THE SOUL OF THE INDIAN

An Interpretation

By Charles Alexander Eastman (Ohiyesa)

 TO MY WIFE ELAINE GOODALE EASTMAN IN GRATEFUL RECOGNITION OF HER EVER-INSPIRING COMPANIONSHIP IN THOUGHT AND WORK AND IN LOVE OF HER MOST INDIAN-LIKE VIRTUES I DEDICATE THIS BOOK

 I speak for each no-tongued tree That, spring by spring, doth nobler be, And dumbly and most wistfully His mighty prayerful arms outspreads, And his big blessing downward sheds. --SIDNEY LANIER. 

 But there's a dome of nobler span, A temple given Thy faith, that bigots dare not ban-- Its space is heaven! It's roof star-pictured Nature's ceiling, Where, trancing the rapt spirit's feeling, And God Himself to man revealing, Th' harmonious spheres Make music, though unheard their pealing By mortal ears! --THOMAS CAMPBELL. 

 God! sing ye meadow streams with gladsome voice! Ye pine-groves, with your soft and soul-like sounds! Ye eagles, playmates of the mountain storm! Ye lightnings, the dread arrows of the clouds! Ye signs and wonders of the elements, Utter forth God, and fill the hills with praise!. . . Earth, with her thousand voices, praises GOD! --COLERIDGE. 

FOREWORD

"We also have a religion which was given to our forefathers, and hasbeen handed down to us their children. It teaches us to be thankful, tobe united, and to love one another! We never quarrel about religion. "

Thus spoke the great Seneca orator, Red Jacket, in his superb reply toMissionary Cram more than a century ago, and I have often heard the samethought expressed by my countrymen. 

I have attempted to paint the religious life of the typical AmericanIndian as it was before he knew the white man. I have long wished to dothis, because I cannot find that it has ever been seriously, adequately, and sincerely done. The religion of the Indian is the last thing abouthim that the man of another race will ever understand. 

First, the Indian does not speak of these deep matters so long ashe believes in them, and when he has ceased to believe he speaksinaccurately and slightingly. 

Second, even if he can be induced to speak, the racial and religiousprejudice of the other stands in the way of his sympatheticcomprehension. 

Third, practically all existing studies on this subject have been madeduring the transition period, when the original beliefs and philosophyof the native American were already undergoing rapid disintegration. 

There are to be found here and there superficial accounts of strangecustoms and ceremonies, of which the symbolism or inner meaning waslargely hidden from the observer; and there has been a great deal ofmaterial collected in recent years which is without value because it ismodern and hybrid, inextricably mixed with Biblical legend and Caucasianphilosophy. Some of it has even been invented for commercial purposes. Give a reservation Indian a present, and he will possibly provide youwith sacred songs, a mythology, and folk-lore to order!

My little book does not pretend to be a scientific treatise. It is astrue as I can make it to my childhood teaching and ancestral ideals, but from the human, not the ethnological standpoint. I have not cared topile up more dry bones, but to clothe them with flesh and blood. So muchas has been written by strangers of our ancient faith and worshiptreats it chiefly as matter of curiosity. I should like to emphasize itsuniversal quality, its personal appeal!

The first missionaries, good men imbued with the narrowness of theirage, branded us as pagans and devil-worshipers, and demanded of us thatwe abjure our false gods before bowing the knee at their sacred altar. They even told us that we were eternally lost, unless we adopted atangible symbol and professed a particular form of their hydra-headedfaith. 

We of the twentieth century know better! We know that all religiousaspiration, all sincere worship, can have but one source and one goal. We know that the God of the lettered and the unlettered, of the Greekand the barbarian, is after all the same God; and, like Peter, weperceive that He is no respecter of persons, but that in every nation hethat feareth Him and worketh righteousness is acceptable to Him. 

CHARLES A. EASTMAN (OHIYESA)

CONTENTS

 I. THE GREAT MYSTERY 1

 II. THE FAMILY ALTAR 25

 III. CEREMONIAL AND SYMBOLIC WORSHIP 51

 IV. BARBARISM AND THE MORAL CODE 85

 V. THE UNWRITTEN SCRIPTURES 117

 VI. ON THE BORDER-LAND OF SPIRITS 147

I. THE GREAT MYSTERY

 Solitary Worship. The Savage Philosopher. The Dual Mind. Spiritual Gifts versus Material Progress. The Paradox of "Christian Civilization. "

The original attitude of the American Indian toward the Eternal, the"Great Mystery" that surrounds and embraces us, was as simple as itwas exalted. To him it was the supreme conception, bringing with it thefullest measure of joy and satisfaction possible in this life. 

The worship of the "Great Mystery" was silent, solitary, free from allself-seeking. It was silent, because all speech is of necessity feebleand imperfect; therefore the souls of my ancestors ascended to God inwordless adoration. It was solitary, because they believed that He isnearer to us in solitude, and there were no priests authorized to comebetween a man and his Maker. None might exhort or confess or in any waymeddle with the religious experience of another. Among us all men werecreated sons of God and stood erect, as conscious of their divinity. Ourfaith might not be formulated in creeds, nor forced upon any who wereunwilling to receive it; hence there was no preaching, proselyting, norpersecution, neither were there any scoffers or atheists. 

There were no temples or shrines among us save those of nature. Beinga natural man, the Indian was intensely poetical. He would deem itsacrilege to build a house for Him who may be met face to face in themysterious, shadowy aisles of the primeval forest, or on the sunlitbosom of virgin prairies, upon dizzy spires and pinnacles of naked rock, and yonder in the jeweled vault of the night sky! He who enrobes Himselfin filmy veils of cloud, there on the rim of the visible world where ourGreat-Grandfather Sun kindles his evening camp-fire, He who ridesupon the rigorous wind of the north, or breathes forth His spirit uponaromatic southern airs, whose war-canoe is launched upon majestic riversand inland seas--He needs no lesser cathedral!

That solitary communion with the Unseen which was the highest expressionof our religious life is partly described in the word bambeday, literally "mysterious feeling, " which has been variously translated"fasting" and "dreaming. " It may better be interpreted as "consciousnessof the divine. "

The first bambeday, or religious retreat, marked an epoch in the life ofthe youth, which may be compared to that of confirmation or conversionin Christian experience. Having first prepared himself by means ofthe purifying vapor-bath, and cast off as far as possible all human orfleshly influences, the young man sought out the noblest height, themost commanding summit in all the surrounding region. Knowing that Godsets no value upon material things, he took with him no offerings orsacrifices other than symbolic objects, such as paints and tobacco. Wishing to appear before Him in all humility, he wore no clothing savehis moccasins and breech-clout. At the solemn hour of sunrise or sunsethe took up his position, overlooking the glories of earth and facingthe "Great Mystery, " and there he remained, naked, erect, silent, andmotionless, exposed to the elements and forces of His arming, for anight and a day to two days and nights, but rarely longer. Sometimes hewould chant a hymn without words, or offer the ceremonial "filled pipe. "In this holy trance or ecstasy the Indian mystic found his highesthappiness and the motive power of his existence. 

When he returned to the camp, he must remain at a distance until he hadagain entered the vapor-bath and prepared himself for intercourse withhis fellows. Of the vision or sign vouchsafed to him he did not speak, unless it had included some commission which must be publicly fulfilled. Sometimes an old man, standing upon the brink of eternity, might revealto a chosen few the oracle of his long-past youth. 

The native American has been generally despised by his white conquerorsfor his poverty and simplicity. They forget, perhaps, that his religionforbade the accumulation of wealth and the enjoyment of luxury. To him, as to other single-minded men in every age and race, from Diogenes tothe brothers of Saint Francis, from the Montanists to the Shakers, thelove of possessions has appeared a snare, and the burdens of a complexsociety a source of needless peril and temptation. Furthermore, it wasthe rule of his life to share the fruits of his skill and success withhis less fortunate brothers. Thus he kept his spirit free from the clogof pride, cupidity, or envy, and carried out, as he believed, the divinedecree--a matter profoundly important to him. 

It was not, then, wholly from ignorance or improvidence that he failedto establish permanent towns and to develop a material civilization. To the untutored sage, the concentration of population was the prolificmother of all evils, moral no less than physical. He argued that food isgood, while surfeit kills; that love is good, but lust destroys; and notless dreaded than the pestilence following upon crowded and unsanitarydwellings was the loss of spiritual power inseparable from too closecontact with one's fellow-men. All who have lived much out of doors knowthat there is a magnetic and nervous force that accumulates in solitudeand that is quickly dissipated by life in a crowd; and even his enemieshave recognized the fact that for a certain innate power and self-poise, wholly independent of circumstances, the American Indian is unsurpassedamong men. 

The red man divided mind into two parts, --the spiritual mind and thephysical mind. The first is pure spirit, concerned only with the essenceof things, and it was this he sought to strengthen by spiritual prayer, during which the body is subdued by fasting and hardship. In this typeof prayer there was no beseeching of favor or help. All matters ofpersonal or selfish concern, as success in hunting or warfare, relieffrom sickness, or the sparing of a beloved life, were definitelyrelegated to the plane of the lower or material mind, and allceremonies, charms, or incantations designed to secure a benefit or toavert a danger, were recognized as emanating from the physical self. 

The rites of this physical worship, again, were wholly symbolic, and theIndian no more worshiped the Sun than the Christian adores the Cross. The Sun and the Earth, by an obvious parable, holding scarcely more ofpoetic metaphor than of scientific truth, were in his view the parentsof all organic life. From the Sun, as the universal father, proceeds thequickening principle in nature, and in the patient and fruitful womb ofour mother, the Earth, are hidden embryos of plants and men. Thereforeour reverence and love for them was really an imaginative extension ofour love for our immediate parents, and with this sentiment of filialpiety was joined a willingness to appeal to them, as to a father, forsuch good gifts as we may desire. This is the material or physicalprayer. 

