THE

LIFE

OF

GEORGE WASHINGTON, COMMANDER IN CHIEF OF THE

AMERICAN FORCES, DURING THE WAR WHICH ESTABLISHED THE INDEPENDENCE OF HIS COUNTRY, AND

FIRST PRESIDENT

OF THE

UNITED STATES. 

COMPILED UNDER THE INSPECTION OF

THE HONOURABLE BUSHROD WASHINGTON, FROM

_ORIGINAL PAPERS_

BEQUEATHED TO HIM BY HIS DECEASED RELATIVE, AND NOW IN POSSESSION OFTHE AUTHOR. 

TO WHICH IS PREFIXED, AN INTRODUCTION, CONTAINING A COMPENDIOUS VIEW OF THE COLONIES PLANTED BY THE ENGLISHON THE

CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA, FROM THEIR SETTLEMENT TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF THAT WAR WHICH TERMINATEDIN THEIR

INDEPENDENCE. 

BY JOHN MARSHALL. 

VOL. I. 

THE CITIZENS' GUILDOF WASHINGTON'S BOYHOOD HOMEFREDERICKSBURG, VA. 

1926

[Illustration: General Washington

_From the full length portrait by John Trumbull at Yale University_

_This portrait is one of 54 canvasses the artist presented to YaleUniversity in return for an annuity of $1, 000. Washington was in hisforty-third year and it is considered the best likeness of him at theoutbreak of the Revolution. The canvas depicts him, "six feet twoinches in height, with brown hair, blue eyes, large head and hands, and strong arms. "_]

PUBLISHER'S PREFACE

In his will George Washington bequeathed to his favorite nephew, Bushrod Washington, his personal letters, private papers and secretdocuments accumulated during a lifetime of service to his country. When the bequest became known, many of the literary men of the countrywere proposed for the commission to write the authorized life of ourFirst President. 

Bushrod Washington's choice fell upon John Marshall, Chief Justice ofthe Supreme Court. To him he handed over all the precious papers lefthim by his distinguished relative. George Washington and Marshall'sfather, Thomas Marshall, were boyhood companions, so John Marshallknew "the Father of His Country" as a neighbor and friend from hisearliest youth, and served under him in the Revolution. 

If it be true that it takes a great man to interpret the life of agreat man then Bushrod Washington made no mistake in the selection ofa biographer. For Marshall, under the influence of Washington, came tobe nearly as great a man as the character whose life and achievementsheld his deepest thought for nearly a quarter of a century. Certainlyhis services to his country rank close to Washington's. Marshall'ssympathetic understanding of his subject, his first-hand knowledge ofevents with his remarkable powers of expression qualified him toproduce the masterpiece that has come down to us. 

Seven years were spent in preparing the first edition, published in1804-07. The work was based chiefly on Washington's own diaries andletters and secret archives and it told not simply the epic story ofthis great life but the truth about the birth of our nation. Marshalllater spent fifteen years revising the first edition, verifying to thelast detail every chapter, page and paragraph of his monumental work. 

The first edition, published by C. P. Wayne of Philadelphia, was anachievement in beautiful printing and bookmaking and still stands outtoday as such. The present publishers have followed the format of theoriginal edition but have used the revised text which Marshall spentso many years in perfecting. 

Washington's personality lives on in John Marshall's great biography. He still has the power to raise up men to greatness as he did duringhis lifetime. The precepts, the principles and the shining example ofthis foremost of self-educated, self-made Americans have the power touplift and start toward new heights of achievement, all who come incontact with him. The work is now reissued in the hope that it maygive his countrymen of the present day the benefit of the counsel, theguidance and the inspiration that has proven so valuable in the past. 

February 22nd, 1926. 

PREFACE

BY THE AUTHOR

A desire to know intimately those illustrious personages, who haveperformed a conspicuous part on the great theatre of the world, is, perhaps, implanted in every human bosom. We delight to follow themthrough the various critical and perilous situations in which theyhave been placed, to view them in the extremes of adverse andprosperous fortune, to trace their progress through all thedifficulties they have surmounted, and to contemplate their wholeconduct, at a time when, the power and the pomp of office havingdisappeared, it may be presented to us in the simple garb of truth. 

If among those exalted characters which are produced in every age, none can have a fairer claim to the attention and recollection ofmankind than those under whose auspices great empires have beenfounded, or political institutions deserving to be permanent, established; a faithful representation of the various important eventsconnected with the life of the favourite son of America, cannot beunworthy of the general regard. Among his own countrymen it willunquestionably excite the deepest interest. 

As if the chosen instrument of Heaven, selected for the purpose ofeffecting the great designs of Providence respecting this our westernhemisphere, it was the peculiar lot of this distinguished man, atevery epoch when the destinies of his country seemed dependent on themeasures adopted, to be called by the united voice of his fellowcitizens to those high stations on which the success of those measuresprincipally depended. It was his peculiar lot to be equally useful inobtaining the independence, and consolidating the civil institutions, of his country. We perceive him at the head of her armies, during amost arduous and perilous war on the events of which her nationalexistence was staked, supporting with invincible fortitude the unequalconflict. That war being happily terminated, and the politicalrevolutions of America requiring that he should once more relinquishhis beloved retirement, we find him guiding her councils with the samefirmness, wisdom, and virtue, which had, long and successfully, beendisplayed in the field. We behold him her chief magistrate at a timewhen her happiness, her liberty, perhaps her preservation depended onso administering the affairs of the Union, that a government standingentirely on the public favour, which had with infinite difficulty beenadopted, and against which the most inveterate prejudices had beenexcited, should conciliate public opinion, and acquire a firmness andstability that would enable it to resist the rude shocks it wasdestined to sustain. It was too his peculiar fortune to afford thebrightest examples of moderation and patriotism, by voluntarilydivesting himself of the highest military and civil honours when thepublic interests no longer demanded that he should retain them. Wefind him retiring from the head of a victorious and discontented armywhich adored him, so soon as the object for which arms had been takenup was accomplished; and withdrawing from the highest office anAmerican citizen can hold, as soon as his influence, his character, and his talents ceased to be necessary to the maintenance of thatgovernment which had been established under his auspices. 

He was indeed, "first in war, [1] first in peace, and first in thehearts of his fellow citizens. "

 [Footnote 1: The expressions of a resolution prepared by general Lee, and passed in the house of representatives of the United States, on their being informed of the death of general Washington. ]

A faithful detail of the transactions of a person so pre-eminentlydistinguished will be looked for with avidity, and the author lamentshis inability to present to the public a work which may gratify theexpectations that have been raised. In addition to that justdiffidence of himself which he very sincerely feels, two causes beyondhis control combine to excite this apprehension. 

Accustomed to look in the page of history for incidents in themselvesof great magnitude, to find immense exertions attended withinconsiderable effects, and vast means employed in producingunimportant ends, we are in the habit of bestowing on the recital ofmilitary actions, a degree of consideration proportioned to thenumbers engaged in them. When the struggle has terminated, and theagitations felt during its suspense have subsided, it is difficult toattach to enterprises, in which small numbers have been concerned, that admiration which is often merited by the talents displayed intheir execution, or that interest which belongs to the consequencesthat have arisen from them. 

The long and distressing contest between Great Britain and thesestates did not abound in those great battles which are so frequent inthe wars of Europe. Those who expect a continued succession ofvictories and defeats; who can only feel engaged in the movements ofvast armies, and who believe that a Hero must be perpetually inaction, will be disappointed in almost every page of the followinghistory. Seldom was the American chief in a condition to indulge hisnative courage in those brilliant achievements to which he wasstimulated by his own feelings, and a detail of which interests, enraptures, and astonishes the reader. Had he not often checked hisnatural disposition, had he not tempered his ardour with caution, thewar he conducted would probably have been of short duration, and theUnited States would still have been colonies. At the head of troopsmost of whom were perpetually raw because they were perpetuallychanging; who were neither well fed, paid, clothed, nor armed; and whowere generally inferior, even in numbers, to the enemy; he derives nosmall title to glory from the consideration, that he never despairedof the public safety; that he was able at all times to preserve theappearance of an army, and that, in the most desperate situation ofAmerican affairs, he did not, for an instant, cease to be formidable. To estimate rightly his worth we must contemplate his difficulties. Wemust examine the means placed in his hands, and the use he made ofthose means. To preserve an army when conquest was impossible, toavoid defeat and ruin when victory was unattainable, to keep hisforces embodied and suppress the discontents of his soldiers, exasperated by a long course of the most cruel privations, to seizewith unerring discrimination the critical moment when vigorousoffensive operations might be advantageously carried on, are actionsnot less valuable in themselves, nor do they require less capacity inthe chief who performs them, than a continued succession of battles. But they spread less splendour over the page which recounts them, andexcite weaker emotions in the bosom of the reader. 

There is also another source from which some degree of disappointmenthas been anticipated. It is the impossibility of giving to the publicin the first part of this work many facts not already in theirpossession. 

The American war was a subject of too much importance to have remainedthus long unnoticed by the literary world. Almost every event worthyof attention, which occurred during its progress, has been gleaned upand detailed. Not only the public, but much of the privatecorrespondence of the commander in chief has been inspected, andpermission given to extract from it whatever might properly becommunicated. In the military part of this history, therefore, theauthor can promise not much that is new. He can only engage for thecorrectness with which facts are stated, and for the diligence withwhich his researches have been made. 

The letters to and from the commander in chief during the war, werevery numerous and have been carefully preserved. The whole of thisimmensely voluminous correspondence has, with infinite labour, beenexamined; and the work now offered to the public is, principally, compiled from it. The facts which occurred on the continent are, generally, supported by these letters, and it has therefore beendeemed unnecessary to multiply references to them. But there are manyfacts so connected with those events, in which the general performed aprincipal part, that they ought not to be omitted, and respectingwhich his correspondence cannot be expected to furnish satisfactoryinformation. 

Such facts have been taken from the histories of the day, and theauthority relied on for the establishment of their verity has beencited. Doddesly's Annual Register, Belsham, Gordon, Ramsay, andStedman have, for this purpose, been occasionally resorted to, and arequoted for all those facts which are detailed in part on theirauthority. Their very language has sometimes been employed withoutdistinguishing the passages, especially when intermingled with others, by marks of quotation, and the author persuades himself that thispublic declaration will rescue him from the imputation of receivingaids he is unwilling to acknowledge, or of wishing, by a concealedplagiarism, to usher to the world, as his own, the labours of others. 

In selecting the materials for the succeeding volumes, it was deemedproper to present to the public as much as possible of generalWashington himself. Prominent as he must be in any history of theAmerican war, there appeared to be a peculiar fitness in rendering himstill more so in one which professes to give a particular account ofhis own life. His private opinions therefore; his various plans, eventhose which were never carried into execution; his individualexertions to prevent and correct the multiplied errors committed byinexperience, are given in more minute detail; and more copiousextracts from his letters are taken, than would comport with the planof a more general work. 

Many events too are unnoticed, which in such a composition would beworthy of being introduced, and much useful information has not beensought for, which a professed history of America ought to comprise. Yet the history of general Washington, during his military command andcivil administration, is so much that of his country, that the workappeared to the author to be most sensibly incomplete andunsatisfactory, while unaccompanied by such a narrative of theprincipal events preceding our revolutionary war, as would make thereader acquainted with the genius, character, and resources of thepeople about to engage in that memorable contest. This appeared themore necessary as that period of our history is but little known toourselves. Several writers have detailed very minutely the affairs ofa particular colony, but the _desideratum_ is a composition whichshall present in one connected view, the transactions of all thosecolonies which now form the United States. 

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I. 

Commission of Cabot.... His voyage to America.... Views of discoveryrelinquished by Henry VII.... Resumed by Elizabeth.... Letters patentto Sir Humphry Gilbert.... His voyages and death.... Patent to SirWalter Raleigh.... Voyage of Sir Richard Grenville.... Colonistscarried back to England by Drake.... Grenville arrives with othercolonists.... They are left on Roanoke Island.... Are destroyed by theIndians.... Arrival of John White.... He returns to England forsuccour.... Raleigh assigns his patent.... Patent to Sir Thomas Gatesand others.... Code of laws for the proposed colony drawn up by theKing. 

CHAPTER II. 

Voyage of Newport.... Settlement at Jamestown.... Distress ofcolonists.... Smith.... He is captured by the Indians.... Condemned todeath, saved by Pocahontas.... Returns to Jamestown.... Newportarrives with fresh settlers.... Smith explores the Chesapeake.... Ischosen president.... New charter.... Third voyage of Newport.... Smithsails for Europe.... Condition of the colony.... Colonists determineto abandon the country.... Are stopped by Lord Delaware.... Sir ThomasDale.... New charter.... Capt. Argal seizes Pocahontas.... She marriesMr. Rolf.... Separate property in lands and labour.... Expeditionagainst Port Royal.... Against Manhadoes.... Fifty acres of land foreach settler.... Tobacco.... Sir Thomas Dale.... Mr. Yeardley.... First assembly.... First arrival of females.... Of convicts.... OfAfrican slaves.... Two councils established.... Prosperity of thecolony.... Indians attempt to massacre the whites.... General war.... Dissolution of the company.... Arbitrary measures of the crown.... SirJohn Harvey.... Sir William Berkeley.... Provincial assemblyrestored.... Virginia declares in favour of Charles II.... Grant toLord Baltimore.... Arrival of a colony in Maryland.... Assemblycomposed of freemen.... William Claybourne.... Assembly composed ofrepresentatives.... Divided into two branches.... Tyrannicalproceedings. 

CHAPTER III. 

First ineffectual attempts of the Plymouth company to settle thecountry.... Settlement at New Plymouth.... Sir Henry Rosewell andcompany.... New charter.... Settlements prosecuted vigorously.... Government transferred to the colonists.... Boston founded.... Religious intolerance.... General court established.... Royalcommission for the government of the plantations.... Contest with theFrench colony of Acadié.... Hugh Peters.... Henry Vane.... Mrs. Hutchison.... Maine granted to Gorges.... Quo warranto against thepatent of the colony.... Religious dissensions.... Providencesettled.... Rhode Island settled.... Connecticut settled.... War withthe Pequods.... New Haven settled. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Massachusetts claims New Hampshire and part of Maine.... Dissensionsamong the inhabitants.... Confederation of the New Englandcolonies.... Rhode Island excluded from it.... Separate chambersprovided for the two branches of the Legislature.... New England takespart with Parliament.... Treaty with Acadié.... Petition of thenon-conformists.... Disputes between Massachusetts and Connecticut.... War between England and Holland.... Machinations of the Dutch atManhadoes among the Indians.... Massachusetts refuses to join theunited colonies in the war.... Application of New Haven to Cromwellfor assistance.... Peace with the Dutch.... Expedition of Sedgewicagainst Acadié.... Religious intolerance. 

CHAPTER V. 

Transactions succeeding the restoration of Charles II.... Contestsbetween Connecticut and New Haven.... Discontents in Virginia.... Grant to the Duke of York.... Commissioners appointed by the crown.... Conquest of the Dutch settlements.... Conduct of Massachusetts to theroyal commissioners.... Their recall.... Massachusetts evades asummons to appear before the King and council.... Settlement ofCarolina.... Form of government.... Constitution of Mr. Locke.... Discontents in the county of Albemarle.... Invasion from Florida.... Abolition of the constitution of Mr. Locke.... Bacon's rebellion.... His death.... Assembly deprived of judicial power.... Discontents inVirginia.... Population of the colony. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Prosperity of New England.... War with Philip.... Edward Randolpharrives in Boston.... Maine adjudged to Gorges.... Purchased byMassachusetts.... Royal government erected in New Hampshire.... Complaints against Massachusetts.... Their letters patentcancelled.... Death of Charles II.... James II. Proclaimed.... Newcommission for the government of New England.... Sir Edmond Andros.... The charter of Rhode Island abrogated.... Odious measures of the newgovernment.... Andros deposed.... William and Mary proclaimed.... Review of proceedings in New York and the Jerseys.... Pennsylvaniagranted to William Penn.... Frame of government.... Foundation ofPhiladelphia laid.... Assembly convened.... First acts of thelegislature.... Boundary line with Lord Baltimore settled. 

CHAPTER VII. 

New charter of Massachusetts.... Affairs of New York.... War withFrance.... Schenectady destroyed.... Expedition against Port Royal.... Against Quebec.... Acadié recovered by France.... Pemaquid taken.... Attempt on St. Johns.... Peace.... Affairs of New York.... OfVirginia.... Disputes between England and France respecting boundaryin America.... Recommencement of hostilities.... Quotas of therespective colonies.... Treaty of neutrality between France and thefive nations.... Expedition against Port Royal.... Incursion intoMassachusetts.... Plan for the invasion of Canada.... Port Royaltaken.... Expedition against Quebec.... Treaty of Utrecht.... Affairsof New York.... Of Carolina.... Expedition against St. Augustine.... Attempt to establish the Episcopal church.... Invasion of thecolony.... Bills of credit issued.... Legislature continues itself.... Massacre in North Carolina by the Indians.... Tuscaroras defeated.... Scheme of a Bank. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Proceedings of the legislature of Massachusetts.... Intrigues of theFrench among the Indians.... War with the savages.... Peace.... Controversy with the governor.... Decided in England.... Contestsconcerning the governor's salary.... The assembly adjourned toSalem.... Contest concerning the salary terminated.... Greatdepreciation of the paper currency.... Scheme of a land bank.... Company dissolved by act of Parliament.... Governor Shirleyarrives.... Review of transactions in New York. 

CHAPTER IX. 

War with the southern Indians.... Dissatisfaction of Carolina with theproprietors.... Rupture with Spain.... Combination to subvert theproprietary government.... Revolution completed.... Expedition fromthe Havanna against Charleston.... Peace with Spain.... Theproprietors surrender their interest to the crown.... The provincedivided.... Georgia settled.... Impolicy of the first regulations.... Intrigues of the Spaniards with the slaves of South Carolina.... Insurrection of the slaves. 

CHAPTER X. 

War declared against Spain.... Expedition against St. Augustine.... Georgia invaded.... Spaniards land on an island in the Alatamaha.... Appearance of a fleet from Charleston.... Spanish army re-embarks.... Hostilities with France.... Expedition against Louisbourg.... Louisbourg surrenders.... Great plans of the belligerent powers.... Misfortunes of the armament under the duke D'Anville.... The Frenchfleet dispersed by a storm.... Expedition against Nova Scotia.... Treaty of Aix la Chapelle.... Paper money of Massachusettsredeemed.... Contests between the French and English respectingboundaries.... Statement respecting the discovery of theMississippi.... Scheme for connecting Louisiana with Canada.... Relative strength of the French and English colonies.... Defeat at theLittle Meadows.... Convention at Albany.... Plan of union.... Objectedto both in America and Great Britain. 

CHAPTER XI. 

General Braddock arrives.... Convention of governors and plan of thecampaign.... French expelled from Nova Scotia, and inhabitantstransplanted.... Expedition against fort Du Quêsne.... Battle ofMonongahela.... Defeat and death of General Braddock.... Expeditionagainst Crown Point.... Dieskau defeated.... Expedition againstNiagara.... Frontiers distressed by the Indians.... Meeting of thegovernors at New York.... Plan for the campaign of 1756.... LordLoudoun arrives.... Montcalm takes Oswego.... Lord Loudoun abandonsoffensive operations.... Small-pox breaks out in Albany.... Campaignof 1757 opened.... Admiral Holbourne arrives at Halifax.... Is joinedby the earl of Loudoun.... Expedition against Louisbourgrelinquished.... Lord Loudoun returns to New York.... Fort WilliamHenry taken.... Controversy between Lord Loudoun and the assembly ofMassachusetts. 

CHAPTER XII. 

