of it. He will necessarily become possessedof it by degrees in the course of his administration, when, however, itmay be too late to be of any service to him. But, by judicious andproper efforts to acquire it beforehand, he will enter upon thedischarge of his duties with great advantage. It is like a navigator'sbecoming acquainted beforehand with the nature and the dangers of thesea over which he is about to sail. 

Such inquiries as these will, in ordinary cases, bring to the teacher'sknowledge, in most districts in our country, some cases of peculiarlytroublesome scholars, or unreasonable and complaining parents; andstories of their unjustifiable conduct on former occasions will come tohim exaggerated by the jealousy of rival neighbors. There is danger thathis resentment may be roused a little, and that his mind will assume ahostile attitude at once toward such individuals, so that he will enterupon his work rather with a desire to seek a collision with them, or, atleast, with secret feelings of defiance toward them--feelings which willlead to that kind of unbending perpendicularity in his demeanor towardthem which will almost inevitably lead to a collision. Now this iswrong. There is, indeed, a point where firm resistance to unreasonabledemands becomes a duty; but, as a general principle, it is mostunquestionably true that it is the teacher's duty _to accommodatehimself to the character and expectations of his employers_, not to faceand brave them. Those italicized words _may be_ understood to meansomething which would be entirely wrong; but in the sense in which Imean to use them there can be no question that they indicate the properpath for one employed by others to do work _for them_ in all cases topursue. If, therefore, the teacher finds by his inquiries into the stateof his district that there are some peculiar difficulties and dangersthere, let him not cherish a disposition to face and resist them, but toavoid them. Let him go with an intention to soothe rather than toirritate feelings which have been wounded before, to comply with thewishes of all so far as he can, even if they are not entirelyreasonable, and, while he endeavors to elevate the standard and correctthe opinions prevailing among his employers by any means in his power, to aim at doing it gently, and in a tone and manner suitable to therelation he sustains--in a word, let him skillfully _avoid_ the dangersof his navigation, not obstinately run his ship against a rock onpurpose on the ground that the rock has no business to be there. 

This is the spirit, then, with which these preliminary inquiries inregard to the patrons of the school ought to be made. We come now to asecond point. 

2. It will assist the young teacher very much in his first day's laborsif he takes measures for seeing and conversing with some of the older ormore intelligent scholars on the day or evening before he begins hisschool, with a view of obtaining from them some acquaintance with theinternal arrangements and customs of the school. The object of this isto obtain the same kind of information with respect to the interior ofthe school that was recommended in respect to the district under theformer head. He may call upon a few families, especially those whichfurnish a large number of scholars for the school, and make as manyminute inquiries of them as he can respecting all the interiorarrangements to which they have been accustomed, what reading-books andother text-books have been used, what are the principal classes in allthe several departments of instruction, and what is the system ofdiscipline, and of rewards and punishments, to which the school has beenaccustomed. 

If, in such conversations, the teacher should find a few intelligent andcommunicative scholars, he might learn a great deal about the pasthabits and condition of the school, which would be of great service tohim. Not, by any means, that he will adopt and continue these methods asa matter of course, but only that a knowledge of them will render himvery important aid in marking out his own course. The more minute andfull the information of this sort is which he thus obtains, the better. If practicable, it would be well to make out a catalogue of all theprincipal classes, with the names of those individuals belonging to themwho will probably attend the new school, and the order in which theywere usually called upon to read or recite. The conversation which wouldbe necessary to accomplish this would of itself be of great service. Itwould bring the teacher into an acquaintance with several importantfamilies and groups of children under the most favorable circumstances. The parents would see and be pleased with the kind of interest theywould see the teacher taking in his new duties. The children would bepleased to be able to render their new instructor some service, andwould go to the school-room on the next morning with a feeling ofacquaintance with him, and a predisposition to be pleased. And if bychance any family should be thus called upon that had heretofore beencaptious or complaining, or disposed to be jealous of the higherimportance or influence of other families, that spirit would be entirelysoftened and subdued by such an interview with their new instructor attheir own fireside on the evening preceding the commencement of hislabors. The great object, however, which the teacher would have in viewin such inquiries should be the value of the information itself. As tothe use which he will make of it, we shall speak hereafter. 

3. It is desirable that the young teacher should meet his scholars firstin an unofficial capacity. For this purpose, repair to the school-roomon the first day at an early hour, so as to see and become acquaintedwith the scholars as they come in one by one. The intercourse betweenteacher and pupil should be like that between parents and children, where the utmost freedom is united with the most perfect respect. Thefather who is most firm and decisive in his family government can minglemost freely in the conversation and sports of his children without anyderogation of his authority, or diminution of the respect they owe. Young teachers, however, are prone to forget this, and to imagine thatthey must assume an appearance of stern authority always, when in thepresence of their scholars, if they wish to be respected or obeyed. Thisthey call keeping up their dignity. Accordingly, they wait, on themorning of their induction into office, until their new subjects are allassembled, and then walk in with an air of the highest dignity, and withthe step of a king; and sometimes a formidable instrument of disciplineis carried in the hand to heighten the impression. Now there is noquestion that it is of great importance that scholars should have a highidea of the teacher's firmness and inflexible decision in maintaininghis authority and repressing all disorder of every kind, but thisimpression should be created by their seeing how he _acts_ in thevarious emergencies which will spontaneously occur, and not by assumingairs of importance or dignity, feigned for effect. In other words, theirrespect for him should be based on _real traits_ of character as theysee them brought out into natural action, and not on appearances assumedfor the occasion. 

