[Illustration: PRIZE YEARLING SHORT-HORN BULL, "VICTOR EMMANUEL, " THE PROPERTY OF LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE, Was awarded the First Prize in his Section (there being sixteencompetitors), at the Show of the Royal Agricultural Society, heldat Belfast, in August, 1861. Calved June 24, 1860; sire, PrinceDuke the Second (16, 731); dam, Turfoida, by Earl of Dublin (10, 178);gd. , Rosina, by Gray Friar (9, 172); ggd. , Hinda, by Little John (4, 232). ] THE STOCK-FEEDER'S MANUAL. THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD IN RELATION TO THE BREEDING AND FEEDING OF LIVE STOCK. BY CHARLES A. CAMERON, Ph. D. , M. D. , Licentiate of the King and Queen's College of Physicians in Ireland; Honorary Corresponding Member of the New York State Agricultural Society; Member of the Agricultural Society of Belgium; Professor of Hygiene or Political Medicine in the Royal College of Surgeons; Professor of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy in Steevens' Hospital and Medical College; Lecturer on Chemistry in the Ledwich School of Medicine; Analyst to the City of Dublin; Chemist to the County of Kildare Agricultural Society, the Queen's County Agricultural Society, c. ; Member of the International Jury of the Paris Exhibition, 1867; Editor of the "Agricultural Review;" one of the Editors of the "Irish Farmer's Gazette;" Author of the "Chemistry of Agriculture, " "Sugar and the Sugar Duties, " &c. &c. LONDON AND NEW YORK: CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN. 1868. [_All rights reserved. _] LONDON CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS, LUDGATE HILL, E. C. THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE Dedicated TO THE RIGHT HONORABLE THE LORD TALBOT DE MALAHIDE, F. R. S. , _President of the Royal Irish Academy, &c. &c. &c. _, ONE OF THE MOST ENLIGHTENED AND LIBERAL PROMOTERS OF AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENTS. THE AUTHOR IS UNDER MANY OBLIGATIONS TO HIS LORDSHIP, FOR WHICH HE CAN MAKE NO RETURN SAVE THIS PUBLIC ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF HIS INDEBTEDNESS. PREFACE. Some papers on the Chemistry of Food, read before the Royal AgriculturalSociety of Ireland and the Athy Farmers' Club, and a few articles on theManagement of Live Stock, published in the _Weekly Agricultural Review_, constitute the basis of this Work. It describes the nature of the foodused by the domesticated animals, explains the composition of the animaltissues, and treats generally upon the important subject of nutrition. The most recent analyses of all the kinds of food usually consumed bythe animals of the farm are fully stated; and the nutritive values ofthose substances are in most instances given. Some information isafforded relative to the breeds and breeding of live stock; and adivision of the Work is wholly devoted to the consideration of theeconomic production of "meat, milk, and butter. " Within the last twenty years the processes of chemical analysis havebeen so much improved, that the composition of organic bodies is nowdetermined with great accuracy. The analyses of foods made from twentyto fifty years ago, possess now but little value. In this Work theanalyses of vegetables quoted are chiefly those recently performed by thedistinguished Scotch chemist, Dr. Thomas Anderson, and by Dr. Voelcker. The Author believes that in no other Work of moderate size are there somany analyses of food substances given, and ventures to hope that thesuccess of this Work may fully justify the belief that a "handy" bookcontaining such information as that above mentioned, is much requiredby stock feeders. _102, Lower Baggot Street, Dublin_, April, 1868. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION: History of Agriculture--Agricultural Statistics--Imports of Live Stock 1 PART I. ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS. SECTION I. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE. Functions of Plants. Animal Life. --SECTION II. COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. Elements of Organic Bodies. Proximate Composition of Organic Substances. --SECTION III. USE OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. Fatty Food necessary in Cold Climates. Fat Equivalents. --SECTION IV. RELATION BETWEEN THE COMPOSITION OF AN ANIMAL AND THAT OF ITS FOOD. Tables of Experimental Results. --SECTION V. RELATION BETWEEN THE QUANTITY OF FOOD CONSUMED BY AN ANIMAL AND THE INCREASE OF ITS WEIGHT, OR OF THE AMOUNT OF ITS WORK. Weights of Foods necessary to sustain a Man's Life for twenty-four hours. Value of Manure. 8 PART II. ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK. SECTION I. THE BREEDING OF STOCK. --SECTION II. THE BREEDS OF STOCK. The Form of Animals. _Breeds of the Ox. _ Shorthorns. Devons. Herefords. Ayrshires. Polled Cattle. Kyloes. Long-horned. Kerrys. Alderneys. _Sheep. _ The Leicester. Lincoln. Cotswold. Cheviot. Southdown. Shropshire. Blackfaced. _Breeds of the Pig. _ Berkshire. Yorkshire. _Breeds of the Horse. _ Clydesdales. Suffolk Punch. Hunters and Racers. 47 PART III. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK. SECTION I. THE OX. Breeding Cows. Wintering of Young Stock. Shelter of Stock. Milch Cows. Stall Feeding. Cost of Maintaining Animals. Cooking and Bruising Food. Value for Feeding Purposes of various Foods. Bedding Cattle. --SECTION II. THE SHEEP. Breeding Ewes. Yeaning. Rearing of Lambs. Sheep Feeding. Sheep Dips. --SECTION III. THE PIG. Young Pigs. Store Pigs. Fattening Pigs. --SECTION IV. THE HORSE. Foals. Dietaries for the Horse. 74 PART IV. MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER. SECTION I. MEAT. Quality of Meat. Is very Fat Meat Unwholesome? Diseased Meat. --SECTION II. MILK. Composition of Milk of Different Animals. Yield of Milk. Preserved Milk. --SECTION III. BUTTER. History of Butter. Irish Butter. Composition of Butter. The Butter Manufacture. 112 PART V. ON THE COMPOSITION AND VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS. SECTION I. THE MONEY VALUE OF FOOD SUBSTANCES. --SECTION II. PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLES. Starch. Sugar. Inulin. Gum. Pectin. Cellulose. Oils and Fats. Stearin. Margarin. Olein. Palmitin. Albumen. Fibrin. Legumin. --SECTION III. GREEN FOOD. The Grasses. Schroeder Brome. Tussac Grass. The Clovers. Leguminous Plants--Vetch, Sainfoin, &c. The Yellow Lupine. Rib Grass Plantain. Ergot in Grasses. Holcus Saccharatus. Green Rye. Buckwheat. Rape. Mustard. Comfrey. Chicory. Yarrow. Melons and Marrows. Cabbage. Furze. --SECTION IV. STRAW AND HAY. _Straw. _ Anderson's, Voelcker's, and Cameron's Analyses of Straws. Feeding Experiments with Straw. Relative Values of Straw and Oil-cake. _Hay. _ Composition of the Hay of different Grasses. Over-ripening of Hay. Damaged Hay and Straw. --SECTION V. ROOTS AND TUBERS. _Turnips. _ Swedish. White Globe. Aberdeen Yellow. Purple-top. Norfolk Bell. Greystone. Turnip Tops. Analyses of Turnips. Mangel Wurtzel. Chemistry of the Mangel. Stripping Leaves off the Mangel. Beet-root. Parsnip. Carrot. Kohl-rabi. Analyses of Kohl-rabi. Radish. The Radish as a Field Crop. Composition of Radish. Jerusalem Artichoke: Advantages of Cultivating it. Analysis of Jerusalem Artichoke. Potato: Analyses of six varieties. Feeding Value of Potatoes. --SECTION VI. SEEDS. _Wheat. _ Analyses of Wheat, Flour, Bran, and Husks. Over-ripening of Grain. Wheat a Costly Food. Analyses of Barley, Oat Grain, Indian Corn, Rye, Rice, Rice-dust, and Buckwheat. Malted Corn. Voelcker's Analyses of Malt and Barley. Experiments of Thompson, Lawes, &c. , with Malt. Malt Combings. _Leguminous Seeds. _ Beans. Composition of Common Beans, Foreign Beans, Peas. Lentils and Winter Tares. _Oil Seeds. _ Rape Seeds. Experiments with Rapeseed. Flax Bolls. Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Hemp-seed, and Cotton-seed. Fenugreek Seed. --SECTION VII. OIL-CAKES AND OTHER ARTIFICIAL FOODS. Composition of Linseed, Rape-seed, Cotton-seed, and Poppy-seed Cake. Linseed-cake. Adulteration of Linseed-cake. Rape-cake. Feeding Experiments with Rape-cake. Adulterations of Rape-cake. Cotton-seed Cake. Analyses of Decorticated Cotton-seed Cake. Palm-nut Meal: its Composition and Nutritive Properties. Locust, or Carob Bean: its Composition. Dates. Brewers' Dregs and Distillery Wash. Molasses and Treacle. --SECTION VIII. CONDIMENTAL FOOD. Lawes' Experiments with Thorley's Food. Analyses of Condimental Food. Formula for a Tonic Food. --SECTION IX. TABLES OF THE ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF PLANTS. 147 APPENDIX. AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. Numbers of Live Stock in the United Kingdom. Value of the Agriculture Products of Great Britain. 254 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. INTRODUCTION. When Virgil composed his immortal "Bucolics, " and Varro indited hisprofound Essays on Agriculture, the inhabitants of the British Islandswere almost completely ignorant of the art of cultivating the soil. The rude spoils torn from the carcasses of savage animals protected thebodies of their hardly less savage victors; and the produce of the chaseserved almost exclusively to nourish the hardy frames of the ancientCeltic hunters. In early ages wild beasts abounded in the numerous andextensive forests of Britain and Ireland; but men were few, for theconditions under which the maintenance of a dense population is possibledid not then exist. As civilisation progressed, men rapidly multiplied, and the demand for food increased. The pursuit of game became merely thepastime of the rich; and tame sheep and oxen furnished meat to the lowlyas well as to the great. Nor were the fruits of the earth neglected; forduring the latter days of the dominion of the Romans, England raisedlarge quantities of corn. Gradually the food of the people, which atfirst was almost purely animal, became chiefly vegetable. The shepherds, who had supplanted the hunters, became less numerous than the tillers ofland; and the era of tillage husbandry began. At present the great mass of the rural population of these countriessubsist almost exclusively upon vegetable aliment--a diet which poverty, and not inclination, prescribes for them. Were the flesh of animalsthe staple food of the British peasantry, their numbers would not benearly so large as they now are, for a given area of land is capable ofsustaining a far larger number of vegetarians than of meat eaters. TheChinese are by no means averse to animal food, but they are so numerous, that they are in general obliged to content themselves on a purelyvegetable diet. In the manufacturing districts of Great Britain, there are severalmillions of people whose condition in relation to food is somewhatdifferent from that of the small farmer and agricultural laborer. Theartizans employed in our great industries are comparatively well paidfor their toil; and the results of their labor place within their reacha fair share of animal food. This section of the population is rapidlyincreasing, and consequently is daily augmenting the demand for meat. The rural population is certainly not increasing; rather the reverse. Less manual labor is now expended in the operations of agriculture, andeven horses are retiring before the advance of the steam plough. Theonly great purely vegetable-feeding class is diminishing, and the upper, the middle, and the artizan classes--the beef and mutton eating sectionsof society--are rapidly increasing. It is clear, then, that we arethreatened with a revival of the pastoral age, and that in one way, atleast, we are returning to the condition of our ancestors, whose staplefood consisted of beef, mutton, and pork. And here two questions arise. How long shall we be able to supply theincreasing demand for meat? How long shall we be able to compete withthe foreign feeders? These are momentous queries for the British farmer, and I trust they may be solved in a satisfactory manner. At any timeduring the present century the foreign or colonial grower of wheat couldhave undersold the British producer of that article, were the latter notprotected by a tariff; but cattle could not, as a general rule, beimported into Great Britain at a cheaper rate than they could beproduced at home. Were there no corn imported, it is certain that theprice of bread would be greater than it is now, even if the grainharvests had been better than they have been for some years past. A badcereal harvest in England raises the price of flour, but only to a smalland strictly limited extent, because, practically, there is no limitto the amount of bread-stuffs procurable from abroad. When, on thecontrary, the turnip crop fails, or that excessive drought greatlycurtails the yield of grass, the price of meat and butter increasesgreatly, and is but slightly modified by the importation of foreignstock. Hitherto the difficulty of transit has been so great that we have onlyderived supplies of live stock from countries situated at a shortdistance, such as Holstein and Holland. Vast herds of cattle are fedwith but little expense in America, and myriads of sheep are maintainedcheaply in Australia; but the immense distances which intervene betweenour country and those remote and sparsely populated regions have, hitherto, prevented the superabundant supply of animal food producedtherein from being available to the teeming population of the BritishIsles. Should, however, any cheap mode of conveying live stock, or eventheir flesh, from those and similarly circumstanced countries bedevised, it might render the production of meat in Britain a far lessprofitable occupation than it is now. That we are increasing the areafrom whence we draw our supplies of live stock is evident from the fact, that within the last two years enormous numbers of horned stock havebeen imported from Spain. In that extensive country there are noblebreeds of the ox; and it would appear that very large numbers of animalscould be annually exported, without depriving the inhabitants of a duesupply of bovine meat. As Spain is not very distant, it is likely thatthis traffic will be increased, and that in a short time we shall be aswell supplied with Spanish beef as we are now provided with Frenchflour. Meat is at present dear, and is likely to continue so for sometime; but still it is evident that, sooner or later, the British feederswill come into keen competition with the foreign producer of meat, andthat the price of their commodity will consequently fall. The mereprobability of such a state of things, were there no other reason, should induce the feeder to devote increased attention to theimprovement of his stock, and to discover more economical methods offeeding them. There is still much to be learned relative to the precisenutritive values of the various feeding stuffs. The proper modes ofcooking, or otherwise preparing, food, are still to be satisfactorilydetermined; and there are many very important questions in relation tothe breeding of stock yet unanswered. It is but fair to admit that the farmer is earnestly endeavouring toimprove his art, and that he is willing, nay anxious, to obtain theco-operation of scientific men, in order to increase his knowledge ofthe theory as well as the practice of his ancient calling. Indeed, henot only admits the utility of science in agriculture, but often placesan undue degree of value upon the theories of the chemist, of thebotanist, and of the geologist. This is encouraging to the men ofscience; but, on the other hand, they must admit that by far the greaterportion of the sum of human knowledge has been derived from theexperience and observation of men utterly unacquainted with science, inthe ordinary signification of that term. This portion of our knowledgeis also, in its practical application, the most valuable. In the mostimportant branch of industry--agriculture--the labors of the purelyscientific man have as yet borne but scant fruit; whilst the unaidedefforts of the husbandman have reclaimed from sterility extensivetracts, and caused them to "blossom as the rose. " That practical menshould have done so much, and scientific men so little, for agriculture, may easily be explained. Countless millions of men, during manythousands of years, have incessantly been occupied in improving theprocesses of mechanical agriculture, which, as an _art_, hasconsequently been brought to a high degree of perfection: but scientificagriculture is a creation of almost our own time, and the number of itscultivators is, and always has been, very small; all its theories cannot, therefore, justly claim that degree of confidence which, as a rule, isonly reposed in the opinions founded on the experience of practicalworkers in the field and in the feeding-house. Still, the farmer hasderived a great amount of useful information from the chemist andphysiologist; and they alone can explain to him the causes of thevarious phenomena which the different branches of his art present. Therewas a time when it was the fashion of the man of science to look downwith contempt, from the lofty pedestal on which he placed himself, uponthe lessons of practical experience read to him by the cultivator of thesoil; whilst at the same time the farmer treated as foolish visionariesthose who applied the teachings of science to the improvement of theirart. But this time has happily passed away. The scientific man no longerdespises the knowledge of the mere farmers, but turns to good accountthe information derivable from their experience; whilst the farmer, onthe other side, has ceased to speak in contemptuous terms of mere "booklearning. " It is to this happy combination of the theorist with thepractical man that the recent remarkable advance in agriculture ischiefly due; and to it we may confidently look for improvement in theeconomic production of meat and butter, and for the enlargement of ourknowledge of the relative value of food substances. STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. ---------+------------------------------------+ | Enumerated, 1866. | +-----------+------------+-----------+ | Cattle. | Sheep. | Pigs. | +-----------+------------+----+------+ England | 3, 307, 034 | 15, 124, 541 | 2, 066, 299 | Wales | 541, 401 | 1, 668, 663 | 191, 604 | Islands | 17, 700 | 57, 685 | 22, 887 | Scotland | 937, 411 | 5, 255, 077 | 219, 716 | Ireland | 3, 493, 414 | 3, 688, 742 | 1, 299, 893 | +-----------+------------+-----------+ Total | 8, 316, 960 | 25, 794, 708 | 3, 800, 399 | ---------+-----------+------------+-----------+ ---------+------------------------------------+ | Estimated, 1865. | +-----------+------------+-----------+ | Cattle. | Sheep. | Pigs. | +-----------+------------+-----------+ England | 3, 422, 165 | 18, 691, 088 | 2, 363, 724 | Wales | ---- | ---- | ---- | Islands | ---- | ---- | ---- | Scotland | 974, 437 | 5, 683, 168 | 146, 354 | Ireland | 3, 493, 414 | 3, 688, 742 | 1, 299, 893 | +-----------+------------+-----------+ Total | 7, 890, 016 | 28, 062, 998 | 3, 809, 971 | ---------+-----------+------------+-----------+ STATEMENT OF THE POPULATION AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES, ACCORDING TO THE LATEST RETURNS. +--------------+-------+----------+------------------------------+----------+----------+ | |Date of|Population| Cattle. | | | | Countries. |Returns|according |---------+---------+----------+ Sheep. | Pigs. | | |of Live|to Latest | Cows. | Other | Total. | | | | |Stock. |Returns. | | Cattle. | | | | +--------------+-------+----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+----------+ |United Kingdom|1865-66|29, 070, 932|3, 286, 308|5, 030, 652| 8, 316, 960|25, 795, 708| 3, 802, 399| |Russia |1859-63|74, 139, 394| . . . | . . . |25, 444, 000|45, 130, 800|10, 097, 000| |Denmark Proper| 1861 | 1, 662, 734| 756, 834| 361, 940| 1, 118, 774| 1, 751, 950| 300, 928| |Sleswig | 1861 | 421, 486| 217, 751| 172, 250| 390, 001| 362, 219| 87, 867| |Holstein | 1861 | 561, 831| 198, 310| 92, 062| 290, 372| 165, 344| 82, 398| |Sweden | 1860 | 3, 859, 728|1, 112, 944| 803, 714| 1, 916, 658| 1, 644, 156| 457, 981| |Prussia | 1862 |18, 491, 220|3, 382, 703|2, 251, 797| 5, 634, 500|17, 428, 017| 2, 709, 709| |Hanover | 1861 | 1, 880, 070| . . . | . . . | 949, 179| 2, 211, 927| 554, 056| |Saxony | 1861 | 2, 225, 240| 411, 563| 226, 897| 638, 460| 371, 986| 270, 462| |Wurtemburg | 1861 | 1, 720, 708| 466, 758| 490, 414| 957, 172| 683, 842| 216, 965| |Grand Duchy | | | | | | | | | of Baden | 1861 | 1, 429, 199| 348, 418| 273, 068| 621, 486| 177, 322| 307, 198| | " Hesse | 1863 | 853, 315| 187, 442| 129, 211| 316, 653| 231, 787| 195, 596| | " Nassau | 1864 | 468, 311| 116, 421| 84, 224| 200, 645| 152, 584| 65, 979| | Mecklenb. | | | | | | | | | " Schwerin | 1857 | 539, 258| 197, 622| 69, 215| 266, 837| 1, 198, 450| 157, 522| | " Oldenburg | 1852 | 279, 637| . . . | . . . | 219, 843| 295, 322| 87, 336| |Holland | 1864 | 3, 618, 459| 943, 214| 390, 673| 1, 333, 887| 930, 136| 294, 636| |Belgium | 1856 | 4, 529, 461| . . . | . . . | 1, 257, 649| 583, 485| 458, 418| |France | 1862 |37, 386, 313|5, 781, 465|8, 415, 895|14, 197, 360|33, 281, 592| 5, 246, 403| |Spain | 1865 |15, 658, 531| . . . | . . . | 2, 904, 598|22, 054, 967| 4, 264, 817| |Austria | 1863 |36, 267, 648|6, 353, 086|7, 904, 030|14, 257, 116|16, 964, 236| 8, 151, 608| |Bavaria | 1863 | 4, 807, 440|1, 530, 626|1, 655, 356| 3, 185, 882| 2, 058, 638| 926, 522| |United States | 1860 |31, 445, 080|8, 728, 862|8, 182, 813|16, 911, 475|23, 317, 756|32, 555, 267| +--------------+-------+----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+----------+ NUMBERS OF THE LIVE STOCK IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN DURING THE ELEVEN MONTHS ENDED 31st NOVEMBER, 1867. Bullocks, bulls, and cows 150, 518 Calves 20, 720 Sheep and lambs 504, 514 Pigs 45, 566 -------- 721, 318 AMOUNT OF ANIMAL FOOD IMPORTED DURING SAME PERIOD. Bacon and hams cwts. 452, 132 Salt beef " 163, 638 Salt pork " 123, 257 Butter " 1, 000, 095 Lard " 213, 599 Cheese " 798, 267 Eggs 373, 042, 000 I am indebted to Professor Ferguson, Chief of the Veterinary Departmentof the Irish Privy Council Office, for the following statement:-- RETURN OF HORNED CATTLE EXPORTED FROM THE SEVERAL IRISH PORTS AT WHICH VETERINARY INSPECTORS HAVE BEEN APPOINTED, AND CERTIFIED AS FREE FROM DISEASE, FROM THE 18th OF NOVEMBER, 1866, TO THE 16th OF NOVEMBER, 1867 (52 WEEKS). Fat Stock 187, 483 Store Stock 317, 331 Breeding and Dairy Stock 36, 599 -------- Total 541, 413 ======== PART I. ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS. SECTION I. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE. _Functions of Plants. _--It is the primary function of plants to convertthe inorganic matter of the soil and air into organised structuresof a highly complex nature. The food of plants is purely mineral, andconsists chiefly of water, carbonic acid, and ammonia. Water is composedof the elements oxygen and hydrogen; carbonic acid is a compound ofoxygen and carbon; and ammonia is formed of hydrogen and nitrogen. Thesefour substances are termed the _organic elements_, because they form byfar the larger portion--sometimes the whole--of organic bodies. Thecombustible portion of plants and animals is composed of the organicelements; the incombustible part is made up of potassium, sodium, andthe various other elements enumerated in another page. The organicelements are furnished chiefly by the atmosphere, and the incombustiblematters are supplied by the soil. Water in the state of vapor forms, according to the temperature andother conditions of the atmosphere, from a half per cent. To four and ahalf per cent. Of the weight of that fluid--about 1·25 per cent. Beingthe average; carbonic acid exists in it to the extent of 1/2000th; andammonia forms a minute portion of it--according to Dr. Angus Smith, onegrain weight in 412·42 cubic feet of air (of a town), or 0·000453 percent. It is remarkable that the most abundant constituents of atmosphericair--oxygen and nitrogen--are not assimilable by plants, although theseelements enter largely into the composition of vegetable substances. Inthe soil, also, the part which ministers to the wants of vegetables isrelatively quite insignificant in amount. Plants are unendowed with organs of locomotion, their food musttherefore be within easy reach. Every breeze wafts gaseous nutriment totheir expanded leaves, and their rootlets ramify throughout the soil insearch of appropriate mineral aliment. But no matter how abundant, orhowever easy of reach may be the food of plants, the vegetable organismis incapable of partaking of it unless under the influence of light. Exposed to this potent stimulus, the plant collects the gaseous carbonicacid and the vaporous water, solidifies them, decomposes them, andcombines their elements into new and organised forms. In effecting thesechanges--in conferring vitality upon the atoms of lifeless matter--theplant acts merely as the _mechanism_, the light is the _force_. As thework performed by the steam-engine is proportionate to the amount offorce developed by the combustion of the fuel beneath its boiler, so is the rapidity of the elaboration of organic substances by plantsproportionate to the amount of sunlight to which they are exposed. It isan axiom that matter is indestructible; we may alter its form as oftenas we please, but we cannot destroy a particle of it. It is the samewith _force_: we may convert one kind of it into another--heat intolight, or magnetism into electricity--but our power ends there; we canonly cause force, or _motion_, to pass from one of its conditions toanother, but its _quantity_ can never be diminished by the power of man. The principle of the Conservation of the Forces gives us a clearexplanation of the fact that animals can obtain their food only throughthe medium of the vegetable kingdom. Plants are stationary mechanisms;they have no need to develop motive power, as animals have, in movingthemselves from place to place. Their temperature is, we may say, thesame as that of the medium in which they exist. Such beings as plantsdo not, therefore, require the expenditure of force to maintain theirvitality; on the contrary, their mechanisms are, for a beneficentpurpose, constructed for the _accumulation_ of force. The growingplant absorbs, together with carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, aproportionate amount of light, heat, and the various other subtileforces which have their abiding place in the sun-beam-- "That golden chain, Whose strong embrace holds heaven and earth and main. " Co-incidentally with the conversion of the mineral constituents of thefood of plants into organised structures--albumen, fibre, and suchlike substances--the light, and the heat, and the various other forceslikewise suffer a change. Although the precise nature of the new forceinto which they are converted is still a mystery--one, too, which maynever be revealed to us--still we know sufficient of it to satisfyus that it can only exist in connection with organic or organisedstructures. It is owing to its presence that the elements of thesestructures (the natural state of which is mineral) are bound togetherin what may be aptly designated a constrained state; or, as Liebigaptly expresses it, like the matter in a bent spring. So long as theorganic structure retains its form, it will be a reservoir of latentforce--which will manifest itself in some form during the recoil of theatoms of the matter forming the structure to their original mineral, orstatical condition: so the bent spring, when the pressure is removed, returns to its original straight form. _Animal Life. _--The chief manifestation of the life of a plant is theaccumulation of force; very different are the functions of animal life. It is only by the continuous _expenditure_ of force that the vitality ofanimals is preserved; the heat of a man's body, his power of locomotion, the performance of his daily toil, even his very faculty of thought, areall dependent upon, and to a great extent proportionate to, the amountof organised matter disorganised in his body. It is by the conversionof this organised matter into its original mineral state of water, carbonic acid, and ammonia, that the force originally expended inarranging, through the agency of plants, its atoms, is again restored, chiefly in the form of heat and animal motive power. Animals, as a class, are completely dependent upon vegetables fortheir existence. There is every reason to believe that the most lowlyorganised beings in the scale of animal life, even those of sosimple a structure as to have been long regarded as vegetables or asplant-animals, are incapable of organising mineral matter. The so-calledvegetative life of animals--for I believe the term to be exceedinglyinexact--is applied to their growth, that is, to the increase in theirweight. This increase takes place by their power of reorganising, orof assimilating to the nature of their own organisms, certain of thesubstances elaborated by plants, and destined to become food foranimals. SECTION II. COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. _Elements of Organic Bodies. _--The number of distinct kinds ofsubstances--each distinguishable from all the others by the peculiarityof its properties, taken as a whole--is exceedingly great, yet allthese substances are resolvable into a very small number of bodies. As an illustration, I shall take a well-known substance, commongreen copperas, or, as the chemists term it, protosulphate of iron. By submitting this compound to the process termed chemical analysis, two other kinds of matter may be obtained from it, namely, oxide of ironand oil of vitrol, or sulphuric acid. If we continued this process--ifwe submitted the acid and the oxide to analysis--we could separate theformer into sulphur and oxygen, and the latter into iron and oxygen. Now, by these means we could demonstrate the compound nature ofcopperas; we could prove that it was _proximately_ composed of sulphuricacid and oxide of iron; and, _ultimately_, of iron, sulphur, and oxygen. Iron, sulphur, and oxygen, are elementary, or simple bodies. They cannotbe decomposed; they cannot be analysed. Torture them as we will in ourcrucibles; expose them as we please to the highest temperature of a windfurnace, or to the more intense heat evolved by a powerful galvanicbattery; subject them to the influence of any agent, or force, orprocess we may choose, and still they will yield nothing but iron, sulphur, and oxygen: hence these undecomposable bodies are regarded as_elements_, or simple substances. So far as our knowledge extends, thereare about sixty-six of these undecomposable bodies, of which about onehalf occurs in but exceedingly minute quantities, and a considerablenumber of the others exists in comparatively small amounts. As by farthe greater proportion of compounds is made up of two or more of abouta dozen elementary bodies, it would at first sight appear as if thedistinct kinds of compounds which exist, or which may be called intoexistence by the chemist, must be limited to, at most, a realisablenumber; but the fact is there is no practical limit to the variety ofsubstances which may be artificially formed. Every difference in themode of the arrangement of the constituent atoms of a compound, causesits metamorphosis into another kind of substance. To prove that thenumber of these changes is bounded by no narrow limits, I need but referto the rules of Permutation, which demonstrate that twelve letters ofthe alphabet may be arranged in no fewer than 479, 000, 000 differentways. [1] The elements are the letters of Nature's alphabet, theircompounds are the words of the language of Creation. The combinationsof sounds and of signs which express the ideas and sensations of man maybe limited to millions; but numberless are the hieroglyphs by which theDivine wisdom and beneficence is inscribed on the pages of themagnificent volume of Nature. Of the sixty-six elementary bodies, not more than a dozen occurcommonly in animal and vegetable substances; these are Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus, Chlorine, Silicium, Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Iron. In addition to these, Iodine, andsometimes Bromine, are found in plants which grow in or near the sea;and the former element has also been detected in some of the loweranimals, and in land plants. Manganese, Lithium, Cæsium, Rubidium, and a few others of the simple bodies, occasionally occur in plants andanimals, but I believe their presence therein is always accidental. _Proximate Composition of Animal Substances. _--The differences betweenvegetable and animal substances are often more apparent than real. Indeed many of the more important of these substances are almostidentical in composition. The albumen which coagulates when the juicesof vegetables are boiled, is identical with the albumen of the whiteof eggs; the fibrine of wheat is in no respect chemically differentfrom the fibrine, or clot, of the blood; and, lastly, the legumine, or _vegetable caseine_, of peas is almost indistinguishable from thecurd of milk, or _animal caseine_. But not only has chemical researchdemonstrated the identity of the albumen, fibrine, and caseine ofvegetables with three of the more important constituents of animals, ithas gone a step further, and proved that they differ from each other inbut a few unimportant respects. They are unquestionably convertible intoeach other[2] within the animal organism; and their functions, as elementsof nutrition, are almost, if not quite, identical. Exclusive of the blood, which contains the elements of every part ofthe body, the animal organism is composed of three distinct classes ofsubstances--namely, _nitrogenous_, _non-nitrogenous_, and _mineral_. All of these constituents, or substances capable of being convertedinto them, must exist in the food. Certain articles, for example, milk, contains all of them; but in others, for instance, butter, only one ofthese substances is found. The nitrogenous part of the body embraces themuscles, or lean flesh, the gelatine of the bones, and the skin and itsappendages--such as hair and horns; the non-nitrogenous constituents areits fat and oil; and its mineral matter is found chiefly in the bonyframework. These constituents are not, however, isolated: the mineralmatter, no doubt, accumulates in certain parts, but in small quantitiesit is found in every portion of the body; and although the fat forms adistinct tissue, the muscles of the leanest animal are never free froma sensible proportion of it. Albumen, fibrine, and caseine are the principal nitrogenous constituentsof food, and as they are employed in the reparation of the nitrogenoustissues of the animal body, they have been termed _flesh-formers_. The fat and oil of animals are derived either from vegetable oil andfat, or from some such substance as starch or sugar. The constituentsof food which form fat are termed _fat-formers_, and sometimes_heat-givers_ or _respiratory elements_, from the notion that theirslow combustion in the animal body is the chief cause of its hightemperature. The mineral elements of the body are furnished principally by thevarieties of food which contain nitrogen. The whey of milk is rich inthem; but they do not exist in pure butter, in starch, or in sugar. Fat is a much more abundant constituent of the animal body than isgenerally supposed, That this substance should constitute the greaterportion of the weight of an obese pig seems probable enough; but feware aware that even in a lean sheep there is 50 per cent. More fat thanlean. For a very accurate knowledge of the relative proportions of the fatty, nitrogenous, and mineral constituents of the carcasses of animals usedas human food, we are indebted to Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert. Beforethese investigators turned their attention to this subject, it hadscarcely attracted the notice of scientific men; but a notion appears tohave been current, amongst non-scientific people, at least, that in all, save the fattest animals, the lean flesh greatly preponderated over thefat. That this idea was unsustained by a foundation of fact, has beenclearly proved by the results of an investigation[3] undertaken a fewyears ago by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert--an investigation which I cannotavoid characterising as one of the most laborious and apparentlytrustworthy on record. The mere statement of the results of this inquiryoccupies 187 pages of one of the huge volumes of the Transactions of theRoyal Society--a fact which best indicates the immensity of the labourwhich these gentlemen imposed upon themselves, and which, independentlyof their other and numerous contributions to scientific agriculture, entitles their names to most honourable mention in the annals ofscience. I shall now briefly advert to a few of the more important factsestablished by Lawes and Gilbert. From a large number of oxen, sheep, and pigs, on which feeding experiments were being conducted, tenindividuals were selected. These were, a fat calf, a half-fat ox, amoderately fat ox, a fat lamb, a store sheep, a half-fat old sheep, afat sheep, a very fat sheep, a store pig, and a fat pig. These animalswere killed, and the different organs and parts of their bodies wereseparately weighed and analysed. The results were, that, with theexception of the calf, all the animals contained, respectively, more fatthan lean. The fat ox and the fat lamb contained each three times asmuch fat as lean flesh, and the proportion of the fatty matters to thenitrogenous constituents of the carcass of the very fat sheep was as 4to 1. In the pig the fat greatly preponderated over the lean; the storepig containing three times as much, and the fat pig five times as muchfat as lean. That part of the animal which is consumed as food by man, is termed the_carcass_ by the butcher, and contains by far the greater portion ofthe fat of the animal. The _offal_, in the language of the butcher, constitutes those parts which are not commonly consumed as human food, at least by the well-to-do classes. In calves, oxen, lambs, and sheep, the offal embraces the skin, the feet, and the head, and all theinternal organs, excepting the kidneys and their fatty envelope. Theoffal of the pig is made up of all the internal organs, excepting thekidneys and kidney fat. It is the relative proportion of fat in thecarcasses analysed by Lawes and Gilbert that I have stated; but as thenitrogenous matters occur in greatest quantity in the offal, it isnecessary that the relative proportions of the constituents of the body, taken as a whole, should be considered. On an average, then, it will befound that a fat fully-grown animal will contain 49 per cent. Of water, 33 per cent. Of dry fat, 13 per cent. Of dry nitrogenous matter--musclesseparated from fat, hide, &c. --and 3 per cent. Of mineral matter. In alean animal the average proportions of the various constituents will be54 per cent. Of water, 25-1/2 per cent. Dry fat, 17 per cent. Of drynitrogenous substances, and 3-1/2 per cent. Of mineral matter. In thefollowing table these proportions are set forth. SUMMARY OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE TEN ANIMALS--SHOWING THE PER-CENTAGES OF MINERAL MATTER, DRY NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS, FAT, TOTAL DRY SUBSTANCE, AND WATER. 1st. In Fresh Carcass. 2nd. In Fresh Offal (equal Sum of Parts, excluding Contents of Stomachs and Intestines). 3rd. In Entire Animal (Fasted Live-weight, including therefore the weight of Contents of Stomachs and Intestines). +-----------------------------------------+ | KEY: | | A. --Mineral matter. | | B. --Dry nitrogenous compounds. | | C. --Fat. | | D. --Dry substance. | | E. --Water. | | F. --Contents of viscera. | | | ----------------------------+-----------------------------------------+ | Per cent. In Carcass. | DESCRIPTION +--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ OF ANIMAL. | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ Fat calf | 4·48 | 16·6 | 16·6 | 37·7 | 62·3 | Half-fat ox | 5·56 | 17·8 | 22·6 | 46·0 | 54·0 | Fat ox | 4·56 | 15·0 | 34·8 | 54·4 | 45·6 | Fat lamb | 3·63 | 10·9 | 36·9 | 51·4 | 48·6 | Store sheep | 4·36 | 14·5 | 23·8 | 42·7 | 57·3 | Half-fat old sheep | 4·13 | 14·9 | 31·3 | 50·3 | 49·7 | Fat sheep | 3·45 | 11·5 | 45·4 | 60·3 | 39·7 | Extra fat sheep | 2·77 | 9·1 | 55·1 | 67·0 | 33·0 | Store pig | 2·57 | 14·0 | 28·1 | 44·7 | 55·3 | Fat pig | 1·40 | 10·5 | 49·5 | 61·4 | 38·6 | ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ Means of all | 3·69 | 13·5 | 34·4 | 51·6 | 48·4 | ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ Means of 8 of the half-fat, | | | | | | fat, and very fat animals | 3·75 | 13·3 | 36·5 | 53·6 | 46·4 | ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ Means of 6 of the fat, | | | | | | and very fat animals | 3·38 | 12·3 | 39·7 | 55·4 | 44·6 | ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ ----------------------------+-----------------------------------------+ | Per cent. In Offal. | Description +--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ of Animal. | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ Fat calf | 3·41 | 17·1 | 14·6 | 35·1 | 64·9 | Half-fat ox | 4·05 | 20·6 | 15·7 | 40·4 | 59·6 | Fat ox | 3·40 | 17·5 | 26·3 | 47·2 | 52·8 | Fat lamb | 2·45 | 18·9 | 20·1 | 41·5 | 58·5 | Store sheep | 2·19 | 18·0 | 16·1 | 36·3 | 63·7 | Half-fat old sheep | 2·72 | 17·7 | 18·5 | 38·9 | 61·1 | Fat sheep | 2·32 | 16·1 | 26·4 | 44·8 | 55·2 | Extra fat sheep | 3·64 | 16·8 | 34·5 | 54·9 | 45·1 | Store pig | 3·07 | 14·0 | 15·0 | 32·1 | 67·9 | Fat pig | 2·97 | 14·8 | 22·8 | 40·6 | 59·4 | ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ Means of all | 3·02 | 17·2 | 21·0 | 41·2 | 58·8 | ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ Means of 8 of the half-fat, | | | | | | fat, and very fat animals | 3·12 | 17·4 | 22·4 | 42·9 | 57·1 | ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ Means of 6 of the fat, | | | | | | and very fat animals | 3·03 | 16·9 | 24·1 | 44·0 | 56·0 | ----------------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+ ----------------------------+-----------------------------------------+ | Per cent. In Entire Animal. | Description +------+------+------+------+------+------+ of Animal. | A. | B. | C. | D. | F. | E. | ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ Fat calf | 3·80 | 15·2 | 14·8 | 33·8 | 3·17 | 63·8 | Half-fat ox | 4·66 | 16·6 | 19·1 | 40·3 | 8·19 | 51·5 | Fat ox | 3·92 | 14·5 | 30·1 | 48·5 | 5·98 | 45·5 | Fat lamb | 2·94 | 12·3 | 28·5 | 43·7 | 8·54 | 47·8 | Store sheep | 3·16 | 14·8 | 18·7 | 36·7 | 6·00 | 57·3 | Half-fat old sheep | 3·17 | 14·0 | 23·5 | 40·7 | 9·05 | 50·2 | Fat sheep | 2·81 | 12·2 | 35·6 | 50·6 | 6·02 | 43·4 | Extra fat sheep | 2·90 | 10·9 | 45·8 | 59·6 | 5·18 | 35·2 | Store pig | 2·67 | 13·7 | 23·3 | 39·7 | 5·22 | 55·1 | Fat pig | 1·65 | 10·9 | 42·2 | 54·7 | 3·97 | 41·3 | ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ Means of all | 3·17 | 13·5 | 28·2 | 44·9 | 6·13 | 49·0 | ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ Means of 8 of the half-fat, | | | | | | | fat, and very fat animals | 3·23 | 13·3 | 29·9 | 46·4 | 6·26 | 47·3 | ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ Means of 6 of the fat, | | | | | | | and very fat animals | 3·00 | 12·7 | 32·8 | 48·5 | 5·48 | 46·0 | ----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ SECTION III. USE OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. As fat forms so large a portion of the body, it is evident thatthe part it plays in the animal economy must be a most important one. The general opinion which prevails amongst scientific men as to itsphysiological functions was originated by the celebrated Liebig. According to his theory, the food of animals includes two distinct kindsof substances--_plastic_[4] and _non-plastic_. The plastic materials arecomposed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and a little sulphurand phosphorus. Albumen, fibrine, and casein are plastic elements ofnutrition; they form the lean flesh, or muscles, the membranes, andcartilages, the gelatine of the bones, the skin, the hair, and, inshort, every part of the body which contains nitrogen. The _non-plastic_elements of nutrition include fat, oil, starch, sugar, gum, and certainconstituents of fruits, such as pectine. All non-plastic substances--and of each kind there are numerousvarieties--are capable of conversion, in the animal mechanism, into fatand oil. The non-plastic food substances do not contain nitrogen, hencethey are commonly termed non-nitrogenous elements. The oily and fattymatters contain a large proportion of carbon, their next most abundantcomponent is hydrogen, and they contain but little oxygen. Unlike theplastic elements, they are--except the fats of the brain and nervoustissue--altogether destitute of sulphur and phosphorus. The starchy, saccharine, and gummy substances are composed of the same elements asthe fatty bodies, but they contain a higher proportion of oxygen. According to Liebig, fat is used in the animal economy as a source ofinternal heat. We all know that it is a most combustible body, and thatduring its inflammation the most intense heat is developed. It is lessevident, but not less true, that heat is evolved during its slowoxidation, or decay. The more rapidly a body burns, the greater is the amount of heat evolvedby it in a _given time_; but the total amount of heat developed by aspecific weight of the body is the same, whether the combustion takesplace rapidly or slowly. An experiment performed with phosphorusillustrates the case perfectly. If we burned two pieces of equal weight, the one in oxygen, the other in atmospheric air, we should find that theformer would emit a light five times as brilliant as that evolved by thelatter, for the simple reason that its combustion would be five times asrapid. The white, vapor-like matter into which phosphorus is convertedby its combustion, is termed _phosphoric acid_. It is composed ofphosphorus and oxygen. In forming an ounce of this compound, by thedirect oxidation, or combustion of phosphorus, the amount of force, either as heat, or as heat and light, evolved is precisely the same, whether the time expended in the process be a minute or a month. [5] If, in the experiment I have described, we were to substitute two pieces offat for the fragments of phosphorus, the results would be preciselysimilar. The fat burned in oxygen gas would emit intense light and heat;but the total amount of these forces evolved would be neither greaternor less than that developed during the slower and therefore lessbrilliant combustion of the fat in ordinary atmospheric air. Now, as wecan demonstrate that an ounce of fat will emit a certain amount of heat, if burned within a minute of time, and that neither a larger nor asmaller amount will be developed if the combustion of the fat extendover a period of five minutes, I think we may fairly assume that theamount of heat evolved by the complete oxidation of a specific quantityof fat is constant under all conditions, except, as I have alreadyexplained, at high temperatures, when a portion of the heat is convertedinto light. In the animal organism fat is burned. The process of combustion nodoubt is a very slow one, but still the total amount of heat evolvedis just the same as if the fat were consumed in a furnace. When thefat constituting a candle is burned, what becomes of it? Its elements, carbon and hydrogen (we may disregard its small amount of oxygen)combine with the oxygen of the air, and form carbonic acid gas andwater. What becomes of the fat consumed within the animal body? It alsois converted into carbonic acid gas and water. It is not difficultto prove these statements to be facts. A candle will not burn inatmospheric air which has been deprived of its oxygen, because there isno substance present with which the elements of the taper can combine, consequently the process of combustion cannot go on. Now, a man may inone respect be compared with this taper. He is partly made up of fat;that fat is consumed by the oxygen of the air, and the heat developedthereby keeps the body warm. In the process of respiration oxygen isintroduced into the lungs, and from thence, by means of the bloodvessels, is conveyed throughout every part of the body. In some way, atpresent not thoroughly understood, the elements of the fat combine withthe oxygen, and are converted into carbonic acid gas and water, whichare exhaled from the lungs and from the surface of the body. Fat is a constituent of both animals and plants. The animal derives aportion of its fat directly from the vegetable; but it possesses thepower of forming this substance from other organic bodies, such, forexample, as starch. Plants elaborate fat directly from theminerals--carbonic acid gas, and water. I have already explained that the growth of plants is, _cæterisparibus_, directly proportionate to the amount of sunlight to whichthey are exposed. Not less certainly is the force which constitutes thesun-beam expended in grouping mineral atoms into organic forms, than isthe heat which converts water into steam. But in neither case is theforce destroyed. When the vaporous steam is condensed into the liquidwater, all the heat is restored, and becomes palpable. By the ultimatedecomposition of vegetable substances all the force expended on theirproduction is liberated, and, in some form, becomes manifest. When the fat formed in the mechanisms of plants is decomposed inthe animal organism, two results follow:--The atoms of the fat arere-converted to their original mineral, or statical conditions ofcarbonic acid gas and water; and the force which maintained them intheir organic state is set free as heat, and its equivalent, motivepower. One of the most useful instruments which the ingenuity of man hasdevised, is the Thermometer. It is so familiarly known that I neednot describe it. This instrument does not enable us to estimate theactual quantity of heat contained in a substance, but it indicatesthe proportion of that subtile element which is _sensible_--that isrecognisable by the sense of touch. The dusky Hindu, clad in his singlecotton garment, and the Laplander in his suit of fur, are placed underthe most opposite conditions in relation to the heat of the sun--theIndian is exposed during the whole year to Sol's most ardent beams, whilst but a scant share of its genial rays goes to warm the body ofthe Laplander. Now, if we placed the bulb of a thermometer beneath thetongue of a Hindu, we would find the mercury to stand at 98 degrees onFahrenheit's scale, and if we repeated the experiment on a Laplander, we would obtain an identical result. Numerous experiments of thisnature have been made on individuals in most parts of the world, andthe results have proved that the temperature of the blood of man is98 degrees Fahrenheit, whether he be in India or at Nova Zembla, onthe _steppes_ of Russia, or the elevated _plateaus_ of America. Thisinvariability[6] of the temperature of the bodies of men and of allother warm-blooded animals, appears the more wonderful when it it isconsidered that the range of the temperature of the medium in whichthey exist exceeds 200 degrees Fahrenheit. In India, the mercury in thethermometer has been observed to stand at 145 degrees in the directsunlight, and at 120 degrees in the shade. In high latitudes thetemperature is sometimes so low as 100 degrees below zero. A Russianarmy, in an expedition to China, in 1839, was exposed for severalsuccessive days to a temperature of 42 degrees below zero, and sufferedseverely in consequence. The facts which I have cited clearly prove that the animal bodypossesses the power of generating, or, to speak more correctly, liberating heat, either from portions of its own mechanism or fromsubstances placed within that mechanism. At one time it was the general belief amongst physiologists that oneportion of the food consumed by an animal was employed in repairingthe waste of its body, and the remaining part was burned as fuel, evolving heat just in the same way as if it had been consumed in afurnace. It was this theory that led to the classification of food intoflesh-formers, and heat-givers. It is now doubted if any portion of thefood be really burned in this way; and I, for one, think it far moreprobable that, before its conversion into carbonic acid gas and water(whereby, according to this theory, it develops the heat which keeps thebody warm), it first becomes assimilated, that is, becomes an integralpart of the animal body--blood, fat, muscle. Perhaps we would benearer the truth if we were to assume that heat is evolved during thedecomposition of both the nitrogenous and fatty constituents of thebody. The constantly recurring contractions of the muscles must alone be asource of much heat. The development of animal motive power is said tobe strictly proportionate to the amount of muscular tissue decomposed. As the nitrogen of the latter is almost completely excreted under theform of urea, the quantity of the latter daily eliminated from thebody of an animal is a measure of the decomposed muscular tissue, andconsequently of the amount of muscular power generated in the animalorganism. [7] The correspondence between the amount of the motive powerof an animal, and the quantity of effete nitrogen excreted from thebody, is limited to laboring men and to the lower animals. Strange asit may appear, it is an incontrovertible fact that men whose pursuitsrequire the constant exercise of the intellectual faculties--lawyers, writers, statesmen, students, scientific men, and otherbrain-workers--excrete more urea than do men engaged in the mostphysically laborious occupations. An activity of thoughts and ideasinvolves a corresponding destruction of the tissues, and these require, for their reparation, the consumption of food. Here, then, we have aphysical meaning for the common expression--"food for thought. " That the amount of heat developed in the animal organism, isproportionate to the quantity of fatty matters (or of substances capableof forming them) supplied to it in the shape of food, is a propositionwhich admits of easy demonstration. The natives of warm regions do notrequire the generation of much heat within their bodies, because thetemperature of the medium in which they exist is generally as high as, or higher than, that of their blood. But as they must consume food forthe purpose of repairing the waste of their nitrogenous tissues, and asevery kind of food contains heat-producing elements, an excess of heatis developed within their bodies, which, if allowed to accumulate, wouldspeedily produce fatal results. The means by which nature removes thissuperabundant heat are admirably simple, as indeed all its contrivancesare. The skin is permeated with millions of pores, and through theseopenings a large quantity of vapor is given off, and carries with it thesurplus heat. The pores are the orifices of minute convoluted tubeswhich lie beneath the skin, and when straightened measure each about thetenth of an inch, or, according to a writer in the _British and ForeignMedico-Chirurgical Review_ (1859, page 349), the one-fifteenth of aninch in length. According to Erasmus Wilson, the number of these tubeswhich open into every square inch of the surface of the body is 2, 800. The total number of square inches on the surface of an average sized manis 2, 500, consequently the surface of his body is drained by not lessthan twenty-eight miles of tubing, furnished with 7, 000, 000 openings. The cooling of the body, by the evaporation of water from it, admits ofexplanation by well-known natural laws. Water, in the state of vapor, occupies a space 1, 700 fold greater than it does in its liquidcondition. It is heat which causes its vaporous form, but it ceases tobe heat when it has accomplished this change in the condition of theliquid; for, suffering itself an alteration, it passes into another formof force--mechanical, or motive power. The heat generated within thebody is absorbed by the liquid water, the conversion of the latter intovapor follows, and both the heat and the water, in their altered forms, escape through the pores. _Fatty food necessary in cold climates. _--As a grave objection againstthe chemical theory of heat, it has been urged that rice--the pabulum ofhundreds of millions of the inhabitants of tropical regions--contains anexceedingly high proportion of heat-giving substances. I have, however, great doubt as to rice ever forming the exclusive food of those people, without their health being impaired in consequence of the deficiency inthat substance of the plastic elements of nutrition. Indeed I believeit is a great mistake to assert that the natives of India live almostexclusively on rice. This article, no doubt, forms a large proportion oftheir food, but it is supplemented with pulse (the produce of leguminousplants), which is rich in flesh-forming materials, also with dried fish, butter, and various kinds of vegetable and animal food rich in nitrogen. The innutritious nature of rice is clearly shown by its chemicalcomposition, and so large a quantity of it must the Hindu consume inorder to repair the waste of his body, that his stomach sometimesacquires prodigious dimensions; hence the term "pot-bellied, " so oftenapplied to the Indian ryot. I doubt very much, however, if the stomachof the Hindu, large as it is, could accommodate a quantity of rice, thecombustion of which would produce a very excessive development of heat. This substance, when cooked, contains a high proportion of water, theevaporation of which carries off a large amount of the heat generatedby the combustion of its respiratory constituents. The amount of motivepower developed by the Hindu is small as compared with that which theEuropean is capable of exerting; hence he has less necessity for ahighly nitrogenous diet. On the whole, then, I am disposed to thinkthat the food of the natives of tropical climates contains sufficientnitrogenous matters to effectually build up and keep in repair theirbodies; it also appears clear to me that the amount of heat developedin their bodies is not excessive, and that it is readily disposed ofin converting the water, which enters so largely into their diet, intovapor. The proportion of plastic to non-plastic elements in the dietof the Hindu and of the well-fed European, is probably as follows:-- Nitrogenous. Non-nitrogenous (calculated as starch. ) Hindu 1 to 9 European 1 to 8 This statement does not quite correspond with Liebig's, who estimatesthe proportion of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous substances in rice as10 to 123, in beef as ten to seventeen, and in veal as ten to one. Theresults of Lawes and Gilbert's investigations, already alluded to, have, however, dispelled the illusion that the plastic constituents of fleshexceed its non-plastic. In the potato, which at one time constitutedmore of the food of the Irish peasantry than rice does that of theHindu, the proportion of plastic to non-plastic materials is as 10 to110. The results of some analyses of the food grains consumed in thePresidency of Madras, made by Professor Mayer, of the University ofMadras, clearly prove that the food of the inhabitants of that part ofIndia is of a far more highly nitrogenous character than is generallysupposed. That the Hindu, who subsists exclusively on rice, exhibitsall the symptoms of deficient nutrition, is a fact to which numerouscompetent observers have testified. A slight consideration of the facts which I have mentioned leads to theconclusion that the food of the inhabitants of very cold regions isrequired to produce a large amount of heat. Melons, rice, and otherwatery vegetable productions, however delicious to the palate of theHindu, would be rejected with disgust by the Esquimaux, whilst the trainoil, blubber, and putrid seal's flesh which the children of the icyNorth consider highly palatable, would excite the loathing of the EastIndian. On this subject I may appositely quote the following remarks byDr. Kane, the Arctic explorer:--"Our journeys have taught us the wisdomof the Esquimaux appetite, and there are few among us who do not relisha slice of raw blubber, or a chunk of frozen walrus beef. The liver ofa walrus (awuktanuk), eaten with little slices of his fat--of a verityit is a delicious morsel. Fire would seem to spoil the curt, pithyexpression of vitality which belongs to its uncooked juices. CharlesLamb's roast pig was nothing to awuktanuk. I wonder that raw beef is noteaten at home. Deprived of extraneous fibre, it is neither indigestiblenor difficult to masticate. With acids and condiments, it makes a saladwhich an educated palate cannot help relishing; and as a powerful andcondensed heat-making and anti-scorbutic food, it has no rival. I makethis last broad assertion after carefully considering its truth. Thenatives of South Greenland prepare themselves for a long journey, by acourse of frozen seal. At Upper Navik they do the same with the narwhal, which is thought more heat-making than the seal; while the bear, to usetheir own expression, is 'stronger travel than all. ' In Smith's Sound, where the use of raw meat seems almost inevitable from the modes ofliving of the people, walrus holds the first rank. Certainly thispachyderm (Cetacean?) whose finely condensed tissue and delicatelypermeating fat (oh! call it not blubber) assimilate it to the ox, isbeyond all others, and is the best _fuel_ a man can swallow. " Thegastronomic capabilities of the Esquimaux and of other northern races, and their fondness for fatty food, are exhibited in a sufficientlystrong light in the following statements:-- Captain Parry weighed and presented to an Esquimaux lad the followingarticles:-- lb. Oz. Frozen seahorse flesh 4 4 Wild seahorse flesh 4 4 Bread and bread dust 1 12 Rich gravy soup 1 4 Water 10 0 Strong grog 1 tumbler. Raw spirits 3 wine glasses. This large quantity of food, which the lad did not consider excessive, was consumed by him within twenty-four hours. According to CaptainCochrane a reindeer suffices but for one repast for three Yakutis, andfive of them will devour at a sitting a calf weighing 200 lbs. Mr. Hooper, one of the officers of the _Plover_, in his narrative of theirresidence on the shores of Arctic America, states that "one of theladies who visited them was presented, as a jest, with a small tallowcandle, called a purser's dip. It was, notwithstanding, a very pleasantjoke to the damsel, who deliberately munched it up with evident relish, and finally drew the wick between her set teeth to clean off anyremaining morsels of fat. " The partiality for certain kinds of food, and disgust at othervarieties, which particular races of men exhibit, is an instinct whichthey cannot avoid obeying. Instead of exciting our disgust, as it toofrequently does, it should exalt our admiration of the infinite wisdomof the Creator, who by simply adapting man's desire for particular kindsof food to the external conditions under which he is placed, enables himto occupy and "subdue the earth" from the Equator to the Poles. The food of human beings and of the lower animals who inhabit coldcountries is nearly exclusively composed of animal substances. The flesh, fat, and oil of animals occupy less space than do thecorresponding elements of vegetables; consequently the nutriment theyafford is more concentrated, and a larger quantity can be stowed awaywithout inconvenience in the stomach. The heat-forming constituents ofthese substances constitute not only the chief part of their bulk, butthey are also capable of evolving a greater amount of heat than anyother of the respiratory elements. One pound of dry fat will develop asmuch heat as two and a half pounds of dry starch, and the fattest fleshincludes four times as much plastic materials as rice. The diet ofpeople all over the world, unless under circumstances which prevent thegratification of the natural appetite, establishes the intimate relationwhich subsists between cold and food. The appetite of man is at aminimum at the Equator, and at a maximum within the Arctic circle. Thestatements as to the voracity of Hottentots and Bosjesmans, recorded inthe narratives of travellers, do not in the slightest degree affect thegeneral rule that more is eaten in cold climates than in hot regions. These are mere records of gluttony, and it would not be difficult tofind parallel cases in our own country. Gluttony is an abnormalappetite, and the greater part of the food devoured under its unnatural, and generally unhealthy stimulus is not applied to the wants of the body. The bodies of animals are heated masses of matter, and are subject tothe ordinary laws of _radiation_. Every substance radiates its heat, andreceives in return a portion of that emitted from surrounding bodies. Iftwo bodies of unequal temperature be placed near each other, the warmerof the two will radiate a portion of its heat to the colder, and willreceive some of the heat of the latter in return; but as the warmer bodywill emit more heat than it will receive, the result will be, that aftera time, the length of which will depend on the nature of the bodies, both will acquire the same temperature. In very warm climates the bodiesof animals derive from the sun, and from the heated bodies surroundingthem, more heat than they give in return; and were it not for theirinternal cooling apparatus, which I have described, the heat so absorbedwould prove fatal. In every climate, on the contrary, where thetemperature is lower than 98°, or "blood heat, " the bodies of animalslose more heat by radiation than they receive by the same means. Thephilosophy of the _clothing_ of men and the _sheltering_ of the loweranimals is now evident. It is not only necessary that heat should bedeveloped within the body, but also that its wasteful expenditure shouldbe prevented. The latter is effected by interposing between the warmbody and the cold air some substances (such as fur or wool) which do notreadily permit the transmission of heat--_non-conductors_ as they aretermed. The close down of the eider duck is destined to protect itsbosom from the chilling influence of the icy waters of the North PolarSea, and the quadrupeds of the dreary Arctic Circle are sheltered bythick fur coverings from the piercing blasts of its long winter. _Fat Equivalents. _--Whilst it is quite certain that neither nerves normuscles can be elaborated exclusively out of fat, starch, sugar, or anyother non-nitrogenous substance, it is almost equally clear that fat maybe formed out of nitrogenous tissue. The quantity of fat, however, whichis produced in the animal mechanism, from purely nitrogenous foodappears to be relatively very small. No animal is capable of subsistingsolely on muscle-forming materials, no matter how abundantly supplied. The food of the Carnivora contains a large proportion of fat, and thenutriment of the Herbivora is largely made up of starch and otherfat-formers. Dogs, geese, and other animals fed exclusively upon albumenor white of egg rapidly decreased in weight, and after presenting allthe symptoms of starvation, died in three or four weeks. [8] The fat ofthe bodies of the Carnivora is almost entirely formed--and probably withlittle if any alteration--from the fatty constituents of their food. Herbivorous animals, on the contrary, derive nearly all their fat fromstarch, sugar, gum, cellulose, and other non-nitrogenous, but not fatty, materials. Although starch is convertible into fat, it is not to be understood thata pound weight of one of these bodies is equivalent to an equal quantityof the other. During the conversion of starch into fat, the greaternumber of its constituent atoms is converted into water and carbonicacid gas. The greater number of the more important metamorphoses oforganised matter, which take place in the animal organum, is the resultof either oxidation or fermentation: in the conversion of starch orsugar into fat or oil, both of these processes, it is stated, takeplace; a portion of the hydrogen is converted by oxidation into water, and by fermentation carbonic acid gas is formed, which removes bothoxygen and carbon. Perhaps in the formation of fat fermentation is aloneemployed--a portion of the oxygen being removed as water, and anotherportion as carbonic acid. The chief difference between the ultimatecomposition of starch and fat is, that the latter contains a much largerproportion of hydrogen and carbon. The knowledge of the exact quantityof starch required for the formation of a given amount of fat is ofimportance in enabling us to estimate the relative feeding value of bothsubstances. Certain difficulties stand in the way of our acquiring anaccurate knowledge on this point. Not only are there several distinctkinds of fat, but the precise formula, or atomic constitution of each, is as yet veiled in doubt. There are three fats which occur in manand the domesticated animals, and in vegetables. These are stearine, margarine, and oleine. The relative proportions of these vary in eachanimal: thus, in man and in the goose margarine is the most abundantfat, whilst oleine[9] exists in the pig in a greater proportion than inman, the sheep, or the ox. The composition of the animal fats does not, however, vary much; and this fact, together with other considerations, have led chemists to assume that two-and-a-half parts of starch arerequired for the production of one part of the mixed fats of thedifferent animals. Grape sugar and the pectine bodies--substances whichform a large proportion of the food of the Herbivora--contain moreoxygen and hydrogen than exist in starch, and, consequently, are notcapable of forming so large an amount of fat as an equal weight ofstarch. We may assume, then, that 2·50 parts of starch, 2·75 parts ofsugar, or 3 parts of the pectine bodies, are equivalent to 1 part offat. SECTION IV. RELATION BETWEEN THE COMPOSITION OF AN ANIMAL AND THAT OF ITS FOOD. I have already stated that the results of the admirable investigationsof Lawes and Gilbert prove that the non-nitrogenous constituents of thecarcasses of oxen, sheep, and pigs exceed in weight their nitrogenouselements. This fact is suggestive of many important questions. Whatrelation is there between the composition of an animal and that ofits food? Should an animal whose body contains three times as muchfat as lean flesh, be supplied with food containing three timesas much fat-formers as flesh-formers? To these questions there issome difficulty in replying. There _is_ a relationship between thecomposition of the body of an animal and that of its food; but therelationship varies so greatly that it is impossible to determine withany degree of accuracy the quantity of fat-formers which is required toproduce a given weight of fat in animals, taken _in globo_. If, however, we deal with a particular animal placed under certain conditions, it isthen possible to ascertain the amount of fat which a given weight ofnon-plastic food will produce. For the greater part of our knowledgeon this point, as on so many others, in the feeding of stock, we areindebted to Lawes and Gilbert. In the case of sheep fed upon fatteningfood these inquirers found that every 100 lbs. Of dry[10] non-nitrogenoussubstances consumed by them produced, on an average, an increase of 10lbs. In the weight of their fat. In the case of pigs, also, suppliedwith food, the proportion of non-nitrogenous matters appropriated tothe animal's increase was double that so applied in the bodies of thesheep. As the food supplied to these animals contained but a very smallproportion of ready-formed fat, it was inferred that four-fifths of thefat of the increase was derived from the sugar, starch, cellulose, andpectine bodies. These tables exhibit in a condensed form the results of one of theelaborate series of experiments in relation to this point carried outby Lawes and Gilbert:-- ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN _INCREASE_, FOR 100 PARTS OF EACH CONSUMED IN FOOD BY FATTENING SHEEP. +-------------------------------------------------------- | KEY: | A. --No. Of Animals. | B. --Mineral matter (ash). [11] | C. --Nitrogenous compounds (dry). | D. --Non-nitrogenous substance. | E. --Total dry substance. | --------------------+------------------------------------+------------------- | Amount of each | Class in Increase |for 100 of the same GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS. | consumed in Food. --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- | | | Description of | | | | | | | Fattening Food. | | | | | | |-------------+--------| | | | | | | Given | Given | | | | | | | in limited | ad | | | | BREED. | A. |Duration. | quantity. |libitum. | B. | C. | D. | E. --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- Class I. --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- | |wks. Dys. |Oilcake and |Swedish | | | | | | |clover chaff. |turnips. | | | | Cotswolds | 46| 19 5 | " | " |3·98|4·43|11·6|9·60 Leicesters | 40| 20 0 | " | " |3·15|3·39|12·0|9·48 Cross-bred wethers | 40| 20 0 | " | " |3·24|3·60|11·6|9·31 Cross-bred ewes | 40| 20 0 | " | " |3·25|3·60|11·8|9·40 Hants Downs | 40| 26 0 | " | " |3·40|4·28|10·3|8·49 Sussex Downs | 40| 26 0 | " | " |3·30|4·16|10·3|8·44 --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- Means |3·39|3·91|11·3|9·12 =========================================================+====+====+====+==== Class III. --(Series 1. ) --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- | | | |Swedish | | | | | | | |turnips. | | | | Hants Downs | 5 | 13 6 |Oilcake. | " |4·16|4·01|11·1|9·33 | 5 | 13 6 |Oats. | " |5·73|7·07|10·0|9·45 | 5 | 13 6 |Clover chaff. | " |3·98|7·44| 9·0|8·49 --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+---------+----+---- Means |4·62|6·17|10·0|9·09 =========================================================+====+====+====+==== Class IV. --(Series 2. ) --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- | | | | Clover | | | | | | | | chaff. | | | | Hants Downs | 5 | 19 1 |Oilcake. | " |1·69|2·20| 6·3|5·07 | 5 | 19 1 |Linseed. | " |1·81|2·32| 6·2|5·19 | 5 | 19 1 |Barley. | " |1·75|2·82| 5·7|5·00 | 5 | 19 1 |Malt. | " |1·46|2·17| 5·3|4·61 --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- Means |1·68|2·38| 5·9|4·97 =========================================================+====+====+====+==== Class V. --(Series 4. ) --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- | | | |Mangolds| | | | Hants Downs | 4 | 10 0 |Barley ground| " |3·80|5·65| 9·8|8·91 | 5 | 10 0 |Malt, ground, | " |4·04|6·18|10·4|9·49 | | |& malt dust. | | | | | | 4 | 10 0 |Barley ground| " |3·72|6·35| 8·9|8·28 | | | and steeped. | | | | | | 4 | 10 0 |Malt, ground | " |2·95|4·34| 9·3|8·23 | | |and steeped, | | | | | | | |& malt dust. | | | | | | 5 | 10 0 |Malt, ground, | " |3·46|5·46| 9·1|8·25 | | |& malt dust. | | | | | --------------------+---+---------+-------------+--------+----+----+----+---- Means |3·59|5·60| 9·5|8·63 ---------------------------------------------------------+----+----+----+---- Means of all |3·27|4·41| 9·4|8·06 =========================================================+====+====+====+==== ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF CERTAIN CONSTITUENTS STORED UP IN _INCREASE_, FOR 100 OF EACH CONSUMED IN FOOD, BY FATTENING PIGS. +----------------------------------------------------------------- | KEY: | A. --No. Of Animals. | B. --Mineral matter (ash). | C. --Nitrogenous compounds (dry). | D. --Non-nitrogenous substance. | E. --Total dry substance. | F. --Fat. | -----------+----------------------------------------+------------------------ | Amount of each Class | in Increase for GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS. | 100 of the same | consumed in Food. --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- | | Description of Fattening Food. | | | | | | |--------------------+-------------------| | | | | | | Given in | Given | | | | | A. |Duration|limited quantities. | ad libitum. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. ==+========+====================+===================+====+=====+====+====+=== The Analysed "Fat Pig. "[12] --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- | weeks | | | | | | 1 | 10 |Mixture of bran 1, bean and lentil-meal |2·66| 7·76|17·6|14·9|405 | | 2, and barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum| | | | | ==+========+========================================+====+=====+====+====+=== Series I. --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- 3 | 8 |None. |Bean & lentil-meal. |0·68| 4·88|25·3|17·5|621 3 | " |Indian-meal. | " |1·86| 6·39|23·7|17·9|477 3 | " |Indian-meal and bran| " |0·33| 5·02|21·1|16·1|362 3 | " |None. |Indian meal. |2·09| 9·28|20·9|18·6|300 3 | " |Bean and lentil-meal| " |0·99| 9·18|20·9|18·4|324 3 | " |Bran. | " |2·35|12·10|20·3|18·7|300 3 | " |Bean, lentil-meal, | " |2·71|10·03|21·3|18·5|307 | | and bran. | " | | | | | | | +-------------------| | | | | 3 | " |Bean, lentil-meal, Indian-meal, bran, |0·22| 5·65|21·1|16·8|362 | | ad libitum. | | | | | --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- Means |0·74| 7·82|21·8|17·8|382 ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+=== Series II. --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- 3 | 8 |None. |Bean & lentil-meal. |3·20| 3·12|26·5|18·2|801 3 | " |Barley-meal. | " |0·16| 4·65|19·2|14·7|575 3 | " |Bran. | " |0·16| 3·99|21·2|15·2|547 3 | " |Barley-meal and bran| " |0·75| 4·57|20·1|15·6|514 3 | " |None. |Barley-meal. |0·56|10·09|18·5|16·9|574 3 | " |Bean and lentil-meal| " |0·53| 6·57|21·1|17·5|620 3 | " |Bran. | " |0·49| 9·79|18·9|16·9|506 3 | " |Bean, lentil-meal, | " |4·33| 4·49|22·7|18·0|578 | | and bran. | | | | | | | | +-------------------| | | | | 6 | " |Mixture of bran 1, barley-meal 2, and |0·27| 5·65|20·4|16·1|495 | | bean lentil-meal 3 parts, ad libitum. | | | | | 6 | " |Mixture of bran 1, bean lentil-meal 2, |1·58| 8·10|21·1|17·6|515 | | barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum. | | | | | --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- Means |0·59| 6·10|21·0|16·7|572 ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+=== Series III. --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- 4 | 8 |Dried Cod Fish. |Bran & Indian-meal |1·06| 5·06|24·3|18·1|315 | | | (equal parts). | | | | | 4 | " | " |Indian-meal. |0·26| 8·16|25·6|20·9|352 --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- Means |0·66| 6·61|24·9|19·5|333 ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+=== Series IV. --+--------+--------------------+-------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- 3 | 10 |Lentil-meal & bran. |Sugar. |3·07| 9·30|19·4|16·9| 3 | " | " |Starch. |3·18| 9·36|19·4|16·9| 3 | " | " |Sugar & starch. |4·06|10·78|17·7|16·1| | | +-------------------| | | | | 3 | " |Lentils, bran, sugar, starch, ad libitum|4·80| 9·96|18·7|16·5| --+--------+----------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----|--- Means |3·78| 9·85|18·8|16·6| ----------------------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+--- Means of all |0·58| 7·34|21·2|17·3|472 ====================================================+====+=====+====+====+=== The larger appropriation of the non-nitrogenous constituents of its foodby the pig, as compared with the sheep, must not be attributed solely toits greater tendency to fatten, but partly to the far more digestiblenature of the food supplied to it. SECTION V. RELATION BETWEEN THE QUANTITY OF FOOD CONSUMED BY AN ANIMAL, AND THEINCREASE IN ITS WEIGHT, OR OF THE AMOUNT OF ITS WORK. The manifestations of that wondrous and mysterious principle, _life_, are completely dependent upon the decomposition of organised matter. Notan effort of the mind, not a motion of the body, can be accomplishedwithout involving the destruction of a portion of the tissues. In ageneral sense we may regard the fat of the animal to be its store offuel, and its lean flesh to be the source of its motive power. As theevolution of heat within the body is proportionate to the quantity offat consumed, so also is the amount of force developed in the animalmechanism in a direct ratio to the proportion of flesh decomposed. The quantity of fat burned in the body is estimated by the amount ofcarbonic acid gas expired from the lungs and perspired through the skin;the proportion of flesh disorganised is ascertained by the quantity ofurea eliminated in the liquid egesta. The amount of urea excreted dailyby a man is influenced by the activity of his mind, as well as by thatof his body. A man engaged in physical labor wears out more of his bodythan one who does no work; and a man occupied in a pursuit involvingintense mental application, consumes a greater proportion of his tissuethan the man who works only with his body. [13] In each of these cases, there is a different amount of tissue disorganised, and consequently ademand for different amounts of food, with which to repair the waste. But all the food consumed by a man is not devoted to the reparation ofthe tissue worn out in the operations of thinking and working. A humanbeing whose mind is a perfect blank, and who performs no bodily work, excretes a large quantity of urea, the representative of an equivalentamount of worn-out flesh. In fact the greater part of the food consumedby a man serves merely to sustain the functions of the body--thecirculation of the blood--the action of the heart--the movements of themuscles concerned in respiration--in a word, the various motions of thebody which are independent of the will. According to Professor Haughton, about three-fourths of the food of a working man of 150 lbs. Weight, areused in merely keeping him _alive_, the remaining fourth is expended inthe production of mechanical force, constituting his daily toil. In the nutrition of the lower animals, as in that of man, the amount offood made use of by a particular individual depends upon its age, itsweight, the amount of work it performs, and probably its temper. Asthree-fourths of the weight of the food of a laboring man are expendedin merely keeping him alive, it is obvious that the withholding of theremaining fourth would render him incapable of working. An amount offood which adequately maintains the vital and mechanical powers of threemen, serves merely to keep four alive. It is the same with the horse, the ox, and every other animal useful to man: each makes use of acertain amount of food, _for its own purposes_; all that is consumedbeyond that is applied for the benefit of its owner. Let us take thecase of two of our most useful quadrupeds--the horse and the ox. Thehorse is used as an immediate source of motive power. For this purposefood is supplied to it, the greater portion of which is consumed inkeeping the animal alive, and the rest for the development of its motivepower. Abundance of food is as necessary to the natural mechanism, the horse, as fuel is to the artificial mechanism, the steam-engine. In each case the amount of force developed is, within certain limits, proportionate to the quantity of vegetable or altered vegetable matterconsumed. The greater portion of the ox's food is also consumed inkeeping its body alive, and the rest, instead of being expended in thedevelopment of motive power, accumulates as surplus stores of flesh, which in due time are applied to the purpose of repairing the organismsof men. It is evident then, that the greater sufferer from the deficientsupply of food to animals is their owner. That they cannot be _taught_to _fast_ is a fact which does not appear very patent to some minds. The man who sought by gradually reducing the daily quantum of hishorse's provender to accustom it to work without eating, was justlypunished for his ignorant cruelty. The day before the horse's allowancewas to be reduced to pure water, and when its owner's hope appearedcertain of speedy realisation, the animal died. There are men who actalmost as foolishly as the parsimonious horse owner in this fable did;and who are as properly punished as he was. Such men are to be found inthe farmers who overstock their sheep pastures, and whose "lean kine"are the _laughing stock_ of their more intelligent neighbours. The weight of a working full-grown horse does not vary from dayto day, as the weight of its egesta is equal to that of its food. The desideratum in the case of the working animal is that its foodshould be as thoroughly decomposed as possible, and the force pentup in it liberated within the animal's body: as an ox, on the contrary, increases in weight from day to day, it is desirable that as little aspossible of its food should be disorganised. The wasteful expenditureof the animal's fat may be obviated by shelter, and the application ofartificial heat: the retardation of the destruction of its flesh is evenmore under our control; for, as active muscular exertion involves thedecomposition of tissue, we have merely to diminish the activity ofthe motions which cause this waste. This, in practice, is effected bystall-feeding. Confined within the narrow boundaries of the stall, themuscular action of the animal is reduced to a minimum, or limited tothose uncontrollable actions which are conditions in the maintenanceof animal life. The proportion of the food of oxen, sheep, and pigs, which isconsumed in maintaining their vital functions, has not been accuratelyascertained; probably, as in the case of man, it is strictlyproportionate to the animal's weight. We can determine the amountof plastic food consumed by an animal during a given period: we canascertain the increase (if any) in the weight of its body; and finally, we can weigh and analyse its egesta. With these data it is comparativelyeasy to ascertain the quantity of food which produced the increase inthe animal's weight; but they do not enable us to determine the amountexpended in keeping it alive, because the egesta might be largely madeup of unappropriated food--organised matter which had done no work inthe animal body. When we come to know the precise quantity of nitrogen, in a purely, or nearly pure, mineral form[14] excreted by an animal, then we shall be in a position to estimate the proportion of its foodexpended in sustaining the essential vital processes which continuouslygo on in its body. But although we are in ignorance as to the precisequantity of flesh-formers expended in keeping the animal alive, we knowpretty accurately the amount which is consumed in producing a givenweight of its flesh, or rather in causing a certain increase in itsweight. This knowledge is the result of numerous investigations, ofwhich by far the most valuable are those of Lawes and Gilbert. Theseexperimenters found that fattening pigs stored up about 7-1/2 percent. Of the plastic materials of their food, whilst sheep accumulatedsomewhat less than 5 per cent. That is, 92-1/2 out of every 100 lbs. Weight of the nitrogenous food of the pig, and 95 out of every 100 lbs. Of that of the sheep, are eliminated in the excretions of those animals. It appears from the results of Lawes and Gilbert's experiments, thatpigs store up in their _increase_ about 20 per cent. , sheep 12 percent. , and oxen 8 per cent. Of their (dry) food. The relative increaseof the fatty, nitrogenous, and mineral constituents whilst fattening, are shown in this table. ---------------------+------------------------------------------------- |Estimated per cent. In Increase whilst Fattening. CASES. +--------+-----------+-----------+---------------- |Mineral |Nitrogenous| | | matter |matter | Fat (dry). | Total dry |(ash). |(dry). | | substance. ---------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+---------------- Average of 98 oxen | 1·47 | 7·69 | 66·2 | 75·4 Average of 348 sheep | 1·80 | 7·13 | 70·4 | 79·53 Average of 80 pigs | 0·44 | 6·44 | 71·5 | 78·40 ---------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+---------------- The quantity of food consumed daily by an animal is, as might be expected, proportionate to the weight of its body. The pig consumes, for every 100lbs. Of its weight, from 26 to 30 lbs. Of food, the sheep 15 lbs. , andthe ox 12 to 13 lbs. These figures and the statements which I have maderelative to the proportions of fat and plastic elements in the animals'bodies, apply to them in their fattening state, and when the food isof a highly nutritious character. The calf and the young pig willmake use--to cause their increase--of a larger portion of nitrogenousmatters. The sheep, however, being early brought to maturity, will, evenwhen very young, store up the plastic and non-plastic constituents ofits food, in nearly the same relative proportions that I have mentioned. As it is the food taken into the body that produces heat and motion, itmight at first sight appear an easy matter to determine the amount ofheat or of motion which a given weight of a particular kind of food iscapable of producing within the animal mechanism. But this performanceis not so easy a task as it appears to be. In the first place, all ofthe food may not be perfectly oxidised, though thoroughly disorganisedwithin the body; secondly, as animals rarely subsist on one kind offood, it is difficult, when they are supplied with mixed aliments, todetermine which of them is the most perfectly decomposed. But though thedifficulties which I have mentioned, and many others, render the taskof determining the nutritive values of food substances difficult, theproblem is by no means insoluble, and, in fact, is in a fair way ofbeing solved. Professor Frankland, in a paper published in the numberof the _Philosophical Magazine_ for September, 1866, determines therelative alimental value of foods by ascertaining the quantity of heatevolved by each when burned in oxygen gas. From the results of theseresearches he has constructed a table, showing the amount of foodnecessary to keep a man alive for twenty-four hours. The followingfigures, which I select from this table, are of interest to thestock-feeder:-- Weight necessary to sustain a man's life for twenty-four hours. Kinds of Food. Ounces. Potatoes 13·4 Apples 20·7 Oatmeal 3·4 Flour 3·5 Pea Meal 3·5 Bread 6·4 Milk 21·2 Carrots 25·6 Cabbage 31·8 Butter 1·8 Lump Sugar 3·9 These figures show the relative calefacient, or heat-producing powers ofthe different foods named _outside_ the body; but there is some doubt asto their having the same relative values when burned _within_ the body. The woody fibre of the carrots and cabbages is very combustible in thecoal furnace, but it is very doubtful if more than 20 or 30 per cent. Ofthis substance is ever burned in the _animal furnace_. However, suchinquiries as those carried out by Frankland possess great value; andtables constructed upon their results cannot fail to be useful in thedrawing up of dietary scales, whether for man or for the inferioranimals. I may here remark, that in my opinion the nutritive value of food admitsof being very accurately determined by the adoption of the followingmethod:-- 1. The animal experimented upon to be supplied daily with a weighedquantity of food, the composition and calefacient value of which hadbeen accurately determined. 2. The gases, vapors, and liquid and solidegesta thrown off from its body to be collected, analysed, and thecalefacient[15] value of the combustible portion of them to be determined. 3. The increase (if any) of the weight of the animal to be ascertained. 4. The difference between the amount of heat evolvable by the foodsbefore being consumed, and that actually obtained by the combustionof the egesta into which they were ultimately converted, would be theamount actually set free and rendered available within the body. Thecalculations would be somewhat affected by an increase in the weightof the animal's body; but it would not be difficult to keep the weightstationary, or nearly so, and there are other ways of getting oversuch a difficulty. An experiment such as this would be a costly one, and could not be properly conducted unless by the aid of an apparatussimilar to that employed by Pettenkofer in his experiments onrespiration. This apparatus, which was made at the expense of the Kingof Bavaria, cost nearly £600. _Value of Manure. _--It is a complication in the question of theeconomic feeding of the farm animals that the value of their manuremust be taken into account. Of the three classes of food constituents, two--the mineral and nitrogenous--are recoverable in the animal's bodyand manure; the non-nitrogenous is partly recoverable in the fat. I shall take the case of a sheep, which will consume weekly per 100lbs. Of its weight, 12 lbs. Of fat-formers, and 3 lbs. Of flesh-formers. Twelve per cent. Of the fat-formers will be retained in the _increase_, but the rest will be expended in keeping the animal warm, and theproducts of its combustion--carbonic acid and water--will be useless tothe farmer. It is, therefore, desirable to diminish as much as possiblethe combustion of fatty matter in the animal's body; and this iseffected, as I have already explained, by keeping it in a warm place. Of the flesh-forming substance only five per cent. Is retained in theincrease, the rest is partly consumed in carrying on the movements ofthe animal--partly expelled from its body unaltered, or but slightlyaltered, in composition. The solid excrement of the animal containsall the undigested food; but of this only the mineral and nitrogenousconstituents are valuable as manure. The nitrogen of the plasticmaterials which are expended in maintaining the functions of the body iseliminated from the lungs, through the skin, and by the kidneys--perhapsalso, but certainly only to a small extent, by the rectum. The food consumed by an animal is disposed of in the following way:--Aportion passes unchanged, or but slightly altered, through the body;another part is assimilated and subsequently disorganised and ejected;the rest is converted into the carcass of the animal at the time of itsdeath. The undigested food and aliment which had undergone conversioninto flesh and other tissues, and subsequent disorganisation, constitutethe excrements, or manure, of the animal. The richer in nitrogen andphosphoric acid the food is, the more valuable will be the manure; sothat the money value of a feeding stuff is not determinable merely bythe amount of flesh which it makes, but also, and to a great extent, by the value of the manure into which it is ultimately converted. Corn and oil-cakes are powerful fertilisers of the soil; but the threeprinciples which constitute their manurial value--namely, nitrogen(ammonia), phosphoric acid, and potash--are purchasable at far lowerprices in guano and other manures. Nevertheless, many farmers believethat the most economical way to produce good manure is to feed theirstock with concentrated aliment, in order to greatly increase the valueof their excreta. They consider that a pound's worth of oil-cake, or ofcorn, will produce at least a pound's worth of meat, and that the manurewill be had for nothing, or, rather, will be the profit of the business. The richer food is in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, the more valuablewill be the manure it yields. It follows, therefore, that if two kindsof feeding stuff produce equal amounts of meat, that the preferenceshould be given to that which contains the more nitrogen and phosphoricacid. Mr. Lawes, who has thrown light upon this point, as well as uponso many others, has made careful estimates of the value of the manureproduced from different foods. They are given in the following table:-- TABLE Showing the estimated value of the manure obtained on the consumption of one ton of different articles of food; each supposed to be of good quality of its kind. Estimated Money Value Description of Food. Of the Manure from One Ton of each Food. 1. Decorticated cotton-seed cake £6 10 0 2. Rape-cake 4 18 0 3. Linseed-cake 4 12 0 4. Malt-dust 4 5 0 5. Lentils 3 17 0 6. Linseed 3 13 0 7. Tares 3 13 6 8. Beans 3 13 6 9. Peas 3 2 6 10. Locust beans 1 2 6(?) 11. Oats 1 14 6 12. Wheat 1 13 0 13. Indian corn 1 11 6 14. Malt 1 11 6 15. Barley 1 9 6 16. Clover-hay 2 5 0 17. Meadow-hay 1 10 0 18. Oat-straw 0 13 6 19. Wheat-straw 0 12 6 20. Barley-straw 0 10 6 21. Potatoes 0 7 0 22. Mangolds 0 5 0 23. Swedish turnips 0 4 3 24. Common turnips 0 4 0 25. Carrots 0 4 0 All the saline matter contained in the food is either converted intoflesh, or is recoverable in the form of manure, but a portion of itsnitrogen appears to be lost by respiration and perspiration. Reisetstates that 100 parts of the nitrogen of food given to sheep uponwhich he experimented, were disposed of as follows:-- Recovered in the excreta 58·3 Recovered in the meat, tallow, and skin 13·7 Lost in respiration 28·0 ------ 100·00 Haughton's experiments, performed upon men, gave results which provedthat no portion of the nitrogen of their food was lost by perspirationor by respiration. Barral, on the contrary, asserts that nitrogenis given off from the bodies of both man and the inferior animals. Boussingault states that horses, sheep, and pigs exhale nitrogen. A cow, giving milk, on which he had experimented, lost 15 per cent. Of the nitrogen of its food by perspiration. The amount of nitrogenwhich Reiset states that sheep exhale is exceedingly great, and itis difficult to reconcile his results with those obtained by Voit, Bischoff, Regnault, Pettenkofer, and Haughton. Of course, men and sheepare widely different animals; but still it is unlikely that all thenitrogen of the food of man should be recoverable in his egesta, whilstnearly a third of the nitrogen of the food of the sheep should bedissipated as gas. I think further experiments are necessary before thispoint can be regarded as settled; and it is probable that it will yet befound that all, or nearly all, of the nitrogen of the food of animals isrecoverable in their egesta. Regarding, then, an animal as a mechanism by which meat is to be"manufactured, " five economic points in relation to it demand thefeeder's attention: these are--the first cost of the mechanism, theexpense of maintaining the mechanism in working order, the price ofthe raw materials intended for conversion into meat, the value of themeat, and the value of the manure. In proportion to the attention givento these points, will be the feeder's profits; but they are, to someextent, affected by the climatic, geographic, and other conditions underwhich the farm is placed. * * * * * [Footnote 1: If the elements were only capable of combining with eachother in simple ratios, the number of their combinations would be aslimited as that of the letters of the alphabet; but as one, two, ormore atoms of oxygen can combine with one, two, or more atoms ofother elements, we can assign no limits to the number of _possible_combinations. There are hundreds of distinct substances formed of buttwo elements, namely, hydrogen and carbon. ] [Footnote 2: In a paper by Professor Sullivan, of Dublin, the conversionof one of these substances into another _outside_ the animal mechanism, is almost incontrovertibly proved. ] [Footnote 3: _Experimental Inquiry into the Composition of some ofthe Animals Fed and Slaughtered as Human Food. _ By John Bennet Lawes, F. R. S. , F. C. S. , and Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph. D. , F. C. S. _PhilosophicalTransactions of the Royal Society. _ Part II. , 1860. ] [Footnote 4: From the Greek _plasso_, "to form. " Plastic materials aresometimes termed _formative_ elements; both terms imply the belief thatthey are capable of giving shape, or form, not only to themselves, butalso to other kinds of matter not possessed of formative power. ] [Footnote 5: The slow conversion of phosphorus into phosphoric acidtakes place in the animal organism; its gradual oxidation in the openair gives rise only to an imperfectly oxidised body--_phosphorous acid_. But the latter fact does not invalidate the general proposition, thatthe heat emitted by a substance undergoing the process of oxidation isproportionate to the amount of oxygen with which it combines, and is notinfluenced by the length of time occupied by the process, further thanthis, that if the oxidation be _very_ rapidly effected, a portion of theheat will be converted into an _equivalent_ amount of light. ] [Footnote 6: This statement is not absolutely correct, but the rangeof variation is confined within such narrow limits as to be quiteinsignificant. ] [Footnote 7: Doubt has recently been thrown on the truth of this beliefby Frankland, Fick, and Wislicenus. ] [Footnote 8: The results of Savory's experiments on rats appear to provethat animals can live on food destitute of fat, sugar, starch, or anyother fat-forming substance. I think, however, that animals could hardlythrive on purely nitrogenous food. The conclusions which certain latewriters, who object to Liebig's theory of animal heat, have deduced fromSavory's investigations, appear to me to be quite unfounded. ] [Footnote 9: So termed because it is the basis of the common oils; thefluid portion of fat is composed of oleine. ] [Footnote 10: The term _dry_ is applied to the _solid_ constituents ofthe food. Thus, a pig fed with 100 lbs. Of potatoes would be said tohave been supplied with 25 lbs. Of dry potatoes, because water forms75 per cent. Of the weight of those tubers. ] [Footnote 11: The amounts of "mineral matter" are too high, owing to theadventitious matters (dirt) retained by the wool. ] [Footnote 12: This pig was completely analysed by Lawes and Gilbert. ] [Footnote 13: The results of recent and accurately conductedinvestigations prove that men engaged in occupations requiring thehighest exercise of the intellectual faculties, require more nutritiousfood, and even a greater quantity of nutriment, than the hardest workedlaborers, such as paviours, and navvies. I have been assured by anextensive manufacturer, that on promoting his workmen to situations of_greater_ responsibility but _less_ physically laborious than thosepreviously filled by them, he found that they required more food andthat, too, of a better quality. This change in their appetite wasnot the result of increased wages, which in most cases remained thesame--the decrease in the amount of labour exacted being considered inmost cases a sufficient equivalent for the increased responsibilitythrown upon them. ] [Footnote 14: As ammonia, urea, uric acid, or hippuric acid; all of whichare nearly or perfectly mineralised substances. ] [Footnote 15: The excrements of animals are capable of evolving, bycombustion, enormous amounts of heat. ] PART II. ON THE BREEDING AND BREEDS OF STOCK. SECTION I. THE BREEDING OF STOCK. _Cross Breeding. _--For many years past feeders have zealously occupiedthemselves in the improvement of their stock, and the result of theirlabors is observable in the marked superiority of the breeds of thepresent day over their ancestors in the last century. The improvementof animals designed as food for man is effected by keeping them on aliberal dietary, by selecting only the best individuals for sires anddams, and by combining the excellencies of two or more varieties of aspecies in one breed. A species consists of a number of animals whichexhibit so many points of resemblance, that they are regarded by thegreat majority of naturalists to be the descendants of a single pair. If we except the believers in the hypotheses relative to the originof existing varieties of animals and plants, propounded by Lamarck, Darwin, and other naturalists of the "advanced school, " there is ageneral belief in the immutability of species. The individuals of anexisting species, say dogs, can never acquire the peculiar featuresof another species; nor can their descendants, if we except hybrids, ever become animals in which the characteristics of the dog tribe areirrecognisable. By various influences, such as, for example, differencesin food and climate, and domestication, a species may be split into_varieties_, or _breeds_, all of which, however, retain the moreimportant characteristics of the primordial type. There appears to beno limit to the varieties of dogs, yet one can perceive by a glance thatthere is no specific difference between the huge Mont St. Bernard dogand the diminutive poodle, or between the sparse greyhound and the burlymastiff. All the varieties of our domestic fowl have been traced toa common origin--the wild Indian fowl (_Gallus bankiva_). Even Darwinadmits that all the existing kinds of horses are, in all probability, the descendants of an original stock; and it is generally agreed thatthe scores of varieties of pigeons own a common ancestor in the rockpigeon (_Columba livia_). As certain individuals are grouped by naturalists into species, soparticular species, which in habits and general appearance resemble eachother, are arranged under the head of genus. The horse, the ass, and thezebra are formed on nearly the same anatomical plan; they are thereforeclassed together, and designated the genus _Equus_, a term derived fromthe Latin word _equus_, a horse--that animal being regarded as the type, or perfect member of the group. Thus the horse, in the nomenclature ofthe naturalist, is termed _Equus caballus_; the ass, _Equus asinus_; andthe zebra, _Equus zebra_. By a further extension of this principle ofclassification, very closely allied genera are united under the termof _family_. The different varieties of the same species breed, as might beanticipated, freely together; but it frequently happens that twoindividuals of different species pair, and produce an animal whichinherits some of the properties of each of its progenitors. Thesehalf-breeds are termed _hybrids_, or _mules_, and we have familiarexamples of them in the common mule and the jennet. As a general rule, animals exhibit a disinclination to breed with other than members oftheir own species; and although the interference of man may overcomethis natural repugnance, he can only effect the fruitful congress ofindividuals belonging to closely allied species, being members of thesame genus. Hybrids in the genus _Equus_ are very common. A cross hasbeen produced between the he-goat and the ewe; the camel and thedromedary have bred together; and Buffon succeeded in producing a hybridin which three animals were represented--namely, the bison, the zebu, and the ox. On the other hand, attempts to effect a cross betweenanimals belonging to different families have generally failed; nor isit at all probable that a cross will ever be produced between the pigand the sheep, between the horse and the cow, or, most unlikely of all, between the dog and the cat. It is the general belief that hybrids are sterile, or, at least, thatthey are incapable of propagation _inter se_. This may be true withrespect to the hybrids of species not very closely allied; but thatthere are exceptions to the rule is quite clear from Roux's experimentswith hares and rabbits. This gentleman, who is, or was, the presidentof a French agricultural society, but who makes no profession ofscientific knowledge, has succeeded, after several failures, in producinga fruitful cross between the rabbit and the hare. This hybrid hasreceived the name of leporide (from the Latin _leporinus_, pertaining toa hare), and it is different from former crosses, in being five partshare, and three parts rabbit. M. Roux has bred this hybrid during thelast eighteen years, and has not observed the slightest appearanceof decay of race manifest itself up to the present, so that, for allpractical purposes, the leporide may be regarded as an addition to thedistinct species of animals. The leporide fattens rapidly, and with butlittle expenditure of food. Sold at the age of four months, it realises, in France, a price four times greater than that commanded by a rabbit ofthe same age; and at a year old it weighs on an average ten pounds, andsometimes as much as sixteen pounds. It breeds at four months, continuesthirty days in gestation, and yearly produces five or six litters offrom five to eight young. To produce this hybrid is by no meansdifficult. A leveret, just old enough to dispense with the maternalnutriment, should be placed with a few doe rabbits of his own age, apart from other animals. He will soon become familiar with the does, and when they attain the age of puberty, all the rabbits save one or twoshould be removed. Speedily those left with the hare will become withyoung, upon which they should be removed, and replaced by others. Afterthis the hare should be kept in a hutch by himself, and a doe left withhim at night only. As the hare is naturally a very shy animal, it willonly breed when perfect quietness prevails. The half-bred produced inthe first instance should now be put to the hare, and a cross, threeparts hare, and one part rabbit, obtained. The permanent breed shouldthen be obtained by crossing the quadroon doe leporide, if I may use theterm, with the half-bred buck. I have directed attention to the production of the leporide becauseI believe that the problems in relation to it, which have been solvedby M. Roux, have an important bearing upon the breeding of animalsof greater importance than hares and rabbits. Here we find a race ofanimals produced by the fusion of two species, which naturally exist ina state of mutual enmity, and which differ in many important respects. The hare and the rabbit are respectively of but little value as food, atleast they are of no importance to the feeder; yet a cross between themturns out to be an excellent meat-producing animal, which may be rearedwith considerable profit to the feeder. It is thus clearly shown thattwo kinds of animals, neither of which is of great utility, may giverise to an excellent cross, if their blood, so to speak, be blended inproper proportions. A half-bred animal may be less valuable than itsparents, but a quadroon may greatly excel its progenitors. The goatand sheep are so closely related that they are classed by naturalistsunder one head--_Capridæ_. Some kinds of sheep have hair like goats, andcertain varieties of goats have fleeces that closely resemble those onthe sheep. There are sheep with horns, and goats without those strikingappendages. The Cape of Good Hope goat might easily be mistaken for asheep. It would seem, judging by the results of Roux's experiments, thatthere is no great difficulty in the way of obtaining a cross between thesheep and the goat. I do not mean an ordinary half-breed, but a prolifichybrid similar to the leporide. Of course, it is impossible, _a priori_, to say whether or not such a hybrid race, supposing it produceable, would be valuable; but as goats can find a subsistence on mountainswhere sheep would starve, it is possible that an animal, essentially asheep, but with a streak of goat blood in it, could be profitably kepton very poor uplands. Whether a race of what we might term _caprides_ beformed or not we have derived most suggestive information from M. Roux'sexperiments, which I hope may be turned to account in what is by far themost important field of enquiry, the judicious crossing of varieties ofthe same species. It is a _quæstio vexata_ whether or not the parents generally exercisedifferent influences upon the shape and size of their offspring. Mr. Spooner supports the supposition--a very popular one--that the siregives shape to the external organs, whilst the dam affects the internalorganisation. I have considerable doubt as to the probability of thistheory. The children who spring from the union of a white man with anegress possess physical and intellectual qualities which are nearly ifnot quite the _mean_ of their parents; but the offspring of parents, both of the same race--be it Caucasian, Mongolian, or Indian--frequentlyconform, intellectually and corporeally, to either of their progenitors. Thus, of the children of a tall, thin, dark man, and a short, fat, fair woman, some will be like their father, and the others willresemble their mother, or, perhaps, all may "take after" either parent. Sometimes a child appears to be in every respect unlike its parents, and occasionally the likeness of an ancestor appears in a descendant, inwhom no resemblance to his immediate progenitors can be detected. It ishighly probable that both parents exercise, under most circumstances, ajoint influence upon the qualities of their offspring, but that one ofthem may produce so much greater an effect that the influence of theother is not recognisable, except perhaps to a very close observer. ButI doubt very much that any particular organ of the offspring is, as arule, more liable to the influence of the sire than of the dam, or _viceversâ_; and the breeder who believes that the sire alone is concerned inmoulding the external form of the offspring, and who consequently paysno attention to this point in the dam, will often find himself out inhis reckonings. In order to be certain of a satisfactory result, the damshould in every respect be equal to the sire. In practice, however, thisis not always the case, for as sires are so few as compared with thenumber of dams, the greatest efforts have been directed towards theimprovement of the former. There is, or ought to be, a familiar maxim with breeders, that "likebegets like, or the likeness of an ancestor. " This is a "wise saw, " ofwhich there are many "modern instances:" the excellencies or defects ofsire or dam are certain to be transmitted through several generations, though they may not appear in all. As a general rule, good animals willproduce a good, and defective animals a defective, offspring, but itsometimes happens that a bull or cow, of the best blood, is decidedlyinferior, whilst really good animals are occasionally the produce ofparents of "low degree. " If the defects or excellencies of animals wereineradicable there would be no need for the science of breeding; but bythe continual selection of only the most superior animals for breedingpurposes the defects of a species gradually disappear, and the goodqualities are alone transmitted. As, however, animals that are used asfood for man are to some extent in an abnormal condition, the pointswhich may be excellencies in that state, would not have been such in theoriginal condition of the animal. We find, therefore, that the improvedbreeds of oxen and sheep exhibit some tendency to revert to theiroriginal condition, and it is only by close attention to the diet, breeding, and general management of these animals that this tendency canbe successfully resisted. Sometimes, however, an animal of even the bestbreed will "return to nature, " or will acquire some undesirable quality;such an animal should be rejected for breeding purposes, for its defectswould in all probability be transmitted to its descendants, near orremote. A case, which admirably illustrates this point, is recorded inthe _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1813, and it is sufficientlyinteresting to be mentioned here:-- Seth Wright, who possessed a small farm on the Charles River, about sixteen miles from Boston, had a small flock, consisting of fifteen ewes and one ram. One of these ewes, in 1791, produced a singular-shaped male lamb. Wright was advised to kill his former ram and keep this new one in place of it; the consequence was, the formation of a new breed of sheep, which gradually spread over a considerable part of New England, but the introduction of the Merino has nearly destroyed them again. This new variety was called the Otter, or "Ankon" breed. They are remarkable for the shortness of their legs, and the crookedness of their forelegs, like an elbow. They are much more feeble and much smaller than the common sheep, and less able to break over low fences; and this was the reason of their being continued and propagated. Here we have an instance of an animal propagating a defect througha great number of descendants, though it had not acquired it fromits own ancestors. It is, however, probable that occasionally a maledescendant of this short-legged ram possessed considerably longer organsof locomotion than the founder of his breed; and, consequently, ifselected for breeding purposes might become the founder of a long-leggedvariety, in which, however, a couple of pairs of short-legs wouldoccasionally present themselves. I have a notion that the higher animalsare in the scale of being, the greater is their tendency to transmittheir acquired good or bad habits to their posterity. Dogs are, perhaps, the most intelligent of the inferior animals, and it is well knownthat they transmit to their offspring their acquired as well as theirnatural habits. I doubt very much that those most stupid of creatures, guinea-pigs, possess this property in any sensible degree; or, indeed, that like the canine tribe, they can be readily made to acquireartificial peculiarities: but there once flourished a "learned pig, "and it would be worth inquiring whether or not its descendants, like thedescendants of the trained setter, and pointer, were at all benefited bythe education of their ancestor. I shall conclude this part of my subjectin the words of Professor Tanner: "In all cases where the breed has beencarefully preserved pure, great benefit will result from doing so. Thecharacter of a breed becomes more and more concentrated and confirmed ina pedigree animal, and this character is rendered more fully hereditaryin proportion to the number of generations through which it has beentransmitted. By the aid of pedigree, purity of blood may be insured, anda systematic plan adopted by which we can perpetuate distinct families, and thereby obtain a change of blood without its being a cross. It isevident that any one adopting a systematic arrangement will be able todo this more effectually than another without this aid. This is the moreimportant when the number of families is small, as is the case withDevons and Herefords, especially the former. The individual animals fromwhich the Devons are descended are very limited in number, and in a fewhands; but, with some honourable exceptions, little attention is givento this point. The importance is rendered evident by the decreasing sizeof the breed, the number of barren heifers, and the increased delicacyof constitution shown in the stock of many breeders of that district whoare not particular in this respect. The contrast between such herds, and those in which more care and judgment are exercised, renders theadvantages of attention to pedigree very evident; for here the strengthof constitution is retained, together with many of the advantages ofthis valuable breed. " SECTION II. THE BREEDS OF STOCK. The nature of the animal determines, as I have already stated, theproportion of its food carried off in its increase; but this point isalso greatly influenced by its _variety_, or _breed_. Certain breedswhich have for a long period been kept on bulky food, and obligedto roam in quest of it, appear to have acquired a normal tendency to_leanness_. No doubt, if they were supplied with highly nutritiousfood for many successive generations, these breeds might eventuallyexhibit as great a tendency to fatten as they now do to remain in alean condition. As it is, the horned cattle of Kerry, Wales, and someother regions, rarely become fat, no matter how abundantly they may besupplied with fattening food. On the other hand, the Herefords, but moreespecially the Shorthorns, exhibit a natural disposition to obesity, andsuch animals alone should be stall-fed. It is noteworthy that animalswhich are naturally disposed to yield abundance of milk are often thebest adapted for fattening; but it would appear that the continuoususe of highly fattening food, and the observance of the various otherconditions in the _forcing_ system, diminish the activity of the lactealsecretion, and increase the tendency to fatness in the races of thebovine tribe. The Shorthorns were at one time famous for their milkingcapabilities, but latterly their galactophoric reputation has greatlydeclined. Still I am disposed to believe, that if some of those animalswere placed under conditions favorable to the improvement of dairystock, herds of Shorthorn milch cows could be obtained which would viein their own line with the famous fat-disposed oxen of the same breed. In sheep the tendency to early maturity and to fatten is greatlyinfluenced by the breed. The Leicester, even when kept on inferiorpasture, fattens so rapidly that in eighteen months it is fit for thebutcher; whilst the Merino, though supplied with excellent herbage, mustbe preserved for nearly four years before it is ready for the shambles. The crossing of good herds has resulted in the development of numerousvarieties, all remarkable for their aptitude to fatten and to arriveearly at maturity. The Leicester--itself supposed to be a cross--hasgreatly improved the Lincoln, and the Hampshire and Southdown haveproduced an excellent cross. Of course, each breed and cross has itsadmirers; indeed, the differences of opinion which prevail in relationto the relative merits of the Lincoln and the Leicester--the Southdownand the Shropshiredown--the Dorset and the Somerset--occasionallyculminate into newspaper controversies of an exceedingly ascerbcharacter. There is no doubt but that particular breeds of sheepthrive in localities and under conditions which are inimical to othervarieties; but still it is equally evident that, _cæteris paribus_, onekind of sheep will store up in its increase a larger proportion of itsfood than another kind, and will arrive earlier at maturity. It is theknowledge of this fact which has led to the great estimation in whichare held some half-dozen out of the numerous breeds and cross-breedsof that animal. In 1861 an interesting experiment was made by theParlington Farmers' Club with the object of testing the relative meritsof several varieties of sheep. The results are shown in the tables:-- TABLE I. ----------------+------------------------------------+----------------------- | Live Weight of Six Wethers |Weights gained | when Shorn, 26th February, 1862. |during the time of | +--------------------------- |Feeding from the | | Weight of Mutton when |11th November, 1861, Description of | | Slaughtered. |to 14th February, 1862. Class of Sheep. | | +------+------+------+-------+-------+------- | | |Weight|Weight|Weight| | | | | | of | of | of |In Live| In | In | | |Tallow| Wool. |Pelts. |Weight. |Mutton. | Wool. ----------------+-------+-------+------+------+------+-------+-------+------- |st. Lb. |st. Lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. |st. Lb. |st. Lb. |lb. Oz. Cross from | | | | | | | | the Teeswater | 85 3 | 53 1 | 106| 43| 85| 13 7 | 8 6 | 14 5 | | | | | | | | North Sheep | 83 12 | 53 12 | 96|43-1/2| 83| 12 11 | 8 3 | 14 8 | | | | | | | | Lincolns | 92 1 | 59 12 | 105| 66| 103| 16 1 |10 7 | 22 0 | | | | | | | | South Downs | 71 0 | 47 7 |97-1/4| 28|65-3/4| 11 13 | 8 0 | 9 5 | | | | | | | | Shropshire Downs| 85 6 | 53 1 | 103|42-1/2| 91| 15 11 | 9 12 | 14 3 | | | | | | | | Leicesters | 80 9 | 53 4 |90-1/2| 44|78-1/2| 14 10 | 9 10 | 14 11 | | | | | | | | Cotswolds | 76 5 | 47 6 | 79| 54| 90| 12 6 | 7 11 | 18 0 ----------------+-------+-------+------+------+------+-------+-------+------- TABLE II. -----------------+--------------------------------------------+-----------+ | Value of the preceding | Food | Description | Mutton and Wool so gained. | consumed | of Sheep. +----------------------+---------------------+ during | | Price of the Mutton. | Price of the Wool. | time of | | | | Feeding. | -----------------+-------+--------------+-------+-------------+-----+-----+ | | | | |Swd. |Lnd. | | p. Lb. | | p. Lb. | |Tnp. |Cke. | +-------+ +-------+ +-----+-----+ | d. | £ s. D. | d. | £ s. D. | st. | lb. | Teeswater, Cross | 6 | 2 19 0 | 18 | 1 1 6 | 978 | 300 | North Shropshire | 6 | 2 17 6 | 17-1/2| 1 1 1-3/4 | 914 | 300 | Lincolnshire[16] | 5-3/4 | 3 10 5-1/4 | 18 | 1 13 0 | 936 | 363 | Southdowns | 6-1/2 | 3 0 8 | 17 | 0 13 2-1/2 | 684 | 300 | Shropshire | 6-1/4 | 3 11 10-1/2 | 17-1/2| 1 0 7-3/4 | 924 | 300 | Leicester | 5-3/4 | 3 5 2 | 18 | 1 2 0 | 877 | 300 | Cotswolds | 6 | 2 14 6 | 18 | 1 7 0 | 926 | 300 | -----------------+-------+--------------+-------+-------------+-----+-----+ -----------------+------------------+--------------+----------------------+ | Value of the | | Value of Food | | Food, Calculating| Value of | deducted from Value | Description | Turnips at 6s. | the Mutton | of Mutton and Wool, | of Sheep. | 8d. , and Cake at | and Wool. | showing real value of| | £10 10s. Per ton. | | the different sheep. | -----------------+------------------+--------------+----------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | £ s. D. | £ s. D. | £ s. D. | Teeswater, Cross | 3 8 10-1/2 | 4 0 6 | 0 11 7 | North Shropshire | 3 6 2-1/2 | 3 18 7-3/4 | 0 12 5 | Lincolnshire[16] | 3 13 0-1/4 | 5 3 5-1/4 | 1 10 5 | Southdowns | 2 16 7-1/2 | 3 13 10-1/2 | 0 17 3 | Shropshire | 3 6 7-3/4 | 4 12 6-1/4 | 1 5 10 | Leicester | 3 4 8 | 4 7 2 | 1 2 6 | Cotswolds | 3 6 8-1/2 | 4 1 6 | 0 14 9-1/2 | -----------------+------------------+--------------+----------------------+ These results, taken with the customary _grain of salt_, tell well forthe improved Lincoln; they also clearly show the aptitude to fatten, without much loss in offal, of the Leicester;[17] and they commend to thelover of good mutton the Shropshire and South-Downs. In the sixteenth volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Societyof England, Mr. Lawes gives some valuable information relative to thecomparative fattening qualities of different breeds of sheep. Thefollowing table, on this author's authority, shows the average foodconsumed in producing 100 lbs. Increase in live weight:-- Breed. Oil Cake. Clover. Swedes. Sussex 297-1/4 285-1/2 3·835-3/4 Hampshire 291-1/2 261-1/4 3·966-3/4 Cross-bred Wethers 264-1/2 251-3/4 3·725-1/4 Do. Ewes 263-1/2 250-1/4 3·671 Leicesters 263-3/4 251-1/4 3·761 Cotswolds 253-1/2 216-3/4 3·557-1/2 Some breeds are profitably kept in certain localities, where other kindswould not pay so well: for example, the Devons, according to Mr. Smith, are better adapted than larger breeds for "converting the produce ofcold and hilly pastures into meat. " It is remarkable that nearly all thebest existing breeds of oxen and sheep are crosses. Major Rudd statesthat the dam of Hubback, the famous founder of pure improved Shorthorns, owed her propensity to fatten to an admixture of Kyloe blood, and alsothat the sire of Hubback had a stain of Alderney, or Normandy blood. Although the Rudd account of the ancestry of Hubback is not accepted byall the historians of this splendid breed of cattle, there is no doubtbut that the breed owes its origin as much to judicious crossing as tocareful selection of sires and dams. It must not, however, be imaginedthat there are no good pure races of stock. There is a perfectly pure, but now scarce, tribe of Kerry oxen, admirably adapted to poor uplands. The excellent Southdown sheep, though in every respect immenselysuperior to their ancestors in the last century, have not attained totheir present superior state by crossing. The high value placed bybreeders upon good sires and dams in the approved breeds of stock isshown by the large sums which they frequently realise at sales, or whenthe former are let out for service. Bakewell received in one season forthe use of a ram 400 guineas each from two breeders, and they did notretain the animal during the whole season. Several hundred guineas havelately been more than once paid for a celebrated tup. Colonel Towneley'sShorthorn bull, Master Butterfly, was, not long since, disposed of to anAustralian buyer for £1, 260. At the sale of Mr. Bates's stock in 1850, a stock of Shorthorns, including calves, brought on the average £116 5s. Per head. At the Earl Ducie's sale in 1852, a three year oldcow--Duchess--realised 700 guineas. The color of an animal is, to some extent, a criterion of the purityof its breed. Roan is a favourite hue with the breeders of Shorthorns. There have been celebrated sires and dams of that breed perfectly white;but that color, or rather absence of color, is now somewhat unpopular, partly from the idea that it is a sign of weakness of constitution--anotion for which there appears to me to be no foundation in fact. The slightest spot of black, or even a very dark shade, is regardedto be a blemish of the most serious kind when observed on the peltof a Shorthorn. The Herefords are partly white, partly red; the Devonpossesses in general a deep red hue; the Suffolks are usually of a dunor faint reddish tint; the Ayrshires are commonly spotted white and red;and the Kerrys are seen in every shade between a jet black and a deepred. Uniformity in color would be most desirable in the case of eachvariety, and this object could easily be attained if breeders devotedsome attention to it. _The Form of Animals. _--The functions of an animal are arranged byBichat, an eminent physiologist, into two classes--those relating toits nutrition, and those exhibited by its muscular and mental systems. The first class of functions comprise the _vegetative_, or organic lifeof the animal, and the second class constitute its _relative_ life. Adopting this arrangement, we may say, then, that those animals in whichthe vegetative life is far more energetic than the relative life arebest suited for the purposes of the feeder. In tigers, wolves, and dogsthe relative life predominates over the vegetative; the muscles arealmost constantly in a high degree of tension, and the processes ofnutrition are in constant requisition to supply the waste of muscle. On the other hand, in oxen, sheep, and pigs, at least when in a stateof domesticity, the muscles are not highly developed; they do notlargely tax the vegetative processes, and, consequently, the substanceselaborated under the influence of the vegetative life rapidly increase. The form of an animal is therefore mainly determined by the activity ofits relative life. In a greyhound, the nervous power of which is highlydeveloped, the muscles are large and well-knit, the stomach, intendedfor the reception of concentrated nutriment only, is small, and thelungs are exceedingly capacious. In such an animal the arrangements forthe rapid expenditure of nervous power must be perfect. It is not merelynecessary that its muscles should be large and powerful, its lungs mustalso admit of deep inspirations of oxygen, whereby the motive powerwielded by these muscles may be rapidly generated. Now, an animalexactly opposite in organisation to the greyhound would, accordingto theory, be just the kind to select for the production of meat. The greyhound and the horse expend all their food in the productionof motive power; the ox and the sheep, being endowed with but a feeblemuscular organisation, use a smaller proportion of their food forcarrying on the functions of their relative life, consequently, theweight of their bodies is augmented by the surplus nutriment. It isclear, then, that an animal of a lymphatic temperament, an indolentdisposition, a low degree of nervous power, and a tendency to rapidgrowth, is the _beau ideal_ of a "meat-manufacturing machine. " Now, asthe larger the lungs of an animal are, the greater is its capacity for"burning, " or consuming its tissues, one might suppose that small lungswould be a _desideratum_ in an ox, or other animal destined for theshambles. This appears to be Liebig's opinion, for in one of hisbooks he states that "a narrow chest (small lungs) is considered byexperienced agriculturists a sure