Union Calendar No. 928 86th Congress, 2d Session House Report No. 2091 THE PRACTICAL VALUES OF SPACE EXPLORATION REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS U. S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVESEIGHTY-SIXTH CONGRESS SECOND SESSION PURSUANT TO H. Res. 133 [Serial I] July 5, 1960. --Committed to the Committee of the Whole House on theState of the Union and ordered to be printed UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 58231° WASHINGTON: 1960 COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS OVERTON BROOKS, Louisiana, _Chairman_ John W. McCormack, Massachusetts George P. Miller, California Olin E. Teague, Texas Victor L. Anfuso, New York B. F. Sisk, California Erwin Mitchell, Georgia James M. Quigley, Pennsylvania Leonard G. Wolf, Iowa Joseph E. Karth, Minnesota Ken Hechler, West Virginia Emilio Q. Daddario, Connecticut Walter H. Moeller, Ohio David S. King, Utah J. Edward Roush, Indiana Thomas G. Morris, New Mexico Joseph W. Martin, JR. Massachusetts James G. Fulton, Pennsylvania Gordon L. McDonough, California J. Edgar Chenoweth, Colorado Frank C. Osmers, JR. New Jersey William K. Van Pelt, Wisconsin A. D. Baumhart, JR. Ohio Perkins Bass, New Hampshire R. Walter Riehlman, New York CHARLES F. DUCANDER, _Executive Director and Chief Counsel_ DR. CHARLES S. SHELDON II, _Technical Director_ SPENCER M. BERESFORD, _Special Counsel_ PHILIP B. YEAGER, _Special Consultant_ JOHN A. CARSTARPHEN, Jr. , _Chief Clerk_ FRANK R. HAMMILL, Jr. , _Counsel_ RAYMOND WILCOVE, _Staff Consultant_ RICHARD P. HINES, _Staff Consultant_ Lt. Col. FRANCIS J. DILLON, Jr. , _Staff Consultant_ Comdr. HOWARD J. SILBERSTEIN, _Staff Consultant_ LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS, _Washington, D. C. , July 1, 1960. _ Hon. OVERTON BROOKS, _Chairman, Committee on Science and Astronautics. _ DEAR MR. CHAIRMAN: I am forwarding herewith for yourconsideration a staff study, "The Practical Values of SpaceExploration. " This study was undertaken pursuant to your request for informationcovering the various utilities of the national space effort. The studyhas been prepared by Philip B. Yeager and reviewed by other members ofthe professional staff. CHARLES F. DUCANDER, _Executive Director and Chief Counsel. _ LETTER OF SUBMITTAL HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS, _Washington, D. C. , July 5, 1960. _ Hon. SAM RAYBURN, _Speaker of the House of Representatives, Washington, D. C. _ DEAR MR. SPEAKER: By direction of the Committee on Science andAstronautics, I submit the following report on "The Practical Values ofSpace Exploration" for the consideration of the 86th Congress. OVERTON BROOKS, _Chairman_. CONTENTS Introduction 1 I. The unseen values 3 Some examples of the unexpected 3 The ultimate values 5 Steering a middle road 6 The time for space 7 II. National security values 9 The military uses 9 Our position in the international community 12 Space as a substitute for war 15 III. The economic values 17 U. S. Expenditures on space 17 The spread of economic benefits 18 Creation of new industries 19 Research 19 New power sources 20 New water sources and uses 21 Noise and human engineering 22 High speed-light weight computers 22 Solid state physics 23 Economic alliances 24 Private enterprise in space 24 Jobs 27 Automation and disarmament 28 IV. Values for everyday living 31 Technological benefits 31 Food and agriculture 35 Communications 36 Weather prediction and modification 37 Health benefits 39 Education benefits 42 The demand 42 V. Long-range values 45 Trouble spots 45 Population 45 Water shortage 46 Soil erosion 46 Added leisure 47 Intensified nationalism 48 Limitations on space research 48 Fundamental knowledge about life 51 Psychological and spiritual values 52 Maturing of the race 53 +---------------------------------------------------------------+| 86TH CONGRESS || _2d Session_ || || HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES || || REPORT || NO. 2091 || || || || ||THE PRACTICAL VALUES OF SPACE EXPLORATION || || * * * * * || ||JULY 5, 1960. --Committed to the Committee of the Whole House on||the State of the Union and ordered to be printed || || * * * * * || ||Mr. BROOKS of Louisiana, from the Committee on Science and ||Astronautics, submitted the following || || REPORT || || [Pursuant to H. Res. 133] || |+---------------------------------------------------------------+ THE PRACTICAL VALUES OF SPACE EXPLORATION INTRODUCTION This report has been undertaken for a special reason. It is to explainto the taxpayer just why so many of his dollars are going into theAmerican effort to explore space, and to indicate what he can expect inreturn which is of value to him. Such an explanation, even after 2 years of relatively high-gearedactivity in the space exploration field, appears to be warranted. Thereis still a segment of the U. S. Population which has little, if any, notion of the values that the space program has for the average citizen. To these people the expenditure of billions of dollars on missiles, rockets, satellites, Moon probes, and other space activities remainssomething of a mystery--particularly when so many other worthy projectsthroughout the land may be slowed or stalled for lack of funds. If, therefore, the practical value of the American space program isbeing questioned, it is a question which needs to be answered. It is interesting to note that the problem is not unique to the UnitedStates. In the Soviet Union, which counts itself as the world's primeinvestigator of space, there is likewise an element of citizenry whichfinds itself puzzled over the U. S. S. R. 's penchant for the interplanetaryreaches. "What do sputniks give to a person like me?" a Russian workmancomplained in a letter which _Pravda_ published on its front page. "Somuch money is spent on sputniks it makes people gasp. If there were nosputniks the Government could cut the cost of cloth for an overcoat inhalf and put a few electric flatirons in the stores. Rockets, rockets, rockets. Who needs them now?"[1] It goes without saying that the workman was severely chastised by theSoviet newspaper, but his point was made. No matter where taxpayers live they want to know--and are entitled toknow--what good a program of space exploration is to them. During the 1960's it is expected that the U. S. Government will spendanywhere from $30 to $50 billion on space exploration for all purposes, civilian and military. It is the intent of this report to delineate inlay language, and in terms which will be meaningful to those who havenot followed the American space program closely, the reasons for thisgreat investment and the probable returns. [Illustration: FIGURE 1. --A single shot of the 8-barreledSaturn of the future will cost millions of dollars, maybe tens ofmillions. What makes it worthwhile for the taxpayer?] FOOTNOTES: [1] Associated Press dispatch, dateline Moscow, June 12, 1960. I. The Unseen Values The United States has not embarked upon its formidable program of spaceexploration in order to make or perpetuate a gigantic astronauticboondoggle. There are good reasons, hard reasons for this program. But, in essence, they all boil down to the fact that the program is expectedto produce a number of highly valuable payoffs. It not only is expectedto do so, it is doing so right now. Many of the beneficial results can be identified. Those already showing up are detailed in the sections of this reportwhich follow. They include the most urgent and precious of allcommodities--national security. Beyond that, they also include astrengthened national economy, new jobs and job categories, betterliving, fresh consumer goods, improved education, increased health, stimulated business enterprise and a host of long-range values which mayultimately make the immediate benefits pale into relativeinsignificance. Practical uses such as those just listed mean the taxpayer is more thangetting his money's worth from American space exploration--and getting asizable chunk of it today. Nevertheless, if we can depend on the history of scientific adventureand progress, on its consistent tendencies of the past, then we can bereasonably sure that the greatest, finest benefits to come from ourventures into space are yet unseen. These are the unpredictable values, the ones which none of us has yetthought of. Inevitably they lag behind the basic research discoveries needed to makethem possible, and often the discoveries are slow to be put to workafter they are made. Investors, even governments, are human, and beforethey invest in something they normally want to know: What good is it? We can be sure that many American taxpayers of the future will be asking"what good is it?" in regard to various phases of the space program. There was an occasion when the great Scottish physicist, James ClerkMaxwell, was asked this question concerning one of his classicdiscoveries in electromagnetism. Maxwell replied: "What good is a baby?" Now, as then, it takes time for new knowledge to develop and becomeuseful after its conception and birth. SOME EXAMPLES OF THE UNEXPECTED A graphic illustration of "unseen" benefits in regard to atomic energyhas been expressed by an experienced researcher in this way: I remember a conversation I had with one of our nuclear scientists when I was a member of the Weapons Systems Evaluations Group almost 10 years ago. We were talking about the possible peaceful applications of fission. We really could think of little that could be done with it other than making fissionable material into a form of destructive power. There had been some discussion about harnessing the power of fission, but this seemed to us to be quite remote. It seemed difficult to conceive of the atomic bomb as anything but sheer power used for destructive purposes. Yet today the products of fission applied to peaceful uses are many. The use of isotopes in industry, medicine, agriculture are well known. Food irradiation, nuclear power reactors, now reactors for shipboard use, are with us, and it is hardly the beginning. I frequently ask myself, of late, what 10 years from now will be the commercial, shall we call it, applications of our missile and rocket programs. [2] There are innumerable examples of the way in which invention ordiscovery, or sometimes just simple human curiosity, result in usefulpayoff. And frequently no one suspects the direction the payoff finallytakes. The point, of course, is that _any_ knowledge eventually paysdividends. The things we learn from our national space program willproduce benefits in ways entirely unrelated to missiles orinterplanetary travel. (See secs. III and IV. ) The reverse is also true;knowledge gained in areas quite remote from outer space can have genuinevalue for the advance of space exploration. Investigation into the skin of a fish provides a good case in point. A German inventor who migrated to California after World War II had longbeen interested in ways to reduce the drag of friction produced by airor water on the surface of objects passing through them. One day, whilewatching a group of porpoises cavort past a speeding ship with thegreatest of ease, it occurred to him that the skin of these animals, ifclosely studied, might shed light on ways of cutting surface friction. It was many years before the inventor was able to enlist the aid ofaquarium managers in securing porpoise skins for study. In 1955, however, he obtained the necessary skins and found that dolphins, infact, owe much of their great speed to a unique skin which markedlyreduces the effect of turbulence against it. From this knowledge hascome the recent development of a diaphragm-damping fluid surface whichhas real potential not only for underwater high-speed bodies, such assubmarines, torpedoes and underwater missiles, but for any vehicle wherefast-moving gases or fluids may cause drag. [3] The implications of this knowledge for satellites near Earth or forreentering spacecraft are obvious. Sometimes a reverse twist in reasoning by a speculative mind will resultin enormous practical utility. In Cambridge, Mass. , a sanitary engineer teaching at the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology began to wonder about the principles ofadhesion--why things stick to each other. Do they only stick togetherbecause some sticky substance is holding them, or are there otherreasons? "If a person is sick, " he asked himself, "is it because a causeof sickness is present or because a cause of health is absent? We nowknow that in infectious diseases the first alternative is true; thepatient is ill because he harbors pathogenic germs. The opposite caseprevails in deficiency diseases, where necessary vitamins are absentfrom food and illness is brought about by this absence. To which of theclasses does adhesion belong? When we cannot produce a dependable bond, are we dealing with the lack of some adhesive force or with existence ofan obstacle to sticking?" Operating on the theory that adhesion might result not only from thepresence of a sticky agent but from the removal of all impediments tosticking, this scientist has now managed to produce strong adhesionbetween the least sticky of substances--polyethylene plastics. He hasdone it by studying the molecular structure of polyethylenes andremoving all impurities which normally find their way into themanufacture of such material. The next step: "We hope to prepareadhesive joints in which a noble gas acts as an adhesive. Noble gasesare the least active substances known to chemistry; if they can adhere, it is clear that no specific forces are needed for adhesiveness. "[4] No great imagination is required to perceive the meaning which this newknowledge, if proved out, will have for our everyday lives--to saynothing of its usefulness in the making of astronautic equipment. THE ULTIMATE VALUES In any event, it is apparent that where research is concerned--andespecially space research with its broad scale of inquiry--we cannotalways see the value of scientific endeavor on the basis of itsbeginning. We cannot always account for what we have purchased with eachresearch dollar. The Government stated this proposition when it first undertook to putthe space program on a priority basis: Scientific research has never been amenable to rigorous cost accounting in advance. Nor, for that matter, has exploration of any sort. But if we have learned one lesson, it is that research and exploration have a remarkable way of paying off--quite apart from the fact that they demonstrate that man is alive and insatiably curious. And we all feel richer for knowing what explorers and scientists have learned about the universe in which we live. [5] In this statement there is political support for what the historian, theanthropologist, the psychologist consider to be established fact--thatsome innate force in the human being makes him _know_, whatever hisformal beliefs or whatever his unconscious philosophy, that he _must_progress. Progress is the core of his destiny. This is a concept which, in connection with space exploration, has beenrecognized for many years. One of the earliest and most perceptive ofthe space "buffs" stated it before the British Interplanetary Society in1946 in these words: "* * * our civilization is no more than the sum ofall the dreams that earlier ages have brought to fulfillment. And so itmust always be, for if men cease to dream, if they turn their backs uponthe wonder of the universe, the story of our race will be coming to anend". [6] [Illustration: FIGURE 2. --In the years immediately ahead, theorbiting observatory or the manned satellite will uncover crucialinformation about the nature of the universe. ] STEERING A MIDDLE ROAD In any endeavor which is as futuristic as space exploration it is notdifficult to become lost in the land of the starry-eyed prognosticators. Conversely, it is also easy to find oneself lining up with the debunkersand the champions of the status quo, for their arguments and views givethe impression of being hard-headed, sensible. If one must err in either direction, however, it is probably safer, where space is concerned, to err in the direction of the enthusiasts. This is because (and subsequent parts of this report will show it) theNation cannot afford not to be in the vanguard of the space explorers. Events today move with facility and lightning rapidity. Today, more thanever, time is on the side of the expeditious. We can no longer take therisk of giving much support to the scoffers--to that breed ofunimaginative souls who thought Robert Fulton was a fool for harnessinga paddlewheel to a boiler, who thought Henry Ford was a fool for puttingan internal combustion engine on wheels, who thought Samuel Langley wasa fool for designing a contraption to fly through the air. There are always those who will say it cannot be done. Even in this eraof sophisticated flight there have been those who said the sound barrierwould never be broken. It was. Others said later that space vehicleswould never get through the heat barrier. They have. Now, some say menwill never overcome the radiation barrier in space. But we can be surethey will. It is undoubtedly wise for the layman, in terms of the benefits he canexpect from the space program in the foreseeable future, to steer areasonable course between the two extremes. Yet one cannot helpremembering that the secret of taking practical energy from the atom, asecret which the human race had been trying to learn for thousands ofyears, was accomplished in less than a decade from the moment when menfirst determined that it was possible to split an atom. It is difficultto forget that even after World War II some of our most respectedscientists sold short the idea of developing long-range missiles. Impractical, they said; visionary. But 6 years after the United Stateswent to work seriously on missiles, an operational ICBM with a9, 000-mile range was an accomplished fact. THE TIME FOR SPACE All of the glowing predictions being made on behalf of space explorationwill not be here tomorrow or the next day. Yet this seems less importantthan that we recognize the significance of our moment of history. We may think of that moment as a new age--the age of space and theatom--to follow the historic ages of stone, bronze, and iron. We maythink of it in terms of theories, of succeeding from those of Copernicusto those of Newton and thence to Freud and now Einstein. We may think ofour time as the time of exploiting the new fourth state of matter:plasma, or the ion. Or we may think of it in terms of revolutions, aspassing from the industrial cycle of steam through the railroad-steelcycle, through the electricity-automobile cycle, into the burgeoningtechnological revolution of today. However we think of it, it is a dawning period and one which--in itsscope and potential--promises to dwarf much of what has gone before. Those who have given careful thought to the matter are convinced thatwhile some caution is in order, the new era is not one to be approachedwith timidity, inhibited imagination or too much convention. Neither isthere any point in trying to hold off the tempo of this oncoming age or, in any other way, to evade it. Mark Twain once listened to the complaints of an old riverboat pilot whowas having trouble making the switch from sail to steam. The old pilotwanted no part of the newfangled steam contraptions. "Maybe so, " repliedTwain, "but when it's steamboat time, you steam. "[7] Today is space time and man is going to explore it. [Illustration: FIGURE 3. --The versatile Atlas can be usedeither for launching man into space or to carry a nuclear warhead as faras 9, 000 miles. ] FOOTNOTES: [2] Gavin, Lt. Gen. James M. , U. S. Army (retired), speech to theAmerican Rocket Society, New York City, Nov. 19, 1958. [3] Kramer, Max O. , "The Dolphins' Secret, " New Scientist, May 5, 1960, pp. 1118-1120. [4] Bikerman, Dr. Jacob J. , reported in New Scientist, Mar. 3, 1960, p. 535. [5] "Introduction to Outer Space, " a statement by the President, theWhite House, Mar. 26, 1958. [6] Clarke, Arthur C. , "The Challenge of the Spaceships, " Harper &Bros. , New York, 1955, p. 15. [7] Related by T. Keith Glennan, Administrator, National Aeronautics andSpace Administration, in an address before the Worcester (Mass. )Economic Club, Feb. 15, 1960. II. NATIONAL SECURITY VALUES There is no longer doubt that space exploration holds genuinesignificance for the security and well-being of the United States as anation. It does so in at least three ways. One results from the uses which ourArmed Forces can make of the knowledge gained from space exploration. Asecond results from the influence and prestige which America can exertwithin the world community because of her prowess in space exploration. A third results from the possibility that space exploration, eventually, may prove so immense and important a challenge that it will channel theprime energies of powerful nations toward its own end and thus reducethe current emphasis on developing means of destruction. The first two values definitely exist. The third seems to be areasonable hope. THE MILITARY USES From the beginning it has been recognized that space exploration, theresearch connected therewith, and the ability to operate therein is ofmore than passing interest to the military. Congress recognized the fact when it passed the National Aeronautics andSpace Act of 1958 and directed that "activities peculiar to or primarilyassociated with the development of weapons systems, military operations, or the defense of the United States * * * shall be the responsibilityof, and shall be directed by, the Department of Defense. "[8] In theamendments to the Space Act proposed in 1960, this directive wasstrengthened: "The Department of Defense shall undertake such activitiesin space, and such research and development connected therewith, as maybe necessary for the defense of the United States. "[9] It is possible to argue, and indeed it has been argued, that ballisticmissiles such as IRBM's and ICBM's are not really "space" weapons, thatthey are simply an extension of the traditional art of artillery. Forthe purposes of this report, however, the argument appears to be largelya semantic one. Such missiles do traverse space, they are guided throughspace, and they employ the same engines and principles which arepresently used for purposes of scientific space exploration. While moreadvanced "space" weapons may evolve in the future, the missile as weknow it today cannot very well be divorced from our thinking about spaceand its practical uses. Going on this assumption, and casting an eye in the direction of theIron Curtain, it is obvious that the Soviet Union is going all-out toexploit space for military purposes. Military men have known for years that the tremendously powerful boosterwhich the Soviets have been using to launch their massive sputniks wasoriginally designed to carry the primitive heavy version of the A-bombacross continents. If there was ever doubt of the extent to which the Soviets intend tomake space a selected medium for military purposes it was erased whenPremier Khrushchev made his address to the Supreme Soviet early in 1960. He commented in part: Our state has at its disposal powerful rocket equipment. The military air force and navy have lost their previous importance in view of the modern development of military equipment. This type of armament is not being reduced but replaced. Almost the entire military air force is being replaced by rocket equipment. We have by now sharply cut, and it seems will continue sharply to cut and even discontinue the manufacture of bombers and other obsolete equipment. In the navy, the submarine fleet assumes great importance, while surface ships can no longer play the part they once did. In our country the armed forces have been to a considerable extent transferred to rocket and nuclear arms. These arms are being perfected and will continue to be perfected until they are banned. [10] While it is difficult to assess the actual extent of the Sovietpreoccupation with missiles, it has been reported that the Russians arebuilding upward of 100 IRBM and ICBM bases to be manned by about 200, 000men. Most of these, at least the intermediate range bases, are said tobe along Russia's Baltic coast, in East Germany, in the southern Ukraineand in the Carpathian Mountains. [11] In any event, the space age is clearly "here" so far as the military areconcerned, and U. S. Forces--particularly since the development of themuch lighter atomic warheads--have been likewise diligent in their spaceefforts. This is because many military minds are now agreed that: We are moving inevitably into a time of astropower. We face a threat beyond imagination, should events ever lead to open conflict in a world of hypersonic velocities and a raging atom chained as our slave. We must be strong, we must be able to change to meet change. What may come against our beloved America will not be signaled by one light from the North Church steeple, if they come by land, or two, if they come by sea. Never again. They will come through space, and their light of warning will be the blinding terror of a thermonuclear fireball. [12] It is important to note, in connection with military matters, that purerocket power, is not the only avenue to success in space use. TheAmerican Atlas missile, for example, which can carry a nuclear warheadand which operates on considerably less thrust than the powerful Sovietboosters thus far demonstrated, has nevertheless shown the capability ofnegotiating a 9, 000-mile trek and landing in the target area. This isabout 1, 500 miles farther than any Soviet shots revealed to the publicin the 2-1/2-year period following the first sputnik. It is also asufficient range to permit reaching almost any likely target on theglobe. From the military point of view, the meaning thus brought out is thatsophistication of missiles together with reliability and ease ofhandling is more important than pure power. When we begin to consider both the civil and military aspects of spaceuse in the decades ahead, however, rocket power acquires freshimportance. It is, as one expert says, "the key to space supremacy. "[13]Not only is much heavier thrust required for ventures farther out intospace, but probably thrust developed by different means as well, such asatom, ion, or even photon power. This suggests the possibilities of weapons which today are considered tobe "way out" or "blue sky"--in short, farfetched. Yet they include theideas of men with solid scientific training as well as vision. Forexample, Germany's great rocket pioneer, Prof. Hermann Oberth, "hasproposed that a giant mirror in space (some 60 miles in diameter) couldbe used militarily to burn an enemy country on Earth. For peacefulpurposes, however, such a space mirror could be used to melt icebergsand alter temperatures. "[14] Another reputable German scientist who hasbeen working for a number of years on photon (electromagnetic ray) poweras a source of propulsion, declares that if such power is possible so is"the idea of a 'death ray, ' a weapon beam which burns or melts targets, such as enemy missiles, on which it is trained. The idea has beenfamiliar in science fiction for a long time and has been scorned oftenenough. Yet, if the photon rocket is possible so is the ray gun. "[15] Still another proposal, one made to the Congress, involves use of theMoon as a military base. "It could, at some future date, be used as asecure base to deter aggression. Lunar launching sites, perhaps locatedon the far side of the Moon, which could never be viewed directly fromthe Earth, could launch missiles earthward. They could be guidedaccurately during flight and to impact, and thus might serve peacefulends by deterring any would-be aggressor. "[16] In spite of the fact that ideas such as these are being sponsored bycompetent and responsible scientists, other scientists equally competentand responsible sometimes cry them down as impractical, impossible oreven childish. One engineer, for instance, describes maneuverable mannedspace vehicles as having "no military value, " bases on the Moon ashaving no military or communications use, and the idea of high velocityphoton-power for space travel as "a fantasy strictly for immaturescience fiction. " He also characterizes the reconnaissance satellite, which U. S. Military authorities have long since programmed and evenlaunched, as being "definitely submarginal * * *. A fraction of the costof a reconnaissance satellite could accomplish wonders in conventionalinformation gathering. "[17] Controversies such as these are difficult for the person who is neithera scientist nor a military expert to judge. One is inclined to recall, though, the treatment received by General Billy Mitchell for hisdevotion to nonconventional bombing concepts; the fact that the utilityof the rocket as developed by America's pioneer, Dr. Robert H. Goddard, was generally ignored during World War II; the fact that it took apersonal letter from Albert Einstein to President Roosevelt to get theManhattan Project underway. Yet today the bomber, the missile, and the nuclear weapon form thebackbone of our military posture. In other words, history seems to support the proposition that no matterhow remote or unlikely new discoveries and approaches may first appear, the military eventually finds a way to use them. Will it be any different with space exploration? OUR POSITION IN THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY Like the military values of space research, the practical value of spaceexploration in terms of world prestige has also been acknowledged almostfrom the beginning of the satellite era. The White House, in its initial statement on the national space program, declared: It is useful to distinguish among (the) factors which give importance, urgency, and