It seems to me, therefore, that it is best for the teacher first to meethis scholars with the air and tone of free and familiar intercourse, andhe will find his opportunity more favorable for doing this if he goesearly on the first morning of his labors, and converses freely withthose whom he finds there, and with others as they come in. He may takean interest with them in all the little arrangements connected with theopening of the school--the building of the fire, the paths through thesnow, the arrangements of seats; calling upon them for information oraid, asking their names, and, in a word, entering fully and freely intoconversation with them, just as a parent, under similar circumstances, would do with his children. All the children thus addressed will bepleased with the gentleness and affability of the teacher. Even a roughand ill-natured boy, who has perhaps come to the school with the expressdetermination of attempting to make mischief, will be completelydisarmed by being asked politely to help the teacher arrange the fire, or alter the position of his desk. Thus, by means of the half hourduring which the scholars are coming together, and of the visits made inthe preceding evening, as described under the last head, the teacherwill find, when he calls upon the children to take their seats, that hehas made a very large number of them his personal friends. Many of thesewill have communicated their first impressions to the others, so that hewill find himself possessed, at the outset, of that which is of vitalconsequence in the opening of any administration--a strong party in hisfavor. 

4. The time for calling the school to order and commencing exercises ofsome sort will at length arrive, though if the work of making personalacquaintances is going on prosperously, it may perhaps be delayed alittle beyond the usual hour. When, however, the time arrives, we wouldstrongly recommend that the first service by which the regular duties ofthe school are commenced should be an act of religious worship. Thereare many reasons why the exercises of the school should every day bethus commenced, and there are special reasons for it on the first day. 

There are very few districts where parents would have any objection tothis. They might, indeed, in some cases, if the subject were to bebrought up formally before them as a matter of doubt, anticipate somedifficulties, or create imaginary ones, growing out of the supposedsensitiveness of contending sects; but if the teacher were, of his ownaccord, to commence the plain, faithful, and honest discharge of thisduty as a matter of course, very few would think of making any objectionto it, and almost all would be satisfied and pleased with its actualoperation. If, however, the teacher should, in any case, have reason tobelieve that such a practice would be contrary to the wishes of hisemployers, it would, according to views we have presented in anotherchapter, be wrong for him to attempt to introduce it. He might, if heshould see fit, make such an objection a reason for declining to takethe school; but he ought not, if he takes it, to act counter to theknown wishes of his employers in so important a point. But if, on theother hand, no such objections are made known to him, he need not raisethe question himself at all, but take it for granted that in a Christianland there will be no objection to imploring the Divine protection andblessing at the opening of a daily school. 

If this practice is adopted, it will have a most powerful influence uponthe moral condition of the school. It must be so. Though many will beinattentive, and many utterly unconcerned, yet it is not possible tobring children, even in form, into the presence of God every day, andto utter in their hearing the petitions which they ought to present, without bringing a powerful element of moral influence to bear upontheir hearts. The good will be made better; the conscientious moreconscientious still; and the rude and savage will be subdued andsoftened by the daily attempt to lead them to the throne of theirCreator. To secure this effect, the devotional service must be an honestone. There must be nothing feigned or hypocritical; no hackneyed phrasesused without meaning, or intonations of assumed solemnity. It must behonest, heartfelt, simple prayer; the plain and direct expression ofsuch sentiments as children ought to feel, and of such petitions as theyought to offer. We shall speak presently of the mode of avoiding someabuses to which this exercise is liable; but if these sources of abuseare avoided, and the duty is performed in that plain, simple, direct, and honest manner in which it certainly will be if it springs from theheart, it must have a great influence on the moral progress of thechildren, and, in fact, in all respects on the prosperity of the school. 

But, then, independently of the _advantages_ which may be expected toresult from the practice of daily prayer in school, it would seem to bethe imperious _duty_ of the teacher to adopt it. So many human mindscommitted thus to the guidance of one, at a period when the characterreceives so easily and so permanently its shape and direction, and in aworld of probation like this, is an occasion which seems to demand theopen recognition of the hand of God on the part of any individual towhom such a trust is committed. The duty springs so directly out of theattitude in which the teacher and pupil stand in respect to each other, and the relation they together bear to the Supreme, that it would seemimpossible for any one to hesitate to admit the duty, without denyingaltogether the existence of a God. 

How vast the responsibility _of giving form and character to the humansoul!_ How mighty the influence of which the unformed minds of a groupof children are susceptible! How much their daily teacher mustinevitably exert upon them! If we admit the existence of God at all, andthat he exerts any agency whatever in the moral world which he hasproduced, here seems to be one of the strongest cases in which hisintervention should be sought. And then, when we reflect upon theinfluence which would be exerted upon the future religious character ofthis nation by having the millions of children training up in theschools accustomed, through all the years of early life, to beingbrought daily into the presence of the Supreme, with thanksgiving, confession, and prayer, it can hardly seem possible that the teacher whowishes to be faithful in his duties should hesitate in regard to this. Some teacher may perhaps say that he can not perform it because he isnot a religious man--he makes no pretensions to piety. But this cansurely be no reason. He _ought to be_ a religious man, and his firstprayer offered in school may be the first act by which he becomes so. Entering the service of Jehovah is a work which requires no preliminarysteps. It is to be done at once by sincere confession, and an honestprayer for forgiveness for the past, and strength for time to come. Adaily religious service in school may be, therefore, the outward act bywhich he, who has long lived without God, may return to his duty. 

