THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SINGING

A Rational Method of Voice Culturebased on a Scientific Analysis ofall Systems, Ancient and Modern

by

DAVID C. TAYLOR

New York1922All rights reserved

Copyright, 1908, by the MacMillan Company. New York--Boston--Chicago--Atlanta--San FranciscoMacMillan & Co. , LimitedLondon--Bombay--Calcutta--MelbourneThe Macmillan Co. Of Canada, Ltd. Toronto

Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1908. Norwood Press: Berwick & Smith Co. , Norwood, Mass. , U. S. A. 

To My Mother

WHOSE DEVOTION TO TRUTH AND EARNESTLABOR HAS PROMPTED ALL MY EFFORTSTHIS WORK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED

PREFACE

A peculiar gap exists between the accepted theoretical basis ofinstruction in singing and the actual methods of vocal teachers. Judgingby the number of scientific treatises on the voice, the academicobserver would be led to believe that a coherent Science of VoiceCulture has been evolved. Modern methods of instruction in singing arepresumed to embody a system of exact and infallible rules for themanagement of the voice. Teachers of singing in all the musical centersof Europe and America claim to follow a definite plan in the training ofvoices, based on established scientific principles. But a practicalacquaintance with the modern art of Voice Culture reveals the fact thatthe laws of tone-production deduced from the scientific investigation ofthe voice do not furnish a satisfactory basis for a method of trainingvoices. 

Throughout the entire vocal profession, among singers, teachers, andstudents alike, there is a general feeling of the insufficiency ofpresent knowledge of the voice. The problem of the correct management ofthe vocal organs has not been finally and definitely solved. VoiceCulture has not been reduced to an exact science. Vocal teachers are notin possession of an infallible method of training voices. Students ofsinging find great difficulty in learning how to use their voices. VoiceCulture is generally recognized as entitled to a position among theexact sciences; but something remains to be done before it can assumethat position. 

There must be some definite reason for the failure of theoreticalinvestigation to produce a satisfactory Science of Voice Culture. Thiscannot be due to any present lack of understanding of the vocalmechanism on the part of scientific students of the subject. The anatomyand physiology of the vocal organs have been exhaustively studied by avast number of highly trained experts. So far as the muscular operationsof tone-production are concerned, and the laws of acoustics bearing onthe vocal action, no new discovery can well be expected. But in thisvery fact, the exhaustive attention paid to the mechanical operationsof the voice, is seen the incompleteness of Vocal Science. Attention hasbeen turned exclusively to the mechanical features of tone-production, and in consequence many important facts bearing on the voice have beenoverlooked. 

In spite of the general acceptance of the doctrines of Vocal Science, tone-production has not really been studied from the purely scientificstandpoint. The use of the word "science" presupposes the carefulobservation and study of all facts and phenomena bearing in any way onthe subject investigated. Viewed in this light, the scientific study ofthe voice is at once seen to be incomplete. True, the use of the voiceis a muscular operation, and a knowledge of the muscular structure ofthe vocal organs is necessary to an understanding of the voice. But thisknowledge alone is not sufficient. Like every other voluntary muscularoperation, tone-production is subject to the psychological laws ofcontrol and guidance. Psychology is therefore of equal importance withanatomy and acoustics as an element of Vocal Science. 

There is also another line along which all previous investigation ofthe voice is singularly incomplete. An immense fund of information aboutthe vocal action is obtained by attentive listening to voices, and in noother way. Yet this important element in Vocal Science is almostcompletely neglected. 

In order to arrive at an assured basis for the art of Voice Culture, itis necessary in the first place to apply the strictest rules ofscientific investigation to the study of the voice. A definite plan mustbe adopted, to include every available source information. First, theinsight into the operations of the voice, obtained by listening tovoices, must be reviewed and analyzed. Second, the sciences of anatomy, mechanics, acoustics, and psychology must each contribute its share tothe general fund of information. Third, from all the facts thus broughttogether the general laws of vocal control and management must bededuced. 

Before undertaking this exhaustive analysis of the vocal action it isadvisable to review in detail every method of instruction in singing nowin vogue. This may seem a very difficult task. To the casual observerconditions in the vocal world appear truly chaotic. Almost everyprominent teacher believes himself to possess a method peculiarly hisown; it would not be easy to find two masters who agree on every point, practical as well as theoretical. But this confusion of methods is onlyon the surface. All teachers draw the materials of their methods fromthe same sources. An outline of the history of Voice Culture, includingthe rise of the old Italian school and the development of Vocal Science, will render the present situation in the vocal profession sufficientlyclear. 

Part I of this work contains a review of modern methods. In Part II acritical analysis is offered of certain theories of the vocal actionwhich receive much attention in practical instruction. Several of theaccepted doctrines of Vocal Science, notably those of breath-control, chest and nasal resonance, and forward placing of the tone, are found onexamination to contain serious fallacies. More important even than thespecific errors involved in these doctrines, the basic principle ofmodern Voice Culture is also found to be false. All methods are based onthe theory that the voice requires to be directly and consciouslymanaged in the performance of its muscular operations. When tested bythe psychological laws of muscular guidance, this theory of mechanicaltone-production is found to be a complete error. 

Part III contains a summary of all present knowledge of the voice. First, the insight into the singer's vocal operations is considered, which the hearer obtains by attentive listening to the tones produced. This empirical knowledge, as it is generally called, indicates a stateof unnecessary throat tension as the cause, or at any rate theaccompaniment, of every faulty tone. Further, an outline is given of allscientific knowledge of the voice. The anatomy of the vocal organs, andthe acoustic and mechanical principles of the vocal action, are brieflydescribed. Finally, the psychological laws of tone-production areconsidered. It is seen that under normal conditions the voiceinstinctively obeys the commands of the ear. 

In Part IV the information about the vocal action obtained from the twosources is combined, --the scientific knowledge of mechanical processes, and the empirical knowledge derived from attentive listening to voices. Throat stiffness is then seen to be the one influence which caninterfere with the instinctively correct action of the voice. The mostimportant cause of throat stiffness is found in the attempt consciouslyto manage the mechanical operations of the voice. In place of theerroneous principles of mechanical instruction, imitation is seen to bethe rational foundation of a method of Voice Culture. The mysterysurrounding the old Italian method is dispelled so soon as thepossibility is recognized of teaching singing by imitation. Practicalrules are outlined for imparting and acquiring the correct use of thevoice, through the guidance of the sense of hearing. The singer'seducation is considered in its broadest sense, and training intone-production is assigned to its proper place in the complex scheme ofVoice Culture. 

During the past twenty years the author has found opportunity to hearmost of the famous singers who have visited America, as well as a hostof artists of somewhat lesser fame. In his early student days theconviction grew that the voice cannot reach its fullest development whenmechanically used. Siegfried does not forge his sword, and at the sametime think of his diaphragm or soft palate. Lucia cannot attend to themovements of her arytenoid cartilages while pouring out the trills andruns of her Mad Scene. A study of the theoretical works on VocalScience, dealing always with mechanical action and never with tone, served only to strengthen this conviction. Finally the laws ofphysiological psychology were found to confirm this early belief. 

Every obtainable work on Voice Culture has been included in the author'sreading. No desire must be understood to make a display of the resultsof this study. One citation from a recognized authority, or in somecases two or three, is held sufficient to verify each statementregarding the accepted doctrines of Vocal Science. As for the practicalfeatures of modern methods, the facts alleged cannot in every case besubstantiated by references to published works. It is, however, believedthat the reader's acquaintance with the subject will bear out theauthor's statements. 

This work is of necessity academic in conception and in substance. Itsonly purpose is to demonstrate the falsity of the idea of mechanicalvocal management, and to prove the scientific soundness of instructionby imitation. There is no possibility of a practical manual ofinstruction in singing being accepted, based on the training of the earand the musical education of the singer, until the vocal world has beenconvinced of the error of the mechanical idea. When that has beenaccomplished this work will have served its purpose. All of thecontroversial materials, together with much of the theoretical subjectmatter, will then be superfluous. A concise practical treatise can thenbe offered, containing all that the vocal teacher and the student ofsinging need to know about the training and management of the voice. 

It is in great measure due to the coöperation of my dear friend, CharlesLeonard-Stuart, that my theory of voice production is brought intoliterary form, and presented in this book. To his thorough musicianship, his skill and experience as a writer of English, and especially to hismastery of the bookman's art, I am deeply indebted. True as I knowLeonard-Stuart's love to be for the art of pure singing, I yet prefer toascribe his unselfish interest in this work to his friendship for theauthor. 

CONTENTS

PART I

MODERN METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN SINGING

CHAPTER I

Tone-Production and Voice Culture

CHAPTER II

Breathing and Breath-Control

CHAPTER III

Registers and Laryngeal Action

CHAPTER IV

Resonance

CHAPTER V

Empirical Materials of Modern Methods

CHAPTER VI

A General View of Modern Voice Culture

PART II

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF MODERN METHODS

CHAPTER I

Mechanical Vocal Management as the Basis of Voice Culture

CHAPTER II

The Fallacy of the Doctrine of Breath-Control

CHAPTER III

The Fallacies of Forward Emission, Chest Resonance, andNasal Resonance

CHAPTER IV

The Futility of the Materials of Modern Methods

CHAPTER V

The Error of the Theory of Mechanical Vocal Management

PART III

THE BASIS OF A REAL SCIENCE OF VOICE

CHAPTER I

The Means of Empirical Observation of the Voice

CHAPTER II

Sympathetic Sensations of Vocal Tone

CHAPTER III

Empirical Knowledge of the Voice

CHAPTER IV

The Empirical Precepts of the Old Italian School

CHAPTER V

Empirical Knowledge in Modern Voice Culture

CHAPTER VI

Scientific Knowledge of the Voice

PART IV

VOCAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICAL VOICE CULTURE

CHAPTER I

The Correct Vocal Action

CHAPTER II

The Causes of Throat Stiffness and of Incorrect Vocal Action

CHAPTER III

Throat Stiffness and Incorrect Singing

CHAPTER IV

The True Meaning of Vocal Training

CHAPTER V

Imitation the Rational Basis of Voice Culture

CHAPTER VI

The Old Italian Method

CHAPTER VII

The Disappearance of the Old Italian Method and the Developmentof Mechanical Instruction

CHAPTER VIII

The Materials of Rational Instruction in Singing

CHAPTER IX

Outlines of a Practical Method of Voice Culture

Bibliography

CHAPTER I

TONE-PRODUCTION AND VOICE CULTURE

In no other form of expression do art and nature seem so closelyidentified as in the art of singing. A perfect voice speaks so directlyto the soul of the hearer that all appearance of artfully preparedeffect is absent. Every tone sung by a consummate vocal artist seems tobe poured forth freely and spontaneously. There is no evidence ofcalculation, of carefully directed effort, of attention to the workingsof the voice, in the tones of a perfect singer. Yet if the accepted ideaof Voice Culture is correct, this semblance of spontaneity in the use ofthe voice can result only from careful and incessant attention tomechanical rules. That the voice must be managed or handled in some wayneither spontaneous nor instinctive, is the settled conviction of almostevery authority on the subject. All authorities believe also that thismanner of handling the voice must be acquired by every student ofsinging, in the course of carefully directed study. 

This training in the use of the voice is the most important feature ofeducation in singing. Voice Culture embraces a peculiar and distinctproblem, that of the correct management of the vocal organs. Vocaltraining has indeed come to be considered synonymous with training inthe correct use of the voice. Every method of instruction in singingmust contain as its most important element some means for dealing withthe problem of tone-production. 

No complete and satisfactory solution of this problem has ever beenfound. Of this fact every one acquainted with the practical side ofVoice Culture must be well aware. As the present work is designed solelyto suggest a new manner of dealing with this question, it is advisableto define precisely what is meant by the problem of tone-production. 

In theory the question may be stated very simply. It is generallybelieved throughout the vocal profession that the voice has one correctmode of action, different from a wide variety of incorrect actions ofwhich it is capable;--that this mode of action, though ordained byNature, is not in the usual sense natural or instinctive;--that thecorrect vocal action must be acquired, through a definite understandingand conscious management of the muscular movements involved. Thetheoretical problem therefore is: What is the correct vocal action, andhow can it be acquired?

On the practical side, the nature of the problem is by no means sosimple. In actual instruction in singing, the subject of vocalmanagement cannot readily be dissociated from the wide range of othertopics comprised in the singer's education. In much that pertains to theart of music, the singer's training must include the same subjects thatform the training of every musician. In addition to this general musicaltraining, about the same for all students of music, each student mustacquire technical command of the chosen instrument. This is necessarilyacquired by practice on the instrument, whether it be piano, violin, oboe, or whatever else. In the same way, vocal technique is acquired bypractice in actual singing. Practice makes perfect, with the voice aswith everything else. 

But the voice is not invariably subject to the law that practice makesperfect. In this important respect the singer's education presents aproblem not encountered by the student of any instrument. Given thenecessary talents, industry, and opportunities for study, the student ofthe violin may count with certainty on acquiring the mastery of thisinstrument. But for the vocal student this is not necessarily true. There are many cases in which practice in singing does not bring abouttechnical perfection. The mere singing of technical exercises is notenough; it is of vital importance that the exercises be sung in someparticular manner. There is one certain way in which the voice must behandled during the practice of singing. If the vocal organs areexercised in this particular manner, the voice will improve steadily asthe result of practice. This progress will continue until perfecttechnical command of the voice is acquired. But if the vocal studentfails to hit upon this particular way of handling the voice in practicethe voice will improve little, or not at all. In such a case perfectvocal technique will never be acquired, no matter how many years thepractice may continue. 

What is this peculiar way in which the voice must be handled during thepractice of singing? This is the practical problem of tone-production, as it confronts the student of singing. 

It is important that the exact bearing of the problem be clearlyunderstood. It is purely a feature of education in singing, and concernsonly teachers and students of the art. Properly speaking, the finishedsinger should leave the teacher and start on the artistic career, equipped with a voice under perfect control. There should be no problemof tone-production for the trained singer, no thought or worry about thevocal action. True, many authorities on the voice maintain that theartist must, in all singing, consciously and intelligently guide theoperations of the vocal organs. But even if this be the case the factremains that this ability to manage the voice must be acquired duringstudent days. In seeking a solution of the problem, that period in theprospective singer's training must be considered during which the properuse of the voice is learned. 

It may be taken for granted that teachers of singing have always beenaware of the existence of the problem of tone-production, and havealways instructed their pupils in the correct management of the voice. Yet it is only within the past hundred and fifty years that vocalmanagement has been the subject of special study. A brief review of thehistory of Voice Culture will serve to bring this fact out clearly. 

To begin with, the present art of singing is of comparatively recentorigin. It is indeed probable that man had been using the voice insomething akin to song for thousands of years before the dawn ofhistory. Song of some kind has always played an important part in humanlife, savage as well as civilized. To express our emotions and feelingsby means of the voice is one of our most deep-seated instincts. For thisuse of the voice to take on the character of melody, as distinguishedfrom ordinary speech, is also purely instinctive. Singing was one of themost zealously cultivated arts in early Egypt, in ancient Israel, and inclassic Greece and Rome. Throughout all the centuries of Europeanhistory singing has always had its recognized place, both in theservices of the various churches and in the daily life of the people. 

But solo singing, as we know it to-day, is a comparatively modern art. Not until the closing decades of the sixteenth century did the art ofsolo singing receive much attention, and it is to that period we mustlook for the beginnings of Voice Culture. It is true that the voice wascultivated, both for speech and song, among the Greeks and Romans. Gordon Holmes, in his _Treatise on Vocal Physiology and Hygiene_(London, 1879), gives an interesting account of these ancient systems ofVoice Culture. But practically nothing has come down to us about themeans then used for training the voice. Even if any defined methods weredeveloped, it is absolutely certain that these had no influence on themodern art of Voice Culture. 

With the birth of Italian opera, in 1600, a new art of singing also cameinto existence. The two arts, opera and singing, developed side by side, each dependent on the other. And most important to the present inquiry, the art or science of training voices also came into being. In _LeRevoluzioni del Teatro Musicale Italiano_ (Venice, 1785), Arteaga saysof the development of opera: "But nothing contributed so much to clarifyItalian music at that time as the excellence and the abundance of thesingers. " A race of singing masters seems almost to have sprung up inItaly. These illustrious masters taught the singers to produce effectswith their voices such as had never been heard of before. From 1600 to1750 the progress of the art of singing was uninterrupted. Each greatteacher carried the art a little further, discovering new beauties andpowers in the voice, and finding means to impart his new knowledge tohis pupils. 

This race of teachers is known to-day as the Old Italian School, andtheir system of instruction is called the Old Italian Method. Just whatthis method consisted of is a much-discussed question. Whatever itssystem of instruction, the old Italian school seems to have suffered agradual decline. In 1800 it was distinctly on the wane; it was entirelysuperseded, during the years from 1840 to 1865, by the modern scientificmethods. 

Considered as a practical system of Voice Culture, the old Italianmethod is a highly mysterious subject. Little is now known about themeans used for training students of singing in the correct use of thevoice. This much is fairly certain: the old masters paid little or noattention to what are now considered scientific principles. They taughtin what modern vocal theorists consider a rather haphazard fashion. Theterm "empirical" is often applied to their method, and to the knowledgeof the voice on which it was based. [1] But as to what the old mastersactually knew about the voice, and just how they taught their pupils tosing, on these points the modern world is in almost complete ignorance. Many attempts have been made in recent years to reconstruct the oldItalian method in the light of modern scientific knowledge of the voice. But no such analysis of the empirical system has ever been convincing. 

[Note 1: "The old Italian method of instruction, to which vocalmusic owed its high condition, was purely empirical. " (Emma Seiler, _TheVoice in Singing_. Phila. , 1886. )]

How the practical method of the old masters came to be forgotten isperhaps the most mysterious feature of this puzzling system. There hasbeen a lineal succession of teachers of singing, from the earlierdecades of the eighteenth century down to the present. Even to-day it isalmost unheard of that any one should presume to call himself a teacherof singing without having studied with at least one recognized master. Each master of the old school imparted his knowledge and his practicalmethod to his pupils. Those of his pupils who in their turn becameteachers passed the method on to their students, and so on, in manyunbroken successions. Yet, for some mysterious reason, the substance ofthe old method was lost in transmission. 

What little is now known about the old method is derived from twosources, the written record and tradition. To write books in explanationof their system of instruction does not seem to have occurred to theearliest exponents of the art of Voice Culture. The first published workon the subject was that of Pietro Francesco Tosi, _Osservazione sopra ilCanto figurato_, brought out in Bologna in 1723. This was translatedinto English by M. Galliard, and published in London in 1742; a Germantranslation by J. F. Agricola was issued in 1757. The present work willcall for several citations from Tosi, all taken from the Englishedition. Only one other prominent teacher of the old school, G. B. Mancini, has left an apparently complete record of his method. His_Riflessioni pratiche sul Canto figurato_ was published in Milan in1776. Mancini's book has never been translated into English. Referencewill therefore be made to the third Italian edition, brought out inMilan, 1777. 

Tosi and Mancini undoubtedly intended to give complete accounts of themethods of instruction in singing in vogue in their day. But modernvocal theorists generally believe that the most important materials ofinstruction were for some reason not mentioned. Three registers arementioned by Tosi, while Mancini speaks of only two. Both touch on thenecessity of equalizing the registers, but give no specific directionsfor this purpose. About all these early writers have left us, in theopinion of most modern students of their works, is the outline of anelaborate system of vocal ornaments and embellishments. 

On the side of tradition a slightly more coherent set of rules has comedown to us from the old masters. These are generally known as the"traditional precepts. " Just when the precepts were first formulated itis impossible to say. Tosi and Mancini do not mention them. Perhaps theywere held by the old masters as a sort of esoteric mystery; this idea isoccasionally put forward. At any rate, by the time the traditionalprecepts were given to the world in published works on the voice, theirvaluable meaning had been completely lost. 

Gathered from all available sources, the traditional precepts are asfollows:

"Sing on the breath. "

"Open the throat. "

"Sing the tone forward, " or "at the lips. "

"Support the tone. "

To the layman these precepts are so vague as to be almostunintelligible. But modern vocal teachers are convinced that theprecepts sum up the most important means used by the old masters forimparting the correct vocal action. An interpretation of the precepts interms intelligible to the modern student would therefore be extremelyvaluable. Many scientific investigators of the voice have soughtearnestly to discover the sense in which the precepts were applied bythe old masters. These explanations of the traditional precepts occupy avery important position in most modern methods of instruction. 

There can be no question that the old masters were highly successfulteachers of singing. Even leaving out of consideration the vocalachievements of the castrati, the singers of Tosi's day must have beenable to perform music of the florid style in a masterly fashion. This isplainly seen from a study of the scores of the operas popular at thattime. Empirical methods of instruction seem to have sufficed for theearlier masters. Not until the old method had been in existence fornearly one hundred and fifty years does an attempt seem to have beenmade to study the voice scientifically. In 1741 a famous Frenchphysician, Ferrein, published a treatise on the vocal organs. This wasthe first scientific work to influence the practices of vocal teachers. 

For many years after the publication of Ferrein's treatise, thescientific study of the voice attracted very little attention from thesinging masters. Fully sixty years elapsed before any serious attemptwas made to base a method of instruction on scientific principles. Eventhen the idea of scientific instruction in singing gained ground veryslowly. Practical teachers at first paid but little attention to thesubject. Interest in the mechanics of voice production was confinedalmost entirely to the scientists. 

In the early decades of the nineteenth century the mechanical featuresof voice production seem to have appealed to a constantly wider circleof scientists. Lickovius (1814), Malgaine (1831), Bennati (1830), Bell(1832), Savart (1825), brought out works on the subject. It remained, however, for a vocal teacher, Garcia, to conceive the idea of basingpractical instruction on scientific knowledge. 

Manuel Garcia (1805-1906) may justly be regarded as the founder of VocalScience. His father, Manuel del Popolo Viscenti, was famous as singer, impresario, and teacher. From him Garcia inherited the old method, it issafe to assume, in its entirety. But for Garcia's remarkable mind theempirical methods of the old school were unsatisfactory. He desireddefinite knowledge of the voice. A clear idea seems to have been in hismind that, with full understanding of the vocal mechanism and of itscorrect mode of action, voices would be more readily and surely trained. How strongly this idea had possession of Garcia is shown by the factthat he began the study of the vocal action in 1832, and that heinvented the laryngoscope only in 1855. 

It must not be understood that Garcia was the first teacher to attemptto formulate a systematic scheme of instruction in singing. In theworks of Mannstein (1834) and of Marx (1823) an ambitious forwardmovement on the part of many prominent teachers is strongly indicated. But Garcia was the first teacher to apply scientific principles indealing with the specific problem of tone-production. He conceived theidea that a scientific knowledge of the workings of the vocal organsmight be made the basis of a practical system or method of instructionin singing. This idea of Garcia has been the basic principle of allpractical methods, ever since the publication of the results of hisfirst laryngoscopic investigations in 1855. 

Before attempting to suggest a new means of dealing with the problem ofvocal management, it is well to ascertain how this problem is treated inmodern methods of instruction. It would not be easy to overstate theimportance assigned to the matter of tone-production in all modernsystems of Voice Culture. The scientific study of the voice has dealtexclusively with this subject. A new science has resulted, commonlycalled "Vocal Science. " This science is generally accepted as thefoundation of all instruction in singing. All modern methods are tosome extent based on Vocal Science. 

To arrive at an understanding of modern methods, the two directions inwhich vocal theorists have approached the scientific study of the voicemust be borne in mind: First, by an investigation of the anatomy of thevocal organs, and of the laws of acoustics and mechanics in accordancewith which they operate. Second, by an analysis of the traditionalprecepts of the old Italian school in the light of this scientificknowledge. 

As the present work demands a review of modern methods from thepractical side only, it is not necessary to include a description of thevocal organs. It will be sufficient to describe briefly the manner inwhich scientific investigators of the voice treat the subject of thevocal organs. 

The vocal mechanism consists of three portions, --the breathingapparatus, the larynx with its appendages, and the resonance cavities. Vocal scientists apply their efforts to finding out the correct mode ofaction of each portion of the mechanism, and to formulating rules andexercises by which these correct actions can be acquired and combinedfor the production of perfect tones. The analysis of the traditionalprecepts also conforms to this general plan; each precept is referred tothat portion of the vocal apparatus to which it seems best to apply. Theoutline of the principles of modern methods contained in the followingchapters follows this general scheme. 

It must be understood at the start that on most of the doctrinesincluded in Vocal Science there is no unanimity of opinion among eithertheorists or teachers. Far from this being the case, practically all theprinciples of Vocal Science are the subjects of controversy. 

CHAPTER II

BREATHING AND BREATH-CONTROL

It is generally considered that, as the breath is the foundation ofsinging, the manner of breathing is of vital importance to the singer. This subject has therefore received a vast amount of attention fromvocal scientists, and the muscular actions of breathing have beenexhaustively studied. 

Several sets of rules for inspiration and expiration are put forth bydifferent authorities. But there is no occasion for going into adetailed discussion of the different modes of breathing advocated by thevarious schools, or of the theoretical arguments which each advances. Itis sufficient to say that the modes of breathing most in vogue are fivein number, --deep abdominal, lateral or costal, fixed high chest, clavicular, and diaphragmatic-abdominal. However, on experimenting withthese five systems of breathing, it is found that the number may bereduced to two; of these the others are but slight modifications. Inone system of inspiration the abdomen is protruded, while the upperchest is held firm, the greatest expansion being at the base of thelungs. In the other mode of taking breath the abdomen is slightly drawnin, while the chest is expanded in every direction, upward, laterally, forward, and backward. In this system the upper chest is held in a fixedand high position. 

Necessarily the manner of filling the lungs involves the manner in whichthey are emptied. Opinions are practically unanimous as to the properposition of the singer before taking breath, that is, at the end of anexpiration. The singer must stand erect, the weight of the body evenlysupported on the balls of both feet, with the whole body in a conditionof lithe suppleness. In both systems of breathing the manner ofexpiration is simply a return to this position. 

A wide variety of breathing exercises are in use, but these do notrequire detailed description. Any one of the prescribed systems ofbreathing can easily be adopted, and the student of singing seldomencounters any difficulty on this point. Still most teachers attachgreat importance to the acquirement of the correct manner of breathing. Toneless mechanical exercises are generally given, by which the studentis expected to master the muscular movements before applying in singingthe system advocated by the teacher. These exercises are usuallycombined with those for breath-control, and they are described underthat head. 

_Breath-Control_

Very early in the development of Vocal Science the management of thebreath began to receive attention. Mannstein, [2] writing in 1834, says:"The air in expiration must stream from the chest slowly and withoutshock. The air must flow from the chest with the tone. " In a footnote headds: "In order to acquire this economy of the breath, students wererequired to practise daily, without singing, to take and to hold backthe breath as long as possible. " Mannstein does not mention the muscularaction involved in this exercise. 

[Note 2: _Die grosse italienische Gesangschule. _ Dresden, 1834. ]

This subject is also touched upon by Garcia. In the first edition of his_École de Garcia_, 1847, Chap. IV, p. 14, he says: "The mechanism ofexpiration consists of a gentle pressure on the lungs charged with air, operated by the thorax and the diaphragm. The shock of the chest, thesudden falling of the ribs, and the quick relaxing of the diaphragmcause the air to escape instantly. .. . If, while the lungs are filledwith air, the ribs are allowed to fall, and the diaphragm to rise, thelungs instantly give up the inspired air, like a pressed sponge. It isnecessary therefore to allow the ribs to fall and the diaphragm to relaxonly so much as is required to sustain the tones. " It may be questionedwhether Garcia had in mind the doctrine of breath-control as this isunderstood to-day. Very little attention was paid, at any rate, in thevocal instruction of that day, to the mechanical actions ofbreath-control; the great majority of teachers probably had never heardof this principle. 

As a definite principle of Vocal Science, breath-control was firstformulated by Dr. Mandl, in his _Die Gesundheitslehre der Stimme_, Brunswick, 1876. From that time on, this doctrine has been verygenerally recognized as the fundamental principle of correct singing. Practically every scientific writer on the voice since then statesbreath-control as one of the basic principles of Vocal Science. The mostinfluential published work in popularizing the doctrine ofbreath-control was probably the book written jointly by Lennox Browneand Emil Behnke, _Voice, Song, and Speech_, London, 1883. 

This doctrine is of so much importance in Vocal Science and in modernmethods of instruction as to require a detailed explanation. The theoryof breath-control may be stated as follows:[3]

"In ordinary breathing the air is expelled from the lungs quietly, butrapidly; at no point of the breathing apparatus does the expired breathmeet with resistance. In singing, on the contrary, the expiratorypressure is much more powerful, yet the expiration must be much slower. Furthermore, all the expired breath must be converted into tone, and thesinger must have perfect control over the strength and the speed of theexpiration. This requires that the air be held back at some point. Theaction of holding back the breath must not be performed by the muscleswhich close the glottis, for all the muscles of the larynx are verysmall and weak in comparison with the powerful muscles of expiration. The glottis-closing muscles are too weak to oppose their action to theforce of a powerful expiration. If the vocal cords are called upon towithstand a strong breath pressure, they are seriously strained, andtheir proper action is rendered impossible. In the same way, if thethroat be narrowed at any point above the larynx, so as to present apassage small enough to hold back a powerful expiration, the entirevocal mechanism is strained and forced out of its proper adjustment. Thesinger must have perfect control of the breath, and at the same timerelieve the larynx and throat of all pressure and strain. To obtain thiscontrol the singer must govern the expiration by means of the muscles ofinspiration. When the lungs are filled the inspiratory muscles are notto be relaxed as in ordinary breathing, but are to be held on tensionthroughout the action of expiration. Whatever pressure is exerted by theexpiratory muscles must be almost counterbalanced by the opposed actionof the muscles of inspiration. The more powerful the blast, the greatermust be the exertion by which it is controlled. In this way the singermay have perfect control both of the speed and of the strength of theexpiration. "

[Note 3: This statement of the doctrine of breath-control must notbe construed as an endorsement of the theory of the vocal actionembodied in this doctrine. On the contrary, both the theory of "opposedaction" breath-control and the "breath-band" theory are held to beutterly erroneous. For a further discussion of this subject see ChapterII of Part II. ]

The exercises for acquiring command of this "opposed actionbreath-control" are easily understood; indeed, they will readily suggestthemselves to one who has grasped their purpose. Most important of theseexercises is a quick inspiration, followed by a slow and controlledexpiration. Exercises for breathing and breath-control are usuallycombined; the student is instructed to take breath in the manneradvocated by the teacher, and then to control the expiration. 

Teachers usually require their pupils to obtain command of this actionas a toneless exercise before permitting them to apply it to theproduction of tone. Methods vary greatly as to the length of timedevoted to toneless drills in breathing and breath-control. Manyteachers demand that students practise these exercises daily throughoutthe entire course of study, and even recommend that this practice becontinued throughout the singer's active life. 

Simple as these exercises are in theory, they demand very arduouspractice. Control of the breath by "opposed action" is hard and tiringmuscular work, as the reader may easily convince himself by practisingthe above described exercise for a few minutes. 

No special rules are needed for applying this mode of breathing to theproduction of tone. Theoretical writers generally do not claim that thecontrol of the breath brings about the correct laryngeal action, butmerely that it permits this action by noninterference. Severalauthorities however, notably Shakespeare, maintain that in effect thissystem of breath-control embodies the old precept, "Sing on the breath. "(Wm. Shakespeare, _The Art of Singing_, London, 1898, p. 24. ) Othertheorists hold that the empirical precept, "Support the tone, " refers tothis manner of controlled expiration. (G. B. Lamperti, _The Technics ofBel Canto_, Trans. By Dr. Th. Baker, N. Y. , 1905, p. 9. )

_The "Breath-band" System_

While most authorities on the voice advocate the system ofbreath-control by "opposed muscular action, " there are a number ofmasters who teach an entirely different system. This is usually known asthe "Breath-band, " or "Ventricular" breath-control. Charles Lunn, in_The Philosophy of the Voice_, 1878, was the first to propound thetheory that the breath may be controlled by the false vocal cords. Thereis reason to believe that this idea was also worked out independently byOrlando Steed ("On Beauty of Touch and Tone, " _Proceedings of theMusical Assn. _, 1879-80, p. 47). As a number of prominent teachers basetheir entire methods on this theory, it is worthy of careful attention. The "breath-band" theory may be stated as follows:

"When the lungs are filled by a deep inspiration and the breath is held, the glottis is of necessity closed so tightly that no air can escape. Inthis condition the expiratory muscles may be very violently contracted, and still no air will escape; indeed, the greater the strength exertedthe tighter is the closure of the glottis. Obviously, this closure ofthe glottis cannot be effected by the contraction of the glottis-closingmuscles, strictly speaking, for these muscles are too small and weak towithstand the powerful air pressure exerted against the vocal cords. [4]The point of resistance is located just above the vocal cords. Thesudden air pressure exerted on the interior walls of the larynx by theexpiratory contraction causes the ventricles of the larynx to expand byinflation. This inflation of the ventricles brings their upper margins, formed by the false vocal cords, into contact. Thus the opening from thelarynx into the pharynx is closed. This closure is not effected by anymuscular contraction, therefore it is not dependent on the strength ofthe muscular fibers of the false vocal cords. It is an automaticvalvular action, directly under voluntary control so far as thecontraction of the expiratory muscles is concerned, but independent ofvolition as regards the action of the false vocal cords. On account oftheir important function in this operation the false vocal cords arecalled the 'breath-bands. ' Closure of the glottis by the inflation ofthe ventricles imposes no strain on the vocal cords. 

[Note 4: One of the strongest arguments of the "breath-band"advocates is based on this action, --the resistance of the closed glottisto a powerful expiratory pressure. The theory of breath-control by"opposed muscular action" takes no cognizance of this operation. It willhowever be shown in Chapter II of Part II that the "breath-band"theorists are mistaken in asserting that the action of holding thebreath is not performed by the glottis-closing muscles. ]

"Control of the breath in singing is effected by this automatic valvularaction. To produce a tone according to this system, the lungs must befilled and the breath held in the manner just described, while the vocalcords are brought to the proper degree of tension; then the tone isstarted by allowing the 'breath-bands' to separate very slightly, sothat a thin stream of air is forced through the opening between theirmargins. The tone is ushered in by a slight explosive sound, which isnothing but the well-known stroke of the glottis. So long as theexpiratory pressure is steadily maintained, this tone may be held, andyet no strain is imposed on the vocal cords. Perfect control of thebreath is thus attained. For a powerful tone, the breath blast isgreater, therefore the ventricles are more widely inflated, and theopening between the 'breath-bands' becomes narrower. The action isalways automatic; once the tone is correctly started, the singer needpay no further attention to the operation of the 'breath-bands. ' Allthat is necessary is to maintain a steady breath pressure. "

In the methods of all the "breath-band" advocates, the first and mostimportant step toward perfect tone-production is held to be theacquirement of this automatic breath-control. As in the "opposedmuscular" system, the initial exercises are toneless drills inbreathing. The basic exercise, of which all the others are variations, is as follows: "Fill the lungs, then hold the breath an instant, andforcibly contract all the chest muscles. Then force the air out slowlyand powerfully through the glottis. " Practice of this exercise is alwaysaccompanied by a hissing sound, caused by the escape of the air throughthe narrow slit between (presumably) the "breath-bands. " Tone-productionby the same muscular action is very simple, and requires no furtherexplanation. 

In its practical aspect this system of breath-control is the directopposite of the "opposed muscular" system. In one the breath is expelledpowerfully, the object being to bring a strong expiratory pressure tobear on the larynx. In the other system, the air is held back, in orderthat the larynx be exposed to as slight a pressure as possible. 

The "breath-band" advocates hold that the glottic stroke is the key tocorrect laryngeal action. As a rule they instruct their pupils to attackevery tone, throughout all their practising, with the stroke of theglottis. In the course of time the automatic valvular action is supposedto become so well established that the singer can dispense with theglottic stroke in public performance. Needless to say, these teachersusually recognize that this explosive sound is very harsh and unmusical, and utterly out of place in artistic singing. 

An important claim of the "breath-band" teachers is that their doctrinecontains the explanation of the traditional precept, "Support the tone. "Their idea is that the throat, being "firmly set, " furnishes a securebase for the tone to rest on. This explanation is of course utterlyunscientific, and it cannot be said to throw any light on the meaning ofthe precept. "Singing on the breath" is also referred to this system ofbreath-control, but with no more coherence than the "Support of thetone. "

No necessary connection obtains between systems of breath-control andthose of breathing strictly speaking, that is, of inspiration. As hasbeen said, the great majority of vocal theorists adhere to the "opposedmuscular action" breath-control. In this number are included advocatesof every known system of breathing. Bitter controversies have beencarried on between champions of different modes of breathing, who yetagree that the breath must be controlled by "opposed action. " This isalso true, although not to the same extent, among the "breath-band"teachers. And to render the confusion on the subject of breathing andbreath-control complete, instances might be cited of controversiesbetween teachers who agree as to the correct mode of inspiration, andyet disagree on the manner of controlling the expiration. 

Both systems of breath-control cannot be right; if one is correct, theother must necessarily be absolutely wrong. Instead of attempting todecide between them, it will be seen that both are false, and that thetheory on which they rest is erroneous. This discussion is reserved fora later chapter. 

CHAPTER III

REGISTERS AND LARYNGEAL ACTION

Probably no other topic of Vocal Science has been studied so earnestlyas the registers of the voice. Yet on no other topic is there such widediversity of opinion among theorists and investigators. 

Very little is definitely known regarding the manner in which thesubject of registers was treated by the old Italian masters. Suffice itto say here that the old masters did not refer the registers to changesin the laryngeal action. They were treated simply as different qualitiesof tone, each quality best adapted to be sung only in a portion of thevoice's compass. 

In the early decades of the nineteenth century the registers of thevoice received much attention from vocal theorists, especially in Paris. Garcia's first published work, _Mémoire sur la Voix humaine_, waspresented to the Academy of Sciences in 1840. This Mémoire gives theresults of observations which Garcia made on his own pupils; it dealsmainly with the position of the larynx during the singing of tones inthe various registers. Garcia describes how the larynx is raised andlowered in the throat, according to the register in which the tones areproduced. He also notes the position of the tongue and the soft palate. 

Widespread interest was awakened by the account of Garcia'slaryngoscopic investigations of the registers, published in 1855. Theattention of the great majority of vocalists was at once drawn to thesubject, and the actions of the vocal cords in the different registerswere studied by many prominent physicians and voice specialists. Exhaustive treatises on the registers have since been published by Mme. Seiler, Behnke, Curwen, Mills, Battaille, Curtis, Holmes, and by a largenumber of other investigators. 

All the results of the laryngoscopic investigation of the vocal actionhave been disappointing in the extreme. In the first place, no twoobservers have obtained exactly the same results. Writing in 1886, SirMorell Mackenzie says: "Direct observation with the laryngoscope is, ofcourse, the best method at our disposal, but that even its testimony isfar from unexceptionable is obvious from the marvelous differences as tomatters of _fact_ that exist among observers. It is hardly too much tosay that no two of them quite agree as to what is seen. " (_The Hygieneof the Vocal Organs_, London, 1886. ) Wesley Mills, in his latest work, endeavors to show a substantial agreement among the best equippedobservers of the registers, but his attempt can hardly be calledconvincing. (_Voice Production in Singing and Speaking_, Philadelphia, 1906. ) Opinions on the subject of registers, held by the leading voicespecialists to-day, are fully as divergent as in 1886. Widely differentstatements are made by prominent authorities as to the number ofregisters, the vocal cord action by which each register is produced, andthe number of notes which each one should properly include. 

Another deficiency of the doctrine of registers is even more serious inits bearing on practical instruction. Not only have all investigatorsfailed to define exactly what the correct laryngeal action is. Even ifthis were determined it would still be necessary to find means forimparting command of this correct action to the student of singing. Knowing how the vocal cords should act does not help the singer in theleast to govern their action. What the vocal student wishes to know ishow to cause the vocal cords to assume the correct position for eachregister. On this, the most important topic of mechanical Voice Culture, Vocal Science has shed no light whatever. A student may heardescriptions of the laryngeal action, and study the highly interestinglaryngoscopic photographs of the vocal cords, until thoroughly familiarwith the theoretical side of the subject. Even then, the student is nobetter able to control the vocal cord action than when profoundlyignorant of the whole matter. 