The elements and majestic forces in nature, Lightning, Wind, Water, Fire, and Frost, were regarded with awe as spiritual powers, but alwayssecondary and intermediate in character. We believed that the spiritpervades all creation and that every creature possesses a soul in somedegree, though not necessarily a soul conscious of itself. The tree, thewaterfall, the grizzly bear, each is an embodied Force, and as such anobject of reverence. 

The Indian loved to come into sympathy and spiritual communion with hisbrothers of the animal kingdom, whose inarticulate souls had for himsomething of the sinless purity that we attribute to the innocent andirresponsible child. He had faith in their instincts, as in a mysteriouswisdom given from above; and while he humbly accepted the supposedlyvoluntary sacrifice of their bodies to preserve his own, he paid homageto their spirits in prescribed prayers and offerings. 

In every religion there is an element of the supernatural, varying withthe influence of pure reason over its devotees. The Indian was a logicaland clear thinker upon matters within the scope of his understanding, but he had not yet charted the vast field of nature or expressed herwonders in terms of science. With his limited knowledge of cause andeffect, he saw miracles on every hand, --the miracle of life in seed andegg, the miracle of death in lightning flash and in the swelling deep!Nothing of the marvelous could astonish him; as that a beast shouldspeak, or the sun stand still. The virgin birth would appear scarcelymore miraculous than is the birth of every child that comes into theworld, or the miracle of the loaves and fishes excite more wonder thanthe harvest that springs from a single ear of corn. 

Who may condemn his superstition? Surely not the devout Catholic, oreven Protestant missionary, who teaches Bible miracles as literal fact!The logical man must either deny all miracles or none, and our AmericanIndian myths and hero stories are perhaps, in themselves, quite ascredible as those of the Hebrews of old. If we are of the modern typeof mind, that sees in natural law a majesty and grandeur far moreimpressive than any solitary infraction of it could possibly be, letus not forget that, after all, science has not explained everything. Wehave still to face the ultimate miracle, --the origin and principleof life! Here is the supreme mystery that is the essence of worship, without which there can be no religion, and in the presence ofthis mystery our attitude cannot be very unlike that of the naturalphilosopher, who beholds with awe the Divine in all creation. 

It is simple truth that the Indian did not, so long as his nativephilosophy held sway over his mind, either envy or desire to imitatethe splendid achievements of the white man. In his own thought he rosesuperior to them! He scorned them, even as a lofty spirit absorbedin its stern task rejects the soft beds, the luxurious food, thepleasure-worshiping dalliance of a rich neighbor. It was clear tohim that virtue and happiness are independent of these things, if notincompatible with them. 

There was undoubtedly much in primitive Christianity to appeal to thisman, and Jesus' hard sayings to the rich and about the rich would havebeen entirely comprehensible to him. Yet the religion that is preachedin our churches and practiced by our congregations, with its element ofdisplay and self-aggrandizement, its active proselytism, and its opencontempt of all religions but its own, was for a long time extremelyrepellent. To his simple mind, the professionalism of the pulpit, thepaid exhorter, the moneyed church, was an unspiritual and unedifyingthing, and it was not until his spirit was broken and his moral andphysical constitution undermined by trade, conquest, and strong drink, that Christian missionaries obtained any real hold upon him. Strange asit may seem, it is true that the proud pagan in his secret soul despisedthe good men who came to convert and to enlighten him!

Nor were its publicity and its Phariseeism the only elements in thealien religion that offended the red man. To him, it appeared shockingand almost incredible that there were among this people who claimedsuperiority many irreligious, who did not even pretend to profess thenational faith. Not only did they not profess it, but they stooped solow as to insult their God with profane and sacrilegious speech! In ourown tongue His name was not spoken aloud, even with utmost reverence, much less lightly or irreverently. 

More than this, even in those white men who professed religion we foundmuch inconsistency of conduct. They spoke much of spiritual things, while seeking only the material. They bought and sold everything:time, labor, personal independence, the love of woman, and even theministrations of their holy faith! The lust for money, power, andconquest so characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon race did not escape moralcondemnation at the hands of his untutored judge, nor did he fail tocontrast this conspicuous trait of the dominant race with the spirit ofthe meek and lowly Jesus. 

He might in time come to recognize that the drunkards and licentiousamong white men, with whom he too frequently came in contact, werecondemned by the white man's religion as well, and must not be held todiscredit it. But it was not so easy to overlook or to excuse nationalbad faith. When distinguished emissaries from the Father at Washington, some of them ministers of the gospel and even bishops, came to theIndian nations, and pledged to them in solemn treaty the national honor, with prayer and mention of their God; and when such treaties, so made, were promptly and shamelessly broken, is it strange that the actionshould arouse not only anger, but contempt? The historians of the whiterace admit that the Indian was never the first to repudiate his oath. 

It is my personal belief, after thirty-five years' experience of it, that there is no such thing as "Christian civilization. " I believe thatChristianity and modern civilization are opposed and irreconcilable, and that the spirit of Christianity and of our ancient religion isessentially the same. 

II. THE FAMILY ALTAR

 Pre-natal Influence. Early Religious Teaching. The Function of the Aged. Woman, Marriage and the Family. Loyalty, Hospitality, Friendship. 

The American Indian was an individualist in religion as in war. He hadneither a national army nor an organized church. There was no priestto assume responsibility for another's soul. That is, we believed, thesupreme duty of the parent, who only was permitted to claim in somedegree the priestly office and function, since it is his creative andprotecting power which alone approaches the solemn function of Deity. 

The Indian was a religious man from his mother's womb. From the momentof her recognition of the fact of conception to the end of the secondyear of life, which was the ordinary duration of lactation, it wassupposed by us that the mother's spiritual influence counted for most. Her attitude and secret meditations must be such as to instill into thereceptive soul of the unborn child the love of the "Great Mystery" anda sense of brotherhood with all creation. Silence and isolation arethe rule of life for the expectant mother. She wanders prayerful in thestillness of great woods, or on the bosom of the untrodden prairie, andto her poetic mind the immanent birth of her child prefigures the adventof a master-man--a hero, or the mother of heroes--a thought conceived inthe virgin breast of primeval nature, and dreamed out in a hush that isonly broken by the sighing of the pine tree or the thrilling orchestraof a distant waterfall. 

And when the day of days in her life dawns--the day in which there isto be a new life, the miracle of whose making has been intrusted to her, she seeks no human aid. She has been trained and prepared in body andmind for this her holiest duty, ever since she can remember. The ordealis best met alone, where no curious or pitying eyes embarrass her; whereall nature says to her spirit: "'Tis love! 'tis love! the fulfilling oflife!" When a sacred voice comes to her out of the silence, and a pairof eyes open upon her in the wilderness, she knows with joy that she hasborne well her part in the great song of creation!

Presently she returns to the camp, carrying the mysterious, the holy, the dearest bundle! She feels the endearing warmth of it and hears itssoft breathing. It is still a part of herself, since both are nourishedby the same mouthful, and no look of a lover could be sweeter than itsdeep, trusting gaze. 

She continues her spiritual teaching, at first silently--a mere pointingof the index finger to nature; then in whispered songs, bird-like, atmorning and evening. To her and to the child the birds are real people, who live very close to the "Great Mystery"; the murmuring trees breatheHis presence; the falling waters chant His praise. 

If the child should chance to be fretful, the mother raises her hand. "Hush! hush!" she cautions it tenderly, "the spirits may be disturbed!"She bids it be still and listen--listen to the silver voice of theaspen, or the clashing cymbals of the birch; and at night she pointsto the heavenly, blazed trail, through nature's galaxy of splendor tonature's God. Silence, love, reverence, --this is the trinity of firstlessons; and to these she later adds generosity, courage, and chastity. 

In the old days, our mothers were single-eyed to the trust imposed uponthem; and as a noted chief of our people was wont to say: "Men may slayone another, but they can never overcome the woman, for in the quietudeof her lap lies the child! You may destroy him once and again, but heissues as often from that same gentle lap--a gift of the Great Good tothe race, in which man is only an accomplice!"

This wild mother has not only the experience of her mother andgrandmother, and the accepted rules of her people for a guide, but shehumbly seeks to learn a lesson from ants, bees, spiders, beavers, andbadgers. She studies the family life of the birds, so exquisite in itsemotional intensity and its patient devotion, until she seems to feelthe universal mother-heart beating in her own breast. In due timethe child takes of his own accord the attitude of prayer, and speaksreverently of the Powers. He thinks that he is a blood brother to allliving creatures, and the storm wind is to him a messenger of the "GreatMystery. "

At the age of about eight years, if he is a boy, she turns him over tohis father for more Spartan training. If a girl, she is from this timemuch under the guardianship of her grandmother, who is considered themost dignified protector for the maiden. Indeed, the distinctive workof both grandparents is that of acquainting the youth with thenational traditions and beliefs. It is reserved for them to repeat thetime-hallowed tales with dignity and authority, so as to lead him intohis inheritance in the stored-up wisdom and experience of the race. Theold are dedicated to the service of the young, as their teachers andadvisers, and the young in turn regard them with love and reverence. 

Our old age was in some respects the happiest period of life. Advancingyears brought with them much freedom, not only from the burden oflaborious and dangerous tasks, but from those restrictions of custom andetiquette which were religiously observed by all others. No one who isat all acquainted with the Indian in his home can deny that we are apolite people. As a rule, the warrior who inspired the greatest terrorin the hearts of his enemies was a man of the most exemplary gentleness, and almost feminine refinement, among his family and friends. A soft, low voice was considered an excellent thing in man, as well as inwoman! Indeed, the enforced intimacy of tent life would soon becomeintolerable, were it not for these instinctive reserves and delicacies, this unfailing respect for the established place and possessions ofevery other member of the family circle, this habitual quiet, order, anddecorum. 

Our people, though capable of strong and durable feeling, were notdemonstrative in their affection at any time, least of all in thepresence of guests or strangers. Only to the aged, who have journeyedfar, and are in a manner exempt from ordinary rules, are permittedsome playful familiarities with children and grandchildren, some plainspeaking, even to harshness and objurgation, from which the others mustrigidly refrain. In short, the old men and women are privileged to saywhat they please and how they please, without contradiction, while thehardships and bodily infirmities that of necessity fall to their lot aresoftened so far as may be by universal consideration and attention. 