If, from such considerations, the teacher purposes to have a dailyreligious service in his school, he should by all means begin on thefirst day, and when he first calls his school to order. He shouldmention to his pupils the great and obvious duty of imploring God'sguidance and blessing in all their ways, and then read a short portionof Scripture, with an occasional word or two of simple explanation, andoffer, himself, a short and simple prayer. In some cases, teachers aredisposed to postpone this duty a day or two, from timidity or othercauses, hoping that, after becoming acquainted a little with theschool, and having completed their more important arrangements, theyshall find it easier to begin. But this is a great mistake. The longerthe duty is postponed, the more difficult and trying it will be. Andthen the moral impressions will be altogether more strong and salutaryif an act of solemn religious worship is made the first opening act ofthe school. 

Where the teacher has not sufficient confidence that the general senseof propriety among his pupils will preserve good order and decorumduring the exercise, it may be better for him to _read_ a prayerselected from books of devotion, or prepared by himself expressly forthe occasion. By this plan his school will be, during the exercise, under his own observation, as at other times. It may, in some schoolswhere the number is small, or the prevailing habits of seriousness andorder are good, be well to allow the older scholars to read the prayerin rotation, taking especial care that it does not degenerate into amere reading exercise, but that it is understood, both by readers andhearers, to be a solemn act of religious worship. In a word, if theteacher is really honest and sincere in his wish to lead his pupils tothe worship of God, he will find no serious difficulty in preventing theabuses and avoiding the dangers which some might fear, and inaccomplishing vast good, both in promoting the prosperity of the school, and in the formation of the highest and best traits of individualcharacter. 

We have dwelt, perhaps, longer on this subject than we ought to havedone in this place; but its importance, when viewed in its bearings onthe thousands of children daily assembling in our district schools mustbe our apology. The embarrassments and difficulties arising from theextreme sensitiveness which exists among the various denominations ofChristians in our land, threaten to interfere very seriously with givinga proper degree of religious instruction to the mass of the youthfulpopulation. But we must not, because we have no national _church_, cease to have a national _religion_. All our institutions ought to be soadministered as openly to recognize the hand of God, and to seek hisprotection and blessing; and in regard to none is it more imperiouslynecessary than in respect to our common schools. 

5. After the school is thus opened, the teacher will find himselfbrought to the great difficulty which embarrasses the beginning of hislabors, namely, that of finding immediate employment at once for thethirty or forty children who all look up to him waiting for theirorders. I say thirty or forty, for the young teachers first school willusually be a small one. His object should be, in all ordinary cases, forthe first few days, twofold: first, to revive and restore, in the main, the general routine of classes and exercises pursued by his predecessorin the same school; and, secondly, while doing this, to become as fullyacquainted with his scholars as possible. 

It is best, then, _ordinarily_, for the teacher to begin the school ashis predecessor closed it, and make the transition to his own perhapsmore improved method a gradual one. In some cases a different course iswise undoubtedly, as, for example, where a teacher is commencing aprivate school, on a previously well-digested plan of his own, or whereone who has had experience, and has confidence in his power to bring hisnew pupils promptly and at once into the system of classification andinstruction which he prefers. It is difficult, however, to do this, andrequires a good deal of address and decision. It is far easier andsafer, and in almost all cases better, in every respect, for a youngteacher to revive and restore the former arrangements in the main, andtake his departure from them. He may afterward make changes, as he mayfind them necessary or desirable, and even bring the school soon into avery different state from that in which he finds it; but it willgenerally be more pleasant for himself, and better for the school, toavoid the shock of a sudden and entire revolution. 

The first thing, then, when the scholars are ready to be employed, isto set them at work in classes or upon lessons, as they would have beenemployed had the former teacher continued in charge of the school. Toillustrate clearly how this may be done, we may give the followingdialogue:

_Teacher_. Can any one of the boys inform me what was the first lessonthat the former master used to hear in the morning?

The boys are silent, looking to one another. 

_Teacher_. Did he hear _any_ recitation immediately after school began?

_Boys_ (faintly, and with hesitation). No, sir. 

_Teacher_. How long was it before he began to hear lessons?

Several boys simultaneously. "About half an hour. " "A little while. ""Quarter of an hour. "

"What did he do at this time?"

"Set copies, " "Looked over sums, " and various other answers are perhapsgiven. 

The teacher makes a memorandum of this, and then inquires, "And what lesson came after this?"

"Geography. "

"All the boys in this school who studied Geography may rise. "

A considerable number rise. 

"Did you all recite together?"

"No, sir. "

"There are two classes, then?"

"Yes. Sir. " "Yes, sir. " "More than two. "

"All who belong to the class that recites first in the morning mayremain standing; the rest may sit. "

The boys obey, and eight or ten of them remain standing. The teachercalls upon one of them to produce his book, and assigns them a lesson inregular course. He then requests some one of the number to write out, inthe course of the day, a list of the class, and to bring it with him tothe recitation the next morning. 

"Are there any other scholars in the school who think it would be wellfor them to join this class?"

In answer to this question probably some new scholars might rise, orsome hitherto belonging to other classes, who might be of suitable ageand qualifications to be transferred. If these individuals should appearto be of the proper standing and character, they might at once be joinedto the class in question, and directed to take the same lesson. 

In the same manner, the other classes would pass in review before theteacher, and he would obtain a memorandum of the usual order ofexercises, and in a short time set all his pupils at work preparing forthe lessons of the next day. He would be much aided in this by theprevious knowledge which he would have obtained by private conversation, as recommended under a former head. Some individual cases would requirea little special attention, such as new scholars, small children, andothers; but he would be able, before a great while, to look around himand see his whole school busy with the work he had assigned them, andhis own time, for the rest of the morning, in a great degree at his owncommand. 