sign, in pigs, for example, of easyfattening; and the same remark applies to cows, in reference to theproduce of milk--that is, of butter. " On this subject Professor Tannermakes the following remarks, in his excellent Essay on Breeding andRearing Cattle:[18]--"In our high-bred animals we find a small liverand a small lung, accompanied with a gentle and peaceful disposition. Now, these conditions, which are so desirable for producing fat, areequally favorable for yielding butter. The diminished organs economisethe consumption of the carbonaceous matters in the blood, hence, moreremains for conversion into fat, but equally prepared for yieldingcream, if the tendency of the animal is equally favorable to the same. "One would imagine, from the foregoing passage, that Mr. Tanner and BaronLiebig coincided in believing small lungs necessary to rapid fattening;but in another part of his essay, Tanner thus describes one of thepoints indicative of a tendency to fatten early:--"The chest should bebold and prominent, wide and deep, furnished with a deep but not coarsedewlap. " On comparing the two passages which I have quoted from Tanner'sessay, a contradiction is apparent. Mr. Bowly, Major Rudd, and othereminent breeders and feeders, appear to regard a capacious chest as thebest sign of a fattening property which an animal could show. Lawes andGilbert have recorded the weights of the viscera of a number of animalswhich, though supplied with equal quantities of the same kind of food, attained to different degrees of fatness. On carefully scrutinisingthese records, I failed to perceive any constant relation between theweight of their lungs and their tendency to fatten rapidly. Some animalswith large lungs converted a larger proportion of their food into meatthan others with smaller respiratory organs, and _vice versâ_. In astate of nature, there is no doubt but that the lungs of the ox and ofthe sheep are moderately large; and it is evident that in their case, aswell as in that of man, over-feeding and confinement tend to diminishtheir muscular energy, and, of course, to decrease the capacity of thelungs. That such a practice does not tend to the improvement of thehealth of an animal is perfectly evident, but then the perfect ox ofnature is very different from the perfect ox of man. The latter isa wide departure from the original type of its species: any markeddevelopment of its nervous system is undesirable; and it is valuablein proportion as its purely vegetative functions are most stronglymanifested. A young bullock, therefore, of this kind would, no doubt, be the most economical kind to rear, provided that it was perfectlyhealthy, and capable of assimilating the liberal amount of food suppliedto it. But it rarely happens that a young animal with a weakly chestturns out other than a scrofulous or otherwise diseased adult. On thewhole, then, I am disposed to believe that whilst naturally small-lungedspecies may be more prone to fatten than large-chested ones, it is notthe case that small-chested individuals fatten more rapidly than largerlunged individuals of the same kind. The conditions under which oxen, sheep, and pigs have been so longmaintained in civilised countries, must have diminished the capacity oftheir chests in relation to other parts of their bodies; and it may befairly doubted if any good could result by reducing to still smallerdimensions those most important organs. Probably the lungs and hearts ofthe improved breeds of stock are already too small, and that it is onlythe individuals which are least affected in this respect that answer toMr. Bowly's description of a fat-disposed beast. Whether or not smalllungs are desirable in a bullock or milch cow, it is certain that a ramor a bull should be possessed of a capacious chest, for otherwise hewill have but little vigour, and will be likely to produce a weaklyoffspring. A sire should be a perfectly developed animal in everyrespect--sound lungs and heart, and not over fat. It is sufficient thatit belongs to a good fattening breed; but to produce offspring with atendency to fatness and early maturity, it is not necessary that thesire should himself be obese. It is to be regretted that so many siresof the Shorthorns and other improved varieties should be used forbreeding purposes, when their hearts and lungs have become, byover-feeding the animals, unfitted for the proper discharge of theirfunction. The progeny of such sires must _naturally_ inherit the_acquired taint_ of their diseased progenitors, and prove weakly andunhealthy animals. With respect to the general outline structure of a bull, he should havea small, well-set head, rounded ribs, straight legs, small bones, andsound internal organs. The following are considered to be the bestpoints in a Shorthorn bull:--A short and moderately small head, withtapering muzzle and broad forehead, furnished with short, white, curved, graceful looking horns; bright, yet mild, large eyes, placed inprominent orbits; dilated nostrils, and flesh-colored nose, and long, thin ears. The neck should be broad, deep, and muscular, sloping in agraceful line from the shoulder to the head. The chest should be wide, deep, projecting, but level in front. The shoulders should be oblique, the blades well set in towards the ribs. The forelegs should be stout, muscular above the knee, and slender below it; the hind legs should beslender to the hock, and from thence increase in thickness to thebuttocks, which should be well developed. The carcass should be wellrounded at each side, but level on the back and on the belly. Thereshould be no hollows between the shoulder and the ribs, the line fromthe highest part of the shoulder to the insertion of the tail should bea perfect level. The flank should be full, the loins broad, and the tailfinely formed and only partially covered with hair. The skin is a primepoint: it must be covered with hair of a roan, or other _fashionable_color, and communicate to the hand of the experienced feeler, a peculiarsensation, which it is impossible to describe. With regard to thispoint, I cannot do better than quote the words of an experienced"handler":-- "A nice or good judge of cattle or sheep, with a slight touch of thefingers upon the fatting points of the animal--viz. , the hips, rump, ribs, flanks, breast, twist, shoulder score, &c. Will know immediatelywhether it will make fat or not, and in which part it will be thefattest. I have often wished to convey in language that idea orsensation we acquire by the touch or feel of our fingers, which enablesus to form a judgment when we are handling an animal intended to befatted, but I have as often found myself unequal to that wish. It isvery easy to know where an animal is fattest which is already made fat, because we can evidently feel a substance or quantity of fat--all thoseparts which are denominated the fatting points; but the difficulty is toexplain how we know or distinguish animals, in a lean state, which willmake fat and which will not--or rather, which will make fat in suchpoints or parts, and not in others--which a person of judgment (_inpractice_) can tell, as it were, instantaneously. I say _in practice_, because I believe that the best judges _out of practice_ are not able tojudge with precision--at least, I am not. We say this beast _touches_nicely upon its ribs, hips, &c. , &c. , because we find a mellow, pleasantfeel on those parts; but we do not say soft, because there are some ofthis same sort of animals which have a soft, loose handle, of which wedo not approve, because, though soft and loose, have not the mellow feelabove mentioned. For though they both handle soft and loose, yet we knowthat the one will make fat and the other will not; and in this lies thedifficulty of the explanation. We clearly find a particular kindlinessor pleasantness in the feel of the one much superior to the other, bywhich we immediately conclude that this will make fat, and the other notso fat; and in this a person of judgment, and _in practice_, is veryseldom mistaken. " In many respects the good points in a Shorthorn cow resemble those inthe male of that breed, but in others there is considerable difference. As I have described in prose the excellencies which a bull shouldpossess, I will now give a poetical summary of the good points of a cowof that breed, extracted from the _Journal of Agriculture_, and composedevidently by an excellent breeder and poet, Mr. Carr:-- The following features constitute, I trow, The beau ideal of a short-horn cow:-- Frame massive, round, deep-barrell'd, and straight-back'd; Hind quarters level, lengthy, and well pack'd; Thighs wide, flesh'd inwards, plumb almost to hock; Twist deep, conjoining thighs in one square block; Loin broad and flat, thick flesh'd, and free from dip; Back ribs "well home, " arch'd even with the hip; Hips flush with back, soft-cushion'd, not too wide; Flanks full and deep, well forward on the side; Fore ribs well-flesh'd, and rounded like a drum; Fore flanks that even with the elbow come; Crop "barrell'd" flush with shoulders and with side; Girth large and round--not deep alone, but wide; Shoulders sloped back, thick cover'd wide at chine; Points snug, well-flesh'd, to dew-lap tapering fine; Neck vein fill'd up to well-clothed shoulder-point; Arm full above, turn'd in at elbow-joint; Legs short and straight, fine boned 'neath hock and knee; Belly cylindrical, from drooping free; Chest wide between the legs, with downward sweep; Brisket round, massive, prominent, and deep; Neck fine at head, fast thickening towards its base; Head small, scope wide, fine muzzle and dish'd face; Eyes prominent and bright, yet soft and mild; Horns waxy, clear, of medium size, unfiled; Tail fine, neat hung, rectangular with back; Hide soft, substantial, yielding, but not slack; Hair furry, fine, thick set, of colour smart; Udder well forward, with teats wide apart. These points proportion'd well delight the eye Of grazier, dairyman, and passer-by; And these to more fastidious minds convey Appearance stylish, feminine, and gay. _Breeds of the Ox. _--The Shorthorned cattle are now generally regardedas the most valuable breed in these countries. They are the descendantsof a short-horned breed of cattle which existed for centuries in thenorth-east of England. They were not held in much estimation, theirflesh being coarse; but the cows of this breed yielded abundance ofmilk. In the eighteenth century this breed, it is said, was greatlyimproved by a large infusion of blood from Dutch Shorthorns: but it isvery doubtful that any such event took place, for during that periodthe importation of cattle into Great Britain was prohibited by verystringent laws. The present race of Shorthorns owe most of theirvaluable qualities to the brothers, Charles and Robert Colling, of thecounty of Durham. The former was the more successful breeder, andestablished the celebrated breed of Ketton Shorthorns. His whole processappears to have consisted in the careful selection of parents, and in"close" breeding. He must, however, have been an admirable judge of thegood points of the ox, for beginning with animals not worth more on anaverage than £10 each, he produced in less than a quarter of a centurya stock worth on the average £150 each. The most famous bull of CharlesColling's was Comet. The sale of this animal realised the handsome sumof 1, 000 guineas. The bull Hubback is said by many writers to have beenthe great improver of Shorthorn blood. He was bought by Robert Collingfor the trifling sum of £8; but although this animal was kept by bothCollings for three years, there is good reason to believe that they madebut little use of him. It would appear, indeed, that to the cows firstused by the Collings--Lady Maynard, and young Strawberry--many of thegood qualities of this breed are traceable. Shorthorns are now to befound in almost every part of the United Kingdom, capable of maintainingheavy stock. In Ireland the breed has been greatly improved, and it isgradually supplanting most of the other varieties. Shorthorn males have a short, wide head, covered very often with shortcurly hair; the muzzle is taper; the ear rather long and narrow; the eyelarge, and bright, and mild. The shape is symmetrical, the carcass deep, the back level, ribs spreading out widely, and the limbs fine. The coloris a mixture of red and white, sometimes a rich roan. The females arenot so large in the head, which tapers more, and the neck is muchthinner. The DEVONS are not so large as the Shorthorns. Their shape issymmetrical; fine head, horns of medium size, often tapering gracefully;rich red or orange red color; fore-quarters rather oblique. The meat ofthis breed is much esteemed: they yield excellent milk, but in ratherlimited quantity; and the bullocks answer the plough much better thanmany other kinds do. These animals arrive early at maturity. The HEREFORDS are a rather small-boned breed; their horns are mediumsized, straight or slightly curved upwards; their color is dark red;neat shoulders, thin thighs, and wide sirloin. They fatten well, but arenot generally kept on dairy farms. In many respects they resemble theDevons. The AYRSHIRES have a tapering head, fine neck, and large, bony, but notcoarse carcass; flat ribs; short and rather ugly horns; their skin issoft, and covered with hair, which is usually red and white in spots. The Ayrshire cows are invaluable for dairy purposes. The POLLED ANGUS, POLLED ABERDEENS, and POLLED GALLOWAYS are very largecattle, with big heads, unfurnished with horns. Their color is ingeneral a decided black, but occasionally it exhibits a mixture of blackand white. Their flesh is in general not of the best quality, but someof their crosses with Shorthorns yield excellent meat, and at an earlyage, too. The KYLOES are a breed peculiar to the Highlands of Scotland. They arerather rough, but very picturesque animals, covered with long, shaggyhair. Their horns are rather long, and curve upwards. Their hair isdifferently colored--red, yellow, dun, and black, the latter being theprevailing hue. No variety of the ox yields a sweeter meat than theKyloes, and other mountain breeds of these countries. The animals, however, arrive slowly to maturity, and in this respect there is greatroom for improvement. These mountain-bred animals are now transferredin large numbers to lowland tillage farms, where the fattening processis more expeditiously performed. There are excellent crosses betweenShorthorn bulls and Highland cows. LONGHORNED CATTLE are rapidly advancing towards extinction. At one timethey were the chief breed kept by most farmers. In general they may beregarded as an inferior variety, being slow feeders, and producingrather coarse beef. They are, however, capable of great improvement, asinstanced in the case of Bakewell's celebrated Longhorn herds. The KERRYS are a diminutive breed, peculiar to Ireland. They have smallheads, fine necks, fine horns of medium length, and curved upwards neartheir summits. They have a soft skin; the hair is generally black, interspersed with a few white streaks; sometimes their color is red, andoccasionally brown. They are a very hardy race, being indigenous tomountains. Their flesh is very good, more especially if the animals havebeen kept on fattening food. The Kerrys are good milch cows. The ALDERNEYS are a small race of oxen with deer-like faces. Theyexhibit various shades of red, white, brown, and roan. No cows yieldbetter milk, or larger quantities of that fluid. _Sheep. _--The different breeds of sheep are classified under threeheads--viz. , _Long-woolled_, _Short-woolled_, and _Middle-woolled_. The LEICESTER is, perhaps, the most celebrated breed of sheep reared inthese countries. It was immensely improved by Bakewell about a centuryago, and the breed is often termed the Dishley, after the name ofBakewell's residence. This sheep has a wide, clean head, broad forehead, fine eyes, long, thin ears, thick neck, round body, deep chest, straight, broad back, high ribs, and muscular thighs. The wool is long, very thick, and fine. At from fifteen to eighteen months old, theLeicester weighs from 25 to 30 lbs. Per quarter; but a fat animal oftenweighs from 38 to 40 lbs. Per quarter. The fleece weighs from 6 to 8lbs. This breed is well adapted for Ireland. It is reared on very poorland: but in order to maintain its good quality, this sheep requiresabundance of food, and also good shelter during the winter. The LINCOLN is distinguished for its large bones and strong muscles. Originally a gaunt and ugly animal, it has of late years been muchimproved. Indeed, the prices lately realised by Lincoln sheep areextremely high. The Lincoln has a long, white face, long body, and thicklegs. The wool is long, thick, and moderately fine. The flesh of theLincoln is lean, owing to its great muscular development. At fifteenmonths old it yields about 30 lbs. Weight per quarter. It is said thata Lincoln wether has attained the weight of 304-1/2 lbs. The averageweight of the wool of a hogget is 9-1/2 lbs. The COTSWOLD breed arose in the Cotswold hills, in Gloucestershire. In this variety the skeleton is large, the chest capacious, the backbroad and straight, and the ribs well arched. It has good quarters, and a finely-arched neck. It is distinguished by a large tuft ofwool--"fore-top, " on the forehead. It fattens early, and produces about25 lbs. Per quarter when fifteen months old, and 40 lbs. When two yearsold. The wool is rather coarse; its yield is about 8 lbs. The CHEVIOT has a long body, long face, long legs, and long ears. Thechest projects slightly, and is rather narrow. The forehead is bare ofwool; the legs and face are white, sometimes approaching to a dun shade. Weight from 70 to 80 lbs. ; weight of fleece, from 3 to 4 lbs. The woolis of excellent quality, and is used largely in the manufacture oftweeds. The Cheviot is a mountain sheep, and, as might be expected, itsflesh is well flavored. There are several crosses of the Cheviot withthe Leicester, the Southdown, and the Shropshire. The SOUTHDOWN is generally regarded as the best breed for wool reared inthese countries. It is indigenous to the chalk hills of Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, and Dorsetshire. It has a small head; its back is broad andstraight; the ribs spring out at nearly right angles from the vertebræ. It is rather light in the fore-quarters, and full in the hind quarters. Its chest is pretty deep; its face and legs are grey or brown. The woolof the Southdown is short, and extremely fine; the fleece weighs about 3lbs. This sheep arrives early at maturity. It weighs at 15 months oldabout 80 lbs. The flesh is very well flavored. THE SHROPSHIRE is said to combine in itself the good qualities of theSouthdown, the Cotswold, and the Leicester. It resembles the Southdownmore than any other breed, having the same grey, or brownish grey hue, and a similar shape. It is, however, larger than the Southdown, andyields a larger quantity of wool. This breed is becoming a greatfavorite in both England and Ireland. The BLACK-FACED sheep is peculiar to Scotland. It is equipped withhorns, has a bold long face, and possesses a tuft of wool on itsforehead; its limbs are strong, and its body is somewhat long. The woolof this breed is very coarse, the fleece weighs about 3-1/2 lbs. Theaverage weight of this sheep is 75 lbs. , the quality of the mutton isexcellent, but it is long before it becomes matured. There are severalother breeds of the sheep, but they are of far less importance thanthose which I have described. _Breeds of the Pig. _--There are several breeds of this useful animal, ofwhich those known as BERKSHIRE and YORKSHIRE appear to be the greatestfavorites. The Berkshire is black or dusky brown, very rarely reddishbrown. It has a very small head. Its sides are extremely deep, and itslegs very short. There are several sub-varieties of the Yorkshire. Thisbreed is white, has a compact body, and very broad sides. The head isvery small, somewhat like that of the Berkshire. Both Berkshire andYorkshire pigs attain to the enormous weight of 1, 000 lbs. The old Irish"racer" pig is the least profitable kind to keep, but fortunately it is, as a pure breed, nearly extinct. _Breeds of the Horse. _--There are a great many breeds of horses. TheShetland pony is so small, that many specimens are no larger than aNewfoundland dog; on the other hand, Clydesdale horses sometimes attainto almost elephantine proportions. There is a wide difference betweenthe bull-like Suffolk Punch and the greyhound-like _racer_. The Englishand Irish racer is said to owe its origin to a cross between the oldEnglish light-legged breed and the Arabian. The most valuable kind ofcarriage horse is the joint product of the draught-horse and the racer. The dray-horse of these countries has a large share of Flemish blood inhim. The best horses for agricultural purposes are unquestionably theCLYDESDALE and the SUFFOLK PUNCH. The latter is perhaps to be preferredin most instances, especially on light lands. Very light and feeblehorses are the most expensive variety on almost any kind of farm; forwhilst they consume nearly as much food as the most powerful animals, and are therefore nearly as costly, they are incapable of effectivelyperforming their work. A large proportion of the farm horses used by thesmall farmers of Ireland are totally unsuited for tillage purposes. Onthe other hand, there is no need to employ horses equal in size to theponderous creatures that draw brewers' carts. Moderate sized horses, with well rounded, compact bodies, and muscular but not too heavy limbs, are the kind best adapted for farm purposes. In Ireland, where there arenot fewer than 600, 000 horses, a considerable infusion of blood fromClydesdales and Suffolk Punches is much required. _Hunters and Racers. _--There is a strong tendency in the human mind tolook with a regretful feeling to the past, and to compare it to thedisadvantage of the present. It is a general belief with most peoplethat the old time was the best time; that the seasons were more genialformerly; that provisions were cheaper and more abundant; that men weretaller, and stouter, and healthier; that, in a word, everything wasbetter in the days of yore than it is now, and that degeneracy andeffeteness are the prevailing characteristics of our age. Philosophers, statists, and political economists tell us that all this regret for the"good old time" is mis-spent sympathy; for that we are in every respectsuperior--in physique, health, morals, and wealth--to our ancestors. Onthe whole, I rather incline myself to this comfortable philosophy; butwe must admit that we have not progressed in all things since the timesof our fathers. In a work entitled "A Comparative View of the Form and Character of theEnglish Racer and Saddle Horse during the Last and Present Centuries, "published by Hookham, of Old Bond Street, London, it is proved veryclearly that the English race-horse has sadly degenerated. The authorvery properly traces the cause of its decay to the avarice of theturfites: they look upon the noble animal as a mere gambling machine;and they sacrifice all its other qualities to the excessive developmentof that one which is likely to put money in their pockets. Formerly, gentlemen kept horses for their own sakes--for their admiration andenjoyment of one of the most beautiful, docile, and useful of animals. They were incessant in their efforts to develop into perfection all thereally valuable points in the animal; and the result was, that theEnglish and Irish racer of the last century was unmatched for strength, speed, and endurance. Models of this splendid race of horses are seldomto be found at the present time; but there are, perhaps, sporting menliving who saw them in the celebrated Mambrino, Sweet Briar, and SweetWilliam. Those horses possessed compact bodies, capacious lungs, strongloins, large joints, and enormous masses of muscular tissue on theshoulder-blades and arms. They were good weight-carrying hunters as wellas racers, and they could carry eight stones over a six miles heat, or twelve stones over a four miles one. The Irish horses, at least, were capable of safely carrying thirteen stones over what would now beconsidered a very ugly ditch, and could get over a long steeplechase ina style which would astonish the owners of the modern "weeds. " Since thedistance to be traversed by competing horses has been reduced from theold-fashioned three heats of four miles each to a single run of a mileor two, and also since the weight imposed upon the animals has beenreduced to six or seven stones, from ten to twelve, the anatomicalstructure of the race-horse has undergone a remarkable and seriousalteration. The back has become very long, the sides flat, the loinsweak, the limbs long and very thin; and this alteration in structure hasbeen attended by weakness of constitution and a remarkable tendencyto disease. The modern horse has attained to a remarkable degree ofrapidity of locomotion, but it has been at the expense of its vigor, endurance, and health; it can run with great velocity for a shortdistance, but in a four-mile heat, and mounted by a man of averageweight, a mediocre horse of the style of the middle of the last centurywould come to the post long before the winner of the last St. Leger. The decay of the breed of horses in this country is a serious matter, and the attention of all who are interested in the preservation of thisanimal should be earnestly and promptly directed towards discoveringthe means of regeneration. My remarks are directed towards racers andhunters. The quality of speed which they possess has been developedto an extent which is incompatible with the development of equallyessential properties. Encouragement should be given to the production ofweight-carrying hunters; steeple-chasing should be restored to its oldstate, when only a powerful horse had a chance of success. The qualityof speed should be promoted in the animal up to a certain point; butwhen the development of this attribute begins to cause a loss ofstrength and endurance, it is high time to check it. There are a fewhorses at present which are strong and moderately fast: why should notsteeple-chasing be of the kind which would call this style of animalinto competition? Only a "weed" can now enter with any probability ofsuccess at a race of this kind; and when he has won it, of what useis he as a good hunter? What we want are good, stout, healthy horses, capable of carrying, in good style, twelve stones weight over a roughcountry; and the object of steeple-chasing should be the production ofsuch a race of horses. * * * * * [Footnote 17: Improved by Leicester blood. ] [Footnote 18: The object of the first breeders of the Leicester wasto produce a sheep which would yield a great carcass, and small offalweight. So far as the results of these experiments go, I think the ideaof the founder of this breed has been realised. ] [Footnote 19: "Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society ofScotland, " for July, 1860. ] PART III. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK. SECTION I. THE OX. _Breeding Cows. _--The period of gestation in the cow is about ninemonths. The earliest time at which it is at all safe to breed from theseanimals is when they are one year and eight months old. Shorthorns breedearly, whilst the mountain varieties are seldom in calf before they arethree years old. The practice of very early breeding, though approved ofby some extensive rearers of stock, is not to be commended for soundphysiological reasons. Cows calve at all times of the year; but the mostfavorable time is near the end of winter, or in early spring. The cowsshould at this time be in fair condition--neither too fat nor too lean. Parturition should take place in a roomy, covered place, provided withabundance of clean litter. If such a place be not available, a nicepaddock close to the house must answer. After having given birth tothe calf, the cow should receive an oatmeal drink, or some warm andnutritious mash, and afterwards be liberally fed. The cow is usuallyallowed to run dry four or five weeks before calving: this period shouldnot be curtailed; on the contrary, it would be better to extend it tosix weeks, so as not to allow her condition to become too poor. _The Wintering of Young Stock. _--There are certain localities whereinthe rearing of young stock is one of the easiest tasks which devolveupon the farmer. Well-drained and shady fields, yielding abundance ofsound herbage, and through which streams of _pure_ water unceasinglyflow, are just the proper _locale_ for economically feeding younganimals. But there are districts in which those favorable conditions donot exist; yet they are not better adapted to other uses. It is only thefeeders of young stock in wet, moory, sandy, or undrained, heavy soilswho really have cause for anxiety and incessant watchfulness. In rearinga calf the great object is to cause a rapid and uninterrupted increasein the weight of its body. At first the food of the animal should befurnished solely from the maternal founts; but at an early stage of itsexistence--about the third or fourth week--other food may wholly, or inpart, be substituted for the natural aliment. It is important that nogreat interval should elapse between the hours of feeding. The digestiveapparatus of the young animal is small, and its powers of assimilationare very energetic. The food with which it is supplied should, therefore, be given in moderate quantities, and very frequently. Thisis, in fact, what takes place when the calf is allowed free access toits dam; for the instant it feels a desire for aliment, the supply is atonce available. Of course, there may be objections to this plan on thescore of economy; but as a general rule, too much liberality cannot beexercised in feeding growing animals; and there is nothing more certainthan that the calf which is illiberally fed will never be developed intoa valuable, matured animal. When carefully tended from their birth, comfortably housed in winter, and abundantly supplied with nutritiousfood, it is sometimes wonderful the rapid progress which young stockmake. Mr. Wright mentions a remarkable case of early maturity, whichoccurred in his own herd. A young steer, one year old, exhibited all thedevelopment of an animal twice its age. This bullock had been suckledfor three months, whereby it had not only kept its calf-flesh, butgained and retained a step in advance. Its weight when only a year oldwas no less than 50 stones; and as the price of beef at the time was 8s. 9d. Per stone, live weight, the carcass of the animal was worth £21 17s. 6d. Mr. Wright offers this fact as a suggestive one to "those farmers whothink of bringing up their calves on old milk, or who would otherwisestint their growth. " Supposing, then, that we have young stock which had been liberallytreated when in their "baby" state, how are we to most economicallymaintain them throughout the winter? In the first place, they should bekept in warm sheds, and well sheltered from both rain and wind. Someauthorities contend that exercise is necessary to young stock, and denythat a proper development of the muscles (lean flesh) can take place ifthey are cooped up like fattening turkeys during the winter. There issome truth in this opinion; and if the animals be designed for breedingor dairy purposes, their freedom of motion should only be partiallyrestrained. On the other hand, if they be intended for an earlyintroduction to the shambles, the less exercise they get the greaterwill be the profit on their keep. I have known cases where animals wereclosely housed for seven months, and yet their health did not appearto suffer in the slightest degree. In fact, so predominant are thevegetative functions of the ruminants over their nervous attributes, that the only essential conditions of their existence are adequatesupplies of good air and food. That the health of these animals doesoccasionally suffer when the motions of their bodies are reduced to a_minimum_ is quite true; but in most of these instances the real causeis, not the want of exercise, but the want of pure air. The greatestcare should, therefore, be taken in the ventilation of the places wherestock, whether old or young, are kept; and no economy of space or heatwill compensate for the want of wholesome air. Under the fallacious ideathat exposure to cold renders young stock hardy, many farmers turn themout to eat straw in the open fields in frosty weather. Treatment of thiskind, instead of being productive of good, almost invariably lays thefoundation of disease, which will manifest itself at some stage of theanimal's growth. There are a few favored localities, such as those towhich I have already alluded, where yearlings may be occasionally alloweda turn through the fields in winter; but on cold clays, wet moors, andsandy soils the young stock should never be permitted to leave theirsheds or courts from the time they are housed till late in the spring. Young stock are best fed on good meadow hay and turnips, with a moderatesupplement of oil-cake; this, however, is expensive feeding in manyfarms, and a little filling-in may be done with cheaper or more easilyobtainable stuffs. A mixture of cut chaff, with pulped mangels, is agood substitute for the more costly hay; and particularly in the caseof animals intended for breeding or for the dairy. The roots should bepulped, and allowed to remain until, owing to a slight fermentation, they become warm. This change takes place in from twenty-four hours tosixty hours, according to the temperature; but the fermentation shouldnot be carried farther than the earliest stage. The heated pulp shouldthen be thoroughly mixed with the chaff, and the compound, after anhour or two, will be ready for use. A little chopped hay--no matter ifinferior or slightly mildewed--may be substituted for the chaff, andturnips employed instead of the mangels, but the latter are the moredesirable roots. Until lately, the use of oil-cake was confined to fattening animals, but latterly it is freely given to calves, even when they are onlya month old; and there is no doubt but that it is a suitable andeconomical food for store stock. It is, however, sometimes given inexcess: from half a pound to two and a half pounds daily will besufficient for animals under one year; and this addition to their foodwill be found to exercise a beneficial influence on them when theyare placed in stalls for finishing. The experience of several eminentbreeders has proved that fattening beasts, which had in their youtha supply of oil-cake, or its equivalent, invariably store up a largerportion of their food than those which had been reared on hay and rootsonly. Mr. George Stodart, of Cultercullen, an Aberdeenshire farmer, describes, in the _Irish Farmer's Gazette_, his method of rearing calves:-- I occupy (says Mr. Stodart) a farm of 380 acres. I usually rear twenty-four calves yearly, and buy in sixteen one-year-olds. I generally breed from cross cows (the same as mentioned above), served by a pure Shorthorn bull. When the calves are dropped I put two calves to suck one cow for six months. In autumn, spring calves are put into the house upon turnips and straw, with about 1 lb. Of oil-cake per day to each, until they are put out to grass in spring following, at which time they are one year old. Then, of course, they have grass in summer, and at the approach of winter they are again housed upon turnips and straw, which bring them to be two years old in spring. Now they are sent out to the best grass, and again brought into the house at the beginning of September, and fed on turnips and straw until the end of November or middle of December, when they usually fetch from £25 to £32 a-head. This year (1864), however, they will average £32. A-head. Before selling I give each 3-1/2 lbs. Of oil-cake per day for six weeks, and during this time they have swede turnips; at other times yellow. We give as much turnips at all times as they can eat. Mr. Bowick, in his excellent paper on the rearing of calves, publishedin the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, gives the followinginformation on this subject:-- We consider it desirable to allow the calf to remain with its dam for the first three or four days after calving. Not much trouble is generally experienced in getting it to take to the pail. We find it better to miss the evening's meal, and next morning a very little attention induces the majority of them to partake of what is set before them. At most the guidance of the fingers may be wanted for the first meal or two. As regards the quantity of milk which is needful to keep a moderately bred Shorthorn calf in a thriving condition, we have found the following allowance to come pretty near the mark, although the appetite of calves varies, both in individuals and at different times with the same animal:-- 1st week with the dam; or 4 quarts per day, at two meals. 2nd to 4th week, 5 to 6 quarts per day, at two meals. 4th to 6th week, 6 to 7 quarts per day, at two meals. And the quantity need not, during the ensuing six weeks (after which it is weaned), exceed a couple of gallons per day. This implies that the calf is fed upon new milk only, and that no other feeding liquids are employed. But, in addition to the above, the calf will, towards the fourth week, begin to eat a little green hay; and in a week or two later, some sliced roots, or meal, or finely crushed cake, mixed with hay-chaff; and, if really good, creditable beasts are wanted--such as will realise £25 a-head from the butcher when turned two and a half years old--a little cake or meal in their early days will be found a desirable investment. In fact, we doubt not but 1 lb. Of cake per day to the calf will make as much flesh as triple the quantity of cake at any period of after life. As regards meal, if that is given with the chaff, we prefer oatmeal, or barley-meal, or wheaten flour, but not the meal of beans or pease. Others may see it differently, but we believe beans to be too heating for any class of young stock. For roots, the best we know of is the carrot, grated and mixed with the chaff, or sliced thin with a knife and given alone. It is also, of all roots, the one which we find them most fond of, and which they will most readily take to. As soon as they can eat them freely, an immediate reduction in the supply of milk may be made. In most articles it holds good in the end that "the best is the cheapest. " So with the rearing of calves; the best class of food, or that above referred to, is found to give the greatest ultimate satisfaction. But practically the question often is, how to rear good calves with comparatively little new milk, a condition which circumstances often render almost imperative; for where dairy produce, in any other form, is the chief object, the calves stand in a secondary position, and are treated accordingly. But let us ask whether you cannot rear good stock under such circumstances also? We believe that this may be, and often is done. We manage to turn out from twenty-five to thirty calves annually--such as will pass muster anywhere--and never use at any one time more than six gallons of new milk daily. For this purpose, as well as to obtain a regular supply of milk for other purposes, the calves are allowed to come at different periods, extending from October to May. Hence the calf-house has generally a succession of occupants throughout the season; and as one lot are ready to be removed, and placed loose in a small hovel, with yard attached, others fill their places. We begin with new milk from the pail, which is continued for a fortnight after leaving the cow. Then skim-milk--boiled, and allowed to cool to the natural warmth--is substituted to the extent of one-third of the allowance. In another week the new milk is reduced to half, and at the same time, not before, boiled linseed is added to the mess. [20] As soon as they take freely to this food, the new milk may be replaced with that from the dairy, and the calf is encouraged to indulge in a few sliced carrots and the other dry foods named. Mr. Murray, of Overstone, thus states the expense of rearing the calfuntil it is two years old, when, after the weaning process is completed, it is turned out to grass:-- During the summer they have the run of a grass paddock during the day, but return regularly to their yards at night; the following winter they are kept in larger yards, and which contain a greater number of animals. Their bill of fare for this winter is 2 lbs. Of oil-cake, half a bushel of cut roots, with cut chaff _ad libitum_. The chaff has a small quantity of flour or pollard mixed with it, is moistened with water, and the whole mass turned over; this is done the day previous to using it. By this means they eat the chaff with more relish, and moistening it prevents the flour being wasted. They are put to grass the following summer, generally from the 15th to the 20th of May, or as soon as the pastures are in a state to receive them; they remain there on second-rate land till about the end of October, when they are brought home and tied up in the stalls. The daily allowance is then 4 lbs. Linseed-cake, 4 lbs. Flour--3/4 bean, 1/4 barley--1 bushel of cut roots with cut chaff; the flour and chaff is mixed as already described. At about the end of December the quantity of cake is increased to 8 lbs. , and the flour to 6 lbs. ; this they continue to receive till they are sold to the butcher during the months of March and April, when they weigh, on an average, 90 stones of 8 lbs. Per bullock, and under two years and six months old. At this season of the year beef generally makes 5s. Per stone--we often make 9s. --but taking that as an average would make the value of each beast £22 10s. The cost of keeping to this age will be as follows:-- £ s. D. One calf 2 0 0 Milk, &c. , nine weeks 1 5 0 Cake, grass, &c. , forty-three weeks, at 1s. 6d. 3 4 6 Second year, November till May, cake, flour, roots, &c. , 2s. 6d. Per week, for twenty-six weeks 3 5 0 May till November, grass, twenty-six weeks, at 2s. 6d. 3 5 0 Third year, November till April, twenty weeks, at 8s. 8 0 0 --------- £20 19 6 Which leaves a gain to each animal of £1 10s. 6d. , besides the manure. _Shelter of Stock. _--The great diminution of temperature, and thefalling off in the supply of herbage, that are coincident with theclose of the autumn, render it necessary to remove our cattle from theopen fields, and provide them with some sort of shelter during thewinter months and early part of the spring. The particular period at which this change of quarters takes place ofcourse varies, and is, in fact, altogether dependent upon the characterof the season. There are some years in which there is, so to speak, akind of relapse of the summer, November being bright and warm, insteadof, as is usually the case, cold and foggy. In such a year there is someherbage to be picked up until the very end of December. On the otherhand, the latter part of October is often very wet, and October frostsare by no means uncommon. Tempestuous, biting winds in November, ortorrents of rain, or both, tell severely upon the poor animals in thefields, even where there is abundance of herbage; and hence, should suchweather take place at the latter part of October, the true economy wouldbe to remove the animals at once to sheltered places. Nothing lowers the temperature of the surface so rapidly as a cold wind. Captain Parry, one of the explorers of the Arctic regions, states thathis men, when well clothed, suffered no inconvenience on exposure to thelow temperature of 55 degrees below zero, provided the air was perfectlycalm; but the slightest breeze, when the air was at this temperature, caused the painful sensation produced by intense cold. I could adducethe experience of many practical men in favor of the plan of affordingshelter to animals, but more especially to those kept in situationsmuch exposed to winds. Mr. Nesbit relates a case bearing on thispoint:--A farmer in Dorsetshire put up twenty or thirty sheep, underthe protection of a series of upright double hurdles lined with straw, having as a sort of roof, or lean-to, a single hurdle, also lined withstraw. A like number of sheep, of the same weight, were fed in the openfield, without shelter of any kind. Each set was fed with turnips _adlibitum_. The result was, that those without shelter increased in weight1 lb. Per week for each sheep, whilst those under shelter, although theyconsumed less food, increased respectively 3 lbs. Per week. As a general rule, the latter part of October, or early in November, isthe time for the removal of live stock from the pastures to the shelterof the farmstead. In England and Scotland the transference is seldomdelayed after these dates; but in Ireland it is no uncommon thing to seethe animals grazing very much later in the year--a circumstance whichthe lateness and mildness of our climate account for. But whatever thedate may be, the importance of such shelter is universally recognised, even by those who most neglect it and are least acquainted with theprinciples upon which its necessity depends. The more important of theseprinciples have already been explained, but they may be here summarisedas follows:-- 1. A certain amount of warmth is an indispensable condition for themaintenance of the life of animals. 2. The internal heat of the bodies of animals is supplied by thechemical combination which takes place between the oxygen of theatmospheric air which they inspire and certain of the constituents(carbon and hydrogen) of the food which they consume, or, to speak moreaccurately, of the tissues of their bodies, which are formed out oftheir food. It is very much in the same way in which our houses areheated by the burning of coal, turf, or wood in their fire-places, sincethe heat derived in the latter case is obtained from a similar source asin the former one--namely, by the union of the oxygen of the air withthe carbon and hydrogen of the fuel. The only real difference betweenthe two kinds of combustion is, that in respiration the process isconducted with an extreme degree of slowness, whilst in the ordinaryfire the combinations take place rapidly, and the heat being evolvedin a much shorter time is proportionately the more intense. 3. The temperature of the external parts of the animal body varies withthe nature and quantity of the food supplied to it, and also dependsupon the state of the weather and the character of the protectionafforded to it. The colder the air, the greater will be the quantity of food required, and the more complete the shelter. In other words, a diminution oftemperature, no matter how caused, will necessitate an increased amountof food and more perfect shelter, in order to maintain at the properdegree of heat the fluids of the body. It is only the external parts ofthe body that become cold: so long as the animal is in health its bloodalways maintains the same degree of temperature; but in cold weather theblood is subjected to a greater cooling power than it is in warmweather, and this cooling power it can only resist by taxing moreextensively the heat-producing resources of the body. 4. Exposure to wet, even in warm weather, will tend to reduce thetemperature of the body, since the conversion of water into vapor canonly be effected at the expense of heat, which heat must be in greatpart extracted from the body of the animal itself. 5. No possible increase of food, however nutritious it may be, cansuffice to keep up the due warmth and healthy condition of the animalframe in winter, if shelter from cold and rain be not simultaneouslyeffected. On the contrary, an animal well protected from the winterblasts will require much less food than if it were placed in an exposedposition. The reason of this is, that the amount of food which an animalexposed to great cold consumes to maintain the temperature of its bodywould, under opposite conditions, be stored up in the form of permanent"increase"--beef or mutton for the butcher, in fact. The fat-forming constituents of the food of stock are in no caseconverted into permanent fat, except when they exceed in quantity theamount required to keep up the internal heat of the animal; but whenthis is constantly reduced by exposure to a wintry temperature, thefood becomes insufficient for even that purpose, no matter how muchaliment is given. What, then, must not be the condition of theunfortunate animals whose fate it is to be the property of a farmerwho neither shelters them from the weather nor provides them with asufficient quantity of nourishing food! _Milch Cows. _--When dairy-farming is conducted on pure pastures, thecows are altogether dependent upon the grasses; and in winter, theanimals suffer much from scarcity of food. This is the very worst systemof cow-keeping, but it is prevalent amongst many small farmers inIreland, and is to be met with even in England and Scotland. I amstrongly of opinion that it would be far more economical to keep cows(and other cattle) altogether in the house, and feed them with cutgrass, than to allow them to remain out altogether in the field. Thereare several disadvantages resulting from the depasturing of cows. In thewarm weather, the animals are greatly annoyed by the attacks of flies:there is a considerable waste of muscle, caused by the movements ofthe animals whilst in search of their food; and the excrements of theanimals and their footmarks injure a large portion of the grass. It maybe somewhat troublesome and expensive to cut the grass, and convey itfrom the field to the house; but the labor and the cost will be morethan repaid by the greatly-increased yield of food. A grass-field, mowed, will produce from 20 to 30 per cent. More food than it would ifit were trampled upon and soiled by cattle. Exercise for an hour or twoin the cool of the evening, or early in the morning (during the hotweather), will be quite sufficient to keep the animals in health. Thismay be taken in a field, better in a paddock, best of all in a roomyyard. When cattle are supplied with cut grass, or clover, care shouldbe taken not to give it to them when very wet, for otherwise there isdanger of the excessively moist herbage producing the _hoove_. Neithershould large quantities of the green food be given to them--the supplyshould be "little and often. " Should the food be too succulent, theaddition of a little straw will correct its laxative effects. Whenthe stock is about passing from the winter keep to summer food, thetransition should be gradual; a well-made compound of straw or hay withgrass (natural or artificial) is much relished by cows. A supply ofgood water is absolutely necessary; but sufficient attention to thisimportant point is seldom given. Cooked food is well adapted for milchcows. Mangels, kohl-rabi, and cabbages are each of them better food thanturnips, as the latter is apt to impart a disagreeable flavour to thebutter. Three feeds in the day is a sufficient number for cows. Thefirst meal should be early in the morning, and may consist of roots, mixed with straw or hay. Some feeders prefer using dry fodder, or cookedfood of some kind, and not raw roots. The second meal is given atmid-day, and the third in the evening. The daily allowance of rootsvaries from 2 to 8 stones, depending upon the quantities of other foodsused. Mr. Horsfall's diet is as follows:--Hay, 9 lbs. ; rape-cake, 6lbs. ; malt-combs, 1 lb. ; bran, 1 lb. ; roots, 28 lbs. These substancesare mixed and cooked, and the animals receive them in a warm state. In addition to this food, Mr. Horsfall's cows get bean-meal--a cow infull milk 2 lbs. , others from 1/2 lb. To 1-1/2 lbs. ; cost per week percow, 8s. 7d. [21] Mr. Alcock, of Skipton, feeds his cows as follows:--Rawmangels, 20 lbs. ; carob beans, 3 lbs. ; bran and malt-combs, 1-3/4 lbs. ;bean-meal, 3-1/2 lbs. ; rape-cake, 3 lbs. ; per diem. A steamed mixtureof wheat and bean straws and shells of oats _ad libitum_. Oats, to theextent of 2 or 3 lbs. Daily, are an excellent food for cows. An important point in dairy economics is the feeding of the cows at_regular_ intervals. If the usual time for the feed be allowed to pass, the animals are almost certain to become very uneasy--to _worry_; andevery feeder knows, or ought to know, that a fretting beast will neitherfatten nor yield milk satisfactorily. The cow-house ought to be kept asclean as possible; and the excreta, therefore, should be removed severaltimes a day. Mr. Harvey, of Glasgow, has probably one of the largest dairiesin the world. His cow byres, 56 yards long, and from 12 to 24 feetwide--according as one or two rows of cows are to be accommodated--standclosely packed, the whole surface of the ground being thus covered bya kind of roof. From 900 to 1, 000 cows are constantly in milk. They arefed during winter partly on steamed turnips (7 tons being steamed dailyin order to give one meal daily to 900 cows), partly on coarse hay, ofwhich, as of straw, they get between 20 and 30 lbs. A day each. They arealso fed on draff, of which they receive half a bushel daily each; onIndian corn meal, of which they have 3 lbs. Daily each; and on pot-ale, of which they receive three times a day nearly as much as they willconsume, _i. E. _, from 6 to 10 gallons daily. During the summer they arelet out, a byreful at a time, for half a day to grass, and on comingin receive their spent malt and still liquor, and hay in addition. Theyare managed, cleaned, and fed by two men to each byre holding about 100cows. The milking is done three times a day, by women who take chargeof 13 cows in full milk, or double that number in half milk, apiece. Between 4 and 5 o'clock a. M. (taking the winter management), the byresare cleaned out, and the cows receive a "big shovelful" of draffapiece, and half their steamed turnips and meal, and a "half stoupful, "(probably 2 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked very early. At 7 theyreceive their fodder-straw or hay. At 10 they get a "full stoupful"(probably 3 or 4 gallons) of pot-ale. They are milked at noon. At 2p. M. , or thereabouts, they are foddered again, and at 4 p. M. Receivethe same food as at the morning meal. They are again milked at 5 to 6, cleaned out and left till morning. The average produce is stated to be2 gallons a day per cow. Mrs. Scott, of Weekston, Peebles, who keeps one of the best manageddairy farms in the United Kingdom, thus conducts her operations inthe winter:--At 6 o'clock in the morning the cows are well wiped orscrubbed, have their bedding removed, and receive each about 4 or 5 lbs. Of straw. At 8 o'clock the cows are milked, and Mrs. Scott examines eachto ascertain whether or not the milk-maid has left any fluid in theudder--and woe betide the careless maid if her work has been carelesslydone! At 10 o'clock a barrowful of turnips is divided amongst threecows, and when these roots are not available, a quantity of peas or beanmeal, with a pint of cold water, takes their place. At 1 o'clock thecows are allowed out to be watered, and during their absence from thebyre it is thoroughly cleansed and ventilated. When the state of theweather prevents the cows from being turned out, they receive twice aday a handful of oatmeal diffused throughout three pints of water--ahandful of salt being given in the first of these drinks. When the cowsreturn to the byre, they receive each about 4 or 5 lbs. Of straw, and at4 or 5 o'clock an evening meal of turnips equal to their morning feed. At 8 o'clock a "windling" of meadow hay is given to each pair of cows, the quantity being always regulated according to the requirements ofeach cow. The cows upon calving receive, in addition to this allowanceof hay, half a pailful of boiled turnips, mixed with a quart of peasor bean-meal. This mess is given in a lukewarm state. Mrs. Scott'ssystem may be thus epitomised: Regularity in feeding; sufficient butnot excessive food; regularity in milking; and minute attention tocleanliness and ventilation. _Stall-feeding. _--What becomes of the 90 per cent. Of the weight ofthe non-nitrogenous constituents of the food of the sheep, and of the80 per cent. Of that of the nutriment of the pig, which they consumebut do not store up? I have already partly answered this question. Thisportion of the food is chiefly expended in the production of the heatwith which the high temperature of the animal's body is maintained. Partof it, no doubt, passes unchanged through its body, either owing to itsindigestibility, or to its being given in excess. The quantity ofnon-nitrogenous matters consumed by a man is influenced greatly by thetemperature of the air which he habitually breathes, and by the natureof the artificial covering of his body; there may be other conditionsat present unknown to us, but these are amongst the chief ones. Now, asthere is sufficient reason to lead us to believe that the consumptionof carbonaceous food by the lower animals is influenced in the sameway by the temperature of the medium in which they exist, the questionnaturally suggests itself, would it not be cheaper to maintain the heatof the animal by burning the carbon of cheap coal or turf outside itsbody, than by consuming the carbon of costly fat within it? The answerto this question is not so simple as at first sight it appears to be. Wemust not consider that, because 10 lbs. Weight of carbon, as coal, costsbut a penny, whilst an equal weight of the same element in starch coststwenty pence, heat may be furnished to a fattening animal twenty timescheaper by the combustion of coal than by that of starch. No doubt theamount of heat evolved by the conversion of a pound-weight of carboninto carbonic acid is the same, whether it be a constituent of starch orof coal; but the application of the heat so produced is less under ourcontrol in the latter case. All the heat evolved during the combustionof the starch within the animal's body is made use of; whilst a verylarge proportion of that developed by the combustion of coal in afurnace cannot in practice be applied to the purpose of heating theanimal's body. It is only the handiwork of the Creator which is perfect, and no machineconstructed by the skill of man, for the direction of force, can rivalthat wondrous heat-producing, force-directing mechanism--the animalorganism. According to Dumas, the combustion of about 2-1/2 lbs. Ofcarbon in a steam-engine is required to generate sufficient force toconvey a man from the level of the sea to the summit of Mont Blanc; buta man will ascend the mountain in two days, and burn in his mechanismonly half a pound of carbon. There is no machine in which heat andforce are more completely made available than the animal organism; andwere it not--thanks to the influence of antediluvian sunshine--thatthe carbon of fuel in these countries is so very much cheaper than thecarbon of food, there is no doubt but that the cheapest mode of keepingan animal warm would be to allow it to burn its carbon within itsbody. As the matter stands, however, there is no question as to theadvisability of keeping fattening animals in a warm place. If thetemperature of the stall be equal to that of the animal's body therewill be less food consumed in the increase of its fat; because less ofthe fat-forming materials will be expended in the production of heat. In this sense, therefore, heat is an equivalent to food, but only withincertain limits; because heat is developed in large quantity within theanimal body independently of the temperature of the air. There is, therefore, no object to be attained by having the stalls heated beyond70 or 80 degrees. Indeed, it is to be questioned whether or not stallsartificially heated are ever properly ventilated. If they be not, thehealth of the animal will suffer, and its appetite--so essential a pointin fattening stock--will become impaired. We may conclude--firstly, that animals, when fattening, should be kept at a temperature not under70 degrees nor above 90 degrees Fahrenheit; secondly, that the mode ofheating must be such that there is as little wasteful combustion of fuelas is possible under the circumstances; and, lastly, that no motives ofeconomy of fuel should prevent the feeding places from being thoroughlyventilated. Stall-feeding is not so extensively carried on in Ireland as it is inGreat Britain. There is a general impression that it does not pay in theformer country; but if such be the case, it is simply owing to the wantof skill on the part of the Irish feeders. The cattle intended for stall-feeding should be removed (if out) fromthe field in October, and put into the house, or court, or crib, orhammel, as the case may be. They are fed upon roots, straw, hay, grain, and artificial food. The greatest skill is required in their treatment. It is a nice point to determine which foods are the most economical, and also to ascertain in what foods excessive proportions of certainnutritive elements exist. Sufficient food should be given; but anyapproach to waste should be avoided. Three feeds a day are usuallygiven, and should be supplied at the same hours each day. For about twoweeks the animals are furnished with white turnips _ad libitum_; butafter the expiration of that time they receive Swedish turnips, straw, and grain, or oil-cake. Late in the season mangels will replace turnips. Almost every extensive feeder now uses oil-cakes in large quantities;but when oats are low in price, they will in general be found a cheapequivalent for a large proportion of the oil-cake. Different feedershave different dietaries, and the nature of the aliments supplied tofattening stock depends very much upon the market prices of food-stuffs, and the locality in which the feeding-house is situated. The followingdietaries are but examples of the methods of feeding adopted indifferent districts and by different persons:-- Mr. McCombie, of Tillyfour, fattens from 300 to 400 beasts annually, and obtained for them in 1861 £35 per head. He never exceeds 4 lbs. Ofoil-cake per diem, nor 2 lbs. Of bruised oats, for each beast. He givesas much turnip and straw as they can consume. He realises £12 per acrein feeding on Aberdeen and Swedish turnips. "For fatting cattle, " says Mr. Edmonds, of Cirencester, "I shouldrecommend two parts hay and one part straw, or in forward animalsthree parts hay and one part straw cut in chaff. Those of average sizewill eat somewhere about five bushels per day, with 4 lbs. To 5 lbs. Oil-cake, and half a peck of mixed meal, barley and peas, or beans, and, if cheap, a proportion of wheat also, to be increased to one peck perday in a month or six weeks after they have come to stall, the oil-cakeand meal to be boiled in water for half-an-hour or three-quarters, andthrown in the form of rich soup over the chaff, and well mixed, to whichadd a little salt. " Colonel M'Douall, of Logan, Wigtonshire, gives 3 lbs. Of bean-meal and3 lbs. Of cut straw cooked together, and 84 lbs. Of Swedish turnips. According to the researches of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, an ox weighing1, 400 lbs. Ought to gain 20 lbs. Weekly when fed under cover with 8 lbs. Of crushed oil-cake, 13 lbs. Of chopped clover hay, and 47 lbs. Ofturnips. The chemical constituents (in a dried state) of this allowanceare as follows:-- Ounces. Fat-formers, or heat givers 232 Flesh-formers 55 Mineral matter 29 _Cost of Maintaining Animals. _--The animal mechanism, which exhibitsthe least tendency to fatten, is the most costly to keep in repair, inrelation to the work performed by it. If, for example, a sheep store upin its increase one-fifth of its food, then the remaining four-fifthsare expended in preserving it alive, and their cost represents, so tospeak, the expense of preserving the animal's body in repair. If anothersheep store up only one-tenth of its food, then the cost of itsmaintenance may be said to be double that of the animal which retainsthe larger proportion of its nutriment in the form of flesh. Of coursein both cases the value of the manure will to a great extent compensatefor the cost of the food expended in merely keeping the animal alive;but that does not affect the proposition, that the less food expended byan animal in carrying on its vital functions the more valuable is it asa "meat-manufacturing machine. " From the moment it is brought into theworld until it is "ripe" for the shambles, an animal should steadilyincrease in weight: every week that it does not store up a portion ofits food in permanent increase is the loss of a week's food to thefeeder; for all the fodder consumed during that time by the animal is, so to speak, devoted to its own private purposes. Sheep overcrowdedon pastures, milch cows on "short commons, " calves kept on bulkyinnutritious food, are all so many sources of positive loss to thefeeder--and as many proofs that he who aspires to be a successfulproducer of meat, must, in one respect at least, be a devout believerin the doctrine of Progressive Development. _Cooking and Bruising Food. _--The cooking, or the otherwise preparing, of the food of the domesticated animals is a subject which untilrecently was completely ignored by the vast majority of stock feeders. It is now, however, beginning to attract a fair amount of attention; andno doubt ere long the best modes of treating the food of cattle will bediscovered. As might be expected from our limited experience of the subject, thereexists considerable difference of opinion relative to the proper methodof cooking cattle food; and there are many very extensive feeders whoobject to the plan altogether, and contend that as the food of theinferior animals is naturally supplied to them in a raw condition, it would be quite unnatural to give it to them in a cooked state. Whatever difference of opinion there may be with regard to the proprietyof cooking the food of stock, we believe there ought not to be a doubtas to the desirability of mechanically treating the harder kinds offeeding stuff. It is quite evident that a horse fed upon hard grains ofoats and wiry fibres of uncut hay or straw must expend no inconsiderableproportion of his motive power in the process of mastication. After ahard day's work of eight or ten hours he has before him the laborioustask of reducing to a pulp from 12 lbs. To 20 lbs. Weight of exceedinglyhard and tough vegetable matter; and as this operation is carried onduring the hours which should be devoted to rest, the repose of theanimal is to some extent interfered with. Indeed, it not unfrequentlyhappens that a horse, after a hard day's work, is too tired to chew hisfood properly; he consequently bolts his oats, a large proportion ofwhich, as a matter of course, passes unchanged through the animal'sbody. In order to render fully effective the motive power of the horse, it isabsolutely necessary to pay attention to the condition, as well as tothe quantity and quality of his nutriment. The force wasted by a horsein the comminution of his food, when composed of whole oats and uncuthay and straw, cannot, at the lowest estimate, be less than that whichhe expends in an hour of ordinary work, such as, for example, inploughing. The preparation of his food by means of water or steam power, or even by animal motive power, would economise by at least 50 per cent. The labor expended in its mastication; and this would be equivalent tonearly half a day's work in each week, and, consequently, a clear gainof so much labor to the owner of the animal. In the present time ofwater-power and steam-power corn-mills, one man is able to grind theflour necessary for the support of several thousand men; in early agesthe labor of one person in the grinding of wheat served but to supplythe wants of twenty others. In both cases machinery was employedfor reducing the grain to flour; but in the one case, the mechanismsemployed were more than a hundred times more effective than in theother. But even the most imperfect flour mill is by far a moreeconomical system of comminuting corn than the jaws of animals; and ifevery man were obliged, as the horse is, to grind his corn by means ofhis teeth alone, he would find his powers for the performance of otherkinds of labor considerably lessened. It has been urged as an objection to the use of bruised oats by horses, that they exercise in that state a laxative influence upon the animal'sbowels. I doubt very much that such is frequently the case, when theanimal is fed only upon oats and hay and straw; but even if the oatsproduce such an effect, the addition of a small proportion of beans--thebinding properties of which are well known--will obviate thedisadvantage. The desirability of mechanically acting upon soft food is not soapparent as the necessity for the bruising of oats is. Roots are soeasily masticable that if they are rendered more so there is danger oftheir being so hastily swallowed as to escape thorough insalivation, which is so necessary to ensure perfect digestion. To guard against thisdanger, perhaps the best way would be to give pulped mangels and turnipsmixed with cut straw; a mixture which could not easily be bolted. Mr. Charles Lawrence, of Cirencester, who is a great advocate for thecooking of food, and has frequently published his experience of thebenefits derivable therefrom, thus describes his method of combiningpulped roots with dry fodder:-- We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening, they consume per head per diem three bushels of chaff, mixed with just half a cwt. Of pulped roots, exclusive of cakes of corn; that is to say, rather more than two bushels of chaff are mixed with the roots, and given at two feeds, morning and evening, and the remainder is given with the cake, &c. , at the middle-day feed, thus:--We use the steaming apparatus of Stanley, of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in the centre, in which the steam is generated, and which is connected by a pipe on the left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for steaming food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub, lined with copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into a thick soup. Adjoining this is a slate tank, of sufficient size to contain one feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into this tank is laid chaff with a three-grained fork, and pressed down firmly; and this process is repeated until the slate tank is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two before feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by the chaff, which has become softened and prepared for ready digestion. Mr. Wright, near Dunbar, gives the following account of an experimentwith pulped roots and straw and oil-cake. It appears to prove thesuperiority of mixed foods over the same foods consumed separately:-- Two lots of year-old cattle were fed; the one in the usual way--sliced turnips and straw, _ad libitum_--the others with the minced turnips, mixed with cut straw. The first lot consumed daily 84 lbs. Sliced turnips, 1 lb. Oil-cake, 1 lb. Rape-cake, 1/2 lb. Bean-meal, broken small and mixed with a little salt, and what straw they liked. The second lot ate, each, daily, 50 lbs. Minced turnips, 1 lb. Oil-cake, 1 lb. Rape-cake, 1/2 lb. Bean-meal, and a little salt, the whole being mixed with double the bulk of cut straw or wheat chaff. In spring, the lot of cattle which had the mixed food were in good condition, and equally well grown as others, though they had consumed in five months two tons less of roots apiece. The reporter does not advise the mincing process to be commenced when cattle are very forward in condition, as any change of food requires a certain time to accustom the animals to it, and in the meantime fat cattle are apt to fall off in condition. It ought to be begun when they are young and lean. Mr. Duckham, of Baysham Court, Ross, Herefordshire, says:-- The advantages of pulping roots for cattle are--1st, Economy of food; for the roots being pulped and mixed with the chaff, either from threshing or cut hay or straw, the whole is consumed without waste, the animals not being able to separate the chaff from the pulped roots, as is the case when the roots are merely sliced by the common cutter, neither do they waste the fodder as when given without being cut. 2. The use of ordinary hay or straw. After being mixed with the pulp for about twelve hours, fermentation commences, and this soon renders the most mouldy hay palatable, and animals eat with avidity that which they would otherwise reject. This fermentation softens the straw, makes it more palatable, and puts it in a state to assimilate more readily with the other food. In this respect I think the pulper of great value, particularly upon corn farms where large crops of straw are grown, and where there is a limited acreage of pasture, as by its use the pastures may be grazed, the expensive process of haymaking reduced, and, consequently, an increased number of cattle kept. I keep one-third more, giving the young stock a small quantity of oil-cake, which I mix with the chaff, &c. 3. Choking is utterly impossible, and I have only had one case of hoove in three years, and that occurred when the mixture had not fermented. 