There was no religious ceremony connected with marriage among us, whileon the other hand the relation between man and woman was regarded as initself mysterious and holy. It appears that where marriage is solemnizedby the church and blessed by the priest, it may at the same time besurrounded with customs and ideas of a frivolous, superficial, and evenprurient character. We believed that two who love should be united insecret, before the public acknowledgment of their union, and shouldtaste their apotheosis alone with nature. The betrothal might or mightnot be discussed and approved by the parents, but in either case it wascustomary for the young pair to disappear into the wilderness, thereto pass some days or weeks in perfect seclusion and dual solitude, afterward returning to the village as man and wife. An exchange ofpresents and entertainments between the two families usually followed, but the nuptial blessing was given by the High Priest of God, the mostreverend and holy Nature. 

The family was not only the social unit, but also the unit ofgovernment. The clan is nothing more than a larger family, with itspatriarchal chief as the natural head, and the union of several clans byintermarriage and voluntary connection constitutes the tribe. The veryname of our tribe, Dakota, means Allied People. The remoter degrees ofkinship were fully recognized, and that not as a matter of form only:first cousins were known as brothers and sisters; the name of "cousin"constituted a binding claim, and our rigid morality forbade marriagebetween cousins in any known degree, or in other words within the clan. 

The household proper consisted of a man with one or more wives and theirchildren, all of whom dwelt amicably together, often under one roof, although some men of rank and position provided a separate lodge foreach wife. There were, indeed, few plural marriages except amongthe older and leading men, and plural wives were usually, though notnecessarily, sisters. A marriage might honorably be dissolved for cause, but there was very little infidelity or immorality, either open orsecret. 

It has been said that the position of woman is the test of civilization, and that of our women was secure. In them was vested our standard ofmorals and the purity of our blood. The wife did not take the name ofher husband nor enter his clan, and the children belonged to the clanof the mother. All of the family property was held by her, descentwas traced in the maternal line, and the honor of the house was in herhands. Modesty was her chief adornment; hence the younger women wereusually silent and retiring: but a woman who had attained to ripenessof years and wisdom, or who had displayed notable courage in someemergency, was sometimes invited to a seat in the council. 

Thus she ruled undisputed within her own domain, and was to us a towerof moral and spiritual strength, until the coming of the border whiteman, the soldier and trader, who with strong drink overthrew the honorof the man, and through his power over a worthless husband purchased thevirtue of his wife or his daughter. When she fell, the whole race fellwith her. 

Before this calamity came upon us, you could not find anywhere a happierhome than that created by the Indian woman. There was nothing of theartificial about her person, and very little disingenuousness in hercharacter. Her early and consistent training, the definiteness of hervocation, and, above all, her profoundly religious attitude gave hera strength and poise that could not be overcome by any ordinarymisfortune. 

Indian names were either characteristic nicknames given in a playfulspirit, deed names, birth names, or such as have a religious andsymbolic meaning. It has been said that when a child is born, someaccident or unusual appearance determines his name. This is sometimesthe case, but is not the rule. A man of forcible character, with a finewar record, usually bears the name of the buffalo or bear, lightning orsome dread natural force. Another of more peaceful nature may be calledSwift Bird or Blue Sky. A woman's name usually suggested something aboutthe home, often with the adjective "pretty" or "good, " and a femininetermination. Names of any dignity or importance must be conferred by theold men, and especially so if they have any spiritual significance; asSacred Cloud, Mysterious Night, Spirit Woman, and the like. Such a namewas sometimes borne by three generations, but each individual must provethat he is worthy of it. 

In the life of the Indian there was only one inevitable duty, --the dutyof prayer--the daily recognition of the Unseen and Eternal. His dailydevotions were more necessary to him than daily food. He wakes atdaybreak, puts on his moccasins and steps down to the water's edge. Herehe throws handfuls of clear, cold water into his face, or plunges inbodily. After the bath, he stands erect before the advancing dawn, facing the sun as it dances upon the horizon, and offers his unspokenorison. His mate may precede or follow him in his devotions, but neveraccompanies him. Each soul must meet the morning sun, the new, sweetearth, and the Great Silence alone!

Whenever, in the course of the daily hunt, the red hunter comes upon ascene that is strikingly beautiful or sublime--a black thundercloud withthe rainbow's glowing arch above the mountain; a white waterfall inthe heart of a green gorge; a vast prairie tinged with the blood-red ofsunset--he pauses for an instant in the attitude of worship. He sees noneed for setting apart one day in seven as a holy day, since to him alldays are God's. 

Every act of his life is, in a very real sense, a religious act. Herecognizes the spirit in all creation, and believes that he draws fromit spiritual power. His respect for the immortal part of the animal, hisbrother, often leads him so far as to lay out the body of his game instate and decorate the head with symbolic paint or feathers. Then hestands before it in the prayer attitude, holding up the filled pipe, intoken that he has freed with honor the spirit of his brother, whose bodyhis need compelled him to take to sustain his own life. 

When food is taken, the woman murmurs a "grace" as she lowers thekettle; an act so softly and unobtrusively performed that one whodoes not know the custom usually fails to catch the whisper: "Spirit, partake!" As her husband receives the bowl or plate, he likewise murmurshis invocation to the spirit. When he becomes an old man, he loves tomake a notable effort to prove his gratitude. He cuts off the choicestmorsel of the meat and casts it into the fire--the purest and mostethereal element. 

The hospitality of the wigwam is only limited by the institution ofwar. Yet, if an enemy should honor us with a call, his trust will notbe misplaced, and he will go away convinced that he has met with a royalhost! Our honor is the guarantee for his safety, so long as he is withinthe camp. 

Friendship is held to be the severest test of character. It is easy, wethink, to be loyal to family and clan, whose blood is in our own veins. Love between man and woman is founded on the mating instinct and is notfree from desire and self-seeking. But to have a friend, and to be trueunder any and all trials, is the mark of a man!

The highest type of friendship is the relation of "brother-friend" or"life-and-death friend. " This bond is between man and man, is usuallyformed in early youth, and can only be broken by death. It is theessence of comradeship and fraternal love, without thought of pleasureor gain, but rather for moral support and inspiration. Each is vowed todie for the other, if need be, and nothing is denied the brother-friend, but neither is anything required that is not in accord with the highestconceptions of the Indian mind. 

III. CEREMONIAL AND SYMBOLIC WORSHIP

 Modern Perversions of Early Religious Rites. The Sun Dance. The Great Medicine Lodge. Totems and Charms. The Vapor-Bath and the Ceremonial of the Pipe. 

The public religious rites of the Plains Indians are few, and in largepart of modern origin, belonging properly to the so-called "transitionperiod. " That period must be held to begin with the first insidiouseffect upon their manners and customs of contact with the dominant race, and many of the tribes were so influenced long before they ceased tolead the nomadic life. 

The fur-traders, the "Black Robe" priests, the military, and finally theProtestant missionaries, were the men who began the disintegration ofthe Indian nations and the overthrow of their religion, seventy-five toa hundred years before they were forced to enter upon reservation life. We have no authentic study of them until well along in the transitionperiod, when whiskey and trade had already debauched their nativeideals. 

During the era of reconstruction they modified their customs and beliefscontinually, creating a singular admixture of Christian with pagansuperstitions, and an addition to the old folk-lore of disguised Biblestories under an Indian aspect. Even their music shows the influence ofthe Catholic chants. Most of the material collected by modern observersis necessarily of this promiscuous character. 

It is noteworthy that the first effect of contact with the whites was anincrease of cruelty and barbarity, an intensifying of the dark shadowsin the picture! In this manner the "Sun Dance" of the Plains Indians, the most important of their public ceremonials, was abused and perverteduntil it became a horrible exhibition of barbarism, and was eventuallyprohibited by the Government. 

In the old days, when a Sioux warrior found himself in the very jaws ofdestruction, he might offer a prayer to his father, the Sun, to prolonghis life. If rescued from imminent danger, he must acknowledge thedivine favor by making a Sun Dance, according to the vow embraced in hisprayer, in which he declared that he did not fear torture or death, butasked life only for the sake of those who loved him. Thus the physicalordeal was the fulfillment of a vow, and a sort of atonement for whatmight otherwise appear to be reprehensible weakness in the face ofdeath. It was in the nature of confession and thank-offering to the"Great Mystery, " through the physical parent, the Sun, and did notembrace a prayer for future favors. 

The ceremonies usually took place from six months to a year after themaking of the vow, in order to admit of suitable preparation; alwaysin midsummer and before a large and imposing gathering. They naturallyincluded the making of a feast, and the giving away of much savagewealth in honor of the occasion, although these were no essential partof the religious rite. 

When the day came to procure the pole, it was brought in by a party ofwarriors, headed by some man of distinction. The tree selected was sixto eight inches in diameter at the base, and twenty to twenty-fivefeet high. It was chosen and felled with some solemnity, includingthe ceremony of the "filled pipe, " and was carried in the fashion of alitter, symbolizing the body of the man who made the dance. A solitaryteepee was pitched on a level spot at some distance from the village, and the pole raised near at hand with the same ceremony, in the centreof a circular enclosure of fresh-cut boughs. 

Meanwhile, one of the most noted of our old men had carved out ofrawhide, or later of wood, two figures, usually those of a man anda buffalo. Sometimes the figure of a bird, supposed to represent theThunder, was substituted for the buffalo. It was customary to paint theman red and the animal black, and each was suspended from one end of thecrossbar which was securely tied some two feet from the top of thepole. I have never been able to determine that this cross had anysignificance; it was probably nothing more than a dramatic coincidencethat surmounted the Sun-Dance pole with the symbol of Christianity. 