Preparations for the campaign of 1758.... Admiral Boscawen and GeneralAmherst arrive at Halifax.... Plan of the campaign.... Expeditionagainst Louisbourg, Ticonderoga, and Crown Point.... GeneralAbercrombie repulsed under the walls of Ticonderoga.... FortFrontignac taken.... Expedition against Fort Du Quêsne.... Preparations for the campaign of 1759.... General Amherst succeedsGeneral Abercrombie.... Plan of the campaign.... Ticonderoga and CrownPoint taken.... Army goes into winter quarters.... French repulsed atOswego.... Defeated at Niagara.... Niagara taken.... Expeditionagainst Quebec.... Check to the English army.... Battle on the Plainsof Abraham.... Death of Wolfe and Montcalm.... Quebec capitulates.... Garrisoned by the English under the command of General Murray.... Attempt to recover Quebec.... Battle near Sillery.... Quebec besiegedby Monsieur Levi.... Siege raised.... Montreal capitulates.... Warwith the southern Indians.... Battle near the town of Etchoe.... Grantdefeats them and burns their towns.... Treaty with the Cherokees.... War with Spain.... Success of the English.... Peace. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Opinions on the supremacy of parliament, and its right to tax thecolonies.... The stamp act.... Congress at New York.... Violence inthe towns.... Change of administration.... Stamp act repealed.... Opposition to the mutiny act.... Act imposing duties on tea, &c. , resisted in America.... Letters from the assembly of Massachusetts tomembers of the administration.... Petition to the King.... Circularletter to the colonial assemblies.... Letter from the Earl ofHillsborough.... Assembly of Massachusetts dissolved.... Seizure ofthe Sloop Liberty.... Convention at Fanueil Hall.... Moderation of itsproceedings.... Two British regiments arrive at Boston.... Resolutionsof the house of Burgesses of Virginia.... Assembly dissolved.... Themembers form an association.... General measures againstimportation.... General court convened in Massachusetts.... Itsproceedings.... Is prorogued.... Duties, except that on tea, repealed.... Circular letter of the earl of Hillsborough.... New Yorkrecedes from the non-importation agreement in part.... Her examplefollowed.... Riot in Boston.... Trial and acquittal of CaptainPreston. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Insurrection in North Carolina.... Dissatisfaction ofMassachusetts.... Corresponding-committees.... Governor Hutchinson'scorrespondence communicated by Dr. Franklin.... The assembly petitionfor his removal.... He is succeeded by General Gage.... Measures toenforce the act concerning duties.... Ferment in America.... The teathrown into the sea at Boston.... Measures of Parliament.... Generalenthusiasm in America.... A general congress proposed.... General Gagearrives.... Troops stationed on Boston neck.... New counsellors andjudges.... Obliged to resign.... Boston neck fortified.... Militarystores seized by General Gage.... Preparations for defence.... King'sspeech.... Proceedings of Parliament.... Battle of Lexington.... Massachusetts raises men.... Meeting of Congress.... Proceedings ofthat body.... Transactions in Virginia.... Provincial congress ofSouth Carolina.... Battle of Breed's hill. 

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I. 

 Commission of Cabot.... His voyage to America.... Views of discovery relinquished by Henry VII.... Resumed by Elizabeth.... Letters patent to Sir Humphry Gilbert.... His voyages and death.... Patent to Sir Walter Raleigh.... Voyage of Sir Richard Grenville.... Colonists carried back to England by Drake.... Grenville arrives with other colonists.... They are left on Roanoke Island.... Are destroyed by the Indians.... Arrival of John White.... He returns to England for succour.... Raleigh assigns his patent.... Patent to Sir Thomas Gates and others.... Code of laws for the proposed colony drawn up by the King. 

The United States of America extend, on the Atlantic, from the bay ofPassamaquoddi in the 45th, to Cape Florida in the 25th, degree ofnorth latitude; and thence, on the gulf of Mexico, including the smalladjacent islands to the mouth of the Sabine, in the 17th degree ofwest longitude from Washington. From the mouth of the Sabine to theRocky mountains, they are separated from Spanish America by a linewhich pursues an irregular north-western direction to the 42d degreeof north latitude, whence it proceeds west, to the Pacific. On thenorth they are bounded by the British provinces; from which, betweenthe Lake of the Woods and the Rocky, or Stony mountains, they areseparated by the 49th parallel of north latitude. Their northernboundary, west of these mountains, has not yet been adjusted. 

The extent of this vast Republic, in consequence of its recentacquisition of almost unexplored territory, has not yet beenaccurately ascertained; but may be stated at two millions of squaremiles. 

Its population, which began on the Atlantic, and is travelling rapidlywestward, amounted in 1820, according to the census of that year, tonine millions six hundred and fifty-four thousand four hundred andfifteen persons. The enumerations which have been made under theauthority of government, show an augmentation of numbers at the rateof about thirty-four _per centum_[2] in ten years; and it is probable, that for many years to come, this ratio will not be materiallychanged. 

 [Footnote 2: The general estimate in the United States is, that their population doubles in twenty-five years. ]

Public sentiment, to which the policy of the government conforms, isopposed to a large military establishment; and the distance of theUnited States from the great powers of the world, protects them fromthe danger to which this policy might otherwise expose them. 

The navy has become an object of great interest to the nation, and maybe expected to grow with its resources. In April 1816, Congress passedan act appropriating one million of dollars annually, to its gradualincrease; and authorising the construction of nine ships, to rate notless than seventy-four guns each, and of twelve, to rate not less thanforty-four guns each. 

The execution of this act is in rapid progress. Inconsiderable as thenavy now is, with respect to the number and force of its ships, it isdeemed inferior to none in existence for the bravery and skill of itsofficers and men. When we take into view the extensive sea coast ofthe United States, the magnificent lakes, or inland seas, which form aconsiderable part of their northern frontier, the abundance of theirmaterials for ship building, and the genius of their population formaritime enterprise, it is not easy to resist the conviction that thisbulwark of defence will, at no very distant period, attain a size andstrength sufficient to ensure the safety of the nation and the respectof the world. 

The net revenue of the United States amounted, in the year 1822, toconsiderably more than twenty millions of dollars; and, unless acourse of legislation unfavourable to its augmentation be adopted, must grow with their population. 

In arts, in arms, and in power, they have advanced, and are advancing, with unexampled rapidity. 

The history of their progress, from the first feeble settlements madeby Europeans on a savage coast, to their present state of greatness;while it has just claims to the attention of the curious of allnations, may be expected deeply to interest every American. 

[Sidenote: Commission of Cabot. ]

Soon after the return of Columbus from that memorable voyage whichopened the vast regions of the west to civilized man, the maritimestates of Europe manifested a desire to share with Spain, the glory, the wealth, and the dominion to be acquired in the new world. By noone of these states, was this desire carried into action more promptlythan by England, Henry VII. Had received communications from Columbus, during the tedious and uncertain negotiations of that great man, atthe dilatory court of Ferdinand, which prepared him for the importantdiscoveries afterwards made, and inclined him to countenance thepropositions of his own subjects for engaging in similar adventures. On the 5th of March 1495, he granted a commission to John Cabot, anenterprising Venetian who had settled in Bristol, and to his threesons, Lewis, Sebastian, and Sanctius, empowering them, or either ofthem, to sail under the banner of England, towards the east, north, orwest, in order to discover countries unoccupied by any Christianstate, and to take possession of them in his name. 

[Sidenote: His voyage to America. ]

It does not appear that the expedition contemplated at the date ofthis commission was prosecuted immediately; but in May 1496, Cabot, with his second son, Sebastian, sailed from Bristol in a smallsquadron, consisting of one ship furnished by the King, and four barksfitted out by merchants of that city; and, steering almost due west, discovered the islands of Newfoundland and St. Johns, and, soonafterward, reached the continent of North America, along which hesailed from the fifty-sixth to the thirty-eighth degree of northlatitude, in the vain hope of discovering a passage into the Pacific. 

Thus, according to the English historians, was first discovered thatimmense continent which stretches from the gulf of Mexico as far northas has yet been explored; and to this voyage, the English trace theirtitle to the country they afterwards acquired by settlement, and byarms. 

France, which has since contested with Britain the possession of aconsiderable portion of this important territory, has also advancedclaims to its discovery; but they seem not to be well founded. 

[Sidenote: The scheme of making settlements relinquished. ]

The ardour which had been excited in the bosom of Henry for makingacquisitions in the new world, expired with this first effort. Cabot, on his return, found that monarch entirely disinclined to the fartherprosecution of a scheme in which he had engaged with some zeal, thecommencement of which had been attended with encouraging appearances. 

Several causes are supposed to have contributed to suspend thepursuits of the English in America. Previous to its discovery, thePortuguese had explored the Azores, or Western Islands; in consequenceof which they claimed this continent, and contended for the exclusionof the Spaniards from the Western Ocean. The controversy was decidedby the Pope, who, on the 7th of May 1493, of his own "mere liberalityand certain knowledge, and the plenitude of apostolic authority, "granted to Spain, the countries discovered or to be discovered by her, to the westward of a line to be drawn from pole to pole, a hundredleagues west of the Azores; (excepting such countries as might be inthe possession of any other Christian prince antecedent to the year1493;) and to Portugal, her discoveries eastward of that line. 

The validity of this grant was probably strengthened, in the opinionof Henry, by other circumstances. He set a high value on thefriendship of the King of Spain, with whom he was then negotiating themarriage which afterwards took place between his eldest son andCatharine, the daughter of that monarch. Ferdinand was jealous toexcess of all his rights; and Henry was not inclined to interrupt theharmony subsisting between the two crowns, by asserting claims to thecountry discovered by Cabot, which was obviously within the limits towhich the pretensions of Spain extended. 

[Sidenote: Renewed by Elizabeth. ]

The fisheries of Newfoundland were carried on by individuals, to aconsiderable extent, and a paltry traffic was continued with thenatives; but no serious design of acquiring territory, and plantingcolonies in America was formed until the reign of Elizabeth, when aplan for making permanent settlements was proposed and patronized byseveral persons of rank and influence. To select a man qualified forthis arduous task, and disposed to engage in it, was among the firstobjects to which their attention was directed. Sir Humphry Gilbert hadrendered himself conspicuous by his military services, and by atreatise concerning the north-west passage, in which great ingenuityand learning, are stated by Dr. Robertson, to be mingled with theenthusiasm, the credulity, and sanguine expectation which incite mento new and hazardous undertakings. On this gentleman the adventurersturned their eyes, and he was placed at the head of the enterprise. Onthe 11th of June 1578, he obtained letters patent from the Queen, vesting in him the powers that were required; on receiving which, he, with the associates of his voyage, embarked for America. But hissuccess did not equal his expectations. The various difficultiesinseparable from the settlement of a distant, unexplored country, inhabited only by savages; the inadequacy of the supplies which couldbe furnished for a colony by the funds of a few private individuals;the misfortune of having approached the continent too far towards thenorth, where the cold barren coast of Cape Breton was rathercalculated to repel than invite a settlement; have been assigned asthe probable causes of his failure. [3]

 [Footnote 3: Robertson. Chalmer. ]

Two expeditions conducted by this gentleman ended disastrously. In thelast, he himself perished; having done nothing farther in theexecution of his patent, than taking possession of the island ofNewfoundland, in the name of Elizabeth. 

Sir Walter Raleigh, alike distinguished by his genius, his courage, and the severity of his fate, had been deeply interested in theadventures in which his half brother, Sir Humphry Gilbert, had wastedhis fortune, and was not deterred by their failure, or by thedifficulties attending such an enterprise, from prosecuting withvigour, a plan so well calculated to captivate his bold and romantictemper. 

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[Sidenote: Patent to Sir Walter Raleigh. ]

On the 26th of March, he obtained a patent from the Queen; and, on the27th of April, dispatched two small vessels under the command ofcaptains Amidas and Barlow for the purpose of visiting the country, and of acquiring some previous knowledge of those circumstances whichmight be essential to the welfare of the colony he was about to plant. To avoid the error of Gilbert in holding too far north, Amidas andBarlow took the route by the Canaries, and the West India islands, andapproached the North American continent towards the gulf of Florida. On the 2d of July, they touched at a small island situate on the inletinto Pamplico sound, whence they proceeded to Roanoke, near the mouthof Albemarle sound. 

{1585}

[Sidenote: Voyage of Sir Richard Grenville. ]

After employing a few weeks in traffic with the Indians, from whomthey collected some confused accounts respecting the neighbouringcontinent, they took with them two of the natives, who willinglyaccompanied them, and embarked for England, where they arrived on the15th of September. The splendid description which they gave of thesoil, the climate, and the productions of the country they hadvisited, so pleased Elizabeth, that she bestowed on it the name ofVirginia, as a memorial that it had been discovered during the reignof a virgin Queen. [4] Raleigh, encouraged by their report to hastenhis preparations for taking possession of the property, fitted out asquadron consisting of seven small ships, laden with arms, ammunition, provisions, and passengers, which sailed from Plymouth on the 9th ofApril, under the command of Sir Richard Grenville, who was hisrelation, and interested with him in the patent. Having taken thesouthern route, and wasted some time in cruising against theSpaniards, Sir Richard did not reach the coast of North America, untilthe close of the month of June. He touched at both the islands onwhich Amidas and Barlow had landed, and made some excursions intodifferent parts of the continent around Pamplico, and Albemarlesounds. 

 [Footnote 4: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

[Sidenote: First colony. ]

Having established a colony, consisting of one hundred and eightpersons, in the island of Roanoke, an incommodious station, withoutany safe harbour, he committed the government of it to Mr. Ralph Lane;and, on the 25th of August, sailed for England. [5]

 [Footnote 5: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

{1586}

[Sidenote: Colonists carried back to England by Drake. ]

An insatiate passion for gold, attended by an eager desire to find itin the bowels of the earth, for a long time the disease of Europeansin America, became the scourge of this feeble settlement. The Englishflattered themselves that the country they had discovered could not bedestitute of those mines of the precious metals with which SpanishAmerica abounded. The most diligent researches were made in quest ofthem; and the infatuating hope of finding them stimulated thecolonists to the utmost exertions of which they were capable. TheIndians soon discerned the object for which they searched with so muchavidity, and amused them with tales of rich mines in countries theyhad not yet explored. Seduced by this information, they encounteredincredible hardships, and, in this vain search wasted that time whichought to have been employed in providing the means of futuresubsistence. Mutual suspicion and disgust between them and the nativesripened into open hostility; and, the provisions brought from Englandbeing exhausted, they were under the necessity of resorting for foodto the precarious supplies which could be drawn from the rivers andwoods. In this state of distress, they were found, in June, by SirFrancis Drake, who was then returning from a successful expeditionagainst the Spaniards in the West Indies. He agreed to supply themwith about one hundred men, four months' provisions, and a smallvessel; but, before she could be brought into a place of security, andthe men and stores disembarked, she was driven out to sea by a suddenand violent storm. Discouraged by this misfortune, and worn out withfatigue and famine, the colonists unanimously determined to abandonthe colony, and were, at their own request, taken on board the fleetwhich sailed for England. [6]

 [Footnote 6: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. Smith. ]

Thus terminated the first English colony planted in America. The onlyacquisition made by this expensive experiment, was a better knowledgeof the country and its inhabitants. 

[Sidenote: Grenville plants a second colony. ]

[Sidenote: Destroyed by the Indians. ]

A few days after the departure of Drake with Lane and his associates, a small vessel which had been dispatched by Raleigh with a supply ofprovisions, reached its place of destination. Not finding thecolonists, this vessel returned to England. Soon after its departure, Sir Richard Grenville arrived with three ships and ample supplies. Having searched in vain for the colonists he had left, and beingunable to conjecture their fate, he placed fifteen men in the islandwith provisions for two years, for the purpose of retaining possessionof the country, and returned to England. This small party was soondestroyed by the Indians. 

{1587}

Not discouraged by the ill success which had thus far attended hisefforts to make a settlement in America, Raleigh, in the followingyear, fitted out three ships under the command of captain John White, and, it is said, directed the colony to be removed to the waters ofthe Chesapeake, which bay had been discovered by Lane in the precedingyear. Instructed by calamity, he adopted more efficacious means forpreserving and continuing the colony than had before been used. Thenumber of men was greater; they were accompanied by some women, andtheir supply of provisions was more abundant. Mr. White was appointedtheir governor, twelve assistants were assigned him as a council, anda charter incorporating them by the name of the governor andassistants of the city of Raleigh in Virginia, was granted them. 

[Sidenote: Third colony arrives. ]

Thus prepared for a permanent settlement, they arrived in July atRoanoke, where they received the melancholy intelligence of the lossof their countrymen who had been left there by Sir Richard Grenville. They determined, however, to remain at the same place, and began tomake the necessary preparations for their accommodation. Aware of thedanger to be apprehended from the hostile disposition of theirneighbours, they endeavoured to effect a reconciliation with thenatives, one of whom, who had accompanied Amidas and Barlow toEngland, and who was distinguished by his unshaken attachment to theEnglish, was christened, and styled Lord of _Dassa Monpeake_, anIndian nation in the neighbourhood. [7]

 [Footnote 7: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. Smith. ]

About the same time the first child of English parentage was born inAmerica. She was the daughter of Ananias Dare, and, after the place ofher birth, was named _Virginia_. 

{1588}

Soon perceiving their want of many things essential to thepreservation, and comfortable subsistence of a new settlement, thecolonists, with one voice, deputed their governor, to solicit thosespecific aids which their situation particularly and essentiallyrequired. On his arrival in England, he found the whole nation alarmedat the formidable preparations for their invasion, made by Philip II. Of Spain; and Raleigh, Grenville, and the other patrons of the colony, ardently engaged in those measures of defence which the public dangerdemanded. Mingling, however, with his exertions to defend his nativecountry, some attention to the colony he had planted, Raleigh foundleisure to fit out a small fleet for its relief, the command of whichwas given to Sir Richard Grenville; but, the apprehensions from theSpanish armament still increasing, the ships of force prepared byRaleigh were detained in port by order of the Queen, and Sir RichardGrenville was commanded not to leave Cornwall, where his services weredeemed necessary. On the 22d of April, White put to sea with two smallbarks, but, instead of hastening to the relief of his distressedcountrymen, wasted his time in cruising; and, being beaten by asuperior force, was totally disabled from prosecuting his voyage. [8]

 [Footnote 8: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. Smith. ]

{1589}

[Sidenote: Raleigh assigns his patent. ]

The attention of Raleigh being directed to other more splendidobjects, he assigned his patent to Sir Thomas Smith and a company ofmerchants in London. 

{1590}

[Sidenote: Third colony lost. ]

After this transfer, a year was permitted to elapse before any effortwas made for the relief of the colony. In March, three ships fittedout by the company, in one of which Mr. White embarked, sailed fromPlymouth; but, having cruelly and criminally wasted their time inplundering the Spaniards in the West Indies, they did not reachHatteras until the month of August. They fired a gun to give notice oftheir arrival, and sent a party to the place where the colony had beenleft; but no vestige of their countrymen could be found. In attemptingthe next day to go to Roanoke, one of the boats, in passing a bar, washalf filled with water, another was overset, and six men were drowned. Two other boats were fitted out with nineteen men to search the islandthoroughly on which the colony had been left. 

At the departure of Mr. White, it was in contemplation to remove aboutfifty miles into the country; and it had been agreed that, should thecolonists leave the island, they would carve the name of the place towhich they should remove, on some tree, door, or post; with theaddition of a cross over it, as a signal of distress, if they shouldbe really distressed at the time of changing their situation. Afterconsiderable search, the word CROATAN was found carved in fair capitalletters on one of the chief posts, but unaccompanied by the sign ofdistress which had been agreed on. 

Croatan was the name of an Indian town on the north side of CapeLookout, and for that place, the fleet weighed anchor the next day. Meeting with a storm, and several accidents, they were discouragedfrom proceeding on their voyage, and, determining to suspend theirsearch, returned to the West Indies. 

The company made no farther attempt to find these lost colonists; norhas the time or the manner of their perishing ever been discovered. [9]

 [Footnote 9: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

{1602}

[Sidenote: Voyage of Gosnald. ]

The subsequent voyages made by the English to North America were forthe sole purpose of traffic, and were unimportant in theirconsequences, until the year 1602, when one was undertaken byBartholomew Gosnald, which contributed greatly to the revival of thethen dormant spirit of colonising in the new world. He sailed fromFalmouth in a small bark with thirty-two men; and steering nearlywest, reached the American continent, on the 11th of May, in aboutforty-three degrees of north latitude. 

Finding no good harbour at this place, Gosnald put to sea again andstood southward. The next morning, he descried a promontory which hecalled cape Cod, and, holding his course along the coast as itstretched to the south-west, touched at two islands, the first ofwhich he named Martha's Vineyard, and the second, Elizabeth's Island. Having passed some time at these places, examining the country, andtrading with the natives, he returned to England. [10]

 [Footnote 10: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

This voyage was completed in less than four months, and was attendedwith important consequences. Gosnald had found a healthy climate, arich soil, good harbours, and a route which shortened considerably thedistance to the continent of North America. He had seen many of thefruits known and prized in Europe, blooming in the woods; and hadplanted European grain which grew rapidly. Encouraged by thisexperiment, and delighted with the country, he formed the resolutionof transporting thither a colony, and of procuring the co-operation ofothers by whom his plan might be supported. So unfortunate however hadbeen former attempts of this sort, that men of wealth and rank, thoughstrongly impressed by his report of the country, were slow in givingfull faith to his representations, and in entering completely into hisviews. One vessel was fitted out by the merchants of Bristol, andanother by the earl of Southampton, and Lord Arundel of Wardour, inorder to learn whether Gosnald's account of the country was to beconsidered as a just representation of its state, or as theexaggerated description of a person fond of magnifying his owndiscoveries. Both returned with a full confirmation of his veracity, and with the addition of so many new circumstances in favour of thecountry, as greatly increased the desire of settling it. 