inevitability to the advancement of space technology (one of which) is the factor of national prestige. To be strong and bold in space technology will enhance the prestige of the United States among the peoples of the world and create added confidence in our scientific, technological, industrial, and military strength. [18] Only recently, however, has the full impact and meaning of this phase ofour national space program come to be widely recognized. It has beenstated, perhaps in its most forceful and succinct form, by an Americanofficial in a unique position to know. The Director of the U. S. Information Agency, part of whose job is to keep track of the esteem inwhich America is held abroad, has told Congress: Our space program may be considered as a measure of our vitality and our ability to compete with a formidable rival and as a criterion of our ability to maintain technological eminence worthy of emulation by other peoples. [19] This element of space exploration takes on particular significance inlight of the current international struggle to influence the minds ofmen, in light of the rising tide of nationalism throughout the world, and in light of the intensification of the cold war as demonstrated bythe now-famous U-2 incident and the hardening attitude of orientalcommunism. In the words of an influential newspaper: Wholly apart from the intellectual compulsions that now drive man to move higher and higher into the high heavens, it seems clear that our country can be niggardly in this field only at the risk of being completely and forever outclassed by Russia--a gamble that could have the most fearful political, economic, and military consequences. [20] Incidentally, there is another prestige factor to be considered. This iswhat might be called the chain-reaction factor: the likelihood thattechnological preeminence in the space field will attract top talentfrom other parts of the world to the banner of the country whichdevelops it, and thus constantly nourish and replenish the efforts ofthat country. It is a consideration which has not received generalattention, although it has been discussed before some of the world'sleading space scientists. [21] Here again, as with the military situation, the Soviets are making everyeffort to exploit their dexterity in space. They are pursuing theprestige gambit directly and indirectly. In the first category, forexample, they give top priority to space exhibits in important publicforums--as their duplicate sputniks strategically placed at the world'sfair and the United Nations attest. Premier Khrushchev's delight inmaking gifts to foreigners of miniature Soviet pennants similar to thatcarried in Lunik II--which hit the Moon--is another instance. [22] The indirect drive for prestige via space technology is far moreimportant. It has been described by a congressional committee asfollows: It is difficult to escape the conclusion that the Soviet Union in the last several years has demonstrated a great skill in coordinating its progress in missilery, its success in space missions, and its foreign policy and world image. Shots seem to have been timed to maximize the effects of visits of Soviet leaders and to punctuate Soviet statements and positions in international negotiations. This is not to equate their space activities with hollow propaganda. Empty claims do not have a positive effect for long. Nor is there any firm evidence that it has been possible for political policymakers to call their shots at times inconsistent with good scientific and technical needs. The conclusion is rather that the many elements of scientific, technical, military, political, and psychological policy are all weighed, and tests which make a full contribution to such a combined strategy are carried out and supported with appropriate publicity. [23] There is also evidence that scientific endeavor by the Russians forprestige purposes is having repercussions on internal policy. Greatemphasis is currently being placed on the demonstrable usefulness ofscientific effort--to the extent that Soviet colleges, researchinstitutions, examining boards, and academies of science have beendirected to be more exacting in conferring scientific degrees andtitles. Newness and usefulness are requisite, but, at the same time, degrees may now be awarded for other than dissertations; inventions andtextbooks of major importance may also earn a degree for theirauthors. [24] Within the prestige context, it is true that the United States mustlabor under certain handicaps because of the nature of its democraticsystem. No effort is made in the American space program to hide the failureswhich result from its highly complex character. Our burnups, misfires, explosions, fizzles, and lost or wayward vehicles are well publicized. Those of the Soviet Union rarely are. Even though most nations are wellaware that the Russians must be having their troubles, too, theappearance of uniform success fostered by the U. S. S. R. Inevitablycontributes to an image of scientific superiority. In addition, theSoviets have developed a habit of striving for spectacular "firsts, "most of which undoubtedly are undertaken almost as much for prestigereasons as for scientific ones. [Illustration: FIGURE 4. --Symbolic of the American effort inspace is this Thor-Able rocket, shown here launching the Tiros weathersatellite into a near-perfect orbit. This same vehicle, which launchedthe record-breaking 23 million-mile communication probe--Pioneer V--hascontributed enormously to U. S. Prestige abroad. ] Still, the United States has not done badly from the prestige angle. Sofar as the world's scientific fraternity is concerned, it may even bewell in the lead. In the first 30 or so months following the opening of the space age, assignaled by the launching of Sputnik I in October 1957, the UnitedStates put 21 satellites into orbit out of 42 attempts. Two out of fivedeep-space probes were successful. The degree of success for all majorlaunchings ran better than 50 percent. The American effort has beenbased on a broad scope of inquiry and includes long-rangecommunications, weather reporting, navigation and surveillance vehicles, as well as information-gathering satellites. During the same period the Soviets launched four Earth satellites, onedeep-space probe, one lunar-impact probe and one satellite into a muchelongated Earth orbit which circled and photographed the Moon. Most oftheir vehicles have been substantially heavier than those launched bythe United States, although complete information on their scientificpurposes and the result obtained has never been disclosed. The world political value of such programs cannot be discounted. To theextent that the welfare of the United States depends upon its stature inthe eyes of the rest of the world (which is believed considerable) andto the extent that the scientific capability of the United Statesinfluences such stature (which is also believed considerable) our spaceventure has very marked practical utility. It may even mean thedifference between freedom and dictatorship, between survival andoblivion. SPACE AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR WAR A natural outgrowth of the military and prestige facets of spaceexploration is the question of whether this activity, in time, willreplace the forces which have historically driven nations into armedconflict. Any number of social scientists and historians have speculated that thismight occur. The theory is that the conquest of space may prove to bethe moral equivalent of war by substituting for certain material andpsychological needs usually supplied through war; that the absorption ofenergies, resources, imagination, and aggressiveness in pursuit of thespace adventure may become an effective way of maintaining peace. Put another way, nations might become "extroverted" to the point wheretheir urge to overcome the unknown would dwarf their historic desiresfor power, wealth, and recognition--attributes which have so often ledto war in the past. The fact that the United Nations, late in 1959, agreed to set up apermanent Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space attests to thehopes and potential of such a development. Of course, whether this condition will actually develop is anybody'sguess. But in a world where brute force is becoming increasinglydangerous and catastrophic, the bare possibility of such a result shouldnot be ignored by those who may be contemplating the values of spaceexploration. It could be the highest value of them all. [Illustration: FIGURE 5. --Today's assembly lines forautomobiles and aircraft are being supplemented by the growingastronautics industry, here shown turning out capsules for manned spaceflight. ] FOOTNOTES: [8] Public Law 85-568, 85th Cong. [9] H. Rept. 1633, 86th Cong. , 2d sess. , p. 6. [10] Speech to the Supreme Soviet, Jan. 14, 1960. [11] Associated Press dispatch, dateline London, Dec. 2, 1959. [12] Scott, Brig. Gen. Robert L. , USAF (retired), Space Age, February1959, p. 63. [13] Ostrander, Maj. Gen. Don R. , USAF, before the American RocketSociety, Los Angeles, May 10, 1960. [14] Cox, Donald and Stoiko, Michael, Spacepower, John C. Winston Co. , Philadelphia, 1958, p. 16. [15] Saenger, Dr. Eugen, New Scientist, Sept. 10, 1959, p. 383. [16] Boushey, Brig. Gen. H. A. , USAF, Hearings before the House SelectCommittee on Astronautics and Space Exploration, Apr. 23, 1958. [17] Pierce, Dr. J. R. , "The Dream World of Space, " Industrial Research, December 1959, p. 58. [18] 5 supra. [19] Allen, George V, testimony before the House Committee on Scienceand Astronautics, Jan. 22, 1960. [20] Editorial in the Washington Evening Star, Apr. 4, 1960. [21] Remarks of Hon. Aubrey Jones, Minister of Supply, to theInternational Astronautical Federation, London, Sept. 1, 1959. [22] Associated Press dispatch, dateline Rangoon, Feb. 18, 1960. [23] "Space, Missiles, and the Nation, " report of the House Committee onScience and Astronautics, May 18, 1960, p. 53. [24] The New Scientist, Mar. 3, 1960, p. 547. III. THE ECONOMIC VALUES We in the United States believe that we have the world's higheststandard of living. Our current wealth, prosperity, consumer goods andgross national product are at a peak hitherto unreached by any country. Nevertheless, economists who see the steady preponderant outflow ofgoods and capital from the United States and who study the rising rateof economic capability in other countries can find little room forcomplacence in the present status of things. They are also well aware ofthe Soviet Union's announced intent of beating the United States at itsown game: economic expansion. Military historians are likewise aware that even strong economies, whenthey become static, do not guarantee safety. On the contrary, they seemlikely to induce a dangerous national apathy. This syndrome is familiar in history. Carthage suffered from it. Carthage enjoyed enormous prosperity and was flourishing when she was destroyed by her Roman competitor. Much later, Rome had a gross national product without precedence. Her wealth and splendor were unsurpassed when the Vandals and Visigoths began their onslaughts. Neither Rome's great engineering skills, its architectural grandeur, its great laws, nor, in the last analysis, its gross national product, could prevail against the barbarians. Their GNP was negligible; nevertheless they ransacked the mighty Roman Empire. The gross national product is no insurance of survival. It is not a sign of military strength, and indeed, it may not even be sufficient for the economic battle. [25] Thus from the point of view of economic stimulus and continuedcommercial dynamism, space exploration should be--and is proving tobe--a godsend. U. S. EXPENDITURES ON SPACE It is impossible to arrive at accurate figures which might help indicatethe extent of this effort in dollars and cents. But we do know that theU. S. Government is presently putting about $3. 5 billion annually intothe research and development phases. How much more may be going into thepurchase of completed space hardware is difficult to say; certainly itis a higher figure still. The National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration, in presenting its 10-year plan to Congress recently, indicated that this agency alone expects to average between $1. 5 and $2billion a year during the next decade. The amount of effort going into space-related programs on the part ofprivate industry, measured in dollars, again can only be roughlyestimated. But it is a sizable figure and is known to be growing. It mayamount to half the governmental research and development outlay. These figures add up to a very important segment of the nationaleconomy, and the fact that they represent a highly active andprogressive segment is particularly heartening to the economic expertsof the Nation. THE SPREAD OF ECONOMIC BENEFITS One of the most useful characteristics of the space program is that itsneeds "spread across the entire industrial spectrum--electronics, metals, fuels, ceramics, machinery, plastics, instruments, textiles, thermals, cryogenics, and a thousand other areas. "[26] The benefits fromspace exploration thus have a way of filtering into almost every area ofthe American economy, either directly or indirectly. "Perhaps thegreatest economic treasure is the advanced technology required for moreand more difficult space missions. This new technology is advancing at ameteoric rate. Its benefits are spreading throughout our wholeindustrial and economic system. "[27] A graphic example of the manner in which the technological and economicbenefits from the space program can grow may be seen from thedevelopment of the X-15. This rocket craft, designed to "fly" beyond theEarth's atmosphere at altitudes up to 100 miles, is the product of 400different firms and contractors. Inasmuch as other nations, those which generally have lagged behind theUnited States in technical know-how, are now rapidly bringing theirtechnology up to date--this windfall from our space program isespecially opportune. It is providing the incentive to American industryto remain in the world's technological van. And it is emphasizing thateconomic leadership is a dynamic thing, that U. S. Mass-productiontechniques which have enabled the Nation to compete so well in foreignmarkets are no longer, of themselves, sufficient guarantee of superioreconomic position. While America's space exploration program, on a formal basis, came intobeing as recently as October 1958, its impact on the national economyhas probably been sharper than that of any single new program everconceived. For there are now at least 5, 000 companies or researchorganizations engaged in the missile-space industry. And more than 3, 200different space-related products have been required and are beingproduced to date. [28] One can only speculate on the economic effect which the space program ishaving on investments or on