The paint indicated that the man who was about to give thanks publiclyhad been potentially dead, but was allowed to live by the mysteriousfavor and interference of the Giver of Life. The buffalo hung oppositethe image of his own body in death, because it was the support of hisphysical self, and a leading figure in legendary lore. Followingthe same line of thought, when he emerged from the solitary lodgeof preparation, and approached the pole to dance, nude save for hisbreechclout and moccasins, his hair loosened and daubed with clay, hemust drag after him a buffalo skull, representing the grave from whichhe had escaped. 

The dancer was cut or scarified on the chest, sufficient to draw bloodand cause pain, the natural accompaniments of his figurative death. Hetook his position opposite the singers, facing the pole, and draggingthe skull by leather thongs which were merely fastened about hisshoulders. During a later period, incisions were made in the breastor back, sometimes both, through which wooden skewers were drawn, andsecured by lariats to the pole or to the skulls. Thus he danced withoutintermission for a day and a night, or even longer, ever gazing at thesun in the daytime, and blowing from time to time a sacred whistle madefrom the bone of a goose's wing. 

In recent times, this rite was exaggerated and distorted into a mereghastly display of physical strength and endurance under torture, almoston a level with the Caucasian institution of the bull-fight, or theyet more modern prize-ring. Moreover, instead of an atonement orthank-offering, it became the accompaniment of a prayer for success inwar, or in a raid upon the horses of the enemy. The number of dancerswas increased, and they were made to hang suspended from the pole bytheir own flesh, which they must break loose before being released. I well remember the comments in our own home upon the passing ofthis simple but impressive ceremony, and its loss of all meaning andpropriety under the demoralizing additions which were some of the fruitsof early contact with the white man. 

Perhaps the most remarkable organization ever known among AmericanIndians, that of the "Grand Medicine Lodge, " was apparently an indirectresult of the labors of the early Jesuit missionaries. In it Caucasianideas are easily recognizable, and it seems reasonable to suppose thatits founders desired to establish an order that would successfullyresist the encroachments of the "Black Robes. " However that may be, itis an unquestionable fact that the only religious leaders of any notewho have arisen among the native tribes since the advent of the whiteman, the "Shawnee Prophet" in 1762, and the half-breed prophet of the"Ghost Dance" in 1890, both founded their claims or prophecies upon theGospel story. Thus in each case an Indian religious revival or craze, though more or less threatening to the invader, was of distinctivelyalien origin. 

The Medicine Lodge originated among the Algonquin tribe, and extendedgradually throughout its branches, finally affecting the Sioux of theMississippi Valley, and forming a strong bulwark against the work of thepioneer missionaries, who secured, indeed, scarcely any convertsuntil after the outbreak of 1862, when subjection, starvation, andimprisonment turned our broken-hearted people to accept Christianity, which seemed to offer them the only gleam of kindness or hope. 

The order was a secret one, and in some respects not unlike the FreeMasons, being a union or affiliation of a number of lodges, eachwith its distinctive songs and medicines. Leadership was in order ofseniority in degrees, which could only be obtained by merit, and womenwere admitted to membership upon equal terms, with the possibility ofattaining to the highest honors. No person might become a member unlesshis moral standing was excellent, all candidates remained on probationfor one or two years, and murderers and adulterers were expelled. Thecommandments promulgated by this order were essentially the same as theMosaic Ten, so that it exerted a distinct moral influence, in additionto its ostensible object, which was instruction in the secrets oflegitimate medicine. 

In this society the uses of all curative roots and herbs known to uswere taught exhaustively and practiced mainly by the old, the youngermembers being in training to fill the places of those who passed away. My grandmother was a well-known and successful practitioner, and both mymother and father were members, but did not practice. 

A medicine or "mystery feast" was not a public affair, as members onlywere eligible, and upon these occasions all the "medicine bags" andtotems of the various lodges were displayed and their peculiar "medicinesongs" were sung. The food was only partaken of by invited guests, andnot by the hosts, or lodge making the feast. The "Grand MedicineDance" was given on the occasion of initiating those candidates who hadfinished their probation, a sufficient number of whom were designatedto take the places of those who had died since the last meeting. Invitations were sent out in the form of small bundles of tobacco. Two very large teepees were pitched facing one another, a hundred feetapart, half open, and connected by a roofless hall or colonnade offresh-cut boughs. One of these lodges was for the society giving thedance and the novices, the other was occupied by the "soldiers, " whoseduty it was to distribute the refreshments, and to keep order among thespectators. They were selected from among the best and bravest warriorsof the tribe. 

The preparations being complete, and the members of each lodgegarbed and painted according to their rituals, they entered the hallseparately, in single file, led by their oldest man or "Great Chief. "Standing before the "Soldiers' Lodge, " facing the setting sun, theirchief addressed the "Great Mystery" directly in a few words, after whichall extending the right arm horizontally from the shoulder withopen palm, sang a short invocation in unison, ending with a deep:"E-ho-ho-ho!" This performance, which was really impressive, wasrepeated in front of the headquarters lodge, facing the rising sun, after which each lodge took its assigned place, and the songs and dancesfollowed in regular order. 

The closing ceremony, which was intensely dramatic in its character, wasthe initiation of the novices, who had received their final preparationon the night before. They were now led out in front of the headquarterslodge and placed in a kneeling position upon a carpet of rich robes andfurs, the men upon the right hand, stripped and painted black, with around spot of red just over the heart, while the women, dressed in theirbest, were arranged upon the left. Both sexes wore the hair loose, asif in mourning or expectation of death. An equal number of grandmedicine-men, each of whom was especially appointed to one of thenovices, faced them at a distance of half the length of the hall, orperhaps fifty feet. 

After silent prayer, each medicine-man in turn addressed himself to hischarge, exhorting him to observe all the rules of the order under theeye of the Mysterious One, and instructing him in his duty toward hisfellow-man and toward the Ruler of Life. All then assumed an attitudeof superb power and dignity, crouching slightly as if about to springforward in a foot-race, and grasping their medicine bags firmly in bothhands. Swinging their arms forward at the same moment, they utteredtheir guttural "Yo-ho-ho-ho!" in perfect unison and with startlingeffect. In the midst of a breathless silence, they took a step forward, then another and another, ending a rod or so from the row of kneelingvictims, with a mighty swing of the sacred bags that would seem toproject all their mystic power into the bodies of the initiates. Instantly they all fell forward, apparently lifeless. 

With this thrilling climax, the drums were vigorously pounded and thedance began again with energy. After a few turns had been taken aboutthe prostrate bodies of the new members, covering them with fine robesand other garments which were later to be distributed as gifts, theywere permitted to come to life and to join in the final dance. The wholeperformance was clearly symbolic of death and resurrection. 

While I cannot suppose that this elaborate ritual, with its use ofpublic and audible prayer, of public exhortation or sermon, and otherCaucasian features, was practiced before comparatively modern times, there is no doubt that it was conscientiously believed in by itsmembers, and for a time regarded with reverence by the people. But ata later period it became still further demoralized and fell undersuspicion of witchcraft. 

There is no doubt that the Indian held medicine close to spiritualthings, but in this also he has been much misunderstood; in facteverything that he held sacred is indiscriminately called "medicine, " inthe sense of mystery or magic. As a doctor he was originally very adroitand often successful. He employed only healing bark, roots, and leaveswith whose properties he was familiar, using them in the form of adistillation or tea and always singly. The stomach or internal bathwas a valuable discovery of his, and the vapor or Turkish bath was ingeneral use. He could set a broken bone with fair success, but neverpracticed surgery in any form. In addition to all this, the medicine-manpossessed much personal magnetism and authority, and in his treatmentoften sought to reestablish the equilibrium of the patient throughmental or spiritual influences--a sort of primitive psychotherapy. 

The Sioux word for the healing art is "wah-pee-yah, " which literallymeans readjusting or making anew. "Pay-jee-hoo-tah, " literally root, means medicine, and "wakan" signifies spirit or mystery. Thus the threeideas, while sometimes associated, were carefully distinguished. 

It is important to remember that in the old days the "medicine-man"received no payment for his services, which were of the nature of anhonorable function or office. When the idea of payment and barter wasintroduced among us, and valuable presents or fees began to be demandedfor treating the sick, the ensuing greed and rivalry led to manydemoralizing practices, and in time to the rise of the modern"conjurer, " who is generally a fraud and trickster of the grossest kind. It is fortunate that his day is practically over. 

Ever seeking to establish spiritual comradeship with the animalcreation, the Indian adopted this or that animal as his "totem, " theemblematic device of his society, family, or clan. It is probable thatthe creature chosen was the traditional ancestress, as we are told thatthe First Man had many wives among the animal people. The sacredbeast, bird, or reptile, represented by its stuffed skin, or by a rudepainting, was treated with reverence and carried into battle to insurethe guardianship of the spirits. The symbolic attribute of beaver, bear, or tortoise, such as wisdom, cunning, courage, and the like, wassupposed to be mysteriously conferred upon the wearer of the badge. The totem or charm used in medicine was ordinarily that of the medicinelodge to which the practitioner belonged, though there were some greatmen who boasted a special revelation. 

There are two ceremonial usages which, so far as I have been ableto ascertain, were universal among American Indians, and apparentlyfundamental. These have already been referred to as the "eneepee, " orvapor-bath, and the "chan-du-hu-pah-yu-za-pee, " or ceremonial of thepipe. In our Siouan legends and traditions these two are preeminent, ashanded down from the most ancient time and persisting to the last. 

In our Creation myth or story of the First Man, the vapor-bath was themagic used by The-one-who-was-First-Created, to give life to the deadbones of his younger brother, who had been slain by the monsters of thedeep. Upon the shore of the Great Water he dug two round holes, over oneof which he built a low enclosure of fragrant cedar boughs, and here hegathered together the bones of his brother. In the other pit he made afire and heated four round stones, which he rolled one by one into thelodge of boughs. Having closed every aperture save one, he sang a mysticchant while he thrust in his arm and sprinkled water upon the stoneswith a bunch of sage. Immediately steam arose, and as the legend says, "there was an appearance of life. " A second time he sprinkled water, andthe dry bones rattled together. The third time he seemed to hear softsinging from within the lodge; and the fourth time a voice exclaimed:"Brother, let me out!" (It should be noted that the number four is themagic or sacred number of the Indian. )

This story gives the traditional origin of the "eneepee, " which hasever since been deemed essential to the Indian's effort to purify andrecreate his spirit. It is used both by the doctor and by his patient. Every man must enter the cleansing bath and take the cold plunge whichfollows, when preparing for any spiritual crisis, for possible death, orimminent danger. 