Richard Hackluyt, prebendary of Westminster, a man of distinguishedlearning and intelligence, contributed more than any other by hisjudicious exertions, to form an association sufficiently extensive, powerful, and wealthy, to execute the often renewed, and oftendisappointed project of establishing colonies in America. 

At length, such an association was formed; and a petition waspresented to James I. , who had succeeded to the crown of England, praying the royal sanction to the plan which was proposed. Thatpacific monarch was delighted with it, and immediately acceded to thewishes of its projectors. 

[Sidenote: Patent to Sir Thomas Gates and others. ]

On the 10th of April, letters patent were issued under the great sealof England, to the petitioners, Sir Thomas Gates and his associates, granting to them those territories in America, lying on the sea coast, between the 34th and 45th degrees of north latitude, and which eitherbelonged to that monarch, or were not then possessed by any otherChristian prince or people; and also the islands adjacent thereto, orwithin one hundred miles thereof. They were divided, at their owndesire, into two companies. One, consisting of certain knights, gentlemen, merchants, and other adventurers of the city of London, andelsewhere, was called the first colony, and was required to settlebetween the 34th and 41st degrees of north latitude; the other, consisting of certain knights, gentlemen, merchants, and otheradventurers of Bristol, Exeter, Plymouth, and elsewhere, was named thesecond colony, and was ordered to settle between the 38th and 45thdegrees of north latitude; yet so that the colony last formed shouldnot be planted within one hundred miles of the prior establishment. 

The adventurers were empowered to transport so many English subjectsas should be willing to accompany them, who, with their descendants, were, at all times, to enjoy the same liberties, within any otherdominions of the crown of England, as if they had remained, or wereborn, within the realm. A council consisting of thirteen, to beappointed and removed at the pleasure of the crown, was establishedfor each colony, to govern it according to such laws as should begiven under the sign manual and privy seal of England. 

Two other boards to consist also of thirteen persons each, and to beappointed by the King, were invested with the superior direction ofthe affairs of the colonies. 

The adventurers were allowed to search for, and open mines of gold, silver, and copper, yielding one-fifth of the two former metals, andone-fifteenth of the last, to the King; and to make a coin whichshould be current both among the colonists and natives. 

The president and council were authorised to repel those who should, without their authority, attempt to settle, or trade, within theirjurisdiction, and to seize, and detain the persons, and effects, ofsuch intruders, until they should pay a duty of two and one-half _percentum ad valorem_, if subjects, but of five _per centum_ if aliens. These taxes were to be applied, for twenty-one years, to the use ofthe adventurers, and were afterwards to be paid into the royalexchequer. 

[Sidenote: Code of laws for the colony drawn up by the King. ]

While the council for the patentees were employed in makingpreparations to secure the benefits of their grant, James wasassiduously engaged in the new, and, to his vanity, the flatteringtask of framing a code of laws for the government of the coloniesabout to be planted. Having at length prepared this code, he issued itunder the sign manual, and privy seal of England. By theseregulations, he vested the general superintendence of the colonies, ina council in England, "composed of a few persons of consideration andtalents. " The church of England was established. The legislative andexecutive powers within the colonies, were vested in the president andcouncils; but their ordinances were not to touch life or member, wereto continue in force only until made void by the King, or his councilin England for Virginia, and were to be in substance, consonant to thelaws of England. They were enjoined to permit none to withdraw thepeople from their allegiance to himself, and his successors; and tocause all persons so offending to be apprehended, and imprisoned untilreformation; or, in cases highly offensive, to be sent to England toreceive punishment. No person was to be permitted to remain in thecolony without taking the oath of obedience. Tumults, mutiny, andrebellion, murder, and incest, were to be punished with death; and forthese offences, the criminal was to be tried by a jury. Inferiorcrimes were to be punished in a summary way, at the discretion of thepresident and council. 

Lands were to be holden within the colony as the same estates wereenjoyed in England. Kindness towards the heathen was enjoined; and apower reserved to the King, and his successors to ordain farther laws, so that they were consonant to the jurisprudence of England. [11]

 [Footnote 11: Robertson. ]

Under this charter, and these laws, which manifest, at the same time, a total disregard of all political liberty, and a total ignorance ofthe real advantages which a parent state may derive from its colonies;which vest the higher powers of legislation in persons residing out ofthe country, not chosen by the people, nor affected by the laws theymake, and yet leave commerce unrestrained; the patentees proceeded toexecute the arduous and almost untried task of peopling a strange, distant, and uncultivated land, covered with woods and marshes, andinhabited only by savages easily irritated, and when irritated, morefierce than the beasts they hunted. 

CHAPTER II. 

 Voyage of Newport.... Settlement at Jamestown.... Distress of colonists.... Smith.... He is captured by the Indians.... Condemned to death, saved by Pocahontas.... Returns to Jamestown.... Newport arrives with fresh settlers.... Smith explores the Chesapeake.... Is chosen president.... New charter.... Third voyage of Newport.... Smith sails for Europe.... Condition of the colony.... Colonists determine to abandon the country.... Are stopped by Lord Delaware.... Sir Thomas Dale.... New charter.... Capt. Argal seizes Pocahontas.... She marries Mr. Rolf.... Separate property in lands and labour.... Expedition against Port Royal.... Against Manhadoes.... Fifty acres of land for each settler.... Tobacco.... Sir Thomas Dale.... Mr. Yeardley.... First assembly.... First arrival of females.... Of convicts.... Of African slaves.... Two councils established.... Prosperity of the colony.... Indians attempt to massacre the whites.... General war.... Dissolution of the company.... Arbitrary measures of the crown.... Sir John Harvey.... Sir William Berkeley.... Provincial assembly restored.... Virginia declares in favour of Charles II.... Grant to Lord Baltimore.... Arrival of a colony in Maryland.... Assembly composed of freemen.... William Clayborne.... Assembly composed of representatives.... Divided into two branches.... Tyrannical proceedings. 

The funds immediately appropriated to the planting of colonies inAmerica, were inconsiderable, and the early efforts to accomplish theobject, were feeble. 

The first expedition for the southern colony consisted of one vesselof a hundred tons, and two barks, carrying one hundred and five men, destined to remain in the country. 

{1606}

[Sidenote: Voyage of Newport. ]

The command of this small squadron was given to captain Newport, who, on the 19th of December, sailed from the Thames. Three sealed packetswere delivered to him, one addressed to himself, a second to captainBartholomew Gosnald, and the third to captain John Radcliffe, containing the names of the council for this colony. These packetswere accompanied with instructions directing that they should beopened, and the names of his Majesty's council proclaimed, withintwenty-four hours after their arrival on the coast of Virginia, andnot before. The council were then to proceed to the choice of apresident, who was to have two votes. To this unaccountableconcealment have those dissensions been attributed, which distractedthe colonists on their passage, and which afterwards impeded theprogress of their settlement. [12]

 [Footnote 12: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

{1607}

[Sidenote: Is driven into the Chesapeake. ]

Newport, whose place of destination was Roanoke, took the circuitousroute by the West India islands, and had a long passage of fourmonths. The reckoning had been out for three days, and seriouspropositions had been made for returning to England, when a fortunatestorm drove him to the mouth of the Chesapeake. On the 26th of April, he descried cape Henry, and soon afterward cape Charles. A party ofabout thirty men, which went on shore at cape Henry, was immediatelyattacked by the natives, and, in the skirmish which ensued, severalwere wounded on both sides. 

{May 13th. }

The first act of the colonists was the selection of a spot for theirsettlement. They proceeded up a large river, called by the nativesPowhatan, and agreed to make their first establishment upon apeninsula, on its northern side. In compliment to their sovereign, this place was named Jamestown, and the river was called James. Havingdisembarked, and opened the sealed packets brought from England, themembers of the council proceeded to the election of a president, andMr. Wingfield was chosen. But, under frivolous pretexts, they excludedfrom his seat among them, John Smith, one of the most extraordinarymen of his age, whose courage and talents had excited their envy. During the passage, he had been imprisoned on the extravagant chargeof intending to murder the council, usurp the government, and makehimself king of Virginia. [13]

 [Footnote 13: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

The first indications of a permanent settlement in their country, seemto have excited the jealousy of the natives. Displeased with theintrusion, or dissatisfied with the conduct of the intruders, theysoon formed the design of expelling, or destroying, these unwelcomeand formidable visitors. In execution of this intention, they attackedthe colonists suddenly, while at work, and unsuspicious of theirhostility; but were driven, terrified, into the woods by the fire fromthe ship. On the failure of this attempt, a temporary accommodationwas effected. 

Newport, though named of the council, had been ordered to return toEngland. As the time of his departure approached, the accusers ofSmith, attempting to conceal their jealousy by the affectation ofhumanity, proposed that he also should return, instead of beingprosecuted in Virginia; but, with the pride of conscious innocence, hedemanded a trial; and, being honourably acquitted, took his seat inthe council. 

About the 15th of June, Newport sailed for England, leaving behind himone of the barks, and about one hundred colonists. While he remained, they had partaken of the food allowed the sailors; but after hisdeparture, they were reduced to the necessity of subsisting on thedistributions from the public stores, which had sustained great damageduring their long passage. These were both scanty, and unwholesome;the allowance to each man, for a day, being only a pint of worm-eatenwheat and barley. This wretched food increased the malignity of thediseases generated by the climate, among men exposed to all itsrigours. Before the month of September, fifty of the company wereburied; among whom was Bartholomew Gosnald, who had planned theexpedition, and had contributed greatly towards its prosecution. Theirdistress was increased by internal dissension. The president wascharged with embezzling the best stores of the colony, and withfeasting at his private table, on beef, bread, and _aqua vitæ_, whilefamine and death devoured his fellow adventurers. The odium againsthim was completed by the detection of an attempt to escape from themand their calamities, in the bark which had been left by Newport. Inthe burst of general indignation which followed the discovery of thismeditated desertion, he was deposed, and Radcliffe chosen to succeedhim. [14]

 [Footnote 14: Stith. Smith. ]

As misfortune is not unfrequently the parent of moderation andreflection, this state of misery produced a system of conduct towardsthe neighbouring Indians, which, for the moment, disarmed theirresentments, and induced them to bring in such supplies as the countryafforded at that season. It produced another effect of equalimportance. A sense of imminent and common danger called forth thosetalents which were fitted to the exigency, and compelled submission tothem. On captain Smith, who had preserved his health unimpaired, hisspirits unbroken, and his judgment unclouded, amidst this generalmisery and dejection, all eyes were turned, and in him, all actualauthority was placed by common consent. His example soon gave energyto others. 

He erected such rude fortifications as would resist the sudden attacksof the savages, and constructed such habitations as, by sheltering thesurvivors from the weather, contributed to restore and preserve theirhealth, while his own accommodation gave place to that of all others. In the season of gathering corn, he penetrated into the country at thehead of small parties, and by presents and caresses to those who werewell disposed, and by attacking with open force, and defeating thosewho were hostile, he obtained abundant supplies. 

While thus actively and usefully employed abroad, he was not permittedto withdraw his attention from the domestic concerns of the colony. Incapacity for command is seldom accompanied by a willingness torelinquish power; and it will excite no surprise that the latepresident saw, with regret, another placed above him. As unworthyminds most readily devise unworthy means, he sought, by intriguingwith the factious, and fomenting their discontents, to regain his lostauthority; and when these attempts were disconcerted, he formed aconspiracy with some of the principal persons in the colony, to escapein the bark, and thus to desert the country. The vigilance of Smithdetected these machinations, and his vigour defeated them. [15]

 [Footnote 15: Stith. ]

[Sidenote: Smith is captured by the Indians, ]

[Sidenote: is condemned to death, ]

[Sidenote: saved by Pocahontas. ]

The prospect which now presented itself of preserving the colony inquiet and plenty, until supplies could be received from England, wasobscured by an event which threatened, at first, the most disastrousconsequences. In attempting to explore Chiccahomini river to itssource, Smith was discovered and attacked by a numerous body ofIndians; and in endeavouring, after a gallant defence, to make hisescape, he sank up to his neck in a swamp, and was obliged tosurrender. The wonder and veneration which he excited by theexhibition of a mariner's compass, saved him from immediate death. Hewas conducted in triumph, through several towns, to the palace ofPowhatan, the most potent king in that part of the country, who doomedhim to be put to death by placing his head upon a stone, and beatingout his brains with a club. At the place of execution, with his headbowed down to receive the blow, he was rescued from a fate whichappeared to be inevitable, by that enthusiastic and impassionedhumanity which, in every climate, and in every state of society, findsits home in the female bosom. Pocahontas, the king's favouritedaughter, then about thirteen years of age, whose entreaties for hislife had been ineffectual, rushed between him and the executioner, andfolding his head in her arms, and laying hers upon it, arrested thefatal blow. Her father was then prevailed upon to spare his life, andhe was sent back to Jamestown. [16]

 [Footnote 16: Stith. ]

[Sidenote: Returns to Jamestown. ]

On arriving at that place, after an absence of seven weeks, he foundthe colony reduced to thirty-eight persons, who seemed determined toabandon a country which appeared to them so unfavourable to humanlife. He came just in time to prevent the execution of this design. Alternately employing persuasion, threats, and even violence, heinduced the majority to relinquish their intention; then turning theguns of the fort on the bark, on board which were the most determined, he compelled her to remain, or sink in the river. [17]

 [Footnote 17: Stith. ]

By a judicious regulation of intercourse with the Indians, over whomhe had gained considerable influence, he restored plenty to thecolony, and preserved it until the arrival of two vessels which hadbeen dispatched from England under the command of captain Newport, with a supply of provisions and instruments of husbandry, and with areinforcement of one hundred and twenty persons, composed of manygentlemen, several refiners, gold smiths, and jewellers, and a fewlabourers. 

The influence of Smith disappeared with the danger which had producedit, and was succeeded by an improvident relaxation of discipline, productive of the most pernicious consequences. [18]

 [Footnote 18: Ibid. ]

[Sidenote: A glittering earth mistaken for gold dust. ]

About this time, a shining earth, mistaken by the colonists for golddust, was found in a small stream of water near Jamestown. Theirraging thirst for gold was re-excited by this incident. Smith, in hisHistory of Virginia, describing the frenzy of the moment, says, "therewas no thought, no discourse, no hope, and no work, but to dig gold, wash gold, refine gold, and load gold. And, notwithstanding captainSmith's warm and judicious representations how absurd it was toneglect other things of immediate use and necessity, to load such adrunken ship with gilded dust, yet was he overruled, and her returnswere made in a parcel of glittering dirt, which is to be found invarious parts of the country, and which they, very sanguinely, concluded to be gold dust. "

{1608}

The two vessels returned laden, one with this dirt, and the other withcedar. This is the first remittance ever made from America by anEnglish colony. 

The effects of this fatal delusion were soon felt, and the colonyagain began to suffer that distress, from scarcity of food, which hadbefore brought it, more than once, to the brink of ruin. 

[Sidenote: Smith explores the Chesapeake. ]

The researches of the English settlers had not yet extended beyond thecountry adjacent to James river. Smith had formed the bold design ofexploring the great bay of Chesapeake, examining the mighty riverswhich empty into it, opening an intercourse with the nationsinhabiting their borders, and acquiring a knowledge of the state oftheir cultivation and population. Accompanied by Doctor Russel, heengaged in this hardy enterprise in an open boat of about three tonsburthen, and with a crew of thirteen men. On the 2d of June, hedescended the river in company with the last of Newport's two vessels, and, parting with her at the capes, began his survey at cape Charles. With great fatigue and danger, he examined every river, inlet, andbay, on both sides of the Chesapeake, as far as the mouth of theRappahannock. His provisions being exhausted, he returned, and arrivedat Jamestown on the 21st of July. He found the colony in the utmostconfusion and disorder. All those who came last with Newport weresick; the danger of famine was imminent; and the clamour against thepresident was loud, and universal. The seasonable arrival of Smithrestrained their fury. The accounts he gave of his discoveries, andthe hope he entertained that the waters of the Chesapeake communicatedwith the south sea, [19] extended their views and revived theirspirits. They contented themselves with deposing their president, and, having in vain urged Smith to accept that office, elected his friendMr. Scrivener as vice president. 

 [Footnote 19: This error might very possibly be produced by the Indians representing the great western lakes as seas. ]

After employing three days in making arrangements for obtainingregular supplies, and for the government of the colony, Smith againsailed with twelve men, to complete his researches into the countrieson the Chesapeake. 

From this voyage he returned on the seventh of September; havingadvanced as far as the river Susquehannah, and visited all thecountries on both shores of the bay. He entered most of the largecreeks, sailed up many of the great rivers to their falls, and madeaccurate observations on the extensive territories through which hepassed, and on the various tribes inhabiting them, with whom he, alternately, fought, negotiated, and traded. In every situation, hedisplayed judgment, courage, and that presence of mind which isessential to the character of a commander; and never failed, finally, to inspire the savages he encountered, with the most exalted opinionof himself and of his nation. 

When we consider that he sailed above three thousand miles in an openboat; when we contemplate the dangers and the hardships heencountered; when we reflect on the valuable additions he made to thestock of knowledge respecting America; we shall not hesitate to saythat few voyages of discovery, undertaken at any time, reflect morehonour on those engaged in them. "So full and exact, " says Dr. Robertson, "are his accounts of that large portion of the Americancontinent comprehended in the two provinces of Virginia and Maryland, that after the progress of information and research for a century anda half, his map exhibits no inaccurate view of both countries, and isthe original, on which all subsequent delineations and descriptionshave been formed. "[20]

 [Footnote 20: Dr. Robertson must allude to the country below the falls of the great rivers. ]

[Illustration: Ruins of the Old Brick Church Built at Jamestown in1639

_Settled by the English in 1607, on the banks of the James River about32 miles from its mouth, it was at Jamestown that the firstlegislative assembly in America was held in 1619, and here in the sameyear slavery was first introduced into the original thirteen colonies. The site of the settlement, which was originally a peninsula, but isnow an island, is owned by the Association for the Preservation ofVirginia Antiquities. Besides the ruins of the church shown here thoseof the fort and of two or three houses built more than a hundred yearsbefore the Declaration of Independence was signed are stillstanding. _]

[Sidenote: Is chosen president. ]

On his return from this expedition, Smith was chosen president of thecouncil; and, yielding to the general wish, accepted the office. Soonafter, Newport arrived with an additional supply of settlers, amongwhom were the two first females who adventured to the present colony;but he came without provisions. 

The judicious administration of the president, however, supplied thewants of the colonists, and restrained the turbulent. Encouraged byhis example, and coerced by his authority, a spirit of industry andsubordination was created among them, which was the parent of plentyand of peace. [21]

 [Footnote 21: Robertson. Chalmer. ]

{1609}

[Sidenote: New Charter. ]

The company in England, though disappointed in the hope of discoveringa passage to the Pacific, and of finding mines of the precious metals, still indulged in golden dreams of future wealth. To increase theirfunds, as well as their influence and reputation, by the acquisitionof additional numbers, to explain and enlarge their powers andprivileges, and to ensure a colonial government conforming to theirown views and wishes, the company petitioned for a new charter, whichwas granted on the 23d of May. Some of the first nobility and gentryof the country, and most of the companies of London, with a numerousbody of merchants and tradesmen, were added to the former adventurers, and they were all incorporated, by the name of "The treasurer andcompany of adventurers of the city of London, for the first colony inVirginia. " To them were granted, in absolute property, the landsextending from Cape or Point Comfort, along the sea coast, two hundredmiles to the northward, and from the same point, along the sea coast, two hundred miles to the southward, and up into the land, throughout, from sea to sea, west and north-west; and also all the islands lyingwithin one hundred miles of the coast of both seas of the precinctaforesaid: to be holden as of the manor of East Greenwich, in free andcommon soccage, and paying, in lieu of all services, one-fifth of thegold and silver that should be found. The corporation was authorisedto convey, under its common seal, particular portions of these landsto subjects or denizens, on such conditions as might promote theintentions of the grant. The powers of the president and council inVirginia were abrogated, and a new council in England was established, with power to the company to fill all vacancies therein by election. This council was empowered to appoint and remove all officers for thecolony, and to make all ordinances for its government, not contrary tothe laws of England; and to rule the colonists according to suchordinances. License was given to transport to Virginia, all personswilling to go thither, and to export merchandise free from customs forseven years. There was also granted, for twenty-one years, freedomfrom all subsidies in Virginia, and from all impositions onimportations and exportations from or to any of the King's dominions, "except only the five pounds in the hundred due for customs. " Thecolonists were declared to be entitled to the rights of naturalsubjects. The governor was empowered to establish martial law in caseof rebellion or mutiny; and, to prevent the superstitions of theChurch of Rome from taking root in the plantation, it was declaredthat none should pass into Virginia, but such as shall have firsttaken the oath of supremacy. [22]

 [Footnote 22: Charter. ]

[Sidenote: Third voyage of Newport. ]

The company, being thus enlarged, and enabled to take more effectivemeasures for the settlement of the country, soon fitted out nineships, with five hundred emigrants. Lord Delawar was constitutedgovernor and captain-general for life; and several other offices werecreated. The direction of the expedition was again given to Newport;to whom, and Sir Thomas Gates, and Sir George Somers, powers wereseverally granted to supersede the existing administration, and togovern the colony until the arrival of Lord Delawar. With singularindiscretion, the council omitted to establish precedence among thesegentlemen; who, being totally unable to settle this important pointamong themselves, agreed to embark on board the same vessel, and to becompanions during the voyage. They were parted from the rest of thefleet in a storm, and driven on Bermudas; having on board one hundredand fifty men, a great portion of the provisions destined for thecolony, and the new commission and instructions of the council. Theresidue of the squadron arrived safely in Virginia. 