investors who have no other connection withit. It seems significant, however, that the stock market pages in recentmonths have come to devote a good deal of attention to "space issues. "Financially speaking, space has thus become a major category. That ithas done so in such a short period would seem to have markedimplications for the future. In brief, space exploration is becoming almost an industry in itself, and there are those who believe it destined to become the largestindustrial spur in the Nation before too many years have gone by. One expert, an experienced hand not only in astronautics but in thebusiness world as well, describes the outlook in this fashion: "A greatindustrial change is taking place in the United States. The aircraftindustry, which long considered missiles as a small department, nowfinds itself becoming a part of the large missile and space flightindustry. It is an elemental evolution. An industrial change is upon uscomparable to the advent of mercantilism. "[29] He has predicted thatwithin a decade or so the astronautics industry will be larger than theautomotive industry of the entire world. While such predictions may be overly optimistic, they can scarcely bedismissed as irresponsible in the light of what has already happened. [Illustration: FIGURE 6. --Booster engines of tomorrow, such asthis mockup of the 1, 500, 000 pound thrust single engine, will placebroad requirements on men and materials. ] CREATION OF NEW INDUSTRIES Whether or not we think of the missile-space business as being aself-contained industry, the requirements and exigencies of spaceexploration can be expected to result in the creation of new or greatlystrengthened industrial branches, for example: _Research_ This phase of the American economy is having a phenomenal growth. Notonly have many established industries now placed research high on theirorganizational charts, but hundreds, perhaps thousands, of newbusinesses are springing up which are entirely devoted to research anddevelopment. R. & D. , as it is called, is their stock in trade, theironly product. And space exploration appears to have given them theirgreatest boost. One recent study on the subject regards research as the fourth majorindustrial revolution to take place in American history, following theadvents of steam mechanization, steel, electricity-and-internalcombustion engines. The fourth industrial revolution, ours, is unique in the number of people working on it, its complexity, and its power to push the economy at a rate previously impossible. Today between 5, 000 and 50, 000 _technical entrepreneurs_ (top R. & D. Engineers, leading scientists, and highly effective technical managers) are directly analogous to an estimated 50 to 500 men in all of the first three periods. Thus about 100 times the effort in terms of qualitative (effective, creative, patent-producing) manpower is being spent on the fourth revolution as on the other three combined. Total manpower, of course, is much more than that: there are probably 700, 000 engineers and industrially oriented scientists in the United States today, as against 2, 000 even as late as Edison's first high voltage light bulb. Whereas Edison worked with 20 to 100 scientists in his laboratory, and Fulton labored alone, there are 5, 000 industrial laboratories today employing from 20 to 7, 300 technical men each. [30] _New power sources_ One of the greatest demands of spacecraft of the future will be for newsources of power. While rocket propulsion power is part of this picture, the power needed to operate space vehicles after launching may prove tobe the larger and more important need. Progress has already been made inthis direction by use of special kinds of batteries and solar cellswhich convert the sun's rays into electric current. But these will needsupplementing or replacing eventually as greater power becomesnecessary. It would be rash to predict the outcome of this complicated field, butcertain very promising methods can be listed. One is the fuel cell, which converts fuel directly into electric powerwithout the necessity for machinery or working parts. Much progress hasbeen made on the fuel cell in recent months. In England a 40-cell unithas been used to drive a forklift truck and to do electric welding. Itdevelops up to 5 kilowatts. [31] In the United States a 30-cell portablepowerplant developing 200 watts has been delivered to the Army andMarine Corps, [32] while a 1, 000-unit cell has been developed in theMidwest which provides 15 kilowatts and drives a tractor. [33] Another method is plasma power, or power generated through the use ofhot ionized gas. Such gas acts as a conductor of electricity and whenemployed as a "magnetohydrodynamics" generator it can be used for avariety of purposes. It has the advantage of being simple, rugged, andefficient. Some day it may also prove very economical. Already 10municipal areas along the Mason-Dixon line are preparing to experimentwith electric power derived from this source. [34] It has been estimatedthat "as much as 1 million watts could be generated by shooting a streamof plasma at speeds three times that of sound through a magnetic fieldonly 3 feet long and with the magnetic poles 6 inches apart. "[35] [Illustration: FIGURE 7. --The possible power source for spaceships of the future, the ion jet, has significant counterpart uses forthe commercial world. ] Another possible source is photoelectric power. While a number of verydifficult problems block the practical generation of this kind of power, the astronautics research division of one American company has nowsucceeded in increasing the efficiency of photoelectric cells by afactor of more than 300. [36] So the possibilities in this area arelooking up. As discussed in section II, photon power derived from theejection of electromagnetic rays may someday prove a source foraccelerating vehicles once they have escaped from Earth's gravity. Another possibility, of course, is atomic energy about which much hasbeen said and written. If, as some scientists believe, extensive spaceexploration by manned crews will depend on harnessing this great sourceof energy--both for booster purposes and for operating spacecraft in thedistant parts of our interplanetary system--this fact alone may assurethat the obstacles to practical nuclear energy are overcome faster andmore completely than would otherwise be the case. It is interesting tonote that the science of controlling nuclear fusion (as opposed tofission) has come so far in the past several years that 11 private powercompanies are pooling their resources to advance this state of theart. [37] _New water sources and uses_ A look into the future indicates very strongly that water will become amajor world problem, possibly by the beginning of the 1970's, which islikely to be another "dry" decade. Present water supplies, coupled withthe increasing population and the many new uses for water, are barelyadequate now. In another 10 years the situation could be critical. Part of our national space program includes studies on how to use andreuse water to the best advantage of the human in space. A number ofavenues are being followed, including vaporization of volatiles inbiological wastes. [38] From research of this kind it is more than possible that knowledge willevolve which will prove useful in the practical production of freshwater from other chemical compounds or mixtures, including seawater. More than that, it could lead to new ways for extracting much neededmaterials from the sea. Seawater contains 40 basic elements, 19 inrelatively copious amounts. These elements run from 18, 980 parts partsper million of chlorine to 0, 0000002 part per billion of radium. Yet, sofar, we have learned to extract only bromine and magnesium in usefulamounts. [39] Conversely, the study of how marine animals extract rareelements from the seawater, such as the extraction of copper compoundsby the octopus, could provide astronautic researchers with importantclues for keeping man alive in space. _Noise and human engineering_ This is a field in which research has been going on seriously for only afew years. Most of it has developed since World War II. Humanengineering is involved primarily with the reaction of people to theirimmediate surroundings and how to arrange those surroundings in order topermit the most comfortable and efficient functioning within them. The noise aspect of human engineering, as it may develop from theproblems of astronauts operating in a silent world, could lead to avariety of innovations for improving the performance of workers or eventhe general attitude of people living in urban areas. In today's world, where humans are subjected to so many different kinds, degrees, andsources of noise, psychologists consider the matter to be of no smallimportance. _High speed-light weight computers_ Space vehicles now need electronic computers for determining the moment of launch, for fixing orbits, for navigation, and for processing collected data. Computers will precede man into space. They will take over guidance and decision functions beyond limits of human physiology, psychology, versatility, and reaction time. [40] The trend in this direction is marked and space exploration isaccelerating it. Because of weight and size limitations, and due to thegenius of research, the giant electronic brain of today will soondisappear and be replaced with an apparatus only a small fraction of itspresent size. The implications for the business and professional worldare great. And a not inconsiderable side effect, according to manymodern technicians, will be the flood of brainpower released fromtime-consuming chores and thus made available for more basic, creativethought. [Illustration: FIGURE 8. --The needs of tomorrow's spacemen willlead to marked advances in human engineering and psychology. ] _Solid state physics_ Few areas of effort are advancing this extremely promising art fasterthan space exploration, which places a premium on light weight and smallsize. The miniaturization of equipment being placed in U. S. Satellites, for example, has been one of the contemporary wonders of the world ofscience. A big part of this march toward tiny equipment is in the field ofelectronics, where the process is called microminiaturization, molecularelectronics, micromodular engineering or a number of other terms. Inessence it refers to the greatly reduced size of equipment through"integrated circuits, " coupled functions, the building of complicatedcomponents into a single molecular design and so on. The art has proceeded to the point where complete radios can be reducedto the size of a lump of sugar. Clearly, this trend holds almost unlimited utility for the home, thefactory, the marketplace, the highway, the hospital or just about anyother arena one cares to name. So great is the promise that virtuallyevery electronics company in the country is undertaking "to take thestate of the art into fundamentally new areas" and there exploit itsmany possibilities. [41] ECONOMIC ALLIANCES It may be that our national space exploration program will also resultin stronger economic alliances, not only within our own national bordersbut on an international basis. Interesting speculation to this effecthas been advanced by a prominent official of the National Aeronauticsand Space Administration: I think we may expect that the combined influence of jet aircraft and satellite communications systems will enable us to integrate the now somewhat distant States of Hawaii and Alaska with the rest of the States as thoroughly as the East and West are already integrated. Second, and in many ways a more intriguing possibility, is the prospect of developing a truly international economic organization. It is quite apparent that even today a large fraction of the economy of the United States is dependent upon foreign trade. Some nations of the world, such as England or Japan, are almost entirely dependent upon foreign trade for their basic standard of living; however, current foreign trade practices are necessarily based on a somewhat leisurely pattern enforced by our current communications capacity. Whether we will be able to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of our activities in foreign trade through the use of the new communications facilities now foreseen will of course depend upon our political ability to work out viable arrangements for our mutual benefit with our oversea friends. One of the lessons of history in the fields of communications is that an increase in capability has never gone unused. The capability of doing new things has always resulted in it being found profitable to use this capability in all fields, both commercial and governmental. [42] PRIVATE ENTERPRISE IN SPACE Up to now space exploration has been more or less the exclusive domainof the Federal Government. It seems likely that this situation will notchange much in the near future. But the question finally arises: Is thenature of space such that the traditional American concept of privateenterprise can have no place in it? On this score there is debate. Recently, however, there have beenindications that businessmen feel they will be able to conduct certainbusiness operations and services in space. The space frontier will inevitably increase the scale of thinking and risk taking by business. When we are dealing with space, we are dealing with a technology that requires a planetary scale to stage it; decades of time to develop it; and much bigger investments to get across the threshold of economic return than is customary in business today. Business must now think in international terms, and in terms of the next business generation. It must step up to the big risks with the same vision that enabled an earlier generation of builders to push railroad tracks out across the wilderness and lay the foundations of our modern economy. [43] Incidentally, it should be pointed out that space exploration is alreadyencouraging the formation of business of all sizes. Myriads of smallbusinesses have sprung up, many of them "suppliers of specialtyequipment for the larger concerns that have responsibility for majorcomponents and systems. "[44] To what extent will private enterprise become involved? Here is oneview: As the years pass by, and space apparatus becomes more reliable, and the work of obtaining scientific data from space acquires a more routine character--certainly many of the necessary operating facilities could be put on a self-liquidating, private-industry basis. Probably the first opportunities for private investment will come in the commercial use of satellites. Looking even further into the future of space exploration, perhaps there would be economic justification for a privately owned launching service that would put objects into space for the peaceful purposes of friendly governments, international agencies, industry, and the universities. The base