I ought to say, however, that it is not probable that he would longcontinue these arrangements unaltered. In hearing the different classesrecite, he would watch for opportunities for combining them, ordiscontinuing those where the number was small; he would alter the timesof recitation, and group individual scholars into classes, so as tobring the school, in a very short time, into a condition correspondingmore nearly with his own views. All this can be done very easily andpleasantly when the wheels are once in motion; for a school is like aship in one respect--most easily steered in the right direction whenunder sail. 

By this plan, also, the teacher obtains what is almost absolutelynecessary at the commencement of his labors, time for _observation_. Itis of the first importance that he should become acquainted, as early aspossible, with the characters of the boys, especially to learn who thoseare which are most likely to be troublesome. There always will be a fewwho will require special watch and care, and generally there will beonly a few. A great deal depends on finding these individuals out ingood season, and bringing the pressure of a proper authority to bearupon them soon. By the plan I have recommended of not attempting toremodel the school wholly at once, the teacher obtains time for noticingthe pupils, and learning something about their individual characters. Infact, so important is this, that it is the plan of some teachers, whenever they commence a new school, to let the boys have their own way, almost entirely, for a few days, in order to find out fully who the idleand mischievous are. This is, perhaps, going a little too far; but it iscertainly desirable to enjoy as many opportunities for observation ascan be secured on the first few days of the school. 

6. Make it, then, a special object of attention, during the first day ortwo, to discover who the idle and mischievous individuals are. They willhave generally seated themselves together in little knots; for, as theyare aware that the new teacher does not know them, they will imaginethat, though perhaps separated before, they can now slip together againwithout any trouble. It is best to avoid, if possible, an open collisionwith any of them at once, in order that they may be the better observed. Whenever, therefore, you see idleness or play, endeavor to remedy theevil for the time by giving the individual something special to do, orby some other measure, without, however, seeming to notice themisconduct. Continue thus adroitly to stop every thing disorderly, while, at the same time, you notice and remember where the tendencies todisorder exist. 

By this means, the individuals who would cause most of the trouble anddifficulty in the discipline of the school will soon betray themselves, and those whose fidelity and good behavior can be relied upon will alsobe known. The names of the former should be among the first that theteacher learns, and their characters should be among the first which hestudies. The most prominent among them--those apparently most likely tomake trouble--he should note particularly, and make inquiries out ofschool respecting them, their characters, and their education at home, so as to become acquainted with them as early and as fully as possible, for he must have this full acquaintance with them before he is preparedto commence any decided course of discipline with them. The teacheroften does irreparable injury by rash action at the outset. He sees, forinstance, a boy secretly eating an apple which he has concealed in hishand, and which he bites with his book before his mouth, or his headunder the lid of his desk. It is perhaps the first day of the school, and the teacher thinks he had better make an example at the outset, andcalls the boy out, knowing nothing about his general character, andinflicts some painful or degrading punishment before all the school. Alittle afterward, as he becomes gradually acquainted with the boy, hefinds that he is of mild, gentle disposition, generally obedient andharmless, and that his offense was only an act of momentarythoughtlessness, arising from some circumstances of peculiar temptationat the time; a boy in the next seat, perhaps, had just before given himthe apple. The teacher regrets, when too late, the hasty punishment. Heperceives that instead of having the influence of salutary example uponthe other boys, it must have shocked their sense of justice, and exciteddislike toward a teacher so quick and severe, rather than of fear ofdoing wrong themselves. It would be safer to postpone such decidedmeasures a little--to avoid all open collisions, if possible, for a fewdays. In such a case as the above, the boy might be kindly spoken to inan under tone, in such a way as to show both the teacher's sense of theimpropriety of disorder, and also his desire to avoid giving pain tothe boy. If it then turns out that the individual is ordinarily awell-disposed boy, all is right, and if he proves to be habituallydisobedient and troublesome, the lenity and forbearance exercised atfirst will facilitate the effect aimed at by subsequent measures. Avoid, then, for the few first days, all open collision with any of yourpupils, that you may have opportunity for minute and thoroughobservation. 

And here the young teacher ought to be cautioned against a fault whichbeginners are very prone to fall into, that of forming unfavorableopinions of some of their pupils from their air and manner before theysee any thing in their conduct which ought to be disapproved. A boy orgirl comes to the desk to ask a question or make a request, and theteacher sees in the cast of countenance, or in the bearing or tone ofthe individual, something indicating a proud, or a sullen, or anill-humored disposition, and conceives a prejudice, often entirelywithout foundation, which weeks perhaps do not wear away. Everyexperienced teacher can recollect numerous cases of this sort, and helearns, after a time, to suspend his judgment. Be cautious, therefore, on this point, and in the survey of your pupils which you make duringthe first few days of your school, trust to nothing but the most sureand unequivocal evidences of character, for many of your most docile andfaithful pupils will be found among those whose appearance at firstprepossessed you strongly against them. 

One other caution ought also to be given. Do not judge too severely inrespect to the ordinary cases of misconduct in school. The young teacheralmost invariably does judge too severely. While engaged himself inhearing a recitation, or looking over a "sum, " he hears a stifled laugh, and, looking up, sees the little offender struggling with the muscles ofhis countenance to restore their gravity. The teacher is vexed at theinterruption, and severely rebukes or punishes the boy, when, afterall, the offense, in a moral point of view, was an exceedingly lightone--at least it might very probably have been so. In fact, a largeproportion of the offenses against order committed in school are themere momentary action of the natural buoyancy and life of childhood. This is no reason why they should be indulged, or why the order andregularity of the school should be sacrificed, but it should preventtheir exciting feelings of anger or impatience, or very severereprehension. While the teacher should take effectual measures forrestraining all such irregularities, he should do it with the tone andmanner which will show that he understands their true moral character, and deals with them, not as heinous sins, which deserve severepunishment, but as serious inconveniences, which he is compelled torepress. 