4. There is an advantage in mixing the meal with the chaff and pulped roots for fattening animals, as thereby they cannot separate it, and the moisture from the fermentation softens the meal and ensures its thorough digestion, whereas, when given in a dry state without any mixture, frequently a great portion passes away in the manure. On the value of the process for a grazing farm with but a small quantityof plough-land, Mr. Corner, of Woodlands, Holford, Bridgewater, thusspeaks:-- My plan is, first commencing with the grazing beasts, to cut about an equal quantity of hay and straw and mix with a sufficient quantity of roots (mostly mangel) to well moisten the chaff; and as the beasts advance in condition, I lessen the straw and increase the hay, and in their further progress I mix--in addition to all hay, chaff, and roots--from 6 to 10 lb. Per day to each bullock of barley and bean-meal, according to its size--and I have them large sometimes. I sold last week for the London market a lot of Devon oxen of very prime quality, averaging in weight upwards of 100 stone imperial each. For my horses, cows, yearlings, and oxen--the latter to be kept in a thriving condition, and turned to grass, and kept through the summer for Christmas, 1860--I cut nearly all straw, with a very small quantity of hay, and this the offal of the rick. These also have as many pulped roots as will moisten the chaff, except the horses, and to them I give, along with bruised oats, just enough roots to keep their bowels in a proper condition. To the two or three-year-old beasts I give some long straw and a part chaff, and the offal (if any) of the food of the above lots of stock. My farm is but a small one--under 200 acres. My predecessor always mowed nearly all the pastures for hay, which is about half the farm, and with this scarcely ever grazed any beasts, and kept but very few sheep. Since my occupation I scarcely ever exceed ten acres of meadow with one field of seeds for hay. I keep from 250 to 300 large-size Leicester sheep, and graze from 20 to 25 large-size beasts a year, with other breeding stock in proportion. I consider the pulping of roots is better for fatting pigs than anything else. My plan is to have a large two-hogshead vat as near the pulping machine as possible, so as to fill it with a malt shovel as it comes from the machine; at the same time I keep a lad sprinkling meal (either barley or Indian corn) with the roots; and this is all done in fifteen or twenty minutes. It is then ready for use, to be carried to the pigs in the stalls alongside the fatting beasts. I never could fatten a pig with profit until I used pulped roots. Although the practice of cooking food has been advocated by severaleminent feeders, it has been condemned by others. Mr. Lawes is notfavorable to the cooking of food unless when it is scarce. The resultsof Colonel M'Douall's experiments go to prove that cattle can be moreeconomically kept upon a mixture of raw and cooked foods than uponeither raw or cooked fodder given separately. One meal of cooked foodand two feeds of raw turnips gave better results than three feeds ofraw turnips; whilst two cooked feeds and a raw one resulted in a loss. The fermentation of food, if not the best, is certainly the cheapestmode of preparing it. If the process be not pushed too far the loss ofnutriment sustained is inconsiderable. When a mixture of straw and rootsis fermented, the hard fibres of the latter are, to a great extent, broken up, and the nutrient particles which they envelop are fullyexposed to the action of the solvent juices of the stomach. A great advantage in cooking or fermenting food is that the mostrubbishy materials can be used up. Indeed, as a general rule, the bettersoft food is, the less the necessity for cooking it; but washed out hayand hard, over-ripened straw are of but little value, except when cookedand given in combination with some agreeably-flavored substance. VALUE FOR FEEDING PURPOSES OF VARIOUS FOODS. [22] +--------------------------------------------------------+ | KEY: | | A. --Starch, Sugar, &c. | | B. --Oil, Starch, &c. , computed as Oil. | | C. --Weight. | | D. --Value. | | E. --Value of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potash. | | F. --Deduct Nitrogen for perspiration. | | G. --Net Value for Manure. | | | +---------------+------------------+-------------------------------------+ | | COST. | 100 LBS. CONTAIN. | | +----------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------------+ | MATERIAL. | | | | | | Nitrogen. | | | | Per | | | | | | | Per | 100 | | | +------+-------+ | | ton. | lbs. | Oil. | A. | B. | C. | D. | +---------------+----------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+ | | £ s. D. | s. D. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. | d. | | | | | | | | | | |Meadow-hay | 4 0 0 | 3 7 | 2·68 | 39·75 | 24·63 | 1·48 | 10·62 | | | | | | | | | | |Wheat-straw | 1 15 0 | 1 7 | 0·50 | 32·0 | 18·50 | 0·42 | 3·0 | | | | | | | | | | |Swedish Turnips| 4 10 0 | 4 0 | 2·0 | 60·0 | 35·0 | 2·40 | 17·28 | | | | | | | | | | |Oil-cake | 9 6 8 | 8 4 |12·0 | 38·0 | 33·0 | 5·0 | 36·0 | | | | | | | | | | |Beans | 9 6 8 | 8 4 | 2·0 | 42·0 | 25·30 | 4·45 | 32·0 | | | | | | | | | | |Indian Meal | 9 6 8 | 8 4 | 7·0 | 60·0 | 40·0 | 2·25 | 16·20 | | | | | | | | | | |Carob, or | | | | | | | | | Locust Bean | 9 6 8 | 8 4 | 6·76 | 57·0 | 35·0 | 0·64 | 3·75 | +---------------+----------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+ +---------------+---------------------------+----------------------------+ | | 100 LBS. CONTAIN. | | | +-------------+-------------+----------+-------+---------+ | MATERIAL. | Phosphoric | Potash. | | | | | | Acid. | | | | | | +------+------+------+------+ | | | | | C. | D. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. | +---------------+------+------+------+------+----------+-------+---------+ | | lbs. | d. | lbs. | d. | s. D. | d. | s. D. | | | | | | | | | | |Meadow-hay | 0·90 | 1·35 | 1·50 | 4·50 | 1 4-1/2 | 2-1/12| 1 2-1/4 | | | | | | | | | | |Wheat-straw | 0·14 | 0·21 | 0·65 | 2·16 | 0 5 | 1/2 | 0 5 | | | | | | | | | | |Swedish Turnips| 0·80 | 1·20 | 2·25 | 6·75 | 2 1-1/4 | 3-1/2 | 1 9-3/4 | | | | | | | | | | |Oil-cake | 2·25 | 3·37 | 1·75 | 5·25 | 3 8-1/2 | 7-1/4 | 3 1-3/4 | | | | | | | | | | |Beans | 0·86 | 1·29 | 1·11 | 3·33 | 3 0-1/2 | 6-1/2 | 2 6 | | | | | | | | | | |Indian Meal | 0·19 | 0·28 | 0·17 | 0·51 | 1 5 | 3-1/4 | 1 1-3/4 | | | | | | | | |Carob, or | No analysis | | | | | | Locust Bean | of ash. | |say 5-3/4 | -- | 0 5 | +---------------+--------------------+------+----------+-------+---------+ _Bedding Cattle. _--Instead of wasting straw in bedding cattle, it wouldbe much better to pass it through their bodies. If straw must be usedfor litter, let it be employed as economically as possible. Goodsubstitutes, wholly or in part, for straw bedding may be found insawdust, ashes, tan and ferns. Leaves of trees if procurable inquantity constitute an excellent litter. SECTION II. THE SHEEP. The management of sheep varies greatly--depending upon the breeds ofthe animal, the localities in which they are reared and fattened, andvarious economic conditions. The tupping season varies of course withthe country: in Ireland it commences about the middle of September andlasts for two months; in England and parts of Scotland, the season isabout a month earlier. The best kinds of sheep admit of being very earlyput to breed. Both ram and ewe are ready for this purpose when aboutfifteen months old. One ram is sufficient for about 80 ewes. Thebreeding flock should be in a sound, healthy condition, and the ramought to be as near perfection as possible. The condition of the sireought to be good, but at the same time it is not desirable to have himover fat. The more striking indications of good health in the sheep aredry eyes, red gums, sound teeth, smooth, oily skin, and regularrumination. The color of the excreta should be natural. _Breeding Ewes. _--After the tupping season, which generally lasts fora month, the sheep are usually put on a pasture, which need not bevery rich. In cold situations ample shelter should be afforded to thebreeding flocks; and in severe weather they should, if possible, beremoved to sheds. When snow covers the ground, the animals must besupplied with turnips, or cooked food of some kind. At such time alittle oil-cake will be found very useful. _Yeaning. _--In March the yeaning season sets in; and as this timeapproaches, the food of the animals should be improved, and the greatestcare must be taken of them. The shepherd should be unceasing in hiswatchfulness, frequently examining every individual animal. The lambing, if possible, ought to take place in sheds, or some covered place. _Rearing of Lambs. _--Delicate lambs require great care. Very weak onesoften require to be hand fed. Should a mother die, her offspring may beplaced with another ewe; on the other hand, should a lamb perish, itsmother may be appointed to rear one of another ewe's twins (if suchbe available). The ram lambs, not intended for breeding purposes, aresubjected to a necessary mutilation when they are about three weeks old. If this operation be performed later, there is great danger that fatalinflammatory action may set in; on the other hand, a lamb much youngerthan three weeks is hardly strong enough to bear the pain of theoperation. The tails of the lambs are shortened about the same time;but it would be better in the case of the rams not to perform bothoperations on the same day. These operations are best performed duringmoist or cloudy weather; if they must be done on frosty or stormydays, the lambs should be kept under shelter for two or three days, asotherwise the cold might induce inflammation. The lambs remain withtheir mothers for about four months, after which they are weaned, andput upon a good pasture. When the herbage is poor, oil-cake, say 1/4 lb. Daily, or some other nutritious food, should be used to supplement it. During the summer and part of the autumn the young stock, as a rule, subsist upon grass; but many flock-masters give them other kinds of foodin addition. As winter approaches, the young sheep on tillage farmsreceive soft turnips, and sometimes a little hay or straw. The allowanceof oil-cake may be increased to 1/2 lb. , or if corn be cheap, it may besubstituted for the oil-cake. After Christmas Swedish turnips are used. Mr. Mechi gives the following information on the subject of rearinglambs during a season when roots are scarce:-- Two hundred lambs, which cost 22s. 6d. Each on September 12th, were kept on leas and stubble until November 3rd, then on turnips until December 19th, when fifty of them were drafted to another flock getting a little cotton-cake. On the 3rd of February fatting commenced with linseed-cake in addition to cut Swedes. On the 7th of April the fifty tegs were put on rye with mangels, and they were sold on the 4th of May at 61s. Each. The remaining 150 lambs were wintered as stores at little cost, on inferior turnips uncut; they were put on rye from March 8th till May 4th, when they were valued at 48s. Each. The district just referred to became so exhausted of its stock, that at some of the later fairs the number of lambs and of ewes exhibited was less than one-fourth of the average. But in Essex, on six adjoining farms, including that from which I write, the number of sheep wintered has been greater than these heavy lands ever carried before. This has been effected by the extension of a system of management often practised on heavy land, that of eking out a scanty supply of green food by a liberal allowance of straw, chaff, and grain; which happily were good in quality, as well as plentiful and low in price in 1864. By these means we were enabled last winter to keep 1, 500 sheep on about 650 acres of arable, and 350 acres of dry upland pasture--chiefly park surrounding a mansion. The arable land does not very well bear folding in winter, as a preparation for spring corn. Neither climate nor soil are favorable to turnips, and notwithstanding our efforts in assisting Nature, our crops of turnips, rape, or Swedes, are never first-rate, and sometimes very bad. Strong stubbles, good beans, clover-seed, and mangel, are the specialities of the locality, and they indicate heavy land, corn-growing, and yard-feeding. Sheep have been generally "conspicuous by their absence, " though even the heavy-land farmer is glad to winter a yard of them instead of cattle, that he may keep some, at least, of the stock that pays best. In the autumn of 1864 our root crops consisted of some white turnips and rape, eaten by the ewes in September, and of a very bad crop of mangel, the whole of which was reserved for the ewes at lambing-time. In this predicament we wintered about 1, 000 half-bred lambs, more than 400 ewes, and some fatting sheep. All, except the fatting sheep, were folded on the stubbles, and allowed a daily run on the park of about an hour for each flock. The freshest grass was reserved for the ewes, and a very meagre bite remained for the lambs; in fact, except for a few weeks in autumn, the parks afforded them little or nothing except exercise and water. The flocks were divided between three separate farms, and their food was prepared at the respective homesteads. The treatment was in every respect similar; we shall therefore only notice in detail the management at one farm. The following details are taken from our "Live Stock Book:"-- EXTRACTS FROM STOCK BOOK. _Lambs. _ Payments. Remarks. _November 4th, 1864. _ £ s. D. 352 lambs, cost at date, 30s. 9-1/2d. Each 542 2 3 (a) _Cost of keeping 24 weeks to April 21, 1865_:-- (b) Corn and cake, as per granary book 245 16 9 (c) Cutting 25 tons of chaff, at 6s. 7 13 0 (d) Grinding 96 qrs. 6 bshls. Of corn, at 9d. 3 12 6 Attendance, at 19s. 10d. Per week 23 16 0 (e) Horse labor, at 6s. Per week 7 4 0 Coal, 3s. 2d. Per week 3 16 0 (f) Use of 21 troughs, at 3d. Each per month 1 11 6 (g) Use of 180 hurdles, at 1d. Each per month 4 10 0 1-1/2 cwt. Of rock salt 0 4 6 ========== £840 6 6 Remarks. (a) Total cost of keeping 352 lambs for 24 weeks, £298 4s. 3d. (b) Cost per head, 16s. 11d. (c) Cost, food only, 14s. 11d. (d) Value of the manure, reckoned at one-fifth the cost of the corn and cake, £49 3s. 4d. (e) Cost of the lambs, per head, £2 7s. 8d. (f) Value of manure, per head, 2s. 10d. (g) No charge made for the straw-chaff eaten on the land. The tegs would probably have been sold at a profit in April; they were, however, put on grass and clover, and were fattened in the summer. _September 29th. _--352 lambs in the parks, on a little cotton-cake and some oats, until November 4th, when they were folded on a wheat stubble. Gave them 5 bushels of meal daily, mixed with 468 lb. Of straw chaff. Cost 3-1/2d. Each per week for meal. _December 20th. _--Increased the food to 6-1/2 bushels of meal and 1 bushel of oil-cake. _December 18th. _-- lb. 2-3/4 bushels of maize crushed and boiled 143 4-1/2 bushels of mixed meal 200 1 bushel of oil-cake 50 --- 393 === Cost 5-1/2d. Per week for corn and cake; chaff, 2-1/4 lb. Each, between these and the ewes, the lambs eating rather less than 2 lb. Each. Eight pounds of rock-salt licked up by the 352 lambs per week. _January 23rd. _--The food was increased to 7-1/2 bushels of meal, 2 bushels of oil-cake, and 2 bushels of rape-cake. Mixture of Corn. Wheat 4 parts. Barley 4 " Oats 2 " Maize 4 " Cost per stone (14 lb. ) s. D. Wheat 1 0 Barley 0 10 Oats 1 0 Maize 0 10 Oil-cake 1 4-1/4 Rape-cake 0 9 _Sheep Feeding. _--In Ireland sheep are often exclusively fed on grass;but in most cases the addition of other food is desirable, and moreespecially is it necessary during winter. When confined to roots, sheep, on an average, consume about 26 lbs. Daily, unless when under shelter, which diminishes the quantity by from five to ten per cent. Some sheepon which Dr. Voelcker experimented were fed as follows:-- lbs. Ounces. Mangel wurtzel 19 8 Chopped clover hay 1 3/10 Linseed cake 0 4-8/100 -------------- Total 20 15-38/100 On this diet four sheep were maintained from the 22nd of March untilthe 10th of May, a period of forty-seven days. The weights were asfollows:-- 22nd Mar. 10th May. Gain. No. 1 153 170-1/2 17-1/2 No. 2 134 151-1/2 17-1/2 No. 3 170 187 17-1/2 No. 4 136 155 19 This experiment shows that the sheep can increase in weight on a dailyallowance of food, much less than is usually given to them; but it willbe found that growing sheep will usually consume a greater quantity offood than that used by Dr. Voelcker's fattening animals. Sheep washing is performed before the animal is shorn. It is a processwhich should never be neglected, as dirty wool is certain to bring aless price than the same quality would if clean. After being washed, sheep should be kept in dry pasture for about ten days in order to allowthe loss of yolk removed by the washing to be repaired; they will thenbe in proper condition for the shearer. _Sheep Dips_ are used for the purpose of removing parasites from theanimal's skin. They often contain arsenic, or bichloride of mercury(corrosive sublimate), which are very objectionable ingredients. Theglycerine sheep dip, prepared by Messrs. Hendrick and Guerin, of London, is a safe mixture, as it is free from mineral poisons, whilst the tarsubstances which it includes, act as a powerful cleanser of the skin, without injuriously affecting the yolk of the wool. SECTION III. THE PIG. In the breeding of pigs, as in the breeding of other kinds of stock, great care should be taken in the selection of both sire and dam. A goodpig should have a small head, short nose, plump cheek, a compact body, short neck, and thin but very hairy skin, and short legs. The blackbreed is considered to be more hardy than the white; and pure--all blackor all white--colors as a rule indicate the purest blood. The sow should not be bred from until she is a year old, and the boarespecially should not be employed at an earlier age. Although one boaris sometimes left with forty pigs and even a greater number, he will notbe able to serve more than a dozen about the same time, if vigorousprogeny be expected. The sow's regular period of gestation is 113 days;she can have two litters a year, and in each there are from five tofourteen young. Moderate sized litters are the best, the young of verynumerous ones being often weakly. The best time to rear young pigs isduring the warm or mild parts of the year. During gestation the sow should be liberally fed, but not with excessiveamounts. The food at this time should rather excel in quality than inquantity; but so soon as she begins to nurse, her allowance must beincreased, and may be rendered more stimulating. For a week or so beforefarrowing, the sow ought to be kept alone. Its sty should not be toosmall--not less than 8 or 10 feet square--for pigs require good air inabundance as well as other animals. The straw used for litter should neither be too abundant nor too long;in the latter case some of the young might be covered by it, andescaping the notice of the sow, might unconsciously be crushed by thelatter. If the young are very feeble, it may become necessary tohand-feed them. Some sows eat their young: and when they have thishabit, the better plan is to cease breeding from them; for it appears tobe incurable. After parturition some bran and liquid or semi-liquid foodshould be given to the sow. _Young Pigs_ subsist exclusively on their mother's milk but for a shorttime. In two or three weeks they may receive skimmed or butter-milk fromthe dairy. At a month old such of them as are not designed for breedingpurposes may be subjected to the usual mutilations; and at from five tosix weeks old the young are weaned, and converted into _stores_. _Store Pigs_, when young, are best fed upon skimmed milk, oatmeal, and potatoes, in a cooked state. When they are approaching three monthsold, they may be supplied with raw food, if the weather be warm;but in winter, cooked and warm food will be found the more economical. Cabbages, roots, potatoes, and all kinds of grain that are cheap areused in pig feeding. The number of meals varies from six or seven in thecase of very young animals, to three in the case of those nearly readyfor fattening. Store pigs should be allowed a few hours' exercise dailyin a paddock, or field, or at least in a large yard. The dietaries of store pigs vary greatly, for these animals beingomnivorous readily eat almost every kind of food. Mr. Baldwin, of BredonHouse, near Birmingham, an extensive pig breeder, gave (in 1862) storesthe following allowance:--At three months old, a quart of peas, Egyptianbeans, or Indian corn. He considered English beans to be too _heating_for young pigs. The animals were allowed the _run_ of a grass field. On this diet the stores were kept until they were eight months old(increasing at the average rate of five pounds per week), after whichthey were allowed an extra half-pint of corn. He calculated the weeklycost as follows:--Dry food, 1s. ; grass, 2d. ; man's time, 1d. ; total, 1s. 3d. These results yielded a profit of 1s. Per week per pig, pork beingat the time 6d. Per lb. Some feeders give young store pigs half-a-pintof peas, mixed with pulped mangel, and the quantum of peas is graduallyincreased to one pint per diem. All kinds of food-refuse from the houseare welcomed by the pig. Skins, dripping, damaged potatoes, cabbage, &c. , may be given to them; but they should not be altogether substitutedfor the ordinary food-stuffs. Coal-dust, cinders, mortar rubbish, andsimilar substances are often swallowed by pigs, and sometimes evengiven to them by the feeder. In certain cases Lawes and Gilbert foundthat superphosphate of lime was a useful addition to the food of pigs. A little salt should invariably be given, more especially if mangels(which are rich in salt) do not enter into the animals' dietary. _Fattening Pigs. _--For some time before store pigs are put up to befattened, the quality and quantity of their food should be increased, for it is not economy to put a rather lean animal suddenly upon a veryfattening diet. The sty should be well supplied with clean litter, andshould be darkened. Three feeds per diem will be a sufficient number, and the remains (if any) of one should be removed from the trough beforethe fresh feed is put into it. The feeding trough (which should be madeof iron) should be so constructed that the animals cannot place theirfore feet in it. The pig is naturally a clean animal, and thereforeit should be washed occasionally, as there is every reason to believethat such a procedure will tend to promote the animal's health. Itshould be supplied with clean water. In Stephen's "Book of the Farm, " it is stated that two pecks ofsteamed potatoes, and 9 lbs. Of barley-meal, given every day to a pigweighing from 24 to 28 stones, will fatten it perfectly in nine weeks. Barley-meal is largely used in England as food for pigs. It is givengenerally in the form of a thin paste, and in large quantities. Lawesand Gilbert found that 1 cwt. Of barley-meal given to pigs increasedtheir weight by 22-1/2 lbs. Indian meal is fully equal, if it is notsuperior to barley-meal, as food for pigs; and for this purpose it isfar more extensively employed in Ireland. Every kind of grain given topigs should be ground and cooked. In Scotland pigs are often fattenedsolely on from 28 to 35 lbs. Of barley-meal weekly, and mangels orturnips _ad libitum_. Pollard is a good food for pigs, being rich inmuscle-forming materials; it is a good addition to very fatty or starchyfood. A mixture of pollard and palm-nut meal is an excellent fatteningfood. Potatoes are now so dear, that they are seldom--unless the veryworst and diseased kinds--used in pig feeding. They should never begiven raw. The more inferior feeding-stuffs should be used up first inthe fattening of pigs, and the more valuable and concentrated kindsduring the latter part of the process. SECTION IV. THE HORSE. The horse is subject to many diseases, not a few of which arise from thedefective state of his stable. The best kinds of stables are large andlofty, well ventilated and drained, smoothly paved, and well providedwith means for admitting the direct sunlight. The walls should bewhitewashed occasionally, and for disinfecting and general sanitarypurposes, four ounces of chloride of lime (bleaching powder) mixed witheach bucket of whitewash, will be found extremely useful. Farm horses are kept in stalls, which should not be less than six feetwide, and (exclusive of rack and rere passage) 10 feet long. For huntersand thorough-breds, _loose boxes_ are now generally used. The mare commences to breed at four years, and the period of gestationis 340 days. She may be worked until within a fortnight of the time atwhich parturition is expected to occur. After foaling, the mare shouldbe turned into a grass field (unless the weather is severe) and keptthere idly for three or four weeks. _Foals_ are kept with their mothers until they are about five or sixmonths old: after weaning, their food must be tender and nutritious--wellbruised oats, cut hay, bean or oatmeal mashes; carrots are verysuitable. Working horses are fed chiefly upon oats and hay, which undoubtedly arethe best foods for these animals, both being rich in muscle-formingmaterials. Bruised oats are far more economical than the whole grains:and if the animals eat too rapidly, that habit is easily overcome bymixing chopped straw or hay with the grain. According to Playfair, a horse not working can subsist and remain infair condition on a daily allowance of 12 lbs. Of hay and 5 lbs. Ofoats. According to the same authority, a working horse should receive14 lbs. Of hay, 12 lbs. Of oats, and 2 lbs. Of beans. Beans are a very concentrated food, rich in flesh-formers, and are, therefore, well adapted for sustaining hard-working horses. They arerather _binding_; but this property is easily neutralised by combiningthe beans with some laxative food. Turnips, carrots, furze, and variousother foods are given to the horse, often in large quantities. Thefollowing are some among the many dietaries on which this animalis kept:-- Professor Low's formula is, 30 to 35 lbs. Of a mixture of equal partsof chopped straw, chopped hay, bruised grain, and steamed potatoes. The daily rations of horses of the London Omnibus Company, are 16 lbs. Of bruised oats, 7-1/2 lbs. Of cut hay, and 2-1/2 lbs. Of chopped straw. Stage coach-horses in the United States receive daily about 19 lbs. OfIndian meal and 13 lbs. Of cut hay. Mr. Robertson, of Clandeboye, near Belfast, gives the followinginformation on the subject of horse-keeping:-- The year we divide into three periods--October, November to May inclusive, June to September inclusive. During the first period, the horses get about 18 lb. Of chaff and 12 lb. Of crushed oats and beans; "10-1/2 oats and 1-1/2 beans" per head per day. During the second period they get about 15 lb. Of hay chaff, 12 lb. Of crushed oats and beans, and about 3 gallons of boiled turnips per head per day. During the third period they were turned out to graze during the night. In the day time, whilst in the stable, each animal is allowed about 50 lb. Of cut clover, and about 12 lb. Of crushed oats and beans per day. The feeding is all under the charge of one person. He uses his own discretion in feeding the animals, though he is not allowed to exceed the quantities named. The horses to which I allude are the same on which the experiments commenced two years ago--six cart horses, one cart pony, and one riding horse. From Sept. 1, 1865, to and including August 31, 1866, the cost of maintaining these horses in good working condition; keeping the carts, harness, &c. , in repair; shoeing, c. , was as follows:-- Oats, 14 tons, at 16s. Per cwt. £112 0 0 Beans, 2 tons, at 18s. Per cwt. 18 0 0 Hay, 13 tons, at 30s. Per ton 19 10 0 Green Clover 15 0 0 Turnips 5 0 0 Night grazing 18 0 0 Engine, cutting chaff, crushing oats, &c. 7 4 0 Attendance 26 0 0 Blacksmith 12 0 0 Saddler 12 0 0 Carpenter 10 0 0 Five per cent. Interest on value, £110 5 10 0 Depreciation in value 10 per cent. 11 0 0 ------------ £271 4 0 Deduct cost of riding horse 35 0 0 ------------ £236 4 0 £33 11s. 10d. Per head; if we suppose the available working days to be 300, allowing 13 for wet days, holidays, &c. , the daily cost will be 2s. 2-1/2d. ; to this if we add 1s. 8d. , the wages of the driver, we shall have a total of 3s. 10-1/2d. As the cost of a horse, cart, and driver per day. I would only add, in conclusion, that the horses are kept in good working condition; and, as a proof of their good health under this system, I may state that during the past two years we have not had occasion to require the services of a veterinary surgeon. Musty hay or straw should not be given to horses. Furze is said to bea heating food; but it is very nutritious, and when young, may be givenas _part_ of the food of the horse. Boiled turnips and mangels are often given in winter; but they arenot sufficiently nutritious to constitute a substantial portion of theanimal's diet. Oil-cake is occasionally given to horses; but seldom inlarger quantities than 1-1/2 lbs. Per diem. On the whole, experience isin favor of occasionally giving cooked food to horses; and the practicemeets with the full approval of the veterinarian. To most kinds of foodfor horses, the addition of one or two ounces of salt is necessary. In the _Agricultural Gazette_ for November 25, 1865, the followinginstructive tables are given:-- STABLE FEEDING DURING AUTUMN. ---+-------------------------+---------+---------+------+-----------+------ | Name and Address | | | | Clover, |Weekly No. | of Authorities. | Hay. | Oats. |Beans. | &c. | Cost. ---+-------------------------+---------+---------+------+-----------+------ | | lb. | lb. | lb. | | s. D. | | | | | | 1 | W. Gater, Botley | 168 | 63* | 32* | . . . |12 0 2 | W. C. Spooner | 112 | 84 | 24 | . . . |11 0 3 | T. Aitken, Spalding. | . . . | 37-1/2 | . . . | ad lib. | 7 6? 4 | " " | . . . | 37-1/2 | 35 | ad lib. |10 O? 5 | T. P. Dods, Hexham. | . . . | 105 | . . . | ad lib. |10 6? 6 | " " | ad lib. | 105 | . . . | . . . |10 6? | | | | | Straw | 7 | A. Ruston, I. Of Ely. | ad lib. | 84 | 10 | ad lib. | 9 0 | | 1/2 | | | 1/2 Bran. | | | | | | 1/3 bush. | 8 | A. Simpson, Beauly | 168 | 70 | 14 | 24 lb. |10 0 | | | | | Straw. | 9 | H. J. Wilson, Mansfield | . . . | 52-1/2 | . . . | ad lib. | 7 3? 10 | " " | 42 | 87-1/2 | . . . | ad lib. | 9 0 ---+-------------------------+---------+---------+------+-----------+------ In this table the asterisk (*) means that the grain is crushed or ground. STABLE FEEDING DURING WINTER. ---+------------------+------+-------+------+--------+---------+------+------ No. |Name and Address. | Hay. | Oats. |Beans. | Roots. |Sundries. |Straw. |Weekly | | | | | | | | Cost. ---+------------------+------+-------+------+--------+---------+------+------ | | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | s. D. 1 |Professor Low | | | | | | | | --Elements of | | | |Potatoes| | | | Agriculture | 56* | 56* | . . . | 56+ | . . . | 56* | 6 6 | | | | | | | | 2 |H. Stephens | | | | | | | | --Book of the | | | |Turnips | | | | Farm | 112 | 35 | . . . | 112 | . . . | . . . | 6 0 | | | | | | | | 3 |J. Gibson, Woolmet| | | |Potatoes| | | | --H. Soc. 1850 | . . . | 84 | . . . | 217+ | 217+ | 112 | 9 0 | | | | | | | | 4 |--Binnie, | | | | Barley | | ad | | Seaton | . . . | 70* | 28* | 243+ | 42+ | lib. |11 6 | | | | | | | | 5 |--Thomson, | | | | | | ad | | Hangingside | . . . | 84 | 14 | 336 | 14 | lib. | 9 6 | | | | | | | | 6 |W. C. Spooner, | | | | | | | | Ag. Soc. Journ. | | | | | | | | vol. Ix. | . . . | 63 | . . . | 42 | . . . | 196 | 4 9 | | | | | | | | 7 |T. Aitken, | ad | | | | | ad | | Spalding, | lib. | | | | | lib. | | Lincolnshire | (2/3)| 37 | 35 | . . . | . . . |(1/3) | 9 0 | | | | | | | | 8 |G. W. Baker, | | | | | | | | Woburn, | | | | | | | | Bedfordshire | . . . | 60* | 20* | . . . | . . . | . . . | 9 8 | | | | | | | | 9 |R. Baker, | | | | | | | | Writtle, Essex | 70 | 42 | . . . | . . . | . . . | 140 | 5 0 | | | | | | | | 10 |J. Coleman, | | | | | | ad | | Cirencester | . . . | 84 | 16 | . . . | . . . | lib. | 7 3 | | | | | | | | 11 |T. P. Dods, | | | | | | ad | | Hexham | . . . | 95 | . . . | 56 | . . . | lib. | 8 0 | | | | | | | | 12 |J. Cobban, | | | | | Linseed | ad | | Whitfield | 84* | 60* | . . . | . . . | 3-1/2 | lib. *| 7 3 | | | | | | | | 13 |S. Druce, jun. , | | | | Swedes | | 2 | | Ensham | 112 | 52 | . . . | 70 | . . . | bu. * | 7 0 | | | | | | | | | | ad | | | | | ad | 14 |C. Howard, | lib. | | | | | lib. | | Biddenham | (2/3)| 52 | 17 | 84 | . . . | 1/3* | 8 6? | | | | | | | | 15 |J. J. Mechi, | | | |M. Wurzel| | ad | | Tiptree. | 49* | 70* | . . . | 210 | . . . | lib. *| 7 6 | | | | | | | | 16 |W. J. Pope, | | | | | | ad | | Bridport | 2* | 84 | . . . | . . . | . . . | lib. | 9 0? | | | | | | | | 17 |S. Rich, | | | | | | | | Didmarton, | | | | | Grains | ad | | Gloucestershire | 168 | 63 | . . . | . . . | 2 bush. | lib. |10 8 | | | | | | | | 18 |H. E. Sadler, | | | | | | | | Lavant, Sussex | 140 | 84 | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | 9 9 | | | | | | | | 19 |J. Morton, | | | |Carrots | | ad | | Whitfield Farm | . . . |126 | . . . | 350 | . . . | lib. |10 9 | | | | | | | | 20 |E. H. Sandford, | | | | | Bran | ad | | Dover | 56 | 42 | . . . | . . . | 12 | lib. | 5 6 | | | | | | | | 21 |A. Simpson, | | | | |Tail Corn| ad | | Beauly, N. B. | . . . | 49 | 7 | 105 | 21 | lib. *| 5 6 | | | | | | | | 22 |H. J. Wilson, | | | | | Bran | ad | | Mansfield | 42 | 52-1/2| . . . | . . . | 21 | lib. | 6 6? | | | | | | | | 23 |F. Sowerby, | | | | | | | | Aylesby, North | | | | | | ad | | Lincolnshire | 112 | 28 | Cut Oat Sheaf. | . . . | lib. *| 8 0? ---+------------------+------+-------+------+--------+---------+------+------ Where an asterisk (*) is attached to any item, it is to be understood that the corn has been bruised or ground, or the hay or straw has been cut into chaff. Where a dagger (+) is appended, the article so marked has been boiled or steamed. A mark of interrogation (?) indicates that the result so marked is uncertain, owing to some indefiniteness in the account given. On feeding horses with pulped roots, Mr. Slater, of Weston Colville, Cambridgeshire, says:-- I give all my cart horses a bushel per day of pulped mangel, mixed with straw and corn-chaff. I begin in September, and continue using them all winter and until late in the summer, nearly, if not quite, all the year round, beginning, however, with smaller quantities, about a peck, and then half a bushel, the first week or two, as too many of the young-growing mangel would not suit the stock. I believe pulped mangels, with chaff, are the best, cheapest, and most healthy food horses can eat. I always find my horses miss them when I have none, late in the summer. I give them fresh ground every day. Young store beasts, colts, &c. , do well with them. * * * * * [Footnote 20: Five pounds of linseed will make about seven gallons ofgruel, and suffice for five good-sized calves; considerable allowancemust, however, be made for differences of quality in the linseed, thatfrom India not being gelatinous enough, and therefore boiling hard, instead of "coming down kindly. "] [Footnote 21: "Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, " vol. Xxxix. ] [Footnote 22: From Mr. Horsfall's Essay on Dairy Management, in "Journalof Royal Agricultural Society, " vol. Xviii. , part i. ] PART IV. MEAT, MILK, AND BUTTER. SECTION I. MEAT. No one ought to feel a greater interest in the subject of meat inall its branches than the stock feeder. Just in proportion as thiskind of food is agreeable to the taste, easily digestible, and rich innutriment, will the demand for it increase. The quality of meat is, infact, a primary consideration with the producer of that article; and hewhose beef and mutton are the most tender and the best flavored willmake the most profit. _Quality of Meat. _--The flesh of herbivorous animals is composed ofmuscular and adipose (fatty) tissues. The muscles consist of bundles ofelastic fibres (_fibrine_), enclosed in an albuminous tissue formed oflittle vessels, termed cells, and intimately commingled with water, anda mixture of albuminous, fatty, and saline matters. The leanest flesh(muscles) contains fat, but the latter accumulates in certain parts ofthe body--often to such an extent as to seriously interfere with thefunctions of life. The red color of flesh is due to a rather largeproportion of blood, which it contains in minute vessels; and the slightacidity of its juice is owing to the presence of _inosinic_ acid, andprobably of several other acids. The agreeable odour of meat, when itis subjected to the process of cooking, is developed from a complexsubstance termed _osmazome_. [23] This constituent varies in nature andquantity in the different animals--hence the variety in flavor and odourof their flesh--and its amount increases with the age of the animal. The albumen of the muscles, and their fatty and saline constituents, are digestible; but it is generally believed that the elastic fibres, and the horny cellular tissue which binds them into bundles, are notassimilable. It is more certain that the crystalline substances found inflesh, such as, for example, _kreatine_, are incapable of ministering tothe nutrition of animals. The composition of flesh varies very much--that of a very obese pigcontaining more than half its weight of fat, whilst in some specimensof "jerked beef, " imported from Monte Video, scarcely 5 per cent. Ofthat substance was found. The flesh of a fat ox has on an average thefollowing composition:-- Per cent. Water 45 Fatty substances 35 Lean flesh, or muscle 15 Mineral matters 5 --- Total 100 I have examined for Dr. Morgan several specimens of the corned beefrecently prepared in South America, by "Morgan's process. " The followingwere the average results of three analyses:-- Per cent. Water 40 Fatty matters 21 Lean, or muscular flesh 27 Mineral matters (chiefly common salt) 12 --- Total 100 It may not here be out of place to direct attention to the compositionof a kind of animal food extensively purchased by the poorer classes, and known under the term of slink veal. It is the flesh of calves thatare killed on the first day of their existence, and also, I have reasonto believe, that of very immature animals--of calves that have neverbreathed. The flesh is of a very loose texture naturally, and is stillfurther puffed out by air, which is usually supplied from the lungs ofthe operator. This kind of meat, though regarded as a delicacy by somepeople, is not held in much estimation, otherwise its price would behigher than it is. It is at present sold at about 4d. Or 5d. Per pound, sometimes even at a lower rate. Apart from the disgusting process of"blowing" veal, so generally adopted, the use of this food is extremelyobjectionable, owing to its great tendency to produce diarrhoea. Tothe truth of this assertion every physician who has studied the subjectof dietetics can testify. I have analysed a specimen of it (purchasedfrom a person who admitted that it was part of a calf a day old), andobtained the following results:-- 100 parts contain-- Per cent. Water 72·25 Fat 6·17 Lean flesh 18·46 Mineral matter 3·12 ------ Total 100·00 I believe that a large portion of the lean flesh is indigestible; andaltogether I may safely say of this kind of meat that it is, especiallyduring the prevalence of cholera, an unsafe article of diet. Of coursethese observations do not apply to _fed_ veal, the only kind whichrespectable butchers, as a rule, offer for sale. Young meat is richer in soluble albumen and poorer in fibrine andfat than the matured flesh of the same animal. The flesh of the goatcontains _hircic_ acid, which renders it almost uneatable, but thissubstance is either altogether absent from, or present but in minuteproportion in, the well-flavored meat of the kid. The flesh of gamecontains abundance of osmazome, a substance which is somewhat deficientin that of the domestic fowl. Owing to the marked individuality which man exhibits in the selection ofhis food, and to the intimate relationship subsisting between food andthe organism it nourishes, it is impossible to arrange the alimentalsubstances in the strict order of their nutritive values. You can bringa horse to the water, but you cannot compel him to drink it; you canswallow any kind of food you please, but you cannot force your stomachto digest it. It is, therefore, vain to tell a man that a certain kindof food is shown by chemical analysis to be nutritious, when his stomachtells him unmistakeably that it is poisonous, and refuses to digest it. In the matter of dietetics Nature is a safer guide than the chemist. Many substances, when viewed only in the light shed upon them bychemical analysis, appear to be rich in the elements of nutrition, yetwhen they are introduced into the stomachs of certain individuals, theydisarrange the digestive organs, and sometimes cause the whole system togo out of order. Every day we see exemplified the truth of the proverb, that "one man's meat is another man's poison. " There are persons whorelish and readily digest fat pork, and yet they cannot eat a singleegg with impunity; others enjoy and easily assimilate eggs, but theirstomachs cannot tolerate a particle of fat bacon. It is not merely the composition of an aliment and its adaptability tothe organism which determine its nutritive value--its digestibilityand flavor are points which affect it. There are few people in thesecountries who are disposed to quarrel with beef; but no one wouldprefer the leg of an elderly milch cow to the sirloin of a well-fedthree-year-old bullock: yet if our selection were to be determined bythe analysis of the two kinds of beef, we would be just as likely toprefer the one as the other. No doubt the relative tenderness of meatsmay be ascertained by experiments conducted _outside_ the body; buttenderness is not in every case synonymous with easy digestibility. Veal contains more soluble albumen, and is, consequently, far moretender than beef; yet, as every one knows, it is less digestible. It iscurious that maturity renders the flesh of some animals more digestible, and that of others less digestible. Flavor has something to do withthese differences. Beef is richer than veal in the agreeably flavorousosmazome, and the flesh of the kid is destitute of the disagreeableodour of the fully-developed goat. The superiority of wild-fowl over thedomesticated birds is solely owing to the finer flavor of their flesh. The habits of animals, and the nature of their food, affect thequality of their flesh. Exercise increases the amount of osmazome, andconsequently renders the meat more savory. The mutton of Wicklow, Wales, and other mountainous regions is remarkably sweet, because the animalsthat furnish it are almost as nimble as goats, and skip from crag tocrag in quest of their food. The fatty mutton, with pale muscle, whichis so abundant in our markets, is furnished by very young animals forcedprematurely into full development. Those animals have abundance of foodplaced within easy reach; their muscular activity is next to _nil_, and the result is, that their flesh contains less than its naturalproportion of savory ingredients. It is the same with all other animals. The flesh of the tame rabbit is very insipid, whilst that of the wildvariety is well flavored. Wild fowls cooped up, and rapidly fattened, lose their characteristic flavor; and when the domesticated birds becomewild their flesh becomes less fatty, and acquires all the peculiaritiesof game. Ducks, whether wild or tame, ordinarily yield goodly meat;but the flesh of some of those that feed on fish smacks strongly ofcod-liver oil. Birds which subsist partly on aromatic berries assimilatethe odour as well as the nutriment of their food. The flesh of grousehas very commonly a slight flavor of heather. Foster states that inTahiti pigs are fed upon fruit, which renders their fat very bland andtheir flesh like veal. Animals subjected to certain kinds of mutilationfatten more rapidly than they do in their natural state. Capons increasein weight more rapidly than cocks, poulards than hens, bullocks thanbulls, and cows deprived of their ovaries than perfect cows. Why it isthat the flesh of mutilated animals should be fatter and more tenderthan that of whole animals, we know not; we only know that such is thefact. The hunting of animals renders their flesh more tender; the causeassigned is, that the great exertion of the muscles liquefies theirfibrine, which is the toughest of their constituents. The meat ofanimals brought very early to maturity is seldom so valuable as thenaturally developed article. Lawes and Gilbert state that portions ofa sheep that had been fattened upon _steeped_ barley and mangels, andwhich gave a very rapid increase, yielded several per cent. Less ofcooked meat, and lost more, both in dripping and by the evaporation ofwater, than the corresponding portions of a sheep which had been fedupon _dry_ barley and mangels, and which gave only about half theamount of gross increase within the same period of time. Although the digestibility and flavor of meat (and of every other kindof food) affect its nutritive value, these points are in general of farless importance than its composition. Potatoes are not so nutritious aspeas, because they contain a smaller amount of fat and flesh-formers;but they are more digestible. Fish contains less solid matter thanflesh, and is less nutritious, yet a cut of turbot will be, in general, more easily digested than an equal weight of old beef. The fact is, thatdigestibility and flavor are only of great importance to dyspepticpersons. In the healthy digestive organs a pound weight of (dry) foodof inferior flavor and slow digestibility will be just as useful as thesame weight of well-flavored and easily assimilable aliment, providedall other conditions be alike. If the food be eaten with a relish, andtolerated by the stomach, its digestibility will not, except in extremecases, affect in a very sensible degree its nutritiveness. Were one question in animal nutrition satisfactorily answered, itwould then be comparatively easy to arrange aliments in the order oftheir nutritive value. That question is--What are the proper relativeproportions of the fat-forming and flesh-forming constituents of ourfood? It is constantly urged, that the food of the Irish peasantrycontains an excess of the fat-forming materials in relation to themuscle-forming substances; and the remedy suggested is, that theirstaple article of food--potatoes--should be supplemented with flesh, peas, and such like substances, in which, it is supposed, the elementsof nutrition are more fairly balanced. In potatoes, the proportion offat-formers (calculated as fat) is about five times as much as thatof the flesh-formers; but these principles exist in the same relativeproportions in the fat bacon with which the potato-eater lovesto supplement his bulky food. In bread we find the proportion offat-formers to be only 2-1/2 times as much as that of the flesh-formers, whilst, according to Lawes and Gilbert, the edible portion of thecarcass of a fat sheep contains 6-1/2 times as much fat as nitrogenous(flesh-forming) compounds. It is evident, then, that meat such as, forexample, the beef recently imported from Monte Video, from which thefatty elements of nutrition are almost completely absent, cannot bea suitable adjunct to a farinaceous food. There is evidence to prove that in the animal food consumed by thepopulation of these countries, the proportion of fatty to nitrogenousmatters is greater than in the seeds of cereal and leguminous plants, and but little less than in potatoes. "It would appear to beunquestionable, " say Lawes and Gilbert, "therefore, that the influenceof our staple _animal foods_, to supplement our otherwise mainlyfarinaceous diet, is, on the large scale, to _reduce_, and _not toincrease_, the relation of the _assumed_ flesh-forming material to themore peculiarly respiratory and fat-forming capacity, so to speak, ofthe food consumed. " It must be remembered, too, that the fat _formers_are ready _formed_ in animal food, whereas they exist chiefly in theform of starch, gum, sugar, and such-like substances in vegetables. According to theory, 2-1/2 parts of starch are equivalent to, _i. E. _, convertible into, 1 part of fat; but it is not certain whether the forcewhich effects this change is derivable from the 2-1/2 parts of starch, or from the destruction of tissue, or of another portion of food. Ifthere be a tax on the system in order to convert starch into fat, itis evident that 2-1/2 parts of starch, though convertible into, are notequivalent in nutritive value to one part of fat. It is quite certain that millions of healthy, vigorous men havesubsisted for years exclusively on potatoes; but it is no less clearthat a diet of meat and potatoes enables the laborer to work harderand longer than if his food were composed solely of potatoes. But wehave seen that the relation between the flesh-forming and fat-formingelements is nearly the same in both potatoes and meat; so that thesuperiority of a meat or mixed diet cannot be chiefly owing, contrary tothe generally received opinion, to a greater abundance of flesh-formingmaterials. As the proportion of flesh-formers to fat-formers is so muchgreater in wheaten or oaten bread than in potatoes, and as peas andother vegetables rich in nitrogenous compounds are practically found tobe an excellent supplement to potatoes, it is probable that the lattermay be somewhat relatively deficient in flesh-forming capacity. It is, however, in all probability the great bulk of a potato diet, and itstotal want of ready formed fat, that render the addition to it of animalfood so very desirable. The concentrated state in which the ingredientsof flesh exist, the intimate way in which they are intermixed, theiragreeable flavor, and their (in general) ready and almost completedigestibility, appear to be the principal points in which a meat dietexcels a vegetable regimen. There may be others, which, though lessevident, are, perhaps, of equal importance. At all events, the generalexperience of mankind testifies to the superiority of a mixed animaland vegetable diet over a purely vegetable one. _Is very Fat Meat wholesome?