This deficiency of Vocal Science is frankly recognized by one of thelatest authoritative writers on the subject, Dr. Wesley Mills. On page173 of his work just quoted, he advises students to _hear the greatsingers_, to note carefully the _quality of tone_ which characterizeseach register, and to _imitate these qualities_ with their own voices. This advice may almost be described as revolutionary. Vocal theoristshave always assumed that the correct action cannot be acquired byimitation. In this advice to rely on the imitative faculty for acquiringcontrol of the laryngeal action, Dr. Mills abandons the basic principleof modern methods. Without exception, all instruction in singing isto-day based on the idea of mechanical tone-production. An entirely newtheory of Voice Culture is involved in this advice of Dr. Mills. 

Turning to practical methods of instruction, it is found that thesubject of registers is very seldom treated in the manner suggested bythe theoretical works on the voice. This would be, to make the "placing"of the voice in the different registers the exclusive subject ofinstruction for a certain number of lessons;--to train each register ofthe voice separately;--when the correct vocal cord action had beenestablished in each register, to unite the different registers, and tocorrect any "breaks" which might have developed. Comparatively fewteachers attempt to follow this course. The great majority treat theregisters in a much less systematic fashion. A single half-hour lessonusually includes explanations and exercises on several topics ofmechanical tone-production, as well as hints on agility, style, execution, etc. As merely one of this variety of subjects, theregisters usually receive rather desultory attention. 

Some teachers profess to ignore the subject of registers entirely. Theymaintain that, when properly trained from the beginning, the compass ofthe voice is one homogeneous whole; "breaks" and changes of quality arein their opinion merely the results of bad instruction. But the generalbelief of vocal authorities is overwhelmingly against these teachers. The condition which they describe is without doubt the ideal of vocalmanagement; but the vast majority of teachers believe that thiscondition cannot be attained without some attention being paid to theindividual registers. 

Most teachers recognize either two registers, --chest and head; orthree, --chest, middle, and head. Comparatively few extremists recognizemore than three. Several sets of names for the registers have beenproposed by vocal theorists, --thick and thin, long reed and short reed, high and low, etc. But these names have not been adopted by teachers toany extent. 

One important phase of the registers has not received much attentionfrom the laryngoscopic investigators. This is, that most of the notes ofthe voice's compass can be produced at will in more than one register. Vocal teachers as a rule recognize this fact. Julius Stockhausen forinstance, in his _Gesangsmethode_ (Leipzig, 1884), says: "The registerscross each other. The two principal registers of the voice have manytones in common. The perfect blending of the registers on a single toneleads to the _crescendo_, called in Italian the _messa di voce_. "Teachers generally do not set hard and fast limits to the extent of eachregister; they direct that in singing up the scale the student passgradually from chest to middle, middle to head voice, etc. 

In most practical methods the chest register occupies about the sameposition; this is also true of the head register. Even those teacherswho profess to ignore registers recognize these two distinct qualitiesof tone; they instruct their pupils to sing low notes in one quality, and high notes in the other. This is in fact the general practice. Inthis connection the topics of registers and resonance are oftencombined. The terms "head voice, " "head register, " and "nasalresonance, " are used interchangeably by the great majority of teachers. This is also true of the expressions "chest voice, " "chest resonance, "and "chest register. "

In practical instruction, the extending of the compass of the voice isusually treated, rather loosely perhaps in most cases, as a feature ofthe registers. Methods vary greatly in points of detail, but in most ofthem instruction on this topic is given along the same general lines. Usually the three classes of voices receive different treatment, oneform of instruction being used for sopranos and tenors, another formezzo-sopranos and baritones, and a third for altos and bassos. 

In teaching students with high voices, teachers usually "place"[5] themedium notes first, roughly speaking, from G to d (for male voices oneoctave lower). Then the lower notes are developed, mostly by descendingscale passages, the lowest note practised being usually C. The highnotes are sometimes "placed" by ascending scale passages and arpeggios, but more often by the octave jump and descending scale. There is roomfor considerable variation in this class of exercises, but they allconform to the same general principle. 

[Note 5: The expression "placing the voice" is more fully treated inChap. VI. It is assumed, however, that the reader is familiar with theordinary usage of this expression. ]

For mezzos and baritones about the same system is followed, theexercises being sung a major third or so lower. In the case ofcontraltos and bassos, the voice is usually trained from the middle inboth directions. Most teachers favor the "chest voice" for singers ofthese types throughout the entire compass. 

A discussion of the use of special vowels and consonants in this classof exercises is contained in Chapter V. 

It must not be understood that this topic of instruction is assigned bymany teachers to any particular period of the student's progress. Moreover, practice in the registers seldom forms the exclusive materialof lessons and home study for any definite time. The wide range oftopics considered in the average singing lesson has already beenmentioned. 

Very little connection can be traced between the scientific doctrine ofregisters, and the treatment which this subject receives in modernmethods. This is only to be expected, in view of the fact thatlaryngoscopic investigation has not resulted in practical rules formanaging the vocal cords. The registers of the voice are handled bymodern teachers in a purely empirical fashion. 

_Movements of the Larynx, Tongue, and Soft Palate_

It was remarked, in speaking of the registers, that no mechanical meanshas ever been found for directly controlling the operations of the vocalcords. To this statement one apparent exception is seen in the methodoriginated by John Howard. This earnest student of the voice sought tocarry out, to its logical conclusion, the accepted idea of mechanicalvocal control. In this respect he stands practically alone. His is theonly method which even pretends to reduce the entire operation ofcorrect tone-production to a set of defined muscular contractions. 

Howard's theories, with the details of a practical method based thereon, are fully described in his most important published work, _ThePhysiology of Artistic Singing_, New York, 1886. A complete expositionof Howard's theories is not called for here. For the present purposethe following short summary will suffice:

"The difference between correct tone-production and any incorrect vocalaction is solely a matter of laryngeal adjustment and vocal cord action. Whether the tone produced be right or wrong, the influence of theresonance cavities is about the same. It is therefore idle to pay anyattention to the subject of air resonance. Only one form of resonance isof any value in tone-production (considered as distinct from vowelformation). This is the sounding-board resonance of the bones of thehead and chest. To secure this, the most important reinforcement of thetone, the larynx must be firmly held in a fixed position against thebackbone, at the fifth cervical vertebra. All theories as to theregisters of the voice, derived from laryngoscopic observation, arecompletely erroneous. 

"In the production of tone, the muscular tissue of the vocal cords isthrown into vibration by the air blast, and not merely the membranouscovering of the inner edges of the cords. For a soft tone, only aportion of the fleshy mass of the vocal cords vibrates; if this tone isgradually swelled to _fortissimo_, a constantly increasing portion ofthe muscular tissue is called into play. For the loudest tone, theentire mass of the vocal cords is bought into vibration. Thus theincreased volume of the tone results not alone from the increase in thepower of the breath blast. Each addition to the power of the expirationdemands also a change in the adjustment of the vocal cords. 

"The contractions of the muscles inside the larynx, including the vocalcords, cannot be brought under direct voluntary control. But thesecontractions can be regulated by the actions of other sets of muscles, viz. , those by which the larynx is connected with the skeletal frameworkof the head, neck, and chest. These latter muscles can all be controlledby direct volition. Each of these sets of muscles has its function intone-production. One set pulls the larynx backward, into the positionalready described, against the backbone. Two other opposed sets hold thelarynx firmly in this position, one set pulling upward, the otherdownward. Finally, and most important in their influence on the actionsof the vocal cords, a fourth set of muscles comes into play. These tiltthe thyroid cartilage forward or backward, and thus bring about agreater or less tension of the vocal cords, independent of thecontractions of the muscles of the vocal cords themselves. In this wayis regulated the amount of the fleshy mass of the vocal cords exposed tothe expiratory blast. Correct tone-production results when exactly thenecessary degree of strength is exerted by each one of these four setsof muscles. "

For each of these groups of muscles Howard devised a system of exercisesand drills by which the singer is supposed to bring all the movementsinvolved under direct voluntary control. The parts thus exercised arethe tongue, the soft palate, the jaw, the fauces, and also the musclesby which the larynx is raised and lowered in the throat, and those bywhich the chest is raised. In teaching a pupil Howard took up each partin turn. A sufficient number of lessons was devoted to each set ofmuscles for the pupil (presumably) to acquire the necessary control ofeach group. 

Howard also paid much attention to the breath; he worked out the systemof high-chest breathing in a really masterly fashion. But his manner ofdealing with this subject did not differ from that of a great number ofother teachers. 

Howard retired from active teaching about 1895. His theories of thevocal action have never been generally accepted by vocal theorists, andthe number of teachers who now profess to follow his method is verysmall. There are, however, many other masters whose methods, in theirmain features, are patterned after Howard's. These latter teachers maytherefore be justly said to follow the Howard system, even though theygive him no credit for their doctrines of vocal control. 

Howard usually insisted that his pupils should understand thetheoretical basis of his method, and the exact purpose of each exerciseand muscular contraction. But as a rule his successors do not make thisdemand on their pupils. They are content to have the students practisethe prescribed exercises; this the students do, with very little thoughtabout the theory lying behind the method. For the pupil this system, asat present generally taught, consists solely of a series of musculardrills for the tongue, larynx, palate, etc. 

In this review of modern methods, the Howard system is important, mainlybecause it represents the consistent application of the idea ofmechanical tone-production. As was observed, Howard's theories had verylittle influence on the general trend of Vocal Science. The externalfeatures of the Howard system are indeed shared to some extent by themethods of many other teachers. Muscular drills of about the same typeare very widely used. Some teachers go so far in this respect that theirmethods might almost be confounded with the Howard system. But theresemblance is purely external. Even in 1880, at the time when Howardhad fairly perfected his method, there was nothing novel about exercisesof this type. The first attempts at a practical study of vocal mechanicsconsisted of observations of those parts of the vocal organs whosemovements can be readily seen and felt. These are the lips, tongue, palate, and larynx. Garcia's _Mémoire_, already cited, is mainly arecord of observations of this kind. Nearly every vocal theorist sincethat time has also paid some attention to this phase of the vocalaction. 

In practical methods of instruction, elaborate systems of rules havelong been in use for governing the positions of the tongue, lips, palate, etc. Unlike the Howard theory, no definite scientific basis isusually given for specific directions of this kind. Each investigatorhas simply noted how certain great singers held their tongues or softpalates, whether the larynx was held high or low in the throat, etc. , and considered that these must be the correct positions. It would behard to find a greater diversity of opinion on any topic connected withthe voice than is encountered here. To enumerate all the rules which aregiven for governing the actions of each part would be useless. A few ofthe contradictory opinions regarding the correct position of the larynxwill suffice to show how great is the confusion on this topic:

"The larynx should be held low in the throat for all tones. " "It shouldbe held in a fixed position high in the throat. " "It should be high forlow tones, and should descend as the pitch rises. " "It should be in alow position for the lowest note of each register, and should rise asthe pitch rises; when the highest note of the register is reached, itshould at once descend for the lowest note of the next register. "Prominent teachers and writers could be cited as authority for each ofthese rules, and indeed for several others. A similar diversity ofopinion is found regarding the rules given for the position of thetongue and the soft palate. 

Practices vary greatly as to the amount of time and attention devoted tomuscular drills of the parts under consideration, and also as to theimportance attached to the positions of these parts. Some teachers makethis a prominent feature of their methods. The majority, however, treatthe subject much more lightly. They now and then devote a part of thelesson time to the muscular drills and exercises; for the rest, anoccasional hint or correction regarding the positions of the parts isdeemed sufficient. 

All the movements of the tongue, lips, and jaw are directly undervoluntary control. Exercises for these parts are therefore given onlyfor acquiring suppleness and agility. The muscular movements of thelarynx and soft palate are readily brought under control. Each cansimply be raised and lowered. A few minutes' daily practice, extendedover three or four weeks, is generally sufficient for the student toacquire satisfactory command of these actions. But to hold the tongue, palate, and larynx in any prescribed position, while singing a tone, isan extremely troublesome matter. Those teachers who adhere to precisesystems for the positions of these parts, frequently impose much arduouspractice on their pupils. As to the merits of any special system of thekind, this question is reserved for future discussion. 

_Attack_

It would be hard to determine when the term "attack" was first used todescribe the starting of a vocal tone. Nor is it easy to define theprecise position assigned to the subject of attack by vocal theorists. No satisfactory statement of the theory of attack can be cited from anypublished treatise on Vocal Science. It is commonly asserted, ratherloosely indeed, that the tone must be "started right. " As Clara KathleenRogers expresses it, "Attack the tone badly, and nothing can improve itafterwards. " (_The Philosophy of Singing_, New York, 1893. ) Thisstatement is in the practical sense utterly unfounded. A tone may be"attacked" with a nasal or throaty quality, and then be improved, bysimply eliminating the objectionable quality. Of this fact the readermay readily convince himself. In short, all the accepted theories ofattack rest on an unscientific basis. 

Vocal theorists generally treat the subject of attack as connected insome way with registers and laryngeal action. But as no rule has everbeen formulated for the mechanical management of the laryngeal action, it necessarily follows that no intelligible directions are ever given tothe student for preparing to start the laryngeal action correctly. 

Three possible ways of attacking a tone are generally recognized. Theseare described by Albert B. Bach, in _The Principles of Singing_, secondedition, London, 1897. They are, first, the stroke of the glottis. (Thisis advocated by Garcia in most of his published works, although thetestimony of many of his pupils, notably Mme. Marchesi, is that Garciaused the glottic stroke very little in actual instruction. ) Second, theaspirate (_h_ as in _have_), which is generally condemned. Third, theapproximation of the vocal cords at the precise instant the breath blaststrikes them. This latter mode of attack is advocated by Browne andBehnke, who call it the "slide of the glottis. " It must be observedthat neither the stroke nor the slide of the glottis can be shown tohave any influence in causing the laryngeal muscles to adopt anyparticular mode of adjustment. 

Turning to practical methods of instruction, little connection can betraced between the theories of attack and the occasional directionsusually given for starting the tone. The subject of attack is seldomassigned to any particular period in the course of study. Many teachersignore the matter altogether. Others devote a few minutes now and thento drilling a pupil in the stroke of the glottis, without attaching muchimportance to the subject. (The position assigned to this mode of attackby the "breath-band" theorists has already been mentioned. ) On thewhole, the matter of attack is usually treated rather loosely. The pupilis occasionally interrupted in singing a phrase, and told to "attack thetone better. " Needless to say, this form of instruction is in no sensescientific. 

CHAPTER IV

RESONANCE

In order to understand fully the position in Vocal Science assigned tothe doctrine of resonance, it is necessary to trace the origin and thedevelopment of this doctrine. The old Italian masters naturally knewnothing whatever of resonance, nor of any other topic of acoustics. Yetthe accepted theories of resonance in its relation to the voice aredirectly based on a set of empirical observations made by the oldmasters. The facts which they noted are now a matter of commonknowledge. In singing low notes a sensation of trembling or vibration isfelt in the upper chest; high notes are accompanied by a similarsensation in the head. How these sensations of vibration came to be madethe basis of the theories of vocal resonance, and of registers as well, is an interesting bit of vocal history. 

Although almost entirely ignorant of vocal mechanics in the scientificsense, the old masters were eager students of the voice. They carefullynoted the characteristic sound of each tone of the voice, and worked outwhat they believed to be a comprehensive theory of tone-production. Oneof their observations was that in every voice the low notes have asomewhat different quality from the high notes. To distinguish these twoqualities of tone the old masters adopted the word used for a similarpurpose by the organ builders, --_register_. Further, they noted thesensation of vibration in the chest caused by singing low notes, andconcluded that these notes are actually produced in the chest. To thelower notes of the voice they therefore gave the name "chest register. "As Tosi explains it, "_Voce di Petto_ is a full voice, which comes fromthe breast by strength. " For a precisely similar reason, viz. , thesensation of vibration in the head felt in singing the higher notes, this portion of the voice was called by the old masters the "headregister. "

When the study of vocal mechanics along scientific lines was undertaken, in the early decades of the nineteenth century, attention was at firstpaid almost exclusively to the subject of registers. The questions thenmost discussed were the number of registers, the number of notes whicheach should include, and the precise point of production of eachregister in the chest, throat, and head. Garcia's _Mémoire_, dealingwith the registers, was noticed in the preceding chapter. He showed thatdifferent adjustments of the tongue, palate, and larynx are concerned inthe production of the various registers. This _Mémoire_ opened up a newline of observation, in which Garcia continued to take the lead. But theextending of the scope of inquiry concerning the registers did notresult in any unanimity of opinion on the part of the vocalinvestigators of that time. 

For a few years following the invention of the laryngoscope (1855), vocal theorists ceased their disputes about the registers, and awaitedthe definite results of this new mode of observation. When this potentlittle instrument was put within the reach of every investigator, it wasbelieved that the mystery surrounding the registers was about to bedispelled. 

One important consequence of the invention of the laryngoscope was theturning of attention away from the sensations of vibration in the chestand head. Each register was ascribed to a distinct mode of operation ofthe vocal cords, and for several years the terms "chest voice" and "headvoice" were held to be scientifically unsound. But with the publicationof Helmholtz's _Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen_ in 1863, thesensations of vibration again received attention. These sensations werethen made the basis of a theory of vocal resonance, which has since beenadopted by the great majority of vocal scientists. 

Until the publication of Helmholtz's work vocal theorists had knownpractically nothing of acoustics. The fact that the tones produced bythe vocal cords are increased in power and modified in quality by theresonance of the air in the mouth-pharynx cavity came as a distinctrevelation to the theoretical students of the voice. Helmholtz confinedhis experiments and demonstrations to the mouth-pharynx cavity, andinvestigated in particular the influence of this cavity in producing thevarious vowel and consonant sounds. But vocal theorists at once extendedthe idea of air resonance, and connected it with the well-knownsensations of vibration in the chest and head. It was assumed that thesesensations are caused by vibrations of the air in the chest and nasalcavities. 

This assumption has been accepted without question by the great majorityof vocal scientists. Both the chest voice and the head voice are nowbelieved to owe their distinctive qualities to the reinforcingvibrations of the air in the chest and nasal cavities respectively. Themere fact that these vibrations can be felt is held sufficient proof ofthe statement. "In every true chest tone the resonance can be distinctlyfelt as a vibration (fremitus pectoralis) by the hand laid flat on thechest. " (_Die Kunst der idealen Tonbildung_, Dr. W. Reinecke, Leipzig, 1906. ) It must be observed that this is by no means a satisfactoryscientific proof of the doctrine of chest resonance. This feature of thesubject is reserved for discussion later. 

The doctrine of resonance is now generally accepted as one of the basicprinciples of Vocal Science. It is stated, in substance, by almost everyauthority on the voice that "The tone produced by the vibration of thevocal cords, even when the laryngeal action is correct in every way, isweak, of poor quality, and without character. This tone must bestrengthened and made of musical quality by utilizing the influence ofresonance. " The subject of resonance is always treated in theoreticalworks on the voice under the three heads of chest, mouth-pharynx, andnasal resonance. To these a fourth is sometimes added, --thesounding-board resonance of the bones of the chest and head. 

_Mouth-Pharynx Resonance_

Considered strictly in its bearing on tone-production, the resonance ofthe mouth-pharynx cavity does not receive much attention fromtheoretical observers of the voice. The form assumed by this cavity isof necessity determined by the vowel to be sung. Aside from its functionin the pronunciation of words, the influence of mouth-pharynx resonanceon the tones of the voice is seldom discussed by vocal scientists. 

As a rule, vocal teachers pay little attention to this form ofresonance. The subject of enunciation is generally treated as distinctfrom tone-production strictly speaking. While the correct emission ofthe tone, in its passage from the vocal cords to the lips, is considereda very important topic, this feature of tone-production has noreference to resonance. 

One exception must be made to the statement that no attention is paid tomouth-pharynx resonance. This is found in an interpretation of theempirical precept, "Sing with open throat. " Several vocal theorists takethis precept literally, and hold that it describes a function ofmouth-pharynx resonance. According to their idea the cavity must beexpanded to the largest size possible, on the theory that a largeresonance cavity secures a proportionately greater reinforcement of thetone. "The greater the size of the pharynx, whether through practice ornatural gifts, the stronger in proportion is the tone. " (_Die Kunst deridealen Tonbildung_, Dr. W. Reinecke, Leipzig, 1906. ) This theory is ofcourse rather loose and unscientific. Still this idea, --a literalinterpretation of the "open throat" precept, --receives much attention inpractical instruction. 

Only one muscular action has ever been defined by which the throat mightbe "opened. " That is, the lowering of the larynx and the raising of thesoft palate. Many teachers therefore direct that the throat be "opened"gradually in this way for the swelling of the tone. It is assumed thatthe power of the voice is developed by singing with the larynx low inthe throat. This manner of instruction is, however, very loosely given. The supposedly scientific interpretation of the "open throat" preceptshades off into a purely empirical application. 

_Chest Resonance_

In no other topic of Vocal Science is the gap between theory andpractice more striking than in the doctrine of chest resonance. Vocalteachers are in fair accord in believing the resonance of the air in thechest to be the most important influence in imparting power and "color"to the voice, and particularly to the lower notes of its compass. Students of singing are in almost all cases urged to acquire a propercommand of chest resonance. But when it comes to telling the student howto learn to govern the chest resonance, the teacher has practicallynothing to offer. No direct means has ever been found for causing theair in the thorax to vibrate; this cannot be effected, so far as has yetbeen determined, by any voluntary muscular action on the part of thesinger. 

This being the case, intelligible instruction in the use and managementof chest resonance is hardly to be expected. Teachers of singing areobliged to fall back on purely empirical instruction on this topic. Thisusually takes the form of a description of the sensations experienced bythe singer when producing tones in the chest voice. How this descriptionof the singer's sensations is applied, is discussed in the followingchapter. 

_Nasal Resonance_

The lack of connection between the theories of vocal scientists and thepractical methods of singing teachers is well illustrated in the subjectof nasal resonance. A striking feature of all the discussions concerningthe use or avoidance of nasal resonance is the fact that vocal theoristsbase their opinions entirely on empirical observations. The use of nasalresonance is condemned by almost every prominent authority on VocalScience. Yet the only reason ever advanced for condemning nasalresonance is the fact that a tone of objectionable nasal quality seemsto "come through the nose. " This fact cannot, of course, be questioned. It is mentioned by Tosi, who speaks of the "defect of singing throughthe nose, " and is observed by everybody possessed of an ear keen enoughto detect the nasal quality of sound. 

It is generally stated by vocal theorists that the nasal quality isimparted to the tone by the influence of the resonance of the air in thenasal cavities. In order to prove this assertion Browne and Behnke offerthe following experiment, (quoted in substance): "Hold a hand-mirrorflat, face up, just below the nostrils. Then sing a nasal tone; you willnote that the mirror is clouded, showing that part of the breath haspassed through the nasal cavities. Now sing another tone, free from thefault of nasal quality; this time the mirror is not clouded, whichproves that no air has passed through the cavities in question. "(_Voice, Song and Speech. _) This experiment is simplified by otherauthorities, who direct that the nostrils be pinched by the fingers, andthen allowed to open by the removal of the pressure of the fingers. Asteady tone is meanwhile to be sung. It will be noted, according tothese theorists, that with the nostrils open the tone is nasal, and withthe nostrils closed the tone is not nasal. This proves to theirsatisfaction that a tone passing in whole or in part through the nasalcavities must be nasal in quality. 

It must be noted here that these experiments are not in any senseconvincing. A tone of objectionable nasal quality can be sung equallywell with the nostrils either closed or open, and so can a tone freefrom the nasal quality. 

In theory, the mechanical prevention of nasal resonance is very simple. It is necessary only to raise the soft palate in singing, and thus tocut off the expired breath from passing into the nasal cavities. Mostvocal scientists advise that the singer hold the soft palate raised forevery tone. 

Practical teachers of singing pay little attention to the theoreticaldiscussions concerning nasal resonance. The overwhelming majority ofteachers are firm believers in nasal resonance, and make it an importantfeature of their methods. They believe that this resonance is the mostimportant factor in giving to the tone its "point, " brilliance, andcarrying power. 

So far as instruction in the use of nasal resonance is concerned, teachers owe but little to the mechanical doctrines of Vocal Science. No voluntary muscular operation has ever been found, by which the air inthe nasal cavities can be directly thrown into vibration, and so made toreinforce the tones of the voice. Instruction in the management of nasalresonance is therefore similar to that in chest resonance. The teacherdescribes the sensations experienced by a singer who produces the exactquality of tone desired. Use is also made of special vowels andconsonants, for (supposedly) acquiring command of nasal resonance. Adescription of this form of instruction is given in the followingchapter. 

_Sounding-Board Resonance_

The acoustic principle of sounding-board resonance, in its applicationto the voice, is discussed by several vocal scientists. It is usuallytreated under two heads: first, the entire body is looked upon as asounding board, capable of reinforcing the tones of the voice undercertain conditions. Second, the bones of the chest and of the head arethought to be thrown into vibration, in sympathy with the vibrations ofthe air in the chest and nasal cavities respectively. 

The importance attached by Howard to the sounding-board resonance of theentire body has already been noticed. Aside from the teachers of theHoward system, very few masters pay any attention to this feature ofvocal reinforcement. Those who do so have no difficulty in dealing withthe subject. When the singer stands in the position generally consideredcorrect for singing, the body is said to be in the position mostfavorable for securing the benefits of this form of resonance. For thisno special rules or exercises are needed. 

Very little attention is paid, in practical instruction, to thevibrations of the bones of the resonance cavities. Each cavity istreated as a whole; the fact is only occasionally mentioned that thebones inclosing the cavities may vibrate, as well as the inclosed air. 

CHAPTER V

EMPIRICAL MATERIALS OF MODERN METHODS

A series of topics included in modern methods is now to be considered, different in scope from the strictly mechanical features oftone-production so far described. It must be apparent to the reader thatthe present understanding of the muscular processes of singing is notsufficient to furnish a complete method of instruction. This fact isthoroughly appreciated by the teachers of singing. Almost withoutexception they seek to supplement the mechanical doctrines byinstruction of an entirely different character. The subjects included inthis form of instruction are of several classes. They comprise themanner of emission of the tone, the traditional precepts of the oldItalian school, the singer's sensations, and the use of certain vowelsand consonants for special purposes. 

_Emission and Forward Placing_

Of all the traditional precepts, the one most frequently cited intheoretical treatises on the voice is, "Place the tone forward. " Forthis precept it is generally believed that a satisfactory explanationhas been found in the accepted doctrine of tone emission. 

The characteristic effect of perfect singing known as the "forward tone"is thoroughly well known to every lover of singing. In some peculiar waythe tone, when perfectly produced, seems to issue directly from thesinger's mouth. When we listen to a poorly trained and faulty singer thetones seem to be caught somewhere in the singer's throat. We feelinstinctively that if the singer could only lift the voice off thethroat, and bring it forward in the mouth, the tones would be greatlyimproved in character. It is commonly believed that the old masters knewsome way in which this can be done. Just what means they used for thispurpose is not known. But the accepted scientific interpretation of the"forward tone" precept is held by vocal theorists to render the subjectperfectly clear. 

Sir Morell Mackenzie states the correct emission of the tone as one ofthe three cardinal principles of the vocal action. "The regulation ofthe force of the blast which strikes against the vocal cords, theplacing of these in the most favourable position for the effect which itis desired to produce, and the direction of the vibrating column of airwhich issues from the larynx are the three elements of artisticproduction. " (_The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs_, London, 1886. ) Hisanalysis of the mechanical and acoustic processes involved in emissionmay be cited as typical of the views of the great majority of vocalscientists. "It (the column of sound) must be projected against the roofof the cavity behind the upper front teeth, from which it reboundssharply and clearly to the outside. " Mme. Seiler expresses the ideasomewhat differently, but the meaning is about the same. "A correctdisposition of the tones of the voice consists in causing the air, brought into vibration by the vocal ligaments, to rebound fromimmediately above the front teeth, where it must be concentrated as muchas possible, rebounding thence to form in the mouth continuousvibrations. " (_The Voice in Singing_, Phila. , 1886. )

To the vocal theorists this is no doubt thoroughly convincing andsatisfactory. But as a topic of practical instruction in singing thistheory of tone emission is utterly valueless. How can the "column ofvocalized breath" be voluntarily directed in its passage through thepharynx and mouth? No muscular process has ever been located, by whichthe singer can influence the course of the expired breath, and direct itto any specific point in the mouth. Even if the expired breath does, inperfect singing, take the course described, knowledge of this factcannot enable the singer to bring this about. The accepted doctrine oftone emission is of no benefit whatever to the teacher of singing. Heknows what the "forward tone" is, that is, what it sounds like, just aswell no doubt as did the old Italian master. But if the latter knew howto enable his pupils to obtain the "forward" character of tone, themodern teacher is to that extent not so well off. 

In view of the prevailing ignorance of any means for securing the(supposedly) correct emission of tone, intelligible instruction on thistopic is hardly to be expected. But the great majority of teachers laygreat stress on the need of acquiring the correct emission. The bestthey can do is to explain the scientific doctrine to their pupils; thestudents are generally left to find for themselves some way of applyingthe explanation. In many cases the master tries to assist the student bydescribing the singer's sensations, experienced when producing a"forward" tone. 

Certain vowels and consonants are usually held to be especially favoredby a "forward position, " and exercises on these are very widely used forsecuring a "forward" tone. These exercises are described in a laterparagraph. It will be noticed however that this use of vowels is not anapplication of the theory of "forward emission. " The vowel sounds arebelieved to owe their "forward position" to resonance, while "emission"is purely a matter of direction or focusing of the breath-blast. Thewhole subject of emission and forward placing is in a veryunsatisfactory condition. 

_The Traditional Precepts in Modern Instruction_

So much importance is attached by modern teachers to the traditionalprecepts of the old school that this subject calls for somewhat lengthytreatment. Before discussing the manner in which the precepts areapplied in practical instruction, it will be well to review first theinterpretations of the precepts offered by different vocal scientists. 

It must be remarked, in the first place, that no single one of theprecepts has ever been satisfactorily explained; that is, no directmeans of performing the actions indicated by the precepts has ever beenfound. If ever the precepts had a definite meaning, considered asspecific directions for performing certain actions in a special way, that meaning has been lost. Mechanical analysis has not reduced theprecepts to a form in which they are of direct value to the modernteacher. 

That the "forward tone" is interpreted as a reference to the emission ofthe voice was noted earlier in this chapter. The explanation of the"open throat" precept as a function of mouth-pharynx resonance has alsobeen mentioned. 

"Singing on the breath" is a very perplexing subject for vocaltheorists. Many authorities assert that this precept describes aneffect obtained by the "opposed muscular action" breath-control. (Seecitation from Shakespeare in Chapter II. ) But this explanation is hardlysatisfactory; if the precept had meant no more than breath-control, itwould have been forgotten long ago. 

The "support of the tone" is mentioned by a large number of theoreticalwriters on the voice. These writers generally state, in substance, that"the tone must be supported by the breathing muscles of the chest, andnot by the throat muscles. " (See _The Technics of Bel Canto_, by G. B. Lamperti, New York, 1905. ) But this explanation is hardly to beconsidered as a scientific doctrine. Every one knows that a tone has noweight, so in the physical sense it can need no support. In short, scientific analysis has thrown no more light on this than any other ofthe old precepts. 

Notwithstanding the modern teacher's complete ignorance of themechanical operations which they seem to indicate, the old precepts forma very important feature of instruction in singing. The great majorityof teachers cite these precepts constantly, and frequently direct theirpupils to "open the throat, " to "bring the tone forward, " etc. Is it tobe believed that an intelligent master would use these directions in anyoccult or cabalistic sense? Such a statement is occasionally made by aconsistent upholder of the mechanical system of Voice Culture. PauloGuetta, for example, in a recent exhaustive work on the subject, ridicules the use of the old precepts. Says this ardent advocate ofmechanical instruction in singing:

"Nowadays alchemy and necromancy awaken nothing but curiosity. How thencan one who thinks and reasons admit that an art can be cultivated andsustained by theories extravagant, fantastic, enigmatic, explained andcondensed in abstruse phrases and sentences, which not only have nomeaning whatever, but even lead one to doubt whether the teacher himselfknows what result it is desired to obtain? Do you wish a little example?Behold!

"'Press the whole voice against the mask. ' 'Place the voice in thehead. ' 'The voice is directed to the nasal cavities. ' 'Place the voiceforward. '

"Others, with the most austere gravity, will tell you that your voice istoo far back, or that you send the voice to the lower teeth, and promisein a few days to place the voice forward, at the upper teeth, orwherever else it should be. " (_Il Canto nel suo Mecanismo_, Milan, 1902. )

This statement is by no means justified. The precepts have a real anddefinite meaning for the vocal teacher. Any one familiar with thehighest type of artistic singing must have observed that the singer's"throat seems to be open"; the tones impress the hearer as being in someway "forward in the singer's mouth, " and not at the vocal cords; thevoice "seems to be supported" somewhere; the tones float out freely onthe breath. A harsh and badly produced voice seems to be held in thesinger's throat by main force. The critical hearer feels instinctivelythat such a singer's voice would be greatly improved if the tones couldonly be supported in a forward position in the mouth, and kept fromslipping back into the throat. It seems that this would relieve thethroat of the strain of holding the tone; the throat would then be open, and the voice would float out freely on the breath. 

In short, the traditional precepts describe accurately the most strikingpoints of difference between perfect singing and bad singing, so far asthe effect on the listener is concerned. Modern teachers are thoroughlyfamiliar with the highest standards of the vocal art; they fullyappreciate how well the precepts describe the perfection of singing. Through long continued listening to voices, the precepts come to have avery real meaning. It is inevitable therefore that the teacher shouldtry to impart to the pupil this intimate feeling for the voice. True, this acquaintance with the voice is purely empirical; as has just beenremarked, no mechanical analysis of this empirical knowledge has everbeen successfully made. The modern teacher's apprehension of the meaningof the precepts is only very vaguely connected with a supposed insightinto the mechanical processes of tone-production. 

Yet there is nothing vague about the impression made on the teacher inlistening to his pupils. On the contrary, every faulty tone impressesthe teacher very keenly and definitely as being too far back, or ascaught in the throat, or as falling back for lack of support, etc. Howcould it be expected then, that the teacher should refrain from tellingthe pupil to correct the faulty production, in the manner so clearly anddirectly indicated by the tones?

But this direct application of the precepts is of absolutely no value ininstruction, because of the teacher's ignorance of the mechanicalprocesses supposedly involved. There is after all some justification forGuetta's criticism of empirical instruction. It is all very well for theteacher to feel that the pupil's voice is gripped in the throat, and tobid him "open your throat. " The pupil may strive ever so earnestly toopen his throat, but he does not know how, and the teacher is utterlyunable to tell him. 

All instruction based on the empirical precepts is thus seen to beextremely unsatisfactory. While the precepts convey a very valuablemeaning to the teacher, no way has ever been found for translating thismeaning into rules for the mechanical management of the vocal organs. Recourse is had, to some extent, to a description of the singer'ssensations; exercises on special vowels and consonants are also muchused, for imparting the ideas embodied in the precepts. Both of thesetopics are now to be considered. 

_The Singer's Sensations_

The correct use of the voice awakens in the singer a variety ofsensations generally held to be different from those accompanying anyincorrect vocal action. 

One important fact must first be noted regarding the manner in which thesinger's sensations are described by various authorities. The use of thevoice awakens a wide variety of local sensations, which bear nonecessary relation to each other. A singer may, at will, pay entireattention to any one, or to any particular set, of these sensations, andfor the time being completely ignore all the others. 

Physiologically considered, the singer's sensations are of twoclasses, --first, muscular sensations strictly speaking; and second, asense of tingling or vibration, definitely located usually about thebreast bone, and in the front and upper part of the head. 

_Muscular Sensations of Singing_

It is very difficult to analyze and describe exactly the muscularsensations which accompany any complex action. Swimming, diving, dancing, skating, --each awakens a set of extremely vivid muscularfeelings; yet to describe these sensations so graphically that theycould be felt in imagination by one who had never experienced themactually, --that would be almost impossible. 

This peculiar aspect of muscular sensations is particularly true asregards the action of singing. While every vocal teacher knows exactlyhow it feels to sing properly, all descriptions of the singer's muscularsensations are extremely vague. But the vividness of these sensationskeeps them constantly before the teacher's mind, and some application ofthem, in the present state of Voice Culture, is almost inevitable. 

The basic sensation of correct singing, as generally described, is afeeling of perfect poise and harmony of the whole body; this isaccompanied by a sense of freedom about the throat and jaw, and firmgrasp and control of the expiratory muscles. Attempts are frequentlymade to amplify this description, but the results are always very vague. A feeling of "absence of local effort" at the throat is much spoken of, or "perfect relaxation of the vocal muscles. "

A few specially localized muscular sensations are also much discussed. Descriptions of this class however are often so loosely given as torender a definite statement almost impossible. Most frequently mentionedare the feeling of "backward pressure in the throat, " and of "drinkingin the tone, " instead of sending it out. Then again, the "tone must befelt at the upper front teeth. " A feeling as of an "expanded andflexible vocal tube, extending from the base of the lungs to the lips, "is also much talked of. "Feel that you grow bigger as the tone swells"is about as intelligible as the feeling of "floating jaw. "

On the whole, the subject of the singer's muscular sensations is usuallyrather mystifying to the student. 

_Sensations of Tingling or Vibration_

Descriptions of sensations of this class are much more coherent thanthose just considered. A definite location is given to the feelings, inthe chest and in the head. 

A feeling of trembling in the upper chest is usually held to indicatethat the chest cavity is working properly as a resonator. Thissensation is therefore the chief reliance of most teachers in "placing"the lower tones, especially for low voices. Sensations in the nasalcavities and head are utilized for acquiring control of nasal resonance, for placing the upper notes of the voice, and for "bringing the voiceforward. " Exercises for control of both cavities, on special vowels andconsonants, combine the two topics, "vowel position" and sensation. 

_Singing in the Mask_

In recent years a method of instruction has been developed in France, which is commonly called by its advocates "singing in the mask. " Thebasic idea of this method is that the singer must imagine his face to becovered by a mask, and must "sing into this mask. " This idea may seemrather vague at first; but a few trials will show how easy it is for thesinger to persuade himself that he projects his voice into his face. 

This method goes to the extreme in utilizing the sensations of vibrationin the nose and forehead. These sensations are analyzed, localized, anddescribed, down to the most minute detail. While other topics ofinstruction are included, --breathing, registers, position of tongue, larynx, palate, etc. , everything else is subordinated to nasalresonance. "Singing in the mask" is of course a purely empirical method, and little has been attempted in the way of justifying it on scientificprinciples. 

* * *

All instruction based on the singer's sensations is purely empirical, inthe meaning ordinarily attached to this word in treatises on VocalScience. Theoretical works on the voice seldom touch on the subject ofsensations, nor do the vocal teachers generally make this subjectprominent when speaking of their methods. [6]

[Note 6: An exception to this statement is seen in the recentlypublished book of Mme. Lilli Lehmann, _Meine Gesangskunst_, Berlin, 1902. This famous artist and teacher devotes by far the greater part ofher book to a minute analysis and description of the singer'ssensations. ]

Sensations occupy a rather peculiar position in modern methods. They area distinctly subsidiary element of instruction and are seldom raised tothe dignity accorded to the mechanical doctrines of vocal management. The use of the singer's sensations, as applied in practical instruction, is almost exclusively interpretive. In the mechanical sense thetraditional precepts have no meaning whatever; this is also true ofseveral of the accepted doctrines of Vocal Science. For example, theprecept "Support the tone, " is absolutely meaningless as a principle ofmechanical vocal action. But, when interpreted as referring to a set ofsensations experienced by the singer, this precept takes on a verydefinite meaning. Nobody knows what the support of the tone is, butevery vocal teacher knows how it feels. In the same way, no means isknown for directly throwing the air in the nasal cavities intovibration. But the sensation in the front of the head, which indicates, presumably, the proper action of nasal resonance, is familiar to allteachers. Most of the positive materials of modern methods are thusinterpreted in terms of sensations. 