Not only the "eneepee" itself, but everything used in connection withthe mysterious event, the aromatic cedar and sage, the water, andespecially the water-worn boulders, are regarded as sacred, or atthe least adapted to a spiritual use. For the rock we have aspecial reverent name--"Tunkan, " a contraction of the Sioux word forGrandfather. 

The natural boulder enters into many of our solemn ceremonials, suchas the "Rain Dance, " and the "Feast of Virgins. " The lone hunter andwarrior reverently holds up his filled pipe to "Tunkan, " in solitarycommemoration of a miracle which to him is as authentic and holy as theraising of Lazarus to the devout Christian. 

There is a legend that the First Man fell sick, and was taught by hisElder Brother the ceremonial use of the pipe, in a prayer to thespirits for ease and relief. This simple ceremony is the commonest dailyexpression of thanks or "grace, " as well as an oath of loyalty and goodfaith when the warrior goes forth upon some perilous enterprise, andit enters even into his "hambeday, " or solitary prayer, ascending as arising vapor or incense to the Father of Spirits. 

In all the war ceremonies and in medicine a special pipe is used, but athome or on the hunt the warrior employs his own. The pulverized weed ismixed with aromatic bark of the red willow, and pressed lightly into thebowl of the long stone pipe. The worshiper lights it gravely and takes awhiff or two; then, standing erect, he holds it silently toward theSun, our father, and toward the earth, our mother. There are modernvariations, as holding the pipe to the Four Winds, the Fire, Water, Rock, and other elements or objects of reverence. 

There are many religious festivals which are local and special incharacter, embodying a prayer for success in hunting or warfare, or forrain and bountiful harvests, but these two are the sacraments of ourreligion. For baptism we substitute the "eneepee, " the purification byvapor, and in our holy communion we partake of the soothing incense oftobacco in the stead of bread and wine. 

IV. BARBARISM AND THE MORAL CODE

 Silence the Corner-Stone of Character. Basic Ideas of Morality. "Give All or Nothing!" Rules of Honorable Warfare. An Indian Conception of Courage. 

Long before I ever heard of Christ, or saw a white man, I had learnedfrom an untutored woman the essence of morality. With the help of dearNature herself, she taught me things simple but of mighty import. Iknew God. I perceived what goodness is. I saw and loved what is reallybeautiful. Civilization has not taught me anything better!

As a child, I understood how to give; I have forgotten that grace sinceI became civilized. I lived the natural life, whereas I now live theartificial. Any pretty pebble was valuable to me then; every growingtree an object of reverence. Now I worship with the white man before apainted landscape whose value is estimated in dollars! Thus the Indianis reconstructed, as the natural rocks are ground to powder, and madeinto artificial blocks which may be built into the walls of modernsociety. 

The first American mingled with his pride a singular humility. Spiritualarrogance was foreign to his nature and teaching. He never claimed thatthe power of articulate speech was proof of superiority over the dumbcreation; on the other hand, it is to him a perilous gift. He believesprofoundly in silence--the sign of a perfect equilibrium. Silence isthe absolute poise or balance of body, mind, and spirit. The manwho preserves his selfhood ever calm and unshaken by the storms ofexistence--not a leaf, as it were, astir on the tree; not a ripple uponthe surface of shining pool--his, in the mind of the unlettered sage, isthe ideal attitude and conduct of life. 

If you ask him: "What is silence?" he will answer: "It is the GreatMystery!" "The holy silence is His voice!" If you ask: "What are thefruits of silence?" he will say: "They are self-control, true courage orendurance, patience, dignity, and reverence. Silence is the cornerstoneof character. "

"Guard your tongue in youth, " said the old chief, Wabashaw, "and in ageyou may mature a thought that will be of service to your people!"

The moment that man conceived of a perfect body, supple, symmetrical, graceful, and enduring--in that moment he had laid the foundation ofa moral life! No man can hope to maintain such a temple of the spiritbeyond the period of adolescence, unless he is able to curb hisindulgence in the pleasures of the senses. Upon this truth the Indianbuilt a rigid system of physical training, a social and moral code thatwas the law of his life. 

There was aroused in him as a child a high ideal of manly strength andbeauty, the attainment of which must depend upon strict temperance ineating and in the sexual relation, together with severe and persistentexercise. He desired to be a worthy link in the generations, and that hemight not destroy by his weakness that vigor and purity of blood whichhad been achieved at the cost of much self-denial by a long line ofancestors. 

He was required to fast from time to time for short periods, and to workoff his superfluous energy by means of hard running, swimming, and thevapor-bath. The bodily fatigue thus induced, especially when coupledwith a reduced diet, is a reliable cure for undue sexual desires. 

Personal modesty was early cultivated as a safeguard, together with astrong self-respect and pride of family and race. This was accomplishedin part by keeping the child ever before the public eye, from his birthonward. His entrance into the world, especially in the case of thefirst-born, was often publicly announced by the herald, accompanied bya distribution of presents to the old and needy. The same thing occurredwhen he took his first step, when his ears were pierced, and when heshot his first game, so that his childish exploits and progress wereknown to the whole clan as to a larger family, and he grew into manhoodwith the saving sense of a reputation to sustain. 

The youth was encouraged to enlist early in the public service, and todevelop a wholesome ambition for the honors of a leader and feast-maker, which can never be his unless he is truthful and generous, as well asbrave, and ever mindful of his personal chastity and honor. There weremany ceremonial customs which had a distinct moral influence; the womanwas rigidly secluded at certain periods, and the young husband wasforbidden to approach his own wife when preparing for war or for anyreligious event. The public or tribal position of the Indian is entirelydependent upon his private virtue, and he is never permitted to forgetthat he does not live to himself alone, but to his tribe and his clan. Thus habits of perfect self-control were early established, and therewere no unnatural conditions or complex temptations to beset him untilhe was met and overthrown by a stronger race. 

To keep the young men and young women strictly to their honor, therewere observed among us, within my own recollection, certain annualceremonies of a semi-religious nature. One of the most impressive ofthese was the sacred "Feast of Virgins, " which, when given for thefirst time, was equivalent to the public announcement of a young girl'sarrival at a marriageable age. The herald, making the rounds of theteepee village, would publish the feast something after this fashion:

"Pretty Weasel-woman, the daughter of Brave Bear, will kindle her firstmaidens' fire to-morrow! All ye who have never yielded to the pleadingof man, who have not destroyed your innocency, you alone are invited, toproclaim anew before the Sun and the Earth, before your companionsand in the sight of the Great Mystery, the chastity and purity of yourmaidenhood. Come ye, all who have not known man!"

The whole village was at once aroused to the interest of the comingevent, which was considered next to the Sun Dance and the Grand MedicineDance in public importance. It always took place in midsummer, whena number of different clans were gathered together for the summerfestivities, and was held in the centre of the great circularencampment. 

Here two circles were described, one within the other, about a rudelyheart-shaped rock which was touched with red paint, and upon either sideof the rock there were thrust into the ground a knife and two arrows. The inner circle was for the maidens, and the outer one for theirgrandmothers or chaperones, who were supposed to have passed theclimacteric. Upon the outskirts of the feast there was a great publicgathering, in which order was kept by certain warriors of highestreputation. Any man among the spectators might approach and challengeany young woman whom he knew to be unworthy; but if the accuserfailed to prove his charge, the warriors were accustomed to punish himseverely. 

Each girl in turn approached the sacred rock and laid her hand upon itwith all solemnity. This was her religious declaration of her virginity, her vow to remain pure until her marriage. If she should ever violatethe maidens' oath, then welcome that keen knife and those sharp arrows!

Our maidens were ambitious to attend a number of these feasts beforemarriage, and it sometimes happened that a girl was compelled to giveone, on account of gossip about her conduct. Then it was in the natureof a challenge to the scandal-mongers to prove their words! A similarfeast was sometimes made by the young men, for whom the rules were evenmore strict, since no young man might attend this feast who had so muchas spoken of love to a maiden. It was considered a high honor among usto have won some distinction in war and the chase, and above all to havebeen invited to a seat in the council, before one had spoken to any girlsave his own sister. 

It was our belief that the love of possessions is a weakness to beovercome. Its appeal is to the material part, and if allowed its wayit will in time disturb the spiritual balance of the man. Therefore thechild must early learn the beauty of generosity. He is taught to givewhat he prizes most, and that he may taste the happiness of giving, heis made at an early age the family almoner. If a child is inclined tobe grasping, or to cling to any of his little possessions, legends arerelated to him, telling of the contempt and disgrace falling upon theungenerous and mean man. 

Public giving is a part of every important ceremony. It properly belongsto the celebration of birth, marriage, and death, and is observedwhenever it is desired to do special honor to any person or event. Upon such occasions it is common to give to the point of utterimpoverishment. The Indian in his simplicity literally gives away allthat he has, to relatives, to guests of another tribe or clan, butabove all to the poor and the aged, from whom he can hope for no return. Finally, the gift to the "Great Mystery, " the religious offering, maybe of little value in itself, but to the giver's own thought it shouldcarry the meaning and reward of true sacrifice. 

Orphans and the aged are invariably cared for, not only by their next ofkin, but by the whole clan. It is the loving parent's pride to have hisdaughters visit the unfortunate and the helpless, carry them food, combtheir hair, and mend their garments. The name "Wenonah, " bestowed uponthe eldest daughter, distinctly implies all this, and a girl who failedin her charitable duties was held to be unworthy of the name. 