"A great part of the new company, " says Mr. Stith, "consisted ofunruly sparks, packed off by their friends to escape worse destiniesat home. And the rest were chiefly made up of poor gentlemen, brokentradesmen, rakes and libertines, footmen, and such others as were muchfitter to spoil and ruin a Commonwealth, than to help to raise ormaintain one. This lewd company, therefore, were led by theirseditious captains into many mischiefs and extravagancies. Theyassumed to themselves the power of disposing of the government, andconferred it sometimes on one, and sometimes on another. To-day theold commission must rule, to-morrow the new, and next day neither. Sothat all was anarchy and distraction. "

The judgment of Smith was not long suspended. With the promptness anddecision which belong to vigorous minds, he determined that his ownauthority was not legally revoked until the arrival of the newcommission, and therefore resolved to continue its exercise. Incapableof holding the reins of government with a feeble hand, he exhibited, on this emergency, that energy and good sense which never deserted himwhen the occasion required them. After imprisoning the chief promotersof sedition, and thereby restoring regularity and obedience, he, forthe double purpose of extending the colony, and of preventing themischiefs to be apprehended from so many turbulent spirits collectedin Jamestown, detached one hundred men to the falls of James river, under the command of West, and the same number to Nansemond, underthat of Martin. These persons conducted their settlements with solittle judgment, that they soon converted all the neighbouring Indiansinto enemies. After losing several parties, they found themselves inabsolute need of the support and direction of Smith. These werereadily afforded, until a melancholy accident deprived the colony ofthe aid of a man whose talents had, more than once, rescued it fromthat desperate condition into which folly and vice had plunged it. Returning from a visit to the detachment stationed at the falls ofJames river, his powder bag took fire, while he was sleeping in theboat, and, in the explosion, he was so severely wounded as to beconfined to his bed. Being unable to obtain the aid of a surgeon inthe colony, he embarked for England about the beginning of October. 

[Sidenote: Smith returns to England. ]

[Sidenote: State of the colony. ]

At his departure, the colony consisted of about five hundredinhabitants. They were furnished with three ships, seven boats, commodities ready for trade, ten weeks' provision in the publicstores, six mares and a horse, a large stock of hogs and poultry, somesheep and goats, utensils for agriculture, nets for fishing, onehundred trained and expert soldiers well acquainted with the Indians, their language and habitations, twenty-four pieces of ordnance, andthree hundred muskets, with a sufficient quantity of arms andammunition. [23]

 [Footnote 23: Stith. ]

The fair prospects of the colony were soon blasted by a course offolly and crime, of riot and insubordination. 

Numerous pretenders advanced their claims to the supreme command. Thechoice at length fell upon captain Percy, who derived muchconsideration from his virtues, as well as from his illustriousfamily; but his talents, at no time equal to this new and difficultstation, were rendered still less competent to the task, by a longcourse of ill health. Being generally confined by sickness to his bed, he was incapable of maintaining his authority; and total confusionensued, with its accustomed baneful consequences. 

The Indians, no longer awed by the genius and vigour of Smith, attacked the colony on all sides. West and Martin, after losing theirboats and nearly half their men, were driven into Jamestown. The stockof provisions was lavishly wasted; and famine added its desolatingscourge to their other calamities. After devouring the skins of theirhorses, and the Indians they had killed, the survivors fed on those oftheir companions who had sunk under such accumulated misery. Therecollection of these tremendous sufferings was long retained, and, for many years, this period was distinguished by the name of THESTARVING TIME. [24]

 [Footnote 24: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. Beverly. ]

{1610}

In six months, the colony was reduced, by these distresses, to sixtypersons, who could not have survived ten days longer, when they wererelieved from this state of despair by the arrival of Sir ThomasGates, Sir George Somers, and Captain Newport, from Bermuda. 

[Sidenote: They abandon the country. ]

The determination to abandon the country was immediately taken, andthe wretched remnant of the colony embarked on board the vessels, andsailed for England. "None dropped a tear, " says Mr. Chalmer, "becausenone had enjoyed one day of happiness. "

[Sidenote: Stopped by Lord Delawar. ]

Fortunately, they met Lord Delawar, who prevailed on them to return;and, on the 10th of June, resettled them at Jamestown. 

{1611}

By mildness of temper, attention to business, and judicious exerciseof authority, this nobleman restored order and contentment to thecolony, and again impressed the Indians with respect for the Englishname. Unfortunately, ill health obliged him to resign the governmentwhich he placed in the hands of Mr. Percy, and sailed for the WestIndies, leaving in the colony about two hundred persons in possessionof the blessings of health, plenty, and peace. 

[Sidenote: Sir Thomas Dale. ]

On the 10th of May, Sir Thomas Dale, who had been appointed to thegovernment, arrived with a fresh supply of men and provisions, andfound the colony relapsing into a state of anarchy, idleness, andwant. It required all the authority of the new governor to maintainpublic order, and to compel the idle and the dissolute to labour. Someconspiracies having been detected, he proclaimed martial law, whichwas immediately put in execution. This severity was then deemednecessary, and is supposed to have saved the settlement. [25]

 [Footnote 25: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. Beverly. ]

In the beginning of August, Sir Thomas Gates, who had been appointedto succeed Sir Thomas Dale, arrived with six ships, and a considerablesupply of men and provisions. After receiving this addition to itsnumbers, the colony again extended itself up James river; and severalnew settlements were made. 

{1612}

[Sidenote: New Charter. ]

Extravagant accounts of the fertility of Bermuda having reachedEngland, the company became desirous of obtaining it as a place fromwhich Virginia might be supplied with provisions. Application wastherefore made to the crown for a new patent, to comprehend thisisland; and, in March, a charter was issued, granting to the treasurerand company all the islands situate in the ocean within three hundredleagues of the coast of Virginia. By this charter, the corporation wasessentially new modelled. It was ordained that four general courts ofthe adventurers should be holden annually, for the determination ofaffairs of importance, and weekly meetings were directed, for thetransaction of common business. To promote the effectual settlement ofthe plantation, license was given to open lotteries in any part ofEngland. [26]

 [Footnote 26: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. Beverly. ]

These lotteries, which were the first ever drawn in England, broughttwenty-nine thousand pounds into the treasury of the company. Whenthey were discontinued, in 1620, on the complaint of the House ofCommons, they were declared to have "supplied the real food by whichVirginia had been nourished. "

[Sidenote: Captain Argal seizes Pocahontas. ]

About this time an event took place which was followed by importantconsequences to the colony. Provisions in Jamestown continuing to bescarce, and supplies from the neighbouring Indians, with whom theEnglish were often at war, being necessarily uncertain, captain Argal, with two vessels, was sent round to the Potowmac for a cargo of corn. While obtaining the cargo, he understood that Pocahontas, who hadremained steadfast in her attachment to the English, had absentedherself from the home of her father, and lay concealed in theneighbourhood. By bribing some of those in whom she confided Argalprevailed on her to come on board his vessel, where she was detainedrespectfully, and brought to Jamestown. He was induced to take thisstep by the hope that the possession of Pocahontas would give theEnglish an ascendancy over her father, who was known to dote on her. In this, however, he was disappointed. Powhatan offered corn andfriendship, if they would first restore his daughter, but, with aloftiness of spirit which claims respect, rejected every propositionfor conciliation which should not be preceded by that act ofreparation. 

During her detention at Jamestown, she made an impression on the heartof Mr. Rolf, a young gentleman of estimation in the colony, whosucceeded in gaining her affections. They were married with theconsent of Powhatan, who was entirely reconciled to the English bythat event, and continued, ever after, to be their sincere friend. This connexion led also to a treaty with the Chiccahominies, a braveand daring tribe, who submitted themselves to the English, and becametheir tributaries. [27]

 [Footnote 27: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. Beverly. ]

{1613}

About the same time, an important change took place in the internalarrangements of the colony. 

[Sidenote: Separate property in lands. ]

Heretofore no separate property in lands had been acquired, and noindividual had laboured for himself. The lands had been held, cleared, and cultivated in common, and their produce carried into a commongranary, from which it was distributed to all. This system was to beascribed, in some measure, to the unwise injunction contained in theroyal instructions, directing the colonists to trade together for fiveyears in one common stock. Its effect was such as ought to have beenforeseen. Industry, deprived of its due reward, exclusive property inthe produce of its toil, felt no sufficient stimulus to exertion, andthe public supplies were generally inadequate to the publicnecessities. To remove this cause of perpetual scarcity, Sir ThomasDale divided a considerable portion of land into lots of three acres, and granted one of them, in full property, to each individual. Although the colonists were still required to devote a large portionof labour to the public, a sudden change was made in their appearanceand habits. Industry, impelled by the certainty of recompense, advanced with rapid strides; and the inhabitants were no longer infear of wanting bread, either for themselves, or for the emigrantsfrom England. [28]

 [Footnote 28: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. Beverly. ]

{1614}

Early in the following year, Sir Thomas Gates returned to England, leaving the government again with Sir Thomas Dale. This gentlemandetached captain Argal on an enterprise of which no immediate noticewas taken, but which was afterwards recollected with indignation. 

The French, who had directed their course to the more northern partsof the continent, had been among the first adventurers to NorthAmerica. Their voyages of discovery are of a very early date, andtheir attempts to establish a colony were among the first which weremade. After several abortive efforts, a permanent settlement was madein Canada, in the year 1604, and the foundation of Quebec was laid inthe year 1608. In November 1603, Henry IV. Appointed De Montlieutenant-general of that part of the territory which he claimed, lying in North America, between the 40th and 46th degrees of northlatitude, then called Acadié, with power to colonise and to rule it;and he soon afterwards granted to the same gentleman and hisassociates, an exclusive right to the commerce of peltry in Acadié andthe gulf of St. Lawrence. In consequence of these grants, a settlementwas formed in the subsequent year, on that coast, near the river St. Croix; and in 1605, Port Royal was built on a more northern part ofthe bay of Fundy. 

The colony, receiving not much support from France, was feeble andunprosperous, but retained quiet possession of the country. In a timeof profound peace, the expedition of Argal was directed against it. Hefound it totally unprepared for defence. The inhabitants, who hadassiduously and successfully cultivated the friendship of the Indians, were scattered abroad in the woods, engaged in their several pursuits;and a ship and bark just arrived from France, laden with articlesnecessary for the use of the colony, were surprised in port, and theircargoes taken to Jamestown. After the departure of Argal, the Frenchresumed their former station. 

The pretext for this predatory expedition was, that the French, bysettling in Acadié, had invaded the rights of the English, acquired bythe first discovery of the continent. 

Argal also paid a visit to New York, then in possession of the Dutch;which country he claimed under the pretext that captain Hudson was anEnglishman, and could not transfer the benefit of his discoveries fromhis sovereign. He demanded possession of the place; and the Dutchgovernor, being unable to resist, "peaceably submitted both himselfand his colony to the King of England, and the governor of Virginiaunder him, " and consented to pay a tribute. Argal then continued hisvoyage to Jamestown. But another governor soon afterwards arrivingfrom Amsterdam with better means of asserting the title of his nation, the payment of the tribute was refused, and the place put in a stateof defence. [29]

 [Footnote 29: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

[Sidenote: Fifty acres of land laid off for each settler. ]

The advantages resulting to the colony from allowing each individualto labour, in part for himself, having soon become apparent, thesystem of working in common to fill the public stores, seems to havebeen totally relinquished; and, not long afterwards, fifty acres ofland, promised by the rules of the company to each emigrant, weresurveyed and delivered to those having the title. 

{1615}

[Sidenote: Tobacco. ]

About the same time, tobacco was first cultivated in Virginia. 

This plant, although detested by the King, who even wrote a pamphletagainst it, which he styled a _counter blast_; althoughdiscountenanced by the leading members of parliament, and even by thecompany, who issued edicts against its cultivation; although extremelyunpleasant to persons not accustomed to it, and disagreeable in itseffects, surmounted all opposition, and has, by an unaccountablecaprice, been brought into general use, and become one of the mostconsiderable staples of America. [30]

 [Footnote 30: Robertson. ]

{1616}

[Sidenote: Yeardly. ]

In the spring of the following year, Sir Thomas Dale sailed forEngland, leaving the government in the hands of Mr. George Yeardly, who, after a lax administration of one year, was succeeded by captainArgal. 

{1617}

[Sidenote: Argal. ]

Argal was a man of talents and energy, but selfish, haughty, andtyrannical. He continued martial law during a season of peace; and aMr. Brewster, who was tried under this arbitrary system, forcontemptuous words spoken of the governor, was sentenced to sufferdeath. He obtained with difficulty an appeal to the treasurer andcompany in England, by whom the sentence was reversed. [31]

 [Footnote 31: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

[Sidenote: Mr. Yeardly. ]

While martial law was, according to Stith, the common law of the land, the governor seems to have been the sole legislator. His generaledicts mark the severity of his rule. He ordered that merchandiseshould be sold at an advance of twenty-five _per centum_, and tobaccotaken in payment at the rate of three shillings per pound, under thepenalty of three years' servitude to the company; that no personshould traffic privately with the Indians, or teach them the use offire arms, under pain of death; that no person should hunt deer orhogs without the governor's permission; that no man should shoot, unless in his own necessary defence, until a new supply of ammunitionshould arrive, on pain of a year's personal service; that none shouldgo on board the ships at Jamestown, without the governor's leave; thatevery person should go to church on Sundays and holidays, under thepenalty of slavery during the following week for the first offence, during a month for the second, and during a year and a day for thethird. The rigour of this administration necessarily exciting muchdiscontent, the complaints of the Virginians at length made their wayto the company. Lord Delawar being dead, Mr. Yeardly was appointedcaptain-general, with instructions to examine the wrongs of thecolonists, and to redress them. [32]

 [Footnote 32: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

{1619}

The new governor arrived in April, and soon after, to theinexpressible joy of the inhabitants, declared his determination toconvoke a colonial assembly. 

This is an important era in the history of Virginia. Heretofore, alllegislative authority had been exercised, either by the corporation inEngland, or by their officers in the colony. The people had no voice, either personally, or by their representatives, in the government ofthemselves; and their most important concerns were managed by personsoften unacquainted with their situation, and always possessinginterests different from theirs. They now felicitated themselves onhaving really the privileges of Englishmen. 

[Sidenote: First colonial assembly. ]

This first assembly met at Jamestown on the 19th of June. The colonybeing not then divided into counties, the members were elected by thedifferent boroughs, amounting at that time to seven. From thiscircumstance the popular branch of the legislature received theappellation of the house of burgesses, which it retained until allconnexion with England was dissolved. 

The assembly, composed of the governor, the council, and burgesses, met together in one apartment, and there discussed the various matterswhich came before them. The laws then enacted, which, it is believed, are no longer extant, were transmitted to England for the approbationof the treasurer and company. [33]

 [Footnote 33: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

[Sidenote: First arrival of females, ]

{1620}

Although the emigrations from England continued to be considerable, few females had crossed the Atlantic. Men without wives could notconsider their residence in the country as permanent, and must intendafter amassing some wealth, to return to their native land. To removethis impediment to the population of the colony, ninety girls, ofhumble fortune and spotless character, were transported by the companyto Virginia; and in the subsequent year, they were followed by sixtyof the same description. They were received by the young planters as ablessing which substituted domestic happiness for the cheerless gloomof solitude; and the face of the country was essentially changed. [34]The prospect of becoming parents was accompanied with the anxietiesfor the welfare of their children; and the education of youth soonbecame an object of attention. The necessity of seminaries of learningwas felt, and several steps were taken towards founding the college, afterwards established by William and Mary. 

 [Footnote 34: Mr. Stith says the price for a wife was at first, one hundred, and afterwards, one hundred and fifty pounds of tobacco; and a debt so contracted was made of higher dignity than any other. ]

[Sidenote: and of convicts. ]

About the same time the company received orders from the King toconvey to Virginia one hundred idle and dissolute persons, then incustody of the knight marshal. These were the first convictstransported to America. The policy which dictated this measure wassoon perceived to be not less wise than it was humane. Men who, inEurope, were the pests of the body politic, made an acceptableaddition to the stock of labour in the colony; and, in a new world, where the temptations to crime seldom presented themselves, many ofthem became useful members of society. 

{1621}

[Sidenote: African slaves. ]

Heretofore the commerce of Virginia had been engrossed by thecorporation. In the year 1620, this distressing and unprofitablemonopoly was given up, and the trade was open to all. The freecompetition produced by this change of system was of essentialadvantage to the colony, but was the immediate cause of introducing aspecies of population which has had vast influence on the past, andmay affect the future destinies of America, to an extent which humanwisdom can neither foresee nor control. A Dutch vessel, availingitself of this commercial liberty, brought into James river twentyAfricans, who were immediately purchased as slaves. [35]

 [Footnote 35: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

[Sidenote: Two councils established. ]

In July, the company passed an ordinance establishing a frame ofgovernment for the colony. This instrument provided that there shouldbe two supreme councils in Virginia, the one to be called the Councilof State, to be appointed and displaced by the treasurer and company, and to assist the governor with advice on executive subjects; theother to be denominated the General Assembly, and to consist of thegovernor, the council of state, and burgesses; to be chosen for thepresent, by the inhabitants of every town, hundred, or settlement, inthe colony, two for each. The assembly was empowered to enact generallaws for the government of the colony, reserving a negative to thegovernor. Its acts were not to be in force until confirmed by thegeneral court in England, and the ratification returned under itsseal. On the other hand, no order of the general court was to bind thecolony until assented to by the assembly. 

{1622}

A controversy concerning the importation of tobacco into the Europeandominions of the crown, which had for some time existed between theKing and the company, was, at length, adjusted. 

The King had demanded high duties on that article, while he permittedits importation from the dominions of Spain, and also restrained itsdirect exportation from Virginia, to the warehouses of the company inHolland, to which expedient his exactions had driven them. It was atlength agreed that they should enjoy the sole right of importing thatcommodity into the kingdom, for which they should pay a duty of ninepence per pound, in lieu of all charges, and that the whole productionof the colony should be brought to England. 

[Sidenote: County courts. ]

The industry, population, and produce of the colony, were now greatlyincreased. At peace with the Indians, they had extended theirsettlements to the Rappahannock and to the Potowmac. This change ofcircumstances having rendered it inconvenient to bring all causes toJamestown before the governor and council, who had heretoforeexercised all judicial power in the country, inferior courts wereestablished, to sit in convenient places, in order to render justicemore cheap and accessible to the people. Thus originated the countycourts of Virginia. 

[Sidenote: Indian conspiracy to massacre all the whites. ]

In this year the cup of prosperity, which the colonists had begun totaste, was dashed from their lips by an event which shook the colonyto its foundation. In 1618, Powhatan died, and was succeeded, in hisdominions and in his influence over all the neighbouring tribes, byOpechancanough, a bold and cunning chief, as remarkable for hisjealousy and hatred of the new settlers, as for his qualifications toexecute the designs suggested by his resentments. He renewed, however, the stipulations of Powhatan; and, for a considerable time, thegeneral peace remained undisturbed. The colonists, unsuspicious ofdanger, observed neither the Indians nor their machinations. Engagedentirely in the pursuits of agriculture, they neglected their militaryexercises, and every useful precaution. Meanwhile, the Indians, beingoften employed as hunters, were furnished with fire arms, and taughtto use them. They were admitted, at all times, freely into thehabitations of the English, as harmless visitants, were fed at theirtables, and lodged in their chambers. During this state of friendlyintercourse, the plan of a general massacre, which should involve man, woman, and child, in indiscriminate slaughter, was formed with coldand unrelenting deliberation. The tribes in the neighbourhood of theEnglish, except those on the eastern shore of the Chesapeak, who werenot trusted with the plan, were successively gained over; and, notwithstanding the perpetual intercourse between them and the whitepeople, the most impenetrable secrecy was observed. So deep and darkwas their dissimulation, that they were accustomed to borrow boatsfrom the English to cross the river, in order to concert and maturetheir execrable designs. 