There are often cases of real moral turpitude in school, such as wherethere is intentional, willful mischief, or disturbance, or habitualdisobedience, and there may even be, in some cases, open rebellion. Nowthe teacher should show that he distinguishes these cases from suchmomentary acts of thoughtlessness as we have described, and a broaddistinction ought to be made in the treatment of them. In a word, then, what we have been recommending under this head is, that the teachershould make it his special study, for his first few days in school, toacquire a knowledge of the characters of his pupils, to learn who arethe thoughtless ones, who the mischievous, and who the disobedient andrebellious, and to do this with candid, moral discrimination, and withas little open collision with individuals as possible. 

7. Another point to which the teacher ought to give his early attentionis to separate the bad boys as soon as he can from one another. Theidleness and irregularity of children in school often depends more onaccidental circumstances than on character. Two boys may be individuallyharmless and well-disposed, and yet they may be of so mercurial atemperament that, together, the temptation to continual play will beirresistible. Another case that more often happens is where one isactively and even intentionally bad, and is seated next to an innocent, but perhaps thoughtless boy, and contrives to keep him always indifficulty. Now remove the former away, where there are no very frailmaterials for him to act upon, and place the latter where he is exposedto no special temptation, and all would be well. 

This is all very obvious, and known familiarly to all teachers who havehad any experience. But beginners are not generally so aware of it atthe outset as to make any direct and systematic efforts to examine theschool with reference to its condition in this respect. It is usual togo on, leaving the boys to remain seated as chance or their owninclinations grouped them, and to endeavor to keep the peace among thevarious neighborhoods by close supervision, rebukes, and punishment. Nowthese difficulties may be very much diminished by looking a little intothe arrangement of the boys at the outset, and so modifying it as todiminish the amount of temptation to which the individuals are exposed. 

This should be done, however, cautiously, deliberately, and withgood-nature, keeping the object of it a good deal out of view. It mustbe done cautiously and deliberately, for the first appearances areexceedingly fallacious in respect to the characters of the differentchildren. You see, perhaps, some indications of play between two boysupon the same seat, and hastily conclude that they are disorderly boys, and must be separated. Something in the air and manner of one or both ofthem confirms this impression, and you take the necessary measures atonce. You then find, when you become more fully acquainted with them, that the appearances which you observed were only momentary andaccidental, and that they would have been as safe together as any twoboys in the school. And perhaps you will even find that, by their newposition, you have brought one or the other into circumstances ofpeculiar temptation. Wait, therefore, before you make such changes, till you have ascertained _actual character_, doing this, however, without any unnecessary delay. 

In such removals, too, it is well, in many cases, to keep the motive anddesign of them as much as possible out of view; for by expressingsuspicion of a boy, you injure his character in his own opinion and inthat of others, and tend to make him reckless. Besides, if you remove aboy from a companion whom he likes, avowedly to prevent his playing, youoffer him an inducement, if he is a bad boy, to continue to play in hisnew position for the purpose of thwarting you, or from the influence ofresentment. It would be wrong, indeed, to use any subterfuge orduplicity of any kind to conceal your object, but you are not bound toexplain it; and in the many changes which you will be compelled to makein the course of the first week for various purposes, you may includemany of these without explaining particularly the design or intention ofany of them. 

In some instances, however, you may frankly state the whole case withoutdanger, provided it is done in such a manner as not to make the boy feelthat his character is seriously injured in your estimation. It mustdepend upon the tact and judgment of the teacher to determine upon theparticular course to be pursued in the several cases, though he ought tokeep these general principles in view in all. 

In one instance, for example, he will see two boys together, James andJoseph we will call them, exhibiting a tendency to play, and afterinquiring into their characters, he will find that they aregood-natured, pleasant boys, and that he had better be frank with themon the subject. He calls one of them to his desk, and perhaps thefollowing dialogue ensues:

"James, I am making some changes in the seats, and thought of removingyou to another place. Have you any particular preference for that seat?"

The question is unexpected, and James hesitates. He wishes to sit nextto Joseph, but doubts whether it is quite prudent to avow it; so hesays, slowly and with hesitation, "No, sir, I do not know that I have. "

"If you have any reason, I wish you would tell me frankly, for I wantyou to have such a seat as will be pleasant to you. "

James does not know what to say. Encouraged, however, by thegood-humored tone and look which the master assumes, he says, timidly, "Joseph and I thought we should like to sit together, if you arewilling. "

"Oh! you and Joseph are particular friends, then, I suppose?"

"Why, yes, sir. "

"I am not surprised, then, that you want to sit together, though, totell the truth, that is rather a reason why I should separate you. "

"Why, sir?"

"Because I have observed that when two great friends are seatedtogether, they are always more apt to whisper and play. Have you notobserved it?"

"Why, yes, sir. "

"You may go and ask Joseph to come here. "

When the two boys make their appearance again, the teacher continues:

"Joseph, James tells me that you and he would like to sit together, andsays you are particular friends; but I tell him, " he adds, smiling, "that that is rather a reason for separating you. Now if I should putyou both into different parts of the school, next to boys that you arenot acquainted with, it would be a great deal easier for you to be stilland studious than it is now. Do you not think so yourselves?"

The boys look at one another and smile. 

"However, there is one way you can do. You can guard against the extratemptation by extra care; and, on the whole, as I believe you are prettygood boys, I will let you have your choice. You may stay as you are, and make extra exertion to be perfectly regular and studious, or I willfind seats for you where it will be a great deal easier for you to beso. Which do you think you should rather do?"