The man who is a skillful hunter, and whose wife is alive to heropportunities, makes many feasts, to which he is careful to invite theolder men of his clan, recognizing that they have outlived their periodof greatest activity, and now love nothing so well as to eat in goodcompany, and to live over the past. The old men, for their part, dotheir best to requite his liberality with a little speech, in whichthey are apt to relate the brave and generous deeds of their host'sancestors, finally congratulating him upon being a worthy successorof an honorable line. Thus his reputation is won as a hunter and afeast-maker, and almost as famous in his way as the great warrior is hewho has a recognized name and standing as a "man of peace. "

The true Indian sets no price upon either his property or his labor. Hisgenerosity is only limited by his strength and ability. He regards it asan honor to be selected for a difficult or dangerous service, and wouldthink it shame to ask for any reward, saying rather: "Let him whom Iserve express his thanks according to his own bringing up and his senseof honor!"

Nevertheless, he recognizes rights in property. To steal from one ofhis own tribe would be indeed disgrace, and if discovered, the name of"Wamanon, " or Thief, is fixed upon him forever as an unalterable stigma. The only exception to the rule is in the case of food, which is alwaysfree to the hungry if there is none by to offer it. Other protectionthan the moral law there could not be in an Indian community, wherethere were neither locks nor doors, and everything was open and easy ofaccess to all comers. 

The property of the enemy is spoil of war, and it is always allowable toconfiscate it if possible. However, in the old days there was not muchplunder. Before the coming of the white man, there was in fact littletemptation or opportunity to despoil the enemy; but in modern times thepractice of "stealing horses" from hostile tribes has become common, andis thought far from dishonorable. 

Warfare we regarded as an institution of the "Great Mystery"--anorganized tournament or trial of courage and skill, with elaborate rulesand "counts" for the coveted honor of the eagle feather. It was heldto develop the quality of manliness and its motive was chivalric orpatriotic, but never the desire for territorial aggrandizement or theoverthrow of a brother nation. It was common, in early times, for abattle or skirmish to last all day, with great display of daring andhorsemanship, but with scarcely more killed and wounded than may becarried from the field during a university game of football. 

The slayer of a man in battle was expected to mourn for thirty daysblackening his face and loosening his hair according to the custom. Heof course considered it no sin to take the life of an enemy, and thisceremonial mourning was a sign of reverence for the departed spirit. Thekilling in war of non-combatants, such as women and children, is partlyexplained by the fact that in savage life the woman without husband orprotector is in pitiable case, and it was supposed that the spirit ofthe warrior would be better content if no widow and orphans were left tosuffer want, as well as to weep. 

A scalp might originally be taken by the leader of the war party onlyand at that period no other mutilation was practiced. It was a smalllock not more than three inches square, which was carried only duringthe thirty days' celebration of a victory, and afterward given religiousburial. Wanton cruelties and the more barbarous customs of war weregreatly intensified with the coming of the white man, who broughtwith him fiery liquor and deadly weapons, aroused the Indian's worstpassions, provoking in him revenge and cupidity, and even offeredbounties for the scalps of innocent men, women, and children. 

Murder within the tribe was a grave offense, to be atoned for as thecouncil might decree, and it often happened that the slayer was calledupon to pay the penalty with his own life. He made no attempt to escapeor to evade justice. That the crime was committed in the depths ofthe forest or at dead of night, witnessed by no human eye, made nodifference to his mind. He was thoroughly convinced that all is known tothe "Great Mystery, " and hence did not hesitate to give himself up, tostand his trial by the old and wise men of the victim's clan. His ownfamily and clan might by no means attempt to excuse or to defend him, but his judges took all the known circumstances into consideration, andif it appeared that he slew in self-defense, or that the provocation wassevere, he might be set free after a thirty days' period of mourning insolitude. Otherwise the murdered man's next of kin were authorized totake his life; and if they refrained from doing so, as often happened, he remained an outcast from the clan. A willful murder was a rareoccurrence before the days of whiskey and drunken rows, for we were nota violent or a quarrelsome people. 

It is well remembered that Crow Dog, who killed the Sioux chief, SpottedTail, in 1881, calmly surrendered himself and was tried and convictedby the courts in South Dakota. After his conviction, he was permittedremarkable liberty in prison, such as perhaps no white man has everenjoyed when under sentence of death. 

The cause of his act was a solemn commission received from his people, nearly thirty years earlier, at the time that Spotted Tail usurped thechieftainship by the aid of the military, whom he had aided. Crow Dogwas under a vow to slay the chief, in case he ever betrayed or disgracedthe name of the Brule Sioux. There is no doubt that he had committedcrimes both public and private, having been guilty of misuse of officeas well as of gross offenses against morality; therefore his death wasnot a matter of personal vengeance but of just retribution. 

A few days before Crow Dog was to be executed, he asked permission tovisit his home and say farewell to his wife and twin boys, then nineor ten years old. Strange to say, the request was granted, and thecondemned man sent home under escort of the deputy sheriff, who remainedat the Indian agency, merely telling his prisoner to report there onthe following day. When he did not appear at the time set, the sheriffdispatched the Indian police after him. They did not find him, and hiswife simply said that Crow Dog had desired to ride alone to the prison, and would reach there on the day appointed. All doubt was removed nextday by a telegram from Rapid City, two hundred miles distant, saying:"Crow Dog has just reported here. "

The incident drew public attention to the Indian murderer, with theunexpected result that the case was reopened, and Crow Dog acquitted. He still lives, a well-preserved man of about seventy-five years, and ismuch respected among his own people. 

It is said that, in the very early days, lying was a capital offenseamong us. Believing that the deliberate liar is capable of committingany crime behind the screen of cowardly untruth and double-dealing, thedestroyer of mutual confidence was summarily put to death, that the evilmight go no further. 

Even the worst enemies of the Indian, those who accuse him of treachery, blood-thirstiness, cruelty, and lust, have not denied his courage, butin their minds it is a courage that is ignorant, brutal, and fantastic. His own conception of bravery makes of it a high moral virtue, for tohim it consists not so much in aggressive self-assertion as in absoluteself-control. The truly brave man, we contend, yields neither to fearnor anger, desire nor agony; he is at all times master of himself; hiscourage rises to the heights of chivalry, patriotism, and real heroism. 

"Let neither cold, hunger, nor pain, nor the fear of them, neither thebristling teeth of danger nor the very jaws of death itself, prevent youfrom doing a good deed, " said an old chief to a scout who was about toseek the buffalo in midwinter for the relief of a starving people. Thiswas his childlike conception of courage. 

V. THE UNWRITTEN SCRIPTURES

 A Living Book. The Sioux Story of Creation. The First Battle. Another Version of the Flood. Our Animal Ancestry. 

A missionary once undertook to instruct a group of Indians in the truthsof his holy religion. He told them of the creation of the earth in sixdays, and of the fall of our first parents by eating an apple. 

The courteous savages listened attentively, and, after thanking him, onerelated in his turn a very ancient tradition concerning the origin ofthe maize. But the missionary plainly showed his disgust and disbelief, indignantly saying:--

"What I delivered to you were sacred truths, but this that you tell meis mere fable and falsehood!"

"My brother, " gravely replied the offended Indian, "it seems that youhave not been well grounded in the rules of civility. You saw thatwe, who practice these rules, believed your stories; why, then, do yourefuse to credit ours?"

Every religion has its Holy Book, and ours was a mingling of history, poetry, and prophecy, of precept and folk-lore, even such as the modernreader finds within the covers of his Bible. This Bible of ours was ourwhole literature, a living Book, sowed as precious seed by our wisestsages, and springing anew in the wondering eyes and upon the innocentlips of little children. Upon its hoary wisdom of proverb and fable, itsmystic and legendary lore thus sacredly preserved and transmitted fromfather to son, was based in large part our customs and philosophy. 

Naturally magnanimous and open-minded, the red man prefers to believethat the Spirit of God is not breathed into man alone, but that thewhole created universe is a sharer in the immortal perfection of itsMaker. His imaginative and poetic mind, like that of the Greek, assignsto every mountain, tree, and spring its spirit, nymph, or divinityeither beneficent or mischievous. The heroes and demigods of Indiantradition reflect the characteristic trend of his thought, and hisattribution of personality and will to the elements, the sun and stars, and all animate or inanimate nature. 

In the Sioux story of creation, the great Mysterious One is not broughtdirectly upon the scene or conceived in anthropomorphic fashion, butremains sublimely in the background. The Sun and the Earth, representingthe male and female principles, are the main elements in his creation, the other planets being subsidiary. The enkindling warmth of the Sunentered into the bosom of our mother, the Earth, and forthwith sheconceived and brought forth life, both vegetable and animal. 

Finally there appeared mysteriously Ish-na-e-cha-ge, the "First-Born, "a being in the likeness of man, yet more than man, who roamed solitaryamong the animal people and understood their ways and their language. They beheld him with wonder and awe, for they could do nothing withouthis knowledge. He had pitched his tent in the centre of the land, andthere was no spot impossible for him to penetrate. 

At last, like Adam, the "First-Born" of the Sioux became weary ofliving alone, and formed for himself a companion--not a mate, but abrother--not out of a rib from his side, but from a splinter whichhe drew from his great toe! This was the Little Boy Man, who was notcreated full-grown, but as an innocent child, trusting and helpless. HisElder Brother was his teacher throughout every stage of human progressfrom infancy to manhood, and it is to the rules which he laid down, and his counsels to the Little Boy Man, that we trace many of our mostdeep-rooted beliefs and most sacred customs. 

Foremost among the animal people was Unk-to-mee, the Spider, theoriginal trouble-maker, who noted keenly the growth of the boy in witand ingenuity, and presently advised the animals to make an end of him;"for, " said he, "if you do not, some day he will be the master of usall!" But they all loved the Little Boy Man because he was so friendlyand so playful. Only the monsters of the deep sea listened, andpresently took his life, hiding his body in the bottom of the sea. Nevertheless, by the magic power of the First-Born, the body wasrecovered and was given life again in the sacred vapor-bath, asdescribed in a former chapter. 