True, the accepted theory of Vocal Science does not directly countenancethis interpretation. The basic principle of modern Voice Culture is theidea of mechanical vocal management. All instruction is supposed to aimat direct, conscious, and voluntary control of the muscular operationsof singing. Teachers always impart to their pupils this idea of themechanical control of the voice. The vocal action is always consideredfrom the mechanical side. Even those expressions whose mechanicalmeaning is vague or unscientific are yet used as referring definitely tomuscular actions. The conscious thought of the teacher is always turnedto the mechanical idea supposedly conveyed by scientific doctrine andempirical precept. The translation of this idea into a description ofsensations is almost always the result of a sub-conscious mentalprocess. 

It therefore follows that in practical instruction the appeal tosensations is more often indirect than direct. For example, when astudent's tones are caught in the throat, the master saysexplicitly, --"Free the tone by opening your throat. " The master explainsthe (supposed) wrong vocal action, and describes how the tone should beproduced. Incidentally, the master may also tell how and where the toneshould be felt. 

There is also a great deal of instruction based frankly and directly onthe singer's sensations. Instruction of this type usually takes the formof special exercises on certain vowels and consonants, which arebelieved to be peculiarly suited for imparting command of particularfeatures of the correct vocal action. The topics generally covered arechest resonance, nasal resonance, open throat, and forward placing ofthe tone. This form of instruction is held to be referable in some wayto scientific principles. The laws of vowel and consonant formationformulated by Helmholtz are often cited in proof of the efficacy ofexercises of this type. There is also much discussion of the "location"of the tone. But there is little justification for the statement thatinstruction based on the singer's sensations is scientific in character. A misconception of acoustic principles is evidenced by most of thestatements made concerning the use of special vowels and consonants insecuring the correct vocal action. The exercises which aim to utilizethe singer's sensations in producing particular vowels and consonantsare now to be described. 

_Exercises on Special Vowels and Consonants_

Of the rules concerning the use of special vowels, probably the mostimportant is that _a_ (as in _far_) is the most favorable vowel for thegeneral purposes of voice training. Teachers generally have theirpupils sing most of their exercises on this vowel. Much attention ispaid to the exact pronunciation of the vowel, and fine distinctions aredrawn between its various sounds in Italian, French, German, andEnglish. The preference for the Italian pronunciation is very general. It is claimed for this sound that it helps materially in acquiringcommand of the "open throat. " Indeed, a peculiar virtue in this regardis ascribed to the Italian vowels generally. No convincing reason hasever been given for this belief. But the usual custom is to "place thevoice" on the Italian _a_, and then to take up, one at a time, the otherItalian vowels. 

The labial consonants, _p_, _b_, _t_, _d_, are believed to have apeculiar influence in securing the "forward position" of the tone. Muchthe same influence is also ascribed to the vowel _oo_, although manyauthorities consider _i_ (Italian) the "most forward" vowel. Exercisescombining these consonants and vowels are very widely used, on singletones, and on groups of three, four, or five notes. The syllables _boo_, _poo_, _too_, _doo_ are practised, or if the teacher hold to the other"forward" vowel, _bee_, _pee_, _tee_, _dee_; the student is instructedto hold the vowel in the "forward position" secured by the initialconsonant. Later on, the "forward" vowel is gradually widened into theother vowels; exercises are sung on _boo-ah_, _doo-ah_, etc. This formof instruction is capable of great elaboration. Many teachers use a widevariety of combinations of these vowels and consonants; but as the basicidea is always the same, this class of exercises calls for no furtherdescription. The singer's sensations, notably those of "open throat, ""expanded vocal tube, " "forward tone, " and vibration in the chest, aregenerally brought to the pupil's attention in this form of exercise. 

Another set of sounds are held to be specially adapted for securing theuse of nasal resonance. These are the letters _m_, _n_, and _ng_, whenused for starting a tone, and also the vowel _i_ (Italian). Theexercises used are similar in character to those just described. Insinging these exercises, the student is supposed to "start the tone highup in the head on the initial _m_ or _n_, and to hold it there, whilegradually and smoothly opening the mouth for the vowel, " etc. Thesensations specially noticed in this type of exercise are the feelingsof vibration in the nose and forehead. The "forward tone, " as well asthe nasal resonance, is supposed to be favored by the practice of theseexercises. 

_Enunciation_

Vocal teachers always recognize the importance of a clear delivery ofthe text in singing. Correct enunciation is therefore considered in allmethods. A few teachers believe that a clear pronunciation helps greatlyto establish the correct vocal action. Some even go so far as to saythat a clear delivery of the words will of itself insure a correcttone-production. But this theory calls for only passing comment. One hasbut to turn to the vaudeville stage to see its falsity. For singers ofthat class, the words are of the utmost importance, while thetone-production is usually of the very worst. 

A few teachers base their methods on the theory that correcttone-production results necessarily from the singing of "pure vowels. "This is no doubt interesting, but still far from convincing. The problemof tone-production is not solved quite so simply. 

As a rule, vocal teachers consider the subject of pronunciation as quitedistinct from tone-production. Methods differ with regard to the use ofexercises in articulation, and to the stage of progress at which theseexercises are taken up. Some teachers insist on their pupils practisingsinging for months on the vowels, before permitting them to sing eventhe simplest songs with words. Others have the pupils sing words fromthe beginning of instruction. As a rule, teachers begin to give songs, and vocalises with words, very early in the course. 

_Throat Stiffness and Relaxing Exercises_

Teachers of singing generally recognize that any stiffening of thethroat interferes with the correct action of the voice. Yet for somestrange reason vocal students are very much inclined to form habits ofthroat stiffness. This constantly happens, in spite of the fact thatteachers continually warn their pupils against the tendency to stiffen. On this account, exercises for relaxing the throat are an importantfeature of modern instruction in singing. 

Naturally, relaxing exercises are not thought to have any directbearing in bringing about the correct vocal action. They are purelypreparatory; their purpose is only to bring the vocal organs into theright condition for constructive training. For this reason, the meansused for relaxing the throat are seldom mentioned among the materials ofinstruction. But almost every vocal teacher is obliged to make frequentuse of throat relaxing exercises. Indeed, throat stiffness is one of themost serious difficulties of modern Voice Culture. A student frequentlyseems to be making good progress, and then without much warning fallsinto a condition of throat stiffness so serious as to undo for a timethe good work of several months' study. In such a case there is nothingfor the teacher to do but to drop the progressive work, and devote a fewlessons to relaxing exercises. 

Little difficulty is usually found in relaxing the throat, when once thenecessity becomes strikingly apparent. That is, provided progressivestudy is dropped for a time, and attention paid solely to relaxingexercises. But such cases are comparatively rare. A much more constantsource of trouble is found in the prevailing tendency of vocal studentsto stiffen their throats, just enough to interfere with the (supposed)application of the teacher's method. 

The exercises used for relaxing the throat are fairly simple, both incharacter and scope. They consist mainly of toneless yawning, of singletones "yawned out" on a free exhalation, and of descending scalepassages of the same type. Although seldom recognized as a coördinatetopic of instruction, exercises of this character are usuallyinterspersed among the other materials of vocal methods. 

CHAPTER VI

A GENERAL VIEW OF MODERN VOICE CULTURE

All the materials of modern methods have now been described. The subjectnext to be considered is the manner in which these materials areutilized in practical instruction. In other words, what is a method ofVoice Culture?

In the present state of Vocal Science, the subject of tone-productionovershadows everything else in difficulty. When once the correct vocalaction has been acquired, the student's progress is assured. Every otherfeature of the singer's education is simply a matter of time andapplication. But, under present conditions, the acquirement of thecorrect vocal action is extremely uncertain. On account of itsfundamental importance, and more especially of its difficulty, thesubject of tone-production is the most prominent topic of instruction insinging. The term "method" is therefore applied solely to the means usedfor imparting the correct vocal action. 

This use of the word is in accordance with the accepted theory of VoiceCulture. The general belief is that tone-production is entirely distinctfrom vocal technique. Technical studies cannot profitably be undertaken, according to the prevailing idea, until the correct management of thevocal organs has been established. This idea is supposed to be followedout in modern instruction. It is generally assumed that the voice isbrought under control through a definite series of exercises; theseexercises are supposed to follow, one after the other, according to awell-defined system. The term "method" implies this systematicarrangement of exercises. It indicates that vocal training is a matterof precise knowledge and orderly progression. 

This represents the accepted ideal of Voice Culture, rather than theactual condition. The idea that the vocal management should be impartedspecially, as something preliminary to the technical training of thevoice, is not carried out in practice. Teachers generally are strivingto bring their systems into conformity with this ideal standard. Theyuse the expression, "placing the voice, " to describe the preliminarytraining in tone-production. But no successful system of this type hasever been evolved. The correct management of the voice never is impartedin the manner indicated by this ideal of instruction. Tone-productioncontinues, throughout the entire course of study, to be the mostimportant topic of instruction. 

In order to understand the nature of a method of Voice Culture, it isnecessary first to consider the relation which exists, in moderninstruction, between training in tone-production, and the development ofvocal technique. According to the accepted theory, the voice must be"placed" before the real study of singing is undertaken. After the voicehas been properly "placed, " it is supposed to be in condition to bedeveloped by practice in singing technical exercises. But in actualpractice this distinction between "voice-placing" exercises andtechnical studies is seldom drawn. The voice is trained, almost from thebeginning of the course of study, by practice in actual singing. Theearliest exercises used for "placing the voice" are in every respecttechnical studies, --single tones and syllables, scale passages, arpeggios, etc. It is impossible to produce even a single tone withoutembodying some feature of technique. Practice therefore serves a doublepurpose; it brings the voice gradually to the condition of perfectaction, and at the same time it develops the technique. The studentadvances gradually toward the correct manner of tone-production, andthis progress is evidenced solely by the improved technical use of thevoice. Considerable technical facility is attained before thetone-production becomes absolutely perfect. 

A vocal student's practice in singing is not confined to technicalexercises, strictly speaking. Vocalises, songs, and arias are taken up, usually very early in the course of study. Moreover, attention is nearlyalways paid to musical expression and to artistic rendition, as well asto the vocal action and the technical use of the voice. This is true, whether the student sings an exercise, a vocalise, a song, or an aria. 

For daily home practice, the student sings, usually, first someexercises, then a few vocalises, and finally several songs and arias. Every teacher has at command a wide range of compositions of all thesekinds, carefully graded as to technical and musical difficulty. As thepupil advances, more and more difficult works are undertaken. For eachstage of advancement the teacher chooses the compositions best adaptedto carry the student's progress still further. 

There is no point in this development at which instruction intone-production ceases, and the technical training of the voice isbegun. On the contrary, the means used for imparting the correct vocalaction are interspersed with the other materials of instruction, bothtechnical and artistic, throughout the entire course of study. Moreover, the training in tone-production is carried on during the singing of thecompositions just described, as well as by practice on "voice-placing"exercises strictly speaking. 

A method of instruction in singing therefore consists primarily of a setof mechanical rules and directions for managing the voice, andsecondarily of a series of exercises, both toneless and vocal, sodesigned that the student may directly apply in practising them therules and directions for vocal management. It must not be understoodhowever that the mechanical rules are applied only to the exercisesspecially designed for this purpose. These rules and directions arealso intended to be applied to everything the student sings, --exercises, technical studies, and musical compositions. 

It will be recalled that the review of the topics of modern vocalinstruction covered three distinct types of materials. First, the purelymechanical doctrines, commonly regarded as the only strictly scientificprinciples of Voice Culture. These are, the rules for the management ofthe breath, of the registers, of laryngeal action, and of the resonancecavities, and also the directions for attacking the tone, and forforward emission. The second class of materials is held by strictadherents of the scientific idea to be purely empirical; this classincludes the traditional precepts of the old Italian school, and alsoall the topics of instruction based on the singer's sensations. A thirdclass of materials is found in the attempts to interpret the empiricaldoctrines in the light of the scientific analysis of the vocal action. 

To enumerate and classify all the methods of instruction in vogue wouldbe almost an impossibility. Absolutely no uniformity can be found on anytopic. Even among the accepted doctrines of Vocal Science there aremany controverted points. Five distinct schools of breathing arerepresented, two of breath-control. Of well worked-out systems ofregisters, at least twenty could be enumerated. Fully this number oftheories are offered regarding the correct positions of the larynx, softpalate, and tongue. Two opposed theories are held as to nasal resonance. Further, the empirical doctrines are always stated so loosely that noreal unanimity of view can be found on any one of them. 

Every vocal teacher selects the materials of instruction from thesecontroverted doctrines, but neither rule nor reason determines whatmaterials shall be embodied in any one method. There is no coherencewhatever in the matter. Further, there is no agreement as to whichtopics of instruction are most important. One teacher may emphasizebreath-control and support of tone as the foundations of the correctvocal action, another may give this position to nasal resonance andforward placing. Yet both these teachers may include in their methodsabout the same topics. The methods seem entirely different, only becauseeach makes some one or two doctrines the most important. In short, itmight almost be said that there are as many methods as teachers. 

Three fairly distinct types of method may be defined, depending on theclass of materials adopted. At one extreme are found those teachers whoattempt to follow strictly the scientific principles. These teachersgenerally profess to employ only the purely mechanical doctrines ofVocal Science, and to ignore all empirical interpretations of thesedoctrines. They generally devote a portion of every lesson to tonelessmuscular drills, and insist that their pupils practise every exercise insinging, with special attention to the throat action. These teachersattempt to follow a definite plan and order in the giving of exercisesand rules. This systematic arrangement of instruction is, however, seldom followed out consistently with any one student. An importantreason for this is considered in Chapter I of Part II. 

A very different type of method is taught by many teachers who payspecial attention to the empirical topics of instruction. Of course noteacher professes to teach empirically; on the contrary, every method iscalled scientific, no matter what materials it embodies. Indeed, a verylittle attention paid to breathing, attack, registers, and nasalresonance, is enough to relieve any teacher of the reproach ofempiricism. The teachers now being considered touch to some extent onthese topics; but most of their instruction is based on the traditionalprecepts, the singer's sensations, and the special vowel and consonantdrills. In the first few lessons of the course they usually give somespecial breathing exercises, but almost always ignore breath-control. Not much is done for vocal control in the strictly muscular sense. Special "voice-placing" exercises are not used to any such extent as inthe strictly scientific methods just described, the voice-placing workbeing usually done on vocalises, songs, and arias. No system whatever isfollowed, or even attempted, in the sequence of topics touched upon. Thedirections, "Breathe deeper on that phrase, " "Bring that tone moreforward, " "Open your throat for that _ah_, " "Feel that tone higher up inthe head, " may follow one after the other within five minutes ofinstruction. 

Teachers of this type are frequently charged, by the strict advocates ofmechanical instruction, with a practice commonly known as "wearing thevoice into place. " This expression is used to indicate the totalabandonment of system in imparting the correct vocal action. It meansthat the teacher simply has the pupil sing at random, trusting tochance, or to some vague intuitive process, to bring about the correctuse of the voice. To the vocal scientist, "wearing the voice into place"represents the depth of empiricism. 

The great majority of teachers occupy a middle ground between the twotypes just described. Teachers of this class touch, more or less, onevery topic of instruction, mechanical, empirical, and interpretive. Their application of most of the topics of instruction is not quite somechanical as in the first type of method considered. The student'sattention is always directed to the vocal organs, but the idea of directmuscular control is not so consistently put forward. As a rule, theattempt is made in the first stages of instruction to follow asystematic plan. Breathing, and perhaps breath-control, are first taughtas muscular drills, and then applied on single tones. Attack isgenerally taken up next, then simple exercises in the medium register. Following this, the chest and head registers are placed, and theattention is turned to emission and resonance. But in most cases, whenthe pupil has covered three or four terms of twenty lessons each, allsystem is abandoned. The method from that time on is about of the typedescribed as empirical. 

It must be remembered that this classification of methods is at bestvery crude. It would not be easy to pick out any one teacher who adheresconsistently to any of the three forms of instruction described. Allthat can be said is that a teacher usually tends somewhat more to onetype than to another. 

Further, the degree of prominence given to the idea of direct mechanicalcontrol of the voice does not classify a method quite satisfactorily. Without exception every teacher adheres to the prevailing idea, that thevoice must be controlled and guided in some direct way, --that the singer"must do something" to cause the vocal organs to operate properly. Allthe materials of instruction, mechanical and empirical, are utilized forthe sole purpose of enabling the student to learn how to "do thissomething. "

Several names are used by teachers to describe their methods. Oneprofesses to teach a "natural method, " another the "pure Italian schoolof Bel Canto, " a third the "old Italian method as illustrated by VocalScience, " a fourth the "strict scientific system of Voice Culture. " Noattention need be paid to these expressions, as they are seldom accuratedescriptions. 

Vocal lessons are usually of thirty minutes' duration. Each studentgenerally takes two such lessons every week, although in some casesthree, four, or even more are taken. A description of a few typicallessons will show how the materials of instruction are practicallyutilized. 

Example 1: The student takes a few preliminary toneless breaths. Thenfollow, in the order given, a few short tones for practice on attack, some sustained tones on the vowel _ah_, exercises on three, four, andfive notes, ascending and descending, a single tone followed by theoctave jump up and descending scale, this last rising by semitonesthrough several keys. In these exercises the student's attention isdirected at random to the correct use of the registers, to nasalresonance, forward emission, etc. This consumes ten or twelve minutes ofthe lesson time. More elaborate exercises on scale passages are thensung, lasting another five minutes. These are followed by a vocalise ortwo, and a couple of songs or arias, which fill out the thirty minutes. 

Example 2: A few breathing exercises are practised, followed by singletones and short scale passages, the whole lasting about five minutes. Then the student is drilled for some ten minutes on "placing the headtones, " in the manner described in the section on special vowel andconsonant drills. These exercises are varied by swelling the high tone, by changing the vowels, and by elaborating the descending scalepassages. The remaining fifteen minutes are devoted to vocalises andsongs. 

Example 3: This is an advanced pupil, whose voice is supposed to befairly well "placed. " Technical exercises of some difficulty are sung, covering a range of an octave and a half, or a little more. The teacherinterrupts occasionally to say "Sing those lower notes more in the chestvoice, " "Place the upper notes higher in the head, " "Don't let yourvocal cords open on that ah, " "Sing that again and make the tonescleaner, " etc. One or two arias are then sung, interspersed withinstructions of the same sort, and also with suggestions regardingstyle, delivery, and expression. 

For daily practice between lessons, the student sings usually the sameexercises and studies included in the previous lesson, and also commitsto memory compositions assigned for future study. 

Examples of this kind might be multiplied indefinitely, but the mainpoints have been fairly well brought out. Most important to be noticedis the fact that the voice is trained by practice in actual singing. Inthe whole scheme of modern Voice Culture, toneless muscular drillsconsume only an insignificant proportion of the time devoted to lessons. Further, the number of exercises and musical compositions embraced in asingle half-hour lesson is very small. On the other hand, no limit canbe set to the number of topics of vocal control touched on in any onelesson. These latter are used, throughout the whole range ofinstruction, without any systematic sequence. Whatever fault ofproduction the pupil's tones indicate, the teacher calls attention tothe fault, and gives the supposedly appropriate rule for itscorrection. 

Part II

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF MODERN METHODS

CHAPTER I

MECHANICAL VOCAL MANAGEMENT AS THE BASIS OF VOICE CULTURE

Notwithstanding the wide diversity of opinion on most topics connectedwith vocal training, there is one point on which all authorities agree. This is, that the voice must be consciously controlled. In all theconflict of methods, this basic mechanical idea has never been attacked. On the contrary, it is everywhere accepted without question as thefoundation of all instruction in singing. 

The idea of mechanical vocal control is also the starting-point of allanalysis of the vocal action. Every investigator of the voice approachesthe subject in the belief that an exact determination of the muscularoperations of correct singing would lead to an absolutely infalliblemethod of training voices. The problem of tone-production is identical, in the common belief, with the problem of the vocal action. Threesciences, anatomy, mechanics, and acoustics, are believed to holdsomewhere among them the secret of the voice. All investigation hastherefore been carried on along the lines of these three sciences. It ison this account that modern methods are called scientific, and notbecause they are in conformity with general scientific principles. Before taking up the question whether the idea of mechanical vocalcontrol is well grounded in fact and reason, let us consider further theinfluence of this idea on modern methods of instruction. 

All instruction in singing is intended to teach the student to "dosomething, " in order that the vocal organs may be directly caused to actproperly. No matter how vague and indefinite the directions given, theiraim is always to inform the student what to do, how to guide the vocalaction. Even when used in a purely empirical way the directions for openthroat, etc. , are always given in this spirit. That these directions areutterly meaningless in the mechanical sense does not alter the fact;nobody has ever found any other connection in which they would take on adefinite meaning. 

In this regard the empirical directions are no more unsatisfactory thanthe mechanical doctrines of the accepted Vocal Science. It was pointedout that no means has ever been discovered for applying several of thesedoctrines in practical instruction. The rules contained in thetheoretical works on Voice Culture for managing the registers andvocal-cord action, for forward emission of tone, and for control of theresonance cavities, are of no value whatever to the student of singing. It will be asked, how does the conscientious teacher get over thisdifficulty? How are the deficiencies of the scientific doctrinessupplied in instruction? In many cases the deficiency is absolutelyignored. The student is simply told to "make the vocal cords actproperly, " to "direct the tone against the roof of the mouth, " to "bringin the nasal resonance, " etc. , and no further help is given. That thisworks severe hardship on the earnest student need hardly be mentioned. 

Other teachers, as has been explained, rely on a description of thesinger's sensations, and on the use of several vowel and consonantcombinations, for imparting control of resonance and forward emission. These means are purely empirical makeshifts, and as a rule they are notsanctioned by the consistent advocates of scientific instruction. Butfor acquiring control of the correct vocal-cord action, absolutely nomeans has ever been found, scientific or empirical. On this, thesurpassingly important feature of the vocal action, Vocal Science hasthrown no light whatever. 

It was also remarked that the strictly scientific idea of Voice Cultureis very seldom carried out, to its logical conclusion, in actualinstruction. One important reason for this is that a student seldomremains long enough with a teacher to cover the entire ground ofmechanical instruction. Students move about from teacher to teacher. Inthe class of any one master the proportion of pupils who have never hadany previous instruction does not average one in ten. To carry the ideaof averages further, the length of time a student takes lessons of oneinstructor may be set down as seldom more than two years. 

How long it would take to apply the complete system of mechanical vocaltraining has never been precisely stated. Cases are on record of pupilsbeing kept on mechanical drills and elementary exercises for fouryears, without being allowed to attempt a simple song. But theseinstances are extremely rare. It seldom happens that a teacher can holda pupil long enough to carry out the complete course of mechanicalstudy. 

There are however many teachers who try conscientiously to have theirpupils pay attention to all the mechanical features of the vocal action. What it would mean to sing in this way can only be imagined. Beforestarting a tone, the singer would prepare by taking a breath in someprescribed way, and retaining this breath an instant by holding thechest walls out. Meanwhile the lips, tongue, soft palate, and larynxwould each be placed in the correct position. The jaw would be heldrelaxed, and the throat loose and open. The expected tone would be felt, in imagination, high up in the head, to assure the proper influence ofnasal resonance. The vocal cords would be held in readiness to respondinstantly to the mental command, so as to assure the exact state oftension necessary. Preparation would be made to direct the "column ofvocalized breath, " through the pharynx and mouth, to the proper pointon the hard palate. Then, at the same precise instant, the breath wouldbe started, and the vocal cords would be brought together, but withouttouching. 

So the tone would be begun. And all this would have to be done, with dueattention to each operation, in the fraction of a second preceding thestarting of the tone! The downright absurdity of this idea of singingmust be apparent to any one who has ever listened to a great singer. 

Under the influence of the idea of mechanical vocal management there islittle room for choice between voice culture along empirical lines, andthe accepted type of scientific instruction. Modern empirical voicetraining has little practical value. Describing to the student thesensations which ought to be felt, does not help in the least. Even ifthe sensations felt by the singer, in producing tone correctly, areentirely different from those accompanying any incorrect use of thevoice, nothing can be learned thereby. The sensations of correct singingcannot be felt until the voice is correctly used. An effect cannotproduce its cause. Correct tone-production must be there to cause thesensations, or the sensations are not awakened at all. Nothing else canbring about the sensations of correct singing, but correct singingitself. 

Further, these sensations cannot be known until they are actuallyexperienced. No description is adequate to enable the student to feelthem in imagination. And, finally, even if the sensations could bedescribed with all vividness, imagining them would not influence thevocal organs in any way. This is true, whether the description is givenempirically, or whether it is cited to explain a mechanical feature ofthe vocal action. Instruction based on the singer's sensations isabsolutely valueless. 

It would seem that modern methods contain very little of real worth. Theinvestigation of the mechanical operations of the voice can hardly besaid to have brought forth anything of definite value to the vocalteacher. But this is not the worst that can be said about the mechanicaldoctrines of tone-production. When critically examined, and submitted toa rigid scientific analysis, several of these doctrines are found to beerroneous in conception. These are the theories of breath-control, chestresonance, nasal resonance, and emission of tone. It will be observedthat these doctrines comprise more than half of the materials of theaccepted Vocal Science. Yet notwithstanding the fact that they areaccepted without question by the great majority of vocal theorists asimportant elements of instruction in singing, each of these doctrinesinvolves a distinct misconception of scientific principles. Anexamination of these doctrines is therefore the next subject to beundertaken. 

CHAPTER II

THE FALLACY OF THE DOCTRINE OF BREATH-CONTROL

When Dr. Mandl advanced the statement that the laryngeal muscles are tooweak to withstand the pressure of a powerful expiratory blast, thetheory of the vocal action therein embodied met with immediateacceptance. This idea is so plausible that it appeals to the thoughtfulinvestigator as self-evident, and seems to call for no proof. Thedoctrine of breath-control was at once adopted, by the most influentialvocal scientists, as the basic principle of tone-production. 

Curiously, neither Dr. Mandl, nor any other advocate of breath-control, seems to have read an article by Sir Charles Bell dealing with this sameaction, the closing of the glottis against a powerful exhalation. Thispaper, "On the Organs of the Human Voice, " was read before a meeting ofthe London Philosophical Society on February 2, 1832. 

Dr. Bell dispels all the mystery concerning the closure of the glottis, and the holding of the breath against a powerful contraction of theexpiratory muscles. He points out that this action occurs in accordancewith the law of the distribution of pressure in a fluid body, commonlyknown as Pascal's law of fluid pressures. 

Pascal's law is stated as follows:--"Pressure exerted anywhere upon amass of fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions, and actswith equal force on all equal surfaces, and in a direction at rightangles to those surfaces. " (Atkinson's _Ganot's Physics_, 4th ed. , NewYork, 1869. )

The hydraulic press furnishes the familiar illustration of this law. Twovertical cylinders, one many times larger than the other, are connectedby a pipe. The cylinders are fitted with pistons. Both the cylinders, and the pipe connecting them, are filled with water, oil, air, or anyother fluid; the fluid can pass freely from one cylinder to the other, through the connecting pipe. Suppose a horizontal section of the smallercylinder to measure one square inch, that of the larger to be onehundred square inches. A weight of one pound on the smaller piston willbalance a weight of one hundred pounds on the larger. If a downwardpressure of one pound be exerted on the smaller piston, the largerpiston will exert an upward pressure of one hundred pounds. Conversely, a downward pressure of one hundred pounds, exerted on the larger piston, will effect an upward pressure of only one pound on the smaller piston. 

A type of the hydraulic press is presented by the chest cavity and thelarynx, considered as one apparatus. This fact is illustrated in thefollowing quotation: "If a bladder full of water be connected with anarrow upright glass tube, heavy weights placed on the bladder will beable to uphold only a very small quantity of liquid in the tube, thisarrangement being in fact a hydraulic press worked backwards. If thetube be shortened down so as to form simply the neck of the bladder, thetotal expulsive pressure exerted by the bladder upon the contents of theneck may seem to be very small when compared with the total pressureexerted over the walls of the bladder upon the whole contents. " (_A TextBook of the Principles of Physics_, Alfred Daniell, London, 1884. )

That the glottis-closing muscles are too weak to withstand a powerfulexpiratory pressure is therefore an entirely erroneous statement. Owingto the small area of the under surfaces of the vocal cords, the airpressure against them is very small, in comparison with the totalpressure exerted on the contents of the thorax by the expiratorycontraction. The glottis-closing muscles are fully capable ofwithstanding this comparatively slight pressure. The doctrine ofbreath-control is therefore scientifically untenable. This doctrine hasno place in Vocal Science. 

As the basic doctrine of breath-control is unsound, the singer does notneed any direct means for controlling the breath. The attempt to checkthe flow of the breath in any mechanical way is entirely uncalled for. This being the case, it is hardly to be expected that the systemsdevised to meet this fancied need would stand the test of scientificexamination. Each of these systems of breath-control, opposed muscularaction and ventricular, is in fact found on analysis to embody amisconception of scientific principles. 

_Opposed-Action Breath-Control_

A curious misapprehension of mechanical processes is contained in thedoctrine of breath-control by opposed muscular action. This can best bepointed out by a consideration of the forces brought to bear on a singlerib in the acts of inspiration and expiration. One set of musclescontract to raise this rib in inspiration, an opposed set, by theircontraction, lower the rib for the act of expiration. In theopposed-action system of breath-control, the action of the rib-raisingmuscles is continued throughout the expiration, as a check upon the pullin the opposite direction of the rib-lowering muscles. Theoretically, the downward pull is "controlled" by the upward pull. To express thisidea in figures, let the expiratory or downward pull on the rib be saidto involve the expenditure of five units of strength. According to thetheory of opposed-action breath-control, this downward pull would haveto be opposed by a slightly less upward pull, say four units ofstrength. 

Thus graphically presented, the fallacy of the "opposed-muscular" theoryis clearly exposed. The rib is lowered with a degree of strength equalto the excess of the downward over the upward pull. If the downward pullequals five units of strength, and the upward pull four units, the ribis lowered with a pull equivalent to one unit of strength. Exactly thesame effect would be obtained if the downward and upward pulls wereequal respectively to twenty and nineteen units, or to two and oneunits. Further, the result would be the same if the downward pullinvolved the exertion of one unit of strength, and there was no upwardpull whatever. In every case, the actual result is equivalent to theexcess of the downward over the upward pull. 

In the case of the expiratory pressure of five units of strength being"controlled" by an inspiratory contraction of four units, nine units ofstrength are exerted, and the same result could be obtained by theexertion of one unit. There is a clear waste of eight units of strength. The power of the expiratory blast is just what it would be if one unitof strength were exerted in an "uncontrolled" expiration. The singerexerts just nine times as much strength as is necessary to effect thesame result. This is why the practice of breath-control exercises is soextremely fatiguing. 

So far as the effect of the expiratory blast on the vocal cords isconcerned, "controlling" the breath has no influence whatever. The vocalcords respond to the effective air pressure; they are not affected inany way by the opposed contractions of the breath muscles. "Opposed-muscular" breath-control is a sheer waste of time and effort. 

Probably no particular harm has ever resulted to any singer's throatfrom the practice of breath-control exercises. But the attempt to holdback the breath has a very bad effect on the singer's delivery. The"breath-control" type of singer is never found in the ranks of the greatartists. There is something utterly unnatural about this holding back ofthe breath, repugnant to every singer endowed with the right idea offorceful and dramatic delivery. The vast majority of the successfulpupils of "breath-control" teachers abandon, very early in theircareers, the tiresome attempt to hold back the breath. These singersyield, probably unconsciously, to the instinctive impulse to sing freelyand without constraint. 

But in the ranks of the minor concert and church singers are many whotry conscientiously to obey the instructions of the "breath-control"teachers. Singers of this type can always be recognized by a curiousimpression of hesitancy, or even timidity, conveyed by their tones. Theyseem afraid to deliver their phrases with vigor and energy; they do not"let their voices out. " Frequently their voices are of excellentquality, and their singing is polished and refined. But these singersnever give to the listener that sense of satisfaction which is felt onhearing a fine voice freely and generously delivered. 

As for the particular fallacy contained in the theory of ventricularbreath-control, that must be reserved for a later chapter. Suffice it tosay here that this theory disregards the two basic mechanical principlesof tone-production, --Pascal's law, and the law of the conservation ofenergy. The application of this latter physical law to the operations ofthe vocal organs is considered in Chapter VI of Part III. 

CHAPTER III

THE FALLACIES OF FORWARD EMISSION, CHEST RESONANCE, AND NASAL RESONANCE

Sir Morell Mackenzie's analysis of the acoustic principle supposedlyinvolved in "forward emission" has already been quoted. That thisanalysis involves a complete misunderstanding of the laws of acousticsneed hardly be said. When stated in precise terms, the fallacy of the"forward emission" theory is evident:

"On issuing from the vocal cords the tone is directed in a curved path, around the back of the tongue. There the tone is straightened out, andmade to impinge on the roof of the mouth at a precisely defined point. From this point the tone is reflected, not directly back, as it shouldbe, since the angles of incidence and reflection must be equal. Insteadof this, the tone is reflected forward, out of the mouth, necessarilyagain taking a curved path, to avoid striking the front teeth. "Naturally, no muscular action has ever been defined for causing thetone to perform this remarkable feat. 

The "forward emission" theory assumes the existence of a current of air, issuing from the vocal cords as a tone. In other words, the tone issupposed to consist of a stream of air, which can be voluntarilydirected in the mouth, and aimed at some precise point on the roof ofthe mouth. This is an utter mistake. 

There is no "column of vibrating air, " or "stream of vocalized breath, "in the mouth during tone-production. In the acoustic sense, the air inthe mouth-pharynx is still air, not air in a current. The only motionwhich takes place in the air in this cavity is the oscillatory swing ofthe air particles. To imagine the directing of air vibrations in themouth, as we direct a stream of water out of a hose, is absurd. 

What then is the "forward tone"? There must be some reason for thiswell-known effect of a perfectly produced voice, --the impression made onthe hearer that the tones are formed in the front of the mouth. Thereought also to be some way for the singer to learn to produce tones ofthis character. A consideration of this feature of the vocal action isreserved for Chapter IV of part III. 

_Chest Resonance_

Who was originally responsible for the doctrine of chest resonance, itwould be impossible now to determine. Were it not for the fact of thisdoctrine having received the support of eminent scientists (Holmes, Mackenzie, Curtis, and many others), it might be looked upon as a merefigure of speech. That the tones of the voice are reinforced by theresonance of the air in the chest cavity, is an utter absurdity. In theacoustic sense, the thorax is not a cavity at all. The thorax is filledwith the spongy tissue of the lungs, not to mention the heart. It is nobetter adapted for air resonance than an ordinary spherical resonatorwould be, if filled with wet sponges. 

_Nasal Resonance_

Enough was said of the theories of nasal resonance in Chapter IV of PartI to show the unscientific character of all these theories. It remainsonly to point out the misconception of acoustic principles, contained inall the discussions of the subject. This is very much the same as inthe theory of "forward emission, " viz. , that the tones of the voiceconsist physically of a "stream of vocalized breath. " The mistaken ideais, that nasal resonance results from part or all of the expired breathpassing through the nose. 

What is nasal resonance? How is it caused? What is its effect on thetones of the voice? These questions have never been answered. It canhowever be proved that a satisfactory science of Voice Culture is not inany way dependent on obtaining an answer to these questions. This muchis definitely known:

1. If the resonance of the air in the nasal cavities exerts anyinfluence on the tones of the voice, this influence cannot be increased, diminished, or prevented by any direct action on the part of the singer. Shutting off the entrance of the breath, by raising the soft palate, ispossible as a muscular exercise. But it is impossible to perform thisaction, and to sing artistically, at the same time. To produce any kindof tone, while holding the soft palate raised, is extremely difficult. In a later chapter it will be seen that this action has no placewhatever in the correct use of the voice. 

2. As the nasal cavities are fixed in size and shape, the singer cannotcontrol or vary any influence which they may exert as a resonator. 

3. Independent of any thought or knowledge of how the nasal quality oftone is caused, the singer has perfect voluntary control over thisquality by the simple, direct influence of the will. A singer mayproduce nasal tones, or tones free from this faulty sound, at will, withno thought of the mechanical processes involved. All that is required isthat the singer have an ear keen enough to recognize the nasal qualityin his own voice, as well as in the voice of any other singer. 

CHAPTER IV

THE FUTILITY OF THE MATERIALS OF MODERN METHODS

Of the strictly scientific or mechanical materials of modern methods, four have been seen to be utterly erroneous. The remaining topics ofinstruction, mechanical and empirical, may with equal justice besubmitted to a similar examination. 

Several of these topics have already been critically examined. The rulesfor registers and laryngeal management were seen to be of no value tothe student of singing. So also was it observed that all instructionwhich attempts to utilize the singer's sensations is futile. All that isleft of the materials of modern methods, in which any valuable ideamight be contained, are the rules for breathing. 

Without undertaking to decide whether one system of breathing can beright, to the exclusion of all other systems, one general remark can beapplied to the whole subject. It has never been scientifically provedthat the correct use of the voice depends in any way on the mastery ofan acquired system of breathing. True, this is the basic assumption ofall the discussions of the singer's breathing. As Frangçon-Davies justlyremarks, --"All combatants are agreed on one point, viz. , that thesinger's breath is an acquired one of some kind. " (_The Singing of theFuture_, David Frangçon-Davies, M. A. , London, 1906. ) This is purely anassumption on the part of the vocal theorists. No one has ever so muchas attempted to offer scientific proof of the statement. 

Further, it is frequently stated that the old Italian masters paid muchattention to the subject of breathing; the assumption is also made thatthese masters approached the subject in the modern spirit. Neither thisstatement, nor the assumption based on it, is susceptible of proof. Tosiand Mancini do not even mention the subject of breathing. 

Breathing has been made the subject of exhaustive mechanical andmuscular analysis, for one reason, and for only one reason. This is, because the action of breathing is the only mechanical feature ofsinging which can be exhaustively studied. The laryngeal action ishidden; the influence of the resonance cavities cannot well bedetermined. But the whole muscular operation of breathing can be readilyseen and studied; any investigator can personally experiment with everyconceivable system. 

Furthermore, the adoption of any system of breathing has no influencewhatever on the operations of the voice. A student of singing may learnto take breath in any way favored by the instructor; the manner oftone-production is not in the least affected. Even if the correct use ofthe voice has to be acquired, the mode of breathing does not contributein any way to this result. 

All that need be said in criticism of the various doctrines of breathingis, that the importance of this subject has been greatly overestimated. Breath and life are practically synonymous. Nothing but the prevalenceof the mechanical idea has caused so much attention to be paid to thesinger's breathing. A tuba player will march for several hours in astreet parade, carrying his heavy instrument, and playing it fully halfthe time; yet the vocal theorist does not consider him an object ofsympathy. 

No doubt the acquirement of healthy habits of breathing is of greatbenefit to the general health. But this does not prove that correctsinging demands some kind of breathing inherently different fromordinary life. To inspire quickly and exhale the breath slowly is not anacquired ability; it is the action of ordinary speech. Singing demandsthat the lungs be filled more quickly than in ordinary speech, andperhaps a fuller inspiration is also required. This is readily masteredwith very little practice. It does not call for the acquirement of anynew muscular movements, nor the formation of any new habits. 

What is left of all the materials of modern vocal instruction? To sumthem up in the order in which they were considered in Part I:

Breathing does not need to be mastered in any such way as is stated inthe theoretical works on the voice. Breath-control is a completefallacy. The doctrines of registers and laryngeal action are utterlyvalueless. Chest resonance, nasal resonance, and forward emission, arescientifically erroneous. The traditional precepts are of no value, because nobody knows how to follow or apply them. Empirical teachingbased on the singer's sensations is of no avail. 

In other words, modern methods contain not one single topic of any valuewhatever in the training of the voice. It will be objected that thisstatement is utterly absurd, because many of the world's greatestsingers have been trained according to these methods. No doubt this isin one sense true; modern methods can point to many brilliant successes. But this does not prove anything in favor of the materials of modernmethods. 

Singers are trained to-day exactly as they were trained two hundredyears ago, through a reliance on the imitative faculty. The onlydifference is this: In the old days, the student was directly andexpressly told to listen and to imitate, while to-day the reliance onthe imitative faculty is purely instinctive. A fuller consideration ofthe important function of imitation as an unrecognized element of modernVoice Culture is contained in Chapter V of Part IV. 