The 22d of March was designated as the day on which all the Englishsettlements were to be attacked. The better to disguise theirintentions, and to ensure success, they brought, in the precedingevening, deer, turkies, and fish, as presents; and, even on themorning of the massacre, came freely among the whites, behaving intheir usual friendly manner, until the very instant which had beenappointed for the commencement of the scene of carnage. The fatal hourbeing arrived, they fell at once on every settlement, and murderedwithout distinction of age or sex. So sudden was the execution oftheir plan, that few perceived the weapons, or the approach of theblow, which terminated their existence. Thus, in one hour, and almostin the same instant, fell three hundred and forty-seven men, women andchildren; most of them by their own plantation tools. 

The massacre would have been still more complete, had not informationbeen given, the preceding night, to a Mr. Pace, by an Indiandomesticated in his house, and treated as a son, who, being pressed tomurder his benefactor, disclosed the plot to him. He immediatelycarried the intelligence to Jamestown, and the alarm was given to someof the nearest settlements, which were thereby saved. At some otherplaces, too, where the circumstances of the attack enabled the Englishto seize their arms, the assailants were repulsed. 

[Sidenote: General war. ]

This horrible massacre was succeeded by a vindictive and exterminatingwar, in which the wiles of the Indians were successfully retaliated onthemselves. During this disastrous period, many public works wereabandoned; the college institution was deserted; the settlements werereduced from eighty to eight; and famine superadded its afflictingscourge to the accumulated distresses of the colony. [36]

 [Footnote 36: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

As soon as intelligence of these calamitous events reached England, acontribution was made by the adventurers for the relief of thesufferers; arms from the tower were delivered to the treasurer andcompany; and several vessels were dispatched with those articles whichmight best alleviate such complicated distress. 

[Sidenote: Dissension and dissolution of the company. ]

But the dissolution of the company was rapidly approaching. Thatcorporation contained many men of the first rank and talents in thenation, who in their assemblies, were in habits of discussing themeasures of the crown with the accustomed freedom of a popular body. Two violent factions, which assumed the regular appearance of courtand country parties, divided the company, and struggled for theascendancy. James endeavoured to give the preponderance to the courtparty, but his endeavours were unsuccessful; and his failure disposedhim to listen to complaints against a corporation, whose deliberationshe found himself unable to control. To their mismanagement he ascribedthe slow progress made by the colony, and the heavy losses that hadbeen sustained. [37]

 [Footnote 37: _Ibid. _]

{1623}

{1624}

[Sidenote: Colony taken into the hands of the King. ]

After hearing both the corporation and their accusers, the privycouncil determined to issue a commission, appointing persons to benamed by the crown, to inquire into the affairs of Virginia from theearliest settlement of the province, and to report thereon to thegovernment. This commission seized the charters, books, and papers ofthe company; and all letters and packets brought from the colony wereordered to be laid unopened before the privy council. Their reportattributed the misfortunes of the colony to the corporation inEngland; and James, at no time a friend to popular assemblies, communicated to them his resolution to revoke the old charter andgrant a new one, which should respect private property, but placepower in fewer hands. The requisition that they should assent to thisproposition, and surrender their charter, was accompanied with theinformation that the King was determined, in default of submission, totake such proceedings for recalling their letters patent as might bejust. The company, however, resolutely determined to defend itsrights; whereupon a writ of _quo warranto_ was instituted in the courtof King's Bench, which was decided according to the wishes of themonarch. The company was dissolved, and all its powers were revestedin the crown. 

Above one hundred and fifty thousand pounds sterling had been expendedin planting the colony; and more than nine thousand persons had beensent from England to people it. Yet, at the dissolution of thecompany, the annual imports from Virginia did not exceed twentythousand pounds in value, and the population of the country wasreduced to about eighteen hundred persons. 

While these things were transacting in England, the war against theIndians was prosecuted in the colony, with vigour and success. Theneighbouring hostile tribes were nearly exterminated, and were drivenentirely from the rivers, so that the settlements were extended insafety. 

In February, the general assembly was once more convened. The severalorders which had been previously made by the governor and council, were enacted into laws; and form the oldest legislative rules ofaction now remaining on record. Among them are various regulationsrespecting the church of England. But the act best representing thecondition of the colonists, is a solemn declaration, "that thegovernor should not impose any taxes on the colony, otherwise than bythe authority of the general assembly; and that he should not withdrawthe inhabitants from their private labour to any service of his own. "At this session, too, the privilege of exemption from arrest, whilethe assembly was sitting, was extended to the burgesses. Several othermeasures were adopted for the correction of abuses; and the laws ofthat session, generally, are marked with that good sense andpatriotism, which are to be expected from men perfectly understandingtheir own situation, and legislating for themselves. 

From this assembly, the royal commissioners endeavoured, in vain, toprocure an address to the King, professing "their willingness tosubmit themselves to his princely pleasure, in revoking the ancientpatents;" but a petition was agreed to and transmitted, acknowledgingtheir satisfaction at his having taken the plantation into his moreespecial care, beseeching him to continue the then form of government, to confirm to Virginia and the Somers isles, the sole importation oftobacco, and soliciting that, if the promised aid of soldiers shouldbe granted them, the governor and assembly might have a voice indirecting their operations. 

Virginia having thus become a royal government, the King issued aspecial commission, appointing a governor and twelve councillors, towhom the entire direction of the affairs of the province wascommitted. No assembly was mentioned, nor was it intended to permitthe continuance of that body, for, to the popular shape of the latesystem, James attributed the disasters of the colony. But someattention to their interests, was mingled with this subversion ofpolitical liberty. Yielding to the petitions of the English parliamentand of the colonists, he issued a proclamation prohibiting the growthof tobacco in the kingdom, and the importation of it into England orIreland, except from Virginia, or the Somers isles, and in vesselsbelonging to his subjects. His death prevented the completion of alegislative code for the colony, which he had commenced, and which heflattered himself, would remedy all the ills that had beenexperienced. 

[Sidenote: Charles I. ]

[Sidenote: Arbitrary measures of the crown. ]

{1625}

Charles I. Adopted, in its full extent, the colonial system of hisfather. He committed to Sir George Yeardly, whom he appointed governorof Virginia, and to his council, the whole legislative and executivepowers of the colony, with instructions to conform exactly to orderswhich should be received from him. They were empowered to make lawsand to execute them; to impose taxes, and to enforce the payment ofthem; to seize the property of the late company; and to apply it tothe public use; and to transport the colonists to England, to bepunished there for crimes committed in Virginia. To complete thishateful system, the crown exacted a monopoly of the tobacco trade, andappointed agents, to whose management that article was entirelycommitted. [38]

 [Footnote 38: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

{1629}

[Sidenote: Sir John Harvey. ]

{1636}

The full pressure of these arbitrary regulations was not felt till SirJohn Harvey, on the Sir John death of Sir George Yeardly, wasappointed governor of Virginia. The mind of this gentleman isrepresented by the historians of the day, as having been of astructure to make even tyranny more odious. Rapacious, haughty, andunfeeling, he exercised his powers in the most offensive manner. Respect for his commission, suppressed opposition to his authority forseveral years. Roused, at length, almost to madness by oppression, theVirginians, in a fit of popular rage, seized their governor, and senthim a prisoner to England, accompanied by two deputies charged withthe duty of representing their grievances, and his misconduct. 

{1637}

Charles deemed it necessary to discountenance this summary and violentproceeding, so entirely incompatible with that implicit obediencewhich he had ever exacted from his subjects. The deputies of thecolony were sternly received; no inquiry appears to have been madeinto the conduct of Harvey; and, early in the succeeding year, he wassent back to Virginia, invested with all his former powers. [39]

 [Footnote 39: Robertson. Chalmer. Stith. ]

The time, however, approached, when a new system of administration wasto be adopted. The discontents of the nation, and his own wants, obliged Charles to determine on convening a parliament. He wasprobably unwilling to increase the ill temper resulting from hismaladministration at home, by bringing before the representatives ofthe people, complaints of the despotism which had been exercised inAmerica. 

[Sidenote: Sir William Berkeley. ]

[Sidenote: Provincial assembly restored. ]

To this change of circumstances may be ascribed the appointment of SirWilliam Berkeley to succeed Harvey as governor of Virginia. In almostevery respect, this gentleman was unlike his predecessor. Highlyrespectable for his rank and abilities, he was still moredistinguished by his integrity, by the mildness of his temper, and bythe gentleness of his manners. To complete the satisfaction of thecolonists, he was empowered and directed to summon the burgesses ofall the plantations, to meet the governor and council in the generalassembly, and thereby to restore to the people their share in thegovernment. These changes had such an effect in Virginia that, whenafterward informed of a petition presented in the name of the assemblyto parliament, "praying for the restoration of the ancient patents, and corporation government, " the general assembly not only transmittedan explicit disavowal of it, but sent an address to the King, expressing their high sense of his favour towards them, and earnestlydesiring to continue under his immediate protection. During the civilwar, as well as after the establishment of the commonwealth, theycontinued firm in their attachment to the royal family. 

{1650}

The House of Commons, however, having succeeded in the establishmentof its power over England, was not disposed to permit its authority tobe questioned in Virginia. An ordinance was passed, declaring that, asthe colonies were settled at the cost and by the people of England, "they are and ought to be subordinate to, and dependent on, thatnation; and subject to such law and regulations as are or shall bemade by parliament. That in Virginia and other places, the powers ofgovernment had been usurped by persons who had set themselves up inopposition to the commonwealth, who were therefore denounced as rebelsand traitors; and all foreign vessels were forbidden to enter theports of any of the English settlements in America. " As the men whothen governed were not in the habit of making empty declarations, thecouncil of state was empowered to send a fleet to enforce obedience toparliament. [40]

 [Footnote 40: Robertson. Chalmer. ]

{1651}

Sir George Ayscue was accordingly detached with a powerful squadron, and was instructed to endeavour, by gentle means, to bring thecolonists to obedience; but, if these failed, to use force, and togive freedom to such servants and slaves of those who should resist, as would serve in the troops under his command. After reducingBarbadoes, and the other islands to submission, the squadron enteredthe Chesapeak. Berkeley, having hired a few Dutch ships which werethen trading to Virginia, made a gallant resistance; but, unable longto maintain so unequal a contest, he yielded to superior force, havingfirst stipulated for a general amnesty. He then withdrew to a retiredsituation where, beloved and respected by the people, he resided as aprivate man, until a counter revolution called him, once more, topreside over the colony. [41]

 [Footnote 41: Robertson. Chalmer. ]

After the revocation of the charter, it became more easy to obtainlarge grants of land. This circumstance, notwithstanding the tyrannyof the provincial government, promoted emigration, and considerablyincreased the population of the colony. At the commencement of thecivil war, Virginia was supposed to contain about twenty thousandsouls. [42]

 [Footnote 42: Idem. ]

[Sidenote: Charles II. Proclaimed in Virginia. ]

While the ordinance of 1650, forbidding all trade between the coloniesand foreign nations, was dispensed with in favour of republican NewEngland, it was rigorously enforced against the loyal colony ofVirginia. These restrictions were the more burdensome, because Englanddid not then furnish a sufficient market for all the produce, nor asupply for all the wants of the colonies. This severity was notcalculated to detach the affections of the people from the royalfamily. Their discontents were cherished, too, by the great number ofcavaliers who had fled to Virginia after the total defeat of theirparty in England. Taking advantage of an interregnum occasioned by thesudden death of governor Matthews, the people resolved to throw offtheir forced allegiance to the commonwealth, and called on Sir WilliamBerkeley to resume the government. He required only their solemnpromise to venture their lives and fortunes with him in support oftheir King. This being readily given, Charles II. Was proclaimed inVirginia, before intelligence had been received of the death ofCromwell. His restoration was soon afterwards effected in England; andthis rash measure not only escaped chastisement, but became ameritorious service of which Virginia long boasted, and which was notentirely forgotten by the Prince. [43]

 [Footnote 43: Robertson. Chalmer. ]

At the restoration, the colony contained about thirty thousandpersons. 

One of the causes which, during the government of Harvey, haddisquieted Virginia, was the diminution of territory occasioned bygrants of great tracts of country lying within the limits of thecolony. The most remarkable of these was the grant of Maryland to LordBaltimore. 

[Sidenote: Maryland. ]

In June 1632, Charles I. Granted to that nobleman for ever, "thatregion bounded by a line drawn from Watkin's Point on Chesapeak bay, to the ocean on the east; thence, to that part of the estuary ofDelaware on the north, which lieth under the 40th degree, where NewEngland is terminated; thence, in a right line, by the degreeaforesaid, to the meridian of the fountain of the Potowmac; thence, following its course, by the farther bank to its confluence. " Theterritory described in this grant was denominated Maryland, and wasseparated entirely from Virginia. The proprietor was empowered, withthe assent of the freemen, or their delegates, whom he was required toassemble for that purpose, to make all laws for the government of thenew colony, not inconsistent with the laws of England. Privileges, inother respects analogous to those given to the other colonies, werecomprised in this charter; and it is remarkable that it contains noclause obliging the proprietary to submit the laws which might beenacted to the King, for his approbation or dissent; nor anyreservation of the right of the crown to interfere in the governmentof the province. [44]

 [Footnote 44: Chalmer. Robertson. ]

This is the first example of the dismemberment of a colony, and thecreation of another within its original limits, by the mere act of thecrown. 

{1633}

The first migration into the new colony consisted of about two hundredgentlemen with their adherents, chiefly Roman Catholics, who sailedfrom England under Calvert, the brother of the proprietor, inNovember, and, early in the following year, landed in Maryland, nearthe mouth of the Potowmac. Their first effort was to conciliate thegood will of the natives, whose town they purchased, and called St. Mary's. This measure was as wise as it was just. By obtaining thepeaceable possession of land already prepared for cultivation, theMarylanders were enabled to raise their food immediately; and thiscircumstance, together with their neighbourhood to Virginia, where thenecessaries of life were then raised in abundance, secured them fromfamine and its concomitant diseases;--afflictions which had swept awaysuch numbers of the first settlers of North America. 

The inhabitants of Virginia presented a petition against the grant toLord Baltimore, which was heard before the privy council in July, 1633. The decision was in favour of the continuance of the patent;leaving to the petitioners their remedy at law. To prevent fartherdifferences, free commerce was permitted between the colonies; andthey were enjoined to receive no fugitives from each other; to do noact which might bring on a war with the natives; and on all occasionsto assist each other as became fellow subjects of the same state. 

{1635}

[Sidenote: Assembly of all the freemen. ]

{1638}

[Sidenote: William Clayborne. ]

In February 1635, the first assembly of Maryland was convened. Itappears to have been composed of the whole body of the freemen. Theiracts were, most probably, not approved by the proprietor, whotransmitted, in turn, for their consideration, a code of laws preparedby himself. This code was laid before the assembly who rejected itwithout hesitation, and prepared a body of regulations adapted totheir situation. Among these was an act of attainder against WilliamClayborne, who was charged with felony and sedition, with havingexercised the powers of government within the province withoutauthority, and with having excited the Indians to make war on thecolony. [45]

 [Footnote 45: Chalmer. ]

As early as the year 1631, Charles had granted a license to WilliamClayborne, one of the council and secretary of state of Virginia, "totraffic in those parts of America for which there is already no patentgranted for sole trade. " To enforce this license, Harvey, thengovernor of Virginia, had granted his commission also, containing thesame powers. Under this license and commission, Clayborne made a smallsettlement in the isle of Kent, near Annapolis, which he continued toclaim; and refused to submit to the jurisdiction of Maryland. Notcontent with infusing his own turbulent spirit into the inhabitants ofKent island, he scattered jealousies among the natives, and persuadedthem that "the new comers" were Spaniards, and enemies of theVirginians. Having been indicted, and found guilty of murder, piracy, and sedition, he fled from justice; whereupon his estate was seizedand confiscated. Clayborne loudly denounced these proceedings asoppressive, and complained of them to his sovereign. At the same time, he prayed for a confirmation of his former license to trade, and for agrant of other lands adjoining the isle of Kent, with power to governthem. The lords commissioners of the colonies, to whom this subjectwas referred, determined that the lands in question belonged to LordBaltimore; and that no plantation, or trade with the Indians, withinthe limits of his patent, ought to be allowed, without his permission. The other complaints made by Clayborne were not deemed proper for theinterference of government. 

{1639}

Hitherto, the legislature had been composed of the whole body of thefreemen. But the increase of population, and the extension ofsettlements, having rendered the exercise of the sovereign power bythe people themselves intolerably burdensome, an act was passed, in1639, "for establishing the House of Assembly. " This act declared thatthose elected should be called burgesses, and should supply the placeof the freemen who chose them, as do the representatives in theParliament of England. These burgesses, with others called by specialwrit, together with the governor and secretary, were to constitute theGeneral Assembly; but the two branches of the legislature were to sitin the same chamber. In 1650, this last regulation was changed; and anact was passed declaring that those called by special writ should formthe upper house, while those chosen by the hundreds should compose thelower house; and that bills assented to by both branches of thelegislature and by the governor, should be deemed the laws of theprovince. 

{1641}

Perfect harmony prevailed between the proprietor and the people; andMaryland, attentive to its own affairs, remained in a state ofincreasing prosperity until the civil war broke out in England. Thisgovernment, like that of Virginia, was attached to the royal cause;but Clayborne, who took part with the Parliament, found means tointrigue among the people, and to raise an insurrection in theprovince. Calvert, the governor, was obliged to fly to Virginia forprotection; and the insurgents seized the reins of government. Afterthe suppression of this revolt, and the restoration of tranquillity, an act of general pardon and oblivion was passed, from the benefits ofwhich only a few leading individuals were excepted; but this, likemost other insurrections, produced additional burdens on the peoplewhich did not so soon pass away. A duty, for seven years, of tenshillings on every hundred weight of tobacco exported in Dutchbottoms, was granted to the proprietor; the one-half of which wasappropriated to satisfy claims produced by the recovery and defence ofthe province. [46]

 [Footnote 46: Chalmer. ]

{1651}

This state of repose was disturbed by the superintending care ofParliament. In September 1651, commissioners were appointed "forreducing and governing the colonies within the bay of Chesapeak. "Among them was Clayborne, the evil genius of Maryland. As theproprietor had acknowledged and submitted to the authority ofParliament, he was permitted to govern the colony in the name of "thekeepers of the liberties of England;" but could not long retain thepossession of actual authority. The distractions of England, havingfound their way into Maryland, divided the colonists; and thecommissioners supported with their countenance, the faction opposed tothe established government. The contentions generated by this state ofthings, at length broke out in a civil war, which terminated in thedefeat of the governor and the Roman Catholics. A new assembly wasconvened, which, being entirely under the influence of the victoriousparty, passed an act declaring that none who professed the popishreligion could be protected in the province by the laws; that such asprofess faith in God by Jesus Christ, although dissenting from thedoctrine and discipline publicly held forth, should not be restrainedfrom the exercise of their religion, provided such liberty was notextended to popery, or prelacy, or to such as, under the profession ofChrist, practise licentiousness. Other laws in the same spirit wereenacted; and a persecution was commenced against the Quakers, as wellas against those guilty of popery, and prelacy. 

A scene of revolutionary turbulence ensued, in the course of which aresolution was passed declaring the upper house to be useless, whichcontinued in force until the restoration. Philip Calvert was thenappointed governor by Lord Baltimore, and the ancient order of thingswas restored. The colony, notwithstanding these commotions, continuedto flourish; and, at the restoration, its population was estimated attwelve thousand souls. 

CHAPTER III. 

 First ineffectual attempts of the Plymouth company to settle the country.... Settlement at New Plymouth.... Sir Henry Rosewell and company.... New charter.... Settlements prosecuted vigorously.... Government transferred to the colonists.... Boston founded.... Religious intolerance.... General court established.... Royal commission for the government of the plantations.... Contest with the French colony of Acadié.... Hugh Peters.... Henry Vane.... Mrs. Hutchinson.... Maine granted to Gorges.... Quo warranto against the patent of the colony.... Religious dissensions.... Providence settled.... Rhode Island settled.... Connecticut settled.... War with the Piquods.... New Haven settled. 