itself, from which the commercial launching service would operate, might be modeled after a port authority. Such a nonmilitary, international space port could develop as a center for many private enterprises related to space operations. These might include service and maintenance facilities; data-processing services; space communication centers; laboratory facilities; standardized equipment for satellites and other space vehicles; fuel supplies; medical services; biological services; and general supplies. Moving away from the idea of a commercial space port, must all future tracking stations, observatories, and data-processing stations be Government owned? How about experimental stations for the simulation of space environments? How about laboratories and stations actually constructed in space? Or will privately owned facilities one day offer these services on an international basis to governments, industries, universities, and international agencies? Most likely the first businesses suitable for commercial operation, using space technologies, will be worldwide communication by satellite, private weather forecasting, and high-speed Earth transport by rocket. [45] [Illustration: FIGURE 9. --The electric and electronic needs ofthe space program are requiring more and more skilled labor. ] JOBS There probably is no reliable way to gage the number of Americans whoare employed today because of the national space effort, nor to estimateaccurately the number who are likely to be employed in the years ahead. This much can be said, though. They already number in the tens ofthousands, probably in the hundreds of thousands. The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administrationhas reported that his agency presently employs 18, 000 persons. And headds "in spite of the size of this organization, we estimate thatapproximately 75 percent of our budget will be expended throughcontracts with industry, educational institutions, and othernongovernmental groups. " Thus the number of persons privately employed who are working on NASAprojects is, of itself, a high figure. The number employed in, by, orfor the Department of Defense on missiles or space-related projects isundoubtedly higher. In addition to these must be added the men and women employed by privateindustry in a capacity not directly related to the space program butwhose jobs have been created nonetheless by its stimulus. The fact is that the military and peaceful needs of the space program are already employing a significant percentage of the industrial work force, and will make up an even larger proportion of total employment and production of the country as the years go by. The aircraft industry, for example, is broadening its scope to include missile and space technologies. Much of the electronics industry is devoted to missile and space needs. The communications, chemical, and metallurgical industries are increasingly involved. These industries are already among the largest employers in the United States, and they are the major employers of the Nation's technical manpower. Hence we are not speaking of a minor element in the national economy, but of its leading growth industries. [46] This phase of the space program's value should not be eyed merely fromthe standpoint of scientists and the labor market. It has majorsignificance for the professions--for doctors, lawyers, architects, teachers, and engineers. All of these will be vitally concerned withspace exploration in the future. The doctor with space medicine and itsresults; the lawyer with business relations and a vastly increased needfor knowledge in international law; the architect with the constructionof spaceports and data and tracking facilities; the teacher with thebooming demand for new types of space-engendered curricula. As for the engineer-- In this pyramid of scientific and engineering effort there will be found requirements for the services of almost every type of scientist and engineer to a greater or less degree. In the forefront, of course, are the aerospace and astronautical engineers but the development of the Saturn launching vehicle has also enlisted the cooperation of civil, mechanical, electrical, metallurgical, chemical, automotive, structural, radio, and electronics engineers. Much of their work relates to ground handling equipment, special automotive and barge equipment, checkout equipment, and all the other devices needed to support the design, construction, testing, launching, and data gathering. [47] AUTOMATION AND DISARMAMENT Finally, an economic value of extreme importance could be the ultimaterole of the space program in modifying the threat to labor which isinherent in automation and disarmament. Space exploration, opening upnew and profitable vistas, could take up much of the slack thus imposedand do it at a higher and more intellectual job level. Automation, as we know, is already in the process. In agriculture aloneit has bitten deeply into the laboring force and yet produces greatercrops than ever. [48] It is gathering strength in many other fields. Disarmament is a long way from being a reality. But all nations of theworld are striving for it, or at least giving lipservice to itsprinciples, so it may one day emerge as a reality. If this happens, space exploration again may be a most important element in taking up theslack which a prominent reduction in defense activity could not help butbring about. Indeed, there are some who already foresee a complete substitution ofspace for defense, and who prognosticate that in the 1990's "the economyof nations is now based on the astronautics industry, instead ofwar. "[49] Certainly, some new economic force would be crucial to nationsdeprived of the need for devising and manufacturing weapons. [Illustration: FIGURE 10. --A host of new materials, skills, andengineering techniques are bound up in the construction of rocketengines such as this first stage booster. ] FOOTNOTES: [25] Gavin, James M. , address to the International Bankers Association, Bal Harbour, Fla. , Dec. 2, 1958. [26] Mitchell, Hon. Erwin, in the House of Representatives, June 2, 1960. [27] Dryden, Dr. Hugh L. , Deputy Administrator, NASA, Penrose lecturebefore the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Apr. 21, 1960. [28] Missile-Space Directory, Missiles and Rockets, May 30, 1960, pp. 86-359. [29] Haley, Andrew G. , general counsel and past president of theInternational Astronautical Federation, "Rocketry and SpaceExploration. " Van Nostrand Co. , Princeton, N. J. , 1958 p. 156. [30] Ruzic, Neil P. , "The Technical Entrepreneur, " Industrial Research, May 1980, p. 10. [31] Bacon, F. T. , "The Fuel Cell, Power Source of the Future, " NewScientist, Aug. 17, 1959, p. 272. [32] Science Service dispatch, dateline Lynn, Mass. , Apr. 25, 1950. [33] Sharp, James M. , "The Application of Fuel Cells in the Natural GasIndustry, " Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Tex. , Mar. 4, 1960, pp. 2-3. [34] Lear, John, "Towns To Be Lit by Plasma, " New Scientist, Nov. 19, 1959, p. 1006. [35] Pursglove S. David, Industrial Research, March 1950 p. 19. [36] Ibid. [37] Ibid. , p. 18. [38] Space Business Daily, June 13, 1960. [39] Cox, Dr. R. A. , "The Chemistry of Seawater, " New Scientist, Sept. 24, 19459, p. 518. [40] Hines, L. J. , Space Age News, Apr. 25, 1960, p. 4. [41] Gaertner, W. W. , "Functional Microelectronics, " Missile Design andDevelopment, March 1960, p. 34. [42] Stewart, Dr. Homer J. , address to the American Bar Association, Miami Beach, Aug. 25, 1959. [43] Cordiner, Ralph J. , "Competitive Private Enterprise in Space, "lecture at U. C. L. A. , May 4, 1960 [44] Ibid. [45] Ibid. [46] Ibid. [47] 27 supra. [48] See "The Problem of Plenty, " U. S. News & World Report, Apr. 13, 1959, p. 97. [49] Markuwitz, Meyer M. , and Gentieu, Norman P. , "The Rocket, A Pastand Future History, " Industrial Research, December 1959, p. 78. IV. VALUES FOR EVERYDAY LIVING The so-called side effects of the space exploration program are showinga remarkable ability to produce innovations which, in turn, improve thequality of everyday work and everyday living throughout the UnitedStates. In setting forth specific ways and means in which the space program isproducing practical uses, it must be kept in mind that no attempt ismade here to separate uses resulting from the civil phases of theprogram from those developed by the military phases. Inasmuch as the twoare closely intertwined, it would seem impractical to do so. And, ininstances where the same or similar research is being conducted by asingle contractor on behalf of both phases, it is usually impossible todo so. TECHNOLOGICAL BENEFITS This category of the practical uses of the space program is impressiveindeed. Most of us are familiar with the plans which the United States has forusing artificial satellites in ways which will be beneficial to allmankind. These include the satellite used for worldwide communications, for global television, for quick and accurate navigation, and for muchimproved weather prediction and weather understanding. Here, however, is a summary of space-related developments about whichthe American public has heard considerably less: First, there is the high-speed computer. Developed initially to meet military demands for faster calculation, the computer is an integral part of American industry, making it possible to do many operations with a high degree of efficiency and accuracy. Thermoelectric devices for heating and cooling, now adapted for commercial applications, were originally designed to provide energy sources for space vehicles. The glass industry, as a result of work done during and after the Second World War on lenses and plastics, promises substantial gains in the consumer fields of optics and foods. Pyroceram, developed for missile radomes, is now being used in the manufacture of pots and pans. Materials suitable for use in the nuclear preservation of food may make us even better fed than we already are. Medical research, and our health problems, can use such things as film resistance thermometers. Electronic equipment capable of measuring low-level electrical signals is being adapted to measure body temperature and blood flow. In a dramatic breakthrough, illustrating the unexpected benefits of research, it has been found that a derivative of hydrazine, developed as a liquid missile propellant, is useful in treating certain mental illnesses and tuberculosis. Of course, the aeronautics industry has benefited tremendously. Engines, automatic pilots, radar systems, flight equipment, capable of meeting the high standards required by space vehicles represent a great improvement over our already excellent aircraft. A plasma arc torch (has been) developed for fabricating ultrahard materials and coatings by mass production methods. The torch, an outgrowth of plasma technology, develops heats of 30, 000 degrees and can work within tolerances of two-thousandths of an inch. Another application from the missile field, which shows real possibilities, is a reliable flow meter that has no packings or bearings. This was first developed for measuring liquefied gases and should have a very wide industrial usefulness. It may even lead to improvements in marine devices for measuring distance and velocity. Ground-to-air missiles that ride a beam to their targets must measure the distance to the target plane with an accuracy of a few feet in several miles. This principle, now being applied to surveying techniques, has revolutionized the surveying industry. The solenoid valve, which seats itself softly enough to eliminate vibration, has been applied very satisfactorily to home-heating systems. The use of the jet drilling for mining is another, and worthy of amplification. Missiles are already working the economically unminable taconite ore of the Mesabi Range, have helped build the St. Lawrence Seaway, and are bringing down costs in quarrying. It is estimated that taconite will be supplying about a third of our ores in less than 20 years. Until 1947 we were unable to mine this very hard rock, and then suitable rotary and churn drills were produced. Jet drilling, now available, cracks and crumbles stone layers by thermally induced expansion and is somewhere between 3 and 5 times faster than rotaries. Jet piercing can take us far deeper into the earth than we have been able to go so far, to new sources of ore and hydrocarbons. In stone quarrying, jet spalling and channeling are proven techniques. Stone quarrying has been expensive and wasteful heretofore. Rocket flame equipment allows cutting along the natural cleavage planes, or crystal boundaries--hence cuts stone thin without danger of cracking and, in addition, produces a fine finish that cannot be obtained when cutting by steel or abrasive tools. Scientific literature is beginning to contain speculations on using the principle of the missile engine to save unstable intermediate products of the chemical processes. The high heats achieved in the rocket engine can, perhaps, be utilized to produce desired products that would be lost by slow cooling. But the high rate of cooling accomplished by expanding gases through the engine nozzle, it is thought, would save these unstable compounds. Infrared has come into its own through missile electronics. Infrared--since it cannot be jammed--appears to be challenging radar for use in guidance devices, tracking systems, and reconnaissance vehicles. Infrared is being used industrially to measure the compositions of fluids in complex processes of chemical petroleum refining and distilling. Infrared cameras are used in analyzing metallurgical material processing operations, to aid in accuracy and quality control. The entire infrared field should be significantly assisted in its growth and application through our missile-space programs. Another very promising outcome from missile development is a computer converter that can quickly transform analogue signals--such as pressure measurements--into digital form. In the near future, when guidance devices permit soft landing, rocket cargo and passenger transport will become feasible. Mail may become almost as swift as telephone. We are making rapid progress in the economics of space travel: payload costs for Vanguard were about $1 billion a pound; for the near future launchings, payload cost should be about $1, 000 per pound. When payload costs are about a hundred dollars a pound we may expect commercial space flight. [50] Hundreds of other examples of the space program's value for everydayliving could be cited. One with wide possibilities is a new welding process by using ahigh-powered electron beam gun, developed for the fabrication ofspaceships and other space vehicles. This method permits welding jointscapable of withstanding temperatures up to 3, 000° F. ; it can be used onmetals such as molybdenum and pure tungsten. And, its developers say, itresults in welded joints