CHAPTER V

THE ERROR OF THE THEORY OF MECHANICAL VOCAL MANAGEMENT

A fundamental difference was pointed out, at the close of the precedingchapter, between the old Italian method and modern systems of vocalinstruction. This is worthy of repetition. The old Italian method wasfounded on the faculty of imitation. Modern methods have as their basisthe idea of conscious, direct, mechanical control of the vocal organs. All the materials of instruction based on this idea of mechanicalcontrol were seen to be absolutely valueless. It is now in order toexamine still further the structure of modern Voice Culture, and to testthis basic idea of mechanical control. 

As a muscular operation, the actions of singing must be subject to thesame physiological and psychological laws which govern all othervoluntary muscular actions. What are these laws? How do we guide andcontrol our muscular movements? At first sight, this seems a simplequestion. We know what we want to do, and we do it. But the importantpoint is, how are we able to do the things we want to do? You wish toraise your hand, for example, therefore you raise it. How does your handknow that you wish to raise it? Does the hand raise itself? Not at all;it is raised by the contraction of certain muscles in the arm, shoulder, and back. That is, when you wish to raise your hand, certain musclescontract themselves. But these muscles are not part of the hand. Whatleads these muscles in the shoulder and back to contract, when you willto raise your hand? Normally you are not even aware of theircontraction. Yet in some way these muscles know that they are called onto contract, in response to the wish to raise the hand. This takesplace, even though you know nothing whatever of the muscles in question. The process is by no means so simple, when looked at in this light. 

A complicated psychological process is involved in the simplestvoluntary movements. This is seen in the following analysis:

"To move any part of the body voluntarily requires the followingparticulars: (1) The possession of an educated reflex-motor mechanism, under the control of the higher cerebral centers which are mostimmediately connected with the phenomena of consciousness; (2) certain_motifs_ in the form of conscious feelings that have a tone of pleasureor pain, and so impel the mind to secure such bodily conditions as willcontinue or increase the one, and discontinue or diminish the other; (3)ideas of motions and positions of the bodily members, which previousexperience has taught us answer more or less perfectly to the _motifs_of conscious feeling; (4) a conscious fiat of will, settling thequestion, as it were, which of these ideas shall be realized in themotions achieved and positions attained by these members; (5) a centralnervous mechanism, which serves as the organ of relation between thisact of will and the discharge of the requisite motor impulses alongtheir nerve-tracts to the groups of muscles peripherally situated. "(_Elements of Physiological Psychology_, Geo. T. Ladd, New York, 1889. )

Let us again consider the action of raising the hand, and see how thepsychological analysis applies in this movement. We note in the firstplace that we are concerned only with the third, fourth, and fifthparticulars of Prof. Ladd's analysis. These are:

The idea of the movement. 

The fiat of will which directs that this movement be performed. 

The discharge of the requisite motor impulses, along the nerve-tracts, to the muscles whose contraction constitutes the movement. 

It will be simpler, and will answer the purpose equally well, to combinethe third and fourth elements, and to consider as one element the ideaof the movement and the fiat of will to execute the movement. 

_The Idea of a Movement_

The mental picture of a purposed movement is simple and direct. Noreference is involved to the muscles concerned in the performance of themovement. When you will to raise your hand, the action is pictured toyour mind as the raising of the hand, and nothing more. Certain musclesare to be contracted. But the mental picture of the movement does notindicate what these muscles are, in what order they are to be broughtinto play, nor the relative degrees of strength to be exerted by eachmuscular fiber. You do not consciously direct the muscles in theircontractions. 

_The Discharge to the Muscles of the Nerve Impulse_

How then are the muscles informed that their contraction is called for?They have no independent volition; each muscular fiber obeys the impulsetransmitted to it by the nerve, from the nerve center governing itsaction. These nerve centers are in their turn controlled by the centralnervous mechanism. And in complex voluntary movements the centralnervous mechanism is under the control of the higher cerebral centers. The wish to raise the hand appears to the mind as an idea of the handbeing raised. This idea is translated by the central nervous mechanisminto a set of motor nerve impulses. Does consciousness or volition comeinto play here? Not at all. On this point Prof. Ladd remarks: "As to thedefinite nature of the physical basis which underlies the connection ofideas of motion and the starting outward of the right motor impulses, our ignorance is almost complete. "

Is it necessary for the performance of a complex muscular action thatthe individual know what muscles are involved and how and when tocontract them? No; this knowledge is not only unnecessary, it is evenimpossible. Prof. Ladd says of this: "It would be a great mistake toregard the mind as having before it the cerebral machinery, all nicelylaid out, together with the acquired art of selecting and touching theright nervous elements in order to produce the desired motion, as askilful player of the piano handles his keyboard. "

How then are the muscles informed of the service required of them? Ormore precisely, how does the central nervous mechanism know whatdistribution of nerve impulses to make among the different nerve centersgoverning the muscles? As Prof. Ladd says, our ignorance on this pointis almost complete. There resides in the central nervous mechanismgoverning the muscles something which for lack of a better name may becalled an instinct. When a purposeful movement of any part of the bodyis willed, the mental picture of the movement is translated by thecentral nervous mechanism into a succession of nerve impulses; theseimpulses are transmitted through the lower centers to the muscles. Theinstinct informing the central nervous mechanism how to apportion thedischarges of nerve impulse among the various muscular centers is to ahigh degree mysterious. The present purpose will not be served bycarrying the analysis of this instinct further. [7]

[Note 7: The evolutionary development of this instinct is notaltogether mysterious. Science can fairly well trace the successivesteps in the development of the central nervous mechanism, from theamoeba to the highest type of vertebrate. "Nerve channels" are worn bythe repeated transmission of impulses over the same tracts. Coördinations become in successive generations more complex and moreperfect. As consciousness develops further, in each succeeding type, actions originally reflex tend to take on a more consciously purposefulcharacter. But all we are concerned with now is the problem oftone-production. Our purpose is best served by accepting the faculty ofmuscular adaptation as an instinct, pure and simple. ]

There is therefore no direct conscious guidance of the muscles, in anymovement, simple or complex. So far as the command of voluntary muscularactions is concerned, the first simple statement of the process sums upall that for practical purposes need be determined;--we know what wewant to do, and we do it. The mind forms the idea of an action and themuscles instinctively respond. 

But the fact remains that the muscles need to be guided in some way. Wedo not perform instinctively many complex actions, --writing, dancing, rowing, swimming, etc. All these actions, and indeed most of theactivities of daily life, must be consciously learned by practice andrepeated effort. How are these efforts guided? To arrive at an answer tothis question let us consider how a schoolboy practises his writinglesson. 

The boy begins by having before him a copy of the letters he is towrite. Under the guidance of the eye the hand traces these letters. Ateach instant the eye points out to the hand the direction in which tomove. As the hand occasionally wanders from the prescribed direction theeye immediately notes the deviation and bids the hand to correct it. Thehand responds to the demands of the eye, immediately, without thought onthe boy's part of nerve impulse or of muscular contraction. By repeatedefforts the boy improves upon his first clumsy attempts; with eachrepetition he approaches nearer to the model. 

In the course of this progress the muscular sense gradually comes to theassistance of the eye as a sort of supplementary guidance. But at notime is the eye relieved of the responsibility of guiding the hand inwriting. To sum this up, the movements of the hand in writing areguided, so far as the consciousness is aware, directly by the sense ofsight. 

We have here the law of voluntary muscular guidance. In all voluntarymovements the muscles are guided in their contractions, through someinstinctive process, by the sense or senses which observe the movementsthemselves, and more especially, the results of the movements. In mostactions the two senses concerned are sight and muscular sense. The morean action becomes habitual the more it tends to be performed under theguidance of muscular sense, and to be free from the necessity of theguidance of the eye. But muscular sense does not usually rise so highinto consciousness as sight, in the guidance of muscular activities. Many oft-repeated movements, especially those of walking, becomethoroughly habitual and even automatic; that is, the muscularcontractions are performed as purely reflex actions, without consciousguidance of any kind. But even in walking, the necessity may at anyinstant arise for conscious guidance. In such a case the sense of sightimmediately comes into service; from reflex the movements becomevoluntary, and consciously guided. In the case of most complex actionsthe sense of sight furnishes the most important guidance. 

If the muscular operations of singing are subject to the general laws ofpsychological control, the guidance of the vocal organs must befurnished by the sense which observes the results of the movementsinvolved. This is the sense of hearing. Just as in writing the hand isguided by the eye, so in singing the voice is guided by the ear. Therecan be no other means of guiding the voice. Muscular sense may undercertain conditions supplement the sense of hearing, but under nocircumstances can muscular sense assume full command. The net result ofthe application of psychological principles to the problem oftone-production is simply this, that the voice is guided directly by theear. 

It is thus seen that the idea of mechanical vocal management is utterlyerroneous. On pushing the analysis still further the fallacy of thisidea is found to be even more glaring. 

Is a knowledge of anatomy of any assistance in the acquirement of skillin performing complex muscular actions? Not in the least. Anunderstanding of muscular processes does not contribute in any way toskilful execution. The anatomist does not play billiards or row a boatone whit the better for all his knowledge of the muscular structure ofthe body. 

Even if the precise workings of the vocal mechanism could be determined, the science of Voice Culture would not benefit thereby. Knowing how themuscles should act does not help us to make them act properly. It isutterly idle to tell the vocal student that as the pitch of the voicerises the arytenoid cartilages rotate, bringing their forward surfacestogether, and so shortening the effective length of the vocal cords. Whatever the vocal cords are required to do is performed through aninstinctive obedience to the demands of the mental ear. 

And finally, a precise analysis of muscular contractions is impossible, even in the case of comparatively simple actions. When, for example, the hand describes a circle in the air, a number of muscles areinvolved. True, it is known what these muscles are, and what effect thecombined contractions of any group would have on the position of thehand. The direction of the hand's motion at any instant is determined bythe resultant of all the forces exerted on this member. But as thisdirection constantly changes, so must the relative degrees of strengthexerted by the muscles also constantly change. At no two successiveinstants are the muscular adjustments the same. This simple action, performed without thought or knowledge of the muscular processes, presents features too complex to be analyzed on the basis of mechanicallaw and anatomic structure. 

A complete analysis of the muscular operations of tone-production isabsolutely impossible. The adjustments of the laryngeal muscles involveprobably the most minute variations in degree of contraction performedin the whole voluntary muscular system. What we do know of themechanical operations of the voice is exceedingly interesting, and afurther knowledge of the subject is greatly to be desired. But we cannever hope to clear up all the mystery of the vocal action. 

This statement must not be construed to mean that the study of the vocalmechanism has been devoid of valuable results. On the contrary, thepresent understanding of the mechanical operations of the voice will befound of very great value in erecting a true science of Voice Culture. The only weakness of the present results of vocal investigation is dueto the fact that this investigation has always been carried on under theinfluence of the idea of mechanical vocal management. This influence hasled all theoretical students of the subject to attempt to apply theirknowledge in formulating rules for direct mechanical guidance of thevoice. That these rules are valueless is due solely to the fundamentalerror involved in the mechanical idea. 

Voice Culture must be turned from the idea of mechanical vocalmanagement. The old Italian masters were right in that they relied, eventhough empirically, on the imitative faculty. Modern teachers may dobetter, for in the light of present knowledge reliance on the faculty ofvocal imitation can be shown to be in strict accord with soundscientific principles. 

Part III

THE BASIS OF A REAL SCIENCE OF VOICE

CHAPTER I

THE MEANS OF EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION OF THE VOICE

To all knowledge obtained through the observation of facts andphenomena, the term empirical is properly applied. Empirical knowledgemust be the basis of every science. To be available in forming ascience, empirical knowledge of a subject must be so carefully gatheredthat all probability of error is eliminated; the observations must be soexhaustive as to embrace every possible source of information. From theknowledge thus obtained a set of verified general rules must be workedout with which all the observed facts and phenomena are shown to be inaccord. Then a science has been erected. There is no possibility ofconflict between empirical and scientific knowledge. The discovery of asingle fact, at variance with the supposed general laws bearing on anysubject, is sufficient to overthrow the entire structure which had beenaccepted as a science. 

In the accepted Vocal Science the terms empirical and scientific areused in a sense entirely different from that which properly attaches tothese words. Present knowledge of the operations of the voice is calledscientific, solely because it is derived from the sciences of anatomy, acoustics, and mechanics. The term "empirical knowledge of the voice" isused as a name for knowledge of the subject drawn from any source otherthan these sciences. Yet so far as the modern vocal world seems to beaware, it possesses no knowledge of the voice other than that commonlycalled scientific. It is supposed that the old Italian masters had some"empirical understanding of the voice. " But, if this was the case, theirempirical knowledge has apparently been utterly lost. 

Thus far in the present work, the usage of the terms empirical andscientific, accepted by vocal theorists generally, has been adopted. Adistinction has been drawn between knowledge of the voice obtainedthrough the study of the vocal mechanism and that obtained throughobservation of any other kind. The purpose will best be served bycontinuing this same usage. 

It must be apparent to the reader, from the analysis of modern methods, that no real Science of Voice has thus far been erected. This is due tothe fact that the general principles of scientific investigation havenot been applied to the study of the voice. Under the influence of theidea of mechanical vocal management the attention of all investigatorshas been turned exclusively to the mechanical features oftone-production. Meanwhile the empirical knowledge of the old mastersseems to have been forgotten. As a matter of fact, as will now be seen, this empirical knowledge has never been lost. Every modern teacher ofsinging shares the empirical knowledge which formed the sole material ofthe old method. But this knowledge is not applied effectually in moderninstruction for two reasons. First, modern teachers do not realize theimportance of this knowledge; indeed, they are practically unaware ofthis valuable possession. Although in fact the basis of nearly allmodern instruction in singing, empirical knowledge is alwaysunconsciously used. Second, empirical knowledge is always applied in theprevailing mechanical spirit. The attempt is always made to translatethe sub-conscious empirical understanding of the voice into rules fordirect mechanical management. Under the influence of the mechanical ideathe modern teacher's most valuable possession, empirical knowledge ofthe voice, becomes utterly unserviceable. 

Thus far, the whole result of this work has been destructive. Theaccepted Vocal Science has been shown to be erroneous in its conceptionand unsound in its conclusions. The work cannot halt here. Vocal Sciencemust be reconstructed. This can be done only by following the generalplan of all scientific investigation, beginning with the observation ofall ascertainable facts bearing on the voice. 

How can any facts be observed about the voice other than by the study ofthe vocal mechanism? An answer to this question is at once suggested sosoon as scientific principles are applied to the subject. Strictlyspeaking, the voice is a set of sounds, produced by the action of thevocal organs. The scientific method of inquiry is therefore to begin byobserving these sounds. Sounds as such can be observed only by the senseof hearing. It follows then that the attentive listening to voices isthe first step to be taken. 

Can any empirical knowledge of the voice be obtained by the merelistening to voices? If so, we ought now to be in possession of anyfacts which might be thus observed. Is it possible that information ofthis character is already a common possession of the vocal world, andyet that this information has never been applied in the investigation ofthe voice? This is exactly the case. Many facts regarding the voice havebeen observed so continually that they are a matter of common knowledge, and yet these facts have never been recorded in a scientific manner. 

Consider, for example, this remark about a famous singer, made by one ofthe foremost musical critics of the United States: "Mme. T---- 's lowermedium notes were all sung with a pinched glottis. " How did this criticknow that the singer had pinched her glottis? He had no opportunity ofexamining her throat with the laryngoscope, nor of observing her throataction in any other way. In fact, the critic was seated probablyseventy-five feet from the artist at the time the tones in question weresung. The critic had only one means of knowing anything about thesinger's throat action, and that was contained in the sound of thetones. There must therefore have been something in the sound of thetones which conveyed this information to the critical listener. For manyyears this gentleman had been in the habit of listening closely tosingers, and he had found some way of estimating the singer's throataction by the character of the tones produced. 

This same means of judging the manner of production from the sound ofthe tones seems to have been utilized nearly two hundred years ago. Speaking of the most frequent faults of tone-production, Tosi remarks:"The voice of the scholar should always come forth neat and clear, without passing through the nose or being choked in the throat. " Mancinialso speaks of the faults of nasal and throaty voice: "Un cantare digola e di naso. " A throaty tone, therefore, impressed these writers asbeing in some way formed or caught in the singer's throat. It may be setdown as certain that no pupil ever explained to either of these mastershow the objectionable sounds were produced. How then did Tosi andMancini know the manner in which a throaty tone is produced?

We need not go back to the early writers to find out what is meant by athroaty tone. Fully as many throaty singers are heard nowadays as theold masters ever listened to. What do we mean when we say that asinger's voice is throaty? The answer to this question seems at firstsight simple enough: The tones impress us as being formed in thesinger's throat. But what conveys this impression? Something in thesound of the tone, of course. Yet even that is not enough. How can atone, merely a sound to which we listen, tell us anything about thecondition of the singer's throat during the production of the tone? Hereagain the answer seems simple: The listener knows that, in order toproduce a tone of like character, he would have to contract his ownthroat in some way. 

Here we have a highly significant fact about the voice. On hearing athroaty tone, the listener can tell how this tone is produced; he feelsthat he would have to contract his own throat in order to produce asimilar tone. Let us carry this discussion a little further. How doesthe listener know this? Certainly not by actually singing a throatytone. When seated in a concert hall, for example, and listening to athroaty singer, the hearer cannot rise from his seat, sing a few throatytones himself, and then note how his throat feels. The critic justmentioned did not sing some notes with "pinched glottis" in order tolearn how Mme. T---- sang her low tones. Evidently it is not necessaryactually to imitate the singer; the hearer gets the same result byimitating the sounds mentally. In other words, when we hear throatytones we mentally imitate these tones; thus we know that we should haveto contract our own throats in order to produce similar tones. 

But even here we cannot stop. To imitate the singer actually is onething; mental imitation is something entirely different. In the firstcase, actual imitation, our muscular sense would inform us of the stateof throat tightening. But in the case of mental imitation there is noactual tightening of the throat, nothing, at any rate, comparable towhat takes place in actual imitation. There is then a dual function ofthe imagination; first, the mental imitation of the sound; second, theimaginary tightening of the throat. The analysis of the mental processmust therefore be modified, and stated as follows: When we listen to athroaty tone we mentally imitate the tone; an imaginative function ofthe muscular sense informs us what condition the singer's throat assumesfor the production of the tone. 

A similar operation takes place in listening to nasal voices. Animpression is conveyed by a nasal tone, through which the hearer isinformed of a condition of tightness or contraction somewhere in thesinger's nose. 

The terms applied to the two most marked forms of faultytone-production, nasal and throaty, are derived from impressionsconveyed by the sounds of the tones. These names, nasal and throaty, refer to a feeling of tightness or contraction experienced inimagination by the hearer; in one case this feeling is located in thenose, in the other, in the throat. But the terms nasal and throaty aregeneral descriptions of faulty tones. Each one covers a wide range oftone qualities. There is an almost infinite variety of throaty tones, and of nasal sounds as well. The knowledge of the voice obtained bylistening to vocal tones is of equally wide extent. Every throaty tone, whatever its precise character, informs the hearer of the exactcondition of the singer's throat in producing the tone. In short, everyvocal tone is thus analyzed by the critical listener, and referred inimagination to his own throat. An insight into the singer's vocal actionis imparted to the hearer through an imaginative process which always, of necessity, accompanies the attentive listening to vocal tones. 

Every vocal tone awakens in the hearer a set of imagined muscularsensations. These sensations furnish the means for an exhaustiveanalysis of the operations of the voice. The production of tonetherefore awakens two sets of muscular sensations, one actually felt bythe singer, the other felt in imagination by the listener. The formerare commonly known as the "singer's sensations"; but, as will beexplained later, this expression is often very loosely applied. It isadvisable on this account to give a new name to the singer's sensations, and also to give a name to the muscular sensations awakened in thehearer. Let us therefore call the sensations experienced by the singerin the production of tone the "direct sensations of tone. " To theimaginary sensations of the hearer let us give the name, the"sympathetic sensations of tone. "

These two terms will be used throughout the remainder of this work inthe meanings here given to them. 

Direct sensations of tone are the sensations actually felt by the singeras a result of the exercise of the vocal organs. 

Sympathetic sensations of tone are the muscular sensations experiencedin imagination by the hearer as a result of the listening to the tonesof voices other than his own. 

CHAPTER II

SYMPATHETIC SENSATIONS OF VOCAL TONE

A peculiar relation of sympathy exists between the human voice and thehuman ear. So intimate is this relation that the two might almost beconsidered as forming one complete organ. One aspect of this relationhas already been noted, the guidance of the vocal organs by the sense ofhearing. There is now to be considered another feature of this relationbetween voice and ear, --the assistance rendered by the vocal organs tothe sense of hearing. 

That a sub-conscious adjustment of the vocal organs may supplement thesense of hearing in the estimation of pitch is mentioned by Prof. Ladd. Speaking of the ability, by no means uncommon, to tell the pitch of anymusical note heard, Prof. Ladd says: "Such judgment, however, may be, and ordinarily is, much assisted by auxiliary discriminations of othersensations which blend with those of the musical tone. Among suchsecondary helps the most important are the muscular sensations whichaccompany the innervation of the larynx and other organs used inproducing musical tones. For we ordinarily innervate these organs (atleast in an inchoate and partial way)--that is, we sound the note toourselves--when trying carefully to judge of its pitch. " (_Elements ofPhysiological Psychology. _)

Much more important in the study of the problem of tone-production arethe adjustments of the hearer's vocal organs which were named thesympathetic sensations of tone. This peculiar auxiliary to the sense ofhearing calls for the closest attention. 

Sympathetic sensations of tone are awakened in the hearer through themere listening to the sounds of the human voice. Vocal tones impress thelistener's ear in a manner entirely different from any other sounds. Notonly are the tones of the voice heard, just as other sounds are heard;in addition to this, every vocal tone heard is mentally imitated, andthis mental reproduction of the tone is referred in imagination to thehearer's own vocal organs. Besides hearing the vocal tone as a soundpure and simple, the listener is also informed of the manner of throataction by which the tone is produced. 

This mental imitation and judgment of vocal tones is not a voluntaryoperation. On the contrary it cannot even be inhibited. It is impossiblefor us to listen to the voices of those about us, even in ordinaryconversation, without being to some extent aware of the various modes oftone-production. 

This idea of the mental imitation of voices may impress us at first ashighly mysterious. Sympathetic sensations of tone have been felt andnoted, probably ever since the human voice and the human ear weredeveloped. Yet the process is purely sub-conscious. It is performedinvoluntarily, without thought on the part of the hearer, even withoutany consciousness of the process. The hearer simply knows how the voicesto which he listens are produced. A throaty voice simply sounds throaty;the hearer feels this, and pays no attention to the source of theinformation. We take it as a matter of course that a nasal voice seemsto come through the speaker's nose. Why a certain quality of sound givesthis impression we never stop to inquire. The impressions of throataction conveyed by other people's voices seem so simple and direct thatnobody appears to have thought to analyze the psychological processinvolved. 

This psychological process is found on analysis to be highly complex. Inaddition to the actual physical exercise of the sense of hearing, threedistinct operations are performed in imagination. These are the mentalimitation of the tone, the imagined adjustments of the vocal organs, andthe imaginative exercise of the muscular sense. Although simultaneouslyperformed, each of these four operations may be considered separately. 

_Hearing_

As the judgment of vocal tones by sympathetic sensations is purely afunction of the sense of hearing, the keenness of these sensationsvaries in each individual in proportion to the keenness of the ear. Itwould be a great mistake to assert that we all feel these sympatheticsensations with equal vividness. On the contrary, many people are soinattentive to the qualities of sounds that they hardly know the meaningof the term "nasal tone. "

One trait in particular distinguishes the musician and the music lover;this is, the possession of a keen sense of hearing. The ear is trainedby exercise in its own function, --hearing. The more attentively welisten to music the higher do we develop our ability to discriminatebetween musical sounds. Moreover, natural endowments vary in differentindividuals, with regard to the ear, as with all other human faculties. To appreciate fully the wonderful insight into vocal operations conveyedby the sympathetic sensations of tone, a naturally keen musical ear isrequired; further, this natural gift of a good ear must be developed byattentive listening to music, vocal and instrumental, carried on throughseveral years. 

_Mental Imitation of Vocal Tones_

That every sense has its counterpart in the imagination need hardly besaid. We know what it means to feel warm or cold, hungry or thirsty; weknow the taste of an apple, the scent of a rose. We can at will createpictures before the mind's eye. In the same way we can hear inimagination any sound we choose to produce mentally. 

An inseparable function of the sense of hearing is the impulse toimitate mentally the tones of speakers and singers. The imitation ofsounds is an instinctive operation. "Talking proper does not set in tillthe instinct to _imitate sounds_ ripens in the nervous system. " (_ThePrinciples of Psychology_, Wm. James, N. Y. , 1890. ) Little can be saidabout the impulse to imitate voices mentally, further than that it is anexercise of this same instinct. 

_Imagined Adjustments of the Vocal Organs_

It has already been seen that the vocal organs have the ability toadjust themselves, through instinctive guidance, for the production ofany tone demanded by the ear. This same ability is invoked in the mentalimitation of tones. In one case the muscular contractions are actuallyperformed; in the other the muscular adjustments are wholly or in partimaginary. 

It is highly probable that actual contractions of the laryngeal musclestake place, under certain conditions, as an accompaniment to thelistening to voices. This is evident in the case of extremely aggravatedthroaty and forced voices. In listening to the harsh, raucous cries ofmany street vendors, when calling out their wares, the hearerfrequently feels a sense of actual pain in his own throat. 

Involuntary and unconscious contractions of the laryngeal muscles, somewhat similar to those under consideration, are well known toexperimental psychologists. Prof. Ladd's statement that thesecontractions assist the ear in the judgment of absolute pitch hasalready been cited. Another example of unconscious laryngeal movementshas been investigated by Hansen and Lehmann ("Ueber unwillkuerlichesFluestern, " _Philos. Studien_, 1895, Vol. XI, p. 47), and by H. S. Curtis ("Automatic Movements of the Larynx, " _Amer. Jour. Psych. _, 1900, Vol. XI, p. 237). The laboratory experiments of these investigators showthat when words, or ideas definitely expressed in words, are stronglythought but not uttered, the vocal organs unconsciously adjustthemselves to the positions necessary for uttering the words. Curtissays of these unconscious laryngeal contractions: "Such movements arevery common with normal people, and are comparatively easy ofdemonstration. "

The apparatus used by Hansen and Lehmann in their experiments consistsof two large concave reflectors. These are placed at a convenientdistance, one facing the other, so that two experimenters may be seated, the first having his mouth at the focal point of one reflector, thesecond with his ear at the focal point of the other. As the firstexperimenter repeats mentally any words or phrases, these are found tobe unconsciously whispered. These sounds of whispering, inaudible underordinary conditions, are so magnified by the two reflectors as to bedistinctly heard by the second experimenter. 

Curtis proved that actual movements of the larynx unconsciouslyaccompany intense thought. His demonstrations were conducted along linesfamiliar to all students of experimental psychology. Similar experimentswould probably show that unconscious movements of the larynx also occurduring the listening to vocal tones. 

A peculiarity of the laryngeal adjustments accompanying the listening tovoices is seen in the fact that the possession of a fine or well-trainedvoice is not required in this process. It does not matter whether thephysical organs are capable of producing fine musical tones. Thenervous equipment alone is involved; this is frequently highlydeveloped, even though the physical voice is very poor. A keen andhighly-trained ear is the only requisite. Players in the operaorchestras often develop this faculty to a high degree, even though theymay never attempt to sing a note. 

_Muscular Sense_

An exhaustive analysis of the various classes of sensations, commonlygrouped under the general heading of muscular sense, would involve amass of technicalities not necessary to the present purpose. It issufficient to bear in mind the limitations of this sense, and to noticewhat it tells us, and what it does not tell. 

Through the exercise of the muscular sense we are informed of themovements, positions, and conditions of the different parts of the body. Of specific muscular contractions very little information is conveyed. Thus, when the arm is bent at the elbow the muscular sensations of themovement are clear and definite; but, under normal conditions, thesesensations do not inform us that the movement results from thecontraction of the biceps muscle. Knowledge of the muscular structureof the body is not involved in muscular sense. The muscular sensationsof bending the arm are felt in precisely the same way by the professorof anatomy and the ignorant child. 

Further, no amount of attention paid to muscular sensations will informus exactly what muscles are contracted in any complex action. A singlestroke in the game of tennis, returning a swift service for example, mayinvolve some contraction of every muscle of the entire body. A skilfulplayer may observe with the utmost care the muscular sensationsaccompanying this stroke; he would never be able to learn from thesesensations whether the number of muscles in his forearm is ten or onehundred. 

For the same reason the sympathetic sensations of tone tell us nothingwhatever of the muscular structure of the vocal organs. When listeningto a throaty voice, we feel that the singer's throat is tightened, stiffened, or contracted. But no matter how keen and vivid thissensation may be, it leaves us in complete ignorance of the names andlocations of the muscles wrongly contracted. This is true, howeverthoroughly we may know the anatomy of the vocal organs. 

Much of the prevailing confusion about the voice is due to amisunderstanding of this point. When, for example, the musical criticasserted that Mme. T---- sang certain tones with "pinched glottis, " hefell into this error. His sympathetic sensations informed him of someunnecessary tightening of the singer's throat. From these sensations heseems to have inferred that the glottis-closing muscles were toostrongly contracted. This assumption was not warranted by anyinformation conveyed in the sympathetic sensations. 

It is not necessary now to determine to what extent the muscularsensations accompanying the listening to voices are purely imaginative, and to what extent they result from actual, though unconscious, contractions of the listener's throat muscles. The psychological processis the same in either case. 

Sympathetic sensations of tone always accompany the listening to voices. While the psychological process is complex, this process is performedunconsciously and involuntarily. Even though the attention may bedefinitely turned to the sympathetic sensations themselves, the mentalimitation and the laryngeal adjustments seldom rise into consciousness. As a rule, the entire operation is purely sub-conscious. The listenersimply knows how the voices to which he listens are produced. Thisknowledge has always been accepted as intuitive; but this is merelyanother way of saying that the process of its acquirement issub-conscious. 

_Direct Sensations of Tone_

In addition to the source of misunderstanding of the vocal action justmentioned, --the attempt to define the precise muscular contractionsindicated in the sympathetic sensations, another commonmisinterpretation of these sensations must be noted. As a consequence ofthe sub-conscious character of the sympathetic sensations, the twoclasses of muscular sensation of vocal tone, direct and sympathetic, arefrequently confounded and classed together as the "singer's sensations. "A third source of confusion is seen in the attempt to apply thesympathetic sensations, by formulating rules for the guidance of thestudent, in performing specific actions for the management of the vocalorgans. All three of these topics will be considered in a later chapter. Before approaching this subject let us see just what information may bederived from the observation of the direct sensations of tone. 

The direct sensations of tone are never so vivid, so precise, nor soreliable as the sympathetic sensations. In other words, the hearer isbetter able to judge of the singer's throat action than the singerhimself. This may seem a paradoxical statement, but a briefconsideration will show it to be fully justified. 

In the case of teacher and pupil, it will hardly be questioned that themaster hears the pupil's voice to better advantage than the pupil. Thisis also true when a trained singer's tones are observed by a competenthearer. The singer's direct sensations are highly complex. They includethe muscular sensations accompanying the exertion of the breathingmuscles, and these are usually so intense as to overshadow thesensations due to the laryngeal adjustments. On the other hand, thehearer is free to pay close attention to the sensations of throataction, and therefore feels these much more keenly than does the singer. On this account the direct sensations of tone are of vastly less valuein the study of the vocal action than are the sympathetic sensations. 

CHAPTER III

EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE VOICE

Through attention paid to the sympathetic sensations of tone, thelistener may carry on mentally a running commentary on the throatactions of all those whose voices are heard. Continuing to use the wordempirical in the sense thus far adopted, it may be said that the summaryof the impressions conveyed in the sympathetic sensations of toneconstitutes empirical knowledge of the voice. In other words, empiricalknowledge of the voice is an understanding of the operations of thevocal mechanism, obtained through the attentive listening to voices. 

Let us consider first the running commentary on the throat action, mentally carried on by the listener. This mental commentary is aninseparable accompaniment of the listening to the voices of others, whether in speech or song. As we are concerned now only with the problemof tone-production in artistic singing, our consideration will belimited to the critical hearer's observation of the tones of singers. 

Let us imagine two friends to be seated side by side in the concerthall, listening to the performance of a violin sonata by an artist ofabout mediocre ability. Suppose one of the friends to be a highlytrained musical critic, the other to be almost unacquainted with musicof this class. Let us now inquire how the tones of the violin willimpress these two hearers; and further, let the inquiry be limitedstrictly to the matter of tone, leaving out of consideration allquestions of composition and rendition. 

As a matter of course, the tones of the violin will impress these twolisteners in widely different ways. The untrained observer will greatlyenjoy the beautiful tones, --supposing of course that he be gifted with anatural fondness for music. But so far as musical value is concerned, all the tones will sound to him practically alike. 

For the trained hearer, on the other hand, every note drawn by theperformer from his instrument will have a distinct value. Some of thetones will be true in pitch and perfect in quality. Some will varyslightly from the correct pitch; others will perhaps be in perfecttune, and yet be marred in quality by faults of scratching, thinness, roughness, etc. 

When the two come to compare notes at the end of the performance thetrained critic will be utterly unable to convey to his friend hisimpressions of the player's technique. Vividly clear as it is to thecritic, his understanding of tonal values is lodged solely in hiscultivated ear. This understanding cannot be imparted in words; it mustbe acquired by experience in actual listening to music. 

Let us now imagine this same critic to be listening to a singer, not anartist of the first rank, but one whose voice is marred by some slightfaults of production. In this case the critic will note exactly the samesort of differences in tonal value as in the case of the violinist. Someof the singer's notes will be perfect musical tones, others will bemarred by faults of intonation or of quality. But a great differencewill be noted between faulty tones played on the violin, and faultytones sung by the human voice. In addition to their blemishes as musicaltones, the faulty notes of the voice also convey to the criticallistener an idea of the state of the singer's throat in producing them. 

Every blemish on the beauty of a vocal tone, every fine shade of qualitywhich detracts from its perfection, indicates to the critical hearersome faulty action of the singer's vocal organs. The more faulty themusical character of the singer's tones the more pronounced is thisimpression of faulty production. On the other hand, just so nearly asthe singer's tones approach perfection as musical sounds, so do theyalso impress the ear of the critical listener as indicating the approachto the perfect vocal action. 

The critic could not impart to his untrained friend the impressions madeby the violinist's tones. Somewhat the same is true of the impressionsmade by the tones of the voice on the critical ear. In voices ofextremely nasal or throaty sound these blemishes can, of course, bedetected by the ordinary hearer. But the fine shades of difference invocal tone quality, heard by the trained critic, cannot be noted by theinexperienced listener. 

This fine ability to discriminate between musical sounds comes onlythrough experience in listening to music, better still, when this hasbeen combined with the actual study of music. But the ability to judgethe vocal actions of singers, through the sympathetic sensations oftone, does not depend on any actual exercise of the listener's ownvoice. For the developing of this ability the exercise of the earsuffices. The mere exercise of the ear, in listening to singers, entailsalso the training of what may be called the "mental voice. " Attentivelistening to voices, involving as a natural consequence thesub-conscious impressions of sympathetic sensations, results in thedevelopment of a faculty to which this name, the mental voice, veryaptly applies. 

A music-lover whose experience of hearing singing and instrumental musichas been wide enough to develop the mental voice in a fair degree, possesses in this faculty a valuable means for judging singers. Themental voice carries on a running commentary on the manner of productionof all the voices to which this music-lover listens. At every instant heis informed of the exact condition of the singer's throat. For him thereis an almost infinite variety of throaty tones, each one indicating somedegree and form of throat tension or stiffening. A perfect vocal tone, on the other hand, is _felt_ to be perfectly produced, as well as_heard_ to be musically perfect. 

Equipped with a highly trained sense of hearing, and the resultingfaculty of mental voice, the lover of singing has an unfailing insightinto the operations of the vocal mechanism. This understanding of theworkings of the vocal organs is the empirical knowledge of the voice. 

This empirical knowledge of the voice can be possessed only by one whois equipped with a highly cultivated ear. The keener the ear the moreprecise and definite is this understanding of the voice. Season afterseason, as the music-lover continues to attend concerts, operas, andrecitals, his feeling for the voice becomes gradually more keen anddiscerning. 

Further, empirical knowledge of the voice can be acquired in no otherway than by actual experience in listening to voices. No matter how keenand definite are the impressions of throat action felt by theexperienced hearer, these impressions cannot be described to theuninitiated. In fact, these impressions are to a great extent of acharacter not capable of being recorded in precise terms. The generalnature of a throaty tone, for example, is thoroughly understood. But ofthe thousands of varieties of the throaty tone no adequate descriptioncan be given. Each observer must learn for himself to hear these fineshades of difference in tone quality. 

Every experienced music lover has his own mental standard of tonalperfection. The trained ear knows how a perfect musical tone shouldsound, independent of the precise quality of the tone. The tone qualityis determined, of course, by the instrument on which it is sounded. Butalong with the individual characteristics of the sound, the tones drawnfrom every instrument, to be available in the artistic performance ofmusic, must conform to the correct standard. Knowing the general musicalcharacter of the tones of all instruments, the cultured hearer can atonce detect any variation from this character. Further, he knows how thetones of a badly-played instrument would sound if the instrument werecorrectly handled. An unskilled trumpeter in an orchestra, for example, may draw from his instrument tones that are too brassy, blatant, orharsh. An observant hearer knows exactly what these tones would be ifthe instrument were skilfully played. 

In just the same way the mental voice has its own standard of vocalperfection. Every voice which falls below this standard is felt by thecritical hearer to be imperfectly used. When listening to a nasal singerwe know that the voice would be greatly improved in quality if the nasalsound of the tones were eliminated. We feel that the correction of thefaults of production indicated by a throaty voice would add greatly tothe beauty of the voice. More than this, we can also form some idea howan imperfectly produced voice would sound if all the faults of vocalaction were to be corrected. 

A perfectly produced voice affects the ear in a peculiar and distinctway. Not only is such a voice free from faults; it has also, on thepositive side, a peculiar character which renders it entirely differentfrom any wrongly used voice. The cultured hearer is impressed with asense of incompleteness and insufficiency in listening to a voice whichdoes not "come out" in a thoroughly satisfactory manner. This is true, even though the voice is not marred by any distinct fault. 

A voice absolutely perfect in its production awakens a peculiar set ofsympathetic sensations. In addition to its musical beauty such a voicesatisfies an instinctive demand for the perfect vocal action. Anindescribable sensation of physical satisfaction is experienced inlistening to a perfectly managed voice. 

On further consideration of this feeling of physical satisfactionawakened by a perfectly produced voice, it seems a mistake to call itindescribable. A beautiful description of this set of sympatheticsensations has been handed down to us by the masters of the old Italianschool. This description is embodied in two of the traditional precepts, those dealing with the open throat and the support of the tone. 

Mention of the traditional precepts leads at once to the considerationof another aspect of the empirical knowledge of the voice. Vocalistshave been attentively listening to voices since the beginning of themodern art of singing. Although many of the impressions made by thevoice on the ear cannot be expressed in words, one set of impressionshas been clearly recorded. A marked difference was evidently noticed bythe old Italian masters between the feelings awakened in the hearer bya voice properly managed and those awakened by an incorrectly producedvoice. These impressions were embodied in a set of precepts for theguidance of the singer, which are none other than the much-discussedtraditional precepts. 

In other words, the traditional precepts embody the results of the oldmasters' empirical study of the voice. Considered in this light, the oldprecepts lose at once all air of mystery and become perfectlyintelligible and coherent. To a consideration of this record of theempirical knowledge of the voice the following chapter is devoted. 

CHAPTER IV

THE TRADITIONAL PRECEPTS OF THE OLD ITALIAN SCHOOL

There should be nothing mysterious, nothing hard to understand, aboutthe empirical precepts. It was pointed out in Chapter V of Part I thatthese precepts contain a perfect description of correctly produced vocaltone, so far as the impression on the listener is concerned. This meansnothing else than that the old precepts summarize the results ofempirical observation of correct singing. There is nothing new in thisstatement; considered as empirical knowledge, the modern vocal teacherunderstands the meaning of the old masters' precepts perfectly well. Themisunderstanding of the subject begins with the attempt to apply theprecepts as specific rules for the direct mechanical management of thevoice. In this connection they were seen to be valueless. Let us now seeif the old precepts are found to contain any meaning of value to thevocal teacher when considered as purely empirical formulæ. 