The boys hesitate, look at one another, and presently say that they hadrather sit together. 

"Well, " said the teacher, "it is immaterial to me whether you sittogether or apart, if you are only good boys, so you may take your seatsand try it a little while. If you find it too hard work to be studiousand orderly together, I can make a change hereafter. I shall soon see. "

Such a conversation will have many good effects. It will make the boysexpect to be watched, without causing them to feel that their charactershave suffered. It will stimulate them to greater exertion to avoid allmisconduct, and it will prepare the way for separating them afterwardwithout awakening feelings of resentment, if the experiment of theirsitting together should fail. 

Another case would be managed, perhaps, in a little different way, wherethe tendency to play was more decided. After speaking to the individualsmildly two or three times, you see them again at play. You ask them towait that day after school and come to your desk. 

They have, then, the rest of the day to think occasionally of thedifficulty they have brought themselves into, and the anxiety andsuspense which they will naturally feel will give you every advantagefor speaking to them with effect; and if you should be engaged a fewminutes with some other business after school, so that they should haveto stand a little while in silent expectation, waiting for their turn, it would contribute to the permanence of the effect. 

"Well, boys, " at length you say, with a serious but frank tone of voice, "I saw you playing in a disorderly manner to-day, and, in the firstplace, I wish you to tell me honestly all about it. I am not going topunish you, but I wish you to be open and honest about it. What were youdoing?"

The boys hesitate. 

"George, what did you have in your hand?"

"A piece of paper. "

"And what were you doing with it?"

_George_. William was trying to take it away from me. 

"Was there any thing on it?"

"Yes, sir. "

"What?"

George looks down, a little confused. 

_William_. George had been drawing some pictures on it. 

"I see each of you is ready to tell of the other's fault, but it wouldbe much more honorable if each was open in acknowledging his own. Have Iever had to speak to you before for playing together in school?"

"Yes, sir, I believe you have, " says one, looking down. 

"More than once?"

"Yes, sir. "

"More than twice?"

"I do not recollect exactly; I believe you have. "

"Well, now, what do you think I ought to do next?"

The boys have nothing to say. 

"Do you prefer sitting together, or are you willing to have me separateyou?"

"We should rather sit together, sir, if you are willing, " says George. 

"I have no objection to your sitting together, if you could only resistthe temptation to play. I want all the boys in the school to havepleasant seats. "

There is a pause, the teacher hesitating what to do. 

"Suppose, now, I were to make one more experiment, and let you try to begood boys in your present seat, would you really try?"

"Yes, sir, " "Yes, sir, we will, " are the replies. 

"And if I should find that you still continue to play, and should haveto separate you, will you move into your new seats pleasantly, and withgood-humor, feeling that I have done right about if?"

"Yes, sir, we will. "

Thus it will be seen that there may be cases where the teacher may makearrangements for separating his scholars, on an open and distinctunderstanding with them in respect to the cause of it. We have giventhese cases, not that exactly such ones will be very likely to occur, orthat, when they do, the teacher is to manage them in exactly the wayhere described, but to exhibit more clearly to the reader than could bedone by any general description, the spirit and tone which a teacherought to assume toward his pupils. We wished to exhibit this in contrastwith the harsh and impatient manner which teachers too often assume insuch a case, as follows:

"John Williams and Samuel Smith, come here to me!" exclaims the master, in a harsh, impatient tone, in the midst of the exercises of theafternoon. 

The scholars all look up from their work. The culprits slowly rise fromtheir seats, and with a sullen air come down to the floor. 

"You are playing, boys, all the time, and I will not have it. John, doyou take your books, and go and sit out there by the window; and, Samuel, you come and sit here on this front seat; and if I catch youplaying again, I shall certainly punish you severely. "

The boys make the move with as much rattling and distention to make anoise; and when they get their new seats, and the teacher is againengaged upon his work, they exchange winks and nods, and in ten minutesare slyly cannonading each other with paper balls. 

In regard to all the directions that have been given under this head, Iought to say again, before concluding it, that they are mainlyapplicable to the case of beginners and of small schools. The generalprinciples are, it is true, of universal application, but it is onlywhere a school is of moderate size that the details of position, inrespect to individual scholars, can be minutely studied. More summaryprocesses are necessary, I am aware, when the school is very large, andthe time of the teacher is incessantly engaged. 

8. In some districts in New England the young teacher will find one ormore boys, generally among the larger ones, who will come to the schoolwith the express determination to make a difficulty if they can. Thebest way is generally to face these individuals at once in the mostdirect and open manner, and, at the same time, with perfect good-humorand kindness of feeling and deportment toward them personally. Anexample or two will best illustrate what I mean. 

A teacher heard a rapping noise repeatedly one day, just after he hadcommenced his labors, under such circumstances as to lead him to supposeit was designed. He did not appear to notice it, but remained afterschool until the scholars had all gone, and then made a thoroughexamination. He found, at length, a broken place in the plastering, where a _lath_ was loose, and a string was tied to the end of it, andthence carried along the wall, under the benches, to the seat of amischievous boy, and fastened to a nail. By pulling the string he couldspring the lath, and then let it snap back to its place. He left everything as it was, and the next day, while engaged in a lesson, he heardthe noise again. 

He rose from his seat. 

The scholars all looked up from their books. 

"Did you hear that noise?" said he. 

"Yes, sir. "

"Do you know what it is?"