that have deep penetration and narrow weldbeads that are virtually free of contamination. [51] Another ingenius application, resulting from the Navy's space researchprogram, has significant utility for medicine and surgery. This is aglass fiber device which, when placed in the mouth during dental work orin the area of surgical incision, permits a much magnified televising ofthe operation. It holds considerable promise for teaching techniques inmany fields. [52] Another example is a finely woven stainless steel cloth designed forparachuting space vehicles back to Earth. The cloth is made of fine wireof great strength which can withstand tremendous temperatures andchemical contamination. The wire from which the cloth is woven is aboutone-fifth the thickness of a human hair and is believed to have markedpotential for industry and consumers alike. Here is an additional list of examples:[53] Microminiature transmitters and receivers--used by police and doctors. Target drone autopilot--used as an inexpensive pilot assist and safety device for private aircraft. Inert thread sealing compound--- used by pump manufacturers serving process industries. Satellite scan devices--used in infrared appliances, e. G. , lamps, roasters, switches, ovens. Automatic control components--used as proximity switches, plugs, valves, cylinders; other components already are an integral part of industrial conveyor systems. Missile accelerometers, torquemeters, strain gage equipment--used in auto crash tests, motor testing, shipbuilding and bridge construction. Space recording equipment automatically stopped and started by sound of voice--used widely as conference recorder. Armalite radar--used as proximity warning device for aircraft. Miniature electronics and bearings--used for portable radio and television; excessively small roller, needle and ball bearings used for such equipment as air-turbine dental drills. Epoxy missile resin--used for plastic tooling, metal bonding, adhesive, and casting and laminating applications. Silicones for motor insulation and subzero lubricants--used in new glassmaking techniques for myriad products. Ribbon glass for capacitors--used widely in electronics field. Radar bulbs--used in air traffic control equipment. Ribbon cable for missiles--used in the communications industry. Automatic gun cameras--used in banks, toll booths, etc. Fluxless aluminum soldering--used for kitchen utensil repair, gutters, flashings, antennas, electrical joints, auto repairing, farm machinery, etc. Lightweight hydraulic pumps--used in automated machinery and pneumatic control systems. Voice interruption priority system--used for assembly line production control. Examples such as the foregoing, it might be pointed out, do not generally emphasize an area in which space exploration is making one of its greatest contributions. This is the creation of new materials, metals, fabrics, alloys, and compounds that are finding their way rapidly into the commercial market. Less demonstrable but equally (and perhaps more) significant areas which may expect to benefit from space exploration are set out beginning on page 35. [Illustration. FIGURE 11. --Vital information about the forceswhich cause weather can be learned from meteorological satellites suchas these. Even a slight increase in the accuracy of weather predictionwill be worth millions of dollars annually. ] FOOD AND AGRICULTURE An extremely difficult problem bound up with space travel of anyduration is that of food. Astronauts will not be able to take largesupplies of food on their voyages and probably will have to reuse whatthey do take. Learning how to do this is no easy matter. Some doubt ifit can be done. Others are optimistic. The body of scientists now working directly on space feeding and nutrition is working effectively at a rate only attained by high motivation. But this motivation suffices and their efforts will ultimately provide at least a partially closed space feeding system by the time it is critically needed and, eventually, an ideal one for long voyages of man into the remoter reaches of outer space. [54] If the optimists are right, it is conceivable that the information gamedfrom this research will have profound influence on food and agriculturalprocesses in the future. The use and growth of synthetics or new foods, and their effects on the soil, could prove invaluable as the worldspopulation climbs and the demand for food multiplies. Betterunderstanding of weather processes, as provided through spaceexploration, will also be valuable in terms of agriculture. Long-rangeaccurate weather prediction would be worth millions of dollars in propercrops planted and crop damage avoided. Meanwhile, as in other technological areas, space research is providingspecific new tools for the food and agriculture industry. Infrared foodblanching, for instance, is highly effective in preparing foods forcanning or freezing. The development of a new forage harvester based onprinciples of aerodynamics uncovered by missile engineers is anotherexample. COMMUNICATIONS This is a field of enormous promise, and its practicality has alreadybeen demonstrated to the extent of placing satellites into preciseorbits, such as Tiros (weather) and Transit (navigation), and ofcommunicating at long distances--23 million miles in the case of PioneerV. As a result: Government and industry technicians are rapidly developing new Earth satellites to beam not only television programs but radio broadcasts and phone conversations to every spot on Earth that's equipped to receive them. Thus this space project, far more than most, will touch the ordinary citizen. The goal: a workable, worldwide communications system in space before this decade is over. It will be, declares one researcher, "the ultimate in communications. "[55] Incidentally, the first worldwide communications system of this type, and whether it is conducted in English or Russian, may have crucialprestige and propaganda ramifications. Such facilities should be possible through a system of carefully placedsatellites so that radio signals can be relayed to any part of the globeat any time. Moreover they appear to be essential when one considers that within thenext 20 years existing techniques are apt to be stretched beyondreasonable economic limits by demands for long distance communications. It is difficult to see how transoceanic television will otherwise bepossible when it is realized that there is presently a capacity of lessthan 100 telephone channels across the Atlantic and a single televisionchannel is equivalent in band width to 1, 000 telephone channels. Itappears that a system utilizing satellites is the most promisingsolution to this problem. [56] More esoteric communications systems may also arise from space research. In some future year when a cruising space vehicle communicates with another space vehicle or its orbiting station, it may use a beam of light instead of conventional radio. Not that radio will be inoperative under the airless conditions of space--rather the reverse--but there is reason to believe that communication by sunlight not only will be cheaper but will entail carrying much simpler and lighter equipment for certain specialized space applications. (The Air Force) is developing an experimental system that will collect sun rays, run them through a modulator, direct the resultant light wave in a controlled beam to a receiver. There the wave will be put through a detector, transposed into an electrical impulse and be amplified to a speaker. Depending on the type of modulator used, either the digital (dot-dash) message or a voice message can be sent. [57] Might not such a system find practical usage on Earth, particularly insunny, arid lands? WEATHER PREDICTION AND MODIFICATION Meteorological satellites should make possible weather observations overthe entire globe. Today, only 20 percent of the globe is covered by anyregular observational and reporting systems. If we can solve theproblems of handling the vast amounts of data that will be received, develop methods for timely analysis of the data and the notification ofweather bureaus throughout the world, we should be able to improve by asignificant degree the accuracy of weather predictions. An improvementof only 10 percent in accuracy could result in savings totaling hundredsof millions of dollars annually to farmers, builders, airlines, shipping, the tourist trade, and many other enterprises. Perhaps even greater savings will come from warning systems devised forhurricanes and tornadoes. The slight knowledge which humans actually have of weather forces can beseen from the fact that at present we do not even know exactly how rainbegins. [58] Learning to predict it and to modify it, through spaceapplication, might help slow down the soil erosion of arable land--that"geological inevitability * * * which man can only hasten orpostpone. "[59] It is noteworthy that the two leading nations in spaceresearch, the United States and the U. S. S. R. , are among the mostaffected by soil erosion. The "leg up" which the United States has in this particular phase ofspace research is illustrated by the acute photographic talents of theTiros satellite and their meaning to weather experts. The followingdescription of some of the earliest pictures by the Director of theOffice of Meteorological Research, U. S. Weather Bureau, is illuminating. This picture, labeled "No. 1, " was the storm that was picked up in the early orbits of Tiros on the first day of launch, April 1. This shows the storm 120 miles east of Cape Cod, with dry continental air streaming off the United States, not shown by clouds, and off the coast the moist air streaming up to the north, counterclockwise around the center, producing widespread clouds and precipitation as far north as the Gulf of St. Lawrence. On that same day mention was made of a storm in the Midwest. That is illustrated by photograph No. 2. This was centered over southeast Nebraska, a rather extensive storm. Again, we have a clear air portion shown by a dark area, the ground underneath, which has less brightness than the clouds, the cold air from Canada streaming into that area, not characterized by clouds, and to the east the moist air from the Gulf of Mexico, in this general neighborhood, streaming around into that center and producing rather widespread rains. In this case near the Gulf of Mexico, where the cloud is extremely bright, indicating that the clouds are very high, thunderstorms were found in that area. [Illustration: FIGURE 12. --Storm center over Nebraska photographed by the first U. S. Weather satellite, Tiros, on April 1, 1960. The extent of the picture can be seen from the accompanying weather map. ] It is a sort of situation in which tornadoes are to be found in this very bright cloudy area, especially this time of year in the Midwest. A third vortex was observed, also April 1, in the Gulf of Alaska, 500 miles southeast of Kodiak Island. The vortex circulation is clearly evidenced by the clouds which form in a circular array, and the large clear area in the center of the storm. No. 4 picture refers to a very big storm 1, 500 miles in diameter located 300 miles west of Ireland on April 2. This is a very old storm which was whirling around, had no fronts associated with it. It has long since wound up around the center. There is a rather well-marked structure to the clouds that you can see. It is quite different from the pictures in the first two. These are storms mostly over the continental area or just off the coast. The storms over the oceans seem to show more of a banded structure. By that I mean circular bands of clouds, of width perhaps ranging from 20 miles to a few hundred miles, spiraling around the center in a counterclockwise manner. [60] HEALTH BENEFITS Of all the problems contingent upon space flight it is doubtful if anyare more perplexing than the biological ones. In fact, it now appearsquite likely that the limiting factor on manned space exploration willbe less the nature of physical laws or the shortcoming of space vehiclesystems than the vulnerability of the human body. In order to place humans in space for any extended period, we must solvea host of highly complicated biological equations which demand intensivebasic research. The other side of the coin, however, is that whenscientific breakthroughs do occur in this area, they will probably beamong the most beneficial to come from the space program. An idea of what is going on in the space medicine field can be obtainedfrom this summary: Engineers already have equipped man with the vehicle for space travel. Medical researchers now are investigating many factors incident to the maintenance of space life--to make possible man's flight into the depths of space. Placing man in a wholly new environment requires knowledge far beyond our current grasp of human biology. Here are some of the problems under investigation: The determination of man's reactions; the necessity of operating in a completely closed system compatible with man's physiological requirements (oxygen and carbon dioxide content, food, barometric pressure, humidity and temperature control); explosive decompression; psychophysiological difficulties of spatial disorientation as a result of weightlessness; toxicology of metabolites and propellants; effects of cosmic, solar, and nuclear ionizing radiation and protective shielding and treatment; effects on man's circulatory system from accelerative and decelerative g. Forces; the establishment of a thermoneutral range for man to exist through preflight, flight, and reentry; regeneration of water and food. [61] In addition, intensive efforts are being brought to bear on suchproblems as the effect on humans who are deprived of their sensoryperceptions, or whose sensory systems are overloaded, or who are exposedto excessive boredom or anxiety or sense of unreality, or who must dotheir job under hypnosis or hypothermia (cooling of warm-bloodedanimals). A recent space medicine symposium heard this theory advanced by aprominent medical scholar: Attractive, indeed, for the space traveler would be the choice of hibernating during long periods when there was nothing he had to do. With the increase of speeds and the lowering of metabolism, consideration of flights running several hundred or even thousands of years cannot be offhandedly dismissed as mere fantasy. During prolonged flights of many months or years there will be very little to see and that of negligible interest. The most practical way of dealing with the problem might well be to have the pilot sleep 23 of the 24 hours. [62] Lowering the body temperature would be one way of inducing the necessarydeep sleep. Another possibility of handling some of the biological problems of spaceflight, suggested by another physician, would be for astronauts todiscard the 24-hour Earth day and establish a longer rhythm for theirlives. [63] At any