Each one of the precepts may be said to describe some specialcharacteristic of the perfect vocal tone, considered solely as a sound. These characteristics may each be considered separately, that is, thehearer may voluntarily pay close attention to any special aspect of thevocal tone. The best plan for arriving at the exact meaning of theprecepts is therefore to consider each one in turn. 

_The Forward Tone_

Every lover of singing is familiar with this characteristic of theperfectly produced voice; the sound seems to come directly from thesinger's mouth, and gives no indication of being formed at the back ofthe throat. This characteristic of the perfect tone is simply heard. Itis not distinguished by any sympathetic sensations, but is purely amatter of sound. On the other hand, a wrongly produced voice seems to beformed or held in the back of the singer's throat. The tones of such avoice do not come out satisfactorily; they seem to be lodged in thethroat instead of at the front of the mouth. 

In the badly used voice the impression of throat is conveyed by thesympathetic sensations awakened in the hearer. A striking differencebetween correct and incorrect singing is thus noted. A wrongly producedvoice is felt by the hearer to be held in the singer's throat. Whenproperly used the voice gives no impression of throat; it seems to haveno relation to the throat, but to be formed in the front of the mouth. 

So much has been written about "forward emission" that the forwardcharacteristic of vocal tones seems to be enshrouded in mystery. As amatter of fact, the forward tone is easily explained. The perfectlyproduced voice issues directly from the mouth for the same reason thatthe tones of the trombone issue from the bell of the instrument. It isall a matter of resonance. This is well illustrated by a simpleexperiment with a tuning fork and a spherical resonator reinforcing thetone of the fork. 

When the fork is struck, the ear hears the sound issuing from theresonator, not that coming direct from the fork. This is brought outdistinctly by placing the fork at a little distance from the resonator. The listener can then definitely locate the source of the sound whichimpresses the ear. Under these circumstances the sound coming from theresonator is found to be many times more powerful than that comingdirect from the tuning fork. If left to its own judgment the ear takesthe resonator to be the original source of the sound. 

In the voice the exciting cause of the air vibrations is located at theback of the resonator, --the mouth-pharynx cavity. The sound waves inthis case can issue only from the front of the resonator, --the singer'smouth. No matter how the voice is produced, correctly or badly, thisacoustic principle must apply. 

Why then does not the incorrectly used voice impress the hearer asissuing directly from the mouth, the same as the correctly producedtone? This is purely a matter of sympathetic sensations of throattightness, awakened by the faulty tone. Every wrongly used voice arousesin the listener sympathetic sensations of throat contraction. Thisimpression of throat, noted by the hearer, consists of muscular, not ofstrictly auditory sensations. 

As a statement of scientific fact, the forward-tone precept iserroneous. It does not describe scientifically the difference betweencorrect and incorrect tone-production. Correctly sung tones are notproduced at the lips. Every vocal tone, good or bad, is produced by themotion of the vocal cords and reinforced by the resonance of themouth-pharynx cavity. Only when considered as an empirical descriptionis the forward-tone precept of value. In this sense the preceptdescribes accurately the difference in the impressions made on thehearer by correct and incorrect singing. A badly produced tone seems tobe caught in the singer's throat; the correctly used voice is free fromthis fault, and is therefore heard to issue directly from the singer'smouth. 

This marked difference between correct and incorrect tone throws avaluable light on the meaning of the correct vocal action. Every badlyused voice gives the impression of wrong or unnecessary tightness, stiffening, and contraction of the throat. When perfectly used, thevoice does not convey any such impression of throat stiffness. 

_The Open Throat_

Just as with the forward tone, the meaning of the open throat is bestbrought out by contrasting the impressions made on the hearer by aperfect and a badly used voice. A badly produced tone seems to becaught, or as Tosi expressed it, "choaked in the throat. " The singer'sthroat seems to be tightened and narrowed so that the sound has notsufficient passageway to come out properly. On the other hand, theperfectly used voice comes out freely, without interference or hindranceat any point in the singer's throat. There seems to be plenty of roomfor the tone to come forth; in other words, the singer's throat seems tobe open. 

All these impressions are purely a matter of sympathetic sensations. Inlistening to a faulty singer the hearer feels a sensation of tightnessand contraction of the throat. A well used voice awakens exactly theopposite sensation, that of looseness and freedom of the throat. 

Here again is seen the difference between correct and incorrect singing, empirically considered. Judging from the impressions made by rightly andwrongly used voices, any incorrect vocal action involves a condition oftightness and contraction of the throat. Perfect singing gives theimpression that the throat is loose and supple, and free from allunnecessary tension. 

_The Support of the Tone_

Following the plan of contrasting correct and incorrect singing, themeaning of this precept is readily found. The perfect voice is felt bythe hearer to be firmly and confidently held by the singer in a securegrasp of the throat muscles. Such a voice awakens the sympatheticsensations of perfectly balanced muscular effect, similar to themuscular sensations of the hand and forearm when an object is firmlygrasped in the hand. 

A badly used voice seems to be convulsively gripped in the singer'sthroat. The tones seem to fall back into the throat for want of somesecure base on which to rest. This impression is conveyed by a peculiarset of sympathetic sensations of highly unpleasant muscular tension farback in the throat. 

This precept, "Support the tone, " points to the difference already notedbetween the right and the wrong vocal action. Badly produced tonesindicate a state of excessive tension of the throat muscles. Correctsinging gives the impression that the throat muscles exert exactly therequisite degree of strength, and no more. 

Taken together, the open-throat and the forward-tone precepts embody anadmirable description of the sympathetic sensations awakened by perfectsinging. The singer's entire vocal mechanism is felt to be in acondition of lithe and supple freedom. There is no straining, noconstraint, no forcing, no unnecessary tension. Each muscle of the vocalmechanism, and indeed of the entire body, exerts just the necessarydegree of strength. 

Similar muscular sensations always accompany the expert performance ofany action requiring a high degree of dexterity. Whatever be the form ofexertion, skilful physical activity awakens muscular sensations ofperfectly balanced and harmonized contractions. This feeling of muscularpoise and adjustment is pleasurable in a high degree. 

A keen enjoyment is experienced in the skilful performance of manycomplex muscular activities. Much of the pleasure of skating, dancing, rowing, tennis, etc. , is dependent on this feeling of muscular poiseand harmonious contraction. Healthy exercise is always normallyenjoyable; but skilful performance greatly enhances the pleasure. Abeginner learning to skate, for example, exerts himself fully as much asthe accomplished skater. Yet the beginner does not by any means derivethe same degree of pleasure from his exertions. 

Precisely this feeling of balanced and harmonious muscular exertion isexperienced by the perfect singer. More than this, the hearer also, through sympathetic sensations, shares the same pleasurable feeling. This is the sensation described as the feeling of soaring, of poise, andof floating, in many descriptions of the "singer's sensations. "

_Singing on the Breath_

When the voice is perfectly used the tones seem to detach themselvesfrom the singer, and to float off on the breath. Nothing in the sound ofthe tones, nor in the sympathetic sensations awakened, gives anyindication that the breath is checked or impeded in its flow. Thecurrent of tone seems to be poured out on the breath just as freely asa quiet expiration in ordinary breathing. 

This is a purely empirical description of perfect singing. As we knowvery well, the vocal action is quite different from this description. But the important point is that the phrase "singing on the breath" doesvery accurately describe the impression made on the hearer by perfectsinging. 

Singing on the breath represents the highest possible degree of purelyvocal perfection. One may attend operas and concerts for a whole seasonand listen to a score of famous singers, and count oneself fortunate tohave heard even one artist who attains this standard of tonalexcellence. Singing on the breath is an effect of wondrous tonal beauty;it is simply this, pure beauty, pristine and naïve. 

With the slightest degree of throat stiffness or muscular tension, singing on the breath is utterly impossible. So soon as the tonesindicate the merest trace of throat contraction, the free outflow of thestream of sound is felt to be checked. 

Coloratura singing, to be absolutely perfect, demands this degree oftonal excellence. Singing on the breath and coloratura are indeed veryclosely allied. The modern school of musical criticism does not holdcoloratura singing in very high esteem. We demand nowadays expression, passion, and emotion; we want vocal music to portray definitesentiments, to express concrete feelings. Florid singing is not adaptedto this form of expressiveness. It is only sensuously beautiful; itspeaks to the ear, but does not appeal to the intellect. 

Yet it may well be asked whether the highest type of coloratura singing, pure tonal beauty, does not appeal to a deeper, more elemental set ofemotions than are reached by dramatically expressive singing. Thisquestion would call for a profound psychological discussion, hardly inplace in a work devoted to the technical problem of tone-production. Butthis much is certain: Coloratura singing still has a strong hold on theaffections of the music loving public. Even to-day audiences are movedby the vocal feats of some famous queen of song fully as profoundly asby the performance of a modern dramatic or realistic opera. 

To describe a sound is an extremely difficult task. The tone of themuted horn, for example, is perfectly familiar to the average musician. Yet who would undertake to describe in words the tone of the muted horn?A description of the sounds produced by a perfectly managed voice isalmost as difficult to frame in words. Still the old Italian masterssucceeded in finding words to describe perfect singing. These few simplephrases--open the throat, support the tone, sing the tones forward, singon the breath--embody a most beautiful and complete description of vocalperfection. The empirical study of the voice can hardly be expected togo further than this. From the old masters we have received a completerecord of all that need be known empirically about the voice. 

CHAPTER V

EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE IN MODERN VOICE CULTURE

It was pointed out in Chapter I of Part III that there is no possibilityof conflict between empirical and scientific knowledge. Modern VoiceCulture seems to present a direct contradiction of this statement. Thevocal teacher's empirical understanding of the voice conflicts at everystep with his supposedly scientific knowledge. No doubt the reader isalready aware of the real meaning of this apparent contradiction. Itonly bears out the philosophic rule; an accepted science must beabandoned so soon as its deductions are found to be not in accord withobserved facts. 

Modern methods of instruction in singing can be understood only byfollowing out this idea of conflict between known facts and accepted, though erroneous, scientific doctrines. As we have seen, the onlyuniversally accepted theory of supposedly scientific Voice Culture isthe idea of direct mechanical guidance of the voice. Every vocalteacher attempts to make his empirical knowledge conform to thismechanical idea. As the empirical knowledge is correct, and themechanical idea a complete mistake, conflict between the two isinevitable. 

Every modern teacher of singing possesses in full measure the empiricalunderstanding of the voice. To this statement hardly an exception needbe made. Probably the most startling fact concerning the wide diffusionof this knowledge is that the nature of this knowledge is so thoroughlyignored. Because the psychological process is purely sub-conscious, empirical knowledge is always indirectly and generally unconsciouslyapplied. In the teacher's mind the most prominent idea is that ofmechanical vocal guidance. His attention is always directly turned tothis idea. Empirical knowledge, consisting merely of a succession ofauditory and muscular sensations, lurks in the background ofconsciousness. 

To the intelligent vocal teacher there is something peculiarlyfascinating about the study of tone-production. In listening to anyfaulty singer we feel with the utmost precision what is wrong with thevoice. Each imperfect tone informs us clearly and definitely just wherethe wrong muscular contraction is located. It seems so easy to tell thesinger what to do in order to bring the tone out perfectly. Under theinfluence of the mechanical idea we try to express this feeling in theterms of muscular action. This attempt is never successful; the singercannot be brought to understand our meaning. Yet it is so clear in ourown minds that our inability to express it is extremely tantalizing. Wego on, constantly hoping to find a way to define the mechanicalprocesses so clearly indicated to the ear. We always feel that we arejust on the verge of the great discovery. The solution of the problem oftone-production is almost within our grasp, yet it always eludes us. 

It was stated in Chapter V of Part I that empirical knowledge of thevoice, based on the singer's sensations, is used to supplement andinterpret the doctrines of mechanical vocal guidance. This is in themain true, so far as the vocal teacher is aware. But here again theresult of the sub-conscious character of empirical knowledge of thevoice is seen. As a matter of fact the real situation is the directreverse of that described in the chapter mentioned. The mechanicaldoctrines are used in the attempt to interpret the empirical knowledge. This fact is well brought out in the following passage from Kofler: "Theteacher must imitate the wrong muscle-action and tone of his pupil as anillustration of the negative side. " (_The Art of Breathing_, N. Y. , 1889. ) Kofler does not touch on the question, how the teacher is able tolocate the wrong muscle-action of the pupil. He takes this ability forgranted; it is so purely an intuitive process that he does not stop toinquire into the source of this information of the pupil's vocal action. Through his sense of hearing he sub-consciously locates the faults inthe pupil's tone-production. His only conscious application of thisknowledge is the attempt to explain to the pupil the wrongmuscle-action. This he naturally tries to do in the terms of mechanicalaction and muscular operation. Thus the mechanical doctrine is used inthe attempt to explain the empirical knowledge. Yet the teacher isconscious only of citing the mechanical rule, and believes this to coverthe entire instruction. 

In the preceding chapter it was seen that the perfectly produced vocaltone may be considered in a variety of aspects. Each one of theseaspects is characterized by a fairly distinct set of sympatheticsensations. Of faulty modes of throat action, as revealed by sympatheticsensations, there is an almost infinite variety. Of this wide variety offorms of throat tension the most prominent are those indicated by setsof sympathetic sensations, the direct opposites of those characterizingthe perfect vocal action. Thus the open throat is indicated by one setof sympathetic sensations, the lack of this characteristic of tone by anopposite set, etc. 

Whatever distinct fault of production the pupil's tone indicates, themaster immediately notes the character of the faulty throat action. Themaster feels, simply and directly, what is wrong with the student'stone-production. Whence this knowledge comes he does not stop toinquire. Suppose the pupil to sing an exercise, and to produce toneswhich stick in the throat, instead of coming out freely. The mastersimply hears that the pupil's voice is caught in the throat; he does notobserve that he is informed of this condition by muscular as well asauditory sensations. 

This ignoring of the psychological nature of the impressions of tone isnot necessarily detrimental to successful instruction. On the contrary, the master's empirical insight into the vocal operations of the pupilwould probably not be advanced by an understanding of the psychologicalprocess. It is sufficient for the teacher's purpose to hear that thepupil's voice is caught in the throat. What robs this hearing, orfeeling, of all value is this: the master attempts to interpret thesensation as an indication of the need of some specific muscular action, to be directly performed by the pupil. To this end he cites themechanical rule, assumed to be indicated by the pupil's faulty vocalaction. This may be, for example, the opening of the throat to give roomfor the tone to expand. It seems so perfectly simple to theteacher;--the pupil narrows his throat, and so holds in the tone; lethim expand his throat and the tone will come out freely. This conclusionseems so clearly indicated by the sound of the tones that the masteralmost inevitably gives the precise instruction: "Open your throat andlet your voice come out. " This sums up, to the master's satisfaction, everything the pupil need do to correct this particular fault oftone-production. 

Other sets of sympathetic sensations, awakened by badly produced tones, are interpreted in the same manner. A tone heard to be held in the backof the throat is believed to indicate the need of bringing the voiceforward in the mouth. Other forms of throaty production are taken toshow a lack of support, a wrong management of the breath, a need ofbreath-control, a misuse of nasal resonance, or an improper action ofthe vocal cords. In all these attempts to interpret sympatheticsensations by means of mechanical doctrines the teacher naturally relieson those doctrines in which he believes most firmly. Sympatheticsensations are indeed sometimes cited in proof of certain theories ofbreath-control, and also of nasal resonance. Both these topics areworthy of separate attention. 

_Sympathetic Sensations and Nasal Resonance_

One of the most widely accepted theories of the vocal action is that thehigher notes of the voice are influenced by reinforcing vibrationslocated in the nose and forehead. Whether this idea was derived morefrom direct than from sympathetic sensations need not be determined now. It is at any rate certain that a perfectly sung tone gives to the hearerthe impression of nasal influence of some kind. The exact nature of thisinfluence has never been determined. It may be air resonance, orsounding-board resonance, or both combined. Satisfactory proof on thispoint is lacking. In the belief of the practical teacher, however, thisimpression of nasal influence is the strongest argument in favor ofnasal resonance. 

Turning now to the question of nasal quality, strictly speaking, tonesof this objectionable character always awaken the sympathetic sensationsof contraction somewhere in the nose. Why such a contraction shouldcause this unpleasant sound of the voice is a profound mystery. Perhapswrong tension of the soft palate exerts an influence on the actions ofthe vocal cords; or it may be that the form of the nasal cavities isaltered by the muscular contraction. This aspect of the vocal action hasnever been scientifically investigated. The sympathetic sensation ofnasal contraction or pinching is at any rate very pronounced. Curiously, this sympathetic sensation is cited as an argument in favorof their respective theories, by both the advocates and the opponents ofnasal resonance. 

_Sympathetic Sensations and Breath-Control_

Certain forms of exaggerated throat stiffness are frequently held toindicate the need of breath-control. The faulty vocal action in questionis analyzed by the breath-control advocates substantially as follows:"Owing to the outflow of the breath not being checked at the properpoint, the entire vocal mechanism is thrown out of adjustment. Thesinger exerts most of his efforts in the endeavor to prevent the escapeof the breath; to this end he contracts his throat and stiffens histongue and jaw. His tones are forced, harsh, and breathy; they lackmusical quality. His voice runs away with him and he cannot control ormanage it. In the attempt to obtain some hold on his voice he 'reaches'for his tones with his throat muscles. The more he tries to regaincontrol of the runaway breath the worse does his state become. "

This extreme condition of throat stiffness is unfortunately by no meansrare. So far as concerns the sympathetic sensations awakened by thiskind of singing the condition is graphically described by thebreath-control advocates. But the conclusion is entirely unjustifiedthat this condition indicates the lack of breath-control. Only thepreconceived notion of breath-control leads to this inference. Thesympathetic sensations indicate a state of extreme muscular tension ofthe throat; this is about the only possible analysis of the condition. 

* * *

Empirical impressions of vocal tones determine the character of mostpresent-day instruction in singing. This means no more than to say thatthroughout all vocal training the teacher listens to the pupil's voice. The impressions of tone received by the teacher's ear cannot fail toinform the teacher of the condition of the pupil's throat in producingthe voice. For the teacher to seek to apply this information inimparting the correct vocal action to the pupil is inevitable. 

Almost every teacher begins a course of instruction by having the pupilrun through the prescribed series of mechanical exercises and rules. Breathing is always taken up first. Breath-control, laryngeal action, registers, and resonance follow usually in this order. The time devotedto this course of training may vary from a few weeks to several months. This mechanical instruction is almost always interspersed with songs andarias. The usual procedure is to devote about half of each lesson tomechanical doctrines and the remainder to real singing. 

Blind faith in the efficacy of this mechanical training is the teacher'sonly motive in giving it. Very little attention is paid to the sound ofthe pupil's voice during the study of mechanical rules and doctrines. Itis simply taken for granted that the voice must be put through thiscourse. Once the mechanical course has been covered, the pupil's voiceis supposed, in a vague way, to be "placed. " From that time on, whetherit be at the end of two months of study or of two years, the instructionis based solely on empirical impressions of tone. 

Little remains to be said of the nature of this empirical instruction. It always retains the mechanical aspect. Whatever fault of productionis noted, the teacher seeks to correct the fault by applying somemechanical rule. The futility of this form of instruction has alreadybeen pointed out. 

Only two ways of applying empirical knowledge of the voice are known tothe modern vocal teacher. These are, first, to tell the pupil to "openthe throat, " or to "support the tone, " or to perform whatever othermechanical operation seems to be indicated as necessary by the sound ofthe tone; second, to bid the student to "feel that the tone issupported, " to "feel that the throat is open, " etc. Under thesecircumstances the little advantage derived from empirical knowledge inmodern Voice Culture is readily understood. 

CHAPTER VI

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE OF THE VOICE

So far as any definite record can be made, the knowledge of the voiceobtained by attentive listening to voices has now been set down. Thenext step in the scientific study of tone-production is theconsideration of all knowledge of the voice obtained from sources otherthan empirical. In other words, the knowledge of the voice usuallyclassed as scientific is now to be examined. 

Three sciences are generally held to contribute all that can possibly beknown about the vocal action. These are anatomy, acoustics, andmechanics. Of these anatomy has received by far the most attention fromvocal scientists. The laws of acoustics, bearing on the voice, have alsobeen carefully considered. Beyond the theory of breath-control, littleattempt has been made to apply the principles of mechanics in VocalScience. Psychology, the science most intimately concerned with themanagement of the voice, has received almost no attention in thisconnection. 

A complete record of the teachings of the established sciences withregard to the voice demands the separate consideration of the foursciences mentioned. Each will therefore be treated in turn. In the caseof each of these sciences it is seen that the most essential facts ofthe vocal action have been definitely established. Many questions stillremain to be satisfactorily answered which are of great interest to thetheoretical student of the voice. Yet in spite of the lack of exactknowledge on these points, enough is now known to furnish the basis fora practical science of Voice Culture. 

_The Anatomy of the Vocal Mechanism_

This subject has been so exhaustively studied that nothing new can wellbe discovered regarding the muscular structure of the vocal organs. Inall probability the reader is sufficiently acquainted with the anatomyof the larynx and its connections. Only a very brief outline of thesubject is therefore demanded. The muscles concerned with breathingcall for no special notice in this connection. 

The special organ of voice is the larynx. This consists of fourcartilages, with their connecting ligaments, --the thyroid, the cricoid, and the two arytenoids, and of nine so-called intrinsic muscles, --twocrico-thyroid, right and left, two thyro-arytenoid, two posteriorcrico-arytenoid, two lateral crico-arytenoid, and one arytenoideus. Theinner edges of the thyro-arytenoid muscles form the vocal cords. Thehyoid bone, serving as a medium of attachment for the tongue, may alsobe considered a portion of the larynx. By means of the extrinsic musclesthe larynx is connected with the bones of the chest, neck, and head. 

While the muscular structure of the vocal organs is thoroughly known, the actions of the laryngeal muscles in tone-production have never beenabsolutely determined. This much is definitely established: Vocal toneis produced when the vocal cords are brought together and held ontension, and the air in the lungs is expired with sufficient force toset the vocal cords in motion. The tension of the vocal cords can beincreased by the contraction of their muscular tissues, the twothyro-arytenoid muscles; further, increased tension of the cords canalso result from the tilting of the thyroid cartilage on the cricoid, bythe contraction of the crico-thyroid muscles. 

It is also definitely proved that the pitch of the vocal tone varieswith the state of tension of the vocal cords; increasing the degree oftension raises the pitch, decreasing the tension lowers it. As to therelative importance of the different groups of muscles in varying thetension of the vocal cords, nothing has been definitely proved. 

In addition to the variations in pitch resulting from variations in thetension of the vocal cords, there is also much ground for believing thatthe pitch may be raised by shortening the effective length of the vocalcords. This is apparently accomplished by the rotation of the arytenoidcartilages; but the specific muscular contractions concerned in therotation of the arytenoids have not been located. 

It is generally asserted by vocal theorists that the quality of thevocal tone, on any one note, is determined mainly by the influence ofthe resonance cavities. Dr. Mills says on this point: "When it is bornein mind that the vocal bands have little or nothing to do with thequality of the tone, the importance of those parts of the vocalapparatus which determine quality. .. Becomes apparent. " (_VoiceProduction in Singing and Speaking_, 1906. ) This theory that the qualityof the tone is determined solely by the resonance cavities is directlycontradicted by Prof. Scripture. He proves that changes in tone qualityresult from changes in vocal cord adjustment. This subject is more fullytreated in the following section. Even before this matter had beendefinitely settled by Prof. Scripture, there was a strong presumption infavor of the vocal cord adjustment theory. Howard advanced this idea in1883. Several empirical observations support this theory. Most importantof these is the fact that a single tone, swelled from _piano_ to_forte_, goes through a wide variety of changes in quality. Stockhausen's mention of this fact has already been noted. 

This fact tends to cast some doubt on the value of laryngoscopicobservation as a means of determining the laryngeal action. Under theconditions necessary for examination with the laryngoscope it isimpossible for the singer to produce any but soft tones in the headquality of voice. Most of these tones, if swelled to _forte_, wouldchange from the head to the chest quality. It is probable that thischange in quality is effected by a corresponding change in the vocalcord adjustment, as the conditions of the resonance cavities remain thesame. But this cannot be determined by laryngoscopic observation. 

So far as the actions of the laryngeal muscles are concerned, nodifference can be defined between the correct vocal action and anyimproper mode of operation. Sir Morell Mackenzie examined a large numberof people with the aid of the laryngoscope; of these, some were trainedsingers, others, while possessed of good natural voices, had had novocal training whatever. Many variations were noted in the notes onwhich changes of register occurred. But it could not be determined bythis mode of examination whether the subject was a trained singer ornot. 

If there is one specifically correct mode of operation for the vocalcords, this correct action has never been determined from the anatomy ofthe organs. No doubt there is some difference between the muscularactions of correct tone-production and those of any incorrect operationof the voice. But the nature of this difference in muscular action hasnever been discovered by means of dissections of the larynx, nor bylaryngoscopic observation. 

_The Acoustic Principles of Tone-Production_

An outline of the existing state of knowledge regarding the acousticprinciples of tone-production must be drawn mainly from one source. Thisis the latest authoritative work on the subject, _The Study of SpeechCurves_, by E. W. Scripture (Washington, 1906). In this work Prof. Scripture overthrows several of the conclusions of Helmholtz which hadhitherto furnished the basis of all the accepted theories of vocalacoustics. Considering the eminently scientific character of all Prof. Scripture's research work, his thorough acquaintance with every detailof the subject, and the exhaustive attention devoted to this series ofexperiments, we are fully justified in accepting his present statementsas conclusively proved. 

A first impression received from a careful reading of _The Study ofSpeech Curves_ is that the subject is vastly more intricate than hadformerly been believed. Helmholtz's theory of vocal acoustics was fairlysimple: The vocal cords vibrate after the manner of membranous reeds; atone thus produced consists of a fundamental and a series of overtones;vowel and tone quality are determined by the influence of the resonancecavities, which reinforce certain of the overtones with specialprominence. This theory is discarded by Prof. Scripture. "The overtonetheory of the vowels cannot be correct. " In place of this simple theory, Prof. Scripture reaches conclusions too complicated to be given indetail here. A brief outline of the subject must suffice for the needsof the present work. 

Prof. Scripture found that the nature of the walls of a resonatingcavity is of more importance than either its size, shape, or opening. Aflesh-lined cavity is capable of reinforcing tones covering a range ofseveral notes. Further, the vowel sound, and presumably also the tonequality, are determined more by the action of the vocal cords than bythe adjustment of the resonance cavities. "The glottal lips vibratedifferently for the different vowels. " This adjustment of the glottallips "presumably occurs by nervously aroused contractions of the fibersof the muscles in the glottal lips. " Continuing, Prof. Scripture says:

"Physiologically stated, the action for a vowel is as follows: Eachglottal lip consists mainly of a mass of muscles supported at the endsand along the lateral side. It bears no resemblance to a membrane or astring. The two lips come together at their front ends, but diverge tothe rear. The rear ends are attached to the arytenoid cartilages. Whenthe ends are brought together by rotation of these arytenoid cartilages, the medial surfaces touch. At the same time they are stretched by theaction of the crico-thyroid muscles, which pull apart the points ofsupport at the ends. 

"In this way the two masses of muscle close the air passage. To producea vowel such a relation of air pressure and glottal tension is arrangedthat the air from the trachea bursts the muscles apart for a moment, after which they close again; the release of the puff of air reduces thepressure in the trachea and they remain closed until the pressure isagain sufficient to burst them apart. With appropriate adjustments ofthe laryngeal muscles and air pressure this is kept up indefinitely, and a series of puffs from the larynx is produced. The glottal lips openpartly by yielding sidewise, --that is, they are compressed, --and partlyby being shoved upward and outward. The form of the puff, sharp orsmooth, is determined by the way in which the glottal lips yield; themode of yielding depends on the way in which the separate fibers of themuscles are contracted. 

"These puffs act on the vocal cavity, that is, on a complicated systemof cavities (trachea, larynx, pharynx, mouth, nose) with variableshapes, sizes, and openings. The effect of the puffs on each element ofthe vocal cavity is double: first, to arouse in it a vibration with aperiod depending on the cavity; second, to force on it a vibration ofthe same period as that of the set of puffs. The prevalence of one ofthe factors over the other depends on the form of the puff, the walls ofthe cavities, etc. "

Prof. Scripture does not undertake to point out a difference between thecorrect vocal action in tone-production, and any incorrect action. Thisdifference in action does not seem capable of definition by anyanalysis of the acoustic principles involved. 

_Mechanical Principles of the Vocal Action_

In Part II, Chapter II, it was seen that the outflow of the breath intone-production is checked by the vocal cords, in accordance withPascal's law of fluid pressures. Another law of mechanics bearing onthis operation is now to be considered, viz. , the law of thetransformation and conservation of energy. 

The application of the law of the transformation and conservation ofenergy to the operations of the voice is nicely illustrated by thewell-known candle-flame test of (supposedly) breath-control. To performthis test the singer is instructed to practise the exercises forbreath-control while holding a lighted candle with the flame an inch ortwo in front of the lips. According to the idea of the breath-controladvocates, the expired breath should escape so slowly, and with solittle force, that no current of air can be detected at the lips, theexpiration therefore does not cause the candle flame to flicker. 

Describing the toneless breathing exercises to be practised with thecandle flame, Browne and Behnke say, "Let it be observed that the aboveexercise is quite distinct from the well-known practice of _singing_before a lighted candle, which is, comparatively speaking, an easymatter. " (_Voice, Song, and Speech_. ) A very striking fact is statedcorrectly by Browne and Behnke, --there is no current of air created atthe lips during tone-production. Of the truth of this statement thereader may readily convince himself by trying this same experiment witha candle flame, or even with a lighted match. Hold a lighted match justin front of the lips and sing a powerful tone. The quality of the toneis of no consequence so long as it be powerful. Just sing, shout, yell, the louder the better. You will find that the flame is less affectedunder these circumstances than by the quiet expiration of ordinarybreathing. 

Considerable practice and close attention are required in order to holdback the breath in toneless breathing exercises. Whereas in producingany kind of powerful tone the breath normally creates no current of airat the lips. 

There is no reason for considering this experiment a test of correcttone-production. It is impossible to produce a powerful tone of anykind, good, bad, or indifferent, and at the same time to create anappreciable current of air at the lips. 

Needless to say, the breath-control theorists have entirely failed tograsp the significance of the candle-flame experiment. Yet we have herea demonstration of the mechanical law of tone-production. 

Considered as a mechanical process, tone-production occurs when theenergy exerted by the expiratory muscles, in their contraction, isconverted into energy of motion of the vocal cords. [8] In other words, tone-production is an example of the transformation of energy. The lawof the transformation and conservation of energy must therefore apply tothis operation. This law is stated as follows: "Energy may betransformed from any of its forms to any other form. When energy is thustransformed the quantity of energy in the resulting form or forms isequal to the quantity of energy in the original form. "

[Note 8: This exposition of the mechanical principle oftone-production is intended to be graphic, rather than strictlytechnical. For the sake of simplicity, that portion of the expiratoryenergy expended in friction against the throat walls, tongue, cheeks, etc. , is disregarded, as well as that expended in propelling the air outof the mouth, in displacing the same quantity of external air, etc. ]

The mechanical operation of tone-production comprises the followingtransformations of energy: First, the energy exerted in the contractionof the expiratory muscles is converted into energy of condensation orelasticity of the air in the lungs and trachea. Second, this energy ofcondensation of the air is converted into energy of motion of the vocalcords. In other words, the expiratory energy is transformed into energyof motion. 

One objection, at first sight very serious, may be offered against thisstatement: the amount of strength exerted in the contractions of thebreath muscles seems many times greater than is accounted for in themotion of the vocal cords. The movements of the vocal cords are soslight as to be observable only with the aid of a specially devisedapparatus, the stroboscope. Can all the expiratory force expended intone-production show such a small result? This apparent objection isfound to be groundless in view of the application in this operation ofPascal's law. As this topic was fully treated in Chapter II of Part II, no further explanation is required here. 

The erroneous idea of vocal mechanics involved in the doctrine ofbreath-control is now fully exposed. Tone can be produced only when theexpired air exerts a pressure on the vocal cords. There is no necessityfor any conscious or voluntary check on the expiration. The energy ofthe expiration is expended in setting the vocal cords in motion. Noenergy of condensation is left in the expired air the instant it haspassed the vocal cords. Beyond that point there is no expiratorypressure. 

In one sense it is true that the expiration is "controlled" intone-production. But this control is strictly an automatic action. Thevocal cords are adjusted, by the appropriate muscular contractions, tomove in response to the air pressure exerted against them. This actioninvolves, as a necessary consequence, the holding back by the vocalcords of the out-rushing air. So long as the vocal cords remain in theposition for producing tone, they also control the expiration. In thissense breath-control is an inseparable feature of tone-production. 

All that need be known of the mechanics of the voice is thereforeperfectly plain. The vocal cords are set in motion by the pressureagainst them of the expired breath. This operation is in accordance withPascal's law and the law of the conservation of energy. 

But this analysis throws no light on the nature of the correct vocalaction. It is impossible for the voice to produce a sound in any wayother than that just described. In speaking or in singing, in laughingor in crying, in every sound produced by the action of the vocal cords, the mechanical principle is always the same. Nor is the bearing of thislaw limited to the human voice. Every singing bird, every animal whosevocal mechanism consists of lungs and larynx, illustrates the samemechanical principle of vocal action. 

Only passing mention is required of the fallacy of the breath-bandtheory. The idea of any necessity of relieving the vocal cords of theexpiratory pressure is purely fanciful. How any one with even a slightunderstanding of mechanics could imagine the checking of the breath bythe inflation of the ventricles of Morgagni, is hard to conceive. 

_The Psychology of Tone-Production_

This subject was treated, in some detail, in Chapter V of Part II. Inthat chapter however we were concerned more with a destructive criticismof the idea of mechanical tone-production than with the positivefeatures of vocal psychology. At the risk of some repetition it istherefore advisable here to sum up the laws of psychology bearing on thevocal action. 

Considered as a psychological process, tone-production in singinginvolves three distinct operations. First, the mental ear conceives atone of definite pitch, quality, vowel sound, and power. Second, thevocal organs prepare to adjust themselves, by the appropriate muscularcontractions, for the production of the tone mentally conceived. Third, the fiat of will is issued, causing the muscular contractions to beperformed. These three operations are executed as one conscious, voluntary act. Let us inquire to what extent consciousness is concernedwith each operation. 

As conscious volitional impulses, the mental conception of the tone, andthe fiat of will to produce the tone, are well enough understood. Thesetwo operations call for no extended consideration. We are at presentconcerned only with the psychological laws bearing on the muscularadjustments of the vocal organs. 

Muscular contractions result from the transmission to the muscularfibers of motor nerve impulses. These nerve impulses originate in themotor nerve centers. They can never, under any circumstances, rise intoconsciousness. Contractions of the voluntary muscles occur either asreflex or as voluntary actions. In both cases the motor nerve impulsesoriginate in the same nerve centers. In the case of reflex actions theselower muscular centers alone are involved; in voluntary actions theoriginating of the motor impulses is "controlled" by consciousness. Indeciding that an action shall be performed, and in what way it is to beperformed, consciousness directs that each motor center involved shallsend out the appropriate discharges of nerve impulse. 

Complex muscular activities require the sending out of nerve impulsesfrom various motor centers. Such activities are usually not performedinstantaneously, but require a longer or shorter time. Thus we mayconsider it as one action for the writer to rise from his chair, tolower the window and adjust the shade, and then to return to his seat. In this case a large number of motor centers are successively involved;at the proper instant each center discharges its impulse. To this endthe motor centers must be instructed when to come into activity. 

This distribution of nerve impulse is effected by the power ofcoördination. In voluntary actions coördination is accompanied byconscious control. [9] But coördination is not a function of the highercerebral centers, that is, of consciousness. How the connection is madebetween the higher cerebral centers and the lower motor centers is acomplete mystery. All that can be said is that the ideas of movementsare transmitted to the motor centers, and that these send out theappropriate motor impulses. 

[Note 9: In this connection it is advisable to point out adifference between the meanings attached to the word "control" inpsychology and in Vocal Science. The psychologist classes habitualmovements as either automatic or controlled. Automatic movements arepurely reflex; the individual does not consciously decide whether theyshall be performed or not. Psychologically considered, the _control_ ofa movement is simply the conscious volitional decision whether themovement shall be performed. To adopt the language of Psychology, weshould speak of _voice management_, and of _breath regulation_, insteadof vocal control, breath control, etc. In the following chapters theaccepted psychological usage of the word "control" will so far aspossible be adopted. ]

Turning now to the muscular adjustments of the vocal organs, theseadjustments are seen to be independent of conscious guidance. When atone is mentally conceived the vocal organs adjust themselves, inresponse to some mysterious guidance, for the production of the tone. The vocal cords assume the appropriate degree of tension according tothe pitch of the tone to be sung. Both the quality of the tone and thevowel are determined by the combined adjustments of the laryngealmuscles and of the muscles which fix the shape and size of the resonancecavities. The power of the tone is regulated by the force of the breathblast; for each degree of power some special adjustment of the vocalcords is required. 

All these adjustments are executed as one concrete and individual act inresponse to the volitional impulse contained in the mental conception ofthe tone. The tone is conceived as a concrete whole. It is not normallybroken up mentally into its four aspects of pitch, quality, vowel, andpower. True, each one of these four characteristics of the tone may beseparately considered by the singer. So also, to a certain extent, maythe adjustments of the vocal organs be performed with special referenceto one or the other characteristic of the tone. But in every case themuscular contractions are performed without direct conscious guidance. Whatever be the character of the tone mentally demanded, the vocalorgans instantly adjust themselves to produce the tone. 

What is meant by saying that the muscular contractions are performedwithout conscious guidance? Does this mean that the singer isunconscious of the muscular contractions? Not at all. Muscular senseinforms the singer, more or less distinctly, of the state of contractionor relaxation of the various muscles of the vocal organs. The singeralways knows fairly well the condition of the various parts of the vocalmechanism. What is meant is this: The singer does not consciously directthe vocal organs to assume certain positions and conditions, and doesnot instruct the various muscles to contract in certain ways. The singerdoes not need to know, and in fact cannot know, what muscularcontractions are required to produce any desired tone. 

Some connection exists between the organs of hearing and the vocalmechanism. That this connection has a physical basis in the nervousstructure is fairly well established. "The centers for sight and for armmovements, for instance, or those of hearing and of vocal movements, have connecting pathways between them. " (_Feeling and Will_, Jas. M. Baldwin, 1894. ) The psychological law of tone-production is that thevocal organs adjust themselves, without conscious guidance, to producethe tones mentally conceived. In actual singing the practicalapplication of this law is that the voice is guided by the ear. 

This guidance of the voice by the ear is incessant. It must not beunderstood that the mental ear simply conceives a single tone, and thatthe vocal machinery then operates without further guidance. All thecharacteristics of the vocal tones, --pitch, quality, and power, --areconstantly changing. These changes require corresponding changes in themuscular adjustments. The muscular contractions in turn are guided bythe demands of the mental ear. As a psychological process, singing maytherefore be analyzed as follows: The singer mentally sings thecomposition. In response to the ever varying demands of the ear thevocal organs adjust themselves to produce actually the sounds thusmentally conceived. The singer listens to these sounds and at everyinstant compares them to the mental conception. If the tones actuallyproduced fail to correspond exactly to those mentally conceived, thesinger instantly notes this variation and bids the vocal organs tocorrect it. The ear has therefore a dual function in singing. First, themental ear directs the voice in its operations. Second, the physical earacts as a check or corrective on the voice. 

To sum up the psychology of tone-production, the singer guides ormanages the voice by attentively listening to the tones of the voice. This is the only possible means of vocal guidance. The voice and the eartogether form one complete organ. 

But we are still apparently as far as ever from the specific meaning ofthe correct vocal action. That the voice instinctively obeys thecommands of the ear may be true theoretically. In actual practice weknow that this does not by any means always occur. Singers are oftenunable to get the desired results from their voices, even when theybelieve themselves to rely on the sense of hearing. There must thereforebe some influence which under certain conditions interferes with theoperations of the vocal organs. The problem of tone-production is thusseen to be one of psychology. It narrows down to this: What caninterfere with the normal action of the voice and prevent the vocalorgans from instinctively responding to the demands of the ear? Asatisfactory answer to this problem will be found only by aconsideration of all available knowledge of the voice, both empiricaland scientific. This forms the material of the final division of thepresent work. 