_--The enormous and rapidly increasingdemand for meat which characterises the food markets of these days, has reacted in a remarkable manner upon the nature of the animals thatsupply it. Formerly the animals that furnished pork, mutton, and beef, were allowed to attain the age of three years old and upwards beforethey were considered to be "ripe" for the butcher; but now sheep and pigsare perfectly _matured_ at the early age of one year, and two-year-oldoxen furnish a large quota of the "roast beef of old England. " Theso-called improvement of stock is simply the forcing of them into anunnatural degree of fatness at an early age; and this end is attainedby dexterous selection and crossing of breeds, by avoidance of cold, bydiminishing as much as possible their muscular activity, and lastly, and chiefly, by over-feeding them with concentrated aliments. Every one knows that a man so obese as to be unable to walk cannot bein a healthy state; yet many feeders of stock look upon the monstrouslyfat bulls and cows of cattle show prize celebrity as normal types of thebovine tribe. It requires but little argument to refute so fallaciousa notion. No doubt it is desirable to encourage the breeding of thosevarieties of animals which exhibit the greatest disposition to fatten, and to arrive early at maturity; but the forcing of individual animalsinto an unnatural state of obesity, except for purely experimentalpurposes, is a practice which cannot be too strongly deprecated. Ifbreeders contented themselves with handing over to the butcher theirhuge living blocks of fat, the matter would not perhaps be very serious;but, unfortunately, it is too often the practice to turn them to accountas sires and dams. Were I a judge at a cattle show, I certainly shoulddisqualify every extremely fat animal entered for competition amongstthe breeding stock. Unless parents are healthy and vigorous, theirprogeny are almost certain to be unhealthy and weakly; and it isinconceivable that an extremely obese bull and an unnaturally fat cowcould be the progenitors of healthy offspring. We should by all meansimprove our live stock; but we should be careful not to overdo thething. If we must have gaily-decked ponderous bulls and cows at our fatcattle exhibitions, let us condemn to speedy immolation those unhappyvictims to a most absurd fashion; but in the name of common sense letus leave the perpetuation of the species to individuals in a normalstate, whose muscles are not replaced by fat, whose hearts are nothypertrophied, and whose lungs are capable of effectively performingthe function of respiration. Mr. Gant, in a small volume[24] devoted wholly to the subject, describesthe serious functional and structural disarrangements which over-feedingproduces in stock. He found the heart of a one-year old Southdownwether, fattened according to the _high-pressure system_, to be littlemore than a mass of fat. In several other young, but so-called "matured"sheep, he found more or less fatty degeneration of the heart, andextensively spread disease of the liver and of the lungs. A four-yearold Devon heifer, exhibited by the late Prince Consort at a Smithfieldshow, was found to be in a highly diseased state. It was slaughtered, and of course its flesh sold at a high price as "prize beef, " but itsinternal organs came into Mr. Gant's possession. The substance of bothventricles of the heart had undergone all but complete conversion intofat; one of its muscles was broken up, and many of the fibres of theothers were ruptured. In another animal the muscular fibres of theheart had given way to so great an extent that if the thin liningmembrane (_endocardium_) had burst, death would have instantly ensued. The slightest exertion was likely to cause this catastrophe; but, fortunately enough in this case, the animal was not capable of exertion, for though under three years of age, it weighed upwards of 200 stones:this animal had received for some time before its exhibition, theliberal allowance of 21 lbs. Of oil-cake (besides other food) per diem. "A pen of three pigs, " says Mr. Gant, "belonging to his Royal Highnessthe Prince Consort, happened to be placed in a favorable light forobservation, and I particularly noticed their condition. They layhelpless on their sides, with their noses propped up against eachother's backs, as if endeavouring to breathe more easily, but theirrespiration was loud, suffocating, and at long intervals. Then you hearda short catching snore, which shook the whole body of the animal, andpassed with the motion of a wave over its fat surface, which, moreover, felt cold. I thought how much the heart under such circumstances mustbe laboring to propel the blood through the lungs and throughout thebody. The gold medal pigs of Mr. Moreland were in a similar condition, if anything, worse; for they snored and gasped for breath, their mouthsbeing opened, as well as their nostrils dilated, at each inspiration. From a pig we only expect a grunt, but not a snore. These animals, only twelve months and ten days old, were marked '_improved_ Chiltonbreed. ' They, with their fellows just mentioned, of eleven months andtwenty-three days, had early come to grief. Three pigs of the blackbreed were in a similar state, at seven months three weeks and fivedays, yet such animals 'the judges highly commended. '" Dr. Brinton denies the accuracy of several of Mr. Gant's statementsrelative to the structural changes in the muscles of obese animals;but I do not think that he has succeeded in disproving the principalassertions made by the latter. There is conclusive evidence to prove that one of the effects of thepresent mode of fattening beasts is disease of the internal organsof the animals; but it is by no means certain that the flesh of thosediseased animals is as unwholesome food as some writers assert it tobe. The flesh of an over-fattened animal differs from that of a lean, ormoderately fat one, in containing an exceedingly high proportion of fat;but it has not been proved that the fat of prize animals differs fromthe fat of lean kine, or that it is less wholesome or nutritious. Be theflesh of those exceedingly fat animals unwholesome or not, there arethousands, ay, millions of persons, to whom its greasy quality rendersit peculiarly acceptable; and as for those who dislike fat--they donot usually invest their money in the flesh of prize sheep or oxen. At the same time, it must not be understood that all, or even a largeproportion of fully matured stock is in a diseased state; though in mostof them the vital and muscular powers are undoubtedly exceedingly low. There is no doubt but that sheep and oxen, from three to five years old, moderately fat, and fairly exercising their locomotive powers, furnishthe most savory, and, perhaps, the most nutritious meat: but if suchwere the only kind of meat in demand, it may be fairly doubted that thesupply would be equal to it. The produce of meat in these countries hasbeen rapidly increasing for many years past; and the weight of meatannually supplied from a given area of land is now from 80 to 100 percent. Greater than it furnished thirty or forty years ago. It is chieflyby means of the so-called forcing system that the produce of meat hasbeen so considerably increased. If this system were abandoned, theproduction would be greatly diminished, and the consequently high priceof the article would place it beyond the reach of the masses of thepopulation. Besides, it has not been proved that the flesh of theanimals brought early to maturity is much inferior, except somewhat inflavor, to the meat of three-year-old beasts. There is, no doubt, plentyof unwholesome meat offered for sale, but it is that of animals whichwere affected by diseases as likely to attack the young as the old. Onthe whole, then, we may say of the improved system of fattening stock, that it produces a maximum amount of meat on a given area of land; thatthe meat so produced is, except in rare cases, perfectly wholesome; thatit is capable of supplying the ingredient--fat--which is almost whollyabsent from a vegetable diet; and, finally, that it places animal foodwithin the reach of the working classes. _Diseased Meat. _--The losses occasioned to stockowners by the diseasesof live stock are far greater than is generally supposed. It has beencalculated that in the six years ending 1860, the value of the hornedstock lost by disease amounted to £25, 934, 650. Pleuro-pneumonia was thechief cause of these losses. Exclusive of the enormous losses occasionedby the ravages of the rinderpest, the annual loss by disease in livestock in these countries for some years past cannot be much under£6, 000, 000 sterling. Whether it is owing to the somewhat abnormal condition under which thedomesticated animals are placed, or to causes which operate upon themwhen in a state of nature, it is certain that they are remarkably proneto disease. It is extremely difficult to get a horse six years old thatis not a roarer or a whistler, or "weak on his pins, " or in some way orother unsound. Oxen, sheep, and pigs have almost as many maladiesafflicting them as human flesh is heir to, notwithstanding the shortperiod of life which they are permitted to enjoy. It is a very serious question whether or not the flesh of animals thathave been killed while they are in a diseased condition is injurious tohealth. The opinions on this point are conflicting, but the majority ofmedical men believe that the flesh of diseased animals is not wholesome. There are certain maladies which obviously render meat unsaleable, bycausing a sensible alteration in its quality. For example, blacklegin cattle and measles in the porcine tribe render the flesh of theseanimals, as a general rule, unmarketable, or nearly so. But there arevery serious diseases--often proving rapidly fatal--which, whilstseriously affecting certain internal organs, do not palpably deterioratethe quality of the flesh. In such cases are we to rely upon the evidenceof our mere senses in judging of the wholesomeness of the meat? If wefind beef possessing a good color and odour, and firm to the touch, and_appearing_ to be in every respect healthy flesh, are we under suchcircumstances to take it for granted that it must be healthy? This is avery important question, involving as it does the interests of both theproducers and consumers of animal food. If the flesh of all diseasedanimals be unwholesome, a very large number of oxen now sold whilstlaboring under pleuro-pneumonia should not be sent into the market. This, of course, would be a heavy loss to the stockowner, but a stillheavier one to the meat consumer; because, if there were fewer animalsfor sale, the price of meat would ascend, in obedience to the law ofsupply and demand. The whole question is, then, well worthy of beingconsidered in the most careful, unbiassed, and scientific manner; forat present it is in a state which is the reverse of being satisfactory. A large proportion of the animals conducted to the shambles is in adiseased condition. Professor Gamgee estimates it at no less thanone-fifth. Dr. Letheby, food analyst to the Corporation of London, condemns weekly about 2, 000 pounds weight of flesh; but as hisjurisdiction is limited to the "City, " which contains a population ofonly about 114, 000, the 2, 000 pounds of diseased meat are probably onlyabout 1-30th of the quantity exposed for sale within the whole area ofthe metropolis. Making an estimate of the most moderate kind, we mayassume that 30, 000 pounds weight of bad meat are weekly offered forsale in London--_three million pounds weight annually_. Many persons have been affected with dysentery and choleraic symptomsafter partaking of butcher's meat of apparently the most healthy kind. The meat has often been subjected to minute chemical and microscopicalexamination, but no poison has been discovered. But these cases arebecoming so frequent that they are exciting uneasiness, and demand anexhaustive investigation. The unskilful persons who officiate in thecapacity of "clerks of the market" and inspectors of meat can only judgeof the quality of flesh that is obviously inferior to the eye, nose, ortouch; but are there not cases where the flesh may appear to be good, and yet contain some subtle malign principle? It is an ascertained factthat young or "slink" veal very frequently gives rise to diarrhoea, more especially when that disease is epidemic. Dr. Parkes, in hiscelebrated work on Hygiene, page 162 (second edition), states that"the flesh of the pig sometimes produced diarrhoea--a fact I have hadoccasion to notice in a regiment in India, and which has often beennoticed by others. The flesh is, probably, affected by the unwholesomegarbage on which the pig feeds. " Menschell states that 44 persons wereafflicted with anthrax after eating the flesh of oxen affected withcarbuncular fever. Dr. Kesteren, in the _Medical Times_ for March, 1864, mentions a case where twelve persons were affected with choleraicsymptoms after the use of pork not obviously diseased. At Newtownards, county of Down, several persons died after eating veal in which nopoisonous matter of any kind could be detected. One instance has comeunder my own notice where a man, two dogs, and a pig died after eatingthe flesh of an animal killed whilst suffering from splenic apoplexy. Several butchers have lost their lives in consequence of the blood ofdiseased animals being allowed to come in contact with abrasions orrecently received wounds on their arms. The flesh of over-driven animalsis stated by Professor Gamgee to produce a most serious skin disease, although the meat appeared to be perfectly healthy. The Belgian Academyof Medicine has decided that the flesh of animals suffering fromcarbuncular fever is unwholesome, and its sale in that country isprohibited. Many persons have died in Germany and a few in England from a diseaseproduced by eating pork containing a small internal parasite termed_trichina spiralis_. I have recently met with a case of _trichiniasis_in the human subject. The body of the unfortunate person--who hadbeen an inmate of the South Dublin Union Workhouse--was found tocontain thousands of the trichinæ. In Iceland a large proportion ofthe population suffers from a parasitic disease traceable to the useof the flesh of sheep and cattle in which flukes abound. Pleuro-pneumonia is in this country the disease which most frequentlyaffects the ox. It is probable that about 5 per cent. Of these animalssold in Dublin are more or less affected by this malady. There are twoforms of pleuro-pneumonia--the sporadic, or indigenous, and the foreign, or contagious. It is the latter form which has become the scourge of theox tribe in this country, though unknown here until the year 1841, whenit appeared as an epizoötic, and carried off vast numbers of animals. The contagious pleuro-pneumonia is an extremely severe inflammatorydisease, and is produced--not in the same way that common pleuro-pneumoniais, by exposure to excessive cold, &c. --but by a blood poison receivedfrom an infected animal. In the congestive stage of the disease there isno structural alteration in the organs of the animal, and if well bledits flesh might (probably) be safely eaten; but when a large portion ofthe lungs becomes solidified, and rendered incapable of purifying theblood, is it not doubtful, to say the least, that the blood or flesh isperfectly wholesome? The blood, during the life of the animal, is in astate of fermentation; there is extreme fever, and the animal presentsall the characteristic symptoms of acute disease. On being killed, theflesh, if the disease be of a fortnight's duration, will usually beextremely dark, but in a less advanced stage of the malady the fleshwill generally present a healthy appearance. Is it really so? Thatis the question which science has to determine. Going upon a broadprinciple, I can hardly conceive that so serious a disease aspleuro-pneumonia does not injuriously affect the quality of the flesh. It is no argument to say that thousands consume such flesh, and yetenjoy good health. Millions of people drink water and breathe air thatare extremely impure, and yet they do not speedily die. It is one thingto be poisonous, another to be unwholesome. The flesh of animals killedwhilst suffering from lung distemper is not directly poisonous, but whocan prove that it is not, like bad water, unwholesome? As analyst to the city of Dublin, I am almost daily called upon toinspect meat suspected to be unwholesome; and I have always condemnedas being unfit for human food:-- 1. Animals slaughtered at the time of bringing forth their young. 2. Oxen affected with pleuro-pneumonia, when pus is present in the lungs, or the flesh obviously affected; animals suffering from murrain, black-quarter, and the different forms of anthrax. 3. Animals in an anæmic, or wasted condition. 4. Meat in a state of putrefaction. During the present year about 20, 000 pounds weight of meat have beenseized and condemned in the city of Dublin. SECTION II. MILK. Milk is a peculiar fluid secreted by the females of all animalsbelonging to the class _Mammalia_; and, being designed for thenourishment of their offspring, contains all the constituents whichenter into the composition of the animal body. The milk of different animals varies very much in color, taste, andnutritive value. That of the cow is a little heavier than water--itsspecific gravity being, on the average, about 1·030, water being1·000. It is composed of three constituents--namely, butter, curd, andwhey--each of which is also composed of a number of substances. Thesethree constituents are of unequal weight, or specific gravity, and theirseparation is the chief process carried on in the dairy. The butter isthe lightest and the curd is the heaviest constituent. The following table represents the composition of the milk of differentanimals:-- COMPOSITION OF THE MILK OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS. 1, 000 PARTS CONTAIN-- ------+---------+--------+------------+--------+-------+-------+------- | Specific| | | | | | | Gravity, | Water. | Solid | Cheesy | Sugar. |Butter. |Mineral | or | |Ingredients. | Matter. | | |Matter. | Density. | | | | | | ------+---------+--------+------------+--------+-------+-------+------- Woman | 1032·67 | 889·08 | 110·92 | 39·30 | 43·68 | 26·66 | 1·30 Cow | 1030 | 864·20 | 135·80 | 48·80 | 47·70 | 31·30 | 6·00 Goat | 1033·53 | 844·90 | 155·10 | 35·14 | 36·91 | 56·87 | 6·18 Ewe | 1040·98 | 832·32 | 167·68 | 69·78 | 39·43 | 51·31 | 7·16 Mare | 1033·74 | 904·30 | 95·70 | 33·35 | 32·76 | 24·36 | 5·23 Ass | 1034·57 | 890·12 | 109·88 | 35·65 | 50·46 | 18·53 | 5·24 Bitch | 1041·62 | 772·08 | 227·92 | 116·88 | 15·29 | 87·95 | 7·80 ------+---------+--------+------------+--------+-------+-------+------- Milk examined through a microscope is a colorless fluid, containing alarge number of little vesicles, or bags, filled with butter--a mixtureof oily and fatty matters. When the milk stands for some time, theglobules, being lighter than the other constituents, ascend to the top, and, mixed with a certain proportion of milk, are removed as cream. The curd is termed in scientific parlance _casein_, and is in fresh milkin a state of solution--that is to say, is dissolved in milk in the sameway that we dissolve sugar in water. When milk becomes sour, eithernaturally or by the addition of rennet, it can no longer hold casein insolution, and the curd consequently separates. Casein is the substancewhich forms the basis of cheese. The substance that remains after theremoval of the butter and cheese is called _serum_, or whey, and iscomposed of a sweetish substance termed _sugar of milk_, and certainsaline bodies, termed the ash, dissolved in water. The butter and the sugar of milk are employed in the animal economy inthe production of fat, and are what have been styled by physiologists_heat-producers_ and _fat-formers_. The casein resembles the gluten ofwheat in composition; it belongs to the class of food substances termed_flesh-formers_. The ash, or mineral part of the milk, is chieflyemployed in forming the bones of the young animals it is destined tonourish. The quality of milk is influenced by the quantity and quality of thefood given to the animal. The milk of cows fed on distillery wash, turnip, and mangel tops, coarse herbage, and other kinds of inferiorfood, is always of inferior quality. Hence it is of great importancethat dairy stock be kept in good old pastures in summer, and fed onSwedish turnips, mangel-wurtzel, and oil-cake during winter. It is trueeconomy to supply dairy cows with abundance of nutritious food; and itshould be constantly borne in mind that the milk from two well-fed cowswill give more butter than can be obtained from the produce of threebadly-fed animals. The butter is the constituent of milk which is most affected by thenature and amount of the animal's food; and butter is precisely thearticle which is of the greatest importance to the Irish dairy farmer, as the quantity of cheese prepared in this country is inconsiderable. When, therefore, it is found that a cow pastured on inferior land, orbadly fed in the byre, yields a large supply of milk of a high specificquantity (which, however, is rarely the case), it must not be concludedthat the result is satisfactory; for if such milk be tested by thelactometer it will certainly be found wanting in butter. The averagecomposition of English milk, according to Way, is:-- Water 87·02 Butter 3·23 Casein 4·48 Sugar of milk 4·67 Ash 0·60 ------ 100·00 In several analyses of milk published by Professor Voelcker, the highestproportion of butter is stated to be 7·62. In that of cows kept onpoor and over-stocked pastures less than 2 per cent. Was found. I haveexamined in my capacity of Food Analyst to the City of Dublin severalhundred samples of milk, in not one of which have I found the proportionof butter to amount to more than 5·6 per cent. In no sample did I finda higher per-centage of solid matter than 13·15, or (when pure) lowerthan 12·08. The quality of the food of the milch cow exercises a greatinfluence on the quality and yield of her milk. Aliments rich in fat andsugar favor the production of butter, and augment the supply of milk. Locust-beans, malt, and molasses are good milk-producing foods; but thechief condition in the production of milk rich in butter is simply thatthe animals which yield it must be fed with abundance of nutritiousfood. Nor must it be supposed that the richness of milk is due to thesmallness of the yield, for whenever the quality of the secretion isinferior, it is almost certain to be deficient in quantity. Those cowswhich give the richest milk, generally yield the largest quantity. _Yield of Milk. _--According to Boussingault, a cow daily yields on theaverage 10·4 parts of milk per 1, 000 parts of her weight. Morton, in his"Cyclopædia of Agriculture, " p. 621, states that Mr. Young, a Scotchdairy keeper, obtained 680 gallons per cow per annum. Voelcker foundthat some common dairy stock gave each of them fifty-two pints of milkper diem, whilst three pedigree cows yielded respectively forty-ninepints. Professor Wilson gives the following information on this point:-- Our principal dairy breeds are the Ayrshire, the Channel Islands, the Short-horn, the Suffolk, and the Kerry. Some published returns of two dairies of Ayrshire cows give the annual milk produce per cow at 650 and 632 gallons respectively. Three returns of dairies, consisting wholly of Short-horns, show a produce of 540 gallons, 630 gallons, and 765 gallons respectively, or an average of 625 gallons per annum for each cow. In two dairies, where half-bred Short-horns were kept, the yield was 810 and 866 gallons respectively for each cow. In four dairies in Ireland, where pure Kerrys and crosses with Short-horns and Ayrshires were kept, the annual produce per cow was returned at 500 gallons, 600 gallons, 675 gallons, and 740 gallons respectively; or an average, on the four dairies, of 630 gallons per annum for each cow. A dairy of "pure Kerrys" gave an average of 488 gallons per cow, and another of the larger Irish breed gave an average of 583 gallons per head per annum. In the great London dairies, now well-nigh extinguished by the ravages of the cattle disease, these returns are greatly exceeded. The cows kept are large framed Short-horns and Yorkshire crosses, which, by good feeding, bring the returns to nearly 1, 000 gallons per annum for each cow kept. The custom in these establishments is to dispose of a cow directly her milk falls below two gallons a-day, and buy another in her place. The following milk return of one of our best managed dairy farms (Frocester Court) shows the relative produce of cows in the successive years of their milking. The first lot was bought in at two-years old; all the others at three years:-- No. Of Cows. Year of Milk. Produce per head. 8 1st 317 gals. 15 1st 472 " 14 2nd 353 " 15 3rd 616 " 20 4th 665 " 18 5th 635 " 9 6th 708 " 15 Old 651 " The maximum reliable milk produce that we have recorded was that of a single cow belonging to the keeper of the gaol at Lewes, the details of which were authenticated by the Board of Agriculture. In eight consecutive years she gave 9, 720 gallons, or at the rate of more than 1, 210 gallons per annum. In one year she milked 328 days, and gave 1, 230 gallons, which yielded 540 lbs. Of butter, or at the rate of 1 lb. Of butter to 22-3/4 lb. Of milk. In the early part of the present year (1866) a return was published of the produce of a cow in a Vermont (U. S. ) dairy, which was stated to have given, in the previous year, a butter yield of 504 lbs. , at the rate of 1 lb. Of butter to 20 lbs. Of milk. [25] _Preserved Milk. _--Various plans have been proposed to render milk moreportable, and to preserve it sweet for days and even months. Mr. Bordenof Connecticut, United States, prepares a concentrated milk by boilingthe fluid down in vacuo, at a temperature under 140° Fahrenheit, mixingthe resulting solid with sugar, and rapidly placing the compound intins, which are then hermetically sealed. It is said that solidifiedmilk prepared by this process remains sweet for many months. In France, solidified and concentrated milk are largely prepared; and it is certainthat London and other large towns will yet be supplied with milkrendered portable and more stable, by the removal of a large proportionof its water. In many parts of Ireland pure milk could be bought at from7d. To 8d. Per gallon. I do not despair to see factories established insuch places for the manufacture of preserved milk as a substitute forthe dear and impure fluid sold under the name of milk in London andother large cities. It is stated that solidified milk prepared inSwitzerland is now sold in London. SECTION III. BUTTER. _History of Butter. _--The very general use of butter as an article offood is demonstrated by the familiar saying--"We should not quarrel withour bread and butter"; yet this article, now so commonly used throughoutthe greater part of Europe, was either unknown or but imperfectly knownto the ancients. In the English translation of the Holy Scriptures theword butter does certainly frequently occur; but the Hebrew originalis _chamea_, which, according to the most eminent Biblical critics, signifies cream, or thick, sour milk. In the 20th chapter of Job thefollowing passage occurs:--"He shall not see the rivers, the floods, thebrooks of honey and butter. " Now, we can conceive streams of thin cream, but we cannot imagine a river of butter. The oldest mention of butteris found in the works of Herodotus. In the description of the Scythiansgiven by this ancient author, reference is made to their practice ofviolently shaking the milk of their mares, for the purpose of causing asolid fatty matter to ascend to its surface, which, when removed fromthe milk, they considered a delicious article of food. Hippocrates, whowrote a little later than Herodotus, describes, but in clearer language, the manufacture of butter by the Scythians; he also alludes to thepreparation of cheese by the same people. The word, butter, does notoccur in any of Aristotle's writings, and although mention is made of itin the works of Anaxandrides, Plutarch, and Ælian, it is evident thatthey considered it only in the light of a curious substance, employedpartly as an article of food, partly as a medicinal salve, by certainbarbarous nations. About the second or third century, butter was butlittle known to the Greeks and Romans, and there is no reason to believethat it was ever generally used as an article of food by the classicnations of antiquity; it is noteworthy, that the inhabitants of thesouth of Europe even at the present time use butter in very smallquantities, which, indeed, is often sold for medicinal purposes in theapothecaries' shops in Italy, Spain, and Portugal. From the foregoingstatements it is evident that the butter manufacture can lay no claim toa classic origin; but that it took its rise in the countries of savage, of semi-civilised, and barbarous nations. It is probable that the Greekswere made acquainted with butter by the Thracians, Phrygians, andScythians; and that the knowledge of this substance was conveyed toRome by visitors from Germany. During the middle ages the practice ofbutter-making spread throughout Northern, Central, and Western Europe;but in many parts the commodity was very scarce and highly valued, notwithstanding its being almost, if not quite, in a semi-fluid state, instead of possessing the firm consistence of the butter of the presentday. _Irish Butter. _--Butter is produced in such large quantities in Irelandthat, after the home demand has been supplied, there remains a largeexcess--so considerable, indeed, as to constitute one of the moreimportant of our few commercial staples. The precise quantity of butterwhich, during late years, has been annually exported from Ireland isunknown. The greater part of the commodity is sent to trans-Channelports; and, there being no duty on butter in the cross-Channel tradesince 1826, we have no means of accurately estimating the amount of ourexports to Great Britain. If, however, we refer to the statistics of ourcommerce for the period beginning in 1787, and ending in 1826, we shallfind that the exportation of butter was enormous, and that a largeproportion of that commodity consumed by the army and navy was suppliedfrom the dairies of Ireland. During the three years ended on the 5th ofJanuary, 1826, the average annual amount of butter exported was asfollows:-- cwts. To Great Britain 441, 226 To foreign countries 51, 637 Of late years the exportation to foreign and colonial countries hasfallen off; still the export trade is very considerable, probablyamounting to 450, 000 cwts. Per annum. During the year 1867, the importsof foreign butter into Great Britain amounted to 1, 142, 262 cwts. I have quoted the above statistics for the purpose of demonstratingthe great importance of the butter trade to this country. Not only is alarge proportion of the agricultural community pecuniarily interested inthe production of this article, but the exportation is the chief causeof the commercial prosperity of a city, which, in point of population, ranks third in the kingdom. If butter, then, be an article of so muchimportance, it is obvious that the greatest care should be taken in itspreparation, and that the efforts of both scientific and practical menshould be directed towards the best mode of improving its quality. Ifthe principles involved in the production of butter were thoroughlyunderstood, and generally known, I believe that such terms as "seconds, ""thirds, " and "fourths, " would speedily fall into disuse; that therewould be only one kind of butter sent into the market; and that thearticle would always be of the best quality, in other words, "firsts. " _Composition of Butter. _--The composition and quality of butter dependto a great extent upon the condition of the milk or cream from which itis prepared, and on the skill and cleanliness of the dairy-maid. Itconsists essentially of fatty and oily matters, but it is always foundin combination with casein (cheesy matter) and water. The followinganalyses, made by Mr. Way, late consulting chemist to the RoyalAgricultural Society of England, shows its composition:-- INGREDIENTS PER CENT. 1. 2. 3. Fatty matters 82·70 79·67 79·12 Casein 2·45 3·38 3·37 Water 14·85 16·95 17·51 No. 1 analysis shows the composition of a specimen obtained from thewell-known Mr. Horsfall's dairy. It was made from raw cream. The otherspecimens were the produce of a Devonshire dairy, and were prepared fromscalded cream. In several specimens of well-made and unsalted Irishbutter which I have analysed, I found the proportion of casein or cheesymatter never to exceed 1 per cent. , whilst in the analysis above statedthe centesimal amount is on the average more than 3 per cent. The fatty matter is composed of two substances--one, a solid, termed_margarin_; the other fluid, and styled by chemists _elaine_. The solidfat is identical in composition with the solid fat of the human body. The elaine is peculiar to milk, but it differs very slightly from_olein_, or fluid fat. The relative proportions of the fluid and solidfats vary with the seasons. According to Braconnot, the solid fat formsin summer 40 per cent. Of the butter, but in winter the proportion risesto 65. This decrease in the proportion of the liquid fat in winter isthe cause of the greater hardness of the butter in that season, which isoften incorrectly attributed solely to the cold. The cheesy and acid matters contained in butter are by no meansessential; on the contrary, if it were quite free from them, it mightbe retained with little or no salt for a very long period withoutbecoming rancid. The cheesy matter contains nitrogen; and nearly allthe substances into which this element enters as a constituent areremarkably prone to decomposition. Yeast, and ferments of everykind--gunpowder, fulminating silver, chloride of nitrogen--and almostevery explosive compound, contain this element. The cheesy matter isa very nitrogenous body, and in presence of air and moisture not onlyrapidly decomposes, or decays, itself, but induces by mere contact alike state of decomposition in other substances--such, for instance, asfat, sugar, and starch, which naturally have no tendency to change theirstate. Bearing the foregoing facts in mind, it is obvious that the chiefprecautions to be observed in the manufacture of butter are:--Firstly, to separate to as great an extent as practicable the casein from thebutter; and, secondly, as in practice a small portion of the curdremains in the butter, to prevent it from undergoing any change--atleast for a prolonged period. How these desiderata may best beaccomplished I shall now proceed to point out. _The Butter Manufacture. _--The theory of the process of churning is verysimple. By violently agitating the milk or cream the little vesicles, orbags containing the butter, are broken, and, the fatty matter adhering, _lumps of butter_ are formed. The operation of churning also introducesatmospheric air into the milk, which, aided by the high temperature towhich the fluid is raised, converts a portion of the _sweet_ sugar ofmilk into the _sour_ lactic acid. By the alteration produced in this wayin the composition of the milk, it is no longer capable of holding thecasein in solution, and the curd therefore separates. The churn and other vessels in which the milk is placed cannot be kepttoo clean. No amount of labor bestowed on the scalding and scrubbingof the vessels is excessive. When wood is the material used in themilk-pans the utmost care should be taken in cleaning them, as theporous nature of the material favors the retention of small quantitiesof the milk. A simple washing will not suffice to clean such vessels. They must be thoroughly scrubbed and afterwards well scalded with_boiling_ water. Tin pans are preferable to wooden ones, as they aremore easily cleaned, but in their turn they are inferior to glassvessels, which ought to supersede every other kind. Earthenware, lead, and zinc pans are in rather frequent use. The last-mentioned materialis easily acted upon by the lactic acid of the sour milk, and is, therefore, objectionable. It is a matter of great importance that thedairy should not be situated near a pig-stye, sewer, or water-closet, the effluvia from which would be likely to taint the milk. It issurprising how small a quantity of putrescent matter is sufficientto taint a whole churn of milk; and as it has been demonstrated thatthe almost inappreciable emanations from a cesspool are capable ofconferring a bad flavor on milk, it is in the highest degree importantto remove from the churn and milk-pail every trace of the sour milk. Igo further, it is even desirable that no one whose hands have a tendencyto perspire should be allowed to manipulate in the dairy; and it shouldbe constantly borne in mind that the dairy-maid's fingers and hot watershould be on the most intimate visiting terms. Butter is made either from cream--sour and sweet--or from whole milkwhich has stood sufficiently long to become distinctly sour. It isasserted by some makers that butter prepared from whole milk, orfrom scalded cream, contains a large proportion of curd. If this betrue--which I greatly doubt--it is a serious matter, for such butterwould speedily become rancid in consequence of the casein acting asa ferment. I believe that experience points to an exactly oppositeconclusion. From the results of careful inquiries I feel no hesitationin asserting that the butter should not be made from the cream, but fromthe _whole milk_. When made from the cream alone it is much more likelyto acquire a bad taste, and is generally wanting in keeping qualities. I have no doubt but that in the process of churning the whole milk thereis a large amount of lactic acid formed, and a much higher temperatureattained, than in the churning of cream; consequently, the separation ofcaseous matter must be more perfectly effected in the former than in thelatter case. It is a mistake to think that there is very little caseinin cream: out of 7 or 8 lbs. Of thick cream only a couple of pounds ofbutter are obtainable; the rest is made up of water, casein, and sugarof milk. The yield of butter is greater when the whole milk is churnedthan when the cream alone is operated upon, and, what is of greatimportance, the quality of the butter is uniform during the whole year. The labor of churning whole milk is, of course, much greater than if thecream alone were employed, but the increased yield and unvarying qualityof the butter more than compensate for the extra expenditure of labor. The proper temperature of the milk or cream is a point of greatpractical importance. If the fluid be too warm or too cold the butteryparticles will only by great trouble be made to cohere; and the qualityof the butter is almost certain to be inferior. When the whole milkis operated on, the temperature should be from 55 to 60 degs. OfFahrenheit's thermometer; and if cream be employed the temperatureshould never exceed 55 degs. Nor be lower than 50 degs. Hence it followsthat in summer the dairy should be kept cooler, and in winter warmer, than the atmosphere. The temperature of milk is raised or lowered as maybe found necessary, by the addition of hot or cold water--in performingwhich operations properly, a good thermometer is indispensable; oneshould always be kept in the dairy, and should be so constructed as toadmit of being plunged into the milk. In some dairies the water, insteadof being mixed with the milk, is put into a tub in which the churn isplaced. There is a good kind of churn, which consists of two cylinders, the one within the other--the interval between them being intended forthe reception of hot or cold water. The influence of temperature uponthe production of butter has been placed beyond all doubt by numerouscarefully-conducted experiments. Mr. Horsfall, a celebrated dairyfarmer, in discussing this question, sums up as follows:--"By a seriesof carefully-conducted experiments at varying temperatures, I am ofopinion that a correct scale of the comparative yield of butter atdifferent temperatures might be arrived at; as thus: From a very lowdegree of temperature little or no butter; from a temperature of about38 degs. , 16 oz. From 16 quarts of milk; ditto, 45 degs. , 21 oz. From 16quarts of milk; ditto, 55 degs. , 26 to 27 oz. From 16 quarts of milk. "This is a higher yield of butter than, I suspect, most dairymen get: butMr. Horsfall's cows being of the best kind for milking, and well fed, the milk is, of course, rich in butter; and his experiments prove thateven the richest milk will not throw up its butter unless at a certaintemperature. In the churning of cream the motion should be slow at first until thecream is thoroughly broken up. In churning milk the agitation shouldneither be violent nor irregular; about 40 or 50 motions of the plungeror board per minute will be sufficient. In steam-worked churns themotion is often excessively rapid, and the separation of the butteris effected in a few minutes; but the article obtained in this hastyway very quickly becomes rancid, and must be disposed of at once. Anhour's churning of sour cream appears in general to produce good butter. Sweet cream and whole milk require a longer period--the latter about 3hours--but in any case prolonged churning is certain, by incorporatingcheesy matter with the butter, to produce an inferior article. Sweet milk becomes sour, evolves a considerable quantity of gas duringchurning, and its temperature ascends four or five degrees. Oxygen isunquestionably absorbed, and it is probable that a portion of the sugarof milk is converted into acid products. I have already stated that even the most carefully prepared buttercontains a small proportion of casein and sugar of milk. This caseinis the good genius of the cheese-maker, but the evil genius of thebutter manufacturer. How? In this way:--When butter containing anotable proportion of casein and sugar of milk is exposed to the air, the following changes take place: the casein passes into a state offermentation, and acting upon the sugar of milk, converts it, firstlyinto the bad-flavored lactic acid, and secondly into the bad odorousbutyric, capric, and caproic acids. The first of these compounds in astate of purity emits an odor resembling a mixture of vinegar and rancidbutter; the second possesses an odor resembling that of a goat--hencethe name _capric_; the third has an odor like that of perspiration. Inaddition to these acids, there is another simultaneously generated--thecaprylic, but it does not unpleasantly affect the olfactory nerve. The casein also injuriously affects the fatty constituents of thebutter; under its influence they absorb oxygen from the air, and becomeconverted into strong-smelling compounds. The washing of butter isintended to free it from the casein and unaltered cream, and the moreperfectly it is freed from those impurities the better will be itsflavor, and the longer it will remain without becoming rancid. Somepeople believe that too much water injures the quality and lessens thequantity of butter. It cannot do the former, because the essentialconstituents of butter are totally insoluble in water; it may do thelatter, but, if it do, so much the better, because the loss of weightrepresents the amount of impurities--milk, sugar of milk, &c. --removed. I have already remarked that butter is so susceptible of taint that evena perspiring hand is sufficient to spoil it; naturally cool hands shouldalone be allowed to come in contact with this delicate commodity, andthe hands should be made thoroughly clean by repeated washings with warmwater and oatmeal--the use of soap in the lavatory of the dairymaidbeing highly objectionable. Wooden spades are now being commonly madeuse of in manipulating the butter, and there is no good reason why theyshould not come into universal use. The yield of butter per cow is subject to great variation. Some breedsof the animal are remarkable as milkers; such, for instance, as theAlderneys and Kerrys--indeed, I may say all the small varieties of thebovine race. There are instances of cows yielding upwards of twentypounds of butter per week, but these are extraordinary cases. In Hollanda good cow will produce, during the summer months, more than 180 lbs. Of butter. In these countries I think the average annual yield of acow is not more than 170 lbs. It sometimes happens that cows yielda large quantity of milk and a small amount of butter, but it far morefrequently occurs that the cow which gives most milk also yields mostbutter. An estimate of the amount of butter contained in milk may be made bydetermining the amount of cream. This may be effected by means of aninstrument termed a _lactometer_, which is simply a glass tube aboutfive inches long, and graduated into a hundred parts. The specimen to beexamined is poured into this tube up to zero or 0, and allowed to standfor twelve hours in summer and sixteen or eighteen in winter. At the endof that time the cream will have risen to the top, and its per-centagemay be easily seen. In good milk the cream will generally extend 11 to15 degrees down from 0. This instrument, although very useful, is notreliable in every case, especially in detecting the adulteration ofmilk. I have already stated that the complete separation of the butter fromthe other constituents of the milk is never accomplished in the dairy. Now although the proportion of curd in the butter is very small--rarelymore than two per cent. And often not a fourth of one per cent. --yet itis more than sufficient, under a certain condition, to cause the butterto become speedily rancid. That condition is simply contact with theair. If the curd, before it becomes dry and firm, is subjected to theinfluence of the air, it rapidly passes into a state of fermentation, which is very soon communicated to the fatty and saccharine constituentsof the butter (substances not spontaneously liable to sudden changes incomposition) and those peculiar compounds--such, for example, as butyricand capric acids, are generated, which confer upon rancid butter itscharacteristic and very disagreeable odor and flavor. The fermentationof the curd is prevented by incorporating common salt with the butter, and by preventing, so far as possible, the access of air to thevessels in which the article is placed. If fresh butter be placed inwater--which apparently protects it from the influence of the air--itwill soon become rancid. The reason of this is, that water alwayscontains air, which differs in composition, though derived, from theatmosphere, by being very rich in oxygen. Now, it is precisely thisoxygen which effects those undesirable changes in the casein, or curd, to which I have so repeatedly referred; hence its presence in aconcentrated state in water causes that fluid to produce an injuriouseffect on the butter placed in it. A saturated solution of salt containsvery little air, and, so long as the curd is immersed therein, itundergoes no change. The salt, too, acts as a decided preservative; foralthough it was long considered to be capable of preserving animalmatters, merely by virtue of its property of absorbing water from them(the presence of water being a condition in the decomposition of organicmatter), it has lately been shown to possess very antiseptic properties. The mixing of the salt with the butter is effected in the followingmanner:--The butter, after being well washed, in order to free it fromthe butter-milk, is spread out in a tub, and the salt shaken over it;the butter is then turned over on the salt by the lower part of the palmof the hand, and rubbed down until a uniform mixture is attained. A goodplan in salting is to mix in only one half of the quantity of salt, makeup the butter in lumps, and set them aside until the following day; aquantity of milk is certain to exude, which is to be poured off, andthen the rest of the salt may be incorporated with the butter. According to butter-makers, the quality of the article is greatlydependent on the quality of the salt used in preserving it. I thinkthere is a good deal of truth in this belief, and I therefore recommendthat only the very best and _driest_ salt should be used in the dairy. Common salt is essentially composed of the substance termed by chemistschloride of sodium, but it often contains other saline matters (chlorideof magnesium, &c. ), some of which have a tendency to absorb moisturefrom the air, and to dissolve in the water so obtained. These salts aretermed _deliquescent_, from the Latin _deliquere_, to melt down. When, therefore, common salt becomes damp by mere exposure to the air, it isto be inferred that it contains impurities which, as they possess a verybitter taste, would, if mixed with butter, confer a bad flavor upon it. The impurities of salt may be almost completely removed by placing abouta stone weight of it in any convenient vessel, pouring over it a quartof boiling water, and mixing thoroughly the fluid and solid. In an houror two the whole is to be thrown upon a filter made of calico, when thewater will pass through the filter, carrying with it all the impurities, and the purified salt, in fine crystals, will remain upon the filter. The solution need not be thrown away: boiled down to dryness it may begiven as salt to cattle; or, if added in solution to the dung-heap, itwill augment the fertilising power of that manure. The proportion of salt used in preserving butter varies greatly. Whenthe butter is intended for immediate use, I believe a quarter of anounce of salt to the pound is quite sufficient; but when designed forthe market, about half an ounce of salt to the pound of butter will besufficient. Irish butter at one time commanded the highest price in thehome and foreign markets, but latterly it has fallen greatly in publicestimation; indeed, at the present moment the price of Irish butter atLondon is nearly twenty shillings per cwt. Under that of the Dutcharticle. It is really painful to be obliged to admit that the Irishfarmer is solely to blame for this remarkable depreciation in the valueof one of our best agricultural staples. In a word, by the stupid (and_recent_) practice of putting into butter four times the quantity ofsalt necessary to its preservation, the Irish dairy farmers--or at leastthe great majority of them--have completely ruined the reputation ofIrish butter in those very markets in which, at one time, the Corkbrand on a firkin was sufficient to dispose of its contents at thevery highest price. It is a great mistake to think that the greater thequantity of salt which can be incorporated with the butter, the greaterwill be the profit to the producer. No doubt, every pound of salt soldas a constituent of butter realises a profit of two thousand per cent. ;but then the addition of every pound of that substance, after a certainquantity, to the cwt. Of butter depreciates the value of the latter tosuch an extent as to far more than neutralise the gain on the sale ofsalt at the price of butter. In the county of Carlow, less salt is usedin preserving butter than is the case in the county of Cork and theadjacent counties; the price, therefore, which the Carlow commoditycommands in the London market is higher than that of the Cork butter:but in every part of Ireland the proportion of salt added to the butteris excessive. The results of the analyses of butter supplied to the London market, made by the _Lancet_ Analytical Commission, showed that the proportionof salt varied from 0·30 to 8·24 per cent. The largest proportion ofsalt found in fresh butter was 2·21 and the least 0·30. In salt butterthe highest proportion of salt was 8·24 and the lowest 1·53. The butterwhich contained most salt was also generally largely adulterated withwater. Indeed, in several samples the amount of this constituent reachedso high as nearly 30 per cent. Nothing is easier than the incorporationof water with salt butter. The butter is melted, and whilst cooling thesalt and water are added, and the mixture kept constantly stirred untilquite cold. In this way nearly 50 per cent. Of water may be added tobutter; but of course the quality of the article will be of the veryworst kind. A correspondent of the _Lancet_ states that, on awakening aboutthree o'clock in the morning at the house in which he was lodging, heperceived a light below the door of his room; and apprehending a fire, he hurried down stairs, and was not a little surprised to discover thewhole family engaged in manipulating butter. He was informed in a jocoseway that they were making Epping butter! For this purpose they usedinferior Irish butter, which, by repeated washings, was freed from itsexcessive amount of salt; after which it was frequently bathed in sweetmilk, the addition of a little sugar being the concluding stroke in theprocess. This "sweet fresh butter from Epping" was sold at a profit of100 per cent. Our dairy farmers might take a hint from this anecdote. Does it not prove that the mere removal of the salt added to Irishbutter doubles the value of the article? It is as necessary to pay attention to the packing of butter as it isto its salting. If old firkins be employed, great care should be takenin cleaning them, and if the staves be loose, the firkins should besteeped in hot water, in order to cause the wood to swell, and therebyto bring the edges of the staves into close contact. New firkins oftencommunicate a disagreeable odour to the butter. In order to guardagainst this, it is the practice in many parts to fill the firkins withvery moist garden mould, which, after the lapse of a few days, is thrownout, and the firkin thoroughly scrubbed with hot water, rinsed with thesame fluid in a cold state, and finally rubbed with salt, just beforebeing used. In packing the butter, the chief object to be kept in view is theexclusion of air. In order to accomplish this, the lumps of buttershould be pressed firmly together, and also against the bottom and sidesof the vessel. When the products of several churnings are placed in thesame firkin, the surface of each churning should be furrowed, so thatthe next layer may be mixed with it. A firkin should never be filled ina single operation. About six inches of butter of each churning willbe quite sufficient, and in a large dairy two or more firkins can begradually but simultaneously filled. I strongly recommend the removalof the pickle jar from the dairy. When the layers of butter have beencarried up to within an inch or so of the top of the firkin, the spacebetween the surface of the butter and the edge of the vessel should befilled with fine dry salt, instead of pickle. A common mistake made isthe holding over for too long a time of the butter: the sooner thisarticle can be disposed of the better, for _it never improves by age_. * * * * * [Footnote 23: From two Greek words, signifying odour and soup. ] [Footnote 24: "A New Inquiry, fully illustrated by coloured engravingsof the heart, lungs, &c. , of the Diseased Prize Cattle lately exhibitedat the Smithfield Cattle Club, 1857. " By Frederick James Gant, M. R. C. S. London, 1858. ] [Footnote 25: Professor John Wilson's Report of the AgriculturalExhibition, Aarhuus, 1867. ] PART V. ON THE COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF VEGETABLE FOODS. SECTION I. THE MONEY VALUE OF FOOD SUBSTANCES. The flesh-forming principles of food are, as I have already stated, almost identical with the principal nitrogenous constituents of animals. Unlike the non-plastic substances, they are convertible into each otherwith little, if any, loss either of matter or of force. Not manyyears since it was the fashion to estimate the nutritive value of afood-substance by its proportion of nitrogen; but this method--not yetquite abandoned--was based on erroneous views, and yielded results veryfar from the truth. No doubt all the more concentrated and valuablekinds of food are rich in nitrogenous principles; but there are othervarieties, the nutritive value of which is very low, and yet theirproportion of nitrogen is very high. This point requires explanation. Both the plastic and the non-plastic materials of food exist in twodistinct states--in one of which they are easily digestible, and in theother either altogether unassimilable or so nearly so as to be almostuseless. Thus, for example, the cellular tissue of plants, when newlyformed, is to a great extent digestible, whilst the old woody fibre isnearly, if not quite, incapable of assimilation. Gelatine, which in rawbones is easily digested in the stomachs of the carnivora, loses a largeproportion of its nutritive value on being subjected to the action ofsteam. Again, a portion of the nitrogen of young succulent plants is ina form not sufficiently organic to admit of its being assimilated tothe animal body. But, independently of these strong objections to themethod of estimating the nutritive value of food by its per-centage offlesh-formers, there are many other reasons which as clearly prove thefallacy of this rule. If we were, for instance, to estimate the valueof albumen according to the tables of food equivalents which wereconstructed some years ago by Boussingault and other chemists, we wouldfind one pound weight of it to be equivalent to four pounds weight ofoil-cake, or to twelve pounds weight of hay; yet, it is a fact thata horse would speedily die if confined to a purely albuminous diet, whereas hay is capable of supporting the animal's life for an indefiniteperiod. It is clear, then, from what I have stated, that neither the amount offlesh-formers, nor of fat-formers, contained in a given quantity of asubstance is a measure of its nutritive value; nevertheless it wouldbe incorrect to infer from this that the numerous analyses of feedingsubstances which have been made are valueless. On the contrary, I amdisposed to believe that the composition of these substances, whencorrectly stated by the chemist, enables the physiologist to determinepretty accurately their relative alimentary value. Theory is certainlyagainst the assumption that food is valuable in proportion to itscontent of nitrogen; nor has practice less strongly disproved its truth. An illustration drawn from the nutrition of plants will make this mattermore apparent. Every intelligent agriculturist knows that guano containsnitrogen and phosphoric acid; both substances are indispensable to thedevelopment of plants, and therefore it would be incorrect to estimatethe manurial value of the guano in proportion to the quantity ofnitrogen it was capable of yielding. If the value of manures weredetermined only by their per-centage of nitrogen--a mode by whichcertain chemists still estimate the nutritive value of food--thenwoollen rags would be worth more than bones, and bones would be morevaluable than superphosphate of lime. The truth is, that the analysis offeeding stuffs and manures is sometimes of little value if the conditionin which the constituents of these substances exist be undetermined. Forexample, the analysis of one manure may show it to contain 40 per cent. Of phosphate of lime, and three per cent. Of ammonia, whilst, accordingto analysis, another fertiliser may include 20 per cent. Of phosphate oflime, and two per cent. Of ammonia. Viewed by this light solely, thefirst manure would be considered the more valuable of the two, whereasit might, in reality, be very much inferior. If the phosphate of limein the manure, containing 40 per cent. Of that body, were derived fromcoprolites or apatite, and its ammonia from horns, the former would beworth little or nothing, and the latter, by reason of its exceedinglyslow evolution from the horns, would possess a very low value. If, onthe contrary, the phosphate of lime, in the manure comparatively poorin phosphate, were a constituent of bones, and its ammonia ready formed(say as sulphate of ammonia), then, its value, both commercial andmanurial, would be far greater than the other. In estimating the money value of an article of food, we should omitsuch considerations as the relative adjustment of its flesh-formers andfat-formers, and its suitability to particular kinds of animals, as wellas to animals in a certain stage of development. The manure supplied toplants contains several elements indispensable to vegetable nutrition;and, although the agriculturist most commonly purchases all theseelements combined in the one article, still he frequently buys eachingredient separately. Ammonia is one of these principles, and, whetherit be bought _per se_, or as a constituent of a compound manure, theprice it commands is invariable. This principle should prevail in thepurchase of food: each constituent of which should have a certain valueplaced upon it; and the sums of all the values of the constituents wouldthen be the value of the article of food taken as a whole. There are, nodoubt, practical difficulties in the way which prevent this method ofvaluation from giving more than approximatively correct results; butare there not precisely similar difficulties in the way of the correctestimation of the value of a manure according to its analysis? Thereare several constituents of food, the money value of which is easilydeterminable: these are sugar, starch, and fat. No matter what substancethey are found in, the nutritive value of each varies only within verynarrow limits. The value of cellulose and woody fibre is not so easilyascertained, as it varies with the age and nature of the vegetablestructure in which these principles occur. There is little doubt butthat the cellulose and fibre of young grass, clover, and other succulentplants, are, for the most part, digestible; and we should not be farastray if we were to assume that four pounds weight of soft fibre andcellulose are equivalent to three pounds weight of starch. As to oldhard fibre, we are not in a position to say whether or not it possessesany nutrimental value worth taking into account. The estimation of thevalue of the flesh-forming materials is far more difficult than that ofsugar, starch, pectine compounds, and fat. The nitrogenous constituentsof food must be in a highly elaborated state before they are capableof being assimilated. In seeds--in which vegetable substances attaintheir highest degree of development--they probably exist in the mostdigestible form, whilst much of the nitrogen found in the stems andleaves of succulent plants, is either in a purely mineral state, or inso low a degree of elaboration as to be unavailable for the purpose ofnutrition. But even plastic materials, in a high degree of organisation, present many points of difference, which greatly affect their relativealimental value; for example, many of them are naturally associated withsubstances possessing a disagreeable flavor: and as their separationfrom these substances is often practically impossible, the animal thatconsumes both will not assimilate the plastic matters so well as ifthey were endowed with a pleasant flavor. In seeds and other perfectlymatured vegetable structures, the flesh-formers may exist in differentdegrees of availability. The nitrogen of the _testa_, or covering ofthe seeds, will hardly be so assimilable as that which exists in theircotyledons. The solubility of the flesh-formers--provided they behighly elaborated--is a very good criterion of their nutritive power. In linseed the muscle-forming substances are more soluble than inlinseed-cake--the heat which is generally employed in the extraction ofoil from linseed rendering the plastic materials of the resultant _cake_less soluble, and diminishing thereby their digestibility, as practicehas proved. From the considerations which I have now entered into, it is obviousthat the chemical analysis of food substances as generally performed, though of great utility, does not afford strictly accurate informationas to their commercial value, and still less reliable in relation totheir nutritive power. At the same time, they as clearly establishthe feasibility of analyses being _made_ whereby the money value offeeding-stuffs may be estimated with tolerable exactitude. Let thechemist determine the presence and relative amounts of the ingredientsof food-substances, and--if it be possible so to do with a degree ofexactness that would render the results useful--place on each a moneyvalue. This done, let the physiologist and the feeder combine the foodin such proportions as they may find best adapted to the nature, age, and condition of the animal to be fed. It is to be regretted that the market price of feeding stuffs is not, in consequence of our defective knowledge, strictly determined by theirnutritive value, for if such were the case, the feeder would merely haveto adapt each to the nature and condition of his stock. Even amongstpractical men there prevails, unfortunately, great diversity of opinionas to the relative nutritive value of the greater number of foodsubstances; and I am quite certain that many of these command higherprices than others which in no respect are inferior. It would lead metoo far from my immediate subject were I to enter minutely into theconsideration of such questions as--whether an acre of grass yields moreor less nutriment than an acre of turnips? I shall merely describe thecomposition and properties of grass and of turnips, and of the variousother important food substances, and compare their nutritive power, sofar as comparisons are admissible; but I shall say but little on thesubject of the various economic and other conditions which affect theproduction of forage plants. When I shall have described the chemicalnature and physical condition of the various articles of food, and theresults of actual feeding experiments made with them, the feeder willthen be in a position to determine which are the most economical toproduce or to purchase. SECTION II. PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLES. The saccharine, or amylaceous substances constitute the most abundantof the proximate constituents of plants. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. I shall briefly describe the more importantmembers of this group of substances, namely, starch, sugar, inulin, gum, pectin, and cellulose. _Starch_, or _fecula_, occurs largely in dicotyledonous seeds, peas, &c. , and still more abundantly in certain monocotyledonous seeds, suchas wheat and barley. It constitutes the great bulk of many tubers androots--for example, the potato and tapioca. It consists of flattenedovate granules, which vary in size according to the plant. In thebeetroot they are 1/3500 of an inch in diameter, whilst in _tous lesmois_ they are nearly 1/200 of an inch in diameter. Most of the starchgranules are marked by a series of concentric rings. Starch is heavierthan water, and is insoluble in that fluid when cold; neither is itdissolved by alcohol or ether. When heated in water having a temperatureof at least 140° Fahrenheit, it increases greatly in volume, andacquires a gelatinous consistence. When the water is allowed to cool, a portion of the starch becomes insoluble, whilst another portionremains in solution; the latter form of starch is sometimes termed_amidin_, from the French word for starch, _amidon_. When dry starchis heated to 400° Fahr. , it is converted, without any change in itscomposition, into a soluble gum-like substance, termed _dextrin_, or British gum. On being boiled in diluted sulphuric acid it isconverted into a kind of sugar; and the same effect is produced byfermentation--for example, in the germination of seeds. Fresh ricecontains 82, wheat 60, and potatoes 20 per cent. Of starch. Thissubstance constitutes a nutritious and easily digestible food, butalone cannot support life. Arrowroot is only a pure form of starch. _Sugar_ occurs less abundantly in plants than starch. There are severalvarieties of this substance, of which the kinds termed cane sugar(_sucrose_) and grape sugar (_glucose_), are only of importance toagriculturists. The former enters largely into the composition of thesugar-cane, the beetroot, the sugar-maple, the sorgho grass, pumpkins, carrots, and a great variety of other plants. Grape sugar is found infruits, especially when dried--raisins and figs--in malted corn, andin honey. In the sugar-cane there is 18 per cent. , and in the beetroot10 per cent. Of sugar. _Cane sugar_, when pure, consists of minute transparent crystals. It is1-6/10 heavier than water, and is soluble in one-third of its weightof that fluid. By long-continued boiling in water it is changed intouncrystallizable sugar, or treacle, by which its flavor is altered, butits sweetening power increased. _Grape sugar_ crystallizes in very small cubes, of inferior color ascompared with cane sugar crystals. It dissolves in its own weight ofwater, being three times less soluble than sucrose. In sweetening powerone part of cane sugar is equal to 2-1/2 parts of grape sugar; but thereis probably little if any difference, between the nutritive power of thetwo substances. _Inulin_ is a substance somewhat resembling starch. It does not occurin large quantities. It is met with in the roots of the dandelion, chicory, and many other plants. _Gum_ is an abundant constituent of plants. The kind termed gumarabic, so largely employed in the arts, is a very pure variety of thissubstance. Common gums are said to be essentially composed of a veryweak acid--_gummic_, or _arabic_ acid--united with lime and potash. The solution of gum is very slightly acid, and has a mucilaginous, ropy consistence: it is almost tasteless. _Mucilage_, or _bassorin_, is simply a modified form of gum, which, though insoluble in water, forms a gelatinous mixture with that fluid. It exudes from certaintrees--the cherry for example--and exists largely in linseed and otherseeds. Gums are nutritious foods, but it is probable that they are notequal in alimental power to equal weights of starch or sugar. _Vegetable jelly_, or _pectin_, is almost universally diffusedthroughout the vegetable kingdom. It is owing to its presence that thejuices of many fruits and roots possess the property of gelatinizing. It is soluble in water, but prolonged boiling destroys its viscousproperty. _Pectose_ is a modification of pectin; it is insoluble inwater. According to Fremy, the hardness of green fruits is due to thepresence of pectose; which is also found in the cellular tissue ofturnips, carrots, and various other roots. _Cellulose_ is a fibrous or cellular tissue, allied in composition tostarch. It is the most abundant constituent of plants, and forms thevery ground-work of the vegetable mechanism. Linen, cotton, and thepith of the elder and other trees are nearly pure forms of cellulose. Ligneous, or woody tissue (_lignin_) is indurated cellulose, hardenedby age. It is almost identical in composition with cellulose. Purecellulose is white, colorless, tasteless, insoluble in water, oil, alcohol, or ether. It is heavier than water. Sulphuric acid is capableof converting it into grape, or starch sugar. In its fresh and succulentstate cellulose is digestible and nutritious; but in the form ofligneous tissue it opposes a very great resistance to the action of thedigestive fluids. Digestible cellulose is probably equal in nutritivepower to starch. _Oils and fats_ occur abundantly in vegetables, more particularly intheir seeds. In the seeds of many cruciferous plants the proportionof fat and oil exceeds 35 per cent. The oils and fats termed _fixed_are those which possess the greatest interest to agriculturists; the_volatile oils_ being those which confer on certain plants theirfragrant odour. There are a great variety of vegetable oils, butthe proximate constituents of most of them are chiefly _stearin_, _margarin_, _olein_, and _palmitin_. _Stearin_ is a white crystalline substance, sparingly soluble in alcoholand ether, but insoluble in water. There are two or three modificationsof this substance, but they do not essentially differ from each other. The melting point varies from 130° to 160° Fahr. Stearin is the mostabundant of the fats. _Margarin_ presents the appearance of pearly scales. It is the solid fatpresent in olive oil, and it is also met with in a great variety of fatsand oils. It melts at 116° Fahr. _Olein_ is the fluid constituent of oils and fatty substances. Itresists an extreme degree of cold, without solidifying. There areseveral modifications of this body--the olein of olive oil beingsomewhat different from that of castor oil; the olein of linseed issometimes termed _linolien_. _Palmitin. _--This fat occurs in many plants, but as it makes up thegreat bulk of palm oil, it has been termed palmitin. It is white, andmay be obtained in feathery-like masses. Its melting point varies from114° to 145°, there being, according to Duffy, three modifications ofthis substance. The fats and oils are lighter than water. They contain far more carbonand hydrogen, and less oxygen, than are found in the sugars andstarches. They all consist of acids (stearic, palmitic, &c. ) united withglycerine. On being boiled with potash or soda, the latter take theplace of the glycerine, which is set free, and a _soap_ is produced. The fatty acids strongly resemble the fats. In nutritive power, one partof fat is equal to 2-1/2 parts of starch or sugar. The Albuminous substances contain, in addition to the elements foundin starch, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. _Albumen_, _fibrin_, and_legumin_ constitute the three important members of the "Nitrogenous"constituents of plants. _Albumen_ is an uncrystallizable substance. It is soluble in water, unless when heated to 140 deg. Fahr. , at which temperature it coagulates, _i. E. _, becomes solid and insoluble. The _gluten_ of wheat is composedchiefly of albumen, and of bodies closely allied to that substance. _Fibrin_, when dried, is a hard, horny, yellow, solid body. It containsa little more oxygen than is found in albumen. This substance is bestknown as a constituent of animals, and it does not appear to be abundantin plants. The portion of the gluten of wheat-flour, which is insolublein boiling alcohol, is considered by Liebig and Dumas to be coagulatedfibrin. In the seeds of leguminous and a few other kinds of plants largequantities of a substance termed _legumin_ are found. It resembles thecasein, or cheesy ingredient of milk; indeed, some chemists consider itto be identical in composition with that substance. When pure, it ispearly white, insoluble in boiling water, but soluble in cold water andin vinegar. The saline matters found in plants are always associatedwith the albuminous bodies; the latter, therefore, form the bones aswell as the muscles of animals. A great many substances are found in plants, such as wax, mannite, "extractive matter, " citric, malic, and other acids, of the nutritivevalue of which very little is known. The substances described in thissection constitute, however, at least 95 per cent. Of the weight of thevegetable matters used as food by live stock. SECTION III. GREEN FOOD. _The Grasses. _--More than one-half the area of Great Britain and Irelandis under pasture; the grasses, therefore, constitute the most importantand abundant food used by live stock. The composition of the naturaland artificial grasses is greatly influenced by the nature of the soilon which they are grown, and by the climatic conditions under whichthey are developed. Many of them are almost worthless, whilst otherspossess a high nutritive value. Amongst the most useful naturalgrasses may be enumerated Italian rye-grass, Meadow barley, AnnualMeadow-grass, Crested dogstail-grass, Cocksfoot-grass, Timothy orMeadow catstail-grass, and Sweet vernal-grass. Amongst grasses of mediumquality I may mention common Oatlike-grass, Meadow foxtail grass, Smoothand rough stalked Meadow-grass, and Waterwhorl-grass. There are verymany grasses which are almost completely innutritious, and which ought, under no circumstances, to be tolerated, although too often they makeup the great bulk of the herbage of badly-managed meadows and pastures. Such grasses are, the Meadow soft-grass, Creeping soft-grass, Falsebrome-grass, and Upright brome-grass. The rough-stalked Meadow-grass, though spoken favorably of by some farmers, is hardly worthy ofcultivation, and the same may be said of many of the grasses which havea place in our meadows and pastures. (See "Analyses of Natural Grassesin a Fresh State, by Dr. Voelcker, " on next page. ) The _Schræder brome_ is a perennial lately introduced into France. Itis described as an exceedingly valuable forage crop, and one which isadmirably adapted for the feeding of dairy cows. It would be desirableto give it a trial in these countries. The composition (which is verypeculiar) of this plant is stated to be as follows, when dry:-- ANALYSIS OF SCHRÆDER BROME HAY. Water 16·281 Nitrogenous matters 23·443 Fat 3·338 Starch gum, &c. 22·549 Cellulose (fibre) 19·843 Ashes 14·546 ------- Total 100·000 ANALYSES OF NATURAL GRASSES IN A FRESH STATE, BY DR. VOELCKER. +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | KEY: | | A. --Water. | | B. --Albuminous or Flesh-forming Principles. | | C. --Fatty Matters. | | D. --Respiratory Principles: Starch, Gum, Sugar. | | E. --Woody Fibre. | | F. --Mineral Matter or Ash. | | G. --Date of Collection. | +-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-------+ | | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. | +-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-------+ |Anthoxanthum odoratum-- | | | | | | | | | Sweet-scented vernal grass |80·35| 2·00| ·67| 8·54| 7·15| 1·24|May 25| |Alopecurus pratensis-- | | | | | | | | | Meadow foxtail grass |80·20| 2·44| ·52| 8·59| 6·70| 1·55|June 1| |Arrhenatherum avenaceum-- | | | | | | | | | Common oat-like grass |72·65| 3·54| ·87| 11·21| 9·37| 2·36|July 17| |Avena flavescens-- | | | | | | | | | Yellow oat-like grass |60·40| 2·96| 1·04| 18·66| 14·22| 2·72|June 29| |Avena pubescens-- | | | | | | | | | Downy oat-grass |61·50| 3·07| ·92| 19·16| 13·34| 2·01|July 11| |Briza media-- | | | | | | | | | Common quaking grass |51·85| 2·93| 1·45| 22·60| 17·00| 4·17|June 29| |Bromus erectus-- | | | | | | | | | Upright brome grass |59·57| 3·78| 1·35| 33·19 | 2·11| " 23| |Bromus mollis-- | | | | | | | | | Soft brome grass |76·62| 4·05| ·47| 9·04| 8·46| 1·36| May 8| |Cynosurus cristatus-- | | | | | | | | | Crested dogstail grass |62·73| 4·13| 1·32| 19·64| 9·80| 2·38|June 21| |Dactylus glomerata-- | | | | | | | | | Cocksfoot grass |70·00| 4·06| ·94| 13·30| 10·11| 1·54| " 13| | Ditto, seeds ripe |52·57|10·93| ·74| 12·61| 20·54| 2·61|July 19| |Festuca duriuscula-- | | | | | | | | | Hard fescue grass |69·33| 3·70| 1·02| 12·46| 11·83| 1·66|June 13| |Holcus lanatus-- | | | | | | | | | Soft meadow grass |69·70| 3·49| 1·02| 11·92| 11·94| 1·93| " 29| |Hordeum pratense-- | | | | | | | | | Meadow barley |58·85| 4·59| ·94| 20·05| 13·03| 2·54|July 11| |Lolium perenne-- | | | | | | | | | Darnel grass |71·43| 3·37| ·91| 12·08| 10·06| 2·15|June 8| |Lolium italicum-- | | | | | | | | | Italian rye-grass |75·61| 2·45| ·80| 14·11| 4·82| 2·21| " 13| |Phleum pratense-- | | | | | | | | | Meadow catstail grass |57·21| 4·86| 1·50| 22·85| 11·32| 2·26| | |Poa annua-- | | | | | | | | | Annual meadow grass |79·14| 2·47| ·71| 10·79| 6·30| ·59| May 28| |Poa pratensis-- | | | | | | | | | Smooth-stalked meadow grass|67·14| 3·41| ·86| 14·15| 12·49| 1·95|June 11| |Poa trivialis-- | | | | | | | | | Rough-stalked ditto |73·60| 2·58| ·97| 10·54| 10·11| 2·20| " 18| |Grass from water meadow |87·58| 3·22| ·81| 3·98| 3·13| 1·28|Apr. 30| | Ditto, second crop |74·53| 2·78| ·52| 11·17| 8·76| 2·24|June 26| |Annual rye-grass |69·00| 2·96| ·69| 12·89| 12·47| 1·99| " 8| +-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+-------+ Most of the grasses here mentioned were analysed when in flower. _Tussac Grass_ (_Dactylis cæspitus_) is recommended as an excellentplant to grow on very poor, wet, or mossy soils. [26] It is an evergreengrass, somewhat resembling coltsfoot. It is relished by cattle. ANALYSIS OF TUSSAC GRASS BY JOHNSTONE. Lower part. Upper part. Water 86·09 75·17 Flesh-formers 2·47 4·79 Sugar, gum, &c. 4·62 6·81 Woody fibre (with a little albumen) 5·68 11·86 Ash 1·14 1·37 ------ ------ Total 100·00 100·00 The "artificial grasses" embrace the clovers, vetches, lucerne, anda few other plants, some of which are seldom cultivated. ANALYSES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLOVER, BY DR. ANDERSON. +--------------------------------------------- | KEY: | A. --Water. | B. --Dry Substances. | C. --Ash. | D. --Nitrogenised Substances. | E. --Ash. | F. --Nitrogenised Matters. | ------------------------+-----------------------------+--------------- | Per-centage in the | Per-centage | Fresh Clover. | in Dry Clover. +-------+-------+------+------+-------+------- | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. ------------------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------- Red clover-- | | | | | | Trifolium pratense: | | | | | | 1. From English seed | 85·30 | 14·70 | 1·30 | 2·31 | 8·90 | 15·87 2. From German seed | | | | | | (from the Rhine) | 81·68 | 18·32 | 1·49 | 2·81 | 8·15 | 15·50 3. From French seed | 83·51 | 16·49 | 1·95 | 2·25 | 11·82 | 13·56 4. From American seed | 79·98 | 21·02 | 1·58 | 2·87 | 8·05 | . . . 