rate, and while we may not now see just how it will come about, knowledge gained from experiments such as these may result in importantmedical and psychological advances. In the drug and technological area of medicine, concrete benefits havealready resulted from the national space program. These include, asalready mentioned, a drug developed from a missile propellant to treatmental ills, a means of rapidly lowering blood temperature inoperations, and a small efficient valve which could replace the valve ina human heart. Particularly gratifying, from the standpoint of medical value is theArmy's work toward an anti-radiation drug which could be taken beforeexposure to reduce the biological effects of radiation. [64] Such a drug, which is of special interest to astronauts who might be required tosubject themselves to varying belts of radiation, might be of evengreater use in the cause of civil defense. A final and far-reaching phase of the health side of space explorationdeals with the basic nature of biology itself--how and under whatconditions life grows. Up to now biological science has been largely"the rationalization of particular facts and we have had all too limiteda basis for the construction and testing of meaningful axioms to supporta theory of life. "[65] Through research made possible by the spaceprogram it may be possible to alter this condition. "The dynamics ofcelestial bodies, as can be observed from the Earth, is the richestinspiration for the generalization of our concepts of mass and energythroughout the universe. The spectra of the stars likewise testify tothe universality of our concepts in chemistry. But biology has lackedtools of such extension, and life until now has meant only terrestriallife. "[66] [Illustration: FIGURE 13. --Biological reactions uncovered inspace medicine studies, such as this centrifuge experiment, may lead toimportant health discoveries. ] The secrets which this research may divulge and their meaning for humanhealth can only be imagined. But they certainly would not be minor. EDUCATION BENEFITS No enterprise has so stirred human imagination as the reach of mantoward the exploration of space. New worlds to explore. New distances totravel--3, 680 million miles to Pluto, the outermost planet of our solarsystem, 8 years journey at 50, 000 miles per hour when we attain such acapability. Innumerable problems ahead. New knowledge needed in almostevery branch of science and technology from magneto fluid dynamics tocosmology, from materials to biology and psychology. [67] "New knowledge needed" means better and stronger education is essential. And not only in the physical sciences. In the social sciences and thearts as well. Certainly man's space adventure can help profoundly to make a finer creature of him, but only if his adventures on Earth can do so as well. Essentially what this means to a social psychologist is that we must somehow raise our level of education to the point where most men most of the time can appreciate and actively absorb the implications of knowledge and developments in all areas sufficiently to let them enrich their personal philosophies. Obviously this kind of education is only in part a scientific one. [68] Moreover, the technical and management aspects of the space programinvolve collaboration with nonscientific persons such as businessmen, bankers, and public officials in assessing worthwhile objectives and injudging the technical and economic feasibility of projects designed toaccomplish these objectives. [69] Consequently each type must educate theother in his own specialty if an effective, stepped-up space program isto be achieved. _The demand_ Apparently the demand for specific formal education in the science ofastronautics is increasing faster than it is being supplied. Althoughmany colleges and universities have been setting up courses dealing withastronautics, the state of the art does not seem to have crystallized tothe extent that it permits fashioning a career in the field at theeducational level. Of course, discontent is created. One publication haseditorialized: We have received a surprising number of letters from young people who actually want to know how and where they can get started in a career in astronautics. These, for the most part, are high school students--and, evidently, they couldn't get the information they wanted from their own school. * * * Isn't the age of space yet important enough for all the high schools to sponsor interest in our space programs and to point out the need for a constant flow of young brains?[70] The answer undoubtedly is that such grassroots demand will bring aboutincreased academic curricula in astronautics in direct proportion to itsmagnitude. Meanwhile, the availability of work for persons with a background inspace-related subjects can be gaged to some extent by observing thevariety of personnel requirements on major space exploration projects. A single American firm, for example, uses 49 different professionalspecialists in its work for the National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration and in its space work for the Department of Defense. [71]Multiplied by the thousands of companies which are doing similar work, the list gives an idea of the astronautic demand confronting theNation's educational institutions: Acoustician Aerodynamicist Aeronautical engineer Agricultural engineer Astrodynamicist Astronomer Astrophysicist Biochemist Biophysicist Ceramics specialist Chemist Computer specialist Crystallographer Development engineer Doctor of medicine Electrical engineer Electronic engineer Experimental physicist Flight engineer Gyroscopics specialist Hydraulic engineer Information theory analyst Inorganic chemist Logical designer Magnetic device engineer Mathematician Mechanical applications engineer Mechanical engineer Mechanisms specialist Medical electronic engineer Metallurgical engineer Methods engineer Nuclear physicist Oceanographer Organic chemist Physical chemist Pneumatic engineer Process engineer Production engineer Project engineer Psychologist Reliability engineer Sociologist Solid state physicist Structural engineer System analyst Theoretical physicist Thermodynamicist Transducer engineer [Illustration: FIGURE 14. --Exploration within the solar systemmeans a wealth of new knowledge which could lead to learning the secretsof life. ] FOOTNOTES: [50] 25 supra. See also address to the American Bankers Association, Oct. 28, 1958. [51] Space Business Daily, June 17, 1960. [52] Feldman, George J. , cited in a letter to the House Committee onScience and Astronautics, Apr. 29, 1960. [53] From Michelson, Edward J. , "How Missile-Space Spending Enriches thePeacetime Economy, " Missiles and Rockets, Sept. 14, 1959, pp. 13-17. [54] Tischer, R. G. , "A Search for the Spaceman's Food, " Space Journal, December 1959, p. 46. [55] Kraar, Louis, Wall Street Journal, May 4, 1960. [56] 7 supra. [57] Release No. 38-60, Air Research and Development Command, May 2, 1960. [58] Lear, John, "Where Does Rain Begin?" New Scientist, Mar. 24, 1960, p. 724. [59] "Wind and Soil, " New Scientist, May 26, 1960, p. 1327. [60] Wexler, Dr. Harry. Press conference conducted by the NationalAeronautics and Space Administration, Apr. 22, 1960. [61] Lockheed, Missiles and Space Division, medical research, Sunnyvale, Calif. [62] Lewis, Dr. F. J. , before the Space Flight Symposium, San Antonio, Tex. , May 28, 1960. [63] Kleitman, Prof. Nathaniel, before the Space Flight Symposium, SanAntonio, Tex. , May 26, 1960. [64] Taylor, Lt. Col. Richard R. , USA (MC), testimony before the HouseCommittee on Science and Astronautics, June 15, 1960. [65] Lederberg, Joshua, "Exobiology-Experimental Approaches to LifeBeyond Earth, " Science in Space, ch. IX, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C. , February 1960. [66] Ibid. [67] Dryden, Dr. Hugh L. , speech before the Engineering Society ofCincinnati, Feb. 18, 1960. [68] Michael, Donald N. , "Space Exploration and the Values of Man, "Space Journal, September 1959, p. 15. [69] 67 supra. [70] Space Age, August 1959, p. 3. [71] Minneapolis-Honeywell, Military Products Group. V. LONG-RANGE VALUES In assessing the _practical_ values of space exploration it does notseem logical to limit considerations to those values which are immediateor near-future ones. The worth of a present activity may be doubled ortrebled because of its long-range potential. Such values may not be practical within the context of today's usage, but they may be extremely practical if we are willing to concede thatthose of us living today have an interest in and a responsibility forwhat happens on Earth in the decades and centuries to come. TROUBLE SPOTS Thinking along these lines it is not difficult to conjure up a pictureof some of the difficult physical and social problems which will befacing the Earth in the years which stretch ahead. The foregoingsections of this report, for example, have already indicated extensivedifficulties inherent in at least five major categories. (1) Bursting population. (2) Acute water shortage. (3) Soil erosion and disappearance. (4) Too much leisure. (5) Intensified nationalism. In each area it is probable that space exploration will ultimately playan important role. _Population_ Social scientists have been warning for years of the drastic socialupheavals which must inevitably accompany an "exploding" population. Itis a problem the complexity of which grows in geometric progression astime goes on. In the United States nearly 300 years were required toproduce 90 million people. In the past 60 years this number has doubled. The implications are obvious. They are only too plain to urban andsuburban planners who endeavor to cope with the antlike construction andactivity of the human race as it burgeons with each succeeding year. Of course, this is not a domestic matter but a global one. Itsseriousness has been described as follows: "Projection of the post-WorldWar II rate of increase gives a population of 50 billions (the highestestimate of the population-carrying capacity of the globe evercalculated by a responsible scholar) in less than 200 years. "[72] AEuropean professor of medicine adds that any surge in human longevity atthis time is quite undesirable from the standpoint of making elderlypersons useful or cared for. "The problems posed by the explosive growthof populations * * * are so great that it is quite reassuring to knowthat biologists and medical men have so far been unsuccessful inincreasing the _maximum_ lifespan of the human species * * * and * * *it would be a calamity for the social and economic structure of acountry if the mean lifespan were suddenly to increase from 65 to 85years. "[73] Some anthropologists pessimistically wonder if man is going to provelike the locust by populating himself into near extinction from time totime. Without subscribing to this view, one must nevertheless take notice ofthe difficulties posed by population increase, not merely those of food, shelter, education, and the like but also those resulting from cellular, cramped, close living. Whichever phase of the problem is studied, it seems not unreasonable toconclude that space research will help find a solution. New ways toproduce food, new materials for better shelter, new stimuli foreducation--all of these are coming from our space program. As for thematter of adequate living room, space research may result in ways topermit an easy and efficient scattering of the population withouthurting its mobility. This might result from the development of smallsubsidiary types of craft, or "gocarts, " originally designed for localexploration on other planets. Such craft, whether they operated by aircushion, nuclear energy, gravitational force, power cell, or whatever, conceivably would permit Earth's population to spread out without theneed for expensive new roads--which, by the way, take millions of acresof land out of productive use. A development of this sort, together with new power sources to replacethe fossil fuels on which factory, home, and vehicle now depend, mightalso all but eliminate the growing smog and air-pollution blight. _Water shortage_ A direct result of the population increase, multiplied by the many newuses for which water is being used in home appliances, etc. , and plusthe greatly increased demand for standard uses such as indoor plumbing, irrigation, and factory processing, is the likelihood that watershortage will be high on the list of future problems. Ways to conserveand reuse water, together with economical desalting of sea water, willbe essential in the decades ahead. Space research may provide part ofthe answer here, too. (See New Water Sources and Uses, sec. III. ) _Soil erosion_ The Russian steppes of Kazakhstan are providing the world with a greatcontemporary dust bowl, reminiscent of the middle 1930's when dust fromthe Great Plains stretched from Texas to Saskatchewan. Questionableagriculture policies, drought, and strong easterly winds are among theforces blamed for the trials of southern Russia. [74] So great is theextent of this disturbance that the dust cloud has been identified inphotographs taken by American weather satellites. Of course, "wind erosion is only one of the processes whereby theEarth's arable land is diminishing and the deserts increasing; erosionby water can also sweep away the soil. "[75] But insofar as the currentdust bowl of the Soviet steppes has "diminished food resources at a timewhen the number of mouths to feed is increasing so rapidly, the world isthe poorer. "[76] What can space research do about this vital trend, which again seemsdestined to accelerate in the future? While we cannot be sure, we can conjecture that improved soilconservation might turn out to be the greatest benefit of weatherunderstanding and modification. Agriculture policies might be adapted tothe long-range patterns uncovered by weather satellites and, eventually, through better understanding of the making of weather, it may bepossible to modify weather forces in a manner which will preserve thesoil. In a more remote vein, it may be that knowledge gained from a first-handstudy of the Moon or other planets in the solar system will eventuallycontribute to the conservation of soil on Earth in ways as yetunimagined. _Added leisure_ Acquiring more time for leisure sounds good. Very much more leisure thanmost people now have, however, is apt to present trouble in itself. Since it appears that the time is not far away when those living in thehighly developed countries will no longer have to concentrate theirprime energies on the traditional quest for food, clothing, and shelter, a potentially dangerous vacuum may be the result. At least thepsychologists seem agreed that people must feel a useful purpose intheir lives and have ways to pursue it. Above all, leisure makes a challenge to the human spirit. Athens, in her Golden Age, displayed a genius for the creative use