{1606}

The steps by which the first, or southern colony, advanced to a firmand permanent establishment, were slow and painful. The company forfounding the second, or northern colony, was composed of gentlemenresiding in Plymouth, and other parts of the west of England; was lesswealthy, and possessed fewer resources than the first company, whichresided in the capital. Their efforts were consequently more feeble, and less successful, than those which were made in the south. [47]

 [Footnote 47: Robertson. ]

{1607}

{1608}

{1614}

The first vessel fitted out by this company was captured andconfiscated by the Spaniards, who, at that time, asserted a right toexclude the ships of all other nations from navigating the Americanseas. Not discouraged by this misfortune, the company in the followingyear dispatched two other vessels, having on board about two hundredpersons designed to form the proposed settlement. The colonistsarrived safely on the American coast in autumn, and took possession ofa piece of ground near the river Sagahadoc, where they built fort St. George. Their sufferings during the ensuing winter were extreme. Manyof the company, among whom were Gilbert their admiral, and GeorgePopham their president, sank under the diseases by which they wereattacked; and the vessels which brought them supplies in the followingspring, brought also the information that their principal patron, SirJohn Popham, chief justice of England, was dead. Discouraged by theirlosses and sufferings, and by the death of a person on whom theyrelied chiefly for assistance, the surviving colonists determined toabandon the country, and embark on board the vessels then returning toEngland. The frightful pictures they drew of the country, and of theclimate, deterred the company, for some time, from farther attempts tomake a settlement, and their enterprizes were limited to voyages forthe purposes of taking fish, and of trading with the natives for furs. One of these was made by captain Smith, so distinguished in thehistory of Virginia. Having explored, with great accuracy, that partof the coast which stretches from Penobscot to Cape Cod, he delineatedit on a map; which he presented to the young Prince of Wales, withdescriptions dictated by a sanguine mind, in which enthusiasm wascombined with genius. The imagination of the Prince was so wroughtupon by the glowing colours in which Smith painted the country, thathe declared it should be called New England, which name it has eversince retained. [48]

 [Footnote 48: Robertson. Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

The languishing company of Plymouth, however, could not be stimulatedto engage in farther schemes of colonisation, the advantages of whichwere distant and uncertain, while the expense was immediate andinevitable. To a stronger motive than even interest, is New Englandindebted for its first settlement. 

An obscure sect, which had acquired the appellation of Brownists fromthe name of its founder, and which had rendered itself peculiarlyobnoxious by the democracy of its tenets respecting church government, had been driven by persecution to take refuge at Leyden in Holland, where its members formed a distinct society under the care of theirpastor, Mr. John Robinson. There they resided several years in safeobscurity. This situation, at length, became irksome to them. Theirfamilies intermingled with the Dutch, and they saw before them, withextreme apprehension, the danger of losing their separate identity. Under the influence of these and other causes, they came to thedetermination of removing in a body to America. 

{1618}

They applied to the London company for a grant of lands; and, topromote the success of their application by the certainty of theiremigrating, they said, "that they were well weaned from the delicatemilk of their mother country, and inured to the difficulties of astrange land. That they were knit together in a strict and sacredbond, by virtue of which they held themselves bound to take care ofthe good of each other, and of the whole. That it was not with them, as with other men, whom small things could discourage, or smalldiscontents cause to wish themselves at home again. " The onlyprivilege on which they insisted, was a license under the great seal, to practise and profess religion in that mode, which, under theimpulse of conscience, they had adopted. This reasonable and moderaterequest was refused. James had already established the church ofEngland in Virginia; and, although he promised to connive at theirnon-conformity, and not to molest them while they demeaned themselvespeaceably, he positively refused to give that explicit and solemnpledge of security, which they required. This, for a short time, suspended their removal; but the causes of their discontent in Hollandcontinuing, they, at length, determined to trust to the verbaldeclarations of the King, and negotiated with the Virginia company fora tract of land within the limits of their patent. [49]

 [Footnote 49: Robertson. ]

{1620}

[Sidenote: Settlement at New Plymouth. ]

In September, they sailed from England, with only one hundred andtwenty men, in a single ship. Their destination was Hudson's river;but the first land they made was Cape Cod. They soon perceived thatthey were not only beyond their own limits, but beyond those of thecompany from which they derived their title; but it was now the monthof November, and consequently too late in the season again to put tosea in search of a new habitation. After exploring the coast, theychose a position for their station, to which they gave the name of Newat New Plymouth. On the 11th of November, before landing, a solemncovenant was signed by the heads of families, and freemen, in which, after reciting that they had undertaken to plant a colony for theglory of God, and for the honour of their King and country, andprofessing their loyalty to their sovereign Lord King James, theycombined themselves into a body politic, for the purpose of makingequal laws for the general good. [50]

 [Footnote 50: Robertson. Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

Having thus formed a compact, the obligation of which all admitted, they proceeded to the choice of a governor for one year; and to enablehim the better to discharge the trust confided to him, they gave himone assistant. In 1624, three others were added; and the number wasafterwards increased to seven. The supreme power resided in, and, during the infancy of the colony, was exercised by, the whole body ofthe male inhabitants. They assembled together, occasionally, todetermine on all subjects of public concern; nor was a house ofrepresentatives established until the year 1639. They adopted the lawsof England as a common rule of action, adding occasionally municipalregulations. Some of the changes in their penal code strongly markedtheir character and circumstances. While only a moderate fine wasimposed on forgery, fornication was punished with whipping, andadultery with death. [51]

 [Footnote 51: Robertson. Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

Misguided by their religious theories, they fell into the same errorwhich had been committed in Virginia, and, in imitation of theprimitive Christians, threw all their property into a common stock, laboured jointly for the common benefit, and were fed from the commonstores. This regulation produced, even in this small and enthusiasticsociety, its constant effect. They were often in danger of starving;and severe whipping, administered to promote labour, only increaseddiscontent. 

The colonists landed at a season of the year which was unfavourable tothe establishment of a new settlement. The winter, which was intenselycold, had already commenced; and they were not in a condition tosoften its rigours. Before the return of spring, fifty of themperished with maladies increased by the hardships to which they wereexposed, by the scarcity of food, and by the almost total privation ofthose comforts to which they had been accustomed. The survivors, asthe season moderated, encountered new difficulties. Their attention tothe means of providing for their future wants was interrupted by thenecessity of taking up arms to defend themselves against theneighbouring savages. Fortunately for the colonists, the natives hadbeen so wasted by pestilence, the preceding year, that they wereeasily subdued, and compelled to accept a peace, on equitable terms. 

The colonists were supported, under these multiplied distresses, bythe hope of better times, and by that high gratification which menexasperated by persecution and oppression, derived from the enjoymentof the rights of conscience, and the full exercise of the powers ofself-government. From their friends in England, they receivedoccasional but scanty supplies; and continued to struggle againstsurrounding difficulties, with patience and perseverance. Theyremained in peace, alike exempt from the notice and oppression ofgovernment. Yet, in consequence of the unproductiveness of their soil, and their adherence to the pernicious policy of a community of goodsand of labour, they increased more slowly than the other colonies;and, in the year 1630, amounted to only three hundred souls. 

Until the year 1630, they possessed no other title to their lands thanis derived from occupancy. In that year they obtained a grant from theNew Plymouth company, but were never incorporated as a body politic byroyal charter. Having received no powers from the parliament or King, and being totally disregarded by the Plymouth company, they remained amere voluntary association, yielding obedience to laws, and tomagistrates, formed and chosen by themselves. In this situation theycontinued undisturbed, and almost unknown, more tolerant and moremoderate than their neighbours, until their union with a younger, andmore powerful sister, who advanced with a growth unusually rapid to astate of maturity. [52]

 [Footnote 52: Robertson. Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

The original company of Plymouth, having done nothing effectualtowards settling the territory which had been granted to them, andbeing unable to preserve the monopoly of their trade and fisheries, applied to James for a new and more enlarged patent. On the 3d ofNovember, he granted that territory which lies between the 40th and48th degrees of north latitude to the Duke of Lenox, the Marquis ofBuckingham, and several others, in absolute property; and incorporatedthem under the name of "the council established at Plymouth, forplanting and governing that country called New England;" withjurisdiction and powers similar to those which had before beenconferred on the companies of south and north Virginia, and especiallythat of excluding all other persons whatever from trading within theirboundaries and fishing in the neighbouring seas. This improvidentgrant, which excited the indignation of the people of England, thendeeply interested in the fur trade and fisheries, soon engaged theattention, and received the censure of parliament. The patentees werecompelled to relinquish their odious monopoly; and, being thusdeprived of the funds on which they had relied to furnish the expenseof supporting new settlements, they abandoned the design of attemptingthem. New England might have remained long unoccupied by Europeans, had not the same causes, which occasioned the emigration of theBrownists, still continued to operate. The persecution to which thepuritans were exposed, increased their zeal and their numbers. Indespair of obtaining at home a relaxation of those rigorous penalstatutes under which they had long smarted, they looked elsewhere forthat toleration which was denied them in their native land. Understanding that their brethren in New Plymouth were permitted toworship their creator according to the dictates of conscience, theirattention was directed towards the same coast; and several smallemigrations were made, at different times, to Massachusetts bay; sotermed from the name of the Sachem who was sovereign of the country. 

{1627}

[Sidenote: Sir Henry Rosewell and others. ]

Mr. White, a non-conforming minister at Dorchester, formed anassociation of several gentlemen, who had imbibed puritanicalopinions, for the purpose of conducting a colony to the bay ofMassachusetts, and rendering it an asylum for the persecuted of hisown persuasion. In prosecution of these views, a treaty was concludedwith the council of Plymouth for the purchase of part of New England;and that corporation, in March 1627, sold to Sir Henry Rosewell andothers, all that part of New England lying three miles to the south ofCharles river, and three miles north of Merrimack river, and extendingfrom the Atlantic to the South sea. A small number of planters andservants were, soon afterwards, dispatched under Endicot, who, inSeptember, laid the foundation of Salem, the first permanent town inMassachusetts. [53]

 [Footnote 53: Robertson. Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

{1628}

The purchasers perceived their inability to accomplish the settlementof the extensive regions they had acquired, without the aid of moreopulent partners. These were soon found in the capital; but theyrequired that a new charter should be obtained from the crown, comprehending their names, which should confirm the grant to thecouncil of Plymouth, and confer on the grantees the powers ofgovernment. So seldom is man instructed by the experience of others, that, disregarding the lessons furnished by Virginia, they likewiserequired that the supreme authority should be vested in personsresiding in London. The proprietors having acceded to theserequisitions, application was made to Charles for a patent conformingto them, which issued on the 4th day of March, 1628. 

This charter incorporated the grantees by the name of "The governorand company of Massachusetts bay in New England. "

The whole executive power was vested in a governor, a deputy governor, and eighteen assistants; to be named, in the first instance, by thecrown, and afterwards elected by the company. The governor, and seven, or more, of the assistants, were authorised to meet in monthly courts, for the dispatch of such business as concerned the company, orsettlement. The legislative power was vested in the body of theproprietors, who were to assemble four times a year in person, underthe denomination of the general court; and besides electing freemen, and the necessary officers of the company, were empowered to makeordinances for the good of the community, and the government of theplantation and its inhabitants; provided they should not be repugnantto the laws of England. Their lands were to be holden in free andcommon soccage; and the same temporary exemption from taxes, and fromduties on exports and imports, which had been granted to the colony ofVirginia, was accorded to them. As in the charter of Virginia, so inthis, the colonists and their descendants were declared to be entitledto all the rights and privileges of natural born subjects. 

The patent being obtained, the governor and council engaged withardour in the duties assigned them. To support the expenses of a freshembarkation, it was resolved that every person subscribing fiftypounds, should be entitled to two hundred acres of land as the firstdividend. Five vessels sailed in May, carrying about two hundredpersons, who reached Salem in June. At that place they found Endicot, to whom they brought a confirmation of his commission as governor. Thecolony consisted of three hundred persons, one hundred of whom removedto Charlestown. 

Religion, which had stimulated them to remove from their native land, became the first object of their care in the country they had adopted. Being zealous puritans, they concurred in the institution of a church, establishing that form of policy, which has since been denominatedindependent. A confession of faith was drawn up to which the majorityassented; and an association was formed in which they covenanted withthe Lord, and with each other, to walk together in all his ways, as heshould be pleased to reveal himself to them. Pastors, and otherecclesiastical officers, were chosen, who were installed into theirsacred offices, by the imposition of the hands of the brethren. [54]

 [Footnote 54: Robertson. ]

A church being thus formed, several were received as members who gavean account of their faith and hope as Christians; and those only wereadmitted into the communion, whose morals and religious tenets wereapproved by the elders. [55]

 [Footnote 55: Robertson. ]

{1629}

Pleased with the work of their hands, and believing it to be perfect, they could tolerate no difference of opinion. Just escaped frompersecution, they became persecutors themselves. Some few of theirnumber, attached to the ritual of the church of England, weredissatisfied with its total abolition; and, withdrawing from communionwith the church, met apart, to worship God in the manner they deemedmost proper. At the head of this small number were two of the firstpatentees, who were also of the council. They were called before thegovernor, who, being of opinion that their non-conformity andconversation tended to sedition, sent them to England. The oppositionceased when deprived of its leaders. [56]

 [Footnote 56: Robertson. Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

[Sidenote: Government transferred to Massachusetts bay. ]

The following winter brought with it the calamities which must beuniformly sustained by the first emigrants into a wilderness, wherethe cold is severe, and the privations almost universal. In the courseof it, nearly half their number perished, "lamenting that they did notlive to see the rising glories of the faithful. " The fortitude, however, of the survivors, was not shaken; nor were their brethren inEngland deterred from joining them. Religion supported the colonistsunder all their difficulties; and the intolerant spirit of the Englishhierarchy diminished, in the view of the puritans in England, thedangers and the sufferings to be encountered in America; and disposedthem to forego every other human enjoyment, for the consolingprivilege of worshipping the Supreme Being according to their ownopinions. Many persons of fortune determined to seek in the new worldthat liberty of conscience which was denied them in the old; but, foreseeing the misrule inseparable from the residence of thelegislative power in England, they demanded, as preliminary to theiremigration, that the powers of government should be transferred to NewEngland, and be exercised in the colony. The company had alreadyincurred expenses for which they saw no prospect of a speedyreimbursement; and although they doubted the legality of the measure, were well disposed by adopting it, to obtain such important aid. Ageneral court was therefore convened, by whom it was unanimouslyresolved "that the patent should be transferred, and the government ofthe colony removed from London to Massachusetts bay. " It was alsoagreed that the members of the corporation remaining in England, should retain a share in the trading stock and profits for the term ofseven years. [57]

 [Footnote 57: Robertson. Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

{1630}

[Sidenote: Boston founded. ]

Such was the effect of this revolution in the system of government, that, early in the following year, fifteen hundred persons, among whomwere several of family and fortune, embarked, at an expense of upwardsof twenty thousand pounds, and arrived at Salem in July. Dissatisfiedwith this situation, they explored the country in quest of betterstations; and, settling in many places around the bay, they laid thefoundation of several towns, and, among others, of Boston. 

{1631}

The difficulty of obtaining subsistence, the difference of their foodfrom that to which they had been accustomed, the intense cold of thewinter, against which sufficient provision was not yet made, werestill severely felt by the colonists, and still carried many of themto the grave; but that enthusiasm which had impelled them to emigrate, preserved all its force; and they met, with a firm unshaken spirit, the calamities which assailed them. Our admiration of their fortitudeand of their principles, sustains, however, some diminution fromobserving the sternness with which they denied to others that civiland religious liberty which, through so many dangers and hardships, they sought for themselves. Their general court decreed that noneshould be admitted as freemen, or permitted to vote at elections, orbe capable of being chosen as magistrates, or of serving as jurymen, but such as had been received into the church as members. Thus did menwho had braved every hardship for freedom of conscience, deny thechoicest rights of humanity, to all those who dissented from theopinion of the majority on any article of faith, or point of churchdiscipline. 

{1633}

The numerous complaints of the severities exercised by the governmentof Massachusetts, added to the immense emigration of persons noted fortheir enthusiasm, seem, at length, to have made some impression onCharles; and an order was made by the King in council, to stop theships at that time ready to sail, freighted with passengers for NewEngland. This order, however, seems never to have been strictlyexecuted, as the emigrations continued without any sensiblediminution. 

{1634}

Hitherto the legislature had been composed of the whole body of thefreemen. Under this system, so favourable to the views of the few whopossess popular influence, the real power of the state had beenchiefly engrossed by the governor and assistants, aided by the clergy. The emigration, however, having already been considerable, and thesettlements having become extensive, it was found inconvenient, if notimpracticable, longer to preserve a principle which their charterenjoined. In the year 1634, by common consent, the people electeddelegates who met the governor and council, and constituted thegeneral court. This important improvement in their system, renderedfamiliar, and probably suggested, by the practice in the mothercountry, although not authorised by the charter, remained unaltered, so long as that charter was permitted to exist. [58]

 [Footnote 58: Robertson. Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

[Sidenote: Commission for the government of the plantations. ]

{1635}

The colony of Massachusetts having been conducted, from itscommencement, very much on the plan of an independent society, atlength attracted the partial notice of the jealous administration inEngland; and a commission for "the regulation and government of theplantations" was issued to the great officers of state, and to some ofthe nobility, in which absolute power was granted to the archbishop ofCanterbury and to others, "to make laws and constitutions concerningeither their state public, or the utility of individuals. " Thecommissioners were authorised to support the clergy by assigning them"tithes, oblations, and other profits, according to their discretion;to inflict punishment on those who should violate their ordinances; toremove governors of plantations, and to appoint others; and toconstitute tribunals and courts of justice, ecclesiastical and civil, with such authority and form as they should think proper;" but theirlaws were not to take effect until they had received the royal assent, and had been proclaimed in the colonies. The commissioners were alsoconstituted a committee to hear complaints against a colony, itsgovernor or other officers, with power to remove the offender toEngland for punishment. They were farther directed to cause therevocation of such letters patent, granted for the establishment ofcolonies, as should, upon inquiry, be found to have been undulyobtained, or to contain a grant of liberties hurtful to the royalprerogative. [59]

 [Footnote 59: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

From the first settlement at Salem, the colony of Massachusetts hadcultivated the friendship of their neighbours of New Plymouth. Thebonds of mutual amity were now rendered more strict, not only by someappearances of a hostile disposition among the natives, but by anothercircumstance which excited alarm in both colonies. 

The voyages for discovery and settlement, made by the English andFrench, to the coast of North America, having been nearlycotemporaneous, their conflicting claims soon brought them intocollision with each other. The same lands were granted by thesovereigns of both nations; and, under these different grants, actualsettlements had been made by the French as far south and west as St. Croix, and, by the English, as far north and east as Penobscot. Duringthe war with France, which broke out early in the reign of Charles I. , that monarch granted a commission to captain Kirk for the conquest ofthe countries in America occupied by the French; under which, in 1629, Canada and Acadié were subdued; but, by the treaty of St. Germains, those places were restored to France without any description of theirlimits; and Fort Royal, Quebec, and Cape Breton, were severallysurrendered by name. In 1632, a party of French from Acadié committeda robbery on a trading house established at Penobscot by the people ofNew Plymouth. With the intelligence of this fact, information was alsobrought that cardinal Richelieu had ordered some companies to Acadié, and that more were expected the next year, with priests, Jesuits, andother formidable accompaniments, for a permanent settlement. Thegovernor of Acadié established a military post at Penobscot, and, atthe same time wrote to the governor of New Plymouth stating, that hehad orders to displace the English as far as Pemaquid. Not beingdisposed to submit quietly to this invasion of territory, thegovernment of New Plymouth undertook an expedition for the recovery ofthe fort at Penobscot, consisting of an English ship of war under thecommand of captain Girling, and a bark with twenty men belonging tothe colony. The garrison received notice of this armament, andprepared for its reception by fortifying and strengthening the fort;in consequence of which Girling, after expending his ammunition andfinding himself too weak to attempt the works by assault, applied toMassachusetts for aid. That colony agreed to furnish one hundred men, and to bear the expense of the expedition by private subscription; buta sufficient supply of provisions, even for this small corps, couldnot be immediately obtained, and the expedition was abandoned. Girlingreturned, and the French retained possession of Penobscot till 1654. The apprehensions entertained of these formidable neighbourscontributed, in no small degree, to cement the union betweenMassachusetts and Plymouth. [60]

 [Footnote 60: Hutchison. ]

{1636}

Two persons, afterwards distinguished in English annals, arrived thisyear in Boston. One was Hugh Peters, the coadjutor and chaplain ofOliver Cromwell; the other was Mr. Henry Vane, the son of Sir HenryVane, who was, at that time a privy councillor of great credit withthe King. The mind of this young gentleman was so deeply imbued withthe political and religious opinions of the puritans, that he appearedready to sacrifice, for the enjoyment of them, all his brightprospects in his native land. His mortified exterior, his grave andsolemn deportment, his reputation for piety and wisdom, his strongprofessions of attachment to liberty and to the public good, added tohis attention to some of the leading members in the church, wonrapidly the affections of the people, and he was chosen theirgovernor. 