Once more our first ancestor roamed happily among the animal people, whowere in those days a powerful nation. He learned their ways and theirlanguage--for they had a common tongue in those days; learned to singlike the birds, to swim like the fishes, and to climb sure-footed overrocks like the mountain sheep. Notwithstanding that he was their goodcomrade and did them no harm, Unk-to-mee once more sowed dissensionamong the animals, and messages were sent into all quarters of theearth, sea, and air, that all the tribes might unite to declare war uponthe solitary man who was destined to become their master. 

After a time the young man discovered the plot, and came home verysorrowful. He loved his animal friends, and was grieved that they shouldcombine against him. Besides, he was naked and unarmed. But his ElderBrother armed him with a bow and flint-headed arrows, a stone war-cluband a spear. He likewise tossed a pebble four times into the air, andeach time it became a cliff or wall of rock about the teepee. 

"Now, " said he, "it is time to fight and to assert your supremacy, for it is they who have brought the trouble upon you, and not you uponthem!"

Night and day the Little Boy Man remained upon the watch for his enemiesfrom the top of the wall, and at last he beheld the prairies black withbuffalo herds, and the elk gathering upon the edges of the forest. Bearsand wolves were closing in from all directions, and now from the sky theThunder gave his fearful war-whoop, answered by the wolf's long howl. 

The badgers and other burrowers began at once to undermine his rockyfortress, while the climbers undertook to scale its perpendicular walls. 

Then for the first time on earth the bow was strung, and hundreds offlint-headed arrows found their mark in the bodies of the animals, whileeach time that the Boy Man swung his stone war-club, his enemies fell incountless numbers. 

Finally the insects, the little people of the air, attacked him in abody, filling his eyes and ears, and tormenting him with their poisonedspears, so that he was in despair. He called for help upon his ElderBrother, who ordered him to strike the rocks with his stone war-club. As soon as he had done so, sparks of fire flew upon the dry grass of theprairie and it burst into flame. A mighty smoke ascended, which droveaway the teasing swarms of the insect people, while the flames terrifiedand scattered the others. 

This was the first dividing of the trail between man and the animalpeople, and when the animals had sued for peace, the treaty providedthat they must ever after furnish man with flesh for his food and skinsfor clothing, though not without effort and danger on his part. Thelittle insects refused to make any concession, and have ever since beenthe tormentors of man; however, the birds of the air declared that theywould punish them for their obstinacy, and this they continue to do untothis day. 

Our people have always claimed that the stone arrows which are found sogenerally throughout the country are the ones that the first man used inhis battle with the animals. It is not recorded in our traditions, muchless is it within the memory of our old men, that we have ever madeor used similar arrow-heads. Some have tried to make use of themfor shooting fish under water, but with little success, and they areabsolutely useless with the Indian bow which was in use when America wasdiscovered. It is possible that they were made by some pre-historic racewho used much longer and stronger bows, and who were workers in stone, which our people were not. Their stone implements were merely naturalboulders or flint chips, fitted with handles of raw-hide or wood, exceptthe pipes, which were carved from a species of stone which is soft whenfirst quarried, and therefore easily worked with the most primitivetools. Practically all the flint arrow-heads that we see in museumsand elsewhere were picked up or ploughed up, while some have beendishonestly sold by trafficking Indians and others, embedded in treesand bones. 

We had neither devil nor hell in our religion until the white manbrought them to us, yet Unk-to-mee, the Spider, was doubtless akin tothat old Serpent who tempted mother Eve. He is always characterized astricky, treacherous, and at the same time affable and charming, beingnot without the gifts of wit, prophecy, and eloquence. He is an adroitmagician, able to assume almost any form at will, and impervious to anyamount of ridicule and insult. Here we have, it appears, the elements ofthe story in Genesis; the primal Eden, the tempter in animal form, andthe bringing of sorrow and death upon earth through the elemental sinsof envy and jealousy. 

The warning conveyed in the story of Unk-to-mee was ever used withsuccess by Indian parents, and especially grandparents, in theinstruction of their children. Ish-na-e-cha-ge, on the other hand, wasa demigod and mysterious teacher, whose function it was to initiate thefirst man into his tasks and pleasures here on earth. 

After the battle with the animals, there followed a battle with theelements, which in some measure parallels the Old Testament story ofthe flood. In this case, the purpose seems to have been to destroy thewicked animal people, who were too many and too strong for the lone man. 

The legend tells us that when fall came, the First-Born advised hisyounger brother to make for himself a warm tent of buffalo skins, andto store up much food. No sooner had he done this than it began to snow, and the snow fell steadily during many moons. The Little Boy Man madefor himself snow-shoes, and was thus enabled to hunt easily, while theanimals fled from him with difficulty. Finally wolves, foxes, and ravenscame to his door to beg for food, and he helped them, but many of thefiercer wild animals died of cold and starvation. 

One day, when the hungry ones appeared, the snow was higher than thetops of the teepee poles, but the Little Boy Man's fire kept a hole openand clear. Down this hole they peered, and lo! the man had rubbed asheson his face by the advice of his Elder Brother, and they both lay silentand motionless on either side of the fire. 

Then the fox barked and the raven cawed his signal to the wanderingtribes, and they all rejoiced and said: "Now they are both dying ordead, and we shall have no more trouble!" But the sun appeared, and awarm wind melted the snow-banks, so that the land was full of water. Theyoung man and his Teacher made a birch-bark canoe, which floated uponthe surface of the flood, while of the animals there were saved only afew, who had found a foothold upon the highest peaks. 

The youth had now passed triumphantly through the various ordeals of hismanhood. One day his Elder Brother spoke to him and said: "You have nowconquered the animal people, and withstood the force of the elements. You have subdued the earth to your will, and still you are alone! It istime to go forth and find a woman whom you can love, and by whose helpyou may reproduce your kind. "

"But how am I to do this?" replied the first man, who was only aninexperienced boy. "I am here alone, as you say, and I know not where tofind a woman or a mate!"

"Go forth and seek her, " replied the Great Teacher; and forthwith theyouth set out on his wanderings in search of a wife. He had no idea howto make love, so that the first courtship was done by the pretty andcoquettish maidens of the Bird, Beaver, and Bear tribes. There are sometouching and whimsical love stories which the rich imagination of theIndian has woven into this old legend. 

It is said, for example, that at his first camp he had built for himselfa lodge of green boughs in the midst of the forest, and that there hisreverie was interrupted by a voice from the wilderness--a voice that wasirresistibly and profoundly sweet. In some mysterious way, the soul ofthe young man was touched as it had never been before, for this call ofexquisite tenderness and allurement was the voice of the eternal woman!

Presently a charming little girl stood timidly at the door of hispine-bough wigwam. She was modestly dressed in gray, with a touch of jetabout her pretty face, and she carried a basket of wild cherries whichshe shyly offered to the young man. So the rover was subdued, and loveturned loose upon the world to upbuild and to destroy! When at last sheleft him, he peeped through the door after her, but saw only a robin, with head turned archly to one side, fluttering away among the trees. 

His next camp was beside a clear, running stream, where a plump andindustrious maid was busily at work chopping wood. He fell promptly inlove with her also, and for some time they lived together in her cosyhouse by the waterside. After their boy was born, the wanderer wishedvery much to go back to his Elder Brother and to show him his wife andchild. But the beaver-woman refused to go, so at last he went alonefor a short visit. When he returned, there was only a trickle of waterbeside the broken dam, the beautiful home was left desolate, and wifeand child were gone forever!

The deserted husband sat alone upon the bank, sleepless and faint withgrief, until he was consoled by a comely young woman in glossy black, who took compassion upon his distress and soothed him with food andloving attentions. This was the bear-woman, from whom again he wasafterward separated by some mishap. The story goes that he had childrenby each of his many wives, some of whom resembled their father, andthese became the ancestors of the human race, while those who bore thecharacteristics of their mother returned to her clan. It is also saidthat such as were abnormal or monstrous in form were forbidden toreproduce their kind, and all love and mating between man and the animalcreation was from that time forth strictly prohibited. There are somecurious traditions of young men and maidens who transgressed this lawunknowingly, being seduced and deceived by a magnificent buck deer, perhaps, or a graceful doe, and whose fall was punished with death. 

The animal totems so general among the tribes were said to havedescended to them from their great-grandmother's clan, and the legendwas often quoted in support of our close friendship with the animalpeople. I have sometimes wondered why the scientific doctrine of man'sdescent has not in the same way apparently increased the white man'srespect for these our humbler kin. 

Of the many later heroes or Hiawathas who appear in this voluminousunwritten book of ours, each introduced an epoch in the long storyof man and his environment. There is, for example, the Avenger of theInnocent, who sprang from a clot of blood; the ragged little boy who wonfame and a wife by shooting the Red Eagle of fateful omen; and the StarBoy, who was the off-spring of a mortal maiden and a Star. 

It was this last who fought for man against his strongest enemies, such as Wazeeyah, the Cold or North-Wind. There was a desperate battlebetween these two, in which first one had the advantage and then theother, until both were exhausted and declared a truce. While he rested, Star Boy continued to fan himself with his great fan of eagle feathers, and the snow melted so fast that North-Wind was forced to arrange atreaty of peace, by which he was only to control one half the year. Soit was that the orderly march of the seasons was established, and everyyear Star Boy with his fan of eagle feathers sets in motion the warmwinds that usher in the spring. 

VI. ON THE BORDER-LAND OF SPIRITS

 Death and Funeral Customs. The Sacred Lock of Hair. Reincarnation and the Converse of Spirits. Occult and Psychic Powers. The Gift of Prophecy. 

The attitude of the Indian toward death, the test and background oflife, is entirely consistent with his character and philosophy. Deathhas no terrors for him; he meets it with simplicity and perfect calm, seeking only an honorable end as his last gift to his family anddescendants. Therefore he courts death in battle; on the other hand, hewould regard it as disgraceful to be killed in a private quarrel. If onebe dying at home, it is customary to carry his bed out of doors as theend approaches, that his spirit may pass under the open sky. 