of leisure which can be seen as complementary, and indeed superior, to her genius for military and commercial ventures. There have also been such periods of all-pervasive inspiration in the history of other peoples * * *. The doubling of our standard of living will present a growing challenge to the human spirit and produce graver consequences, should we fail to meet it. We neglect the proper use of leisure at our peril. [77] In other words, the answer to the problem does not lie solely with thegolf course, the yacht club, the theater, or the lengthened vacation. Much more will be required. The intellectual stimulus of space exploration and research, whichundoubtedly will divide into numerous branches like capillary streaksfrom a bolt of lightning, should be markedly useful in helping to fillthis vacuum. Space research would seem particularly applicable in thisrole since it deals with fundamental knowledge and concepts which aresatisfying in terms of psychological needs and sense of purpose. _Intensified nationalism_ Ever since World War II the era of colonialism has been on the wane. Many nations have proclaimed, won, or wrested their independence duringthat period. Others appear to be on the verge of doing so. At any rate, it is clear that in the decades ahead the world is going to see the riseof even more independent nations with strong nationalistic feelings. History implies that developments of this sort are often accompanied byinternational unrest--because of the normal ebullience of nationaladolescence and the desire to be accepted by the world community, aswell as a variety of concomitant political and economical upheavals. For whatever trials may lie ahead on this score, space exploration mayprove to be much needed oil on rough water. Ambitious, advanced, sophisticated space exploration in the future isalmost certain to require a high degree of international cooperation andperhaps even a pooling of resources and funds to some degree. AlreadyAmerica has found it expedient, in some cases mandatory, to depend onfacilities in other countries for her ventures into space. A goodexample is the close cooperation between the United States and trackingbases located in Canada, Australia, South Africa, and elsewhere. An evenbetter one is the important part played in U. S. Efforts by England'sgiant radio telescope at Jodrell Bank. Most of our launches are followedby this equipment and much of the best scientific information gainedfrom it. In the case of Pioneer V, Jodrell Bank was essential to keep intouch with the satellite at the longer distances and, moreover, wasactually required to separate the fourth stage of the launch vehicle anddirect the payload toward its Venus orbit. Mutual need and cooperation thus fostered by space exploration can beexpected to siphon off some of the political tensions of the future, especially as more and more nations become interested in space andinaugurate complex programs of their own. LIMITATIONS ON SPACE RESEARCH There are some who are convinced that the exploration of space isrigidly limited and that the landing of men on extraterrestrial bodiesother than the Moon is quite improbable. They are sure that extensivetravel outside the solar system is impossible. Admittedly, the problems of such travel are enormous. But are theyincapable of solution? Twenty-six million miles to Venus, 49 million miles to Mars, 3, 680 million miles from the Sun to Pluto at the outer edge of the solar system. The nearest of the stars is 25 million, million miles away, and travel to it at 10 miles per second would require 80, 000 years. Is the travel of man to the stars a futile dream? Each generation of man builds on the shoulders of the past. The exploration of space has begun; who now can set limits to its future accomplishments?[78] [Illustration: FIGURE 15. --Need for international cooperationin the U. S. Space program is illustrated by this map showing the areasfrom which help must be procured for projects already planned orunderway. ] That is the thought of one of the Nation's most expert space scientists. _"Who now can set limits * * * ?"_ It seems to mesh curiously well with one of the most interestingphenomena of our day--the emergence of a breed of engineers, technicians, teachers, and scientists who do not recognize limits andwho refuse to concede that something cannot be so because it fails tofit conventional patterns or conform to the physical laws of theuniverse as we now know them. Of this there is growing evidence. For many years it has been an accepted "fact, " for instance, that theMoon is a dead world with no life upon it. The suggestion made by thegreat 16th century mathematician, Johannes Kepler, that some life mightexist on the Moon was debunked into silence long since. Yet today afellow of the British Royal Astronomical Society writes that the firstmen to arrive on the Moon may find not only plant life but possiblyanimal life. "The fact that terrestrial organisms may be unable tosurvive in the surroundings of another planet is by itself no moresignificant than that fishes and other marine animals die when exposedto the air. From their point of view air is uninhabitable because theyhave failed to equip themselves with lungs. "[79] And he adds that hissurmise "leaves out of account the possibilities of the Moon'sunderground world, which are incalculable, for there water, the vitalgases, congenial temperatures, and increased pressures will all bepresent. Only sunlight is absent. " Then there is Project Ozma, the search for life on other planets or inother star systems, which began in April 1960 at Green Bank, W. Va. Itis being undertaken by the National Radio-Astronomy Observatory andconsists of carefully directed listening by radio-telescope for signs ofintelligent broadcasts originating outside Earth. At Stanford University another astronomer is concentrating the effortsof part of his laboratory on behalf of a similar idea. The chances are, he believes, "that the superior races of other planets in other galaxieshave already developed a communications network among themselves, andhave entered a joint program to scan all the other solar systems lookingfor signs of awakening civilization among the backward planets. Each ofthe advanced communities might pick as its probe assignment a singleother solar system--and one such probe may well be circling our Sunright now on a routine check for life. "[80] Unexplained delayed echoesof earthly radio transmissions received in the past, it is thought, could be evidence of such a scheme. Are goings-on such as these nonsense? Here is the answer given by one hard-headed science writer: Centuries may pass before there is any sign of intelligence outside the Earth. But the advantages of communication with another civilization that has survived our present dilemmas are far too great to permit the experiment to be abandoned. [81] The results of recent and more orthodox experiments have already donemuch to shake the complacency of scientists in regard to their conceptsof space. Investigations have disclosed that, far from being a completevacuum, space is relatively full of matter and energy. Hydrogen gas, radiation belts, cosmic particles, solar disturbances of unknown nature, micrometeorites--and, from Pioneer V, proof of a 5-million ampereelectromagnetic ring centered about 40, 000 miles away. [82] The directorof the Smithsonian Astrophysical Laboratory in Cambridge, Mass. , [83] hassaid that more and more startling astrophysical information was gatheredduring the first few weeks of the space age than had been accumulated inthe preceding century. In brief, it is becoming the vogue in science to refuse to say"impossible" to anything. On the contrary, the watchword for tomorrow isshaping up as "take _nothing_ for granted. " FUNDAMENTAL KNOWLEDGE ABOUT LIFE Everything learned from space exploration thus far indicates that theknowledge lying in wait for those who manage to observe the universefrom outside Earth's atmosphere will be far grander than anythinguncovered to date. We may finally learn the origin of our universe and the method of itsfunctioning. A good part of this knowledge may be no farther away thanthe next 3 to 5 years. Satellite telescopes now under construction areexpected to elicit far more information than even the 200-inch giant atMount Palomar. One such observatory satellite, to be launched in 1963 orbefore, "will permit a telescope of about 10 feet in length to point atheavenly bodies within a tenth of a second of arc for periods up to anhour. Present plans call for an orbit between 400 and 500 miles, as alifetime of at least 6 months is required to observe the entirecelestial field. "[84] Perhaps, and sooner than we think, we shall find a clue to the destinyof all intelligent life. Perhaps the theory advanced by a noted eastern astronomer will turn outto be true--that biological evolution on the habitable planets of theuniverse may be the result of contamination left by space travelersarriving from (and leaving for) other worlds. In other words, thefruition of life on the various planets of the millions of solar systemsmight be the product of a wandering group of astronautic JohnnyAppleseeds who leave the grains of life behind them. "Space travelbetween galaxies has to be possible for this, but of course this needsto be only quite a rare event. In a time of about 3. 3 billion years, themost advanced form of life occurring in a galaxy must be able to reach aneighboring one. "[85] The notion seems fantastic. But when we look clear to the end of Earth's road (and assuming theastrophysicists are right in their theories about the evolution andultimate death of our solar system) we know that Earth will one daybecome uninhabitable. Life on Earth must then perish or move elsewhere. If we further assume that mankind will not want to die with his planetand if we acknowledge that other worlds may have been through thisentire cycle in eons past--perhaps the notion is not so unreasonableafter all. Whatever the truth is on this score, space exploration will certainly beof "practical" value to our descendants when that dim, far-off dayarrives. PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SPIRITUAL VALUES Long before the arrival of that millennium, however, the knowledge andunderstanding awaiting us through the medium of space exploration iscertain to have profound effects on the human race psychologically andspiritually. It already has had effects on humans of all ages. Adults, who are paying the taxes to support the space explorationprogram and reaping its practical values, are also thinking ofthemselves, their country, and their world in broader, moreknowledgeable terms. In a sense, children may be even more deeply involved. There is a special group which may play a useful role in spreading the new values growing from the exploration of space, and this is the children who play at spaceman today. Whether or not they take this interest with them beyond childhood remains to be seen. However, the unique fact in the present situation is that never before have children rehearsed a role that really will not exist until they are adults. To be sure all of them will not fulfill this childhood role, but the fact that the reality lies ahead rather than in the past (as with cowboys and Indians) may stimulate them to retain a sensitivity for the various meanings man in space can have for our future. [86] Put it another way--if it is true, as a modern Chinese philosopher hassaid, that the search for knowledge is a form of play, "then thespaceship, when it comes, will be the ultimate toy that may lead mankindfrom its cloistered nursery out into the playground of the stars. "[87] [Illustration: FIGURE 16. --Space vehicles of the future maylook like this artist's drawing of an electrical propulsion craft. Thenuclear reactor is located at the extreme left, followed by a neutronshield, heat exchanger, gamma-ray shield and propellant. The center tankhouses turbogenerating equipment. Excessive heat is dissipated in thelarge radiator. At the extreme right are two crew cabins, landingvehicle and a ring-shaped accelerator. ] MATURING OF THE RACE The psychological and spiritual changes necessitated by this evolutionmay be at a cost far beyond dollars--because many of us will be hard putto negotiate them, especially if they come too rapidly. Nevertheless, negotiating them must also be placed in the category of"practical" values--for in the long run it seems to be an essential partof the maturing of mankind. The years ahead will face us with many sputniks and thereby will require of our citizens stern, costly, and imaginative participation in programs to meet and surmount the many complex challenges with which our growing technology confronts us. To succeed in space and to succeed on Earth, we must somehow learn to make the larger world of ideas, so brilliantly exemplified by the satellites, the immediate environment of the individual. There is a race we must run--the race for an enlightened and involved public. [88] So if we can accept the wrenches which space exploration is apt to applyto our time, pocketbook, energy, and thinking, the values and rewards asoutlined in this report should gather headway and grow continuouslygreater. Space technology is probably the fastest moving, typically free-enterprise and democratic industry yet created. It puts a premium not on salesmanship, but on what it needs most--intellectual production, the research payoff. Unlike any other existing industry, space functions on hope and future possibilities, conquest of real estate unseen, of near vacuum unexplored. At once it obliterates the economic reason for war, the threat of overpopulation, or cultural stagnation; it offers to replace guesswork with the scientific method for archeological, philosophical, and religious themes. [89] Such conclusions seem a bit rosy. But sober study indicates that theymay not be too "far out" after all. FOOTNOTES: [72] Hauser, Philip M. , "Demographic Dimensions of World Politics, "Science, June 3, 1960, p. 1642. [73] Bacq, Prof. Z. M. , "Medicine in the 1960's, " New Scientist, Jan. 21, 1960, p. 130. [74] 59 supra. [75] Ibid. [76] Ibid. [77] "The Challenge of Leisure, " M. G. Scott, Ltd. , London, August 1959, p. 20. [78] 27 supra. [79] Firsoff, Dr. V. A. , "The Strange World of the Moon, " Basic Books, London, 1959. [80] Reported by David Perlman, San Francisco Chronicle, June 7, 1960. [81] Lear, John, "Is Anybody There?, " New Scientist, Apr. 14, 1960, p. 933. [82] Aviation Week, May 9, 1960, p 32. [83] Whipple, Dr. Fred L. [84] Western Aviation, June 1960, p. 16. [85] Gold, Dr. Thomas, "Cosmic Garbage, " address to the Space ScientistsSymposium, Los Angeles, December 1959. [86] 68 supra, pp. 12, 13. [87] 6 supra, pp. 3, 4. [88] Michael, D. N. , "Sputniks & Public Opinion, " Air Force, June 1960, p. 75. [89] Industrial Research, December 1959, pp. 8, 9.