His administration commenced with more external pomp than had beenusual, or would seem to be congenial either with his own professions, or with the plain and simple manners of the people whom he governed. When going to court or church, he was always preceded by two sergeantswho walked with their halberts. Yet his popularity sustained nodiminution, until the part he took in the religious controversies ofthe country detached from him many of its most judiciousinhabitants. [61]

 [Footnote 61: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

Independent of the meetings for public worship on every Sunday, of thestated lecture in Boston on every Thursday, and of occasional lecturesin other towns, there were frequent meetings of the brethren of thechurches, for religious exercises. Mrs. Hutchinson, who had been muchflattered by the attentions of the governor, and of Mr. Cotton, one ofthe most popular of the clergy; who added eloquence to her enthusiasm, and whose husband was among the most respected men of the country;dissatisfied with the exclusion of her sex from the private meetingsof the brethren, instituted a meeting of the sisters also, in whichshe repeated the sermons of the preceding Sunday, accompanied withremarks and expositions. These meetings were attended by a largenumber of the most respectable of her sex; and her lectures were, fora time, generally approved. At length she drew a distinction betweenthe ministers through the country. She designated a small number asbeing under a covenant of grace; the others, as being under a covenantof works. Contending for the necessity of the former, she maintainedthat sanctity of life is no evidence of justification, or of favourwith God; and that the Holy Ghost dwells personally in such as arejustified. The whole colony was divided into two parties, equallypositive, on these abstruse points, whose resentments against eachother threatened the most serious calamities. Mr. Vane espoused, withzeal, the wildest doctrines of Mrs. Hutchinson, and Mr. Cottondecidedly favoured them. The lieutenant governor Mr. Winthrop, and themajority of the churches, were of the opposite party. Many conferenceswere held; days of fasting and humiliation were appointed; a generalsynod was called; and, after violent dissensions, Mrs. Hutchinson'sopinions were condemned as erroneous, and she was banished. Many ofher disciples followed her. Vane, in disgust, quitted America;unlamented even by those who had lately admired him. He was thoughttoo visionary; and is said to have been too enthusiastic even for theenthusiasts of Massachusetts. 

The patentees, having no common object to prosecute, resolved todivide their lands; and, in the expectation of receiving a deed ofconfirmation for the particular portion which fortune should allot toeach, cast lots, in the presence of James, for the shares each shouldhold in severalty. They continued, however, to act some years longeras a body politic, during which time, they granted various portions ofthe country to different persons; and executed under the seal of thecorporation, deeds of feoffment for the lots drawn by each member ofthe company; patents of confirmation for which were solicited, butappear to have been granted only to Gorges, for Maine. The charter wassurrendered by the company and accepted by the crown. [62]

 [Footnote 62: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

{1637}

Charles, in pursuance of his determination to take the government ofNew England into his own hands, issued a proclamation directing thatnone should be transported thither who had not the special license ofthe crown, which should be granted to those only who had taken theoaths of supremacy and allegiance, and had conformed to the disciplineof the church of England. This order, however, could not be completelyexecuted; and the emigrations, which were entirely of non-conformists, still continued. Those who were disgusted with the ceremonials rigidlyexacted in England, estimated so highly the simple frame of churchpolicy established in Massachusetts, that numbers surmounted everydifficulty, to seek an asylum in this new Jerusalem. Among them weremen of the first political influence and mental attainments. Pym, Hampden, Hazlerig, and Cromwell, with many others who afterwardsperformed a conspicuous part in that revolution which brought the headof Charles to the block, are said to have been actually on board avessel prepared to sail for New England, and to have been stopped bythe special orders of the privy council. [63]

 [Footnote 63: Hume. ]

{1638}

The commissioners for the regulation and government of the plantationshaving reported that Massachusetts had violated its charter, a writ of_quo warranto_ was issued, on which judgment was given in favour ofthe crown. The process was never served on any member of thecorporation; and it is therefore probable that the judgment was notfinal. The privy council however ordered the governor and company tosend their patent to England to be surrendered. The general courtanswered this order by a petition to the commissioners in which theysaid, "we dare not question your Lordship's proceedings in requiringour patent to be sent unto you; we only desire to open our griefs; andif in any thing we have offended his Majesty or your Lordships, wehumbly prostrate ourselves at the foot stool of supreme authority; weare sincerely ready to yield all due obedience to both; we are notconscious that we have offended in any thing, as our government isaccording to law; we pray that we may be heard before condemnation, and that we may be suffered to live in the wilderness. " Fortunatelyfor the colonists, Charles and his commissioners found too muchemployment at home, to have leisure for carrying into completeexecution, a system aimed at the subversions of what was most dear tothe hearts of Americans. 

To the religious dissensions which distracted Massachusetts, and tothe rigour with which conformity was exacted, is to be attributed thefirst settlement of the other colonies of New England. As early as theyear 1634, Roger Williams, a popular preacher at Salem, who hadrefused to hold communion with the church at Boston, because itsmembers refused to make a public declaration of their repentance forhaving held communion with the church of England during theirresidence in that country, was charged with many exceptionable tenets. Among several which mark his wild enthusiasm, one is found in totalopposition, to the spirit of the times and to the severity of hisother doctrines. He maintained, that to punish a man for any matter ofconscience is persecution, and that even papists and Arminians areentitled to freedom of conscience in worship, provided the peace ofcivil society be secured. The divines of Massachusetts, in oppositionto this doctrine, contended that they did not persecute men forconscience, but corrected them for sinning against conscience; and sothey did not persecute, but punish heretics. This unintelligiblesophism not convincing Williams, he was, for this, and for his otherheresies, banished by the magistrates, as a disturber of the peace ofthe church, and of the commonwealth. 

[Illustration: Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1622

_From the painting by W. L. Williams_

_Here, under Governor Bradford, who directed their destiny for aprecarious quarter of a century, the Pilgrim Fathers strovedesperately to maintain a foothold in America, and several times wereon the point of abandoning the enterprise. To such straits were theyreduced, in 1622, a year after the death of Governor Carter, that halfrations were doled out, and when, in May of that year, a ship arrivedfrom England bearing encouraging letters to the Pilgrims, but nosubstantial supplies, Governor Bradford remarked bitterly: "All thisis but cold comfort to fill hungry bellies. "_]

[Sidenote: Providence settled. ]

Many of his disciples followed him into exile, and, travelling southuntil they passed the line of Massachusetts, purchased a tract of landof the Narraghansetts, then a powerful tribe of Indians, where, in1635, they made a settlement to which they gave the name ofProvidence. After fixing the place of their future residence, theyentered into a voluntary association, and framed a government composedof the whole body of freemen. After the manner of Massachusetts, theycreated a church by collecting a religious society; but, as one of thecauses of their migration had been the tenet that all were entitled tofreedom of conscience in worship, entire toleration was established. The new settlers cultivated with assiduity the good will of thenatives, with whom a long peace was preserved. [64]

 [Footnote 64: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

[Sidenote: Rhode Island settled. ]

The banishment of Williams was soon followed by that of Mrs. Hutchinson. She was accompanied by many of her disciples, who, pursuing the steps of Williams, and, arriving in his neighbourhood, purchased a tract of land from the same tribe, and founded RhodeIsland. Imitating the conduct of their neighbours, they formed asimilar association for the establishment of civil government, andadopted the same principles of toleration. In consequence of thisconduct the island soon became so populous as to furnish settlers forthe adjacent shores. [65]

 [Footnote 65: Chalmer. ]

{1634}

[Sidenote: Connecticut settled. ]

{1636}

Connecticut too is a colony of Massachusetts. As early as the year1634, several persons, among whom was Mr. Hooker, a favourite ministerof the church, applied to the general court of Massachusetts forpermission to pursue their fortunes in some new and better land. Thispermission was not granted at that time; and, it being then thereceived opinion that the oath of a freeman, as well as the originalcompact, bound every member of the society so as not to leave him theright to separate himself from it without the consent of the whole, this emigration was suspended. The general court, however, did notlong withhold its assent. The country having been explored, and aplace selected on the west side of the river Connecticut, a commissionwas granted to the petitioners to remove, on the condition of theirstill continuing under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, some fewhuts had been erected the preceding year in which a small number ofemigrants had wintered; and, the fall succeeding, about sixty personstraversed the wilderness in families. In 1636, about one hundredpersons, led by Pynchon, Hooker, and Haynes, followed the firstemigrants, and founded the towns of Hartford, Springfield, andWeathersfield. There are some peculiarities attending this commissionand this settlement, which deserve to be noticed. 

The country to be settled was, confessedly, without the limits ofMassachusetts; yet Roger Ludlow was authorised to promulgate theorders which might be necessary for the plantations; to inflictcorporal punishment, imprisonment, and fines; to determine alldifferences in a judicial way; and to convene the inhabitants in ageneral court, if it should be necessary. This signal exercise ofauthority grew out of the principle, solemnly asserted by the generalcourt of Massachusetts, that the oath of fidelity to the commonwealthwas binding, although the person should no longer reside within itslimits. 

There were other difficulties attending the title of the settlers. TheDutch at Manhadoes, or New York, claimed a right to the river, as itsfirst discoverers. In addition to this hostile title, Lord Say andSeal, and Lord Brooke, with some others, contemplating a retreat inthe new world from the despotism with which England was threatened, had made choice of Connecticut river for that purpose, and had built afort at its mouth, called Saybrooke. The emigrants from Massachusetts, however, kept possession; and proceeded to clear and cultivate thecountry. They purchased the rights of Lord Say and Seal, and LordBrooke, and their partners; and the Dutch, being too feeble tomaintain their title by the sword, gradually receded from the river. The emigrants, disclaiming the authority of Massachusetts, enteredinto a voluntary association for the establishment of a government, which, in its form, was like those established in the other coloniesof New England. The principal difference between their constitutionand that of Massachusetts was, that they imparted the right of freemento those who were not members of the Church. [66]

 [Footnote 66: All the powers of government for nearly three years, seem to have been in the magistrates. Two were appointed in each town, who directed all the affairs of the plantation. The freemen appear to have had no voice in making the laws, or in any part of the government except in some instances of general and uncommon concern. In these instances committees were sent from the several towns to a general meeting. During this term, juries seem not to have been employed in any case. ]

These new establishments gave great and just alarm to the Piquods, apowerful tribe of Indians on the south of Massachusetts. They foresawtheir own ruin in this extension of the English settlements; and thedisposition excited by this apprehension soon displayed itself inprivate murders, and other acts of hostility. With a policy suggestedby a strong sense of danger, they sought a reconciliation with theNarraghansetts, their ancient enemies and rivals; and requested themto forget their long cherished animosities, and to co-operatecordially against a common enemy whose continuing encroachmentsthreatened to overwhelm both in one common destruction. Noticing therapid progress of the English settlements, they urged, with reason, that, although a present friendship subsisted between theNarraghansetts and the new comers, yet all, in turn, must bedispossessed of their country, and this dangerous friendship couldpromise no other good than the wretched privilege of being lastdevoured. 

[Sidenote: War with the Piquods. ]

These representations could not efface from the bosoms of theNarraghansetts, that deep rooted enmity which neighbours, not boundtogether by ligaments of sufficient strength to prevent reciprocalacts of hostility, too often feel for each other. Dreading still lessthe power of a foreign nation, than that of men with whom they hadbeen in the habit of contending, they not only refused to join thePiquods, but communicated their proposition to the government ofMassachusetts, with whom they formed an alliance against that tribe. Open war being resolved on by both parties, Captain Underhill was sentto the relief of fort Saybrooke which had been besieged by theIndians; and the three colonies, Massachusetts, Plymouth, andConnecticut, agreed to march their united forces into the country ofthe Piquods, to effect their entire destruction. The troops ofConnecticut were first in motion. Those of Massachusetts were detainedby the controversy concerning the covenant of works, and of grace, which had insinuated itself into all the transactions of that colony. Their little army, when collected, found itself divided by thismetaphysical point; and the stronger party, believing that theblessing of God could not be expected to crown with success the armsof such unhallowed men as their opponents in faith on this question, refused to march until their small band was purified by expelling theunclean, and introducing others whose tenets were unexceptionable. 

While this operation was performing, the troops of Connecticut, reinforced by a body of friendly Indians and by a small detachmentfrom Saybrooke, determined to march against the enemy. The Piquods hadtaken two positions which they had surrounded with palisadoes, and hadresolved to defend. The nearest was on a small eminence surrounded bya swamp near the head of Mystic river. Against this fort the firstattack was made. The Indians, deceived by a movement of the vesselsfrom Saybrooke to Narraghansett, believed the expedition to have beenabandoned; and celebrated, in perfect security, the supposedevacuation of their country. About day-break, while they were asleep, the English approached, and the surprise would have been complete, hadthey not been alarmed by the barking of a dog. They immediately gavethe war whoop, and flew undismayed to arms. The English rushed to theattack, forced their way through the works, and set fire to the Indianwigwams. The confusion soon became general, and almost every man waskilled or taken. 

Soon after this action, the troops of Massachusetts arrived, and itwas resolved to pursue the victory. Several skirmishes terminatedunfavourably to the Piquods; and, in a short time, they receivedanother total defeat, which put an end to the war. A few only of thisonce powerful nation survived, who, abandoning their country, dispersed themselves among the neighbouring tribes, and wereincorporated with them. [67]

 [Footnote 67: Chalmer. Hutchison. Trumbull. ]

This vigorous essay in arms of the New England colonists impressed onthe Indians a high opinion of their courage and military superiority;but their victory was sullied with cruelties which cannot berecollected without mingled regret and censure. 

{1638}

Immediately after the termination of this war New Haven was settled. 

[Sidenote: New Haven settled. ]

A small emigration from England conducted by Eaton and Davenport, arrived at Boston in June. Unwilling to remain where power andinfluence were already in the hands of others, they refused tocontinue within the jurisdiction of Massachusetts; and, disregardingthe threats at Manhadoes, settled themselves west of Connecticutriver, on a place which they named New Haven. Their institutions, civil and ecclesiastical, were in the same spirit with those of theirelder sister, Massachusetts. 

The colony was now in a very flourishing condition. Twenty-onethousand two hundred emigrants had arrived from England; and, althoughthey devoted great part of their attention to the abstruse points oftheology which employed the casuists of that day, they were notunmindful of those solid acquisitions which permanently improve thecondition of man. Sober, industrious, and economical, they labouredindefatigably in opening and improving the country, and wereunremitting in their efforts to furnish themselves with those supplieswhich are to be drawn from the bosom of the earth. Of these, they soonraised a surplus for which fresh emigrants offered a profitablemarket; and their foreign trade in lumber, added to their fish andfurs, furnished them with the means of making remittances to Englandfor those manufactures which they found it advantageous to import. Their fisheries had become so important as to attract the attention ofgovernment. For their encouragement, a law was passed exemptingproperty employed in catching, curing, or transporting fish, from allduties and taxes, and the fishermen, and ship builders, from militiaduty. By the same law, all persons were restrained from using cod orbass fish for manure. 

CHAPTER IV. 

 Massachusetts claims New Hampshire and part of Maine.... Dissensions among the inhabitants.... Confederation of the New England colonies.... Rhode Island excluded from it.... Separate chambers provided for the two branches of the Legislature.... New England takes part with Parliament.... Treaty with Acadié.... Petition of the non-conformists.... Disputes between Massachusetts and Connecticut.... War between England and Holland.... Machinations of the Dutch at Manhadoes among the Indians.... Massachusetts refuses to join the united colonies in the war.... Application of New Haven to Cromwell for assistance.... Peace with the Dutch.... Expedition of Sedgewic against Acadié.... Religious intolerance. 

{1639}

[Sidenote: Massachusetts claims New Hampshire and part of Maine. ]

The government of Massachusetts, induced by the rapidity with whichthe colony had attained its present strength to form sanguine hopes offuture importance, instituted an inquiry into the extent of theirpatent, with a view to the enlargement of territory. To facilitatethis object, commissioners were appointed to explore the Merrimack, and to ascertain its northernmost point. The charter conveyed to thegrantees all the lands within lines to be drawn three miles south ofCharles river, and the same distance north of the Merrimack. Thegovernment construed this description as authorising a line to bedrawn due east from a point three miles north of the head ofMerrimack, which soon leaves that river, and includes all NewHampshire, and a considerable part of Maine. In pursuance of thisexposition of the charter, the general court asserted its jurisdictionover New Hampshire, in which there were a few scattered habitations, and proceeded to authorise settlements in that country. [68]

 [Footnote 68: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

The attempts which had been made to colonise the northern and easternparts of New England had proved almost entirely unsuccessful. SirFerdinando Gorges and John Mason had built a small house at the mouthof Piscataqua, about the year 1623; and, nearly at the same time, others erected a few huts along the coast from Merrimack eastward toSagadahock for the purpose of fishing. In 1631, Gorges and Mason sentover a small party of planters and fishermen under the conduct of aMr. Williams, who laid the foundation of Portsmouth. 

When the Plymouth company divided New England among its members, thatterritory lying along the coast from Merrimack river, and for sixtymiles into the country to the river Piscataqua, was granted to Mason, and was called New Hampshire; that territory northeastward of NewHampshire, to the river Kennebec, and sixty miles into the country, was granted to Sir Ferdinando Gorges. In 1639, Gorges obtained apatent for this district under the name of Maine, comprehending thelands for one hundred, instead of sixty miles, into the country, together with the powers of sovereignty. He framed a system ofgovernment which, being purely executive, could not even preserveitself. After struggling with a long course of confusion, and drawingout, for several years, a miserable political existence, Mainesubmitted itself to the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, and consentedto become a part of that colony. In the course of the years 1651 and1652, this junction was effected, and Maine was erected into a county, the towns of which sent deputies to the general court at Boston. Tothis county was conceded the peculiar privilege that its inhabitants, although not members of the church, should be entitled to the rightsof freemen on taking the oath. [69]

 [Footnote 69: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

The settlements in New Hampshire, too, were maintaining only adoubtful and feeble existence, when they drew a recruit of inhabitantsfrom the same causes which had peopled Rhode Island and Connecticut. 

{1637}

In 1637, when Mrs. Hutchinson and other Antinomians were exiled, Mr. Wheelright, her brother in law, a popular preacher, was likewisebanished. He carried with him a considerable number of his followers;and, just passing the north-eastern boundary of Massachusetts, plantedthe town of Exeter. These emigrants immediately formed themselves, according to the manner of New England, into a body politic for theirown government. 

{1640}

A few persons arrived soon afterwards from England, and laid thefoundation of the town of Dover. They also established a distinctgovernment. Their first act proved to be the source of future discord. The majority chose one Underbill as governor; but a respectableminority was opposed to his election. To this cause of discontent wasadded another of irresistible influence. They were divided on thesubject of the covenant of works, and of grace. These dissensions soongrew into a civil war, which was happily terminated by Williams, whowas, according to the practice of small societies torn by civilbroils, invited by the weaker party to its aid. He marched fromPortsmouth at the head of a small military force; and, banishing thegovernor, and the leaders of the Antinomian faction, restored peace tothis distracted village. 