Next to this, the matter that concerns him most is the parting with hisdear ones, especially if he have any little children who must be leftbehind to suffer want. His family affections are strong, and hegrieves intensely for the lost, even though he has unbounded faith in aspiritual companionship. 

The outward signs of mourning for the dead are far more spontaneous andconvincing than is the correct and well-ordered black of civilization. Both men and women among us loosen their hair and cut it according tothe degree of relationship or of devotion. Consistent with the idea ofsacrificing all personal beauty and adornment, they trim off likewisefrom the dress its fringes and ornaments, perhaps cut it short, or cutthe robe or blanket in two. The men blacken their faces, and widowsor bereaved parents sometimes gash their arms and legs till they arecovered with blood. Giving themselves up wholly to their grief, they areno longer concerned about any earthly possession, and often give awayall that they have to the first comers, even to their beds and theirhome. Finally, the wailing for the dead is continued night and day tothe point of utter voicelessness; a musical, weird, and heart-piercingsound, which has been compared to the "keening" of the Celtic mourner. 

The old-time burial of the Plains Indians was upon a scaffold of poles, or a platform among the boughs of a tree--their only means of placingthe body out of reach of wild beasts, as they had no implements withwhich to dig a suitable grave. It was prepared by dressing in the finestclothes, together with some personal possessions and ornaments, wrappedin several robes, and finally in a secure covering of raw-hide. As aspecial mark of respect, the body of a young woman or a warrior wassometimes laid out in state in a new teepee, with the usual householdarticles and even with a dish of food left beside it, not that theysupposed the spirit could use the implements or eat the food but merelyas a last tribute. Then the whole people would break camp and depart toa distance, leaving the dead alone in an honorable solitude. 

There was no prescribed ceremony of burial, though the body was carriedout with more or less solemnity by selected young men, and sometimesnoted warriors were the pall-bearers of a man of distinction. It wasusual to choose a prominent hill with a commanding outlook for the lastresting-place of our dead. If a man were slain in battle, it was an oldcustom to place his body against a tree or rock in a sitting position, always facing the enemy, to indicate his undaunted defiance and bravery, even in death. 

I recall a touching custom among us, which was designed to keep thememory of the departed near and warm in the bereaved household. A lockof hair of the beloved dead was wrapped in pretty clothing, such as itwas supposed that he or she would like to wear if living. This "spiritbundle, " as it was called, was suspended from a tripod, and occupied acertain place in the lodge which was the place of honor. At every mealtime, a dish of food was placed under it, and some person of the samesex and age as the one who was gone must afterward be invited in topartake of the food. At the end of a year from the time of death, therelatives made a public feast and gave away the clothing and othergifts, while the lock of hair was interred with appropriate ceremonies. 

Certainly the Indian never doubted the immortal nature of the spiritor soul of man, but neither did he care to speculate upon itsprobable state or condition in a future life. The idea of a "happyhunting-ground" is modern and probably borrowed, or invented by thewhite man. The primitive Indian was content to believe that the spiritwhich the "Great Mystery" breathed into man returns to Him who gave it, and that after it is freed from the body, it is everywhere and pervadesall nature, yet often lingers near the grave or "spirit bundle" forthe consolation of friends, and is able to hear prayers. So much ofreverence was due the disembodied spirit, that it was not customary withus even to name the dead aloud. 

It is well known that the American Indian had somehow developed occultpower, and although in the latter days there have been many impostors, and, allowing for the vanity and weakness of human nature, it is fairto assume that there must have been some even in the old days, yet thereare well-attested instances of remarkable prophecies and other mysticpractice. 

A Sioux prophet predicted the coming of the white man fully fiftyyears before the event, and even described accurately his garments andweapons. Before the steamboat was invented, another prophet of our racedescribed the "Fire Boat" that would swim upon their mighty river, theMississippi, and the date of this prophecy is attested by the termused, which is long since obsolete. No doubt, many predictions have beencolored to suit the new age, and unquestionably false prophets, fakirs, and conjurers have become the pest of the tribes during the transitionperiod. Nevertheless, even during this period there was here and there aman of the old type who was implicitly believed in to the last. 

Notable among these was Ta-chank-pee Ho-tank-a, or His War Club SpeaksLoud, who foretold a year in advance the details of a great war-partyagainst the Ojibways. There were to be seven battles, all successfulexcept the last, in which the Sioux were to be taken at a disadvantageand suffer crushing defeat. This was carried out to the letter. Ourpeople surprised and slew many of the Ojibways in their villages, but inturn were followed and cunningly led into an ambush whence but few cameout alive. This was only one of his remarkable prophecies. 

Another famous "medicine-man" was born on the Rum River about onehundred and fifty years ago, and lived to be over a century old. He wasborn during a desperate battle with the Ojibways, at a moment when, asit seemed, the band of Sioux engaged were to be annihilated. Thereforethe child's grandmother exclaimed: "Since we are all to perish, let himdie a warrior's death in the field!" and she placed his cradle underfire, near the spot where his uncle and grandfathers were fighting, forhe had no father. But when an old man discovered the new-born child, hecommanded the women to take care of him, "for, " said he, "we know nothow precious the strength of even one warrior may some day become to hisnation!"

This child lived to become great among us, as was intimated to thesuperstitious by the circumstances of his birth. At the age of aboutseventy-five years, he saved his band from utter destruction at thehands of their ancestral enemies, by suddenly giving warning received ina dream of the approach of a large war-party. The men immediately sentout scouts, and felled trees for a stockade, barely in time to meet andrepel the predicted attack. Five years later, he repeated the service, and again saved his people from awful slaughter. There was no confusionof figures or omens, as with lesser medicine-men, but in every incidentthat is told of him his interpretation of the sign, whatever it was, proved singularly correct. 

The father of Little Crow, the chief who led the "Minnesota massacre"of 1862, was another prophet of some note. One of his characteristicprophecies was made only a few years before he died, when he haddeclared that, although already an old man, he would go once more uponthe war-path. At the final war-feast, he declared that three of theenemy would be slain, but he showed great distress and reluctance inforetelling that he would lose two of his own men. Three of the Ojibwayswere indeed slain as he had said, but in the battle the old war prophetlost both of his two sons. 

There are many trustworthy men, and men of Christian faith, to vouchfor these and similar events occurring as foretold. I cannot pretend toexplain them, but I know that our people possessed remarkable powers ofconcentration and abstraction, and I sometimes fancy that such nearnessto nature as I have described keeps the spirit sensitive to impressionsnot commonly felt, and in touch with the unseen powers. Some of usseemed to have a peculiar intuition for the locality of a grave, whichthey explained by saying that they had received a communication from thespirit of the departed. My own grandmother was one of these, and as farback as I can remember, when camping in a strange country, my brotherand I would search for and find human bones at the spot she hadindicated to us as an ancient burial-place or the spot where a lonewarrior had fallen. Of course, the outward signs of burial had been longsince obliterated. 

The Scotch would certainly have declared that she had the "secondsight, " for she had other remarkable premonitions or intuitions withinmy own recollection. I have heard her speak of a peculiar sensationin the breast, by which, as she said, she was advised of anything ofimportance concerning her absent children. Other native women haveclaimed a similar monitor, but I never heard of one who could interpretit with such accuracy. We were once camping on Lake Manitoba when wereceived news that my uncle and his family had been murdered severalweeks before, at a fort some two hundred miles distant. While all ourclan were wailing and mourning their loss, my grandmother calmly badethem cease, saying that her son was approaching, and that they would seehim shortly. Although we had no other reason to doubt the ill tidings, it is a fact that my uncle came into camp two days after his reporteddeath. 

At another time, when I was fourteen years old, we had just left FortEllis on the Assiniboine River, and my youngest uncle had selecteda fine spot for our night camp. It was already after sundown, but mygrandmother became unaccountably nervous, and positively refused topitch her tent. So we reluctantly went on down the river, and campedafter dark at a secluded place. The next day we learned that a familywho were following close behind had stopped at the place first selectedby my uncle, but were surprised in the night by a roving war-party, and massacred to a man. This incident made a great impression upon ourpeople. 

Many of the Indians believed that one may be born more than once, and there were some who claimed to have full knowledge of a formerincarnation. There were also those who held converse with a "twinspirit, " who had been born into another tribe or race. There wasa well-known Sioux war-prophet who lived in the middle of the lastcentury, so that he is still remembered by the old men of his band. After he had reached middle age, he declared that he had a spiritbrother among the Ojibways, the ancestral enemies of the Sioux. He evennamed the band to which his brother belonged, and said that he also wasa war-prophet among his people. 

Upon one of their hunts along the border between the two tribes, theSioux leader one evening called his warriors together, and solemnlydeclared to them that they were about to meet a like band of Ojibwayhunters, led by his spirit twin. Since this was to be their firstmeeting since they were born as strangers, he earnestly begged the youngmen to resist the temptation to join battle with their tribal foes. 

"You will know him at once, " the prophet said to them, "for he will notonly look like me in face and form, but he will display the same totem, and even sing my war songs!"

They sent out scouts, who soon returned with news of the approachingparty. Then the leading men started with their peace-pipe for theOjibway camp, and when they were near at hand they fired three distinctvolleys, a signal of their desire for a peaceful meeting. 

The response came in like manner, and they entered the camp, with thepeace-pipe in the hands of the prophet. 

Lo, the stranger prophet advanced to meet them, and the people weregreatly struck with the resemblance between the two men, who met andembraced one another with unusual fervor. 

It was quickly agreed by both parties that they should camp togetherfor several days, and one evening the Sioux made a "warriors' feast"to which they invited many of the Ojibways. The prophet asked his twinbrother to sing one of his sacred songs, and behold! it was the verysong that he himself was wont to sing. This proved to the warriorsbeyond doubt or cavil the claims of their seer.