Part IV

VOCAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICAL VOICE CULTURE

CHAPTER I

THE CORRECT VOCAL ACTION

Two distinct lines of approach were laid down for studying theoperations of the voice. First, the manner of investigation usuallyaccepted as scientific. This is, to study the vocal mechanism; todetermine, as far as possible, the laws of its operation, in accordancewith the principles of anatomy, acoustics, mechanics, and psychology. Second, the manner of investigation generally called empirical. Thisbegins with the observing of the tones of the voice, considered simplyas sounds. From the tones we work back to the vocal organs and apply tothem the information obtained by attentive listening. Both of thesemeans of investigation have been utilized; we are now in possession ofthe most salient facts obtainable regarding the vocal action. 

Separately considered, neither the scientific nor the empirical study ofthe voice is alone sufficient to inform us of the exact nature of thecorrect vocal action. The next step is therefore to combine theinformation obtained from the two sources, scientific analysis andempirical observation. Let us begin by summing up all the facts so farascertained. 

Tone-production in singing is a conscious and voluntary muscularoperation. The vocal organs consist of a number of sets of voluntarymuscles, of the bones and cartilages to which these muscles areattached, and of the nerves and nerve centers governing their actions. The precise nature of the muscular contractions of tone-production, whether correct or incorrect, is not known. These contractions occur inaccordance with established laws of acoustics and mechanics. Undernormal conditions the vocal organs instinctively respond to the demandsof the singer, through the guidance of the sense of hearing. The abilityof the vocal organs to adjust themselves properly may be upset by someinfluence apparently outside the singer's voluntary control. Study ofthe vocal mechanism does not inform us of the meaning of the correctvocal action, nor of the difference between this action and any othermode of operation of the voice. 

Empirically considered, there is a striking difference between thecorrect vocal action and any other manner of tone-production. A perfectvocal tone awakens in the hearer a distinct set of auditory and muscularsensations. Attentively observed, the muscular sensations of the hearerindicate that the perfect vocal tone is produced by the balanced andharmonious action of all the muscles of the singer's vocal mechanism. Inlistening to perfect singing the hearer feels that every muscle of thesinger's vocal organs is contracted with exactly the appropriate degreeof strength. Any vocal tone of unsatisfactory sound awakens in thehearer a set of muscular sensations, the direct opposite of thoseindicating the correct vocal action. An incorrectly produced toneimparts to the hearer a sensation of stiffness and undue musculartension, located more or less definitely in the throat. This sensationindicates that the singer's throat is stiffened by excessive muscularcontraction. Further, this feeling of throat stiffness indicates to thehearer that the singer's vocal action would become correct if the unduemuscular tension were relaxed. 

Combining now the results of empirical and scientific investigation ofthe voice, throat stiffness is seen to be the interfering influencewhich disturbs the instinctive connection between voice and ear. Let usnow consider the meaning of throat stiffness as a feature of incorrecttone-production. First, what is muscular stiffness?

All the voluntary muscles of the body are arranged in opposed pairs, sets, or groups. A typical pair of opposed muscles are the biceps andtriceps of the upper arm. Contraction of the biceps flexes the forearmat the elbow; the contrary movement, extending the forearm, results fromthe contraction of the triceps. This principle of opposition applies tothe entire muscular system. One set of muscles raises the ribs ininspiration, another set lowers them in expiration; one group flexes thefingers and clenches the fist, an opposed set extends the fingers andopens the hand. Muscular opposition does not imply that the entirestructure is made up of parallel pairs of muscles, like the biceps andtriceps, located on opposite sides of the same bone. It means only thatthe opposed sets pull in contrary directions. 

Each opposed set consists of muscles of about equal strength. Undernormal conditions of relaxation the entire muscular system exerts aslight degree of contraction. To this normal state of oppositionalcontraction the name "muscular tonicity" is given. The present purposedoes not call for a discussion of the subject of muscular tonicity. Thisform of contraction has no direct bearing on the performance ofvoluntary movements. 

What effect has the voluntary contraction of all the muscles of anymember, each opposed set exerting the same degree of strength? No motionof the member results, but the member is brought on tension andstiffened. This is well illustrated in the case of the arm. Extend thearm and clench the fist; then contract all the muscles of the arm, aboutas the athlete does to display his muscular development. You will noticethat the arm becomes stiff and tense. 

This state of tension is commonly called "muscular stiffness, " but theterm is open to objection. It is really the joints which are stiffened, not the muscles. We are, however, so accustomed to speak of muscularstiffness, and particularly of throat stiffness, that little is to begained by substituting a more accurate expression. 

A condition of muscular stiffness results from the contraction of allthe muscles of a member, whether this contraction be voluntary orinvoluntary. This condition does not prevent the normal movements of themember; it only renders the movements more difficult and fatiguing andless effective. It is readily seen why this is the case. More than thenecessary strength is exerted by the muscles. Suppose the biceps andtriceps, for example, each to be contracted with five units of strength;then let some work be performed by the flexing of the forearm, requiringthe exertion of two units of strength. In this case the biceps mustexert two units of strength more than the triceps, that is, seven units. In all, the two muscles together exert twelve units of strength toaccomplish the effective result of two units. Six times the neededstrength is exerted. Activity of this kind is naturally fatiguing. 

Muscular stiffness increases the difficulty of complex movements. Notonly is unnecessary strength exerted; the stiffness of the joints alsointerferes with the freedom and facility of motion. But this unfavorablecondition does not upset the power of coördination. The instinctiveconnection between the nerve centers of consciousness and the motorcenters is not broken. Although hampered in their efforts, the musclesare still able to execute the demands of consciousness. 

As an illustration of this analysis of muscular stiffness let usconsider the actions of writing, when performed under the conditionsjust described. It is possible to write with the hand and arm in a stateof muscular stiffness. But one does not write so easily, so rapidly, norso well with the arm stiff as with the arm normally relaxed. Closerattention must be paid to the forming of the letters, and more effortmust be put forth to write with the muscles stiffened; yet the result isnot equal to that obtained with less care and labor under normalmuscular conditions. 

All that has been said of muscular stiffness applies with especial forceto the vocal organs. Like the rest of the muscular system, the musclesof the vocal organs are arranged in opposed pairs and sets. Thecontraction of all the muscles of the throat, each opposed set or pairexerting about the same degree of strength, causes a condition ofthroat stiffness. Singing is possible in this condition. But thesinger's command of the voice is not so complete and satisfactory asunder normal conditions. 

Throat stiffness does not altogether deprive the vocal organs of theirfaculty of instinctive adjustment in obedience to the demands of theear. To a fair extent the voice is under the command of the singer. Thevocal cords adjust themselves readily enough for the desired pitch;tones of the various degrees of loudness and softness can be sung in afairly satisfactory manner. But the muscles are somewhat hampered intheir contractions, and the response to the demands of the ear is notquite perfect. This lack of perfect command is evidenced specially inthe quality of the tones. Some form of throaty quality always mars thevoice when the throat is in a stiffened condition. In this regard thevoice refuses to fulfill the demands of the ear. Even though the singerhears, and indeed feels, the effects of the muscular tension, andstrives to remedy the fault of production, the voice still refuses torespond. 

This incomplete command of the voice is frequently observed, even amongsingers of very high standing. At first sight the condition heredescribed seems to disprove the statement that the voice normally obeysthe ear. But there is no real contradiction of the psychological law ofvocal command in the case of a stiff-throated singer. For one thing, whatever degree of command the singer possesses is obtained inaccordance with the law of guidance by the ear. Moreover, the failure tosecure perfect response is due solely to the interference with thenormal workings of the voice, occasioned by the state of throatstiffness. Far from this form of muscular contraction being acontradiction of psychological principles, it will be found onexamination to be in perfect accord with well-established laws ofphysiological psychology. 

It is hardly to be supposed that the singer consciously and voluntarilycontracts the muscles of the entire vocal mechanism and so deliberatelybrings about the stiffening of the throat. True, this can readily bedone. We can at will sing throaty and nasal tones. But this form ofvoluntary throat tension is not, properly speaking, an incorrect vocalaction. So long as the vocal organs respond to the demands of the ear, the vocal action is correct. Only when the voice refuses to obey canthe action be described as incorrect. 

A satisfactory definition of the various modes of vocal action can nowbe given. The correct vocal action is the natural operation of the vocalorgans; the voice normally obeys the commands of the ear. An incorrectvocal action occurs when the throat is stiffened by the involuntarycontraction of the muscles of the vocal mechanism. 

This definition of the vocal action does not solve the problem oftone-production. It is still to be determined how the involuntarycontraction of the throat muscles is caused. 

CHAPTER II

THE CAUSES OF THROAT STIFFNESS AND OF INCORRECT VOCAL ACTION

Involuntary contractions of the voluntary muscles can occur only asreflex actions. If the muscles of the vocal organs are subject toinvoluntary contractions, the causes of these contractions must besought through an investigation of the subject of reflex actions. 

Reflex actions are of several kinds; of these the simplest type, and theone most easily studied, is the muscular contraction due to theexcitation of the sensory nerve endings located in the skin. Thus whenthe sole of the foot of a sleeping person is tickled, the leg is atfirst drawn up and then violently kicked out. An exhaustive discussionof the physiological and psychological features of reflex action is notcalled for here; a sufficient understanding of the subject may safely beassumed to be possessed by the reader. 

Involuntary muscular contractions often occur as reflex actions withoutany direct or tactual irritation of the sensory nerve endings. Severalexamples of this form of reflex action are now to be considered. Theseactions will be seen to be matters of such common experience as to callfor no special proof. They are the following:

(_a_) Reflex actions performed under the influence of sensoryimpressions other than those of touch or muscular sense. 

(_b_) Involuntary muscular contractions due to nervousness. 

(_c_) Contractions of the muscles of certain members, caused by theturning of the attention specially to the members. 

(_d_) Involuntary contractions of muscles, accompanying the exertion ofother associated and antagonist muscles, and due to the radiation ofnerve impulse. 

(_a_) _Reflex Actions due to Sensory Impressions other than those ofTouch or Muscular Sense_

A wide range of movements is included under this heading. Of these it isnecessary to mention only a few, such as the sudden start on the hearingof an unexpected noise, the instinctive movement of dodging to escape anapproaching missile, and the raising of the arm to ward off an expectedblow. 

Actions of a somewhat similar character normally occur in which it isnot easy to point to the excitation of any sense or senses. Theseinclude the instinctive cowering attitude of fear, the play of facialexpression caused by sentiment and emotion, etc. 

(_b_) _Involuntary Actions due to Nervousness_

A condition of marked nervousness generally causes the involuntarycontraction of muscles. Who does not recall his earliest attempts at"speaking a piece" in school? The trembling of the lips, the twitchingof the arms and hands, and the vain attempts to govern the bodilymovements, are an experience painful even in the recollection. 

Movements and contractions due to nervousness are entirely purposeless;they even defy the most earnest efforts at inhibition. A marked featureof this type of involuntary action is the contraction of antagonistgroups of muscles, productive of muscular stiffness of the members. 

An extreme example of this form of nervousness is offered by theunfortunate sufferer from stage fright. In this condition the entirebody often stiffens, and purposeful movement of any kind becomes for atime impossible. 

(_c_) _Contractions caused by Special Attention to Certain Members_

Suppose a small boy of sensitive nature to enter a room suddenly, and tobe at once chided for his awkwardness. His body will probably stiffen, and his awkwardness become more pronounced. Now call his attention tohis hands and tell him he is holding them badly. His arms and hands willimmediately become painfully stiff. Speak of his feet and his legs comeon tension. Whatever member his attention is turned to, the muscles ofthat part contract involuntarily. 

Photographers sometimes have to contend with this form of involuntaryaction on the part of their sitters. When the hands are to be posed thearms stiffen; so also do the legs, the shoulders, and the neck, eachwhen its turn comes to receive attention. 

Under normal conditions this form of awkwardness is easily overcome. Sitting for a photograph soon becomes a simple matter. The boy outgrowsthe awkward stage and gradually acquires a natural and easy bearing. Muscular stiffening due to attention to special members is usually theresult of an uncomfortable feeling of being out of one's element, andill at ease in one's surroundings. So soon as this feeling wears off thetendency to this form of stiffness disappears. 

(_d_) _Contractions of Muscles due to the Radiation of Nerve Impulse_

A voluntary exertion of some of the muscles of a member sometimes causesthe involuntary contraction of all the other muscles of the part. Aswill readily be seen, the exercise then takes place under conditions ofmuscular stiffness. This is commonly a feature of the unskilful andunaccustomed performance of muscular activities. A few examples willserve to illustrate this type of involuntary contraction better than alengthy discussion of the physio-psychological principles involved. 

When a novice takes his first lesson in riding a bicycle he clutches thehandle bars in a vise-like grip. His knees are so stiff as to bend onlywith a great exertion of strength. To steer the wheel the learner mustput forth his most powerful muscular efforts. A half-hour lesson inbicycle riding often tires the beginner more than an afternoon's ridedoes the experienced cyclist. 

This condition of muscular stiffness is due to the contraction ofantagonist groups of muscles, involving practically the entire body. Inone sense the excessive muscular contractions are involuntary; yet itwould not be easy to define where the voluntary element of thecontractions leaves off. 

A similar excessive expenditure of strength may be seen in the attemptof an illiterate laborer to sign his name. He grips the pen as though itwere a crowbar, and puts forth enough strength to handle a twenty-poundweight. Learning to dance, or to skate, or to row a boat, is usuallyaccompanied in the beginning by this form of muscular stiffness. 

As skill is acquired by practice in the performance of complexactivities, the undue muscular tension of the initial stage is graduallyrelaxed. 

There is another way in which the radiation of nerve impulse may becaused, entirely distinct from the lack of use or skill. Muscularstiffness may be induced in the case of activities so thoroughlyhabitual as to be normally performed automatically. The cause ofmuscular stiffness now to be considered is the attempt to performcomplex activities mechanically, that is, by consciously directing theindividual component movements and muscular contractions involved in theactions. Involuntary contractions of associated and antagonist musclestake place under these conditions, in addition to the voluntary exerciseof the muscles normally exerted in the movements. 

This fact may be illustrated by attempting to write a few lines, andforming every stroke of each letter by a distinct exercise of the will. If you keep up this attempt for ten minutes you will find that you pressupon the paper with many times your accustomed weight. The hand stiffensin consequence of the close attention paid to its movements. Thisstiffness will extend to the arm, and even to the shoulder, if theexercise be continued long enough and with sufficient intensity ofattention to the hand. 

Another good illustration of this form of muscular stiffening may befound by walking upstairs, and paying the same kind of attention to themuscular actions. Try to ascend a single flight of stairs, performingeach elementary movement by a distinct volitional impulse. Pause on thefirst step to secure perfect balance on one foot; raise the other foot, bending the leg at the knee, then place this foot carefully on the nexthigher step. Now gradually shift the weight of the body from the lowerto the higher foot; as the body inclines forward, exert the muscles ofthe back and sides to preserve your balance; then contract the legmuscles so as to raise the body to the higher step, with the weightsupported on that foot. Repeat this operation for each step. To mountone flight of stairs in this way will tire you more than ascending ahalf dozen flights in the ordinary automatic way. 

All four of the types of involuntary muscular contraction just describedmay be combined in a single instance. An inexperienced violin soloist, such as a student playing at a conservatory recital, often exemplifiesthis. Nervousness and awkwardness cause him to tremble; the scratchysound of his tones makes him twitch and start; meanwhile, the closeattention paid to his fingering and bowing stiffens his arms andcompletes his difficulty. 

The vocal organs are peculiarly subject to the forms of involuntarymuscular contraction under consideration. Each of the causes of musculartension may exert its special influence on the voice. Let us go over theground once more, this time with special reference to the actions of thethroat muscles. 

_(a) Reflex Actions of the Muscles of the Vocal Organs, Independent ofDirect Sensory Excitation_

Involuntary actions of the vocal organs normally occur in response tostimuli furnished by the emotions and feelings. Every one is familiarwith the shout of triumph, the sigh of relief, and the ejaculation ofsurprise. Some emotions cause a convulsive stiffening of the muscles ofthe vocal organs so complete as to render tone-production for a timeabsolutely impossible. "Speechless with terror, " "breathless withapprehension, " are expressions which accurately describe psychologicalprocesses. A crowd of people watching a difficult rescue of a drowningman is silent so long as the uncertainty lasts. A shout instantly goesup when the rescue is seen to be safely effected. Both the silence ofthe nervous strain and the shout of relief are normal involuntaryresponses to the emotional states. 

_(b) The Influence of Nervousness on the Vocal Action_

Nervous conditions exert a striking influence on the operations of thevoice. Even when our self-control under trying conditions is complete inall other respects we are often unable to prevent our voices betrayingour nervous state. Stage fright, an extreme form of nervousness, sometimes deprives the sufferer entirely of the power of speech. Thistemporary loss of vocal command is not due to an inability to innervatethe muscles of the vocal organs; on the contrary, it is caused byextreme muscular stiffness due to the violent, though involuntary, contraction of all the muscles of the vocal organs. 

Under normal conditions, entirely aside from nervousness, the voiceinstinctively reflects every phase of sentiment and emotion. Love andhate, sorrow and joy, anger, fear, and rage, each is clearly expressedby the quality of the tones, independent of the meaning of the spokenwords. All these fine shades of tone quality result from muscularadjustments of the vocal mechanism. In some mysterious manner theoutflow of motor impulses to the throat muscles is governed by thenervous and emotional states. 

This form of muscular contraction is in one sense not involuntary. Asthe voice is voluntarily used, all the muscular contractions involvedare voluntary. Yet the minute contractions producing tone qualitiesexpressive of emotion are distinctly involuntary. More than this, thesecontractions cannot usually be inhibited. An angry man cannot make hisvoice sound other than angry. Our voices often betray our feelings inspite of the most earnest efforts at concealment. 

While the voice always normally and involuntarily adopts the tonequality indicative of the emotional state, this action of the vocalorgans may be voluntarily and purposely performed. A perfect command ofthese fine shades of tone quality renders the voice a very potentinstrument of expression. For the purposes of dramatic singing this formof vocal expression might be of great value. It is to be regretted thatdramatic singers of this day pay so little attention to purely tonalexpressiveness. This is probably due in great measure to the prevalenceof throat stiffness, which robs the voice of much of its expressivepower. 

_(c) Contractions of the Throat Muscles, caused by Attention to theThroat_

When a physician attempts to examine a child's throat, the tendency ofthe throat muscles to this form of involuntary contractions is apt to beevidenced. The jaw stiffens and the tongue rises; for a time therebellious little throat refuses to remain quiet and relaxed. 

People usually have some such difficulty the first time they submit toexamination with the laryngoscope. This is very apt to occur, even inthe case of experienced singers. Needless to say, this form of muscularcontraction is entirely involuntary; it even defies the most earnestattempts at prevention. Comparatively little experience is required fornormal people to overcome this tendency. The throat usually becomestractable after one or two trials with the laryngoscope. 

Vocalists are well aware of the proneness of one part of the vocalmechanism, the tongue, to stiffen in consequence of direct attentionbeing paid to this member. In this connection Frangçon-Davies remarks:"When the writer in early student days concentrated his attention uponhis tongue he found that this member became very stiff and unrulyindeed. " (_The Singing of the Future_, London, 1906. ) Leo Kofler speaksof the same tendency: "Tell a pupil to let his tongue lie flat in hismouth; he draws it back till it dams up his throat. " (_Werner'sMagazine_, Oct. , 1899. )

_(d) Throat Stiffness due to the Radiation of Nerve Impulse_

Two types of muscular tension due to the radiation of motor impulseswere noted; first, the stiffness incident to the early stages ofpractice in complex activities; second, the stiffness caused by theattempt to perform complex activities in a mechanical manner by payingattention to the individual component movements and contractions. Toboth these types of muscular stiffness the voice is especially subject. 

It is not easy to find a perfect illustration of throat stiffnessincident to the early stages of instruction in singing. For this thechief reason is that the later form of stiffness, due to the attemptdirectly to manage the vocal organs, is much more pronounced than thetemporary early tension. As good an example as possible would be thefollowing: Let some one possessed of a fine natural untrained voice singa steady tone and then attempt to trill on the same note. The attemptedtrill will invariably indicate a much higher degree of stiffness thanthe single tone. 

Several investigators of the voice have noticed the tendency of thethroat to stiffen when the singer tries to manage the voice by payingdirect attention to the mechanical action. Clara Kathleen Rogers pointsthis out clearly in the following passage: "There exists a possible anda dangerous obstacle to the performance of the natural mission of thevoice. That obstacle is what? It is a superfluous and misdirected mentalactivity which is fruitful of a corresponding obstruction on the part ofthe body. In the body this obstruction takes the form of superfluous orunnatural tension. " (_The Philosophy of Singing_, N. Y. , 1893. ) Prof. Scripture describes in scientific language the results of any attemptdirectly to manage the vocal organs. Speaking of the use of the voiceunder unfavorable conditions, he says: "The attempt is instinctivelymade by the speaker or singer to correct such a fault by voluntaryinnervation of the muscles; this cannot succeed perfectly because anincrease of innervation brings about contractions of associated andantagonist muscles with the result of changed conditions and changedsounds. Such extra muscular effort is, moreover, very fatiguing. " (_TheElements of Experimental Phonetics_, 1902. )

For the purposes of scientific voice culture this is one of the mostimportant facts which have been determined. The attempt to manage thevoice, by paying attention to the mechanical operations of the vocalorgans, causes an involuntary contraction of all the throat muscles, andso interferes with the normal instinctive vocal action. Even the merethinking of the throat in singing, and especially in practising, isenough to induce throat stiffness. 

CHAPTER III

THROAT STIFFNESS AND INCORRECT SINGING

It is a lamentable fact that most of the singing heard nowadays givesevidence of throat stiffness. Perfect singing becomes more rare witheach succeeding year. The younger generation of artists in particularevince a marked tendency to this fault of production. 

Considered as a cause of faulty tone-production in singing, throatstiffness is due to only one influence, viz. , the attempt to manage thevoice by thinking of the vocal organs and their mechanical operations. Muscular tension due to nervousness, or to the unskilful nature of firstattempts at singing, cannot be looked upon as causing a wrong vocalaction. In the case of nervousness the lack of vocal command faithfullyreflects the psychological condition of the singer; the imperfectresponse of the voice is normal to this condition. The stiffness due tofirst attempts is also perfectly normal. Moreover, both these forms ofthroat stiffness are temporary; they disappear when the cause, nervousness or lack of skill, is removed. 

Throat stiffness does not necessarily destroy the musical character ofthe voice. Very many degrees and varieties of excessive throat tensionare possible. The undue muscular exertion may be so slight in degreethat the throat stiffness can be detected in the sound of the tones onlyby a highly sensitive and observant hearer. Or on the other hand, themuscles of the entire throat may be so powerfully contracted that thesinger has only a very imperfect command of the voice. Between the twoextremes, perfect tone-production and exaggerated stiffness, everyconceivable shade of difference in degree of undue tension might beillustrated in the case of some prominent singer. 

Faulty tone-production manifests itself in two ways; first, in itseffects on the tones of the voice; second, in its effects on thesinger's throat. Let us consider each of these topics separately. 

_The Effect of Throat Stiffness on the Sound of the Voice_

In whatever degree throat stiffness is present, to just that extent thevoice sacrifices something of its capabilities as a musical instrument. The voice can realize its full natural resources of beauty, range, power, and flexibility only when the throat is absolutely free fromundue tension. As regards the quality of the tones, every phase of unduethroat tension has its effect on the sound of the voice. These effectsare always bad; the same voice is less beautiful when used in astiffened condition than when perfectly produced. Throaty and nasaltones are always more or less harsh and offensive to the sensitivehearer. Further, the more pronounced the state of throat stiffness themore marked does the throaty or nasal quality become. 

Under conditions of throat tension the range of the voice is almostalways curtailed. The highest and lowest notes possible to any voice canbe reached only when the throat is entirely free from stiffness. So alsowith regard to the varying degrees of power, undue tension prevents thesinger from obtaining the extreme effects. A throaty singer's soft tonesgenerally lack the carrying quality. Louder tones can be produced with anormally relaxed than with a stiffened throat. 

Real flexibility of voice is impossible to a stiff-throated singer. Extreme rapidity and accuracy of muscular adjustments, the physicalbasis of coloratura singing, cannot be attained when the muscles arehampered by undue tension. 

A distinct fault of production, the tremolo, is directly due to throatstiffness. A simple experiment illustrates the nature of the muscularaction from which the tremolo results. "Set" the muscles of the arm bycontracting the biceps and triceps with the utmost possible strength. With the arm in this stiffened condition flex and extend the forearmslowly several times. You will notice a pronounced trembling of the arm. Why a condition of muscular stiffness should cause the affected memberto tremble is not well understood. But the fact admits of no question. It is highly probable that the tremolo is caused by a trembling of thevocal organs, due to muscular stiffness. The tones of a voice afflictedwith tremolo always give evidence of extreme throat tension. 

Another bad result of throat stiffness in tone-production is seen in thematter of intonation. Tones produced with a stiff throat are seldom inperfect tune. This subject will be more fully treated in a laterchapter. 

_Effects of Muscular Stiffness on the Throat_

Many of the muscles of the vocal organs, particularly the laryngealmuscles, are extremely small and delicate. Under normal conditions thesemuscles are fully capable of exerting the relatively small amount ofstrength required of them without strain or injury. But when the voiceis used in a stiffened condition the delicate muscles of the larynx areobliged to contract with much more than their normal strength. To borrowan expression of the engineers, the throat muscles are then forced tocarry an excessive load. 

A balanced contraction of antagonist groups of muscles is the muscularbasis of throat stiffness. When the voice is used in this condition eachmuscle of the vocal organs must put forth the amount of effort necessaryto produce the desired effect under normal conditions, in addition to aneffort equal to the counterbalancing pull of its antagonist muscle. Anincrease in the degree of throat stiffness demands a correspondingincrease in the effort exerted by every muscle of the throat. 

Over-exertion of muscles always results in strain and injury. The extentof the injury to the muscular tissues varies with the degree ofexcessive exertion and with the duration of the injurious exercise. Anadvanced stage of muscular strain is distinctly a pathologicalcondition. 

Tone-production in a state of throat stiffness is of necessity injuriousto the muscles of the vocal organs. The delicate laryngeal muscles arespecially subject to the injurious effects of strain. These effects varyin extent and character, according to the degree of throat stiffness, tothe extent and duration of the faulty use of the voice, and to theindividual characteristics of the singer. A very slight degree of unduetension may not sensibly injure the voice. Even a fairly markedcondition of tension, such as is evidenced by the uniformly throatyquality of many baritones and mezzo-sopranos, may be persisted in foryears without perceptibly straining the throat or destroying the musicalvalue of the voice. But a misuse of the voice is bound, in the course oftime, to show its injurious results on the throat. How many promisingyoung singers are forced to abandon their careers in early life, at thetime when their artistic and dramatic powers are just ripening tofruition! A misused voice "wears out" years before its time. 

Most of the throat troubles of singers are directly caused by throatstiffness and muscular strain. Dr. Mills, among others, touches on thisfact. "All the author's experience as a laryngologist tended to convincehim that most of those evils from which speakers and singers suffer, whatever the part of the vocal mechanism affected, arise from faultymethods of voice production, or excess in the use of methods inthemselves correct. " (_Voice Production in Singing and Speaking_, Phila. , 1906. )

For the purposes of artistic singing, a voice loses all its value whenthe injurious effects of throat stiffness become very pronounced. Onthis account singers are obliged to give up appearing in public beforethe condition reaches the extreme. It follows therefore that only in thecase of public speakers do we see the extreme results of persistence inthe wrong use of the voice. "Clergyman's sore throat" is the nameusually applied to this condition. The sustained use of the voice, underconditions of extreme strain, is exceedingly painful both to the speakerand to the hearer. 

Singers are usually unconscious of throat stiffness unless the conditionbe very pronounced. Neither the sense of hearing nor the muscular senseinforms the singer of the state of tension. Accustomed to the sound ofhis own voice, the singer may be unaware of a throaty or nasal qualitywhich he would instantly detect in another voice. This is also true ofthe muscular sensations of tone-production; habit makes the singerinattentive to the sensations caused by throat tension. 

Throat stiffness always tends to become greater in degree; it is aself-aggravating condition. Even though very slight in its beginnings, the state of stiffness obliges the singer to put forth more than thenormal effort in order to secure the desired effects. This increase ofinnervation is not confined to the muscles which need to be morestrongly contracted. As Prof. Scripture points out, it also extends tothe associated and antagonist muscles, that is, to all the muscles ofthe throat. Thus the stiffness is increased in degree. Still greaterexertion is then required, resulting in still greater stiffness. Thismay go on for years, the voice gradually becoming less responsive to thedemands of the singer. 

Individual personal characteristics are an important factor indetermining a singer's experience with throat stiffness. Some singersare so fortunately constituted as to be almost entirely free from thetendency to stiffen the throat. Others detect the tendency in itsbeginning and find no difficulty in correcting it. Still othershabituate themselves to some manner of tone-production, and neitherincrease nor diminish the degree of stiffness. Even under modern methodsof instruction, many artists are correctly trained from the start and sonever stiffen their throats in any way. 

Several traits of character are concerned in determining the individualtendency to throat stiffness. Nervous temperament, keenness of ear, artistic and musical endowment, each has its influence in thisconnection. 

The great prevalence of throat stiffness among present-day singers isdue primarily to the idea of mechanical vocal management as the basisof instruction in singing. Not only are modern methods intrinsicallyworthless, in that a correct use of the voice cannot be attained by theapplication of mechanical rules. Worse than this, the means used fortraining the voice are such as to defeat their own purpose. At everyinstant of instruction the student's attention is expressly turned tothe vocal organs and to the mechanical operations of the voice. The onlypossible result of this kind of vocal instruction is to stiffen thethroat and so to render the correct vocal action an impossibility. 

A peculiar contradiction is presented by the modern vocal teacher; hisartistic conception of singing is utterly at variance with his ideas ofmechanical tone-production. It may safely be said that the vast majorityof vocal teachers are thoroughly conversant with the highest standardsof artistic singing. They know what effects their pupils ought toobtain. But the means they use for enabling the pupils to get theseeffects have exactly the contrary result. When the student tries to openthe throat this obstinate organ only closes the tighter. Attempting tocorrect a tremolo by "holding the throat steady" causes the throat totremble all the more. 

Modern voice culture, in its practical aspect, is a struggle with throatstiffness. Everything the student does, for the purpose of acquiringdirect command of the voice, has some influence in causing the throat tostiffen. Telling the student to hold the throat relaxed seldom effects acure; this direction includes a primary cause of tension, --the turningof attention to the throat. All the teacher can do to counteract thestiffening influence is to give relaxing exercises. These are in mostcases efficacious so long as constructive instruction is abandoned, andthe relaxing of the throat is made the sole purpose of study. But soonafter positive instruction is resumed the tendency to stiffen reappears. As lesson follows after lesson, the stiffness becomes gradually, imperceptibly more pronounced. At length the time again comes forrelaxing exercises. 

A single repetition of this process, relaxing the throat and thenstiffening it again, may extend over several months of study. Duringthis time the student naturally learns a great deal about music and theartistic side of singing, and also improves the keenness of the senseof hearing. This artistic development is necessarily reflected in thevoice so soon as the throat is again relaxed. 

It usually happens that students change teachers about the time thevoice has become unmanageably stiff. In this condition the student, ofcourse, sings rather badly. A marked improvement in the singinggenerally results from the change of teachers. This is easy tounderstand because the new teacher devotes his first efforts to relaxingthe stiffened throat. Later on this improvement is very likely to belost, for the second teacher has nothing more of a positive nature tooffer than the first. 

Vocal teachers in general seem to be aware of the fact that mechanicalinstruction causes the student's throat to stiffen. A much-debatedquestion is whether "local effort" is needed to bring about the correctvocal action. The term local effort is used to describe the directinnervation of the throat muscles. A logical application of themechanical idea absolutely demands the use of local effort. This is themain argument of the local-effort teachers. 

Those teachers who discountenance local effort have only their ownexperience to guide them. They simply know that local effort results inthroat stiffness. Yet these teachers have nothing to offer in place ofthe mechanical management of the vocal organs. Even though aware of theevil results of local effort, they yet know of no other means ofimparting the correct vocal action. The weakness of the position ofthese teachers is well summed up by a writer in _Werner's Magazine_ forJune, 1899: "To teach without local effort or local thought is to teachin the dark. Every exponent of the non-local-effort theory contradictshis theory every time he tells of it. " To that extent this writer statesthe case correctly. Every modern vocal teacher believes that the voicemust be consciously guided in its muscular operations. Until thiserroneous belief is abandoned it is idle for a teacher to decry the useof local effort. 

CHAPTER IV

THE TRUE MEANING OF VOCAL TRAINING

In all scientific treatises on the voice it is assumed that the voicehas some specifically correct mode of operation. Training the voice issupposed to involve the leading of the vocal organs to abandon theirnatural and instinctive manner of operating, and to adopt some otherform of activity. Further, the assumption is made that the student ofsinging must cause the vocal organs to adopt a supposedly correct mannerof operating by paying direct attention to the mechanical movements oftone-production. Both these assumptions are utterly mistaken. Onscientific analysis no difference is seen between the right and thewrong vocal action, such as is assumed in the accepted Vocal Science. Psychological principles do not countenance the idea of mechanical vocalmanagement. 

Yet the fact remains, as a matter of empirical observation, that thereis a marked difference between the natural voice and the correctlytrained voice. What change takes place in the voice as a result ofcorrect training?

Singing is a natural function of the vocal organs. Learning to singartistically does not involve a departure from natural and instinctiveprocesses. The training of the voice consists of the acquirement ofskill in the use of the vocal organs, and of nothing more. 

Under normal conditions the vocal organs instinctively adjustthemselves, by performing the necessary muscular contractions, tofulfill the demands of the ear. In order that a perfect musical tone beproduced it is necessary in the first place that the ear be keen andwell trained; only such an ear can know the exact sound of a perfecttone, and so demand it of the voice. Second, the vocal organs must makerepeated efforts to produce the perfect tone, each response approachingnearer to the mentally-conceived tone. Two elements are thereforeinvolved in the training of the voice; first, the cultivation of thesense of hearing; second, the acquirement of skill in the use of thevoice by the actual practice of singing. 

Practical vocal teachers generally recognize the importance of boththese elements of Voice Culture. Only in one way do they fall short offully realizing the value of ear training and of practice guided by theear;--they do not see that these two topics sum up the whole material ofvocal training. Unfortunately, the search after some imaginary means ofdirect vocal management destroys, in all modern methods, most of thevalue of the real elements of voice culture. 

A few citations from standard writers on the voice will show theestimation in which ear-training is held. To begin with, the old Italianmasters were fully alive to the necessity of cultivating the sense ofhearing, as witness Tosi: "One who has not a good ear should notundertake either to instruct or to sing. " This writer also says in thechapter headed "Observations for a student": "Let him hear as much as hecan the most celebrated singers, and likewise the most excellentinstrumental performers; because from the attention in hearing them onereaps more advantage than from any instruction whatsoever. "

Another early writer on the voice, the celebrated Adolph Bernhard Marx, speaks of the advantage derived from the attentive listening to voices:"An important influence is exerted by the frequent attentive hearing ofgood voices. Through this an idea of good tone is strengthened, whichgains an influence on the use and also on the training of the organs, not perhaps immediate, but clearly seen in its results. " (_Die Kunst desGesanges_, Berlin, 1826. )

Among modern writers only a few need be mentioned. D. Frangçon-Daviesremarks: "The training of the ear is one half of the training of thevoice. " (_The Singing of the Future. _) Clara Kathleen Rogers is evenmore emphatic in her statement: "Not to exercise our sense of hearing isto rob it gradually of the habit of acting at all; whereas, if we keepit in exercise, it will daily grow readier, finer, more acute, moreanalytical, and the ear will serve as an ever more effective medium ofreaction on the will. " The following remark of the same writer pointsunmistakably to an understanding of the evil results of the attempt tosing mechanically: "If the singer's attention is directed to any part ofthe vocal instrument, or even to its motor, the breath, his sense ofsound, and his perception of either the beautiful or the bad elementsin sound, will grow fainter and fainter. " (_The Physiology of Singing. _)

As for the purpose of cultivating the sense of hearing, this is alsopointed out by several prominent vocal theorists. One of the latestexponents of the traditional method of instruction was Stéphen de laMadelaine, who remarks: "The first need of the voice is to be guided inits exercise by an ear capable of appreciating naturally its leastdeviation. " (_Théorie complète du Chant_, Paris, 1852. )

One of the most recent authoritative writers on voice culture, Dr. Mills, speaks at length of the necessity of guiding the voice by thesense of hearing. "We cannot too much insist on both speaker and singerattending to forming a connection between his ear and his mouth cavity. He is to hear that he may produce good tones, and the tones cannot becorrectly formed if they be not well observed. To listen to one's selfcarefully and constantly is a most valuable but little practised art. The student should listen as an inexorable critic, accepting only thebest from himself. " Dr. Mills touches on the psychological features ofthe connection between voice and ear. "There can be no doubt that thenervous impulses that pass from the ear to the brain are of all sensorymessages the most important guides for the outgoing ones that determinethe necessary movements. " Summing up the matter of ear-training andvocal guidance Dr. Mills says: "The author would impress on all studentsof music, and of the voice as used in both singing and speaking, theparamount importance of learning early to listen most attentively toothers when executing music; and above all to listen with the greatestcare to themselves, and never to accept any musical tone that does notfully satisfy the ear. " (_Voice Production in Singing and Speaking_, 1906. )

One more citation from Mrs. Rogers must suffice. "And now, inconclusion, let me once more remind the singer that in practising theseand all other vocal exercises the ear is the only safe guide. "

Given a fine natural voice and a trained musical ear, skill is acquiredin the use of the voice by the repetition of effort. The only necessityis for the singer to have a clear mental conception of the effects tobe obtained, and to listen attentively to the voice. With eachrepetition of an exercise, whether on sustained tones, scale passages, crescendo and diminuendo, or whatever else, the voice responds moresmoothly and accurately to the mental demand. Each time the studentpractises the exercise he listens to the tones and notes how they differfrom the desired effect; he strives the next time to correct thisdeparture. 

Psychological principles verify the proverb that practice makes perfect. This is true of all complex activities. Through repeated performance themuscles, or rather the motor-nerve centers, become habituated to complexactivities. Coördinations gradually become perfect and automatic becausethe nerve impulses naturally tend to take the well-worn paths. To thisrule the voice is no exception. Practice makes perfect, with the voice, as with every other muscular activity. 

In practical Voice Culture the ear and the voice are normally trainedtogether. The proper function of the teacher is to guide the student indeveloping along the two lines. Listening to his own voice is a valuablemeans for the student to develop his sense of hearing. It is for themaster to point out the salient qualities and faults in the pupil'stones in order that the pupil may know what to listen for. As the eargradually becomes keener and better acquainted with the characteristicsof perfect singing, it also becomes more exacting in its demands on thevoice. In its turn the voice steadily improves in its responsiveness tothe ear. 

Skill in using the voice involves something more than has thus far beenconsidered under the head of tone-production. Skill in singing issynonymous with finished vocal technique, and the basis of technique isthe correctly produced single tone. It is seen that a single tone can besung correctly when, first, the singer knows the sound of the perfectmusical tone, and second, the vocal organs are not hampered by muscularstiffness. When these conditions are fulfilled nothing but practice isneeded for the acquirement of technical skill. 

Coloratura singing presents the highest development of vocal technique. Dazzling as the effects of coloratura are, they are obtained by thecombination of a few simple elements. Perfect command of the single tonethroughout the entire compass of the voice, with accurately gradedcrescendo and diminuendo, the clear, rapid, and accurate transition fromone note to another in the varying degrees of staccato andlegato, --these elements include the whole physical material of vocaltechnique. 

Training the voice is one concrete process. Its component features maybe considered separately; the cultivation of the sense of hearing, theacquirement of command of the single tone, and the development oftechnical skill, --each may be considered apart from its companionprocesses. But in actual practice the three elements of Voice Culturecannot be dissociated. The student of singing progresses simultaneouslyalong all three lines. Intelligently directed practice in singingresults in this simultaneous progress. As the voice depends for guidanceon the ear, so the ear benefits by the improvement of the voice. Eachadvance made by the voice toward the perfect production of tone ismarked by a greater facility in the technical use of the voice. Correcttone-production cannot be directly acquired by the singing of singletones. This practice would tend to stiffen the throat. Technique andtone-production must be developed together. 