5. From Dutch seed | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | 8·82 | 12·43 Cowgrass-- | | | | | | Trifolium medium:[27] | | | | | | Variety, | | | | | | " Duke of Norfolk | 77·39 | 22·61 | 2·73 | 2·25 | 12·09 | 10·19 " common | 81·76 | 18·24 | 1·92 | 3·19 | 10·53 | 14·37 Crimson clover, | | | | | | Trifolium incarnatum: | | | | | | From French seed | 82·56 | 17·44 | 1·88 | 3·25 | 10·81 | 18·56 Yellow clover-- | | | | | | Medicago lupulina: | | | | | | From English seed | 77·38 | 22·62 | 2·02 | 3·50 | 8·95 | 15·44 From French seed | 78·60 | 21·40 | 1·75 | 2·94 | 8·18 | 13·69 ------------------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------- _Clover_ is very rich in flesh-forming and heat-producing substances. There are several varieties of this plant, of which the Alsike Cloverappears to be the most valuable, as it contains a high proportion oforganic matter and gives the largest acreable produce. The nature of thesoil influences, to a great extent, the composition of this plant: thisno doubt accounts for the somewhat discrepant result of the analyses ofit made by Way, Voelcker, and Anderson. The composition of the Vetch, Sainfoin, and Lucerne, resembles veryclosely that of the Clover: indeed, it appears to me that all theseleguminous plants are nearly equally valuable as green forage, but thatthe best adapted for hay is the Clover. In the following table thecomposition of these plants is shown:-- ANALYSES OF CLOVER, BY DR. VOELCKER. ---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+--------- | I. | II. | III. | IV. | V. | Red | White |Yellow | Alsike. | Bokhara |Clover. |Clover. |Clover. | Clover. | Clover. +-------+-------+-------+---------+--------- Water | 80·64 | 83·65 | 77·57 | 76·67 | 81·30 | | | | | Soluble in Water-- | | | | | _a. _ Organic substances | 6·35 | 4·98 | 8·26 | 4·91 | 6·80 _b. _ Inorganic substances| 1·55 | 1·13 | 1·40 | 1·33 | 1·54 | | | | | Insoluble in water-- | | | | | _a. _ Impure vegetable | | | | | fibre | 11·04 | 9·80 | 12·17 | 16·36 | 10·01 _b. _ Inorganic matters | | | | | (ash) | 0·42 | 0·44 | 0·60 | 0·73 | 0·35 +-------+-------+-------+---------+--------- |100·00 |100·00 |100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 ---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+--------- ANALYSES OF LUCERNE, SAINFOIN, AND VETCH. ---------------------------------------+----------+-----------+-------- | I. | II. | III. | Lucerne. | Sainfoin. | Vetch. +----------+-----------+-------- Water | 73·41 | 77·32 | 82·16 | | | Soluble in Water | | | _a. _ Organic substances | 9·43 | 8·00 | 6·07 _b. _ Inorganic substances | 2·33 | 1·20 | 1·07 | | | Insoluble in water | | | _a. _ Impure vegetable fibre | 14·08 | 12·95 | 10·23 _b. _ Inorganic matters (ash) | 0·75 | 0·53 | 0·47 +----------+-----------+-------- | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 ---------------------------------------+----------+-----------+-------- The artificial grasses are, on the whole, more nutritious than thenatural grasses; but I should explain that the analyses of the naturalgrasses which I have quoted refer to those plants in what may be almosttermed their wild state: under the influence of good cultivation--whenirrigated or top-dressed with abundance of appropriate manure--theiranalyses would indicate a higher nutritive value. The grasses, and moreespecially the so-called artificial grasses, are more nutritious anddigestible when young. In old clover the proportion of insoluble woodyfibre is often so considerable as to greatly detract from the alimentalvalue of the plant. The _Lentils_, the _Birdsfoot_, the _Trefoil_, and the _Melilot_ areleguminous plants which occasionally are found as constituents of foragecrops. Lentils are extensively cultivated on the Continent, and arethe only kind of these plants the chemistry of which has been at allstudied. The straw contains 7 per cent. Of flesh-formers. _The Yellow Lupine_ is cultivated rather extensively in Germany, France, and Belgium, partly for feeding purposes, partly to furnish agreen manure. Its seeds constitute a nutritious article of food for man, and its stems and leaves are given to cattle. An attempt was made a fewyears ago to introduce its cultivation, as a field crop, into England, and very satisfactory results attended the first trials made with it. Mr. Kimber, who has cultivated this crop, states that it is likely toprove valuable on light sandy soils, where the ordinary green foddercrops are not easily cultivated. The produce per acre obtained inMr. Kimber's trial was about nineteen tons. Cattle and sheep relishthe Yellow Lupine, but according to Mr. Kimber, pigs reject it. Professor Voelcker examined this plant, and found that it resembled incomposition the ordinary artificial grasses, except in one respect, namely, a remarkable deficiency in sugar. Altogether, it is not so richin nutriment as any of the commonly cultivated leguminous plants; butas it can be cultivated on a very poor soil, and gives a good return, it is probable that the Yellow Lupine will yet become a common crop inBritain. The following table exhibits the results of Dr. Voelcker'sanalysis. COMPOSITION OF YELLOW LUPINES (CUT DOWN IN A GREEN STATE). In natural state. Dried at 212°F. Water 89·20 Oil ·37 3·42 [*] Soluble albuminous compounds 1·37 12·68 Soluble mineral (saline) substances ·61 5·64 [+] Insoluble albuminous compounds 1·01 9·35 Sugar, gum, bitter extractive matter, and digestible fibre 3·96 36·68 Indigestible woody fibre (cellulose) 3·29 30·48 Insoluble mineral matters ·19 1·75 ------ ------ 100·00 100·00 [* Containing nitrogen ·22 2·03] [+ Containing nitrogen ·16 1·48] _Rib grass plantain_ (_Plantago lanceolata_) is one of those plants, thevalue of which for forage purposes is questionable. Many persons believeit to be a useful food. Its composition, which looks favorable, is asfollows:-- Water 84·78 Albuminous matters 2·18 Fatty matters 0·56 Starch, gum, &c. 6·08 Woody fibre 5·10 Mineral matter 1·30 The grasses, natural and artificial, are occasionally affected by aformidable and well-known fungus, the _ergot_. Italian rye-grass is themost liable to the ravages of this pest, and there are on record severalcases in which ergotted rye-grass proved fatal to the animal fed uponit. Clover and the various leguminous plants appear more liable to theergot disease than the natural grasses (except rye-grass), but I haveon several occasions noticed this fungus on the spikelets of _Hordeumpratense_, _Festuca pratense_, and _Bromus erectus_. It has also beennoticed that rye-grass rapidly developed under the influence of liquidmanure is so rank that young animals fed upon it are poisonouslyaffected. Alderman Mechi states that in July, 1864, ten out of histhirty Shorthorn calves died in consequence of eating the heads ofItalian rye-grass, and that the survivors' health was seriously injured. He was also unfortunate with his lambs, which, during the same month, were folded on Italian rye-grass. "Four days ago, " writes the Alderman, "it was sewaged, having been prior to the former growth also guanoed. In four days it had grown from four to five inches, was of an intensegreen, and pronounced to be, by sharp practical men, just the food forlambs. Well, we put on our lambs, taking care to do so in the eveningsafter they had been well fed. My bailiff accompanied them, and, withinfive minutes, turning accidentally round, he saw two of the lambs withtheir heads in the air staggering (stomach staggers it is called) andfrothing at the mouth. He immediately saw the mischief, removed thelambs, and on their way back to a bare fold some of them vomited theItalian rye-grass that they had just eaten, accompanied by frothy slime;others brought it up during the night. Some of them trembled, gaped, and showed all the same symptoms that my calves had done, such as rapidpulse, &c. Two or three of them are rather queer to-day. I hope thatProfessor Simmonds or some capable person will tell us how this is? Ifwe mow this grass, bring it home, and cut it into chaff, all which tendsto heat or dry it, it becomes wholesome food. The same remarks apply indegree to very succulent tares. If the Italian grass is brought home andgiven long and quite fresh to the calves, it will kill them. It does notappear to injure old ewes as it does lambs or shearlings. The dryweather has something to do with it. In wet weather the evil is muchdiminished, or disappears. " It is probable that the juice of this poisonous herbage was extremelyrich in matters only semi-organised, and perhaps abounded in the crudesubstances from which the vegetable tissues are elaborated. Suchrank grass as this was should not be used until it has attained to atolerably developed state: in mature plants the juices contain morehighly organised matters than are found in young vegetables. The _Sorghuo_, _or Holcus Saccharatus_. --This plant, introduced tothe notice of the British farmer but a few years ago, is only grownin these countries in small quantities. It is very rich in sugar, andcattle relish it greatly. Its composition, according to Dr. Voelcker, is as follows:-- Water 81·80 Albuminous matters 1·53 Insoluble ditto 0·66 Sugar 5·85 Wax and fatty matter 2·55 Mucilage, pectin, and digestible matters 2·59 Indigestible woody fibre 4·03 Mineral matter 0·99 ------ 100·00 The plants referred to in the above analysis were cut in September. It is found that the composition of the plant is very different atdifferent seasons. _Green Rye_ is employed as a forage crop, for which purpose it is welladapted. It is about equal in nutritive power to clover. According toDr. Voelcker its composition is as follows:-- Water 75·423 Flesh-formers 2·705 Fatty matter 0·892 Gum, pectin, sugar, &c. 9·134 Woody-fibre 10·488 Mineral matter 1·358 ------- 100·000 _Buckwheat_ is occasionally cut in a green state and used as food forstock. Its composition, according to Einhof and Crome, is as follows:-- Water 82·5 Nitrogenous compounds 0·2 Extractive matters 2·6 Starch, &c. 4·7 Cellulose 10·0 ----- 100·0 Rape is one of our most valuable plants for stock feeding. Two varietiesare cultivated in these countries--the summer rape (_Brassica Campestrisoleifera_) and winter rape (_Brassica rapus_). The great utility ofrape arises from the circumstance of its being generally obtained as a_stolen_ crop; for otherwise it is not quite equal to other plants thatmight be substituted for it--cabbages, &c. This plant is very rich inoily matters, and has been found well adapted both for the feeding ofcattle and the fattening of sheep. Its composition, according toVoelcker, is shown in this table:-- COMPOSITION OF GREEN RAPE. Water 87·050 Flesh-formers 3·133 Fatty matters 0·649 Other respiratory substances 4·000 Woody fibre 3·560 Mineral matter (ash) 1·608 ------- 100·000 With respect to the value of rape for the feeding of stock in spring, Mr. Rham makes the following remarks:-- If the crop is very forward it may be slightly fed off, but in general it is best to let it remain untouched till spring. In the end of March and the beginning of April it will be a great help to the ewes and lambs. It will produce excellent food till it begins to be in flower, when it should immediately be ploughed up. The ground will be found greatly recruited by this crop, which has taken nothing from it, and has added much by the dung and urine of the sheep. Whatever be the succeeding crop, it cannot fail to be productive; and if the land is not clean, the farmer must have neglected the double opportunity of destroying weeds in the preceding summer, and in the early part of spring. If the rape is fed off in time, it may be succeeded by barley or oats, with clover or grass seeds, or potatoes, if the soil is not too wet. Thus no crop will be lost, and the rape will have been a clear addition to the produce of the land. Any crop which is taken off the land in a green state, especially if it be fed off with sheep, may be repeated without risk of failure, provided the land be properly tilled; but where cole or rape have produced seed, they cannot be profitably sown in less than five or six years after on the same land. The cultivation of rape or cole for spring food cannot be too strongly recommended to the farmers of heavy clay soils. _The Mustard Plant_ is occasionally used as food for sheep, for whichpurpose its composition shows it to be well adapted. Voelcker's analysisproves it to be very rich, relatively, in muscle-forming elements and inmineral matters; it might, therefore be with advantage combined withfood relatively deficient in these principles. COMPOSITION OF FRESH MUSTARD. Water 86·30 Albuminous matters 2·87 Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, oil, &c. ) 4·40 Woody fibre 4·39 Ash 2·04 ------ 100·00 _The Prickly Comfrey_ has been recommended as a good forage plant. It yields an abundant crop--or rather crops, for it may be cut severaltimes in the year. The plant is a handsome one, and it might combine theuseful with the ornamental if it were cultivated on demesne or villafarms. Dr. Voelcker states its composition to be as follows:-- Water 88·400 Flesh-forming substances 2·712 Heat and fat-producing matters 6·898 Ash 1·990 ------- 100·000 _Chicory_ is used as a forage crop on the Continent, and Professor JohnWilson surmises that it may yet be generally cultivated for this purposein Great Britain. At present it is rarely grown except for the sake ofits roots, which are used as partial substitutes for, or adulterants of, coffee. COMPOSITION OF CHICORY, ACCORDING TO ANDERSON. Fresh roots. Fresh leaves. Water 80·58 90·94 Nitrogenous matters 1·72 1·01 Non-nitrogenous substances 16·39 6·63 Ash 1·31 1·42 ------ ------ 100·00 100·00 _Yarrow_ (_Achillæa millefolium_) is usually regarded as a weed, butsheep are very fond of it, and when they can get it, never fail to eatit greedily. It possesses astringent properties. Some writers haverecommended it as a good crop for warrens and sands. Its composition, according to Way, is as follows:-- DRIED YARROW. Albuminous matter 10·34 Fatty matters 2·51 Starch, gum, &c. 45·46 Woody fibre 32·69 Mineral matter 9·00 ------ 100·00 _Melons_ and _Marrows_ have been used, but to a very limited extent, asfood for stock. Mr. Blundell advocates their use in seasons of drought. He states that he has obtained more than forty tons per acre of bothmelons and marrows. They are relished by horses, oxen, sheep, and pigs. Mr. Blundell's advocacy has not been attended with much success, but itwould be desirable to give these vegetables a further trial. Dr. Voelcker's analysis of the cattle melon shows that it contains:-- Water 92·98 Albuminous matters 1·53 Oil ·73 Sugar, gum, &c. 2·51 Fibre 1·65 Ash ·60 ------ 100·00 _The Cabbage. _--The composition of the Drumhead Cabbage has been studiedby Dr. Anderson. He found a larger proportion of nutriment in the outerleaves than in the "heart, " and ascertained that the young plants werericher in nutriment than those more advanced in age. His results showthe desirability of cultivating the open-leaved, rather than the compactvarieties of this plant. ANALYSIS OF THE CABBAGE. --BY DR. ANDERSON. Outer leaves. Heart leaves. Water 91·08 94·48 Compounds containing nitrogen 1·63 0·94 Compounds destitute of nitrogen, such as gum, sugar, fibre, &c. 5·06 4·08 Ash (mineral matter) 2·23 0·50 ------ ------ 100·00 100·00 According to Fromberg, the composition of the whole plant is asfollows:-- Water 93·40 Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming compounds 1·75 Non-nitrogenous substances such as gum, sugar, &c. 4·05 Mineral matter 0·80 ------ 100·00 Dr. Voelcker, who has more recently analysed the cattle cabbage, furnishes us with the following details of its composition:-- COMPOSITION OF CABBAGE LEAVES (OUTSIDE GREEN LEAVES). Water 83·72 Dry matter 16·28 ------ 100·00 The fresh and the dry matter consisted of:-- Fresh Dry matter. Matter. Per cent. [*] Protein compounds 1·65 10·19 Non-nitrogenous matter 13·38 82·10 Mineral matter 1·25 7·71 ----- ------ 16·28 100·00 [* Containing nitrogen ·26 1·63] In the following table the results of a more elaborate analysis of the_heart_ and inner leaves are shown:-- COMPOSITION OF HEART AND INNER LEAVES. In natural state. Dry. Water 89·42 Oil ·08 ·75 [*] Soluble protein compounds 1·19 11·24 Sugar, digestible fibres, &c. 7·01 66·25 Soluble mineral matter ·73 6·89 [+] Insoluble protein compounds ·31 2·93 Woody fibre 1·14 10·77 Insoluble mineral matter ·12 1·17 ------ ------ 100·00 100·00 [* Containing nitrogen ·19 1·79] [+ Containing nitrogen ·05 ·47] If I were asked what plant I considered the most valuable for forage, I certainly should pronounce an opinion in favor of cabbage. This cropyields a much greater return than that afforded by the Swedish turnip, and it is richer in nutritive matter. Cabbages are greedily eaten bysheep and cattle, and the butter of cows fed upon them is quite freefrom the disagreeable flavor which it so often possesses when the foodof the animal is chiefly composed of turnips. If the cabbage admitted ofstoring, no more valuable crop could be cultivated as food for stock. Mr. John M'Laren, of Inchture, Scotland, gives in the "Transactions ofthe Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland for 1857, " a report on thefeeding value of cabbage, which is highly favorable to that plant:-- On the 1st December, 1855 (says the reporter), two lots of Leicester wethers, bred on the farm, and previously fed alike, each lot containing ten sheep, were selected for the trial by competent judges, and weighed. Both lots were put into a field of well-sheltered old lea, having a division between them. All the food was cut and given them in troughs, three times a day. They had also a constant supply of hay in racks. At the end of the trial, on the 1st of March, 1856, the sheep were all re-weighed, sent to the Edinburgh market, and sold same day, but in their separate lots. As I had no opportunity of getting the dead weights, I requested Mr. Swan, the salesman, to give his opinion on their respective qualities. This was to the effect that no difference existed in their market value, but that the sheep fed on turnips would turn out the best quality of mutton, with most profit for the butcher. Both lots were sold at the same price, viz. , 52s. 6d. During the three months of trial, we found that each lot consumed about the same weight of food--viz. , 8 tons 13 cwt. 47 lb. Of cabbage, being at the rate of 21-1/3 lbs. Per day for each sheep, and 8 tons 10 cwt. 7 lb. Swedes, being at the rate of 20-9/10 lb. Per day. It will be seen, by referring to the table (see next page), that in this trial the Swede has proved of higher value for feeding purposes than the cabbage, making 11 st. 4 lb. Of gain in weight, whilst the cabbage made 10 st. 9 lb. At the same time, 3 cwt. 40 lb. Less food were consumed; and taking the mutton gained at 6d. Per lb. , the Swedes consumed become worth 9s. 3-1/4d. Per ton, while the gain on the cabbage, at the same rate, makes them worth 8s. 7d. Per ton. But from the great additional weight of the one crop grown over the other, the balance, at the prices, c. , mentioned, is in favor of the cabbage by £1 15s. 11-3/4d. Per acre. These results certainly speak strongly in favor of the cabbage; but theweight of the acreable crop of cabbages stated in the table appears tobe unusually great. So heavy a crop is rarely obtained. _Furze_ (_Gorse, or Whins_). --Notwithstanding the natural historicalknowledge of Goldsmith, his poetical description of the furze is farfrom accurate. This plant, instead of being "unprofitably gay, " deservesto rank amongst the most valuable vegetables cultivated for the use ofthe domestic animals. It grows and flourishes under conditions whichmost injuriously affect almost every other kind of fodder and greencrop. Prolonged drought in spring and early summer not unfrequentlyrenders the hay crop a scanty one; while autumn and winter frosts changethe nutriment of the mangels and turnips into decaying and unwholesomematter. Under such circumstances as these, the maintenance of cattle ingood condition is very expensive, unless in places where a supply offurze is available. This plant is rather improved than otherwise byexposure to a temperature which would speedily destroy a mangel or aturnip; and, although it thrives best when abundantly supplied withrain, it can survive an exceedingly prolonged drought without sustainingmuch injury. TABLE SHOWING THE DIFFERENCE OF WEIGHT GROWN ON AN ACRE OF CABBAGE AND AN ACRE OF SWEDES, AND THE VALUE OF EACH FOR FEEDING. +-----+-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------------+--------+ | No. | | Weight | Weight | |Value of| Total Weight | | | Of | | of | of | | Gain | of Food | Value | |Sheep| Kinds | Ten | Ten | | taking | consumed | of Food| | In | of | Sheep, | Sheep, | Gain. | Mutton | in |consumed| |Each | Food. |1st Dec. , |1st Mar. , | | at 6d. | Three Months | per | |Lot. | | 1855. | 1856. | |per lb. | by each lot. | Ton. | +-----+-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------------+--------+ | | | st. Lb. | st. Lb. | st. Lb. | £ s. D. |tons. Cwt. Lb. |s. D. | | 10 |Cabbage| 90 10 | 101 5 | 10 9 | 3 14 6 | 8 13 47 |8 7 | | | | | | | | | | | 10 |Swedes | 89 3 | 100 7 | 11 4 | 3 19 0 | 8 10 7 |9 3-1/4| +-----+-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------------+--------+ +-----+-------+----------+------------+----------+-------------+------------+ | No. | | Total | | | | | | Of | | Weight | Value | Extra | Free | Balance | |Sheep| Kinds | per | of each | Cost on | Value | in favor | | In | of | Acre | Crop | each Crop| of each | of | |Each | Food. | of each | per Acre. | per Acre. | Crop | Cabbage | |Lot. | | Crop. | | | per Acre. | per Acre. | +-----+-------+----------+------------+----------+-------------+------------+ | | |tons. Cwt. | £ s. D. | £ s. D. | £ s. D. | £ s. D. | | 10 |Cabbage| 42 14 | 18 6 6 | 4 10 11 | 13 15 7 | | | | | | | | | 1 15 11-3/4| | 10 |Swedes | 26 12 | 12 6 7-1/4| 0 7 0 | 11 19 7-1/4 | | +-----+-------+----------+------------+----------+-------------+------------+ The furze is a member of the family _Leguminosæ_, which includes so manyuseful plants, such as, for example, the pea, the bean, and the clovers. There are three varieties of it met with in this country--namely, thecommon furze, _Ulex europæus_, the dwarf furze, _Ulex nanus_, and theIrish, or upright furze, _Ulex strictus_. The common furze is a hardy shrub, and grows luxuriantly at an elevationfar higher than the limits of cereal cultivation. It flourishes on anykind of soil which is moderately dry, and heavy crops may easily beraised on uplands almost incapable of producing grass. The dwarf furzeis never cultivated, but as it grows at a still greater elevation, andon a poorer soil than the larger varieties, it might be profitablycultivated on very high uplands. The Irish furze yields a softer andless prickly food than the other kinds, but as it does not usually bearseed, and must therefore be propagated by cuttings, its cultivation hashitherto been limited to but a few localities. The produce of an acre of furze appears to be at least equal to thatof an acre of good meadow. The Rev. Mr. Townsend of Aghada, county ofCork--the most zealous and successful advocate for the cultivation ofthis plant--informed me that he had obtained so much as 14 tons peracre; a fact which proves that the furze is a plant which is welldeserving of the attention of the farmer. Furze is an excellent food for every kind of stock. Cattle, althoughthey may at first appear not to relish its prickly shoots, soon acquirea fondness for it. I have known several instances of herds being fedalmost if not entirely on the bruised plant, and to keep in goodcondition. The late Professor Murphy, of Cork, stated that on the farmof Mr. Boulger, near Mallow, thirty-five cows were fed on crushed furze, which they "devoured voraciously. " Each animal received daily from fourto six stones of the crushed plant, to which were added a little turnippulp and a small quantity of oats. The milk and butter yielded by thesecows were considered excellent. In a letter addressed to me by a veryintelligent feeder, Mr. John Walsh, [28] of Stedalt, county of Dublin, the following remarks in relation to this subject are made:-- I had lately an opportunity of seeing a herd of cattle of about sixty head, of which twenty had been fed with furze prepared with my machine for about six weeks before being put out to grass. The condition of these was so superior that I pointed out every one of them, one after the other, out of the herd. The owner of the cattle had made the same observation; it was new to him but not to me. Furze is seldom given to sheep or pigs, but I believe that it might withadvantage enter into the dietary of those animals. Some of my friendswho have lately tried it with pigs report favorably as to its effects. Horses partly fed upon this plant keep in good condition; it is usuallygiven to them cut merely into lengths of half an inch or an inch, but itwould be better to give it to them finely bruised. A horse during thenight will eat a much larger quantity of coarsely cut furze than of thewell bruised article, because he is obliged to expend a great deal ofmuscular power in bruising the furze, and must, consequently, use anadditional quantity of the food to make up for the corresponding wasteof tissue. Until quite recently, the chemistry of the furze was very littlestudied. The analysis of this plant made many years ago by Sprengelgave results which, in the present advanced condition of agriculturalchemistry, are quite valueless. The late Professor Johnston merelydetermined its amount of water, organic matter, and ash. I believe I wasthe first to make a complete investigation into the composition of thisplant according to the methods of modern chemical analysis. I made twoexaminations. The first was of shoots cut on the 25th April, 1860, onthe lands of Mr. Walsh of Stedalt, near Balbriggan, in the county ofDublin. The shoots were, in great part, composed of that year's growth, with a small proportion of the shoots of the previous year. They werevery moist, and their spines, or thorns, were rather soft. Theircentesimal composition was as follows:-- Water 78·05 Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 2·18 Fat-forming principles (oil, starch, sugar, gum, &c. ) 8·20 Woody fibre 10·17 Mineral matter (ash) 1·40 ------ 100·00 The second analysis was made of furze cut on the 15th August, 1862. The following were the results obtained:-- Water 72·00 Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 3·21 Oil 1·18 Other fat-forming principles (starch, gum, &c. ) 8·20 Woody fibre 13·33 Mineral matter 2·08 ------ 100·00 The specimen was allowed to lie for a few days in a dry room, so thatit lost a little water whilst in my possession, before it was subjectedto analysis. The sample cut in August contained a larger amount of nutriment thanthe specimen analysed in the spring; but its constituents appeared tobe much less soluble in water, and therefore, less digestible. Professor Blyth, of the Queen's College, Cork, has more recently madea very elaborate analysis of furze, grown in the county of Cork, whichgave results still more favorable to the plant than those arrived atby me--probably because the specimens furnished to him were drier thanmine. ANALYSIS OF FRESH FURZE, BY DR. BLYTH. 100 parts contain:-- _Matters readily soluble in water and easily digested. _ [*] Albuminous, or flesh-forming compounds 1·68 Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements, viz. , sugar, gum, &c. &c. 7·83 Ash 0·83 ----- Total matters soluble in water 10·34 [* Containing nitrogen 0·265] _Matters insoluble in water. _ Oil 2·14 [+] Albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds 2·83 Fat and heat-producing, or respiratory elements 1·00 Woody fibre 28·80 Ash 3·23 ----- Total matters insoluble in water 38·00 Water, expelled at 212 51·50 ----- 99·48 Total nitrogen in plant 0·71 Total albuminous, or flesh-producing compounds 4·51 Total respiratory, or heat and fat-producing compounds 8·83 Total ash 4·06 The ash contains in 100 parts:-- Potash 20·00 Phosphoric acid 8·72 [+ Containing nitrogen 0·445] If the large per-centage of water be deducted, the dry, nutritivematters can then be more readily compared with the amount of the samesubstances in other feeding articles:-- _Composition of 100 parts of furze dried at 212°. Matters soluble in water in the dry furze. _ [*] Albuminous compounds 3·47 Respiratory elements 16·15 Ash 1·71 ------ Total matters soluble in water 21·33 [* Containing nitrogen 0·546] _Matters insoluble in water in the dry furze. _ Oil 4·41 [+] Albuminous compounds 5·84 Respiratory elements 2·06 Woody fibre 59·38 Ash 6·66 ------ Total matters insoluble in water 78·35 ----- 99·68 Total nitrogen in dry furze 1·46 Total albuminous compounds 9·13 Total respiratory elements 18·20 Total ash 8·36 [+ Containing nitrogen 0·917] _Composition of ash per cent. _ Potash 20·00 Phosphoric Acid. 8·72 The results of these analyses show that dry furze contains an amountof nutriment equal to that found in dry grass. The nature of itscomposition resembles, as might be expected, that of its allied plants, vetches, &c. , and therefore it exceeds the grasses in its amount ofready formed fatty matter. SECTION IV. STRAW AND HAY. _Straw. _--At the present time, when the attention of the farmer isbecoming more and more devoted to the production of meat, it is verydesirable that his knowledge of the exact nutritive value of the variousfeeding substances should be more extensive than it is. No doubt, mostfeeders are practically acquainted with the relative value of corn andoil-cake--of Swedish turnips and white turnips; but their knowledge ofthe food equivalents of many other substances is still very defective. For example, every farmer is not aware that Indian corn is a moreeconomical food than beans for fattening cattle, and less so for beastsof burthen. Locust-beans, oat-dust, malt-combings, and many otherarticles, occasionally consumed by stock, have not, as yet, determinateplaces assigned to them in the feeder's scale of food equivalents. The points involved in the economic feeding of stock are not quiteso simple as some farmers, more especially those of the amateurclass, appear to believe. There are many feeders who sell theirhalf-finished cattle at a profit, and yet they cannot, without loss, convert their stock into those obese monsters which are so muchadmired at agricultural shows. The complete fattening of cattle isa losing business with some feeders, and a profitable one with others. Stall-feeding is a branch of rural economy which, perhaps more than anyother, requires the combination of "science with practice;" yet how fewfeeders are there who have the slightest knowledge of the composition offood substances, or who are agreed as to the feeding value, absolute orrelative, of even such well-known materials as oil-cake, straw, or oats!"It is thus seen how inexact are the equivalents which are understood tobe established for the different foods used for the maintenance of theanimals. It is equally plain, when we reflect on the different methodspursued for the preservation of the animals, that we are still farfrom having attained that perfection towards which our efforts tend. Visit one hundred farms, taken by chance in different parts of thecountry, and you will find in each, methods directly opposite--a totallypeculiar manner of managing the stalls; you will see, in short, that theconditions of food, of treatment, and of hygiene, remain not understoodin seven-eighths of rural farms. "[29] The straws of the cereal and leguminous plants are a strikingillustration of the erroneous opinions and practices which prevailamongst agriculturists with respect to particular branches of theircalling. The German farmers regard straw as the most valuableconstituent of home-made fertilisers, and their leases in generalprohibit their selling off the straw produced on their farms. Yetchemical analysis has clearly proved that the manurial value of straw isperfectly insignificant, and that, as a constituent of stable manure, itis chiefly useful as an absorbent of the liquid egesta of the animalslittered upon it. As food for stock, straw was at one time regarded byour farmers as almost perfectly innutritious; some even went so far asto declare that it possessed no nutriment whatever, and even those whoused it, did so more with the view of correcting the too watery natureof turnips, than with the expectation of its being assimilated to theanimal body. Within the last few years, however, straw has been largelyemployed by several of the most intelligent and successful feeders inEngland, who report so favorably upon it as an economical feeding stuff, that it has risen considerably in the estimation of a large sectionof the agricultural public. Now, even without adopting the very highopinion which Mechi and Horsfall entertain relative to the nutritivepower of straw, I am altogether disposed to disagree with those whoaffirm that its application should be restricted to manurial purposes. Unless under circumstances where there is an urgent demand for straw aslitter, that article should be used as food for stock, for which purposeit will be found, if of good quality, and given in a proper state, amost economical kind of dry fodder--equal, if not superior to hay, whenthe prices of both articles are considered. The composition of straw is very different from that of grain. The former contains no starch, but it includes an exceedingly highproportion of woody fibre; the latter is in great part composed ofstarch, and contains but an insignificant amount of woody fibre. Dr. Voelcker, the consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society ofEngland, and Dr. Anderson, chemist to the Highland and AgriculturalSociety of Scotland, have made a large number of analyses of the strawsof the cereal and leguminous plants, the results of which are of thehighest interest to the agriculturist. In the following tables the moreimportant results of these investigations are given:-- ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. VOELCKER. +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | | | | | | | | | No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3. | No. 4. | No. 5. | | | | | | | | | | Wheat, | Wheat, | Barley, | Barley, | Oat, | | |just ripe | over | dead |not too | cut | | | and well | ripe. | ripe. | ripe. | green. | | |harvested. | | | | | +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | Water | 13·33 | 9·17 | 15·20 | 17·50 | 16·00 | | Albumen, and other | | | | | | | protein compounds:-- | | | | | | | _a_. Soluble in water | 1·28 | 0·06 | 0·68 | \ | 5·51 | | | | | | }5·73 | | | _b_. Insoluble in water| 1·65 | 2·06 | 3·75 | / | 2·98 | | | | | | | | | Oil | 1·74 | 0·65 | 1·36 | 1·17 | 1·57 | | Sugar, mucilage, | | | | | | | extractive matters, | | | | | | | &c. (soluble in water) | 4·26 | 3·46 | 2·24 |\ | 16·04 | | Digestible woody | | | | \ | | | fibre and cellulose | 19·40 |\ | 5·97 | }71·44| 26·34 | | Indigestible | | }82·26 | | / | | | fibre &c. | 54·13 |/ | 66·54 |/ | 24·86 | | Inorganic matter:-- | | | | | | | _a. _ Soluble | 1·13 | 1·29 | 2·88 | \ | 5·76 | | | | | | }4·52 | | | _b. _ Insoluble | 3·08 | 1·05 | 0·38 | / | 0·94 | | +----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | | | | | | | | | No. 6. | No. 7. | No. 8. | No. 9. | No. 10. | | | | | | | | | | Oat, cut | Oat, | Bean. | Pea. | Flax | | | when | over | | | Chaff. | | | fairly | ripe. | | | | | | ripe. | | | | | +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | Water | 16·00 | 16·00 | 19·40 | 16·02 | 14·60 | | Albumen, and other | | | | | | | protein compounds:-- | | | | | | | _a_. Soluble in water | 2·62 | 1·29 | 1·51 | 3·96 | \ | | | | | | | }4·75 | | _b_. Insoluble in water| 1·46 | 2·36 | 1·85 | 5·90 | / | | | | | | | | | Oil | 1·05 | 1·25 | 1·02 | 2·34 | 2·82 | | Sugar, mucilage, | | | | | | | extractive matters, | | | | | | | &c. (soluble in water) | 10·57 | 3·19 | 4·18 | 8·32 | 8·72 | | Digestible woody | | | | | | | fibre and cellulose | 30·17 | 27·75 | 2·75 | 17·74 | 18·56 | | Indigestible | | | | | | | fibre &c. | 31·78 | 41·82 | 65·58 | 42·79 | 43·12 | | Inorganic matter:-- | | | | | | | _a. _ Soluble | 3·64 | 2·26 | 2·31 | 2·72 | 4·07 | | | | | | | | | _b. _ Insoluble | 2·71 | 4·08 | 1·40 | 2·21 | 3·36 | | +----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | +--------------------------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ [. ·. ] This table contains in a condensed form all the results of Voelcker's analyses of the straws which are given in his paper published in the _Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England_, vol. Xxii. , part 2. 1862. Nos. 5, 6, and 7 were analysed shortly after being cut, when they contained a high proportion of water. They have, therefore, been calculated to contain 16 per cent. Of moisture so as to arrive at accurate relative results. ANALYSES OF STRAW, BY DR. ANDERSON. +----------------+-----------------+---------+-----------------+--------+ | | | | | | | | | Wheat | | Barley | | | Wheat from | from | Barley from | from | | | East Lothian. | Kent. | East Lothian. | Kent. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +--------+--------+---------+--------+--------+--------+ |Water | 10·62 | 10·93 | 11·15 | 11·44 | 11·15 | 11·10 | |Flesh-formers-- | | | | | | | | Soluble | 0·86 | 0·37 | 1·37 | 1·42 | 0·39 | 0·66 | | Insoluble | 0·51 | 1·12 | 1·00 | 1·54 | 1·12 | 1·98 | |Oil | 0·80 | 1·00 | 1·50 | 0·97 | 0·88 | 1·05 | | | | | | | | | |Respiratory | | | | | | | | elements-- | | | | | | | | Soluble | 2·68 | 6·68 | 5·26 | 3·22 | 6·11 | 4·56 | | Insoluble | 44·88 | 36·43 | 38·79 | 35·56 | 38·38 | 27·95 | |Woody fibre | 32·88 | 34·78 | 35·01 | 41·34 | 36·62 | 47·53 | |Ash | 6·20 | 8·04 | 6·32 | 4·21 | 5·62 | 4·85 | | +--------+--------+---------+--------+--------+--------+ | | 99·43 | 99·35 | 100·40 | 99·70 | 100·27 | 99·68 | +----------------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------+--------+ +----------------+---------------+--------+----------+---------+--------+ | | | Oat | Oat from | | Oat | | | Sandy Oat | from | 850 feet |Oat from | from | | | from | Sea | above |Mellhill, | Kent | | | East Lothian. | level |Sea level, |Inchture, | (White | | | | East | East |Scotland. | one | | | |Lothian. | Lothian. | | side. ) | | +-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------+ |Water | 11·70 | 10·95 | 12·60 | 11·28 | 11·70 | 10·55 | |Flesh-formers-- | | | | | | | | Soluble | 0·40 | 1·03 | 0·67 | 0·92 | 0·95 | 0·33 | | Insoluble | 0·93 | 0·43 | 0·38 | 0·39 | 1·21 | 0·33 | |Oil | 1·45 | 0·77 | 1·25 | 1·36 | 1·60 | 1·00 | | | | | | | | | |Respiratory | | | | | | | | elements-- | | | | | | | | Soluble | 10·12 | 6·90 | 7·16 | 7·42 | 12·01 | 6·23 | | Insoluble | 33·52 | 34·77 | 24·28 | 29·55 | 23·35 | 30·95 | |Woody fibre | 35·36 | 38·73 | 48·49 | 44·40 | 45·27 | 47·40 | |Ash | 6·36 | 6·28 | 5·11 | 5·07 | 3·95 | 3·62 | | +-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------+ | | 99·84 | 99·86 | 99·94 | 100·39 | 100·14 | 100·41 | +----------------+-------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------+ [. ·. ] This table is compiled from Dr. Anderson's paper in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland for March, 1862. Many very important conclusions are deducible from the facts recordedin these valuable tables. We learn from them that straw is morenutritious when it is cut in the ripe state than when it is permittedto over-ripen, and that _green_ straw contains a far greater amount ofnutriment than is found even in the ripe article. It appears also thatthe least nutritious kind of straw equals the best variety of turnips inits amount of flesh-forming principles, and greatly exceeds them in itsproportion of fat-forming elements. We further learn that in general thedifferent kinds of straw will be found to stand in the following order, the most nutritious occupying the highest, and the least nutritious thelowest place:-- 1. Pea-haulm. 2. Oat-straw. 3. Bean-straw with the pods. 4. Barley-straw. 5. Wheat-straw. 6. Bean-stalks without the pods. It is a matter to be regretted that we possess so little accurateknowledge of the chemical composition of the plants cultivated inIreland. No doubt the analyses of English grown wheat, beans, mangels, and other plants, serve to give us a general idea of the nature of thosevegetables when produced in this country. But this kind of information, though very important, must necessarily be defective, as differencesin climate modify--often to a considerable extent--the composition ofalmost every vegetable. Thus, the results of Anderson's analyses proveScotch oats to be superior, as a feeding stuff, to Scotch barley, whilst, according to Voelcker and the experience of most Englishfeeders, the barley of parts of England is superior to its oats. Itfollows, then, that whilst the results of the analyses of straw, made byVoelcker and Anderson are of great interest to the Irish farmer, theywould be still more important to him had the straw to which they relatebeen the produce of Irish soil. In order, therefore, to enable the Irishfarmer to form a correct estimate of the value of his straw, we shouldput him in possession of a more perfect knowledge of its compositionthan that which is derivable from the investigations to which I havereferred. The straws of the cereals--which alone are used here to anyextent--should be analysed as carefully and as frequently as those ofGreat Britain have been; and if such were done, I have no doubt but thatthe results would indicate a decided difference in composition betweenthe produce of the two countries. Some time ago I entered upon what, atthe time, I had intended should be a complete investigation into thecomposition of Irish straws; but which want of time prevented me frommaking more than a partial one. The results are given in the followingtables:-- ANALYSES OF IRISH OAT-STRAW. --------------------------------+--------+------------------------------ | No. 1. |Obtained in the Dublin Market. |From Co. +---------+---------+---------- |Wicklow. | No. 2. | No. 3. | No. 4. --------------------------------+--------+---------+---------+---------- Water | 14·00 | 14·00 | 14·00 | 14·00 Flesh-forming principles-- | | | | _a. _ Soluble in water | 4·08 | 2·02 | 2·04 | 1·46 _b. _ Insoluble in water | 2·09 | 3·16 | 3·00 | 2·23 Oil | 1·84 | 1·40 | 1·26 | 1·00 Sugar, gum, and other | | | | fat-forming matters | 13·79 | 12·67 | 10·18 | 11·16 Woody fibre | 59·96 | 61·79 | 65·45 | 65·29 Mineral matter | 4·24 | 4·96 | 4·07 | 4·86 +--------+---------+---------+---------- | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 --------------------------------+--------+---------+---------+---------- All the specimens of oats, the analyses of which are given in thepreceding table, are assumed to contain 14 per cent. Of water, in orderthe more correctly to compare their nutritive value. No. 1 contained18·23 per cent. Of water; No. 2, 12·90; No. 3, 12·74; and No. 4, 12·08. Oat straw, before its removal from the field, often contains nearly halfits weight of water; but after being for some time stacked, theproportion of moisture rarely exceeds 14 per cent. ANALYSES OF IRISH WHEAT-STRAW. -----------------------+--------+-------+-------+----------------------- | No. 1. | No. 2. |No. 3. | | Green, | | | Obtained in the Dublin |changing| | | Markets. | to | | Over | | yellow. | Ripe. | Ripe. +----------------------- | County |County |County | | | |Kildare. |Dublin. |Dublin. | No. 4. | No. 5. | No. 6. -----------------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- Water | 13·00 | 13·15| 12·14| 10·88| 11·22| 12·12 Flesh-forming | | | | | | principles-- | | | | | | _a. _ Soluble in | | | | | | water | 1·25 | 0·98| 0·44| 0·06| 0·42| 0·30 _b. _ Insoluble in | | | | | | water | 1·26 | 1·40| 1·41| 1·90| 1·00| 1·76 Oil | 1·22 | 1·13| 1·14| 0·90| 1·17| 1·08 Sugar, gum, and other | | | | | | fat-forming matters | 4·18 | 3·98| 3·88| 4·08| 3·89| 4·30 Woody fibre | 75·84 | 76·17| 77·76| 78·67| 79·18| 77·15 Mineral matter (ash) | 3·25 | 3·19| 3·23| 3·51| 3·12| 3·29 +--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- | 100·00 | 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00 -----------------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- The results of these analyses are somewhat different from those arrivedat by Voelcker and Anderson. They show that properly harvested Irishoat and wheat straws are far more valuable than those of Scotland, andsomewhat less nutritive than those produced in England. They alsoshow that wheat-straw is allowed to over-ripen, by which a very largeproportion of its nutritive principles is eliminated and altogetherlost, and a considerable part of the remainder converted into aninsoluble, and therefore less easily digestible state. Nor is there anyadvantage to the grain gained by allowing it to remain uncut after theupper portion of the stem has changed from a green to a yellowish color;on the contrary, it also loses a portion--often a very considerableone--of its nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents. It has beenclearly proved that wheat cut when green, yields a greater amount ofgrain, and of a better quality too, than when it is allowed to ripenfully; yet, how often do we not see fields of wheat in this countryallowed to remain unreaped for many days, and even weeks, after thecrop has attained to its full development! The oat-straw obtained in the Dublin Market proved less valuable thanthe green straw which I selected myself from a field of oats; but thediscrepancy between them was far less than between the nearly ripewheat-straw and the straw of that plant purchased in Dublin. Duringvisits which I have paid in harvest-time to the North of Ireland, Inoticed that the oats were generally cut whilst green, whereas wheat wasalmost invariably left standing for at least a week after its perfectmaturation, probably for the following reasons:--Firstly, becauseoats are more liable to shed their seed; secondly, because there isa greater breadth of that crop to be reaped, which necessitates anearly beginning; and, lastly, because most farmers know that over-ripeoat-straw is worth but little for feeding purposes, as compared withthe greenish-yellow article. As compared with white turnips, the nutritive value of oat-straw standsvery high, for whilst the former contains but little more than 1 percent. Of flesh-formers, and less than 5 per cent. Of fat-formers, thelatter includes about 4 per cent. Of flesh-formers, and 13 per cent. Offat-formers. Again, whilst the amount of woody fibre in turnips is onlyabout 3 per cent. , that substance constitutes no less than 60 per cent. Of oat-straw. In comparison with hay--taking into consideration theprices of both articles--oat-straw also stands high, as will be seenby comparing the following analyses of common meadow hay with that ofproperly harvested straw:-- Meadow Hay. Oat Straw. Water 14·61 14·00 Flesh-forming constituents 8·44 6·17 Respiratory and fatty matters 43·63 15·63 Woody fibre 27·16 59·96 Mineral matter (ash) 6·16 4·24 ------ ------ 100·00 100·00 Woody fibre is as abundant a constituent of the straw of the cerealsas starch is of their seeds, and if the two substances were equallydigestible, straw would be a very valuable food--superior even to thepotato. At one time it was the general belief that woody fibre wasincapable of contributing in the slightest degree to the nutrition ofanimals, but the results of recent investigations prove that it is, to acertain extent, digestible. In the summer of 1859 two German chemists, Stöckhardt and Sussdorf, made a series of experiments, with the viewof ascertaining whether or not the cellulose[30] of the food of thesheep is assimilated by that animal. The results of this inquiry are ofimportance, seeing that they clearly prove that even the hardest kind ofcellulose--_sclerogen_, in fact--is capable of being assimilated by theRuminants. The animals selected were two wethers, aged respectively fiveand six years. They were fed--firstly, upon hay alone; secondly, uponhay and rye-straw; thirdly upon hay and the sawdust of poplar wood, which had been exhausted with lye (to induce the sheep to eat thesawdust, it was found necessary to mix through it some rye-bran and alittle salt); fourthly, hay and pine-wood sawdust, to which was addedbran and salt; fifthly, spruce sawdust, bran and salt; sixthly, hay, pulp of linen rags (from the paper-maker), and bran. The experimentswere carried on from July till November, excepting a short time, duringwhich the animals were turned out on pasture-land, to recover from theinjurious effects of the fifth series of experiments--produced probablyby the resin of the spruce. The animals, together with their food, drink, and egesta, were weighed daily. The amount of cellulose in thefood was determined, and the proportion of that substance in the egestawas also ascertained; and as there was a considerable discrepancybetween the two amounts, it was evident that the difference representedthe weight of the cellulose assimilated by the animals. In this way itwas ascertained that from 60 to 70 per cent. Of the cellulose of hay, 40 to 60 per cent. Of the cellulose of straw, 45 to 50 per cent. Of thecellulose of the poplar wood, 30 to 40 per cent. Of the cellulose of thepine, and 80 per cent. Of the cellulose of the paper pulp was digested. In stating the results of his analyses of the straws, Professor Voelckersets down as "digestible" that portion of the cellulose which he foundto be soluble in dilute acids and alkaline solutions; but he admits thatthe solvents in the stomach might dissolve a larger amount. The resultsof the experiments of Stöckhardt and Sussdorf prove that 80 per cent. Ofthe cellulose of paper (the altered fibre of flax) is assimilable, andit is, therefore, not unreasonable to infer that the cellulose of a morepalatable substance than paper might be altogether digestible. The facts which I have adduced clearly prove that the straws of thecereals possess a far higher nutritive power than is commonly ascribedto them; that when properly harvested they contain from 20 to 40 percent. Of undoubted nutriment; and lastly, that it is highly probablethat their so-called indigestible woody fibre is to a great extentassimilable. The composition of cellulose is nearly, if not quite, identical withthat of starch, and it may therefore be assumed to be equal in nutritivepower to that substance--that is, it will, if assimilated, be convertedinto four-tenths of its weight of fat. Now as cellulose forms fromsix-tenths to eight-tenths of the weight of straws, it is evident thatif the whole of this substance were digestible, straws would be anexceedingly valuable fattening food. When straw in an unprepared stateis consumed, there is no doubt but that a large proportion of itscellulose remains unappropriated--nay more, it is equally certain thatthe hard woody fibre protects, by enveloping them, the soluble andeasily digestible constituents of the straw from the action of the_gastric juice_. I would, therefore, recommend that straw should beeither cooked or fermented before being made use of; in either of thesestates its constituents are far more digestible than when the strawis merely cut, or even when it is in the form of chaff. An excellentmode of treating straw is to reduce it to chaff, subject it to theaction of steam, and mix it with roots and oil-cake or corn. Mr. Lawrence, of Cirencester, one of the most intelligent agriculturistsin England, cooks his chaff, which he largely employs, in the followingmanner:--"We find that, taking a score of bullocks together fattening, they consume, per head per diem, 3 bushels of chaff mixed with just halfa hundred-weight of pulped roots, exclusive of cake or corn; that is tosay, rather more than 2 bushels of chaff are mixed with the roots, andgiven at two feeds, morning and evening, and the remainder is givenwith the cake, &c. , at the middle day feed, thus:--We use the steamingapparatus of Stanley, of Peterborough, consisting of a boiler in thecentre, in which the steam is generated, and which is connected by apipe on the left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle forsteaming food for pigs, and on the right with a large wooden tub linedwith copper, in which the cake, mixed with water, is made into a thicksoup. Adjoining this is a slate tank of sufficient size to contain onefeed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding. Into this tank is laidchaff, about one foot deep, upon which a few ladles of soup are thrownin a _boiling state_; this is thoroughly mixed with the chaff with athree-grained fork, and pressed down firm; and this process is repeateduntil the slate tank is full, when it is covered down for an hour or twobefore feeding time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed by thechaff, which has become softened, and prepared for ready digestion. "A cheap plan is to mix the straw with sliced roots, moisten the masswith water, and allow it to remain until a slight fermentation has setin. This process effectually softens and disintegrates, so to speak, thewoody fibre, and sets free the stores of nutritious matters which itenvelopes. Some farmers who hold straw in high estimation, prefer givingit just as it comes from the field; they base this practice on thebelief that Ruminants require a bulky and solid food, and that theirdigestive powers are quite sufficient to effect the solution of all theuseful constituents of the straw. It may be quite true that cattle, asasserted, can extract more nutriment out of straw than horses can, butthat merely proves the greater power of their digestive organs. No doubtthe food of the Ruminants should be bulky; but I am quite sure thatcooked or fermented straw is sufficiently so to satisfy the desire ofthose animals for quantity in their food. So far as I can learn, all the carefully conducted feeding experimentsto test the value of straw which have been made, have yielded resultshighly favorable to that article. Mr. Blundell, in a paper on "The Useand Abuse of Straw, " read before the Botley (Hampshire) Farmer's Club, states that in his experience he found straw to be more economical thanits equivalent of roots or oil-cake, in the feeding of all kinds ofcattle:-- I find (says Mr. Blundell) that dairy cows, in the winter months, if fed on large quantities of roots, particularly mangels and carrots, will refuse to eat straw almost entirely, and become very lean; but they will always eat a full portion of sweet, well-harvested straw, when they get a small and moderate allowance of roots, say, for an ordinary-sized cow, 15 lbs. Of mangel three times per day, the roots being given whole, just in the state they come from the store heap. Again, calves and yearlings being fed with roots in the same way, will eat a large quantity of straw, and when they have been kept under cover I have had them in first-rate condition for many years past. Also, in fattening beasts, when they get a fair allowance of roots, say 65 to 70 lbs. Per day, with from 3 to 4 lbs. Of cake or meal in admixture, they will eat straw with great avidity, and do well upon it, and make a profit. It is, however, often the case that bullocks receive 100 lbs. , or upwards, of roots per day, with a large quantity of cake or meal, often 10 or 12 lbs. Per day; they will not then look at straw, and are obliged to be fed with hay. The cost price of these quantities and kinds of food stands so high that the animals do not yield a profit; for although they may make meat a little faster, yet the proportionate increase is nothing compared to the increased cost of the feeding materials used. Mr. Blundell gives us also the tabulated results of one of hisexperiments, which prove that by the use of straw there is to beobtained something more than manure by the feeding of stock:-- COST OF FEEDING AN OX PER WEEK WITH STRAW, ETC. , ACCORDING TO MR. BLUNDELL. s. D. 4 lbs. Of oil-cake per day, or 38 lbs. Per week, at £10 per ton 2 6 64 lbs. Of roots ditto, or 4 cwt. Ditto, at 13s. 4d. Ditto 2 8 20 lbs. Of straw feeding, or 1-1/4 cwt. Ditto, at 30s. Ditto 1 10-1/2 20 lbs. Of straw litter, or 1-1/4 cwt. Ditto, at 15s. Ditto 0 11 Attendance, &c. , per week 0 1 ---------- 8 0-1/2 Deduct value of manure, per week 1 3-1/2 ---------- 6 9 Increased value of ox per week 10 0 Deduct cost of feeding 6 9 ---------- 3 3 If we now turn to the study of the composition of straw regarded froman economic point of view, we shall find that the theoretical deductionstherefrom harmonise with the results of actual feeding experiments. Letus assume that 100 parts of oat-straw contain on an average-- 1 part of oil, 4 parts of flesh-formers, 10 parts of sugar, gum, and other fat-formers, and 30 parts of digestible fibre; and if the price of the straw be 30s. Per ton, we shall have at thatcost the following quantities of digestible substances:-- ONE TON OF OAT-STRAW, AT 30s. , CONTAINS:-- lbs. [31] Oil 22·4 Flesh-forming principles 89·6 Sugar, gum, and other fat-forming substances 224·0 Digestible fibre 672·0 ------- 1, 008·0 [32] Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch 952·0 Add flesh-formers 89·6 ------- Total amount of nutritive matter 1, 041·6 We shall now compare this table with a similar one in relation to thecomposition of linseed cake, which will place the greater comparativevalue of straw in a clearer light. A fair sample of linseed-cake contains, centesimally-- Flesh-formers 26 Oil 12 Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c. 34 Woody fibre 6 ONE TON OF LINSEED CAKE, AT £11, CONTAINS:-- lbs. Flesh-forming principles 582·4 Oil 268·8 Gum, sugar, and other fat-formers 761·6 Woody fibre 74·4 ------- 1, 687·2 Total amount of fat-formers, calculated as starch 1, 508·0 Add flesh-formers 582·4 ------- Total amount of nutriment 2, 090·4 These comparisons are very instructive and important. We learn fromthem that we pay £11 for 2, 000 lbs. Of nutriment, when we purchase aton of linseed-cake, whereas, when we invest 30s. In