"No, sir. "

"Very well; I only wished to call your attention to it. I may perhapsspeak of it again by-and-by. "

He then resumed his exercise as if nothing had happened. The guilty boywas agitated and confused, and was utterly at a loss to know what to do. What could the teacher mean? Had he discovered the trick? and, if so, what was he going to do?

He grew more and more uneasy, and resolved that, at all events, it wasbest for him to retreat. Accordingly, at the next recess, as the teacherhad anticipated, he went slyly to the lath, cut the string, thenreturned to his seat, and drew the line in, rolled it up, and put it inhis pocket. The teacher, who was secretly watching him, observed thewhole manoeuvre. 

At the close of the school, when the books were laid aside, and all wassilence, he treated the affair thus:

"Do you remember the noise to which I called your attention early thisafternoon"?"

"Yes, sir. "

"I will explain it to you now. One of the boys tied a string to a looselath in the side of the room, and then, having the end of it at hisseat, he was pulling it to make a noise to disturb us. "

The scholars all looked astonished, and then began to turn round towardone another to see who the offender could be. The culprit began totremble. 

"He did it several times yesterday, and would have gone on doing it hadI not spoken about it to-day. Do you think this was wrong or not?"

"Yes, sir;" "Wrong;" "Wrong, " are the replies. 

"What harm does it do?"

"It interrupts the school. "

"Yes. Is there any other harm?"

The boys hesitate. 

"It gives me trouble and pain. Should you not suppose it would?"

"Yes, sir. "

"Have I ever treated any boy or girl in this school unjustly orunkindly?"

"No, sir;" "No, sir. "

"Then why should any boy or girl wish to give me trouble or pain?"

There was a pause. The guilty individual expected that the next thingwould be to call him out for punishment. 

"Now what do you think I ought to do with such a boy?"

No answer. 

"Perhaps I ought to punish him, but I am very unwilling to do that. Iconcluded to try another plan--to treat him with kindness andforbearance. So I called your attention to it this afternoon, to let himknow that I was observing it, and to give him an opportunity to removethe string. And he did. He went, in the recess, and cut off the string. I shall not tell you his name, for I do not wish to injure hischaracter. All I want is to have him a good boy. "

A pause. 

"I think I shall try this plan, for he must have some feelings of honorand gratitude, and if he has, he certainly will not try to give me painor trouble again after this. And now I shall say no more about it, northink any more about it; only, to prove that it is all as I say, if youlook there under that window after school, you will see the lath withthe end of the string round it, and, by pulling it, you can make itsnap. "

Another case, a little more serious in its character, is the following:

A teacher, having had some trouble with a rude and savage-looking boy, made some inquiry respecting him out of school, and incidentally learnedthat he had once or twice before openly rebelled against the authorityof the school, and that he was now, in the recesses, actually preparinga club, with which he was threatening to defend himself if the teachershould attempt to punish him. 

The next day, soon after the boys had gone out, he took his hat andfollowed them, and, turning round a corner of the school-house, foundthe boys standing around the young rebel, who was sitting upon a log, shaving the handle of the club smooth with his pocket-knife. He wasstartled at the unexpected appearance of the teacher, and the firstimpulse was to hide his club behind him; but it was too late, and, supposing that the teacher was ignorant of his designs, he went onsullenly with his work, feeling, however, greatly embarrassed. 

"Pleasant day, boys, " said the teacher. "This is a fine sunny nook foryou to talk in. 

"Seems to me, however, you ought to have a better seat than this oldlog, " continued he, taking his seat at the same time by the side of theboy. 

"Not so bad a seat, however, after all. What are you making, Joseph?"

Joseph mumbled out something inarticulate by way of reply. "I have got asharper knife, " said he, drawing his penknife out of his pocket. Andthen, "Let me try it, " he continued, gently taking the club out ofJoseph's hand. 

The boys looked surprised, some exchanged nods and winks, others turnedaway to conceal a laugh; but the teacher engaged in conversation withthem, and soon put them all at their ease except poor Joseph, who couldnot tell how this strange interview was likely to end. 

In the mean time, the teacher went on shaving the handle smooth androunding the ends. "You want, " said he, "a rasp or coarse file for theends, and then you could finish it finely. But what are you making thisformidable club for?"

Joseph was completely at a loss what to say. He began to show evidentmarks of embarrassment and confusion. 

"I know what it is for; it is to defend yourself against me with. Is itnot, boys?" said he, appealing to the others. 

A faint "Yes, sir" or two was the reply. 

"Well, now, Joseph, it will be a great deal better for us both to befriends than to be enemies. You had better throw this club away, andsave yourself from punishment by being a good boy. Come, now, " said he, handing him back his club, "throw it over into the field as far as youcan, and we will all forget that you ever made it. "

Joseph sat the picture of shame and confusion. Better feelings werestruggling for admission, and the case was decided by a broad-faced, good-natured-looking boy, who stood by his side, saying almostinvoluntarily, "Better throw it, Joe. "

The club flew, end over end, into the field. Joseph returned to hisallegiance, and never attempted to rise in rebellion again. 

The ways by which boys engage in open, intentional disobedience are, ofcourse, greatly varied, and the exact treatment will depend upon thefeatures of the individual case; but the frankness, the openness, theplain dealing, and the kind and friendly tone which it is the object ofthe foregoing illustrations to exhibit, should characterize all. 

9. We have already alluded to the importance of a delicate regard forthe _characters_ of the boys in all the measures of discipline adoptedat the commencement of a school. This is, in fact, of the highestimportance at all times, and is peculiarly so at the outset. A wound tothe feelings is sometimes inflicted by a single transaction whichproduces a lasting injury to the character. Children are very sensitiveto ridicule or disgrace, and some are most acutely so. A cutting reproofadministered in public, or a punishment which exposes the individual tothe gaze of others, will often burn far more deeply into the heart thanthe teacher imagines. 