There is a difference between the natural and the properly trainedvoice. As to the nature of this difference the facts of empiricalobservation are borne out by the results of scientific analysis. Thenatural voice is crude because it is unskilfully used. A lack offacility is revealed in the untrained singer's handling of the voice. Intonations are imperfect; transitions from note to note are rough; thewhole effect indicates that the voice is not completely under thecommand of the singer. Further, the sound of the individual tonesbetrays faults of production. The tones are more or less throaty ornasal, or indicative of some degree of muscular tension. 

A perfectly used voice, on the other hand, convinces the hearer that thesinger has full command of all the resources of the vocal organs. Eachtone is a perfect musical sound, free from fault or blemish. The voicemoves from one note to another with ease and with purity of intonation. All the gradations of loud and soft, all the lights and shades ofsentiment or passion, seem to respond directly to the singer'sinstinctive desire for musical expression. On the physical side thesinger's voice is felt by the hearer to be in a condition of balancedand harmonious muscular activity. 

When the possessor of a good natural voice goes through a proper courseof vocal training, the faults of production native to the untrainedvoice are gradually corrected. Wrong muscular tension is imperceptiblyrelaxed. Little by little the student acquires facility in handling thevoice. Coincident with this progress is the advance toward the correctvocal action. The transition from the natural to the perfect use of thevoice is gradual and imperceptible. There is no stage of progress atwhich the operations of the voice radically change in character. At notime does the student change the manner of managing the voice. Effectsdifficult at first gradually become easier, simply as the result ofpractice. This is the only change that the voice undergoes in training. 

One influence, and only one, can interfere with this normal developmentof the voice. This is the involuntary and unconscious stiffening of thethroat. In the normal practice of singing nothing is involved whichcould cause the throat to stiffen. True, the first stages of study areusually marked by a slight degree of stiffness, due solely to the lackof practice and experience. This initial stiffness does not tend tobecome habitual; it disappears before the student becomes aware of it, and leaves no permanent trace on the voice. That is, provided mechanicalinstruction does not intervene, to introduce the tendency directly tostiffen the throat. 

As the initial stiffness disappears, and the vocal action graduallybecomes smooth and automatic, the voice begins to take on thecharacteristics of perfect tone-production. The voice rounds out, thetones become free and true, and in perfect tune. No excessive throattension being present, the voice conforms to the correct empiricalstandard of tone-production. It gives evidence to the ear of correctsupport and of open throat. The tones issue freely from the mouth andconvey no impression of throat or nose. 

As a matter of experience it is known that vocal students generally makesatisfactory progress in the first few months of study. This isperfectly natural. It requires several months for the normallyconstituted student to grasp the idea of mechanical vocal management. Gifted with a fine voice, the natural impulse of any one is to sing. Bysinging naturally the voice is bound to improve. 

Just so soon as the student begins to understand the meaning ofattempted mechanical guidance of the voice, the evil effects of throatstiffness begin to be manifest. The more earnest and intelligentstudents are often the worst sufferers from throat stiffness. They morereadily grasp the mechanical doctrines of modern methods and apply themechanical idea more thoroughly. 

There is in reality no problem of tone-production such as the acceptedtheory of Voice Culture propounds. The voice does not require to betaught how to act. Tone-production was never thought to involve anymechanical problem until the attention of vocalists was turned to themechanical operations of the voice. This dates, roughly speaking, fromabout 1800. Since that time the whole tendency of Voice Culture has beenmechanical. Nowadays the entire musical world is acquainted with theidea that the voice must be directly guided; hardly any one has everheard this belief contradicted. To say that the voice needs no guidanceother than the ear would seem utterly preposterous to the average loverof singing. It is even highly probable that this statement would not beunderstood. Yet there is strong evidence that the old Italian masterswould have had equal difficulty in grasping the idea of mechanical vocalmanagement. How long it will take for the vocal profession to bepersuaded of the error of the mechanical idea only the future candetermine. 

Probably the most important fact about vocal training is the following:The voice is benefited by producing beautiful tones, and is injured byproducing harsh sounds. A tone of perfect beauty can be sung only whenthe vocal organs are free from unnecessary tension. The nearer the tonesapproach to the perfection of beauty, the closer does the voice come tothe correct action. Healthy exercise of the voice, with the throat freefrom strain, strengthens and develops the throat muscles. Harsh andunmusical sounds, produced by the voice, indicate that the throat is ina condition of injurious tension. Singing under these circumstancesstrains and weakens the muscles of the throat and injures the voice. The harsher the tones the worse they are for the voice. 

Beauty of tone is the only criterion of the correct vocal action. Bylistening to himself the singer may know whether his tone-production iscorrect. If the tones are beautiful the tone-production cannot be wrong. The ear must always decide. A normally constituted ear instinctivelydelights in hearing beautiful sounds. While attentive listening rendersthe ear more keen and discriminating, no vocal student of average giftsneed be told the meaning of tonal beauty. 

Instinct prompts the possessor of a fine natural voice and a musical earto sing, and to sing beautiful tones. No normally constituted studentcan take pleasure in the practice of mechanical exercises. This form ofstudy is repugnant to the musical sensibility. Vocal students want tosing; they feel instinctively that the practice of mechanical exercisesis not singing. A prominent exponent of mechanical instructioncomplains: "I tell them to take breathing exercises three times aday--but they all want to go right to singing songs. " (_Werner'sMagazine_, April, 1899. ) These students are perfectly right. They knowinstinctively that the voice can be trained only by singing. There is noconnection between artistic singing and the practice of tonelessbreathing exercises. "Five finger drills" and studies in broken scalesof the types generally used are also utterly unmusical. Mechanicaldrills, whether toneless or vocal, have little effect other than toinduce throat stiffness. 

CHAPTER V

IMITATION THE RATIONAL BASIS OF VOICE CULTURE

It is generally assumed by vocal theorists that the voice cannot betrained by imitation. Browne and Behnke state this belief definitely:"Singing cannot be learned exclusively by imitation. " (_Voice, Song, andSpeech. _) Having ascertained the futility of the attempt to teachsinging mechanically, it is now in order to determine the truth orfalsity of the statement that the exercise of the imitative facultyalone does not suffice for the training of the voice. 

In the first place, no one has ever thought of questioning the existenceof an instinct of vocal imitation. On the contrary, this instinct iseverywhere recognized. In childhood we learn to speak our mother tongueby imitating the speech of those about us. "Talking proper does not setin till the instinct to _imitate sounds_ ripens in the nervous system. "(_The Principles of Psychology_, Wm. James, New York, 1890. )

Vocal imitation would be impossible without the ability of the voice toproduce sounds in obedience to the commands of the ear. This ability thevoice normally possesses; spoken language could not otherwise exist. Thevoice can imitate a wide range of sounds. If the perfect vocal tone canbe shown to be included in this range of sounds, then the voice can betrained by imitation. 

Exceptional powers of vocal imitation are sometimes developed. Vaudeville performers are by no means rare who can imitate the tones ofthe oboe, the clarinet, the muted trumpet, and several otherinstruments. Imitation of the notes and songs of birds is also afamiliar type of performance. This peculiar gift of imitation results ineach case from some special structure of the vocal organs. One performercan imitate the reed instruments, another the lighter brasses, and soon. Just what peculiar formation of the vocal organs is required forthis type of imitative ability need not be inquired here. All that needbe noted is, that the vocal organs must be so constructed as to be ableto produce the particular quality of sound. Given this natural abilityon the part of the vocal organs, the power to produce the tone qualityis developed by repeated attempts at imitation. The possessor of thenatural gift perfects this gift by practice. For practice in theimitation of sounds to be effective it is necessary that the ear be wellacquainted with the tone quality to be reproduced. In addition, thepractice must be guided by the performer listening closely to the soundsproduced by the vocal organs, and constantly comparing these sounds tothe tones of the instrument chosen for imitation. 

This vocal imitation of instruments is not a normal ability; the tonesof the oboe and trumpet do not lie within the range of qualities nativeto the normal voice. But the quality of the perfect vocal tone isunquestionably within the range of every voice so constituted as to becapable of artistic singing. A fine natural voice normally producesbeautiful tones. It is only with this type of voice that Voice Cultureis concerned. Such a voice must be capable of producing the perfectvocal tone. Can it learn to produce this quality of tone by imitation?

It cannot be questioned that the faulty tones of one voice can readilybe imitated by another voice. Any one endowed with normal powers ofspeech can imitate a markedly nasal speaking voice. This is equally trueof a nasal tone in singing, and of a strongly throaty tone as well. Themore marked the fault of production the more readily it is heard and themore easily it can be imitated. 

Let us imagine the case of a vocal teacher who undertakes to teach agifted pupil by having the pupil imitate tones of faulty production, andgradually correcting the faults in the tones sung as a model for thepupil. The master is of course understood to have perfect command of hisown voice. Suppose this master to begin the course of instruction bysinging for the pupil tones of exaggerated throaty quality, and biddingthe pupil to imitate these tones. Naturally, the pupil would have nodifficulty in doing so. At the next lesson the master would veryslightly improve the quality of the tones sung as a model for thepupil's imitation. The student would listen to these tones and model hisdaily practice accordingly. Just so soon as the student had succeeded incorrectly reproducing this slightly less throaty tone the master wouldagain set a slightly improved model. 

With each successive step the master might eliminate, one by one, thefaults of his own tone-production. Following the same course, the pupilwould also gradually approach a correct model of tone. Finally, all thefaults of tone-production having been corrected, both of master andpupil, the latter would be called upon to imitate perfect vocal tones. It would necessarily follow either that the student would successfullyimitate the master's perfect tones or that at some point in thisprogress the student's imitative faculty would be found lacking. 

Could any point be located at which the student would be unable toimitate the teacher's voice? This could certainly not be in the earlystages of the course. Any one can imitate a very bad throaty or nasaltone. This being done, the imitation of a slightly less faulty tonewould also present no difficulty. A second improvement in the master'smodel tone would again be readily imitated, and so on, with eachsucceeding correction of the faults of production. When the last traceof faulty production in the student's voice had been eliminated, hewould be singing perfect tones. It is utterly impossible to define apoint in this progress at which the pupil would be unable to imitate theteacher's voice. If a bad fault of production can be imitated, so can acomparatively slight fault. Further, if the pupil can correct hispronounced faulty production by imitating a tone not quite so faulty, socan he improve upon this tone by imitating a still better model ofproduction. This process of gradual improvement by imitation must becapable of continuation until the last fault is eliminated. No limit canbe set to the ability of the voice to improve its manner oftone-production by imitation. It must therefore be concluded that theperfect vocal action can be acquired by imitation. 

In practical Voice Culture, learning to sing by imitation means simplythe cultivation of the sense of hearing and the guidance of the voice bythe ear. In other words, those vocal theorists who insist upon eartraining commit themselves to the theory of imitative Voice Culture. What necessity is there of mechanical management of the vocal organs ifthe voice is to be guided by the ear? Even if mechanical management ofthe voice were possible it would be entirely superfluous. The voiceneeds no other guidance than the singer's sense of hearing. 

Here another striking question is encountered: Why should the vocalorgans be thought to be unable to adjust themselves for the tone qualitydemanded by the ear any more than for the pitch? No vocal theorist hasever thought to formulate rules for securing the tension of the vocalcords necessary for the desired pitch. This is always left toinstinctive processes. No one would ever undertake to question thevoice's ability to sing by imitation a note of any particular pitch. What valid reason can be given for denying the corresponding abilityregarding tone quality?

Only one answer can be made to this question. The whole matter ofmechanical vocal management rests on pure assumption. No scientificproof has ever been sought for the belief that the voice requiresmechanical management. This necessity is always assumed, but theassumption is utterly illogical. The vocal organs adjust themselves forthe imitation of tone quality by exactly the same psychologicalprocesses as for the imitation of pitch. Neither pitch nor tone qualitycan be regulated in any other way than by the guidance of the ear. 

Imitation furnishes the only means of acquiring the correct vocalaction. Several authorities on the voice admit the value of imitation, even though they also make much of the mechanical doctrines of modernmethods. Sieber gives imitation as the best means of curing faults ofproduction. "The best means to free the student of the three forms offaulty tone just described is possessed by that teacher who is able toimitate these faults with his own voice. " (_Vollständiges Lehrbuch derGesangskunst_, Ferd. Sieber, 1858. ) Dr. Mills goes further and advocatesthe imitating of finished singers for the purpose of acquiring thecorrect vocal action. "The author would recommend all students who havebegun a serious practical study of the registers to hear, if possible, some singer of eminence who observes register formation strictly. "(_Voice Production in Singing and Speaking_, Phila. , 1906. ) Kofler evendeclares that imitation is an indispensable element of instruction. "Itis just as difficult or impossible to learn to sing good tones withouthearing the teacher's pure model tone as it is difficult or impossibleto learn to speak without hearing. " (_The Art of Breathing_, Leo Kofler, 1889. )

If the correct vocal action is to be acquired by imitation, of what useare the mechanical doctrines of vocal management? Kofler seeks tocombine these two forms of instruction. "Physiological theories must gohand in hand with the musical ear or the law of imitation. "Scientifically considered, this attempted combination of mechanicalvocal training and instruction by imitation is an utter absurdity. Thereis no possibility of connection between vocal imitation and mechanicalvocal management. Reliance on the imitative faculty involves the utterrejection of the mechanical idea. Compromise, or combination of the two, is a logical absurdity. Imitation and attempted mechanical management ofthe voice are absolutely incompatible. Any attempt consciously to directthe muscular workings of the vocal organs is an interference with thenormal action of the voice. So soon as conscious mechanical managementof the voice is attempted throat stiffness results, and the voice ishampered in the exercise of its instinctive faculty of imitation. It isimpossible to acquire the correct vocal action by the application ofmechanical rules, because a consistent following of mechanical doctrinesutterly prevents the vocal organs from operating normally, even thoughthe student try at the same time to guide the voice by the sense ofhearing. 

A close scrutiny of the practices of modern vocal teachers revealsconvincing evidence that all their successes are due to a reliance, conscious or unconscious, on the imitative faculty. Teachers are as arule not aware of the appeal to the instinct of imitation; neitherindeed do the students usually pay much attention to this feature oftheir lessons. Much of modern vocal instruction is dual in character. When, for example, the teacher wishes to correct a marked fault in thepupil's tone-production, he adopts this dual mode of imparting hisideas. First, he explains to the pupil the (supposed) mechanicaloperation; second, he imitates the pupil's faulty production and thensings a correct tone to show how it should be produced. 

For the teacher to sing the correct tone takes but a few seconds andrequires almost no thought. The mechanical explanation, on the otherhand, calls for much more of time, and of voluntary attention, from bothmaster and student. It thus follows that they both look upon themechanical rule as the important matter, and consider the teacher'sperfect tone as merely an illustration of the rule. 

In most cases the student strives to apply the mechanical rule, particularly in home practice between lessons. Under these circumstancesthe voice does not respond satisfactorily. But it often happens that thestudent pays little attention to the mechanical rule, and simplyimitates the teacher's voice. There being then nothing to interfere, thestudent's voice naturally responds. The master ascribes thissatisfactory result to the application of the mechanical doctrine, whilein fact the result is due to the student's complete ignoring of thedoctrine. 

Vocal imitation is often completely unconscious. Individuals varygreatly, as regards the tendency to unconscious imitation. Of twoEnglish lads coming to America at the age of fifteen, one may be foundten years later to have entirely lost the English accent, the other mayretain it all his life. This difference in individual traits has muchto do with determining to what extent the vocal student mayunconsciously imitate correct models of singing. Other characteristicsare also influential in this regard. Some students so dislike to singmechanically that they neglect, in their home study, to practise theirexercises in the prescribed way. This is often due to an instinctiveabhorrence of harsh sounds. Other students are so gifted with the truefeeling for vocal melody that mechanical instruction makes no impressionon them. 

As a general rule, the reliance on the imitative faculty in modern vocalinstruction is entirely unconscious on the part of both master andpupil. Adherence to the mechanical idea excludes from the student's mindall thought of any means of vocal guidance other than mechanical. Thisis true, even in the most common form of instruction, imitation andmechanical doctrine combined. As regards the master, his only consciousexercise of the imitative faculty is the reproduction of the pupil'sfaulty tones. He seldom thinks of telling the pupil to imitate his owncorrectly produced tones. 

Imitation supplies the only practical means for training voices. All theelements of Voice Culture are combined in one simple process, when themaster sings correctly, and the student imitates the master. Thisexercise of the imitative faculty may be made to suffice for both thetraining of the ear and the cultivation of the voice. On practical, aswell as on scientific grounds, imitation is the only rational basis of amethod of Voice Culture. 

CHAPTER VI

THE OLD ITALIAN METHOD

To the believer in the necessity of direct mechanical management of thevoice, the old Italian method is a complete mystery. Modern vocaltheorists are at a loss to account for the success of the old masters intraining voices. Many authorities go so far as to assert that thesemasters possessed some insight into the operations of the vocal organs, along the lines of accepted Vocal Science. In their introductorychapter, "A Plea for Vocal Physiology, " Browne and Behnke attempt toprove that the old masters studied the anatomy of the vocal organs. Buteven if this could be proved, that would not solve the mystery of theold method. Modern teachers are certainly as well acquainted with themechanical features of tone-production as the old masters were. Yet, judged by their results, modern methods are distinctly inferior to theold Italian method. 

There is absolutely no ground for the belief that the old masters owedtheir success to a knowledge of vocal physiology. This idea of ascribingscientific knowledge to the early teachers results only from erroneousbelief that no other means of training the voice is possible. It may beset down as absolutely certain that the old method was not based on theprinciples of the accepted Vocal Science. 

Yet the old masters undoubtedly possessed some means of training voices. They must have known something about the voice. Their knowledge, whatever it was, is commonly believed to have been lost. Many modernteachers claim to have inherited the old method. Still these teachershave nothing to offer beyond the well-known doctrines of breathing, breath-control, forward tone, etc. How these doctrines might have beenapplied in practical instruction nobody is able to tell. Littleattention need be paid to the claim of any modern teacher to possess theold Italian method of training voices. 

So early as 1847 Garcia remarked the dearth of information of a literarycharacter bearing on the old method. "Unfortunately this epoch has leftus only vague and incomplete documents bearing on its traditions. Of themethods then followed we have only an approximate and confused idea. "(_École de Garcia_, Mayence, 1847. ) Although familiar with the works ofTosi and Mancini, Garcia was unable to find in their writings any hintof the means used for imparting the correct vocal action. This sameremark is made by many other investigators. 

Yet a reconstruction of the old method is not necessarily a matter ofconjecture. Once the possibility of training the voice by imitation isestablished, the old Italian method is easily understood. Speaking ofthe glorious past of the art of Voice Culture, Dr. Mills says: "We haveadvanced, musically, in many respects since the days of the old Italianmasters, but just as we must turn to the Greeks to learn whatconstitutes the highest and best in sculpture, so must we sit at thefeet of these old masters. Consciously or unconsciously they taught onsound physiological principles. " (_Voice Production in Singing andSpeaking. _)

Dr. Mills' statement might be more complete if it were made to read, "consciously or unconsciously they taught on sound physiological andpsychological principles. " Vocal instruction on sound principles issimply the training of the voice by imitation. With the scientific basisof their method--the laws of physiological psychology--the old masterswere utterly unacquainted. Vocal imitation is purely instinctive. Probably the old masters could not even have formulated a concisestatement of their reasons for relying on the imitative faculty. 

Garcia's complaint of the dearth of literary information regarding theold method is by no means justified. Naturally there is no record of anymeans for imparting a direct mechanical management of the voice. Nothingof the kind was thought of. But as a description of a course in voicetraining by imitation, the works of Tosi and Mancini leave little to bedesired. 

Both Tosi and Mancini devote by far the greater portion of their booksto describing the ornaments and embellishments of vocal music. They takeup the singer's education from the beginning and seem to assume, as amatter of course, that the training in the art of music is coincident, if not indeed identical, with the cultivation of the voice. But they donot by any means neglect the subject of tone-production. Most modernreaders of these early writers overlook the simple directions given forsecuring a proper use of the voice. This is, of course, due to thecurrent belief that directions for vocal management must of necessitydeal with mechanical and muscular operations. Finding nothing of thiskind in Tosi and Mancini, the modern investigator concludes that thesewriters for some reason failed to record the means used for impartingthe correct vocal action. All that can be found by such an investigatorin the works of Tosi and Mancini is an outline of an elaborate system ofcoloratura singing. Much more is seen when the meaning of imitativeVoice Culture is understood. 

Let us consider first the "Observations" of Tosi. This writer devoteshis first few pages to some remarks on the art of singing, and to ageneral consideration of the practices of Voice Culture. Almost at theoutset we meet this striking statement: "It would be needless to saythat verbal instruction would be of no use to singers any farther thanto prevent 'em falling into errors, and that it is practice alone canset them right. " That is certainly a sound principle. 

Consider also this passage. "The faults in singing insinuate themselvesso easily into the minds of young beginners, and there are suchdifficulties in correcting them, when grown into an habit, that it wereto be wished the ablest singers would undertake the task of teaching, they best knowing how to conduct the scholar from the first elements toperfection. But there being none (if I mistake not) but who abhor thethoughts of it, we must reserve them for those delicacies of the art, which enchant the soul. Therefore the first rudiments necessarily fallto a master of a lower rank, till the scholar can sing his part atsight; whom one would at least wish to be an honest man, diligent andexperienced, without the defects of singing through the nose, or in thethroat, and that he have a command of voice, some glimpse of a goodtaste, able to make himself understood with ease, a perfect intonation, and a patience to endure the fatigue of a most tiresome employment. "

This brings out three striking facts. First, that the student learned touse his voice by imitating the voice of the master. Second, that theinitial work of "voice placing" was merely an incident in the trainingin sight singing and the rudiments of music. Third, that "voice placing"was considered of too little importance to claim the attention ofmasters of the first rank. This feature of instruction, so important nowas to overshadow all else, was at that time left to masters of a lowerrank. 

This passage is followed by a short discourse on the rudiments of _SolFa_, a subject of only academic interest to the modern student. We areso thoroughly accustomed nowadays to the diatonic scale that it isalmost impossible for us to understand the old system of _Muance_ or_Solmisation_. Suffice it to say that only four keys were known, andthat each note was called by its full Sol-Fa name. Thus D was called_D-la-sol-re_, C was _C-sol-fa-ut_, etc. In studying sight singing, thestudent pronounced the full name of each note in every exercise. Instruction in singing began with this study of sight reading. In thecourse of this practice the student somehow learned to produce his voicecorrectly. 

Tosi does not leave us in doubt what was to be done in order to leadthe pupil to adopt a correct manner of tone-production. "Let the masterdo his utmost to make the scholar hit and sound the notes perfectly intune in _Sol-Fa-ing_. .. . Let the master attend with great care to thevoice of the scholar, which should always come forth neat and clear, without passing through the nose or being choaked in the throat. " Tosing in tune and to produce tones of good quality, --this summed up forTosi the whole matter of tone-production. 

Many teachers in the old days composed _Sol-Fa_ exercises and vocalisesfor their own use. Tosi did not think this indispensable. But he pointsout the need of the teacher having an extensive repertoire of gradedexercises and vocalises. To his mind these should always be melodiousand singable. "If the master does not understand composition let himprovide himself with good examples of _Sol-Fa-ing_ in divers stiles, which insensibly lead from the most easy to the most difficult, according as he finds the scholar improves; with this caution, thathowever difficult, they may be always natural and agreeable, to inducethe scholar to study with pleasure. "

How many months of study were supposed to be required for thispreliminary course we have no means of judging from Tosi's work. At anyrate the combining of the registers was accomplished during this time. Tosi's description of the registers is very concise. "_Voce di Petto_ isa full voice which comes from the breast by strength, and is the mostsonorous and expressive. _Voce di Testa_ comes more from the throat thanfrom the breast, and is capable of more volubility. _Falsetto_ is afeigned voice which is formed entirely in the throat, has morevolubility than any, but of no substance. " He speaks of the necessity ofuniting the registers, but gives no directions how this is to beaccomplished. Evidently this seemed to him to present no difficultywhatever. 

In this early period of instruction the pupil was exercised in both_portamento_ and _messa di voce_. "Let him learn the manner to glidewith the vowels, and to drag the voice gently from the high to the lowernote. .. . In the same lessons let him teach the art to put forth thevoice, which consists in letting it swell by degrees from the softest_Piano_ to the loudest _Forte_, and from thence with the same art returnfrom the _Forte_ to the _Piano_. A beautiful _Messa di Voce_ can neverfail of having an excellent effect. "

Only the first chapter of Tosi's book is devoted to this initial study. That the student was expected to make steady progress as a result ofthis study is evident from the closing sentence of this chapter. "Thescholar having now made some remarkable progress, the instructor mayacquaint him with the first embellishments of the art, which are the_Appoggiaturas_, and apply them to the vowels. " The remainder of thework is devoted almost entirely to the embellishments of singing. Hereand there an interesting passage is found. "After the scholar has madehimself perfect in the Shake and the Divisions, the master should lethim read and pronounce the words. " (Shake was the old name for trill, and division for run. ) Again, "I return to the master only to put him inmind that his duty is to teach musick; and if the scholar, before hegets out of his hands, does not sing readily and at sight, the innocentis injured without remedy from the guilty. " This injunction might wellbe taken to heart by the modern teacher. Good sight readers are rarenowadays, outside of chorus choirs. 

Mancini begins his outline of the course of instruction in singing withthis striking sentence: "Nothing is more insufferable and moreinexcusable in a musician than wrong intonation; singing in the throator in the nose will certainly be tolerated rather than singing out oftune. " This is followed by the advice to the teacher to ascertain beyonda doubt that a prospective pupil is endowed with a true musical ear. This being done the pupil is to begin his studies by _sol-fa_-ing thescales. "Having determined the disposition and capacity of the studentwith respect to intonation, and finding him able and disposed tosucceed, let him fortify himself in correct intonation by _sol-fa_-ingthe scale, ascending and descending. This must be executed withscrupulous attention in order that the notes may be perfectly intoned. "

In this practice the quality of the tone is of the highest importance. "The utmost care is necessary with the student to render him able tomanage this portion of his voice with the proper sweetness andproportion. " Mancini takes it for granted that the student will progresssteadily on account of this practice. "When the teacher observes thatthe pupil is sufficiently free in delivering the voice, in intonation, and in naming the notes, let him waste no time, but have the pupilvocalize without delay. "

Regarding the registers, Mancini disagrees with Tosi and names only two. "Voices ordinarily divide themselves into two registers which arecalled, one of the chest, the other of the head, or falsetto. " Hismethod was to exercise the voice at first in the chest register, andthen gradually to extend the compass of the voice upward. "Every studentcan for himself with perfect ease recognize the difference between thesetwo separate registers. It will suffice therefore to commence by singingthe scale, for example, if a soprano, from G to d;[10] let him take carethat these five notes are sonorous, and say them with force andclearness, and without effort. " For uniting the registers, "the mostcertain means is to hold back the tones of the chest and to sing thetransition notes in the head register, increasing the power little bylittle. "

[Note 10: Mancini of course uses the _Sol-Fa_ names of these notes. ]

Mancini devotes a few pages to a description of the vocal organs. Thisfact is cited by several modern theorists in support of their statementthat the old masters based their methods on mechanical principles. Inthe following chapter this topic of Mancini's treatise will beconsidered. 

Probably the best summary of the old Italian method offered by anymodern teacher is contained in a little booklet by J. Frank Botume, entitled _Modern Singing Methods_. (Boston, 1885. The citations are fromthe fourth edition, 1896. ) Speaking of the meaning of the word method, as applied to a system of rules for acquiring the correct vocal action, this writer says: "If a teacher says, 'that tone is harsh, sing moresweetly, ' he has given no method to his pupil. He has asked the scholarto change his tone, but has not shown him how to do it. If, on the otherhand, he directs the pupil to keep back the pressure of the breath, orto change the location of the tone; if he instructs him in regard to thecorrect use of his vocal cords, or speaks of the position of his tongue, of his diaphragm, of his mouth, etc. , he gives him method. The Italianteachers of the early period of this art had so little method that itcan hardly be said to have existed with them. In fact, the word method, as now used, is of comparatively modern origin. The founders of the artof singing aimed at results directly; the manner of using the vocalapparatus for the purpose of reaching these results troubled themcomparatively little. The old Italian teacher took the voice as he foundit. He began with the simplest and easiest work, and trusted to patientand long-continued exercise to develop the vocal apparatus. In all thisthere is no method as we understand the term. The result is aimed atdirectly. The manner of getting it is not shown. There is no consciouscontrol of the vocal apparatus for the purpose of effecting a certainresult. "

This sums up beautifully the external aspects of the old Italian method, and of modern methods as well. It points out clearly the differencebetween the old and the modern system. But it is a mistake to say thatthe old masters followed no systematized plan of instruction. Tosi'sadvice, already quoted ("Let the master provide himself with examples ofSol-fa, leading insensibly from the easy to the difficult, " etc. ), showsa thorough grasp of the meaning of methodical instruction. Once the realnature of vocal training is understood, both Tosi and Mancini are seento describe a well worked out system of Voice Culture. The onlyimportant difference between the old and the new system is this: onerelied on instinctive and imitative processes for imparting the correctvocal action, the other seeks to accomplish the same result through themechanical management of the vocal organs. In this regard the advantageis all on the side of the old Italian method. 

One question regarding the old method remains to be answered. This hasto do with the use of the empirical precepts in practical instruction. So far as the written record goes we have no means of answering thisquestion. Neither Tosi nor Mancini mentions the old precepts in any way. The answer can therefore be only conjectural. We may at once dismiss theidea that the old masters used the precepts in the currently acceptedmanner as rules for the mechanical management of the voice. Thisapplication of the empirical precepts followed upon the acceptance ofthe idea of mechanical voice culture. 

A fine description of perfect singing, considered empirically, was foundto be embodied in the traditional precepts. Such a description ofcorrectly produced tone might be of great value in the training of theear. The sense of hearing is developed by listening; and attentivelistening is rendered doubly effective in the singer's education by theattention being consciously directed to particular characteristics ofthe sounds observed. 

A highly important aspect of ear training in Voice Culture is theacquainting the student with the highest standards of singing. Thestudent derives a double advantage from listening to artistic singingwhen he knows what to listen for. Telling the student that in perfectsinging the throat seems to be open makes him keenly attentive inobserving this characteristic sound of the correctly produced tone. Thisseems to be the most effective manner of utilizing the empiricalprecepts. A student may be helped in imitating correct models of singingby knowing what characteristics of the tones it is most important toreproduce. In pointing out to the student his own faults of production, the judicious use of the precepts might also be of considerable value. Probably the old masters treated the precepts about in this fashion. 

CHAPTER VII

THE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE OLD ITALIAN METHOD AND THE DEVELOPMENT OFMECHANICAL INSTRUCTION

One of the most mysterious facts in the history of Voice Culture is theutter disappearance of the old Italian method. This has occurred inspite of the earnest efforts of vocal teachers to preserve the oldtraditions. If the conclusions drawn in the preceding chapter arejustified, the old method consisted of a system of teaching singing byimitation. Assuming this to be true, there should now be no difficultyin accounting for the disappearance of the imitative method by tracingthe development of the mechanical idea. 

Imitative Voice Culture was purely empirical in the ordinary meaning ofthis word. The old masters did not knowingly base their instruction onany set of principles. They simply taught as their instincts promptedthem. There can now be no doubt that the old masters were fullyjustified in their empiricism. They taught singing as Nature intends itto be taught. But the old masters were not aware of the scientificsoundness of their position. So soon as the correctness of empiricalteaching was questioned they abandoned it without an attempt at defense. As a system of Voice Culture, the old method occupied a weak strategicposition. With absolute right on its side, it still had no power ofresistance against hostile influences. 

This does not imply that the old masters were ignorant men. On thecontrary, the intellectual standard of the vocal profession seems tohave been fully as high two hundred years ago as to-day. Even famouscomposers and musical theorists did not disdain to teach singing. Butthis very fact, the generally high culture of the old masters, was animportant factor in the weakness of the old method against attack. Themost intelligent masters were the ones most likely to abandon theempirical system in favor of supposedly scientific and precise methodsof instruction. 

The hostile influence to which the old Italian method succumbed was theidea of mechanical vocal management. This idea entered almostimperceptibly into the minds of vocal teachers in the guise of ascientific theory of Voice Culture. A short historical sketch will bringthis fact out clearly. This necessitates a repetition of some of thematerial of Chapter I of Part I; the entire subject will however appearin a new light now that the true nature of the mechanical idea isunderstood. 

From the founding of the art of Voice Culture, about 1600, up to 1741, no vocalist seems to have paid any attention to the anatomy or muscularmovements of the vocal organs. In 1741 a French physician, Ferrein, presented to the Academy of Sciences a treatise on the anatomy of thevocal organs, entitled "De la Formation de la Voix de l'Homme. " Thistreatise was published in the same year, and it seems to have attractedat once the attention of the most enlightened masters of singing. ThatFerrein was the first to call the attention of vocalists to themechanical features of tone-production is strongly indicated in theGerman translation of Tosi's "Observations. " In the original Italianedition, 1723, and the English translation, 1742, there is absolutely nomention of the anatomy or physiology of the vocal organs. But inpreparing the German edition, published in 1757, the translator, J. F. Agricola, inserted a description of the vocal organs which he crediteddirectly to Ferrein. 

Mancini followed Agricola's example, and included in this "Riflessioni"(1776) a brief description of the vocal organs. But Mancini made noattempt to apply this description in formulating a system ofinstruction. He recommends the parents of a prospective singer toascertain, by a physician's examination, that the child's vocal organsare normal and in good health. He also gives one mechanical rule, soobvious as to seem rather quaint. "Every singer must place his mouth ina natural smiling position, that is, with the upper teethperpendicularly and moderately removed from the lower. " Beyond thisMancini says not a word of mechanical vocal management. There is nomention of breathing, or tone reflection, or laryngeal action. AlthoughMancini borrowed his description of the vocal organs from Ferrein, hisnotion of the mechanics of tone-production was very crude. "The air ofthe lungs operates on the larynx in singing exactly as it operates onthe head of the flute. "

Voice Culture has passed through three successive periods. From 1600 to1741 instruction in singing was purely empirical. Ferrein's treatise maybe said to mark the beginning of a transition period during whichempirical instruction was gradually displaced by so-called scientificmethods. This transition period lasted, roughly speaking, till theinvention of the laryngoscope in 1855. Since that time vocal instructionhas been carried on almost exclusively along mechanical lines. 

No vocal teacher had ever heard of a problem of tone-production previousto 1741, and indeed for many years thereafter. The earlier masters werenot aware of any possibility of difficulty in causing the voice tooperate properly. Their success justified their ignoring of anymechanical basis of instruction; but even of this justification thelater masters of the old school were only dimly conscious. They buildedbetter than they knew. When any teacher of the transition period wascalled upon to explain his manner of imparting the correct vocal actionhe was at once put on the defensive. No champion of the imitativefaculty could be found. This lack of understanding of the basis of theempirical method, on the part of its most intelligent and successfulexponents, was the first cause of the weakness of this method againstattack. 

Another source of weakness in the hold of empirical systems on the vocalprofession was seen in the generally high intellectual standard of themore prominent teachers. These masters gladly accepted the new knowledgeof the basis of their art, offered them in the description of the vocalorgans. Thoroughly conversant with every detail of the empiricalknowledge of the voice, the masters of the transition period were wellprepared to understand something of the mechanical features oftone-production. By their auditory and muscular sensations of vocal tonethey were able, to their own satisfaction at least, to verify thestatements of the anatomists. 

It is not easy for us to put ourselves mentally in the position of avocalist, thoroughly familiar with the empirical knowledge of the voice, and yet ignorant of the first principles of vocal mechanics. In allprobability the early masters were not even aware that tone is producedby the action of the breath on the larynx. They did not know thatdifferent qualities and pitches result from special adjustments andcontractions of the throat muscles. Yet they were keenly aware of allthe muscular sensations resulting from these contractions. We can wellimagine how interesting these vocalists of the early transition periodmust have found the description of the cartilages and muscles of thethroat. 

It seems to us but a short step from the study of vocal mechanics to theapplication of the results of this study in the formulating of apractical system of vocal instruction. Yet it required more than sixtyyears for the vocal profession to travel so far. Even then the truebearing of this development of Voice Culture was but dimly realized. In1800 the mechanical management of the voice was not even thought of. This is conclusively proved by a most important work, the _Méthode deChant du Conservatoire de Musique_, published in Paris in 1803. 

There can be no question that this Méthode represents the mostenlightened and advanced thought of the vocal profession of that day. Not only does it contain everything then known about the training of thevoice; it was drawn up with the same exhaustive care and analyticalattention to detail that were devoted to the formulation of the metricsystem. To mechanical rules less than one page is devoted. Respirationis the only subject to receive more than a few lines. A system ofbreathing with flat abdomen and high chest is outlined, and the studentis instructed to practise breathing exercises daily. Five lines arecontained in the chapter headed "De l'emission du son, " and these fivelines are simply a warning against throaty and nasal _quality_. Thepupil is told to stand erect, and to open the mouth properly. But afoot-note is given to the rule for the position of the mouth which showshow thoroughly the mechanical rule was subordinated to considerations oftone quality. "As there is no rule without exceptions, we think ituseful to observe at what opening of the mouth the pupil produces themost agreeable, sonorous, and pure quality of tone in order to have himalways open the mouth in that manner. " In the main the Méthode outlinesa purely empirical system of instruction, based on the guidance of thevoice by the ear. There can be no question that the idea of mechanicalmanagement of the voice was introduced later than 1803. 

Citations might be made to show the gradual advance of the mechanicalidea from two interesting works, _Die Kunst des Gesanges_, by Adolph B. Marx, Berlin, 1826, and _Die grosse italienische Gesangschule_, by H. F. Mannstein, Dresden, 1834. But this is not necessary. It is enough to saythat Scientific Voice Culture was not generally thought to be identicalwith mechanical vocal management until later than 1855. 

Manuel Garcia was the first vocal teacher to undertake to found apractical method of instruction on the mechanical principles of thevocal action. When only twenty-seven years old, in 1832, Garciadetermined to reform the practices of Voice Culture by furnishing animproved method of instruction. (_Grove's Dictionary. _) His firstdefinite pronouncement of this purpose is contained in the preface tohis _École de Garcia_, 1847. "As all the effects of song are, in thelast analysis, the product of the vocal organs, I have submitted thestudy to physiological considerations. " This statement of Garcia's ideaof scientific instruction strikes us as a commonplace. But that servesonly to prove how thoroughly the world has since been converted to theidea of mechanical Voice Culture. At that time it was generally believedto be a distinct advance. Garcia expected to bring about a greatimprovement in the art of Voice Culture. His idea was that the voice canbe trained in less time and with greater certainty by mechanical than byimitative methods. As for the inherent falsity of this idea, that hasbeen sufficiently exposed. 

So soon as the theory of mechanical vocal management began to findacceptance, the old method yielded the ground to the new idea. That thisoccurred so easily was due to a number of causes. Of these several havealready been noted, --the readiness of the most prominent teachers tobroaden their field of knowledge, in particular. Other causescontributing to the acceptance of the mechanical idea were the elusivecharacter of empirical knowledge of the voice, and the unconsciousaspect of the instinct of vocal imitation. No master of the latertransition period deliberately discarded his empirical knowledge. Thiscould have been possible only by the master losing his sense of hearing. Neither did the master cease to rely on the imitative faculty. Althoughunconsciously exercised, that was a habit too firmly fixed to be evenintentionally abandoned. 

Public opinion also had much to do with the spread of the mechanicalidea. Teachers found that they could get pupils easier by claiming tounderstand the mechanical workings of the voice. In order to obtainrecognition, teachers were obliged to study vocal mechanics and to adapttheir methods to the growing demand for scientific instruction. 