a ton of straw, wereceive 1, 000 lbs. Of digestible aliment. It cannot be said that I havestrained any points in favour of the straw; on the contrary, I believethat when that article is cut in proper season and well harvested, its composition will be found far superior to that detailed in thecomparative analysis. It must be borne in mind, too, that I take noaccount of the 30 per cent. Of the so-called indigestible woody fibrewhich straw contains, and which, I believe, is partly assimilableunder ordinary circumstances, and could be rendered nearly altogetherdigestible by proper treatment; on the other hand, I have assumed thatthe woody fibre of the oil-cake is completely digestible, althoughI believe it is in reality less so than the fibre of straw. It is an important point in the composition of oil-cakes, that theycontain a large proportion of ready-formed fatty matters which can, with but little alteration, be at once transmuted into animal fat. There are some individuals of the genus _Homo_ to whose stomachs fat, _per se_, is intolerable; nevertheless, as a general rule, fattysubstances exercise a favorable influence in the process of digestion, and, either in a separate state, or intimately commingled with otheraliments, constitute a large proportion of the food of man. Digestion inthe lower animals is, no doubt, similarly promoted by mixing with thealiments which are to be subjected to that process, a due proportion ofoily or fatty matter. Straw is relatively deficient in the flesh-formingprinciples, and abounds in the fat-forming elements--of which, however, the most valuable, oil, is the least abundant. Now, if we add to strawa due proportion of some substance very rich in flesh-formers and oil, the compound will possess in nicely adjusted proportions all theelements of nutrition. Perhaps the best kind of food which we couldemploy for this purpose is linseed meal. It contains about 24 percent. Of flesh-formers, 35 per cent. Of a very bland oil, and 24 percent. Of gum, sugar, and mucilage. Linseed-cake may be substituted forlinseed-meal; but the meal, though its cost is 15 per cent. Greater, is, I believe, rather the better article of the two. Its flesh-formers aremore soluble, and its oil thrice more abundant and far more palatablethan the same principles in most samples of oil-cake. An importantpoint, too, is, that linseed, unlike linseed-cake, is not liable toadulteration. As linseed possesses laxative properties it cannot belargely employed; the addition, however, of bean-meal--the bindingtendency of which is well known--to a diet partly composed of linseedwill neutralise, so to speak, the relaxing influence of the oily seed. If oil-cakes be used as an adjunct to straw, rape-cake will be foundmore economical than linseed-cake. If it be free from mustard, wellsteamed, and flavored with a little treacle, or a small quantity oflocust-beans, it will be readily consumed, and even relished, by dairyand fattening stock. _Hay. _--There is no food substance more variable or more complex thanhay, for under that term are included, not only mixtures of grasses, but also of leguminous plants--clover, for example. The herbage of notwo meadows is exactly alike; and the composition of the meadow plantsis so greatly modified by differences of climate, soil, and mode ofculture, that we have nothing to excite our wonder in the extremevariability of hay. The composition of the hay made from clover, lucerne, and various otherkinds of artificial grasses, is shown in the table--which is based onthe results of Way's analyses:-- COMPOSITION OF THE HAY OF ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. +------------------------------------------- | KEY: | A. --Flesh-forming Substances. | B. --Fatty Matters. | C. --Respiratory Substances. | D. --Woody Fibre. | E. --Ash. | F. --Water. -----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+----- | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. +-------+------+-------+-------+------+----- Trifolium pratense-- | | | | | | Red clover | 18·79 | 3·06 | 37·06 | 16·46 | 7·97 | 16·6 Trifolium pratense perenne-- | | | | | | Purple clover | 15·98 | 3·41 | 35·35 | 21·63 | 6·96 | " Trifolium incarnatum-- | | | | | | Crimson clover | 13·83 | 3·11 | 31·25 | 26·99 | 8·15 | " Trifolium medium-- | | | | | | Cowgrass | 20·27 | 2·97 | 30·30 | 20·12 | 9·67 | " Do. , second specimen | 15·64 | 3·98 | 41·38 | 15·70 | 6·64 | " Trifolium procumbens-- | | | | | | Hop trefoil | 17·07 | 3·89 | 36·55 | 18·88 | 6·94 | " Trifolium repens-- | | | | | | White trefoil | 15·63 | 3·65 | 33·37 | 22·11 | 8·57 | " Vicia sativa-- | | | | | | Common Vetch | 19·68 | 2·55 | 32·87 | 22·82 | 5·42 | " Vicia sepium-- | | | | | | Bush vetch | 19·23 | 2·40 | 27·62 | 25·87 | 8·21 | " Onobrychis sativa-- | | | | | | Sainfoin | 15·38 | 2·51 | 38·30 | 20·59 | 6·56 | " Medicago sativa-- | | | | | | Lucerne | 10·63 | 2·30 | 33·47 | 28·51 | 8·42 | " Medicago lupulina-- | | | | | | Yellow clover | 20·50 | 3·38 | 27·76 | 22·66 | 9·03 | " Plantago lanceolata-- | | | | | | Rib grass | 11·91 | 3·06 | 33·58 | 27·56 | 7·23 | " Poterium sanguisorba-- | | | | | | Burnet | 13·96 | 3·34 | 39·50 | 19·89 | 6·64 | " Achillea millefolium-- | | | | | | Millefoil | 8·62 | 2·09 | 37·88 | 27·24 | 7·50 | " +-------+------+-------+-------+------+----- Mean | 15·81 | 3·18 | 34·42 | 22·47 | 7·59 | 16·6 -----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+----- Very many analyses of hay have been made by British and Continentalchemists, the results of which are of great interest to theagriculturist. The composition of the natural and artificial grasses, which is shown in the tables given in pages 158-9 will, if we reducetheir per-centage of water to 16, give us an approximation to thecomposition of hay. If the herbage, too, be sown in the proper time, andthe hay-making process be skilfully conducted, there will be but littledifference, except in the amount of water, between the plants in theirfresh and dry state; but owing to inopportune wet weather, andcarelessness in manipulation, excellent herbage is not unfrequentlyconverted into inferior hay. According to Dr. Voelcker, the average composition of meadow-hay, asdeduced from the results of twenty-five analyses, is as follows:-- Water 14·61 Flesh-forming constituents 8·44 Respiratory and fatty matters 43·63 Woody fibre 27·16 Mineral matter (ash) 6·16 ------ 100·00 Dr. Anderson's analysis of meadow-hay, one year old, and of inferiorquality, gave the following results:-- Water 13·13 Flesh-forming matters 4·00 Non-nitrogenous substances 77·61 Mineral matter 5·26 ------ 100·00 The results of the investigations of Way prove that the herbage ofwater-grass meadows is more nutritious than that of dry meadows--resultsperfectly harmonious with the experience of practical men. It is a somewhat general belief, that the aftermath, or second cutting, is less nutritious than the first cutting; but there appears to be nochemical difference between the two crops, provided they be saved underequally favorable conditions. According to Dr. Anderson, the compositionof clover-hay of the second cutting is as follows:-- Water 16·84 Flesh-forming principles 13·52 Non-nitrogenous matters 64·43 Mineral matter (ash) 5·21 ------ 100·00 I have already shown the importance of reaping in proper season--notless necessary is it to mow before the plants ripen fully, and evenbefore they flower. The results of the experiments of Stöckhardt, Hellreigel, and Wolff, in relation to this point, are very interesting, and are well worthy of reproduction here. RESULTS OF STÖCKHARDT'S AND HELLREIGEL'S EXPERIMENTS. --------------------------+-----------------------++----------------------- | Stem. || Leaves. +-------+---------------||-------+--------------- | | Hay. || | Hay. | Water +--------+------|| Water +--------+------ | in |Flesh- | || in |Flesh- | | Fresh |forming | Ash. || Fresh |forming | Ash. | Plant. |Matters. | || Plant. |Matters. | +-------+--------+------||-------+--------+------ Clover cut on the | | | || | | 4th June, quite young | 82·80 | 13·16 | 9·71 || 83·50 | 27·17 | 9·42 23rd " ready for cutting| 81·72 | 12·72 | 9·00 || 82·68 | 27·69 | 9·00 9th July, beginning to | | | || | | flower | 82·41 | 12·40 | 6·12 || 77·77 | 15·83 | 10·46 29th July, full flower | 78·30 | 9·28 | 4·63 || 70·80 | 19·20 | 9·58 21st August, ripe | 69·40 | 6·75 | 4·82 || 65·70 | 18·94 | 12·33 --------------------------+-------+--------+------++-------+--------+------ RESULTS OF WOLFF'S EXPERIMENT. -------------+------------------------------++----------------------------- | Red Clover. || Alsike Clover. +--------------+---------------++---------------+------------- | Beginning | Full || Beginning | Full | to flower, | flower, || to flower, | flower, | 11th June. | 25th June. || 23rd June. | 29th June. +--------------+---------------++-------+-------+------+------ |Fresh. | Hay. | Fresh. | Hay. || Fresh. | Hay. |Fresh. | Hay. +------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+------+------ | pct. | pct. | pct. | pct. || pct. | pct. | pct. | pct. Water | 83·07| 16·66 | 76·41 | 10·66 || 86·98 | 16·66 | 82·60| 16·66 Ash | 1·43| 7·04 | 1·67 | 5·90 || 1·12 | 7·17 | 1·45| 6·94 Woody fibre | 4·24| 20·87 | 8·88 | 37·37 || 3·79 | 24·26 | 5·11| 24·47 Nutritive | | | | || | | | substances | 11·26| 55·43 | 13·04 | 46·07 || 8·11 | 51·91 | 10·84| 51·93 -------------+------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+------+------ During the operation of converting the grass--"natural" or"artificial"--into hay, there is more or less loss of nutritive mattersustained by fermentation, the dispersion of the smaller leaves by thewind, and other agencies. But this unavoidable loss is trivial whencompared with the prodigious waste sustained, in Ireland at least, byallowing the hay to remain too long in cocks in the field. "Within thelast three or four years, " says Mr. Baldwin, of the Glasnevin AlbertModel Farm, "we have made agricultural tours through twenty-five ofthe thirty-two counties of Ireland; and from careful considerationof the subject, and having in some instances used a tape-line andweighing-machine to assist our judgment, we have come to the conclusionthat one-twentieth of the hay-crop of Ireland is permitted to rotin field-cocks. The portion on the ground, as well as that on theoutside of the cocks, is too often only fit for manure. And the lossof aftermath, and of the subsequent year's crop (if hay or pasture), suffers to the extent of from sixpence to one shilling per acre. If weunite all these sources, the loss sustained annually in this country issomething serious to contemplate. On an average, for all Ireland, it isnot under 20 per cent. , or a fifth of the actual value of the crop. "This is a startling statement; but I do not believe it to be anexaggeration of the actual state of things. _Damaged Hay and Straw. _--Damaged corn and potatoes, so much injured asto be unfit for human food, are generally given, and with apparentlygood results, to the inferior animals. The "meat manufacturingmachines, " as the edible varieties of the domesticated animals are nowgenerally termed, are not very dainty in their choice of food; andvegetable substances which would excite the disgust of the lords of thecreation are rendered nutritious and agreeable by being reorganised inthe mechanisms of oxen, sheep, and pigs. Now, although it is pretty generally known that musty corn anddiseased potatoes form good feeding stuffs, it is not so patent whetheror not the natural food of stock, such as hay and straw in a diseasedstate, is proper food for those animals. This question is worthy ofconsideration. Firstly, I shall describe the nature of the diseaseswhich most frequently affect fodder; these are, "mildew" and "mould. "These diseases are produced by the ravages of minute and very low formsof vegetable life, termed by the botanists _epiphytical fungi_. Themildew (_Puccinia graminis_) generally attacks the grasses when they aregrowing, and is more frequently met with on rich and heavily manuredsoils. In localities where heavy night-fogs and dews are of commonoccurrence, this pest often destroys whole crops. On the other hand, inlight, sandy, and well-drained soils, and in warm and dry districts, the mildew is a rare visitant. The "blue mould" (_Aspergillis glaucus_)attacks hay and straw in the stack or rick, and without any regard totheir origin--no matter whether they were the produce of the wettest orthe dryest, the warmest or the coldest of soils. The chief conditionin the existence of the blue mould is excessive moisture. If the hay orstraw be too green and succulent when put up, or if rain get at themin the rick, the mould is very likely to make its appearance, and thewell-known odor termed _musty_ will speedily be developed. Neither the mildew nor the mould can, strictly speaking, be regarded asparasites, such as, for example, the flax-dodder, which feeds upon thehealthy juices of the plant to which it is attached. It appears to methat the tissues and juices of the fodder-plants decay _first_, and thenthe mould or the mildew appears and feeds upon the decomposing matter. Now, as these vegetables belong to a poisonous class of fungi, it ismore than probable that they convert the decomposing substance of thestraw or hay into unwholesome, if not poisonous matter; and it is notunlikely but that the disagreeable odor which they evolve is designed bynature as a sign to the lower animals not to partake of mouldy food. There is no doubt but that most animals will instinctively reject fodderin this state; and the question arises, ought this odour to be destroyedor disguised, in order to induce the animals to eat the damaged stuff?The experience of most feeders who have largely consumed mouldy provenderis, that although cattle may be induced to eat it, they never thriveupon such stuff if it form a heavy item in their diet. The reason ofthis is obvious. The nitrogenous portion of the straw is that which ischiefly assimilated by the fungi. And as this constituent is the onewhich contributes to the formation of muscle, and is naturally extremelydeficient in straw and hay--more particularly the former--it followsthat the animals fed upon mouldy fodder cannot elaborate it into leanflesh (muscle). In the case of young stock, mouldy fodder is altogether inadmissible, for these animals require abundance of flesh-forming materials--preciselythose which the fungi almost completely remove from the diseased fodder. As large quantities of mouldy or mildewed provender are at the presentmoment to be found in many farmsteads, and as they are unsaleable, and must therefore be made use of in some way at home, it is well toconsider the best way to dispose of them. In the case of straw, thegreater portion will be required for litter, and if the whole of thedamaged article can be disposed of in this way so much the better. If, however, there is more than is necessary for the bedding of the stock, it may be used in conjunction with sound fodder, but always in a cookedstate. The greater part, if not the whole, of the diseased nitrogenouspart of the straw is soluble in warm water, so that if the fodder bewell steamed the poisonous matter will be eliminated to such an extentas to leave the article almost as wholesome as good straw, but not sonutritious. The straw cleansed in this way will be very deficient inflesh-forming, though not in fat-forming power, and this fact shouldbe duly considered when the other items of the animal's food arebeing weighed out. Beans, malt-combs, and linseed-cake are rich inmuscle-forming principles, and are consequently suitable adjuncts todamaged fodder; but the latter should never constitute the staple food, or be given unmixed with some sweet provender. When the fodder is considerably damaged it becomes, after steaming, nearly as tasteless as sawdust. To this kind of stuff the addition of asmall amount of some flavorous material is very useful. For damaged hay, Mr. Bowick recommends the following mixture:-- Fenugreek (powdered) 112 parts. Pimento 4 " Aniseed 4 " Caraways 4 " Cummin 2 " A pinch of this compound will render agreeably-flavored the most insipidkinds of fodder. Mr. Bowick states that he had fed large numbers of bullocks on damagedhay, flavored with this compound, and that their health was not therebyinjured in the slightest degree. SECTION V. ROOTS AND TUBERS. The important part which the so-called root crops play in the modernsystems of agriculture, has secured for them a large share of theattention of the chemist, so that our knowledge of their compositionand relative nutritive value is very extensive. As compared with mostother articles of food, the roots, as they are popularly called, ofpotatoes, turnips, mangels, carrots, and such like plants, contain ahigh proportion of water, and are not very nutritious; indeed, with theexception of the potato, none of them contain 20 per cent. Of solidmatter, and some not more than five per cent. They are, however, easilyproduced in great quantities, which compensates for their low nutritivevalue. I shall consider each of the more important roots separately. _The Turnip. _--There are numerous varieties of this plant, which differfrom each other in the relative proportions and total amount of theirconstituents, and even in different individuals of the same varietythere is considerable variation in composition; hence the difficultywhich has been felt by those who have endeavored to assign to this plantits relative nutritive value. From the average results of a great numberof experiments, conducted both in the laboratory and the feeding-house, it is concluded that turnips are the most inferior roots produced in thefield. The Swedish turnips are the most valuable kind: they contain ahigher proportion of solid matter than the other varieties, and they arefirmer and store better. The average composition of five varieties ofturnips, as deduced from the results of the analyses of Anderson andVoelcker, is shown in the following table:-- ANALYSES OF TURNIPS. ----------------------------+-------+-------+--------+---------+------- |Swedish| White |Aberdeen|Purpletop|Norfolk |Turnip. | Globe. |Yellows. |Yellows. |Bell. +-------+-------+--------+---------+------- Water | 89·460| 90·430| 90·578| 91·200 | 92·280 Albuminous, or | | | | | flesh-forming substances | 1·443| 1·143| 1·802| 1·117 | 1·737 Non-nitrogenous, or | | | | | fat-forming substances | | | | | (fat, gum, sugar, &c. ) | 5·932| 5·457| 4·622| 4·436 | 2·962 Woody fibre | 2·542| 2·342| 2·349| 2·607 | 2·000 Mineral matter (ash) | 0·623| 0·628| 0·649| 0·640 | 1·021 +-------+-------+--------+---------+------- |100·000|100·000| 100·000| 100·000 |100·000 ----------------------------+-------+-------+--------+---------+------- The _Greystone Turnip_ is a variety which has only quite recently beenintroduced. It is stated to be an uncommonly productive crop, usuallyyielding returns from 30 to 50 per cent. Greater than those obtainedfrom other varieties of the turnip. The composition of the Greystoneturnip appears to be inferior, so that probably it is not, after all, a more economical plant than the ordinary kinds of turnips. DR. ANDERSON'S ANALYSIS OF THE GREYSTONE TURNIP. No. 1. No. 2. Grown on Clay. Grown on Sand. Water 93·84 94·12 Oil 0·26 0·34 Soluble albuminous matters 0·35 0·56 Insoluble ditto 0·20 0·18 Soluble respiratory matters 2·99 2·32 Insoluble ditto (chiefly fibre) 1·73 1·85 Ash 0·63 0·63 ------ ------ 100·00 100·00 It was at one time the fashion--not yet become quite obsolete--to regardthe proportion of nitrogen in the turnip as the measure of the nutritivevalue of the bulb; but the fallacy of this opinion has been shown byseveral late investigators, and more particularly by the results ofone of the numerous series of feeding experiments conducted by Mr. Lawes. Many bulbs exceedingly rich in nitrogen are very deficientin nutritive power--partly from a deficiency in the other elements ofnutrition--partly because most of their nitrogen is in so low a degreeof elaboration as to be incapable of assimilation by animals. The valueof a food-substance does not merely depend upon the amount and therelative proportion of its constituents, but also, and to a very greatextent, upon their easy assimilability. There is but little doubt thatthe nutritive matters contained in the Swedish turnip when the bulb isfresh are very crude. By storing, certain chemical changes take placein the bulb, which render it more nutritious and palatable. A largeproportion of the non-nitrogenous matters exist in the fresh root aspectin; but this substance, if the bulb be preserved for a couple ofmonths, becomes in great part converted into sugar, which is one of themost palatable and fattening ingredients of cattle-food. By storing, too, the bulbs lose a portion of their excessive amount of water, andbecome less bulky, which is unquestionably a desideratum. These factssuggest the necessity for cultivating the earlier varieties of theturnip, for it may be fairly doubted if a late-grown crop, leftfor consumption in the field, ever, even under the most favorablecircumstances, attains its perfect development. At the same time itmust not be forgotten that turnips _fully matured_ in the field ratherdeteriorate than otherwise after a few weeks' storage. Many agriculturists consider that there is a strict relation between thespecific gravity, or comparative weight of the bulb, and its nutritivevalue; others believe that a very large turnip must necessarily beinferior in feeding qualities to a small one; whilst not a few maintainthat neither its size nor its specific gravity is an indication of itsfeeding qualities. Dr. Anderson, who has specially investigated aportion of this subject, states that "the specific gravity of the wholeturnip cannot be accepted as indicating its real nutritive value, theproportion of air in the cells being the determining element in suchresults; that there is no constant relation between the specific gravityof, and the nitrogen compounds in, the bulb; and that such relationdoes exist between the specific gravity of the expressed juice andthe nitrogen compounds and solid constituents. " Dr. Anderson allows, however, that the best varieties of the turnip have the highest specificgravity; which admission--coupled with the fact admitted by allexperimenters that the heavy roots store best--lead me to adopt theopinions of those who consider great specific gravity as one of thefavorable indications of its nutritive value. With respect to size, I prefer bulbs of moderate dimensions; the monsters that win the prizesat our agricultural shows--and which, in general, are _forced_--areinferior in feeding qualities, are always _spongy_, and almostinvariably rot when stored. The composition of the turnip is influenced not only by the nature ofthe soil on which it is grown, but also by that of the manure appliedto it. The most reliable authorities are agreed that turnips raised onPeruvian guano are watery, and do not keep well; but that with a mixtureof Peruvian guano and superphosphate of lime, with phospho-guano, orwith farmyard manure supplemented with a moderate amount of guano, themost nutritious and firm bulbs are produced. Turnip-tops have been analysed by Voelcker, with the followingresults:-- ONE HUNDRED PARTS CONTAIN-- White. Swedish. Water 91·284 88·367 Nitrogen compounds 2·456 2·087 Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, &c. ) 0·648 1·612 Ditto, as woody fibre 4·092 5·638 Mineral matter 1·520 2·296 ------- ------- 100·000 100·000 These figures apparently show that the tops of turnips are morevaluable than their bulbs; but, in the absence of any feedingexperiments made to determine the point, we believe they are less so, as a very large proportion of the solid matter in the tops of turnipsis in too low a degree of elaboration to be assimilable. Their highproportions of nitrogen and mineral matter constitute them, however, a very useful manure--nearly twice as valuable as the bulbs; thisfact should be borne in mind when turnips are sold off the land. _The Mangel-wurtzel_ is one of the most valuable of our green crops. Its root is more nutritious than the turnip, occupying a position inthe scale of food equivalents midway between that bulb and the parsnip. Mangels, when fresh, possess a somewhat acrid taste, and act as alaxative when given to stock; but after a few months' storing theybecome sweet and palatable, and their _scouring_ property completelydisappears. Although the mangel is one of the most nutritious articles of foodwhich can be given to cattle, yet it is stated on the best authoritythat sheep do not thrive upon it. Voelcker, who has investigated thissubject, informs us that a lot of sheep which he fed on a limitedquantity of hay and an unlimited quantity of mangels, did not, during aperiod of four months, increase in weight, whilst another lot of sheepsupplied with a small quantity of hay, and Swedish turnips _ad libitum_increased on an average 2-1/2 lbs. Weekly. I believe the experience ofthe greater number of feeders agrees with the results of Dr. Voelcker'sexperiment. The chemistry of the mangel-wurtzel has been thoroughly studied by Wayand Ogston, Fromberg, Wolff, Anderson, and Voelcker. According to thelast-named chemist, its average composition is as follows:-- Water 87·78 Flesh-forming matters 1·54 Sugar 6·10 Gum, pectin, &c. 2·50 Woody fibre 1·12 Mineral matter (ash) 0·96 ------ 100·00 It is difficult to accurately determine by a comparative trial therelative feeding properties of mangels and turnips, for the formerare only in a fit state to be given to the animals when the latterare deteriorating. However, by comparing the composition of the twosubstances, and the results obtained from numerous feeding experiments, it would appear, that on the average 75 lbs. Weight of mangels are equalto 100 lbs. Weight of turnips. Of the different varieties of the mangelthe long yellow appears to be the most nutritious, and the long red theleast so. The leaves of the mangel--some of which are occasionally pulled and usedfor feeding purposes, during the growth of the bulb--are an excellentfeeding substance: their composition indicates a nutritive value butlittle inferior to that of the root; but as their constituents cannot bein a highly elaborated condition, it is probable they are not more thanequal to half their weight of the bulbs. One _questio vexata_ of the many which at present occupy the attentionof the agricultural world is, whether or not the leaves of mangels maybe removed with advantage during the latter part of the development ofthe plants. This practice prevailed rather extensively a few years since, but latterly it has fallen somewhat into disuse. Those who adopt this plan urge, as its advantages, that a large quantityof food is obtained at a time when it is urgently needed, and thatinstead of the removal of the leaves exercising an injurious influenceon the development of the roots, the latter are actually increased insize. In 1859 an experimental investigation was carried out at the GlasnevinModel Farm, with the view of throwing new light on the question. Theoutside leaves were very gradually removed on different occasions--fromthe 12th August to the 15th October. In this way five tons of leaves perstatute acre were removed, and subsequently made use of for feedingpurposes. The experiment was conducted on a field of four acres, ofwhich the produce of 12 drills, each 200 yards in length, was leftuntouched. The result was that the produce of the roots of the untouchedplants was only 40 tons 8 cwt. 6 qrs. Per acre, whilst the roots of theplants which had been partly denuded of their leaves weighed at the rateof 45 tons 1 cwt. This experiment afforded results which are apparentlyfavorable to the practice of stripping the leaves; but it is to beregretted that it was not rendered more complete by an analysis of theroots, as a great bulk of roots does not necessarily imply a greatweight of dry food, and it is just possible, though not very probable, that the roots of the stripped mangels contained a larger proportion ofwater than those of the untouched plants. The results of the experiments of Buckman, and of Professor Wolff, ofthe Royal Agricultural College at Hohenheim, are at direct variance withthose obtained at Glasnevin. Both of these experimenters found that theremoval of the leaves occasioned a diminution in the produce of theroots to the amount of 20 per cent. Nor was this the only loss, for itwas found by the German professor that the roots of the untouched plantspossessed a far higher nutritive value than those of the strippedmangels. When doctors differ, who is to decide? Here we have high authorities inthe agricultural world at direct variance on a matter of fact. The namesof Buckman and Wolff are a sufficient guarantee that the experimentalresults which they announce are trustworthy, and I can testify, fromobservation, that no field experiments could be more carefully conductedthan those carried out at the Albert Model Farm. We can only, then, under the circumstances, admit that both Mr. Boyle, on the one side, and Professors Buckman and Wolff on the other, are correct in theirstatements of fact; but as it is evident both cannot be right in thegeneral inferences therefrom, it is desirable that the subject should bestill further investigated, and the truth be placed beyond doubt. It isa question which appears so simple that one is at a loss to account forthe discrepant opinions in relation to it which prevail. "Let nothinginduce the growers, " says Mr. Paget, in a paper on the cultivation ofthe mangel, "to strip the leaves from the plant before taking up theroot. A series of careful experiments has convinced me that by so doingwe borrow food at a most usurious interest. " "Although, " says Mr. Boyle, "the practice of stripping has been followed for many years on the farmwithout any perceptible injury to the crop, these results, showing soconsiderable an addition to the crop from taking off the leaves, werehardly anticipated. " It certainly does appear somewhat at variance withour notion of the functions of the leaves of plants, that their partialremoval could possibly cause an increase in the weight of the roots;but granting such to be the fact, it is not altogether _theoretically_inexplicable. We know that highly nitrogenous manure has a tendency toincrease the development of the leaves of turnips at the _expense_ ofthe roots. Gardeners, too, not unfrequently remove some of the buds fromtheir fruit trees, lest the excessive development of foliage shouldretard or check the _growth_ of the fruit. _Theoretically_ an excessivedevelopment of the leaves of the mangel may be inimical to the growthof the root. Probably, too, it may be urged, the outer leaves, whichsoon become partially disorganised and incapable of elaborating mineralmatter into vegetable products, prevent the access of light to the morevigorous inner leaves. In conclusion, I may say of this subject that itis worthy of further elucidation; and I would suggest to my readers, and more especially to the managers of the various model farms, thedesirability of fully testing the matter. The _White Beet_ is a congener of the mangel. It is largely grown on thecontinent as a sugar-producing plant, but is seldom cultivated in thesecountries. It produces about 15 tons of roots per acre, and its roots onthe average contain-- Water 83·0 Sugar 10·0 Flesh-formers 2·5 Fat-formers 1·5 Fibre 2·0 Ash 1·0 ----- 100·0 This plant is deserving of more extensive growth in Great Britain. The _Parsnip_ is, after the potato, the most valuable of roots. Itdiffers from the turnip and the mangel in containing a high proportionof starch, and but little sugar; and its flesh-forming constituents arelargely made up of casein, instead of, as in the case of the turnip, albumen. The average composition of the parsnip is as follows:-- Water 82·00 Flesh-forming principles 1·30 Fat-formers (starch, sugar, &c. ) 7·75 Woody fibre 8·00 Mineral matter (ash) 0·95 ------ 100·00 The parsnip is extensively grown in many foreign countries, onaccount of its valuable feeding properties. As a field-crop it is butlittle cultivated in Great Britain, and its use is--if we except thetable--almost restricted to pigs. Its food equivalent is about doublethat of the turnip; that is, one pound of parsnips is equal to twopounds of turnips. The _Carrot_ bears a close resemblance to the parsnip, from which, however, it differs, containing no starch, and being somewhat inferiorin nutritive value. According to Voelcker, its average composition isas follows:-- Water 88·50 Flesh-formers 0·60 Fat-formers (including woody fibre) 10·18 Mineral matter (ash) 0·72 ------ 100·00 As carrots contain a high proportion of fat-forming matters, and a lowper-centage of flesh-forming substances, they are better adapted forfattening purposes. Dairy stock greedily eat them; and they are givenwith great advantage to horses out of condition. _Kohl-Rabi. _--This plant, though early introduced into the agricultureof these countries, has made but little progress in the estimationof the farmer. It belongs to the order and genus which include theturnip, but differs widely from that plant in its mode of growth. Itsbulb--which is formed by an enormous development of the overgroundstem--is, according to some authorities, less liable than the turnipto injury from frost. It is subject to no diseases, save anbury andclubbing; and, owing to its position above the soil, it can be readilyeaten off by sheep. The bulbs store better than Swedes, and, accordingto some farmers, keep even better than mangels. With respect to theflavor of this bulb, there is some difference of opinion. ProfessorWilson, of Edinburgh, quotes several eminent feeders to prove that"whether in the fold for sheep, in the yard for cattle, or in thestables for horses, it will generally be preferred to the otherdescriptions of homegrown keep. " Mr. Baldwin, on the contrary, statesthat although good food for sheep, it is too hard-fleshed for old ewes, and that carrots are better food for horses, and Swedish turnips forcattle. An accurately conducted comparative trial to test the nutritive valueof the Kohl-rabi, was conducted at the Glasnevin Model Farm, under thedirection of Mr. Baldwin. The experiment was commenced in January, 1863. Four oxen were selected, and divided into two lots. Nos. 1 and 2 (Lot 1)were fed on Kohl-rabi, oil-cake, and hay, and Nos. 3 and 4 (Lot 2) onSwedish turnips, oil-cake, and hay. As the animals supplied with theKohl-rabi did not appear to relish it, and as it was desirable togradually accustom them to the change of food, the experiment did notreally commence till the 12th January. On that date the weights of theanimals were as follows:-- cwt. St. | cwt. St. | Lot 1. {No. 1. 10 1 | Lot 2. {No. 3. 7 5 {No. 2. 7 4 | {No. 4. 10 2 ------- | ------- 17 5 | 17 7 The lots, therefore, counterpoised each other pretty fairly. From the12th to the 28th January they received the following quantities of foodper diem:-- 1. 2. 3. 4. Roots stones 7-1/2 6 6 7-1/2 Oil cake pounds 4-1/2 3 3 4-1/2 Hay pounds 10-1/2 10-1/2 10-1/2 10-1/2 The animals fed upon the Kohl-rabi evinced from the first adisinclination to it, but they nevertheless ate it before their meal ofoil-cake was supplied to them. On the morning of the 28th January theywere put upon the dietary shown in the table, and which induced them toeat the Kohl-rabi more quickly. 1. 2. 3. 4. At 6. 30 a. M. {Roots, Stones 3 2-1/2 2-1/2 3-1/2 {Cake, lbs. 1-1/2 1 1 1 At 12. 30 a. M. {Roots, Stones 3 2-1/2 2-1/2 3-1/2 {Cake, lbs. 1-1/2 1 1 1 At 6. 30 p. M. {Roots, Stones 3 2-1/2 2-1/2 3-1/2 {Cake, lbs. 1-1/2 1 1 1 At 9. 30 p. M. Hay, lbs. 7 7 7 7 On the 11th February the cattle were again weighed, when their increasewas found to be as follows:-- Weight on Weight on Increase in Jan. 12. Feb. 11. 30 days. cwt. St. Cwt. St. St. 1} Lot 1, fed on Kohl-rabi, } 10 1 10 4 3 2} &c. } 7 4 7 6 2 --- Total 5 3} Lot 2, fed on Swedes, } 7 5 8 3 6 4} &c. } 10 2 10 7-1/4 5-1/2 ------ Total 11-1/2 The results of this experiment show that the animals fed upon Swedishturnips, hay, and oil-cake, increased in weight at a rate more than100 per cent. Greater than the lot supplied with equal quantities ofKohl-rabi, hay, and oil-cake. The superiority of the Swedish turnips wasrendered more evident by the results of subsequent experiments. Nos. 1and 4 were not tried after the 11th February; but Nos. 2 and 3 were keptunder experiment. No. 2 was put on Swedes, and No. 3 on mangel-wurtzel, and after an interval of a fortnight No. 2 had increased much more thanthey had done on Kohl-rabi. Specimens of the Kohl-rabi and Swedish turnips employed in thisexperiment were submitted to me for analysis by Mr. Baldwin, and yieldedthe following results:-- Swedish Kohl-rabi. Turnip. Water 87·62 88·84 Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 2·24 1·66 Non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming principles 7·78 6·07 Woody fibre 1·34 2·73 Mineral matter (ash) 1·22 0·70 ------ ------ 100·00 100·00 These results show a slight superiority of the Kohl-rabi over the Swedishturnip; the great difference in their nutritive power, as shown by Mr. Baldwin's experimental results, must therefore be due to the superiorflavor and digestibility of the turnip. Dr. Anderson's analysis of Kohl-rabi afforded results more favorable tothe highly nutritive character assigned by some feeders to that bulbthan those arrived at by me. The bulbs, it should however be remarked, were grown, no doubt with great care, by Messrs. Lawson and Son, thewell-known seedsmen:-- ANALYSIS OF KOHL-RABI, BY DR. ANDERSON. Bulbs. Tops. Water 86·74 86·68 Flesh-forming principles 2·75 2·37 Fat-forming principles 8·62 8·29 Woody fibre 0·77 1·21 Mineral matter 1·12 1·45 ------ ------ 100·00 100·00 The _Radish_ is a plant which deserves a place amongst our field crops, though hitherto its cultivation has been restricted to the garden. Atone time its leaves were boiled and eaten, but in these latter days theyare subjected to neither of these processes. The root, however, in itsraw state, is, as every one is aware, considered one of the dainties ofthe table. Many of those who devote themselves to the important study of dietetics, consider the use of raw vegetables to be objectionable; but be theirobjections groundless, or the reverse, it is certain that a vegetablewhich, like the radish, may be eaten raw with apparently good results, cannot be otherwise than a good article of food when cooked. I oncetried the experiment of eating matured radishes, not as a salad, butcooked like any other boiled vegetable, and I must say that I foundtheir flavor rather agreeable than otherwise. Boiled radishes--roots andtops--form excellent feeding for pigs. How could it be otherwise? forwhat is good for the family of man must surely be a luxury to the swinetribe. I have known horses to eat radishes greedily, and I am certainthat they would prove acceptable to all the animals of the farm. Butit may be asked, why it is that I recommend the use of radishes asfood for stock, when there are already so many more nutritious rootsat our disposal--turnips, mangels, and potatoes. Simply for thisreason:--Between the departure of the roots and the advent of thegrasses, there is a kind of interregnum. [33] Now we want a good tuberous, bulbous, or tap-rooted plant to fill up this interregnum. Such a plantwe have in the radish. The root is certainly a small one, but then itgrows so rapidly that a good supply can be had within thirty days fromthe sowing of the seed, and a crop can be matured before the time forsowing turnips. Two crops may be easily obtained from land underpotatoes--one before the tops cover the ground, the other after thetubers have been dug out. The yield of radishes, judging from theproduce in the garden, would be at least six tons of roots and threetons of tops. I would suggest, then, that the radish should at onceget a fair chance as a stolen crop. If it succeed as such, it willnot be the first gift of the gardener to the husbandman. Was not themangel-wurtzel once known only as the produce of the garden? The composition of the radish indicates a nutritive value less than thatof the white turnip. I have analysed both the root and the tops, andobtained the following results:-- ANALYSIS OF THE RADISH. Root. Tops. Water 95·09 94·30 Flesh-forming principles 0·52 0·75 Fat-formers (starch, gum, fat, &c. ) 1·06 1·16 Woody fibre 2·22 2·36 Mineral matter (ash) 1·11 1·43 ------ ------ 100·00 100·00 The _Jerusalem Artichoke_ has long been cultivated as a field-crop onthe Continent, and in certain localities the breadth occupied by itis very considerable. The French term the tuberous root of this plant_poitre de terre_, or _topin ambour_; and although they expose it forsale in the markets, it is not much relished by our lively neighbours, who are so remarkable for their _cuisiniere_. As food for cattle, however, the French agricultural writers state it to be excellent. It is much relished by horses, dairy cows, and pigs; store horned-stockalso eat it when seasoned with a little salt, and appear to enjoy itamazingly when permitted to pull up the roots from the soil. The greentops are also given to sheep and cattle, and, it is stated, are readilyeaten by those animals. The Jerusalem artichoke (_Helianthus Tuberoses_) differs from its halfnamesake, the common artichoke, and resembles the potato in beingvaluable chiefly for its tubers. It is perennial, and attains on theContinent a height varying from 7 to 10 feet. In this country itsdimensions are less. The stem is erect, thick, coarse, and covered withhairs. It is a native of Mexico, and although introduced 200 years agointo Europe, it can hardly be said to be acclimatised, since it veryseldom flowers, and never develops seed. The plant is thereforepropagated by cuttings from its tubers, each containing one or two eyes;or if the tubers be very small, which is often the case, a whole one isplanted. The tubers possess great vitality, and remain in the groundduring the most severe frosts, without sustaining the slightest injury. For this reason it is usual to devote a corner of the garden to thecultivation of the Jerusalem artichoke; for, no matter how completelythe crop may appear to have been removed from the soil, portions of thetubers will remain and shoot up into plants during the following season. This peculiarity of the plant it is likely may prove an obstacle to itshaving a place assigned to it in the rotation system. The question now presents itself--What are the peculiar advantages whichthe crop possesses which should commend it to the notice of the Britishfarmer? I shall try to answer the question. 1st. No green crop (except furze) can be grown in so great a variety ofsoils; except marshy or wet lands, there is no soil in which it refusesto grow. 2nd. It does not suffer from disease, is very little affected by theravages of insects, is completely beyond the influence of cold, and mayremain either above or below ground for a long time without undergoingany injurious changes in composition. 3rd. It gives a good return, when we consider that it requires verylittle manure, and but little labor in its management. At Bechelbronn, the farm of the celebrated Boussingault, the averageyield is nearly eleven tons per acre, but occasionally over fourteentons is obtained. Donoil, a farmer of Bailiere, in the department ofHaut-loire, states that he fed sheep exclusively on the tops and tubersof this plant, and that he estimated his profits at £23 per hectare(£9 3s. 4d. Per acre). The soil was very inferior. Donoil terms itthird-rate, and it does not appear to have been manured even onceduring the fifteen years it was under Jerusalem artichoke. I fear ourartificial manure manufacturers will hardly look with a favorable eyeon the advent of a crop into our agriculture which can get on so wellwithout the intervention of any fertilising agents. Indeed, several ofthe French writers state that little or no manure is necessary for thisplant. But this can hardly be the case; for it is evident that a cropwhich, according to Way and Ogston, removes 35 lbs. Of mineral matterper ton from the soil, or three times as much potash as turnips do, mustcertainly be greatly benefited by the application of manure. And I haveno doubt but that the Jerusalem artichoke, if well manured and grownin moderately fertile soil, would produce a much heavier crop than ourContinental neighbors appear to get from it. 4th. The Jerusalem artichoke may be cultivated with advantage in placeswhere ordinary root-crops either fail or thrive badly. In such casesthe ground should be permanently devoted to this crop. Kade gives aninstance where a piece of indifferent ground had for thirty-three yearsproduced heavy crops of this plant, although during that time neithermanure nor labor had been applied to it. In Ireland the potato has beengrown under similar circumstances. The nutritive constituents of tubers of the Jerusalem artichoke beara close resemblance in every respect, save one, to those of thepotato. Both contain about 75 per cent. Of water, about 2 per cent. Of flesh-forming substances, and 20 per cent. Of non-nitrogenous, orfat-forming and heat-giving elements. In one respect there is a greatdifference--namely, that sugar makes up from 8 to 12 per cent. Of theJerusalem artichoke, whilst there is but a small proportion of thatsubstance in the potato. The large quantity of sugar contained in this root is no doubt the causeof its remarkable keeping properties in winter, and it also readilyaccounts for the avidity with which most of the domesticated animalseat it. On the whole, then, I think that the facts I have brought forwardrelative to the advantages which the Jerusalem artichoke presents as afarm crop, justify the recommendation that it should get a fair trialfrom the British farmer, who is now so much interested in the productionof suitable forage for stock. COMPOSITION OF (DRY) JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE Albuminous matters 4·6 Fatty matters 0·4 Starch, gum, &c. 19·8 Sugar 69·5 Fibre and ash 5·7 ----- 100·0 The _Potato_, regarded from every point of view, is by far the mostimportant of the plants which are cultivated for the sake of theirroots. Its tubers form the chief--almost sole--pabulum of many millionsof men, enter more or less into the dietary of most civilised peoples, and constitute a large proportion of the food of the domesticatedanimals. The great importance of this plant, arising from its enormousconsumption, has caused its composition to be very minutely studied bymany British, Continental, and American chemists. With respect to itsnutritive properties, the least favorable results were obtained by theAmerican chemists, Hardy and Henry, and the most by the Europeanchemists. The flesh-forming principles vary from 1 per cent. , as found by Hardy, to 2·41 per cent. , the mean results of the analyses of Krocker andHorsford. The proportion of starch in different varieties of the potatoalso varies, but not to the same degree as the nitrogenous principles. In new potatoes, only 5 per cent. Has been found; in ash-leaved kidneys, 9·50 per cent. ; and in different kinds of cups, from 15 to 24 per cent. The amount of starch is also influenced by the soil, the manure, theclimate, and the various other conditions under which the plant isdeveloped. The proportion of starch increases during the growth, anddiminishes during the storage of the tubers. Dr. Anderson is the most recent investigator into the composition of thepotato; the chief results of his inquiries are given in the followingtable:-- ANALYSIS OF THE POTATO BY DR. ANDERSON. --------------+--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+------- |Regents. |Dalmahoys. |Skerry-blues. |White |Orkney |Flukes. | | | |Rocks. |Reds. | +--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+------- Water | 76·32 | 75·91 | 76·60 | 75·93 | 78·57 | 74·41 Starch | 12·21 | 12·58 | 11·79 | 12·77 | 10·85 | 12·55 Sugar, &c. | 2·75 | 2·93 | 3·09 | 2·17 | 2·78 | 2·89 Flesh-formers | | | | | | soluble | 2·16 | 2·10 | 1·90 | 1·88 | 1·48 | 1·98 insoluble | 0·21 | 0·15 | 0·16 | 0·24 | 0·21 | 0·20 Fibre | 5·53 | 5·21 | 5·41 | 5·55 | 5·93 | 6·71 Ash | 0·88 | 0·81 | 0·94 | 1·04 | 0·98 | 0·98 +--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+------- | 100·06 | 99·69 | 99·89 | 99·58 |100·80 | 99·72 --------------+--------+----------+-------------+-------+-------+------- The potato is relatively deficient in flesh-forming matters, and containsthe respiratory elements in exceedingly high proportions; hence it iswell adapted for fattening purposes, and in this respect is equal todouble its weight of the best kind of turnips. When used as food forman, it should be supplemented by some more fatty or nitrogenoussubstance--such, for example, as flesh, oatmeal, or peas. Buttermilk, a fluid which is rich in nitrogen, is an excellent supplement topotatoes, and compensates to a great extent for the deficiency of thosetubers in muscle-forming matters. If, then, the potato is destined toretain its place as the "national esculent" of the Irish, I trust theirnational beverage may be--so far at least as the masses of the peopleare concerned--buttermilk, and _not_ whiskey. Potatoes so far diseased as to be unsuited for use as food for man, maybe given with advantage to stock. They may be used either in a raw oruncooked state, but the latter is the preferable form. Sheep do not likethem at first, but on being deprived of turnips they acquire a tastefor them; on a daily allowance, composed of 1 lb. Of oil-cake or corn, and an unlimited quantity of potatoes, they fatten rapidly. Cattlethrive well on a diet composed of equal parts of turnips and diseasedpotatoes, and do not require oil-cake. The evening feed of horses mayadvantageously be composed of potatoes and turnips. If raw, the potatoesshould be given in a very limited quantity--four or five pounds; in thecooked state, however, they may be given in abundance, but the animalsshould not, after their meal, be permitted to drink water for somehours. As a feeding substance, diseased potatoes, unless they be verymuch injured, are equal to twice their weight of white turnips; it iscertain that they do not injure the health or impair the condition ofthe animals which feed upon them. SECTION VI. SEEDS. In seeds the elements of nutrition exist not only in the most highlyelaborated, but also in the most concentrated state; hence theirnutritive value is greater than that of any other class of foodsubstances. _Wheat Grain_ is the most valuable of seeds, as it contains, in admirablyadjusted proportions, the bone, the fat, and the muscle-formingprinciples. In the form of bread, it has been, not inaptly, termed the"staff of life, " for no other grain is so well adapted, _per se_, forthe sustenance of man; and many millions of human beings subsist almostexclusively on it. The lower animals are in general fed upon the grainof oats, of barley, and of the leguminous plants, and the use of wheatis almost completely restricted to the human family. Wheat grain, by the processes of grinding and sifting, is resolvableinto two distinct parts--bran and flour. In twenty-four analyses madeby Boussingault, the proportion of the bran was from 13·2 to 38·5per cent. And that of the flour from 61·5 to 86·8 per cent. The flourypart is of very complex structure; it includes starch, gluten, albumen, oil, gum, gummo-gelatinous matter, sugar, [34] and various saline matters. The gluten and albumen constitute the nitrogenous, or flesh-formingprinciples of flour, and make up from 16 to 20 per cent. Of thatsubstance; the non-nitrogenous, or fat-forming elements, such asstarch and gum, form from 74 to 82 per cent. According to Payen, theproportion of gluten diminishes towards the centre of the seed, fromwhich it follows that the part of the grain nearest the husk is themost nutritious--so far at least as muscle-making is concerned. Thedesire on the part of the public for very white bread has led to the_fine_ dressing of Wheat-grain, and consequently to the separation fromthat substance of a very large proportion of one of its most nutritiousconstituents. Crude gluten may be obtained by kneading the dough offlour in a muslin bag under a small current of water; the starch, orfecula, and the gum, are carried away by the water, and the gluten inan impure form remains as an elastic viscous substance, which on dryingbecomes hard and brittle. It is to the gluten of flour that its propertyof panification, or bread-making, is due. On the addition of a ferment, a portion of the starch is converted into sugar and carbonic acid gas, and the latter causes the gluten to expand into the little cells, orvesicles, which confer upon baked bread its light, spongy texture. ANALYSES OF WHEAT. 1. 2. 3. 4. Whole Grain. Flour. Bran. Husk. Water 15·00 14·0 13 13·9 Flesh-formers 12·00 11·0 14 14·9 Fat-formers 68·50 73·5 55 55·8 Woody fibre 2·75 0·7 12 9·7 Mineral matter 1·75 0·8 6 5·7 ------ ----- --- ----- 100·00 100·0 100 100·0 _Nos. 1, 2, and 3. --The mean results of a great number of analyses. _ _No. 4. --By_ MILLON. _Over-ripening of Grain. _--The final act of vegetation is the productionof seed, after the performance of which function many plants, havingaccomplished their destined purpose, perish. The grasses (which includethe cereals) are _annuals_, or plants which have but a year's existence, consequently their development ceases so soon as they have producedtheir seed. When wheat, oats, and the other cereals, attain to thisfinal point in their growth, the circulation of their sap ceases, their color changes from green to yellow, and they undergo certainchanges which destroy their power of assimilating mineral matter, andconsequently render them no longer capable of increasing their weight. The proper time for cutting wheat and the other cereals is immediatelyafter their grain has been fully matured. When the green color of thestraw just below the ears changes to yellow, the grain, be it ripe orunripe at the time, cannot afterwards be more fully developed. This isrendered impossible in consequence of the disorganisation of the upperpart of the stem--indicated by, but not the result of, its alteredhue--which cuts off the supply of sap to the ears, and the latter donot possess the power of absorbing nutriment from the air. When the vital processes which are incessantly going on in the growingplants are brought to a close, the purely chemical forces come intooperation. If the seed be perfectly matured and allowed to remainungathered, it is attacked in wet weather by the oxygen of the air, aportion of its carbon is burned off, some of its starch is convertedinto sugar, and in extreme cases it germinates and becomes _malty_. But not only is the seed liable to injury from the elements; it is alsoexposed to the ravages of the feathered tribe, and no matter how wella field of corn may be watched, or how great the number of _scarecrows_erected in it, there is always a certain diurnal loss, occasioned by theravages of birds. It is not only necessary that ripe corn should be cut as soon aspossible, but it is sometimes desirable to reap it before it becomesfully matured. When the grain is intended for consumption as food, theless bran it contains the better. Now the bran, as is well known, formsthe integument, or covering of the vital constituents of the seed; andit is the last part of the organ to be perfected. The growth of theseed for several days before its perfect development, is confined tothe _testa_ or covering. Now as this is the least valuable part of thearticle, its increase is matter of but little moment; and when it isexcessive it renders the grain less valuable in the eyes of the miller. That the cutting of the grain before it is perfectly ripe is attendedwith a good result, is clearly proved by the results of an experimentrecorded in Johnston's "Agricultural Chemistry. " A crop of wheat wasselected; one-third was cut twenty days before it was ripe; anotherthird ten days afterwards; and the remaining portion when its grain hadbeen fully matured. The relative produce in grain of the three portionstaken, as stated above, was as 1, 1·325, and 1·260. The following tableexhibits the relative proportions of their constituents:-- In 100 parts of the grain cut at 20 days. 10 days. Dead ripe. Flour 74·7 79·1 72·2 Sharps 7·2 5·5 11·0 Bran 17·5 13·2 16·0 ---- ---- ---- 99·4 97·8 99·2 The flour contained gluten 9·3 9·9 9·6 The results of this experiment, and of the general experience ofintelligent growers, show that grain cut a week or ten days before it isperfectly ripe contains more flour, and of a better quality, too, thanis found in either ripe or very unripe seed. But this is not the onlyadvantage, for the straw of the green, or rather of the greenish-yellowcorn, is fully twice as valuable for feeding purposes as that of theover-ripe cereals. There is an extraordinary decrease in the amountof the albuminous constituents of the stems of the cereals during thelast two or three weeks of their maturation, and as there is not acorresponding increase of those materials in the seed, they must beevolved in some form or other from the plants. There can be only one object attained by allowing the seed to fullyripen itself, and that is the insurance of its more perfect adaptabilityto the purpose of reproduction. When the _testa_ is thick it bestprotects the germ of the future plant enclosed in it from the ordinaryatmospheric influences until it is placed under the proper conditionsfor its germination. _Wheat, a costly food. _--It occasionally happens that the wheat harvestis so abundant, that many feeders give large quantities of this grain totheir stock. Now, as Indian corn is at least 25 per cent. Cheaper thanwheat, even when the price of the latter is at its _minimum_, I believethat it is always more economical to sell the wheat raised on the farm, and to purchase with the proceeds of its sale an equivalent of Indiancorn, which is a more fattening kind of food. _Bran_ is, with perhaps the exception of malt-dust, the most nutritiousof the refuse portions of grains. It is usually given to horses, andowing to its high proportion of nitrogen, is, perhaps, better expendedin the bodies of those hard-working animals, than in those of pigs andcows--animals that occasionally come in for a share of this valuablefeeding-stuff. It should be borne in mind that bran commonly acts asa slight laxative, and that it is less digestible than flour, a largeportion of it usually passing through the animal's body unchanged. This drawback to the use of bran may be obviated by either cooking orfermenting the article, or by combining it with beans or some otherkind of binding food. AVERAGE ANALYSES OF GRAIN. --------------+-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------ | | | | |Indian| | Rye |Buck- |Barley. | Bere. |Oats. |Oatmeal. | Corn. |Rice. |(Irish). |wheat. +-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------ Water | 16·0 | 14·25| 14·0| 13·00 | 14·5 | 14·0| 16·0 | 14·19 Flesh-formers | 10·5 | 10·10| 11·5| 16·00 | 10·0 | 5·3| 9·0 | 8·58 Fat-formers | 67·0 | 64·60| 64·5| 68·00 | 69·0 | 78·5| 66·0 | 51·91 Woody fibre | 3·5 | 9·03| 7·0| 1·75 | 5·0 | 2·5| 8·0 | 23·12 Mineral matter| 3·0 | 2·02| 3·0| 1·25 | 1·5 | 0·7| 1·0 | 2·20 +-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------ | 100·0 |100·00|100·0| 100·00 |100·0 |100·0| 100·0 |100·00 --------------+-------+------+-----+--------+------+-----+--------+------ _Barley_ is inferior in composition to wheat. As a feeding stuff, theEnglish farmers assign to it a higher, and the Scotch farmers a lower, place than oats, which, perhaps, merely proves that in Scotland the oatthrives better than the barley, and in England the barley better thanthe oat. Barley-meal is extensively used by the English feeders, andwith excellent results. Where _barley-dust_ can be obtained it is a farcheaper feeding stuff than the meal. Barley husks should never be givento animals unless in a cooked or fermented state. _Oat Grain_ is, perhaps, the most valuable of the concentrated foodswhich are given to fattening stock. When it is cheap it will be founda more economical feeding stuff than linseed-cake, and, unlike thatsubstance, can be used without the fear of adulteration. Oats are equalto wheat in their amount of flesh-forming matters; but their very highproportion of indigestible woody fibre detracts from their nutritivevalue. Oat-meal is more nutritious than wheat-meal; and oat-flour, especially if finely dressed, greatly excels wheat-flour in itsnutrimental properties, because, unlike the latter, the finer it is thegreater is its amount of flesh-formers. Bread made of oat-flour is veryheavy, and is far less palatable than the bread of wheat. Oat-meal hasbeen found to contain nearly 20 per cent. Of nitrogenous matters. Thewhite oat is more nutritious than the black, and the greatest amount ofaliment is found in the grain which has not been allowed to over-ripenin the field. Oat husk is very inferior to the bran of wheat. Toppingsare seldom worth the price at which they are sold. _Indian Corn_ has been highly extolled as a fattening food for stock, and its chemical composition would seem to justify the high opinionwhich practical men have formed of its relative nutritive value. In theUnited States, the feeding of horses on Indian corn and hay has beenfound very successful; but in these countries oats will be found a moreeconomical food. For fattening purposes Indian corn appears exceedinglywell adapted, as it contains more ready-formed fat--4·5 per cent. --thanis found in most of the other grains, and, on an average, 70 per cent. Of starch. Pigs thrive well on this grain. The Galatz round yellow grainis somewhat superior to the American flat yellow seed. _Rye_ is not extensively cultivated in this country, but on theContinent it is raised in large quantities. In the north of Europeit forms a considerable proportion of the food of both man and thedomesticated animals. In Holland it is commonly consumed by horses, butin England there has always been a prejudice against the use of thisgrain as food for the equine tribe. It has been highly recommended fordairy stock, five pounds of rye-meal, with a sufficiency of cut straw, constituting, it is stated, a dietary on which cows yield a maximumsupply of milk. Irish-grown rye contains less starch, and moreflesh-formers and oil, than the Black Sea grain. _Rice_, although it forms the chief pabulum of nearly one-third ofthe human family, is the least nutritious of the common food grains. Rice-dust, an article obtained in cleaning rice for European consumption, is said to promote the flow of milk when given to cows. It is sold inlarge quantities in Liverpool, where, according to Voelcker, it oftencommands a higher price than it is worth. _Buckwheat_ is chiefly used as a food for game and poultry. _Malted Corn. _--During a late session of Parliament a Bill was passed toexempt from duty malt intended to be used as food for cattle. As feedersmay now become their own maltsters, it may be of some use to them tohave here a _résumé_ of this Bill:-- 1. Any person giving security and taking out a licence may make malt in a malt-house approved by the Excise for the purpose; and all malt so made and mixed with linseed-cake or linseed-meal as directed, shall be free from duty. 2. The security required is a bond to Her Majesty, with sureties to the satisfaction of the Excise, not to take from any such malt-house any malt except duly mixed with material prescribed by the Act. 3. The malt-house must be properly named upon its door. 4. All malt made in it shall be deposited in a store-room, and shall be conveyed to and from the room upon such notice as the officer of Excise shall appoint. 5. The maltster shall provide secure rooms in his malt-house, to be approved in writing by the supervisor, for grinding the malt made by him in such malt-house, and mixing and storing the same when mixed; and all such rooms shall be properly secured and kept locked by the proper officer of Excise. 6. All malt before removal from the malt-house shall be ground and thoroughly mixed with one-tenth part at least of its weight of ground linseed-cake or linseed-meal, and ground to such a degree of fineness and in such manner as the commissioners shall approve, and mixed together in a quantity not less than forty bushels at a time in the presence of an officer of Excise. 7. The maltster shall keep account of the quantity of all malt mixed as aforesaid which he shall from time to time send out or deliver from his malt-house, with the dates and addresses of the person for whom such mixed malt shall be so sent or delivered. 8. If any person shall attempt to separate any malt from any material with which the same shall have been mixed as aforesaid, or shall use this malt for the brewing of beer or distilling of spirits, he shall forfeit the sum of £200. 9 and 10. The penalties of existing Acts are recited. 