And it is often the cause of great and lasting injury, too. Bydestroying the character of a pupil, you make him feel that he hasnothing more to lose or gain, and destroy that kind of interest in hisown moral condition which alone will allure him to virtuous conduct. Toexpose children to public ridicule or contempt tends either to make themsullen and despondent, or else to arouse their resentment and to makethem reckless and desperate. Most persons remember through life someinstances in their early childhood in which they were disgraced orridiculed at school, and the permanence of the recollection is a test ofthe violence of the effect. 

Be very careful, then, to avoid, especially at the commencement of theschool, publicly exposing those who do wrong. Sometimes you may make theoffense public, as in the case of the snapping of the lath, describedunder a former head, while you kindly conceal the name of the offender. Even if the school generally understand who he is, the injury of publicexposure is almost altogether avoided, for the sense of disgrace doesnot come nearly so vividly home to the mind of a child from hearingoccasional allusions to his offense by individuals among his playmates, as when he feels himself, at a particular time, the object of universalattention and dishonor. And then, besides, if the pupil perceives thatthe teacher is tender of his reputation, he will, by a feeling somewherebetween imitation and sympathy, begin to feel a little tender of it too. Every exertion should be made, therefore, to lead children to valuetheir character, and to help them to preserve it, and especially toavoid, at the beginning, every unnecessary sacrifice of it. 

And yet there are cases where shame is the very best possible remedy forjuvenile faults. If a boy, for example, is self-conceited, bold, andmischievous, with feelings somewhat callous, and an influence extensiveand bad, an opportunity will sometimes occur to hold up his conduct tothe just reprobation of the school with great advantage. By this means, if it is done in such a way as to _secure_ the influence of the schoolon the right side, many good effects are sometimes attained. His prideand self-conceit are humbled, his bad influence receives a very decidedcheck, and he is forced to draw back at once from the prominent stand hehas occupied. 

Richard Jones, for example, is a rude, coarse, self-conceited boy, oftendoing wrong both in school and out, and yet possessed of that peculiarinfluence which a bad boy often contrives to exert in school. Theteacher, after watching some time for an opportunity to humble him, oneday overhears a difficulty among the boys, and, looking out of thewindow, observes that he is taking away a sled from one of the littleboys to slide down hill upon, having none of his own. The little boyresists as well as he can, and complains bitterly, but it is of noavail. 

At the close of the school that day, the teacher commences conversationon the subject as follows:

"Boys, do you know what the difference is between stealing and robbery?"

"Yes, sir. "

"What!"

The boys hesitate, and look at one another. 

"Suppose a thief were to go into a man's store in the daytime, and takeaway something secretly, would it be stealing or robbery?"

"Stealing. "

"Suppose he should meet him in the road, and take it away by force?"

"Then it would be robbery. "

"Yes; when that which belongs to another is taken secretly, it is calledstealing; when it is taken openly or with violence, it is calledrobbery. Which, now, do you think is the worst?"

"Robbery. "

"Yes, for it is more barefaced and determined--then it gives a greatdeal more pain to the one who is injured. To-day I saw one of the boysin this school taking away another boy's sled, openly and withviolence. "

The boys all look round toward Richard. 

"Was that of the nature of stealing or robbery?

"Robbery, " say the boys. 

"Was it real robbery?"

They hesitate. 

"If any of you think of any reason why it was not real robbery, you mayname it. "

"He gave the sled back to him, " says one of the boys. 

"Yes; and therefore, to describe the action correctly, we should not sayRichard robbed a boy of his sled, but that he robbed him of his sled_for a time_, or he robbed him of the _use_ of his sled. Still, inrespect to the nature and the guilt of it, it was robbery. 

"There is another thing which ought to be observed about it. Whose sledwas it that Richard took away?"

"James Thompson's. "

"James, you may stand up. 

"Notice his size, boys. I should like to have Richard Jones stand uptoo, so that you might compare them; but I presume he feels very muchashamed of what he has done, and it would be very unpleasant for him tostand up. You will remember, however, how large he is. Now when I was aboy, it used to be considered dishonorable and cowardly for a large, strong boy to abuse a little one who can not defend himself. Is itconsidered so now?"

"Yes, sir. "

"It ought to be, certainly; though, were it not for such a case as this, we should not have thought of considering Richard Jones a coward. Itseems he did not dare to try to take away a sled from a boy who was asbig as himself, but attacked little James, for he knew he was not strongenough to defend himself. "

Now, in some such cases as this, great good may be done, both inrespect to the individual and to the state of public sentiment inschool, by openly exposing a boy's misconduct. The teacher must alwaystake care, however, that the state of mind and character in the guiltyindividual is such that public exposure is adapted to work well as aremedy, and also that, in managing it, he carries the sympathies of theother boys with him. To secure this, he must avoid all harsh andexaggerated expressions or direct reproaches, and while he is mild, andgentle, and forbearing himself, lead the boys to understand and feel thenature of the sin which he exposes. The opportunities for doing this toadvantage will, however, be rare. Generally it will be best to managecases of discipline more privately, so as to protect the characters ofthose that offend. 

The teacher should thus, in accordance with the directions we havegiven, commence his labors with careful circumspection, patience, frankness, and honest good-will toward every individual of his charge. He will find less difficulty at the outset than he would have expected, and soon have the satisfaction of perceiving that a mild but mostefficient government is quietly and firmly established in the littlekingdom over which he is called to reign. 

THE END.