No master of this period seems to have intentionally abandoned thetraditional method. Their first purpose in adopting the new scientificidea was to elucidate and fortify the old method. Every successfulmaster undoubtedly taught many pupils who in their turn became teachers. There must have been, in each succession of master and pupil, oneteacher who failed to transmit the old method in its entirety. Bothmaster and pupil must have been unconscious of this. No master can bebelieved to have deliberately withheld any of his knowledge from hispupils. Neither can any student have been aware that he failed toreceive his master's complete method. 

Let us consider a typical instance of master and pupil in the latertransition period. Instruction in this case was probably of a dualcharacter. Both teacher and pupil devoted most of their attention to themechanical features of tone-production. Yet the master continued tolisten closely to the student's voice, just as he had done beforeadopting the (supposedly) scientific idea of instruction. Unconsciouslyhe led the pupil to listen and imitate. When the student found itdifficult to apply the mechanical instruction the master would say, "Listen to me and do as I do. " Naturally this would bring the desiredresult. Yet both master and pupil would attribute the result to theapplication of the mechanical rule. The student's voice would besuccessfully trained, but he would carry away an erroneous idea of themeans by which this was accomplished. Becoming a teacher in his turn, the vocalist taught in this fashion would entirely overlook theunobtrusive element of imitation and would devote himself to mechanicalinstruction. He would, for example, construe the precept, "Sing withopen throat, " as a rule to be directly applied; that he had acquired theopen throat by imitating his master's tones this teacher would beutterly unaware. 

More than one generation of master and pupil was probably concerned, ineach succession, in the gradual loss of the substance of the old method. The possibility of learning to sing by imitation was only gradually lostto sight. This is well expressed by Paolo Guetta. "The aphorism 'listenand imitate, ' which was the device of the ancient school, coming down byway of tradition, underwent the fate of all sane precepts passed alongfrom generation to generation. Through elimination and individualadaptation, through assuming the personal imprint, it degenerated into apurely empirical formula. " (_Il Canto nel suo Mecanismo_, Milan, 1902. )

Guetta is himself evidently at a loss to grasp the significance of theempirical formula, "Listen and imitate. " He seems however to be aware ofan antagonism between imitation and mechanical vocal management. Thereason of this antagonism has already been noticed, but it will bearrepetition. For a teacher to tell a pupil to "hold your throat open andimitate my tone, " is to demand the impossible. A conscious effortdirectly to hold the throat open only causes the throat to stiffen. Inthis condition the normal action of the voice is upset and the pupilcannot imitate the teacher's voice. 

This was the condition confronting the teacher of the second generationin the "maestral succession" just considered. He found his pupils unableto get with their voices the results which had come easily to him. Attributing his satisfactory progress as a student to the mastery of thesupposed mechanical principles of tone-production, this teacher ascribedhis pupil's difficulties to their failure to grasp the same mechanicalideas. As a natural consequence he labored even more energetically alongmechanical lines. Curiously, no teacher seems to have questioned thesoundness of the mechanical idea. Failure on the part of the pupil toobtain the correct use of the voice served only to make the master moreinsistent on mechanical exercises. 

In direct proportion to the prominence given to the idea of mechanicalmanagement of the voice, the difficulties of teachers and studentsbecame ever more pronounced. The trouble caused by throat stiffness ledthe teachers to seek new means for imparting the correct vocal action, always along mechanical lines. In this way the progress of themechanical idea was accelerated, and the problem of tone-productionreceived ever more attention. 

Faith in the imitative faculty was gradually undermined by the progressof the mechanical idea. With each succeeding generation of master andpupil, the mechanical idea became more firmly established. Somethingakin to a vicious circle was involved in this progress. As attention waspaid in practical instruction to the mechanical operations of the voice, so the voice's instinctive power of imitation was curtailed by throatstiffness. This served to make more pressing the apparent need of meansfor the mechanical management of the voice. Thus the mechanical ideafound ever new arguments in its favor, based always on the difficultiesitself had caused. 

It is impossible to assign a precise date to the disappearance of theold Italian method. The last exponent of the old traditions wasFrancesco Lamperti, who retired from active teaching in 1876. Yet evenLamperti finally yielded, in theory at least, to the mechanical idea. Inthe closing years of his active life as a teacher (1875 and 1876), Lamperti wrote a book descriptive of his method, _A Treatise on the Artof Singing_ (translated into English by J. C. Griffith and published byEd. Schuberth & Co. , New York). When this work was about ready for thepress, Lamperti read Dr. Mandl's _Gesundheitslehre der Stimme_, containing the first definite statement of the opposed-muscular-actiontheory of breath-control. At the last moment Lamperti inserted a note inhis book to signify his acceptance of this theory. 

Vocal mechanics was at first studied by teachers of singing as a matterof purely academic interest. No insufficiency of imitative teaching hadever been felt. Teachers of the transition period, even so late probablyas 1830, had in most cases no reason to be dissatisfied with theirmethods of instruction. Garcia himself started out modestly enough toplace the traditional method, received from his father, on a definitebasis. His first idea, announced in the preface to the first edition ofhis _École de Garcia_, was to "reproduce my father's method, attemptingonly to give it a more theoretical form, and to connect results withcauses. "

Interest in the mechanics of the voice continued to be almost entirelyacademic until the invention of the laryngoscope in 1855. Then thepopular note was struck. The marvelous industrial and scientificprogress of the preceding fifty years had prepared the world to demandadvancement in methods of teaching singing, as in everything else. Whenthe secrets of the vocal action were laid bare, a new and better methodof teaching singing was at once expected. Within very few yearsscientific knowledge of the voice was demanded of every vocal teacher. 

Nothing could well be more natural than a belief in the efficacy ofscientific knowledge of the vocal organs as the basis of instruction insinging. Surely no earnest investigator of the voice can be criticizedfor adopting this belief. No one ever thought of questioning thesoundness of the new scientific idea. The belief was everywhereaccepted, as a matter of course, that methods of instruction in singingwere about to be vastly improved. Vocal theorists spoke confidently ofdiscovering means for training the voice in a few months of study. Thesinger's education under the old system had demanded from four to sevenyears; science was expected to revolutionize this, and to accomplish inmonths what had formerly required years. 

Even then tone-production was not seen to be a distinct problem. The oldimitative method was still successfully followed. No one thought ofdiscarding the traditional method, but only of improving it by reducingit to scientific principles. But that could not last. Soon after theattempt began to be made to manage the voice mechanically, tone-production was found to contain a real problem. This was of coursedue to the introduction of throat stiffness. 

From that time on (about 1860 to 1865), the problem of tone-productionhas become steadily more difficult of solution in each individual case. This problem has been, since 1865, the one absorbing topic of VoiceCulture. Probably the most unfortunate single fact in the history ofVoice Culture is that scientific study of the voice was from thebeginning confined solely to the mechanical features of tone-production. Had scientific investigators turned their attention also to the analysisof the auditory impressions of vocal tones, and to the psychologicalaspect of tone-production, scientific instruction in singing wouldprobably not have been identified with mechanical management of thevoice. All the subsequent difficulties of the vocal profession wouldalmost certainly have been avoided. 

Every attempt at a solution of the problem of tone-production has beenmade along strictly mechanical lines. Attention has been devoted solelyto the anatomy and physiology of the vocal organs, and to the acousticprinciples of the vocal action. Since 1865 hardly a year has passedwithout some important contribution to the sum of knowledge of the vocalmechanism. For many years this development of Vocal Science was eagerlyfollowed by the vocal teachers. Any seemingly authoritative announcementof a new theory of the voice was sure to bring its reward in animmediate influx of earnest students. Prominent teachers made it theirpractice to spend their vacations in studying with the famousspecialists and investigators. Each new theory of the vocal action wasat once put into practice, or at any rate this attempt was made. Yeteach new attempt brought only a fresh disappointment. The mystery of thevoice was only deepened with each successive failure at solution. 

A review in detail of the development of Vocal Science would be of onlyacademic interest. Very little of practical moment would probably beadded to the outline of modern methods contained in Part I. 

Teachers of singing at present evince an attitude of skepticism towardnew theories of the vocal action. Voice Culture has settled alongwell-established lines. In the past fifteen years little change can benoted in the practices of vocal teachers. The mechanical idea is sofirmly established that no question is ever raised as to its scientificsoundness. Under the limitations imposed by this erroneous idea, teachers do their best to train the voices entrusted to their care. 

Vocal Science is of vastly less importance in modern Voice Culture thanthe world in general supposes. Only an imaginary relation has everexisted between the scientific knowledge of the voice and practicalmethods of instruction. To cause the summits of the arytenoidcartilages, for example, to incline toward each other is entirely beyondthe direct power of the singer. How many similar impossibilities havebeen seriously advocated can be known only to the academic student ofVocal Science. Vocal teachers in general have ceased to attempt any suchapplication of the doctrines of Vocal Science. Even if these doctrinescould be shown to be scientifically sound it would still be impossibleto devise means for applying them to the management of the voice. Accepted Vocal Science has contributed only one element of the practicalscheme of modern voice culture; this is the erroneous notion that thevocal organs require to be managed mechanically. 

CHAPTER VIII

THE MATERIALS OF RATIONAL INSTRUCTION IN SINGING

Practical methods of instruction in singing may be judged by theirresults fully as well as by a scientific analysis of their basicprinciples. If the progress of the art of singing in the past fiftyyears has been commensurate with the amount of study devoted to theoperations of the vocal mechanism, then the value of present methods isestablished. Otherwise the need is proved for some reform in the presentsystem of training voices. Judged by this standard modern methods arenot found to be satisfactory. There has been no progress in the art ofsinging; exactly the contrary is the case. A prominent vocalist goes sofar as to say that "vocal insufficiency and decay are prevalent. " (_TheSinging of the Future_, D. Frangçon-Davies, M. A. , 1906. ) It is perhapsan exaggeration of the condition to call it "insufficiency and decay. "Yet a gradual decline in the art of singing must be apparent to anylover of the art who has listened to most of the famous singers of thepast twenty or twenty-five years. Operatic performance has been improvedin every other respect, but pure singing, the perfection of the vocalart, has become almost a rarity. This is true not only of coloraturasinging; it applies with almost equal force to the use of the singingvoice for the purpose of dramatic and emotional expression. 

Musical critics are beginning to comment on the decline of singing. Theyseek naturally for the causes of this decline. Many influences are citedby different writers, each of which has undoubtedly contributedsomething toward lowering the present standard of singing. Mostinfluential among these contributing causes, in the general opinion, isthe dramatic style of singing demanded in Wagner's later operas. Yetseveral writers point out that the rôles of Tristan, Brunnhilde, etc. , are vastly more effective when well sung than when merely shouted ordeclaimed. A change in the public taste is also spoken of. Audiences aresaid to be indifferent to the older operas, written to suit the style offlorid singing. But even this statement does not pass unchallenged. Aprominent critic asserts that "the world is still hungry" for floridsinging. "It is altogether likely, " continues this writer, "thatcomposers would begin to write florid works again if they were assuredof competent interpretation, for there is always a public eager formusic of this sort. " This critic asserts that the decline of coloraturasinging is due to the indifference of the artists themselves to thisstyle of singing. 

Still another commentator ascribes the decline of pure singing in recentyears to the rise of a new school of dramatic interpretation among theyounger operatic artists. "Nowadays it is not the singing that counts. It is the interpretation; and the chances are there will be more andmore interpretation and less and less singing every year. " Even thisview has its limitations. Faithful dramatic interpretation, andattention to all the details of make-up and "business, " are not in anyway antagonistic to pure singing. One of the most potent means ofemotional expression is vocal tone color. But the skilful use ofexpressive tone quality is possible only to a singer possessed of aperfect command of all the resources of the voice. Many vocalshortcomings are forgiven in the singer of convincing interpretivepower. This is probably an important factor in influencing the youngergeneration of artists to devote so much attention to interpretation. 

More important than any of the reasons just given to account for thepresent state of the art of singing, is the decline in the art oftraining voices. The prospects of an improvement in the art of VoiceCulture, imagined by the early investigators of the vocal mechanism, have not been realized. Voice Culture has not progressed in the pastsixty years. Exactly the contrary has taken place. Before theintroduction of mechanical methods every earnest vocal student was sureof learning to use his voice properly, and of developing the fullmeasure of his natural endowments. Mechanical instruction has upset allthis. Nowadays the successful vocal student is the exception. Even thosestudents who succeed in acquiring sufficient command of their voices towin public acceptance are unable to master the finest points of vocaltechnique. 

Perfect singing is becoming rare, mainly because the technical masteryof the voice cannot be acquired under modern methods of instruction. These methods have been found unsatisfactory in every way. A change mustbe made in the practices of Voice Culture; its present state cannot beregarded as permanent. Modern methods are not truly scientific. There isat present no justification for the belief that the art of Voice Cultureis founded an assured scientific principles. This does not by any meansinvalidate the idea that Voice Culture is properly a subject forscientific regulation. Modern methods are unsatisfactory only becausethey do not conform to the fundamental laws of science. In order toerect a satisfactory art of Voice Culture it is necessary only that theart be brought into conformity with scientific principles. 

No sweeping reform of modern methods is called for. A thoroughapplication of scientific principles in the training of voices demandsonly one thing, --the abandonment of the idea of mechanical vocalmanagement. This is not a backward step; on the contrary, it means adistinct advance. Once freed from the burden of the mechanical idea, theart of Voice Culture will be in position to advance, even beyond theideals of the old masters. 

Nothing could well be simpler than the dropping of the mechanical idea. It was pointed out in the review of modern methods that most of the timespent in giving and taking lessons is devoted to actual singing by thestudent. This is exactly what rational instruction means. Were it notfor the evil influence of the mechanical idea, the results of presentinstruction would in most cases be satisfactory. It is only inconsequence of the attention paid to the mechanical workings of thevocal organs that throat stiffness is interposed between the ear and thevoice. Let the mechanical idea be dropped, and instruction may becarried on exactly as at present. There will be only one markeddifference, --throat stiffness will cease to be a source of difficulty. 

It is for the individual teacher to change his own practices. This couldbe done so easily that students would hardly note a change in the formof instruction. Simply call the pupil's attention always to the qualityof the tones, and never to the throat. Cease to talk of breathing and oflaryngeal action, and these subjects will never suggest themselves tothe student's mind. Continue to have the student sing vocalises, scales, songs, and arias, just as at present. Teach the student to listenclosely to his own voice, and familiarize him with correct models ofsinging. This covers the whole ground of rational Voice Culture. 

It is a great mistake to suppose that a vocal student comes to theteacher with a definite idea of the need of direct vocal management. Several months of study are required before the student begins to graspthe teacher's idea of mechanical management of the voice. Even then thestudent rarely comes to a clear understanding of the mechanical idea. Inthe great majority of cases the student never gets beyond the vaguenotion that he must "do something" to bring the tones. Yet this vagueidea is enough to keep his attention constantly directed to his vocalorgans, and so to hamper their normal activity. So soon as a teacherdrops the mechanical idea, his pupils will not think of their throats, nor demand mechanical instruction. There will be no need of hiscautioning his pupils not to pay attention to the muscular workings ofthe vocal organs. No vocal student ever would do this were the practicenot demanded in modern methods. 

At first thought it may seem that for a teacher to drop all mechanicalinstruction would leave a great gap in his method. How is the correctvocal action to be imparted to the pupil if not by direct instruction tothis end? This question has already been answered in preceding chapters, but the answer may well be repeated. The correct vocal action isnaturally and instinctively adopted by the voice without any attentionbeing paid to the operations of the vocal mechanism. It is necessaryonly that the student sing his daily exercises and listen to his voice. The voice's own instinct will lead it gradually to the perfect action. Nothing need be substituted for mechanical instruction. Present methodsof Voice Culture will be in every way complete, they will leave nothingto be desired, when the mechanical idea is abandoned. This change in thecharacter of vocal instruction will not be in any sense a return toempiricism. It will be a distinct advance in the application ofscientific principles. 

When fully understood, a practical science of Voice Culture is seen toembrace only three topics, --the musical education of the student, thetraining of the ear, and the acquirement of skill in the use of thevoice. The avoidance of throat stiffness is not properly a separatetopic of Vocal Science, as in rational instruction nothing should everbe done to cause the throat to stiffen. Let us consider in detail thesethree topics of practical Vocal Science. 

_The Musical Education of a Singer_

Every singer should be a well-educated and accomplished musician. Thisdoes not mean that the singer must be a capable performer on the pianoor violin; yet some facility in playing the piano is of enormous benefitto the singer. A general understanding of the art of music is notnecessarily dependent on the ability to play any instrument. Therudiments of music may quite well be mastered through the study of sightsinging. This was the course adopted by the old masters, and it willserve equally well in our day. 

One of the evil results of the introduction of the mechanical idea inVoice Culture is that almost the entire lesson time is devoted to thematter of tone-production. To the rudiments of music no attentionwhatever is usually paid. Many vocal students realize the need of ageneral musical training, and seek it through studying the piano andthrough choir and chorus singing. But the vocal teacher seldom findstime to teach his pupils to read music at sight. This is a seriousmistake. The artistic use of the voice is dependent on the possession ofa trained ear and a cultured musical taste. Ear training and musicalculture are greatly facilitated by a knowledge of the technical basis ofthe art of music. This latter is best acquired, by the vocal student atany rate, through the study of sight reading. 

Sight singing and the rudiments of music are taught to better advantagein class work than in private individual instruction. The class systemalso secures a great saving of time to the teacher. Every teacher shouldform a little class in sight reading and choral singing, made up of allhis pupils. An hour or an hour and a half each week, devoted by theentire class to the study of sight singing and simple part songs andchoruses, would give an ample training to all the pupils in thisimportant branch of the art of music. 

Many vocal teachers advise their pupils not to sing in choirs andchoruses. There may be some ground for the belief that students are aptto fall into bad vocal habits while singing in the chorus. But this riskis entirely avoided by the teacher having his pupils sing in his ownchorus, under his own direction. 

Another important feature of the musical education is the hearing ofgood music artistically performed. Vocal students should be urged toattend the opera and the orchestral concerts. They should becomefamiliar with the different forms of composition by actually hearing themasterpieces of music. Chamber music concerts, song recitals, andoratoric performances, --all are of great advantage to the earneststudent. When students attend the opera, or hear the great singers inconcerts and recitals, they should listen to the singers' tones, and notwonder how the tones are produced. 

_Ear Training_

No special exercises can be given for the training of the ear. The senseof hearing is developed only by attentive listening. Every vocalstudent should be urged, and frequently reminded, to form the habit oflistening attentively to the tones of all voices and instruments. Ahighly trained sense of hearing is one of the musician's most valuablegifts. A naturally keen musical ear is of course presupposed in the caseof any one desiring to study music. This natural gift must be developedby exercise in the ear's proper function, --listening to sounds. 

Experience in listening to voices is made doubly effective in thetraining of the ear when the student's attention is called to thesalient characteristics of the tones heard. In this regard the twopoints most important for the student to notice are the intonation andthe tone quality. 

Absolute correctness of intonation, whether in the voice or in aninstrument, can be appreciated only by the possessor of a highlycultivated sense of hearing. Many tones are accepted as being in tunewhich are heard by a very keen ear to be slightly off the pitch, oruntrue to the pitch. This matter of a tone being untrue to the pitch isof great importance to the student of music. Many instruments, whenunskilfully played, give out tones of this character. The tones areimpure; instead of containing only one pitch, each note shades off intopitches a trifle higher, or lower, or both. This faulty type of tone isillustrated by a piano slightly out of tune. On a single note of thispiano one string may have remained in perfect tune, the second may haveflatted by the merest fraction of a semitone, and the third by aslightly greater interval. When this note is played it is in one sensenot out of tune. Yet its pitch is untrue, and it shades off into aslightly flat note. In the case of many instruments, notably the flute, the clarinet, and the French horn, unskilled performers often play notesof this character. But in these instruments the composite character ofthe note is vastly more complex than in the piano. A very keen ear isrequired to appreciate fully the nature of this untrueness to the pitch. But this is exactly the kind of ear the singer must possess, and it canbe acquired only by the experience of attentive listening. 

The voice is especially liable to produce tones untrue to the pitch. Stiff-throated singers almost invariably exhibit this faulty tendency. An excessive tension of the throat hampers the vocal cords in theiradjustments, and the result is an impure tone. This is more often thecause of an artist singing out of tune than a deficiency of the sense ofhearing. Many singers "sharp" or "flat" habitually, and are unable toovercome the habit, even though well aware of it. Only a voice entirelyfree from stiffness can produce tones of absolute correctness andperfect intonation. Du Maurier hit upon a very apt description of pureintonation when he said that Trilby always sang "right into the middleof the note. " As an impurity of intonation is almost always anindication of throat tension, vocal teachers should be keenly sensitiveto this type of faulty tone. 

Tone quality is a subject of surpassing interest to the musician. Whatever may be thought the true purpose of music, there can be noquestion as to one demand made on each individual instrument, --it mustproduce tones of sensuous beauty. A composer may delight in dissonances;but no instrument of the orchestra may produce harsh or discordanttones. Of beauty of tone the ear is the sole judge; naturally so, forthe only appeal of the individual tone is to the ear. Melody, rhythm, and harmony may appeal to the intellect, but the quality of eachcomponent tone is judged only by the ear. 

Each instrument has its own characteristic tone quality. The student ofsinging should become familiar with the sounds of the differentorchestral instruments. Attention to this is extremely valuable in thetraining of the ear. 

Beauty of tone was seen to be the truest and best indication of thecorrect vocal action. The voice has its own tonal beauty, entirelydifferent in character from any artificial instrument. Students ofsinging should listen for every fine shade of tone quality in the voicesof other singers. They should learn to detect the slightest blemish onthe quality of every tone, the slightest deviation from the correctpitch. 

As the voice is guided by the ear, the first requirement of a singer isa keen sense of hearing. For a keen ear to be of benefit, the studentmust learn to listen to his own voice. This is not altogether an easymatter. For one to learn to hear oneself justly and correctly requiresconsiderable practice. The singer is placed at a natural disadvantage inlistening to himself. This is due to two causes. In the first place, thedirect muscular sensations of singing are so complex, and sodistributed about the throat and face, that the singer's attention isapt to be divided between these and his auditory sensations. Second, thesound waves are conducted to the ear internally, by the vibration of thebones of the head, as well as externally, by the air waves. Theinternally conveyed vibrations are a rumbling rather than a true sound;the only true tone is the external sound, heard by the singer in thesame way as by a listener. Yet the attention is more apt to be taken upwith the internal rumbling than with the external tone. Every vocalstudent must be taught to listen to himself, to disregard the muscularsensations and the internal rumbling, and to pay attention only to thereal tones of his voice. 

Throat stiffness greatly increases the difficulty of listening tooneself. Both the muscular sensations and the internal rumbling areheightened by the increased muscular tension. A stiff-throated singerconfounds the muscular with the auditory sensations; the feeling ofmuscular effort also makes him believe his tones to be much morepowerful than they really are. 

_The Acquirement of Skill_

Skill in the use of the voice is acquired solely by practice in singing. Only one rule is required for the conduct of vocal practice, that is, that the voice thrives on beautiful sounds. Musical taste must alwaysguide the vocal student in practising. The voice cannot well do morethan is demanded by the ear. If a student is unable to distinguish acorrect intonation, his voice will not intone correctly. A student musthear and recognize his own faults or there is no possibility of hiscorrecting them. He must be familiar with the characteristics of aperfect musical tone in order to demand this tone of his voice. 

In the student's progress the ear always keeps slightly in advance ofthe voice. Both develop together, but the ear takes the lead. The voiceneeds practice to enable it to meet the demands of the ear. As thispractice goes on day by day the ear in the meantime becomes keener andstill more exacting in its demands on the voice. 

To train a voice is in reality a very simple matter. Nothing is requiredof the student but straightforward singing. Provided the student'sdaily practice of singing be guided by a naturally keen ear and a soundmusical taste, the voice will steadily progress. Little need be saidhere about the technical demands made on the voice in modern music. Thestandards of vocal technique are well known to all vocal teachers, andindeed to musicians generally. Further, the scope of this work islimited to the basic principle of vocal technique, --correcttone-production. 

For starting the voice properly on the road to the perfect action, intelligently guided practice alone is needed. This practice must becarried on under the direction of a competent teacher. But the teachercannot pay attention solely to the technical training of the student'svoice. As has been seen, the training of the voice is impossible withoutthe cultivation of the sense of hearing; and this is dependent in greatmeasure on the general musical education of the student. The teachermust therefore direct the student's musical education as the basicprinciple of Voice Culture. 

_The Avoidance of Throat Stiffness_

A great advance will be brought about in the profession of Voice Culturewhen vocal teachers become thoroughly familiar with the subject ofthroat stiffness. This is the only troublesome feature of the trainingof voices. Teachers must be always on the alert to note every indicationof throat stiffness. The correction of faults of production has alwaysbeen recognized as one of the most important elements of vocal training. Faults of production are of two kinds, natural and acquired. Naturalfaults are exhibited in some degree by every vocal student. These aredue solely to the lack of facility in the use of the voice and to thebeginner's want of experience in hearing his own voice. Acquired faultsdevelop only as the result of unnatural throat tension. The most commoncause of acquired faults of tone-production was seen in the attemptconsciously to direct the mechanical operations of the voice. 

Equipped with a thorough understanding of the subject of throatstiffness, the teacher is in no danger of permitting his pupils tocontract faulty habits of tone-production. Here the great value of theempirical knowledge of the voice is seen. The slightest trace ofincipient throat stiffness must be immediately detected by the teacherin the sound of the pupil's tones. To correct the faulty tendency inthe beginning is comparatively simple. By listening closely to everytone sung by his pupils in the course of instruction, noting both themusical character of the tones and the sympathetic sensations of throataction, the master will never be in doubt whether a tendency to throatstiffness is shown. In locating the natural faults of production theteacher will also find his empirical knowledge of the voice a mostvaluable possession. 

CHAPTER IX

OUTLINES OF A PRACTICAL METHOD OF VOICE CULTURE

According to the accepted idea of Voice Culture, the word "method" istaken to mean only the plan supposedly followed for imparting a correctmanner of tone-production. Owing to the prevalence of the mechanicalidea, the acquirement of the correct vocal action has become sodifficult as to demand almost the exclusive attention of both teachersand students. Very little time is left for other subjects of vastly moreimportance. Aside from the matter of tone-production, teachers do notseem to realize the importance, or even the possibility, ofsystematizing a course of instruction in singing. 

Scientific Voice Culture is inconceivable without a systematic plan ofprocedure. But this is not dependent on a set of rules for imparting thecorrect vocal action. Eliminating the idea of mechanical vocalmanagement does not imply the abandonment of methodical instruction insinging. On the contrary, Voice Culture cannot be made truly systematicso long as it is based on an erroneous and unscientific theory of vocalmanagement. A vocal teacher cannot perfect a system of instruction untilhe has done with the mechanical idea. Then he will find himself to be inpossession of all the materials of a sound practical method. 

Most important of the materials of a practical method is a comprehensiverepertoire of vocal music. Every teacher should have at his command awide range of compositions in every form available for the voice. Thisshould include simple exercises, vocalises with and without words, songsof every description, arias of the lyric, dramatic, and coloratura type, and recitatives, as well as concerted numbers of every description. Allthese compositions should be graded, according to the difficulties theypresent, both technical in the vocal sense, and musical. For every stageof a pupil's progress the teacher should know exactly what compositionto assign for study. 

Every composition used in instruction, be it simple exercise orelaborate aria, should be first of all melodious. For the normallygifted student the sense of melody and the love of singing are almostsynonymous. Next to the physical endowments of voice and ear the senseof melody is the vocal student's most important gift. This feeling formelody should be appealed to at every instant. Students should not bepermitted to sing anything in a mechanical fashion. Broken scales, "fivefinger exercises, " and mechanical drills of every kind, are altogetherobjectionable. They blunt the sense of melody, and at the same time theytend to induce throat stiffness. Beauty of tone and of melody shouldalways be the guiding principle in the practice of singing. 

All the elements of instruction, --musical education, ear training, andthe acquirement of facility in the use of the voice, --can be combined inthe singing of melodious compositions. While the teacher should know theprecise object of each study, this is not necessary for the student. Have the pupil simply sing his daily studies, with good tone and truemusical feeling, and all the rest will take care of itself. 

Every vocal teacher will formulate his method of instruction accordingto his own taste and judgment. There will always be room for theexercise of originality, and for the working out of individual ideas. His own experience, and his judgment in each individual case, must guidethe teacher in answering many important questions. Whether to train avoice up or down, whether to pay special attention to enunciation, whento introduce the trill, what form of studies to use for technique andornament, --these are all matters for the teacher to decide in his ownway. 

Above all else the teacher should seek to make the study of singinginteresting to his pupils. This cannot be done by making the idea ofmethod and of mechanical drudgery prominent. Singing is an art; bothteacher and student must love their art or they cannot succeed. Everything the student is called on to do should be a distinct pleasure. To master the piano or the violin many hours of tedious practice arerequired. Students of singing are indeed fortunate to be spared thenecessity of this tiresome work. In place of two or three hours' dailypractice of scales and exercises, the vocal student need do nothing butsing good music. 

Much is required of a competent vocal teacher. First of all, he must bea cultured musician and a capable judge both of composition and ofperformance. Further, while not necessarily a great singer, he must havea thorough command of all the resources of his own voice. Hisunderstanding of the voice should embrace a fair knowledge of vocalphysiology and of vocal psychology. His ear should be so highly trained, and his experience in hearing singers so wide, that he possess in fullthe empirical knowledge of the voice. The vocal teacher must be familiarwith the highest standards of singing. He should hear the great artistsof his day and also be well versed in the traditions of his art. 

A highly important gift of the vocal teacher is tact. He must know howto deal with his pupils, how to smooth over the rough places oftemperament. He should be able to foster a spirit of comradeship amonghis pupils, to secure the stimulating effect of rivalry, while avoidingthe evils of jealousy. Tact is an important element also in individualinstruction. Some students will demand to know the reason of everything, others will be content to do as they are told without question. Onestudent may be led to stiffen his throat by instruction which would haveno such effect on another. In every case the teacher must study theindividual temperaments of his pupils and adapt his method to thecharacter of each student. 

Practical instruction, in its outward aspect, should be very simple. Atone lesson the teacher assigns certain studies and has the pupil singthem. Now and then the teacher sings a few measures in order to give thestudent the correct idea of the effects to be obtained. If anypronounced fault is shown in the student's tones, the master callsattention to the fault, perhaps imitating it, to make it more apparentto the student. In his home practice the student sings the assignedstudies, trying always to get his tones pure and true. At the nextlesson the same studies are again sung, and new compositions given forfurther study. 

A great advantage might be gained by combining three, four, or fivestudents in a class and giving lessons of an hour's time, or even anhour and a half. The students might sing in turn, all the otherslistening to the one who is singing. This form of instruction would beof great service in ear training, and in acquainting the students withthe various qualities of vocal tone, both correct and faulty. Much timewould thus be saved in giving explanations and in pointing out thecharacteristics of tone to be sought or avoided. On the side of musicaleducation, instruction in small classes would also be found veryeffective. 

A thorough understanding of Vocal Science, including both the mechanicalfeatures of tone-production and the psychological aspects of singing, isalmost indispensable to the vocal teacher. But the student of singingwill in most cases derive no benefit from this scientific knowledge. Those students who plan to become teachers must of course study VocalScience. Yet even these students will do well to defer this study untilthey have acquired a thorough mastery of their voices. 

* * *

Musical progress would seem to have taken a peculiar direction when avoice need be raised in defense of the old art of pure singing. Severalfamous writers on musical subjects would have us believe that the loveof vocal melody is outgrown by one who reaches the heights of musicaldevelopment. This may be true; but if so, the world has not yetprogressed so far. Music without melody may some day be written. ButMozart knew naught of it, nor Beethoven, nor Wagner. Melody is stillbeautiful, and never more lovely than when artistically sung by abeautiful voice. We have not reached a point where we can afford to tosslightly aside the old art of Bel Canto. 

For its future development, if not indeed for its continued existence, the art of singing depends on an improvement in the art of trainingvoices. For this to be accomplished, mechanical methods must beabandoned. If this work succeeds in bringing home to the vocalprofession the error of mechanical instruction in singing, it will haveserved its purpose. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Pietro Francesco Tosi: _Observations on the Florid Song_. Bologna, 1723. 

Giovanni Battista Mancini: _Riflessioni pratiche sul Canto figurato_. Milan, 1776. 

Georg Joseph Vogler: _Stimmbildungskunst_. Mannheim, 1776. 

_Méthode de Chant du Conservatoire de Musique_. Paris, 1803. 

Stefana Arteaga: _Le Revoluzioni del Teatro musicale italiano_. Venice, 1785. 

Adolph Bernhard Marx: _Die Kunst des Gesanges_. Berlin, 1826. 

Heinrich F. Mannstein: _Die grosse italienische Gesangschule_. Dresden, 1834. 

Manuel Garcia: _École de Garcia_. The Ninth Edition (Paris, 1893) givesdate of first edition, 1856. Grove's Dict. Gives 1847. 

_Proceedings of the Royal Soc. _, London, Vol. 2, May, 1855. 

_Hints on Singing_. (Trans. By Beata Garcia). New York, 1894. 

Ferdinand Sieber: _Vollstaendiges Lehrbuch der Gesangskunst_. Magdeburg, 1858. 

_The Art of Singing_. (Trans. By Dr. F. Seeger). New York, 1872. 

Stéphen de la Madelaine: _Théorie complète du Chant_. Paris, 1852. 

Lennox Browne and Emil Behnke: _Voice, Song, and Speech_. London, 1883. 

John Howard: _The Physiology of Artistic Singing_. New York, 1886. 

Gordon Holmes: _A Treatise on Vocal Physiology and Hygiene_. London, 1879. 

Emma Seiler: _The Voice in Singing_. Philadelphia, 1886. 

J. Frank Botume: _Modern Singing Methods_. Boston, 1885. 

Francesco Lamperti: _A Treatise on the Art of Singing_. (Trans. By J. C. Griffith). New York. Original about 1876. 

Wesley Mills, M. D. : _Voice Production in Singing and Speaking_. Philadelphia, 1906. 

Dr. W. Reinecke: _Die Kunst der idealen Tonbildung_. Leipzig, 1906. 

William Shakespeare: _The Art of Singing_. London, 1898. 

G. B. Lamperti: _The Technics of Bel Canto_. New York, 1905. 

Paolo Guetta: _Il Canto nel suo Mecanismo_. Milan, 1902. 

Lilli Lehmann: _Meine Gesangskunst_. Berlin, 1902. 

David Frangçon-Davies: _The Singing of the Future_. London, 1906. 

Leo Kofler: _The Old Italian Method_. Albany, 1880. 

_The Art of Breathing_. New York, 1889. 

Clara Kathleen Rogers: _The Philosophy of Singing_. New York, 1893. 

Albert B. Bach: _The Principles of Singing_. London (2d ed. ), 1897. 

Julius Stockhausen's _Gesangsmethode_. Leipzig, 1884. 

Sir Morell Mackenzie: _The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs_. London, 1886. 

Charles Lunn: _The Philosophy of the Voice_. London, 1878. 

Antoine Ferrein: _De la Formation de la Voix de l'Homme_. Paris, 1741. 

Sir Charles Bell: _On the Organs of the Human Voice_. London, 1832. 

Carl Ludwig Merkel: _Der Kehlkopf_. Leipzig, 1873. 

Dr. L. Mandl: _Die Gesundheitslehre der Stimme_. Braunschweig, 1876. 

George F. Ladd: _Outlines of Physiological Psychology_. New York, 1892. 

James M. Baldwin: _Feeling and Will_. New York, 1894. 

H. S. Curtis: "Automatic Movements of the Larynx, " _Amer. Jour. Psych. _, Vol. 11, p. 237. 1900. 

H. L. F. Helmholtz: _Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen_. Braunschweig, 1862. 

E. W. Scripture: _The New Psychology_, London, 1897. 

_The Elements of Experimental Phonetics_. New York, 1902. 

_The Study of Speech Curves_. Washington, 1906. 

William James: _The Principles of Psychology_. New York, 1890. 

Hansen and Lehmann: "Ueber unwillkuerliches Fluestern, " _Philo. Stud. _, Vol. 11, p. 471. 1895. 

C. Lloyd Morgan: _An Introduction to Comparative Psychology_. 1894. 

Wilhelm Wundt: _Grundzuege der physiologischen Psychologie_. Leipzig, 1874. 

Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_. 

Fétis: _Biographie universelle des Musiciens_. 

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Quellen Lexikon der Musiker. (Robt. Eitner, Leipzig, 1902. )

INDEX

Acoustics of voice, 188, 216. 

Anatomy of vocal organs, 211. 

Attack, 51, 53. 

Breathing, 20, 130. 

Breath, singing on the, 14, 27, 32, 72, 194. 

Candle-flame test, 221. 

Coloratura, 195, 282. 

Decline of singing, 341. 

Ear training, 276, 281, 319, 351. 

Emission, 68, 125, 188. 

Empirical knowledge, 151, 176, 181, 359. Basis of, 155. In modern instruction, 75, 199, 207. In traditional precepts, 184. 

Enunciation, 88. 

Exercises for breath-control, 26, 31. For breathing, 22. For muscular movements, 46, 50. For relaxing muscles, 90, 272. On vowels and consonants, 85. 

Forward tone, 14, 68, 71, 125, 187. 

Garcia, 16, 22, 34, 35, 56, 328. 

Glottic stroke, 30, 52. 

History of voice culture, 8, 322. 

Howard, John, 43. 

Imitation, 134, 166, 291, 298, 307, 309, 324, 332. 

Intonation, 265, 311, 314, 352. 

Laryngeal action, 34, 36, 44. 

Laryngoscope, 16, 35, 56, 214, 215, 258, 336. 

Lessons, 103, 366. 

Local effort, 273. 

Mancini, 12, 156, 307, 314, 323. 

Mask, singing in the, 74, 81. 

Mechanical vocal management, 83, 102, 109, 113, 135, 271, 287, 297, 299, 321, 329, 333, 346. 

Mechanics of voice, 118, 220, 325, 335. 

Mental voice, 180, 183. 

Messa di voce, 40, 312. 

Method, 92, 96, 99. Old Italian, 10, 304, 316, 320. 

Méthode de Chant, 326. 

Muscular sense, 143, 170. Stiffness, 240, 251. Strain, 267. 

Nasal tone, 62, 129, 205. 

Nervousness, 249, 256. 

Old Italian masters, 9, 11, 14, 54, 306, 320. Method, 10, 304, 316, 320. 

Open throat, 14, 60, 86, 191. 

Placing the voice, 38, 41, 93, 310. 

Practice, 5, 105, 281, 366. 

Precepts, 13, 72, 76, 184, 186, 317. 

Problem of voice, 4, 7, 287, 324, 337, 338. 

Psychology of muscular guidance, 136, 227. Of sympathetic sensations, 165. Of vocal management, 144, 229, 297. 

Pure vowel theory, 88. 

Quality of tone, 40, 62, 156, 179, 182, 314, 346. 

Radiation of nerve impulse, 251, 259. 

Reflex actions, 247, 255. 

Registers, 34, 38, 55, 312, 315. 

Relaxing exercises, 90, 272. 

Resonance, 54, 58. Chest, 61, 127. Mouth-pharynx, 59. Nasal, 62, 87, 127, 204. Sounding-board, 44, 65. 

Sensations of singing, 160. Direct, 161, 173. In modern instruction, 78, 84, 114. Muscular, 78. Sympathetic, 161, 162, 176. Of vibration, 54, 55, 58, 80. 

Sight reading, 309, 310, 313. 

Singing in the mask, 74, 81. On the breath, 14, 27, 32, 72, 194. 

Sol-fa, 310, 314. 

Stiffness, muscular, 240, 251. Throat, 89, 243, 260, 262, 285, 356, 358. 

Support of tone, 14, 27, 32, 73, 192. 

Sympathetic sensations, 161, 162, 165, 176. 

Technique, 6, 94, 282. 

Throat stiffness, 89, 243, 260, 262, 285, 356, 358. 

Tone-production, 4. Problem of 7, 287, 324, 337, 338. 

Tosi, 12, 55, 63, 156, 307, 308, 322. 

Traditional precepts, 13, 14, 76, 186, 317. Empirical basis, 184. In modern instruction, 72, 77. 

Tremolo, 265, 272. 

Vocal action, 5, 17, 92, 112, 246. 

Vocal Science, 17, 19, 37, 98, 152, 339, 361, 367. 

Wearing voice into place, 101.