11. This Act shall continue and be in force for five years. Some samples of malt and barley examined in May, 1865, by Dr. Voelckerfor the Central Anti-Malt Tax Association, afforded the followingresults:-- -------------------------+-------+--------------------------------------- |Barley | Malt marked |marked | | No. 1. | No. 5. | No. 7. | No. 9. |No. 14. |No. 16. -------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- Moisture | 11·76| 8·72| 7·43| 7·76| 8·35| 7·06 Sugar | 3·75| 4·29| 5·48| 7·85| 9·46| 9·86 Starch and dextrine | 70·40| 71·03| 69·70| 67·57| 67·53| 67·67 [*] Albuminous compounds | | | | | | (flesh-forming matters)| 7·75| 8·44| 8·81| 9·37| 8·60| 8·31 Woody fibre (cellular) | 4·46| 5·22| 6·38| 5·38| 4·14| 5·11 Mineral matter (ash) | 1·88| 2·30| 2·20| 2·07| 1·92| 1·99 +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- | 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00| 100·00 [* Containing nitrogen] | 1·24| 1·35| 1·41| 1·50| 1·38| 1·33 -------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- A great deal has been said and written in favor of malt as a feedingstuff, but I greatly doubt its alleged decided superiority over barley;and until the results of accurately conducted comparative experimentsmade with those articles incontestably prove that superiority, I thinkit is somewhat a waste of nutriment to convert barley into malt forfeeding purposes. The gentlemen who verbally, or in writing, referso favorably to malt, acknowledge, with one or two exceptions, thattheir experience of the article is limited. Mr. John Hudson, ofBrandon, states that he made a comparative experiment, the resultsof which proved the superiority of malt. But, in fact, the onlyproperly-conducted experiments to determine the relative values of maltand barley were those made some years ago by Dr. Thompson, of Glasgow, by the direction of the Government, and those recently performed by Mr. Lawes, both producing results unfavorable to the malt. The issue of Dr. Thompson's investigations proved that milch cows fed on barley yieldedmore milk and butter than when supplied with an equal weight of malt. I do not deny the probability that malt, owing to its agreeable flavorand easy solubility, may be a somewhat better feeding stuff than barley;and that, weight for weight, it may produce a somewhat greater increasein the weight of the animals fed upon it: but although a pound-weight ofmalt may be better than a pound-weight of barley, I am quite satisfiedthat a pound's worth of barley will put up more flesh than a pound'sworth of malt. Barley-seeds consist of water, starch, nitrogenoussubstances--such as gluten and albumen--fatty substances, and salinematter. The amount of starch is considerable, being sometimes about70 per cent. In the process of malting (which is simply the germinationof the seed under peculiar conditions), a portion of the starch isconverted into sugar and gum, the grain increases in size and becomesfriable when dried, and the internal structure of the seed is completelybroken up. During these changes a partial decomposition of the solidmatter of the seeds takes place, and a large amount of nutriment isdissipated, chiefly in the form of carbonic acid gas. From the resultsof the experience of the maltster, and of special experiments made byscientific men, it would appear that a ton of barley will produce only16 cwt. Of malt. Allowance must, however, be made for the differencebetween the amount of water contained in barley and in malt, the latterbeing much drier. According to Mr. E. Holden, the centesimal losssustained in malting may be stated thus:-- Water 6·00 Organic matter 12·52 Saline matter 0·48 ------ 100·00 Dr. Thompson[35] sets down the loss of nutriment (exclusive of thatoccasioned by kiln-drying), as follows:-- Carried off by the steep 1·5 Dissipated on the floor 3·0 Roots separated by cleaning 3·0 Waste 0·5 --- 8·0 We may say, then, that by the malting of barley we lose at least 2-1/2cwt. Of solid nutriment out of every ton of the article, and this lossfalls heaviest on the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming constituents ofthe grain. When there are added to this loss the expense of cartingthe grain to and from the malt-house, and the maltster's charge foroperating upon it (I presume in this case that the feeder is not his ownmaltster), it will be found that two tons of malt will cost the farmernearly as much as three tons of barley; and he will then have to solvethe problem--_Whether or not malt is 40 or 50 per cent. More valuableas a feeding-stuff than barley_. The difference in value between barley and malt is generally 14s. Perbarrel; but it is sometimes more or less, according to the supply anddemand. Barley, well malted, will lose on the average 25 per cent. Ofits weight, the loss depending, to some extent, upon the degree to whichthe process is carried, and on the germinating properties of the barley. Barley malted for roasters ought not to lose more than 21 per cent. Ofits original weight--53 lbs. To the barrel. The heavier the barley theless it loses in malting; a barrel of 224 lbs. , and value from 15s. To16s. , ought to produce a barrel of malt of 196 lbs. , value 29s. To 30s. If we deduct from the cost of a barrel of malt the amount of duty atpresent levyable upon it, the price of the article will be still nearly50 per cent. Greater than that of an equal weight of barley. The cheaperbarley is the greater will be the relative cost of malt. The maltster'scharge for converting a barrel of barley into malt is about 4s. ; sothat if the price of the grain be so low as 12s. Per barrel, which itsometimes is, the cost of malting it would amount to 33 per cent. Of itsprice. Then, the diminution in the weight of, and the cost of cartingthe grain, must be taken into account; and when the whole expenseattendant upon the process of malting is ascertained, it will be foundthat I have not exaggerated in stating that a ton of malt costs as muchas a ton and a half of barley. If the consumer of malt germinate the seeds himself, he may probably, if he require large quantities of the article, produce it at a somewhatcheaper rate than if he bought it from the maltster; but few persons whohave the slightest knowledge of the vexatious restrictions of the InlandRevenue authorities would be likely to place his premises under the_espionage_ of an excise officer. As the superiority of malt over barley (if such be really the case) mustbe chiefly due to the looseness of its texture, which allows the juicesof the stomach to act readily upon it, barley in a cooked state might befound quite as nutritious: It would not be fair to institute comparisonsbetween dense hard barley-seeds and the easily soluble malted grains. During the cooking of barley a portion of the starch is changed intosugar, but in this case with only an inappreciable waste of nutriment. When the cooking process is continued for a few hours, a considerableamount of sugar is formed, and the barley acquires a very sweet flavor. When the malt for cattle question was under discussion, I made a littleexperiment in relation to it, the results of which are perhaps ofsufficient interest to mention:--Two pounds weight of barley-meal weremoistened with warm water; after standing for three hours more water wasadded, and sufficient heat applied to cause the fluid to boil. Afterfifteen minutes' ebullition, a few ounces of the pasty-like mass whichwas produced were removed, thoroughly dried, and on being submittedto analysis yielded six per cent. Of sugar. The addition of a smallquantity of malt to barley undergoing the process of cooking willrapidly convert the starch into sugar. Barley is naturally a well-flavored grain, and all kinds of stock eatit with avidity. It may be rendered still more agreeable if properlycooked, and this process will, by disintegrating its hard, fibrousstructure, set free its stores of nutriment. I incline strongly tothe opinion that barley, when well boiled, is almost, if not quite, as digestible as malt. A serious disadvantage in the use of malt is, that it must be consumed, it is said, in combination with 10 per cent. Of its weight of linseed-mealor cake. Now, malt is a very laxative food, and so is linseed; and ifthe diet of stock were largely made up of these articles the animalswould, sooner or later, suffer from diarrhoea. In such case, then, the addition of bean-meal, or of some other binding food, would becomenecessary, and the compound of malt, linseed, and bean-meal therebyformed would certainly prove anything but an economical diet. _Malt Combs. _--I should mention that a portion of the nutriment whichthe barley loses in malting passes into the radicles, or young roots, which project from the seeds, and are technically known by the term"combs, " "combings, " or "dust. " At present these combs are separatedfrom the malt, but if the latter be intended for feeding purposes thisseparation is unnecessary, and in such case the barley will not be somuch deteriorated. The combs, which constitute about 4 per cent. Of theweight of the malt, are sometimes employed as a feeding stuff. I havemade an analysis of malt-combings for the County of Kildare AgriculturalSociety, and have obtained the following results:-- 100 PARTS CONTAINED-- Water 8·42 [*] Flesh-forming (albuminous) substances 21·50 Digestible fat-forming substances (starch, sugar, gum, &c. ) 53·47 Indigestible woody fibre 8·57 [+] Saline matter (ash) 8·04 ------ 100·00 [* Yielding nitrogen 3·44] [+ Containing potash 1·35 Containing phosphoric acid 1·74] This article was sold as a manure at £3 6s. Per ton--a sum for which itwas not good value; but as a feeding substance it was probably worth £4or £5 per ton. Its composition indicates a high nutritive power; but itis probable that its nitrogenous matters are partly in a low degree ofelaboration, which greatly detracts from its alimental value. In conclusion, then, I would urge the following points upon theattention of the farmer:-- 1st. Before using malt for feeding purposes, wait until you learn thegeneral results of the experience of other farmers with that article. The manufacture of malt for feeding purposes is rapidly on the decline, instead of, as had been anticipated, on the increase. 2nd. Should you experiment with barley and malt, use equal money's worthof each, and employ the barley in a cooked state. 3rd. Use malt-combings as a feeding stuff, and not as a manure. They aregood value for at least £3 10s. Per ton. 4th. Bear in mind that a ton of barley contains more saline matter thanan equal weight of malt; consequently, that stock fed upon barley willproduce a manure richer in potash and phosphates than those suppliedwith malt. _Leguminous Seeds. _--The seeds of the bean, of the pea, and of severalother leguminous plants, are largely made use of as food for both manand the domesticated animals. They all closely resemble each other incomposition, but in that respect differ considerably from the grains ofthe _Cerealiæ_, for whilst the latter contain on an average 12 per cent. Of flesh-formers, beans and peas contain 24 per cent. The flesh-formingconstituent of the leguminous seeds is not gluten, as in the grainof the cereals, but a substance termed _legumin_, which so closelyresembles the cheesy matter of milk that it has also received the nameof _vegetable casein_. Indeed, the Chinese make a factitious cheese outof peas, which it is difficult to discriminate from the article ofanimal origin. _Beans_ are used as fattening food for cattle, for which purpose theyshould be ground into meal, as otherwise a large proportion of theirsubstance would pass through the animal's body unchanged. It is not goodeconomy to give a fattening bullock more than 3 or 4 lbs. Weight perdiem; a larger proportion is apt to induce constipation. The very smallproportion of ready-formed fat, the moderate amount of starch, and theexceedingly high per-centage of flesh-formers which beans contain, provethat they are better adapted as food for beasts of burthen than for thefattening of stock. Oats, Indian corn, or oil-cake, will be found toproduce a greater increase of meat than equal money's worth of beansor peas, and I would therefore recommend the restriction of leguminousseeds, under ordinary circumstances, to horses and bulls. It has beenstated, on good authority, that when oats are given whole to horses, a large proportion passes unchanged through the animal's body, but thaton the addition of beans, the oats are thoroughly digested. COMPOSITION OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+---------- | Common|Foreign| Peas. |Lentils. | Winter | Beans. | Beans. | | | Tares | | | | |(foreign). --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+---------- Water | 13·0 | 14·5 | 14·0 | 13·0 | 15·5 Flesh-formers | 25·5 | 23·0 | 23·5 | 24·0 | 26·5 Fat-formers | 48·5 | 48·7 | 50·0 | 50·5 | 47·5 Woody fibre | 10·0 | 10·0 | 10·0 | 10·0 | 9·0 Mineral matter | 3·0 | 3·8 | 2·5 | 2·5 | 1·5 --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+---------- | 100·0 | 100·0 | 100·0 | 100·0 | 100·0 --------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+---------- _Oil Seeds. _--The seeds of a great variety of plants, such as the flax, hemp, rape, mustard, cotton, and sunflower, are exceedingly rich in oil, some of them containing nearly half their weight of that substance. Ofthese oil-seeds there are many which might with advantage be employed asfattening, food, although one only--linseed--has come into general usefor that purpose. _Rape-seeds_ closely resemble linseeds in composition, but they areconsiderably cheaper. They contain an acrid substance, but the largeproportion of oil with which it is associated almost completelydisguises its unpleasant flavor. _Linseed_ is one of the most valuable kinds of food which could be givento fattening animals. Its exceedingly high proportion of ready-formedfatty matter, the great comparative solubility of its constituents, andits mild and agreeable flavor, constitute it an article superior tolinseed cake. The laxative properties of linseed are very decided; itshould therefore be given only in moderate quantities. As peas andbeans exercise, as I have already stated, a relaxing influence uponthe bowels, a mixture of linseed and peas or beans would be anexcellent compound, the laxative influence of the one being correctedby the binding tendency of the other. Linseed being one of the mostconcentrated feeding stuffs in use, it will be found an excellentaddition to bulky food, such as chaff and turnips. Linseed oil hasbeen used as a fattening food, but there is nothing to be gained byexpressing seeds for the purpose of using their oil as a feedingmaterial. When hay is scarce, and straw abundant, the latter may bemade almost as nutritious as the former by mixing it with linseed, andsteaming the compound. A stone of linseed and two cwt. Of oat-strawchaff, when properly cooked, constitute a most economical andnutritious food. Mr. Horne, who experimented with linseed two or three years ago, obtained results highly favorable to the nutritive value of thatarticle. Six bullocks were selected, and each animal placed in aseparate box. They were fed with cut roots--at first Swedes, thenmangels and Swedes, and lastly, mangels alone: in addition, there weresupplied to each 6 lbs. Rough meadow-hay reduced to chaff, and 5 lbs. Oil-cake, or value to that amount. They were divided into three lots, two in each. Lot 1 had 5 lbs. Oil-cake for each animal; lot 2, barleyand wheat-meal, equal in value to the 5 lbs. Oil-cake; and lot 3, anequal money's worth of bruised linseed. The oil-cake cost £10 16s. Perton, the mixture of barley and wheat £8 15s. Per ton, and the bruisedlinseed £13 per ton. The experiment lasted 112 days, and at its closethe results, which proved very favorable to the bruised linseed, wereas follows:-- Increase in live weight. Lot 1. Oil-cake 637 lbs. Lot 2. Wheat and barley-meal 667 lbs. Lot 3. Bruised linseed 718 lbs. During the 112 days each bullock consumed 5 cwt. Oil-cake (or anequivalent amount of linseed or wheat and barley), 6 cwt. Hay, and90 cwt. Of roots. The average increase in each animal's weight was337 lbs. = 224 lbs. _dead_ weight. The economic features of thisexperiment are best shown in the following figures:-- FOOD CONSUMED. £ s. D. 5 cwt. Oil-cake, at 10s. 6d. Per cwt. 2 12 6 6 cwt. Hay, at 3s. Per cwt. 0 18 0 16 weeks' attendance, at 6d. Per week 0 8 0 --------- £3 18 6 --------- Gained 16 stones per week, at 8s. Per stone 6 8 0 --------- Balance to pay for 90 cwt. Of roots 2 9 6 The manure obtained afforded a good profit. The seed-pods, or, as they are termed, the _bolls_ of the flax, have been recommended as an excellent feeding stuff. They are notso nutritious as linseed, but they are cheaper, and when producedon the farm must be an economical food. Mr. Charley, an intelligentstock-feeder in the county of Antrim, and an eminent authority in everysubject in relation to flax, strongly recommends the use of flax-bolls. He says:-- The cost of rippling is considerable; but I believe, for every £1 expended, on an average a return is realised of £2, particularly on a farmstead where many horses and cattle are regularly kept. The flax-bolls contain much more nourishment than the linseed-cake from which the oil has, of course, been expressed, and they form a most valuable addition to the warm food prepared during winter for the animals just named. I believe they have also a highly beneficial effect in warding off internal disease, owing, no doubt, to the soothing and slightly purgative properties of the oil contained in the seed. The change made in the appearance of the animals receiving some of the bolls in their steamed food is very apparent after a few weeks' trial; and the smoothness and sleekness of their shining coats plainly show the benefit derived. Is it not surprising, with this fact before our eyes, that many agriculturists--indeed, I fear the majority--persist in the old-fashioned system of taking the flax to a watering-place with its valuable freight of seed unremoved, and plunge the sheaves under water, losing thereby, _in the most wanton manner_, rich feeding materials, worth from £1 to £3 per statute acre? In the following table, the composition of all the more importantoil-seeds is given:-- COMPOSITION OF OIL-SEEDS, ACCORDING TO DR. ANDERSON. --------------------------+---------+----------+----------+--------------- | | | | Cotton-seed |Linseed. |Rape-seed. |Hemp-seed. |(decorticated). +---------+----------+----------+--------------- | | | | Water | 7·50 | 7·13 | 6·47 | 6·57 | | | | Oil | 34·00 | 36·81 | 31·84 | 31·24 | | | | Albuminous compounds | | | | (Flesh-formers) | 24·44 | 21·50 | 22·60 | 31·86 | | | | Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c. | \ | 18·73 | \ | 14·12 | }30·73 | | }32·72 | Woody-fibre | / | 6·86 | / | 7·30 | | | | Mineral matter (ash) | 3·33 | 8·97 | 6·37 | 8·91 +---------+----------+----------+--------------- | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 --------------------------+---------+----------+----------+--------------- _Fenugreek-seed_ is used very extensively in the preparation of"Condimental food. " It is often given to horses out of condition. Sheep have been liberally supplied with this food, which, however, it is stated, communicates a disagreeable flavor to the mutton. It contains, according to Voelcker, the following:-- Water 11·994 Flesh-formers 26·665 Starch, gum, and pectin 37·111 Sugar 2·220 Fatty and oily matters 8·320 Woody fibre 10·820 Inorganic matter 2·870 ------- 100·000 SECTION VII. OIL-CAKES, AND OTHER ARTIFICIAL FOODS. Oil-seeds, on being subjected to considerable pressure, part witha large proportion of their oil, the remaining part of that fluid, together with the various other ingredients of the seeds, constitutethe substances so well known to agriculturists under the name ofoil-cakes. These cakes contain a larger proportion of ready-formedfatty matter than is found in any other feeding stuff, and an amountof flesh-forming principles far greater than that yielded by corn, or even by beans; the manure, too, which is produced by the cattle fedupon some of them, is often good value for nearly half the sum expendedon the food. The principal kinds of oil-cake employed for feeding purposes are thefollowing:--Linseed-cake, Rape-cake, and cotton-seed cake. Poppy cake isnot much in use. Their average composition, deduced from the results ofnumerous analyses made by Voelcker, Anderson, and myself, are shown inthe following table:-- AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF OIL-CAKES. ---------------------------+---------+------+------------+------- | Linseed | |Decorticated| | Cake, | Rape | Cottonseed | Poppy | English. | Cake. | Cake. | Cake. +---------+------+------------+------- Water | 12 | 11 | 9 | 12 Flesh-forming principles | 28 | 30 | 38 | 32 Oil | 10 | 11 | 13 | 6 Gum, mucilage, &c. | 34 | 30 | 23 | 30 Woody fibre | 10 | 10 | 9 | 9 Mineral matter (ash) | 6 | 8 | 8 | 1 +---------+------+------------+------- | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 ---------------------------+---------+------+------------+------- _Linseed Cake. _--Within the last quarter of a century great attentionhas been given to the feeding of stock, and the effects are observablein the improved quality and greatly increased weight of the animals. In the year 1839 the average weight of the horned beasts from Irelandsold in the London market was only 650 lbs. , whereas at the presenttime their average weight is about 740 lbs. This remarkable advancein the production of meat is in great part due to the cattle being moreliberally supplied with food, and that, too, of a more concentratednature. The practice of feeding animals destined for the shamblesexclusively on roots containing 90 and even 95 per cent. Of water, whichonce prevailed so generally in this country, is now limited to thefarmsteads of a few old-fashioned feeders; and the necessity for theadmixture of highly-nutritious aliment with the bulky substances whichform the staple food of stock is almost universally recognised. Of concentrated foods used for fattening stock, none stands higher inthe estimation of the farmer than linseed-cake, although it appears tome that the price of the article is somewhat too high in relation toits amount of nutriment, and that corn, if its price be moderate, isa more economical food. Straw, turnips, and mangels form the bone andsinew of the animals, and enable them to carry on the vital operationswhich are essential to their existence. Oil-cake and similar foods aresupplemental, and contribute directly to the animal's increase, so thattheir nutritive value appears to be greater than it really is. If ananimal were fed exclusively upon oil-cake, the greater part of it wouldbe appropriated to the reparation of the waste of the body, and the restwould be converted into permanent flesh--the animal's "increase. " Theaddition of straw would produce a still further increase in the animal'sweight--an increase which would be directly proportionate to the amountof straw consumed. Thus it will be seen that, whatever the staple foodmay be, it will have to sustain the life of the animal, and will beprincipally expended for that purpose, whereas the supplemental foodwill be chiefly, if not entirely, made use of in increasing the weightof flesh. To me it appears manifestly incorrect to consider, as feederspractically do, the value of linseed-cake to be seven or eight timesgreater than that of oat-straw, and twenty times greater than that ofroots. Let us assume the case of an animal fed upon roots, straw, andoil-cake. Seventy-five per cent. Of its food, say, is expended inrepairing the waste of its body, and 25 per cent. Is stored up in itsincrease. Now, if the three kinds of food contributed proportionatelyto the reparation of the body and to its increase, the roots and strawwould be found to possess a far higher nutritive value, in relation tothe oil-cake, than is usually ascribed to them. But it may be asked why straw, if it be relatively a much moreeconomical feeding stuff than oil-cake, is not employed to the completeexclusion of the latter. I have already given an answer to such aquestion, namely, that animals thrive better on a diet composed partlyof bulky, partly of concentrated aliments. This much, however, iscertain, that animals can be profitably fed upon roots and straw, whilstit is equally certain that to feed them upon oil-cake alone (assumingthem to thrive upon such a diet) would entail a very heavy loss uponthe feeder. At the same time it must be admitted that the oil of thelinseed-cake exercises in all probability a beneficial influence on thedigestion of the animal, so that the nutritive value of the article maybe somewhat higher than its mere composition would indicate. The quantity of oil-cake given to fattening stock varies from 2 lbs. To14 lbs. Per diem. I believe there is no greater mistake made by feedersthan that of giving excessive quantities of this substance to stock. Iftheir object in so doing be to enrich their manure-heap, they would findit far more economical to add the cake directly to the manure--or ratherof adding rape-cake to it, for this variety of cake is fully as valuablefor manurial purposes as the linseed-cake, and is nearly 50 per cent. Cheaper. A larger quantity of oil-cake than 7 lbs. Daily should not begiven to even the largest-sized milch cows or fattening bullocks. If alarger amount be employed, it will pass unchanged through the animal'sbody. Young cattle may with advantage be supplied with from 1 to 3 lbs. , according to their size, and from 1/2 to 1 lb. Will be a sufficientquantity for sheep. Intelligent feeders have remarked, that cattle whichhad been always supplied with a moderate allowance of this food fattenedmore readily upon it, during their finishing stage, than did stock whichhad not been accustomed to its use. _Adulteration of Linseed Cake. _--The great drawback to the use oflinseed-cake is the liability of the article to be adulterated. Thesophistication is sometimes of a harmless nature, if we except itsinjurious effect on the farmer's pocket; but not unfrequently thesubstances added to the cakes possess properties which completely unfitthem to be used as food. Amongst the injurious substances found inlinseed and linseed-cake I may mention the seeds of the purging-flax, darnel, spurry, corn-cockle, curcus-beans, and castor-oil beans. Several of these seeds are highly drastic purgatives, and they havebeen known to cause intense inflammation of the bowels of animals fedupon oil-cake, of which they composed but a small proportion. Amongstthe adulterations of linseed-cake, which lower its nutritive valuewithout imparting to it any injurious properties, are the seeds ofthe cereals and the grasses, bran, and flax-straw. Little black seedsbelonging to various species of _Polygonum_, are very often presentin even good cakes; they are very indigestible, but otherwise are notinjurious. Rape-cake is stated to be occasionally used as adulterantof the more costly linseed, but I have never met with an admixture ofthe two articles. The only way in which a correct estimate of the value of linseed-cakecan be arrived at is by a combined microscopical and chemical analysis;but as the feeder is not always disposed to incur the cost of thisprocess, he should make himself acquainted with the characteristicof the genuine cake, in order to be able to discriminate, as far aspossible, between it and the sophisticated article. I will indicate afew of the more prominent features of cake of excellent quality, andpoint out a few simple and easily-performed tests, which may serveto detect the existence of gross adulteration. Good cake is hard, ofa reddish-brown color, uniform in appearance, and possesses a ratherpleasant flavor and odour. The adulterated cake is commonly of a greyishhue, and has a disagreeable odour. A weighed quantity of the cake--say100 grains--in the state of powder should be formed into a paste withan ounce of water; if it be good, the paste will be light colored, moderately stiff, and endowed with a pleasant odour and flavor. If thepaste be thin, the presence of bran, or of grass seeds, is probable. The latter are easily seen through a magnifying-glass; indeed, mostof them are readily recognisable by the unassisted eye: they may, therefore, be picked out, and their weight determined. Sand--a frequentadulterant--may be detected by mixing a small weighed quantity of thepowdered cake with about twelve times its weight of water, allowing themixture to stand for half an hour, and collecting and weighing the sandwhich will be found at the bottom of the vessel employed. If there bebran present it will be found lying on the sand, and its structureis sufficiently distinct to admit of its detection by a mere glance. There are a great variety of linseed-cakes in the market, of whichthe home-made article is the best. On the Continent the oil-seeds aresubjected to the action of heat in order to obtain from them a greateryield of oil. Their cakes, therefore, contain less oil, and theirflesh-forming principles are less soluble, in comparison with Britishlinseed-cake. Next to our home-made oil-cakes, the American is thebest. Indeed, I have met with some American cakes which were equal tothe best English. _Rape Cake. _--The use of rape-cake was limited almost completely to thefertilising of the soil until the late Mr. Pusey, in a paper publishedin the tenth volume of the _Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society ofEngland_, advocated its employment as a substitute for the more costlylinseed-cake. The recommendation of this distinguished agriculturisthas not been disregarded; and since his time the use of this cake as afeeding stuff has been steadily on the increase, and at the present timeits annual consumption is not far short of 50, 000 tons. In relation to the nutritive value of rape-cake there exists considerablediversity of opinion. Certain feeders assert that animals fed upon it goout of condition; others, whilst admitting that stock thrive upon it, maintain the economic superiority of linseed-cake; whilst a thirdset believe rape-cake to be the most economical of feeding-stuffs. How are we to account for these great differences of opinion--notamongst _theorists_, be it observed, but amongst practical men?It is not difficult to explain them away satisfactorily. Rape-cakeand linseed-cake are about equally rich in muscle and fat-formingprinciples; and, supposing both to be equally well-flavored, there canbe no doubt but that one is just as nourishing as the other. But it sohappens that a large proportion of the rape-cake which comes into theBritish market possesses a flavor which renders it very disagreeableto animals. One variety--namely, the East Indian--is almost poisonous, whilst the very best kind is slightly inferior to linseed-cake. Now, ifan experiment with a very inferior kind of rape-cake and a good varietyof linseed-cake were tried, who can doubt but that the results would bevery unfavorable to the former article? Mr. Callan, [36] of Rathfarnham, county Dublin; Mr. Bird, [37] of Renton Barns, and some other feeders, who found rape-cake to be worse than useless, experimented, in allprobability, with an adulterated article, for they do not appear tohave had the cake analysed. On the other hand, those whose experiencewith rape-cake has proved favorable, must have employed the articlein a genuine state, fresh, and moderately well-flavored. It isnoteworthy that amongst the advocates for the use of rape-cake asa substitute--partly or entirely--for the more costly linseed-cake, are to be found the most successful feeders in England and Scotland. Horsfall, Mechi, Lawrence, Bond, Hope, and many other feeders of equalcelebrity, have assigned to rape-cake the highest place, in an economicpoint of view, amongst the concentrated feeding stuffs. Mr. Mechisays:--"I invariably give to all my animals as much rape-cake as theychoose to eat, however abundant their roots or green food may be. Itpays in many ways, and not to do this is a great pecuniary mistake. Even when fed on green rape, they will eat rape-cake abundantly. My cattle are now under cover, eating the steamed chaff, rape-cake, malt-combs, and bran, all mixed together in strict accordance withthe proportions named by Mr. Horsfall in the _Journal of the RoyalAgricultural Society_, vol. Xviii. , p. 150, [38] which I find by farthe most profitable mode of feeding bullocks and cows. " Mr. Hope, ofEdinburgh, states that rape-cake is the best substitute for turnips, and that, excepting cases where spurious kinds had been used, he neverknew bullocks or milch cows to refuse it. This gentleman states thatit is best given in combination with locust-beans, or a mixture oflocust-beans and Indian corn; and suggests the proportions set downin the tables as the best adapted for lean cattle; but I think abouttwo-thirds of the quantities would be quite sufficient. Feed per week. Per week. lbs. S. D. Rape-cake at £5 15s. Per ton 8 2 10-1/2 Do. Do. 10 3 7 Mixture of two-thirds rape-cake and one-third locust-beans £6 8 3 0 Do. Do. 10 3 9 Rape-cake, locust-beans, and Indian Corn in equal proportions 8 3 2-1/2 Do. Do. 10 3 11-1/4 An intelligent Scotch dairy farmer bears the following testimony infavor of this cake:-- I have tried pease-meal, bean-meal, oat-meal, and linseed-cake, and after carefully noting the results, I consider rape-cake, weight for weight, at least equal to any of them for milch cows; and if I give the same money value for each, I get at least one-third more produce, and the butter is always of a very superior quality. Two years ago, I took some of my best oats (41 lbs. Per bushel), and ground them for the cows, and although I was at about one-third more expense, I lost fully one-third of the produce that I had by using rape-cake. I always dissolve it by pouring boiling water on it, and give each cow 6 lbs. Daily. I have tried a larger quantity, and found I was fully repaid for the extra expense. I generally use it the most of the summer, but always during the spring months. A number of my neighbours who have tried it all agree that it is the best and cheapest feed for milch cows they have used. --_North British Agriculturist_, Edinburgh, February 29, 1860. The best kinds of rape-cake come from Germany and Denmark. Whenneither too old nor too fresh, and of a pale-green color, theseforeign cakes are tolerably well-flavored, and are but slightlyinferior to good linseed-cake. Most varieties of this cake, however, contain a small proportion of acrid matter, which often renders themmore or less distasteful to stock, more particularly to cattle. Thissubstance may be rendered quite innocuous by steaming or boiling thecake; either of these processes will also, according to Mr. Lawrence, destroy the disagreeable flavor which mustard-seed--a frequentadulterant of rape-cake--confers upon that article. Molasses or treacleis an excellent adjunct to the cake, as it serves in a great measure tocorrect its somewhat unpleasant flavor. Carob, or locust-beans, answer, perhaps better, the same purpose. It is better, as a general rule, to give less rape-cake than linseed-cake, unless the pale-green kindto which I have referred is obtainable; that variety may be largelyemployed. The animals should be gradually accustomed to its use. Atfirst, in the case of bullocks, they should get only 1 lb. Per diem, and the quantity should be gradually increased to about 4 lbs. ; butI would not advise, under any circumstances, a larger daily allowancethan 5 lbs. Given in moderate amounts, it will, supposing it to be offair quality, be found to give a better return in meat than almost anyother kind of concentrated food; and, what is of great importance, itwill not injuriously affect the animal's health. "Our experience of theuse of rape-cake, " says Mr. Lawrence, "thus used (cooked), extends overa period of ten years of feeding from 20 to 24 bullocks annually. Wehave not had a single death during that period, and the animals havebeen remarkably free from any kind of ailment. " Rape-cake of good quality possesses a dark-green color (the greenerthe better), and when broken exhibits a mottled aspect--yellowish anddark-brown spots. Sometimes a tolerably good specimen has a brownishcolor; but the German and Danish cakes are always of a greenish hue. The odor is stronger than that of linseed-cake, and differs but littlefrom that of rape-oil. The only serious adulteration of rape-cakeis the addition to it of mustard-seed--sometimes accidentally--lessfrequently, as I believe, intentionally. This sophistication admits ofeasy detection. Scrape into small particles about half an ounce of thecake, add six times its weight of water, form the solid and liquidinto a paste, and allow the mixture to stand for a few hours. If thecake contain mustard the characteristic odor of that substance will beevolved, and its intensity will afford a rough indication of the amountof the adulterant. As some specimens of genuine rape-cake possess asomewhat pungent odor, care must be taken not to confound it with thatof mustard; but, indeed, it is not difficult to discriminate the latter. The paste of rape-cake which contains an injurious proportion ofmustard, has a very pungent flavor. Rape-cake improves somewhat if keptfor say six months; but old cake is worse than the fresh article. _Cottonseed Cake_ is one of the most valuable feeding stuffs thathave come into use of late years. Its chemical composition shows itto be about equal to that of the best linseed-cake, and as its priceis much lower than that of the latter, it may be fairly considereda more economical food. These remarks apply only to the shelled, ordecorticated seed-cake, for the article prepared from the whole seed isof very inferior composition, and should never be employed. The use ofthe cake made from the whole seed has proved fatal in many instances, not from its possessing any poisonous quality, but in consequenceof its hard, indigestible husk, accumulating in, and inflaming, theanimal's bowels. The composition of this cake varies somewhat. The following analysis ofa sample from one of the Western States of North America, imported byMessrs. G. Seagrave and Co. , of Liverpool, was made by me:-- COMPOSITION OF DECORTICATED COTTON-SEED CAKE. Water 8·20 Oil 10·16 Albuminous, or flesh-forming principles 40·25 Gum, sugar, &c. 21·10 Fibre 9·23 Ash (mineral matter) 11·06 ------ 100·00 In some specimens so much as 16 per cent. Of oil has been found. Thepurchaser of cotton-seed cake should be certain that it is not old andmouldy, which is frequently the case. The recently prepared cake hasa very yellow color, which becomes fainter as the cake becomes older. Freshness is a very desirable quality in nearly every kind of cake. I have known animals to have a greater relish for, and thrive betterupon, home-made linseed-cake than upon cake of foreign manufacture ofsuperior composition, but of greater age. _Palm-nut Meal, or Cake_ is a very valuable fattening food. It isextremely rich in ready-formed fatty matters, but at the same time it isnot very deficient in albuminous substances. Its strong flavor is rathera drawback to its use in the case of all the farm animals, except pigs. This difficulty may, however, be got over by using the cake in moderatequantities, and by combining it with other food possessed of a goodflavor. Reports of practical trials made with this food appear to havealmost uniformly given very favorable results. This food is only threeor four years in use. The first samples that came into my hand werericher in fatty matters than those which I have recently examined. The average results of eight analyses made from 1864 to 1866 wereas follows:-- 100 PARTS CONTAINED-- Water 7·48 Albuminous matters 17·26 Fatty substances 21·59 Gum, sugar, &c. 32·14 Fibre 17·18 Mineral matter 4·35 ------ 100·00 This year I have not found more than 17 per cent. Of fat in any sampleof palm-nut cake. One specimen which I analysed for Mr. J. G. Alexander, seed merchant, of Dublin, had the following composition:-- Water 9·24 Albuminous matters 19·28 Fatty matters 9·36 Gum, starch, fibre, &c. 53·22 Mineral matters 8·90 ------ 100·00 But although inferior samples are occasionally met with, I may sayof palm-nut cake that on the whole it is a food which deserves to belargely used, and which at its present price is the most economicalsource of fat. To milch-cows and fattening cattle about 3 lbs. Per diemmay be given; 1/4 lb. Will be sufficient for young sheep, whilst pigsmay be very liberally supplied with this food. The _Locust, or Carob Bean_, is now largely used by the stock-feeder. It is extremely rich in sugar, and is therefore an excellent fatteningand milk-producing food. It is used largely in the preparation of thesweet kinds of artificial food for cattle. It is not well adapted foryoung animals, owing to its deficiency of albuminous matters. Thefollowing analysis shows the average composition of this food:-- Water 14 Sugar 50 Albuminous matters 8 Oil 1 Gum, &c. 20 Woody fibre 5 Ash 2 --- 100 _Dates_ have been used, but only in very small quantities, as cattlefood. Their composition is not constant, some samples being greatlyinferior in nutritive power to others; they are rich in sugar, and if they were obtained in sufficient quantities they might, likecarob-beans, come into general use with the stock-feeder. They containabout 2 per cent. Of flesh-formers, 10 per cent. Of fat-formers (chieflysugar), and 2 per cent. Of mineral matter. Distillery and brewery dregs (or wash) are chiefly used by dairymen. According to Dr. Anderson, an imperial gallon (700, 000 grains) ofdistillery wash (from a distillery near Edinburgh) contained 4, 130grains of organic matter, and 276 grains of mineral substances. He considers that 15 gallons of this stuff were equal in nutritivematerials to 100 pounds of turnips. The following is the centesimalcomposition of brewery wash:-- Water 75·85 Albuminous matters 0·62 Gummy matters 1·06 Other organic matter (husks, &c. ) 21·28 Mineral matters 1·19 ------ 100·00 _Molasses_ constitute a very fattening food, sometimes, but notoften, given to stock. Treacle and molasses are composed ofnon-crystallisable sugar, cane-sugar, water, and saline and otherimpurities. The composition of average specimens of molasses, asimported, is as follows:-- Cane-sugar 50 Non-crystallisable sugar and grape-sugar 25 Water, saline matter, and organic impurities 25 --- 100 If admitted duty free, molasses would be a much more economical foodthan it now is, but at its present price it must be regarded as a mereflavoring food. Mr. T. Cooke Burroughs, a West Suffolk feeder, who used treacle in 1864, gives the following mode of mixing it with other food:-- My plan has been (and is still carried on) to give to each bullock per day (divided into three meals) one pint of treacle dissolved in two gallons of water, and sprinkled, by means of a garden water-pot, over four bushels of cut chaff (two-thirds straw and one-third hay) amongst which a quarter of a peck of meal (barley and wheat) is mixed, the animals also having free access to water. The cost of the treacle and meal together is about 3s. Per bullock per week. My bullocks (two-year old Shorthorns) have grown and thrived upon the above diet to my utmost satisfaction; and even during the present dry and warm weather they evince no lingering after roots or grass. I am well aware that the use of treacle for neat stock is no new discovery of my own, as I learnt the system while on a visit to a friend in Norfolk, where some graziers have used it in combination with roots during many years past. Perhaps flax-seed (linseed) boiled into a jelly and used in a similar way, may be a more profitable "substitute for roots" than treacle; but the preparation of it is attended with more expense and trouble. SECTION VIII. CONDIMENTAL FOOD. Although every farmer may not have used, there are few who have notheard of "Thorley's Condimental Food for Cattle. " This nostrum is acompound of some of the ordinary foods with certain well-known aromaticand carminative substances. It possesses a very agreeable flavor, and itis therefore much relished by horses, and indeed by every kind of stock. The price of this compound was at first so much as £60 per ton; butowing to competition, and perhaps to the attacks made upon theenormously high price of this article, it is now to be obtained atprices varying from £12 to £24 per ton. The inventor of condimental food, and the numerous fabricators of thatcompound, claim for it merits of no ordinary nature. Its use, theyassert, not only maintains the animals fed upon it in excellent health, but it also exercises so remarkable an action upon the adipose tissuesthat fat accumulates to an immense extent. Moreover, it is said that ananimal supplied with a very moderate daily modicum of this wonderfulcompound, will consume less of its ordinary food, though rapidlybecoming fat. Now, if these assertions were perfectly, or even approximatively, true, Mr. Thorley would be well deserving of a niche in the temple offame, and stock-feeders would ever regard him as a benefactor to hisown and the bovine species; but I fear that Mr. Thorley's imaginationoutstripped his reason when he described in such glowing terms thewonderful virtues of his tonic food. Mr. J. B. Lawes, of Rothamstead, than whom there is no more accurateexperimenter in agricultural practice, states that he made many carefultrials with Thorley's food, and that he never found it to exercisethe slightest influence upon the nutrition of the animals fed upon it. In his report upon this subject, Mr. Lawes, after describing theexperiments which he made, sums up as follows:-- There is nothing therefore in the above results to recommend the use of Thorley's condiment with inferior fattening food, to those who feed pigs for profit. In fact, the following balance-sheet of the experiment shows that, in fattening for twelve weeks, there was a balance of £1 10s. 11d. In favor of the lot fed without Thorley's food, notwithstanding that one of the pigs in that lot did badly throughout the experiment, as above stated. LOT 1. --WITH BARLEY-MEAL AND BRAN. £ s. D. 4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. Each 8 6 0 1, 860-3/4 lbs. Barley, at 37s. 6d. Per quarter of 416 lbs. , including grinding 8 7 8-3/4 1, 024-3/4 lbs. Bran at 5s. 6d. Per cwt. 2 10 3-3/4 ------------ 19 4 0-1/2 88 stone 5 lbs. Of pork sold at 4s. 4d. Per stone, sinking the offal 19 4 0-1/2 LOT 2. --WITH BARLEY-MEAL, BRAN, AND THORLEY'S FOOD. £ s. D. 4 pigs bought in at 41s. 6d. Each 8 6 0 1, 862-3/4 lbs. Barley, at 37s. 6d. Per quarter of 416 lbs. , including grinding 8 7 10-1/4 1, 020-3/4 lbs. Bran at 5s. 6d. Per cwt. 2 10 1-1/2 105 lbs. Thorley's food at 40s. Per cwt. 1 17 6 ------------ 21 1 5-3/4 90 stone 1 lb. Pork sold at 4s. 4d. Per stone, sinking the offal 19 10 6-1/2 ------------ 1 10 11-1/4 The results of these experiments with pigs, in which Thorley's condimentwas used with inferior fattening food, may be summed up as follows:-- 1. The addition of Thorley's condimental food increased the amount of food consumed by a given weight of animal within a given time. 2. When Thorley's condiment was given it required more food to produce a given amount of increase in live-weight. 3. In fattening for twelve weeks there was a difference of £1 10s. 11d. On the lot of 4 pigs in favor of barley-meal and bran alone, over barley-meal, bran, and Thorley's food in addition. At a meeting of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society ofEngland, held some time ago, the subject of the nutrimental value ofcondimental cattle food was discussed. As there is scarcely any kind ofquackery, from spirit manifestations to Holloway's pills, that has notgot its believers, there were, as might have been anticipated, somevoices raised at this meeting in favor of Thorley's food; but the_sense_ of the meeting was decidedly against it. Professor Simondspronounced it to be worthless. Although the greater number of equine proprietors and feeders of stockare too sensible to throw their money away in the purchase of thosecostly foods, still there are by no means an insignificant number whoemploy it, under the idea that it preserves the health of the animals;these stuffs are also highly appreciated by many grooms and herds. Now, for the information of all believers, I may state that there isno mystery whatever in the nature of condimental cattle foods. Theyconsist in substance of such matters as linseed-cake, Indian corn, rice, bean-meal, locust-beans, and malt-combings. These substancesare flavored by the addition of turmeric-root, ginger, coriander-seed, carraway-seed, fenugreek-seed, aniseed, liquorice, and similarsubstances. In addition to the nutritive and flavorous articles employedin the manufacture of these foods, purely medicinal substances are alsomade use of with the idea that they would prove useful in maintainingthe health and stimulating the appetite of the animals. These medicinalingredients constitute but a small proportion of the compound, althoughthey add considerably to the cost of manufacture. The following is aformula for a condimental food, which in every respect will be foundfully equal, if not superior, to the ordinary high-priced articles. cwt. Qrs. Lbs. Linseed-meal, or cake 7 0 0 Locust beans (ground) 8 0 0 Indian corn 4 1 0 Powdered turmeric 0 1 4 Ginger 0 0 3 Fenugreek-seed 0 0 2 Gentian 0 0 10 Cream of tartar 0 0 2 Sulphur 0 0 20 Common salt 0 0 10 Coriander-seed 0 0 5 ----------------- One ton. A ton of condimental food manufactured according to this formula willcost only about the same amount as an equal weight of linseed, and willproduce an effect fully equal to that of the food which at one time wassold at £60 per ton. Whatever may be the medicinal virtues of these foods, or howeverappropriate the term "condimental" which has been applied to them, it is quite certain that their whilom designation "concentrated"was a misnomer. Their composition shows that they possess a degree ofnutritive power considerably below that of linseed-cake, and but little, if at all, superior to that of Indian corn. The following analytical statement, which I published some years ago, will give an insight into the nature of these articles:-- ANALYSES OF CONDIMENTAL FOOD. Thorley's. Bradley's. Water 12·00 12·09 Nitrogenous, or flesh-forming principles 14·92 10·36 Oil 6·08 5·80 Gum, sugar, mucilage, &c. 56·86 60·21 Woody fibre 5·46 5·32 Mineral matter (ash) 4·68 6·22 ------ ------ 100·00 100·00 As a ton of linseed-cake contains a greater amount of nutriment thanan equal quantity of condimental food, the latter should be clearlyproved to possess very valuable specific virtues, in order to induce thefeeder to use it extensively. Cattle and horses out of condition may bebenefited by its carminative and tonic properties; but if they are, itsurely must be a bad practice to feed healthy animals upon a substancewhich is a remedy in disease. It is asserted, and probably with somedegree of truth, that when dainty, over-fed stock loathe their food, they are induced to eat greedily by mixing the "condimental" with theirordinary food. If such really be the case, let the feeder compound thearticle himself, and effect thereby a saving of perhaps 50 or 80 percent. In the cost of it. A good condimental food, rich in actualnutriment, and pleasantly flavored, is no doubt a compound which mightbe used with advantage; but it should be sold at a moderate and fairprice. * * * * * [Footnote 26: See Transactions of Highland and Agricultural Society ofScotland for 1852. ] [Footnote 27: Zig-zag clover, or Marl grass? Cowgrass is _Trifoliumpratense perenne_. ] [Footnote 28: This gentleman has invented an exceedingly simple buteffective furze-bruiser, which I hope soon to see in general use. ] [Footnote 29: H. Le Docte, in _Journal de la Société Centraled'Agriculture de Belgique_. ] [Footnote 30: Cellulose is the term applied to the chemical substancewhich forms woody fibre. The latter is made up of very minutespindle-shaped tubes. In young and succulent plants these tubes areoften lined with layers of soft cellulose. In many plants--such astrees--in a certain stage of development, the substance lining the cellsis very hard, and is termed _lignin_, or _sclerogen_. This substance ismerely a modification of cellulose; and both resemble in compositionsugar and starch so closely that, by heating them with sulphuric acid, they may be converted into sugar. ] [Footnote 31: One part of oil is equal to 2-1/2 parts of starch--that is, 2-1/2 parts of starch are expended in the production of1 part of fat. ] [Footnote 32: No difference is here assumed between the nutritive valueof sugar and starch. ] [Footnote 33: Unless when Kohl-rabi is cultivated, for the bulbs of thisplant may be preserved in good condition up to June. I have advocatedthe cultivation of the radish as a food crop in the "AgriculturalReview" for 1861. ] [Footnote 34: According to some chemists, sugar does not exist in ripegrain, but is produced in it, during the process of analysis, by theaction of the re-agents employed and the influence of the air. ] [Footnote 35: Report to Government on feeding cattle with Malt, 1844. ] [Footnote 36: _Monthly Agricultural Review_, Dublin, February, 1859. ] [Footnote 37: _Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Societyof Scotland, _ October, 1858. ] [Footnote 38: 3 lbs. Of rape-cake, 3/4 lb. Malt combs, 3/4 lb. Bran, steamed together with a sufficient quantity of straw. ] SECTION IX. --ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF PLANTS. (_Extracted from the Author's "Chemistry of Agriculture. "_) Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of thesubstance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbersrefer to 100 parts when dried. +----------------------+-------+---------------+-------+-------+-------+ | | | Flax. | | | | | | +-------+-------+ | | White | | | Rape | | | Peas. | Kidney| Turnip| | | Seed. | Stalk. | Seed. | | Beans. | Seed. | +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ |Potash | 25·18 | 34·96 | 32·55 | 43·09 | 36·83 | 21·91 | |Soda | . . . | . . . | 2·51 | . . . | 18·40 | 1·23 | |Lime | 12·91 | 15·87 | 9·45 | 4·77 | 7·75 | 17·40 | |Magnesia | 11·39 | 3·68 | 16·23 | 8·06 | 6·33 | 8·74 | |Sesquioxide of Iron | 0·62 | 4·84 | 0·38 | . . . | 2·24 | 1·95 | | " Manganese | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | |Sulphuric Acid | 0·53 | 4·99 | 1·43 | 0·44 | 3·96 | 7·10 | |Muriatic Acid | 0·11 | . . . | . . . | 1·96 | . . . | . . . | |Carbonic Acid | 2·20 | 13·39 | . . . | . . . | . . . | 0·82 | |Phosphoric Acid | 45·95 | 8·48 | 35·99 | 40·56 | 11·60 | 40·17 | |Silica | 1·11 | 5·60 | 1·46 | 0·79 | 4·09 | 0·67 | |Chloride of Potassium | . . . | 7·65 | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | |Chloride of Sodium | . . . | 0·54 | . . . | . . . | 2·80 | . . . | | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | Total |100·00 |100·00 |100·00 | 99·67 |100·00 | 99·99 | | Per-centage of Ash | 4·51 | 5·00 | 3·05 | 5·21 | 0·68 | 3·98 | | | | | | | * | | +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ +----------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+ | | | | | | | | | Turnip | | Mangel | | | | | Bulb |Cucumber. | Wurtzel|Potatoes | Hop | | | (Swede). | | Seed. |(tubers). |Flowers. | +----------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+ |Potash | 39·82 | 47·52 | 16·08 | 35·15 | 19·41 | |Soda | 10·86 | . . . | 6·86 | 5·77 | 0·70 | |Lime | 12·75 | 6·31 | 13·42 | 2·14 | 14·15 | |Magnesia | 4·68 | 4·26 | 15·22 | 2·69 | 5·34 | |Sesquioxide of Iron | 0·89 | . . . | 0·40 | 1·79 | 2·41 | | " Manganese | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | |Sulphuric Acid | 13·15 | 4·60 | 3·64 | 3·29 | 8·28 | |Muriatic Acid | 3·68 | . . . | . . . | . . . | 2·26 | |Carbonic Acid | . . . | . . . | 13·85 | 17·14 | 11·01 | |Phosphoric Acid | 6·69 | 18·03 | 13·35 | 20·70 | 14·64 | |Silica | 7·05 | 7·12 | 1·86 | 3·00 | 18·56 | |Chloride of Potassium | . . . | 4·19 | . . . | 1·84 | . . . | |Chloride of Sodium | . . . | 9·06 | 15·30 | 6·49 | 2·95 | | +---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+ | Total | 99·57 | 100·09 | 99·98 | 100·00 | 99·71 | | Per-centage of Ash | 7·60 | 0·63 | 6·58 | | 6·05 | | | | * | | | | +----------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+ The number marked with an asterisk refers to 100 parts of thesubstance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbersrefer to 100 parts when dried. +----------------------+--------+--------+--------+------+-------------+ | | | | |Husks | Rye. | | |Cauli- |Hopeton |Potato | of +-------------+ | |flowers. |Oats |Oats. |Potato|Grain. |Straw. | | | |(Grain). |(Grain). |Oats. | | | +----------------------+--------+--------+--------+------+------+------+ |Potash | 34·39 | 20·65 | \ | 2·23| 31·76| 17·36| | | | | }31·56| | | | |Soda | 14·79 | . . . | / | 8·97| 4·45| 0·31| |Lime | 2·96 | 10·28 | 5·32| 4·30| 2·92| 9·06| |Magnesia | 2·38 | 7·82 | 8·69| 2·35| 10·13| 2·41| |Sesquioxide of Iron | 1·69 | 3·85 | 0·88| 0·32| 0·82| 1·36| | " Manganese | . . . | 0·42 | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | |Sulphuric Acid | 11·16 | . . . | . . . | 4·30| 1·46| 0·83| |Muriatic Acid | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | 0·46| |Carbonic Acid | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | |Phosphoric Acid | 27·85 | 50·44 | 49·19| 0·66| 47·29| 3·82| |Silica | 1·92 | 4·40 | 1·87| 74·18| 0·17| 64·50| |Chloride of Potassium | . . . | 1·03 | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | |Chloride of Sodium | 2·86 | . . . | 0·35| 2·39| . . . | . . . | | +--------+--------+--------+------+------+------+ | Total | 100·00 | 98·89 | 97·86| 99·70|100·00|100·11| | Per-centage of Ash | 0·71 | | 2·22| | 2·30| 2·60| | | * | | | | | | +----------------------+--------+--------+--------+------+------+------+ +----------------------+-------+---------------------------------------+ | | | Grasses (in flower). | | | Hay. +---------------------------------------+ | | |Bromus |Lolium | Annual | Avena | | | |erectus. |perenne. |Ryegrass. |flavesceus. | +----------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ |Potash | 20·80 | 20·33 | 24·67 | 28·99 | 36·06 | |Soda | 10·85 | . . . | . . . | 0·87 | 0·73 | |Lime | 8·24 | 10·38 | 9·64 | 6·82 | 7·98 | |Magnesia | 4·01 | 4·99 | 2·85 | 2·59 | 3·07 | |Sesquioxide of Iron | 1·83 | 0·26 | 0·21 | 0·28 | 2·40 | | " Manganese| . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | |Sulphuric Acid | 2·11 | 5·46 | 5·20 | 3·45 | 4·00 | |Muriatic Acid | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | |Carbonic Acid | 0·68 | 0·55 | 0·49 | . . . | . . . | |Phosphoric Acid | 15·43 | 7·53 | 8·73 | 10·07 | 9·31 | |Silica | 30·01 | 38·48 | 27·13 | 41·79 | 35·20 | |Chloride of Potassium | . . . | 10·63 | 13·80 | . . . | . . . | |Chloride of Sodium | 5·09 | 1·38 | 7·25 | 5·11 | 1·25 | | +-------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ | Total | 99·05 | 99·99 | 99·97 | 99·97 | 100·00 | | Per-centage of Ash | | 5·21 | 7·54 | 6·45 | 5·20 | | | | | | | | +----------------------+-------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ Those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to 100 parts of thesubstance in its natural or undried state; the remaining numbersrefer to 100 parts when dried. +----------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ | | | |Kohl-rabi, from| | | Broccoli. | Cow Cabbage. | chalk soil. | | +-------+-------+-------+-------+---------------+ | | Root. |Leaves. |Leaves. |Stalk. |Leaves. | Tuber. | +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ |Potash | 47·16 | 22·10 | 40·86 | 40·93 | 9·31 | 36·27 | |Soda | . . . | 7·55 | 2·43 | 4·05 | . . . | 2·84 | |Lime | 4·70 | 28·44 | 15·01 | 10·61 | 30·31 | 10·20 | |Magnesia | 3·93 | 3·43 | 2·39 | 3·85 | 3·62 | 2·36 | |Sesquioxide of Iron | . . . | . . . | 0·77 | 0·41 | 5·50 | 0·38 | | " Manganese | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | |Sulphuric Acid | 10·35 | 16·10 | 7·27 | 11·11 | 10·63 | 11·43 | |Muriatic Acid | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | |Carbonic Acid | . . . | . . . | 16·68 | 6·33 | 8·97 | 10·24 | |Phosphoric Acid | 25·83 | 19·81 | 12·52 | 19·57 | 9·43 | 13·46 | |Silica | 1·81 | 2·83 | 1·66 | 1·04 | 9·57 | 0·82 | |Chloride of Potassium | 6·22 | . . . | . . . | . . . | 5·99 | . . . | |Chloride of Sodium |a trace| . . . | . . . | 2·08 | 6·66 | 11·90 | | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | Total |100·00 |100·26 | 99·99 | 99·98 | 99·99 | 99·90 | | Per-centage of Ash | 1·01 | 1·70 | 0·70 | 1·24 | 18·54 | 8·09 | | | * | * | * | * | | | +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ +----------------------+----------+-----------------+------------------+ | | | | | | | Wheat | Wheat. | Barley. | | | (Grain). +--------+--------+---------+--------+ | | | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | +----------------------+----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+ |Potash | 29·51 | 25·92 | 10·78 | 32·02 | 14·37 | |Soda | 10·61 | . . . | . . . | 1·21 | 0·28 | |Lime | 0·99 | 3·80 | 2·44 | 3·39 | 8·50 | |Magnesia | 10·60 | 12·27 | 3·23 | 10·99 | 1·70 | |Sesquioxide of Iron | . . . | 1·12 | 0·54 | 0·15 | 0·20 | | " Manganese | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | |Sulphuric Acid | 0·09 | . . . | 1·77 | . . . | 2·22 | |Muriatic Acid | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | . . . | |Carbonic Acid | . . . | 4·43 | 6·01 | 0·48 | 1·25 | |Phosphoric Acid | 47·55 | 43·44 | 3·69 | 29·92 | 4·22 | |Silica | 0·11 | 7·16 | 64·84 | 21·12 | 62·89 | |Chloride of Potassium | . . . | 1·03 | 3·96 | . . . | . . . | |Chloride of Sodium | 0·54 | . . . | 0·42 | 0·72 | 4·37 | | +----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+ | Total | 100·00 | 99·17 | 99·68 | 100·00 | 100·00 | | Per-centage of Ash | 2·32 | 1·645 | 5·252 | 2·22 | 5·49 | | | | | | | | +----------------------+----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+ APPENDIX. Whilst this Work was passing through the press, a valuable Report onAgricultural Statistics was issued by the Board of Trade. The followingstatistics, collected from this Report, are here given, because theymodify the statements made in page 5:-- POPULATION, AREA, ACREAGE UNDER CROPS, ETC. , AND NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK, IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1867. +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | England. | Wales. | Scotland. | Ireland. | | | | | | | | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Population (1866) | 20, 276, 494 | 1, 187, 103 | 3, 136, 057 | 5, 571, 971| | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Area (in Statute Acres) | 32, 590, 397 | 4, 734, 486 |19, 639, 377 | 20, 322, 641| | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Under Corn Crops | 7, 399, 347 | 521, 404 | 1, 364, 029 | 2, 115, 137| | " Green Crops | 2, 691, 734 | 138, 387 | 668, 042 | 1, 432, 252| | " Bare Fallow | 753, 210 | 86, 257 | 83, 091 | 26, 191| | " Grass--Clover, &c. , | 2, 478, 117 | 300, 756 | 1, 211, 101 | 1, 658, 451| | Under Rotation | | | | | |Permanent Pasture, | | | | | | not broken up in | | | | | | Rotation[39] | 9, 545, 675 | 1, 472, 359 | 1, 053, 285 | 10, 057, 072| | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Per-centage of | | | | | | Acreage:[40]-- | | | | | |Under Corn Crops | 32·3 | 20·7 | 31·1 | 13·6 | | " Green Crops | 11·7 | 5·5 | 15·3 | 9·2 | | " Bare Fallow | 3·3 | 3·4 | 1·9 | ·2 | | " Grass--Clover, &c. , | | | | | | under Rotation | 10·8 | 11·9 | 27·7 | 10·7 | |Permanent Pasture[41] | 41·6 | 58·5 | 24·0 | 64·7 | | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Number of Cattle | 3, 469, 026 | 544, 538 | 979, 470 | 3, 702, 378| | " of Sheep | 19, 798, 337 | 2, 227, 161 | 6, 893, 603 | 4, 826, 015| | " of Pigs | 2, 548, 755 | 229, 917 | 188, 307 | 1, 233, 893| | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Number of Live Stock | | | | | | to every 100 Acres | | | | | | under Crops, Fallow, | | | | | | and Grass:-- | | | | | | Cattle | 15·1 | 21·6 | 22·4 | 23·8 | | Sheep | 86·3 | 88·4 | 157·4 | 31·1 | | Pigs | 11·1 | 9·1 | 4·3 | 7·9 | +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +-------------------------+------------+-----------------------+-----------+ | | | Channel Islands. | | | | Isle of +-----------+-----------+ Total for | | | Man. | | Guernsey, | United | | | | Jersey. | &c. | Kingdom | | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Population (1866) | 52, 469 | 55, 613 | 35, 365 | 30, 315, 072| | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Area (in Statute Acres) | 180, 000 | 28, 717 | 17, 967 | 77, 513, 585| | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Under Corn Crops | 27, 039 | 2, 827 | 2, 157 | 11, 431, 940| | " Green Crops | 12, 670 | 5, 636 | 3, 075 | 4, 951, 796| | " Bare Fallow | 1, 990 | 2, 550 | 709 | 953, 998| | " Grass--Clover, &c. , | 26, 884 | 3, 250 | 874 | 5, 679, 433| | Under Rotation | | | | | |Permanent Pasture, | | | | | | not broken up in | | | | | | Rotation[39] | 15, 915 | 6, 092 | 6, 143 | 22, 156, 541| | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Per-centage of | | | | | | Acreage:[40]-- | | | | | |Under Corn Crops | 32·0 | 13·9 | 16·7 | 25·1 | | " Green Crops | 15·0 | 27·6 | 23·7 | 10·9 | | " Bare Fallow | 2·4 | 12·5 | 5·5 | 2·1 | | " Grass--Clover, &c. , | | | | | | under Rotation | 31·8 | 16·0 | 6·7 | 12·4 | |Permanent Pasture[41] | 18·8 | 30·0 | 47·4 | 48·7 | | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Number of Cattle | 18, 672 | 10, 081 | 7, 308 | 8, 731, 473| | " of Sheep | 70, 958 | 529 | 1, 348 | 33, 817, 951| | " of Pigs | 7, 706 | 5, 804 | 6, 718 | 4, 221, 100| | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Number of Live Stock | | | | | | to every 100 Acres | | | | | | under Crops, Fallow, | | | | | | and Grass:-- | | | | | | Cattle | 22·1 | 49·5 | 56·4 | 19·2 | | Sheep | 84·0 | 2·6 | 10·4 | 74·3 | | Pigs | 9·1 | 28·5 | 51·8 | 9·3 | +-------------------------+------------+-----------------------+-----------+ * * * * * [Footnote 39: Exclusive of heath or mountain land. ] [Footnote 40: The per-centage of acreage is exclusive of Hops in GreatBritain, and Flax in Ireland. ] [Footnote 41: Including under Flax, 253, 105 acres. ]