Massachusetts had asserted a right over this territory. Her claimderived aid, not only from the factions which agitated these feeblesettlements, but also from the uncertainty of the tenure by which theinhabitants held their lands. Only the settlers at Portsmouth hadacquired a title from Mason; and the others were, consequently, unfriendly to his pretensions. These causes produced a voluntary offerof submission to the government of Massachusetts, which was accepted;and the general court passed an order, declaring the inhabitants ofPiscataqua to be within their jurisdiction, with the privileges ofparticipating in all their rights, and of being exempted from all"public charges, other than those which shall arise for, or amongthemselves, or from any action, or course that may be taken for theirown good or benefit. " Under the protecting wing of this more powerfulneighbour, New Hampshire attained the growth which afterwards enabledher to stand alone; and long remembered with affection the benefitsshe had received. [70]

 [Footnote 70: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

Charles, environed with difficulties arising from his own misrule, wasat length compelled to meet his Parliament; and, in November, thegreat council of the nation was again assembled. The circumstanceswhich had caused such considerable emigrations to New England, existedno longer. The puritans were not only exempt from persecution, butbecame the strongest party in the nation; and, from this time, NewEngland is supposed to have derived no increase of population from theparent state. [71]

 [Footnote 71: Hutchison. ]

[Sidenote: Confederation of the New England colonies. ]

{1643}

About the same period many evidences were given of a generalcombination of the neighbouring Indians against the settlements of NewEngland; and apprehensions were also entertained of hostility from theDutch at Manhadoes. A sense of impending danger suggested the policyof forming a confederacy of the sister colonies for their mutualdefence; and so confirmed had the habit of self-government becomesince the attention of England was absorbed in her domesticdissensions, that it was not thought necessary to consult the parentstate on this important measure. After mature deliberation, articlesof confederation were digested; and in May 1643, they wereconclusively adopted. [72]

 [Footnote 72: This was an union, says Mr. Trumbull, of the highest consequence to the New England colonies. It made them formidable to the Dutch and Indians, and respectable among their French neighbours. It was happily adapted to maintain harmony among themselves, and to secure the rights and peace of the country. It was one of the principal means of the preservation of the colonies, during the civil wars, and unsettled state of affairs in England. It was the great source of mutual defence in Philip's war; and of the most eminent service in civilising the Indians, and propagating the Gospel among them. The union subsisted more than forty years, until the abrogation of the charters of the New England colonies by King James II. ]

By them the united colonies of New England, viz. Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, entered into a firm andperpetual league, offensive and defensive. 

Each colony retained a distinct and separate jurisdiction; no twocolonies could join in one jurisdiction without the consent of thewhole; and no other colony could be received into the confederacywithout the like consent. 

The charge of all wars was to be borne by the colonies respectively, in proportion to the male inhabitants of each, between sixteen andsixty years of age. 

On notice of an invasion given by three magistrates of any colony, theconfederates were immediately to furnish their respective quotas. These were fixed at one hundred from Massachusetts, and forty-fivefrom each of the other parties to the agreement. If a larger armamentshould be found necessary, commissioners were to meet, and ascertainthe number of men to be required. 

Two commissioners from each government, being church members, were tomeet annually on the first Monday in September. Six possessed thepower of binding the whole. Any measure approved by a majority of lessthan six was to be referred to the general court of each colony, andthe consent of all was necessary to its adoption. 

They were to choose annually a president from their own body, and hadpower to frame laws or rules of a civil nature, and of generalconcern. Of this description were rules which respected their conducttowards the Indians, and measures to be taken with fugitives from onecolony to another. 

No colony was permitted, without the general consent, to engage inwar, but in sudden and inevitable cases. 

If, on any extraordinary meeting of the commissioners, their wholenumber should not assemble, any four who should meet were empowered todetermine on a war, and to call for the respective quotas of theseveral colonies; but not less than six could determine on the justiceof the war, or settle the expenses, or levy the money for its support. 

If any colony should be charged with breaking an article of theagreement, or with doing an injury to another colony, the complaintwas to be submitted to the consideration and determination of thecommissioners of such colonies as should be disinterested. [73]

 [Footnote 73: Chalmer. Hutchison. Trumbull. ]

[Sidenote: Rhode Island excluded from it. ]

This union, the result of good sense, and of a judicious considerationof the real interests of the colonies, remained in force until theircharters were dissolved. Rhode Island, at the instance ofMassachusetts, was excluded; and her commissioners were not admittedinto the congress of deputies which formed the confederation. 

On her petitioning at a subsequent period to be received as a member, her request was refused, unless she would consent to be incorporatedwith Plymouth. This condition being deemed inadmissible, she never wastaken into the confederacy. From the formation of this league, itsmembers were considered by their neighbours as one body with regard toexternal affairs, and such as were of general concern; though theinternal and particular objects of each continued to be managed by itsown magistrates and legislature. 

The vigorous and prudent measures pursued by the united colonies, disconcerted the plans of the Indians, and preserved peace. 

Rhode Island and Providence plantations, excluded from the generalconfederacy, were under the necessity of courting the friendship ofthe neighbouring Indians. So successful were their endeavours that, inthe year 1644, they obtained from the chiefs of the Narraghansetts aformal surrender of their country. [74]

 [Footnote 74: Chalmer. ]

The first general assembly, consisting of the collective freemen ofthe plantations, was convened in May, 1647. In this body the supremeauthority of the nation resided. The executive duties were performedby a governor and four assistants, chosen from among the freemen bytheir several towns; and the same persons constituted also the supremecourt for the administration of justice. Every township, formingwithin itself a corporation, elected a council of six, for themanagement of its peculiar affairs, and for the settlement of itsdisputes. [75]

 [Footnote 75: Ibid. ]

{1644}

Hitherto the governor, assistants, and representatives, ofMassachusetts had assembled in the same chamber, and deliberatedtogether. At first their relative powers do not seem to have beenaccurately understood; nor the mode of deciding controverted questionsto have been well defined. The representatives being the most numerousbody, contended that every question should be decided by a majority ofthe whole, while the assistants asserted their right to a negative. More than once, this contest suspended the proceedings of the generalcourt. But the assistants having, with the aid of the clergy, succeeded on each occasion, the representatives yielded the point, andmoved that separate chambers should be provided for the two branchesof the legislature. This motion being carried in the affirmative, their deliberations were afterwards conducted apart from each other. 

This regulation was subsequently modified with respect to judicialproceedings; for the legislature was the court of the last resort. If, in these, the two houses differed, the vote was to be takenconjointly. 

[Sidenote: New England takes part with Parliament. ]

In England, the contests between the King and Parliament, at lengthripened into open war. The colonies of New England took an early andsincere part on the side of Parliament. Their interests were committedto such agents as might best conciliate the favour of the House ofCommons, who, in return, manifested the impression received from them, and from the general conduct of their northern colonies, by passing aresolutions exempting from the payment of "duties or other customs, "until the house should order otherwise, all merchandises exported toor from New England. [76] And, in 1644, the general court passed anordinance declaring "that what person soever shall by word, writing, or action, endeavour to disturb our peace directly or indirectly bydrawing a party under pretence that he is for the King of England, andsuch as join with him against the Parliament, shall be accounted as anoffender of a high nature against this commonwealth, and to beproceeded with either capitally or otherwise, according to the qualityand degree of his offence; provided always that this shall not beextended against any merchants, strangers and shipmen that come hithermerely for trade or merchandise, albeit they should come from any ofthose parts that are in the hands of the King, and such as adhere tohim against the Parliament; carrying themselves here quietly, and freefrom railing, or nourishing any faction, mutiny, or sedition among usas aforesaid. "[77]

 [Footnote 76: In the subsequent year Parliament exempted New England from all taxes "until both houses should otherwise direct;" and, in 1646, all the colonies were exempted from all talliages except the excise, "provided their productions should be exported only in English bottoms. "]

 [Footnote 77: Hutchison. ]

These manifestations of mutual kindness were not interrupted by anordinance of Parliament, passed in 1643, appointing the earl ofWarwick, governor in chief and lord high admiral of the colonies, witha council of five peers, and twelve commoners, to assist him; andempowering him, in conjunction with his associates, to examine thestate of their affairs; to send for papers and persons; to removegovernors and officers, appointing others in their places; and toassign over to them such part of the powers then granted as he shouldthink proper. Jealous as were the people of New England of measuresendangering their liberty, they do not appear to have been alarmed atthis extraordinary exercise of power. So true is it that men closetheir eyes on encroachments committed by that party to which they areattached, in the delusive hope that power, in such hands, will alwaysbe wielded against their adversaries, never against themselves. 

[Sidenote: Treaty with Acadié. ]

This prosperous state of things was still farther improved by atransaction which is the more worthy of notice as being an additionalevidence of the extent to which the colonies of New England thenexercised the powers of self-government. A treaty of peace andcommerce was entered into between the governor of Massachusetts, styling himself governor of New England, and Monsieur D'Aulney, lieutenant general of the King of France in Acadié. This treaty waslaid before the commissioners for the colonies and received theirsanction. 

{1646}

[Sidenote: Petition of the non-conformists. ]

The rigid adherence of Massachusetts to the principle of withholdingthe privilege of a freeman from all who dissented from the majority inany religious opinion, could not fail to generate perpetualdiscontents. A petition was presented to the general court, signed byseveral persons highly respectable for their situation and character, but, not being church members, excluded from the common rights ofsociety, complaining that the fundamental laws of England were notacknowledged by the colony; and that they were denied those civil andreligious privileges to which they were entitled, as freebornEnglishmen, of good moral conduct. Their prayer to be admitted to therights, or to be relieved from the burdens, of society, wasaccompanied with observations conveying a very intelligible censure onthe proceedings of the colony, and a threat of applying to Parliament, should the prayer of their petition be rejected. 

The most popular governments not being always the most inclined totolerate opinions differing from those of the majority, this petitiongave great offence, and its signers were required to attend the court. Their plea, that the right to petition government was sacred, wasanswered by saying that they were not accused for petitioning, but forusing contemptuous and seditious expressions. They were required tofind sureties for their good behaviour; and, on refusing toacknowledge their offence, were fined at the discretion of the court. An appeal from this decision having been refused, they sent deputiesto lay their case before Parliament; but the clergy exerted themselveson the occasion; and the celebrated Cotton, in one of his sermons, asserted "that if any should carry writings or complaints against thepeople of God in that country to England, it would be as Jonas in theship. " A storm having risen during the passage, the mariners, impressed with the prophecy of Cotton, insisted that the obnoxiouspapers should be thrown overboard; and the deputies were constrainedto consign their credentials to the waves. On their arrival inEngland, they found Parliament but little disposed to listen to theircomplaints. The agents of Massachusetts had received instructions tocounteract their efforts; and the governments of New England were toohigh in favour, to admit of a rigid scrutiny into their conduct. [78]

 [Footnote 78: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

In some of the internal dissensions which agitated Massachusetts, Winthrop, a man of great influence, always among their firstmagistrates, and often their governor, was charged while deputygovernor with some arbitrary conduct. He defended himself at the bar, in the presence of a vast concourse of people; and, having beenhonourably acquitted, addressed them from the bench, in a speech whichwas highly approved. 

As this speech tends to illustrate the political opinions of the day, an extract from it may not be unworthy of regard. "The questions, " hesaid, "which have troubled the country of late, and from which thesedisturbances in the state have arisen, have been about the authorityof the magistrate and the liberty of the people. Magistracy iscertainly an appointment from God. We take an oath to govern youaccording to God's law, and our own; and if we commit errors, notwillingly, but for want of skill, you ought to bear with us, because, being chosen from among yourselves, we are but men, and subject to thelike passions as yourselves. Nor would I have you mistake your ownliberty. There is a freedom of doing what we list, without regard tolaw or justice; this liberty is indeed inconsistent with authority;but civil, moral, and federal liberty, consists in every man'senjoying his property, and having the benefit of the laws of hiscountry; which is very consistent with a due subjection to the civilmagistrate. And for this you ought to contend, with the hazard of yourlives. "[79]

 [Footnote 79: Hutchison. ]

During the remnant of his life, he was annually chosen governor. 

{1649}

About this time, a controversy which had long subsisted betweenMassachusetts, and Connecticut, was terminated. The latter, for thepurpose of maintaining Saybrooke, had laid a duty on all goodsexported from Connecticut river. The inhabitants of Springfield, atown of Massachusetts lying on the river, having refused to pay thisduty, the cause was laid before the commissioners of the unitedcolonies; and, after hearing the parties, those of Plymouth and NewHaven adjourned the final decision of the case until the next meeting, in order to hear farther objections from Massachusetts, but directedthat, in the meantime, the duty should be paid. 

At the meeting in 1648, Massachusetts insisted on the production ofthe patent of Connecticut. It was perfectly well known that theoriginal patent could not be procured; and the agents for Connecticut, after stating this fact, offered an authentic copy. The commissionersrecommended that the boundary line should be run, to ascertain whetherSpringfield was really in Massachusetts, but still directed that theduty should continue to be paid. On this order being made, thecommissioners of Massachusetts produced a law of their general court, reciting the controversy, with the orders which had been made in it, and imposing a duty on all goods belonging to the inhabitants ofPlymouth, Connecticut, or New Haven, which should be imported withinthe castle, or exported from any part of the bay, and subjecting themto forfeiture for non-payment. The commissioners remonstrated stronglyagainst this measure, and recommended it to the general court ofMassachusetts, seriously to consider whether such proceedings werereconcilable with "the law of love, " and the tenor of the articles ofconfederation. In the meantime, they begged to be excused from "allfarther agitations concerning Springfield. "

In this state of the controversy fort Saybrooke was consumed by fire, and Connecticut forbore to re-build it, or to demand the duty. In thefollowing year, Massachusetts repealed the ordinance which had sosuccessfully decided the contest. [80]

 [Footnote 80: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

Thus does a member of a confederacy, feeling its own strength, and theweakness of those with whom it is associated, deride the legitimatedecisions of the federal body, when opposed to its own interest orpassions, and obey the general will, only when that will is dictatedby itself. 

{1651}

Although, while civil war raged in the mother country, New England hadbeen permitted to govern itself as an independent nation, Parliamentseems to have entertained very decisive opinions respecting thesubordination of the provinces, and its own controlling power. Themeasures taken for giving effect to these opinions, involved all thecolonies equally. The council of state was authorised to displacegovernors and magistrates, and to appoint others. Massachusetts wasrequired to take a new patent, and to hold its courts, not in the nameof the colony, but in the name of the Parliament. The general court, unwilling to comply with these requisitions, transmitted a petition toParliament, styling that body "the supreme authority, " and expressingfor it the highest respect. They stated their uniform attachment toParliament during the civil war, the aid they had given, and thelosses they had sustained. After speaking of the favours they hadreceived, they expressed the hope "that it will not go worse with themthan it did under the late King; and that the frame of this governmentwill not be changed, and governors and magistrates imposed on themagainst their will. " They declared, however, their entire submissionto the will of Parliament; and, avowing for that body the most zealousattachment, prayed a favourable answer to their humble petition. 

But the united colonies had lately given great umbrage by supplyingVirginia and Barbadoes, then enemies of the commonwealth, with warlikestores and other commodities. It was also matter of real complaintthat their exemption from the payment of duties enabled them to enrichthemselves at the expense of others; and a revocation of theirprivileges in this respect was seriously contemplated. Yet therequisitions concerning their charter were never complied with, and donot appear to have been repeated. [81]

 [Footnote 81: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

{1653}

[Sidenote: Machinations of the Dutch with the Indians. ]

In this year, war was declared by England against Holland. The unitedcolonies, accustomed to conduct their affairs in their own way, didnot think themselves involved in this contest, unless engaged in it bysome act of their own. The Dutch at Manhadoes, too weak to encountertheir English neighbours, solicited the continuance of peace; and, asthe trade carried on between them was mutually advantageous, thisrequest was readily granted. Intelligence however was soon brought bythe Indians, that the Dutch were privately inciting them to a generalconfederacy for the purpose of extirpating the English. Thisintelligence gave the more alarm, because the massacre at Amboyna wasthen fresh in the recollection of the colonists. An extraordinarymeeting of the commissioners was called at Boston, who were divided inopinion with regard to the propriety of declaring war. In consequenceof this division, a conference was held before the general court andseveral elders of Massachusetts. The elders, being requested to givetheir opinion in writing, stated "that the proofs and presumptions ofthe execrable plot, tending to the destruction of so many of the dearsaints of God, imputed to the Dutch governor, and the fiscal, were ofsuch weights as to induce them to believe the reality of it; yet theywere not so fully conclusive as to clear up a present proceeding towar before the world, and to bear up their hearts with that fullnessof persuasion which was mete, in commending the case to God in prayer, and to the people in exhortations; and that it would be safest for thecolonies to forbear the use of the sword; but advised to be in aposture of defence until the mind of God should be more fully knowneither for a settled peace, or more manifest grounds of war. "[82] Withthis opinion of the elders, the vote of the general court concurred. 

 [Footnote 82: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

The intelligence of the practices of the Dutch governor with theIndians becoming more certain, all the commissioners except Mr. Bradstreet of Massachusetts, declared in favour of war. Theirproceedings were immediately interrupted by a declaration of thegeneral court of Massachusetts, that no determination of thecommissioners, although they should be unanimous, should bind thegeneral court to join in an offensive war which should appear to beunjust. A serious altercation ensued, in the course of which the othercolonies pressed the war as a measure essential to their safety; butMassachusetts adhered inflexibly to its first resolution. Thisadditional evidence of the incompetency of their union to bind onemember, stronger than all the rest, threatened a dissolution of theconfederacy; and that event seems to have been prevented only by theinability of the others to stand alone. Alarmed at their situation, and irritated by the conduct of their elder sister, Connecticut andNew Haven represented Cromwell, then lord protector of England, thedanger to which the colonies were exposed from the Dutch and theIndians; and the hazard the smaller provinces must continue to incur, unless the league between them could be maintained and executedaccording to its true intent, and the interpretation which itsarticles had uniformly received. 

{1654}

With his usual promptness and decision, Cromwell detached a smallarmament for the reduction of the Dutch colony, and recommended toMassachusetts to furnish aid to the expedition. Although thelegitimate requisitions of the government of the union had beenineffectual, the recommendation of the lord protector was not to bedisregarded; and the general court passed a resolution conforming toit. A treaty of peace, which was signed in April, saved the Dutchcolony. [83]

 [Footnote 83: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

[Sidenote: Expedition against Acadié. ]

{1655}

The progress of the French in their neighbourhood had been viewed withregret and apprehension by all New England. Sedgewic, the commander ofthe forces which had been destined against Manhadoes, animated withthe vigour of his master, was easily prevailed on to turn his armsagainst a people, whose religious tenets he detested, and whosecountry he hated. He soon dislodged the French from Penobscot, andsubdued all Acadié. The ministers of his most christian majesty, pending the negotiations for the treaty of Westminster, demandedrestitution of the forts Pentagoet, St. Johns, and Port Royal; but, each nation having claims on the country, their pretensions werereferred to the arbitrators appointed to adjust the damages committedon either side since the year 1640; and the restitution of Acadié waspostponed for future discussion. 

{1656}

Cromwell seems not to have intended to restore the countries he hadconquered. He granted to St. Etienne, Crown and Temple, for ever, theterritory denominated Acadié, and part of the country commonly calledNova Scotia, extending along the coast to Pentagoet, and to the riverSt. George. 

Until the restoration, the colonies of New England continued in astate of unexampled prosperity. Those regulations respectingnavigation, which were rigorously enforced against others less infavour, were dispensed with for their benefit. They maintainedexternal peace by the vigour and sagacity with which their governmentwas administered; and, improved the advantages which the timesafforded them by industry and attention to their interests. In thisperiod of prosperity, they acquired a degree of strength andconsistence which enabled them to struggle through the difficultiesthat afterwards assailed them. 

These sober industrious people were peculiarly attentive to theinstruction of youth. Education was among the first objects of theircare. In addition to private institutions, they had brought thecollege at Cambridge to a state of forwardness which reflects muchcredit on their character. As early as the year 1636, the generalcourt had bestowed four hundred pounds on a public school at Newtown, the name by which Cambridge was then known. Two years afterwards, anadditional donation was made by the reverend Mr. John Harvard, inconsequence of which the institution received the name of Harvardcollege. In 1642, this college was placed under the government of thegovernor, and deputy governor, and of the magistrates, and ministersof the six next adjacent towns, who, with the president wereincorporated for that purpose; and, in 1650, its first charter wasgranted. [84]

 [Footnote 84: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

It is to be lamented that the same people possessed a degree ofbigotry in religion, and a spirit of intolerance, which theirenlightened posterity will view with regret. During this period ofprosperity, the government maintained the severity of its institutionsagainst all those who dissented from the church; and exerted itselfassiduously in what was thought the holy work of punishing heretics, and introducing conformity in matters of faith. In this time, the sectdenominated Quakers appeared. They were fined, imprisoned, whipped, and, at length put to death; but could not be totally suppressed. Asenthusiastic as their persecutors, they gloried in their sufferings, and deemed themselves the martyrs of truth. 

CHAPTER V. 

 Transactions succeeding the restoration of Charles II.... Contests between Connecticut and New Haven.... Discontents in Virginia.... Grant to the Duke of York.... Commissioners appointed by the crown.... Conquest of the Dutch settlements.... Conduct of Massachusetts to the royal commissioners.... Their recall.... Massachusetts evades a summons to appear before the King and council.... Settlement of Carolina.... Form of government.... Constitution of Mr. Locke.... Discontents in the county of Albemarle.... Invasion from Florida.... Abolition of the constitution of Mr. Locke.... Bacon's rebellion.... His death.... Assembly deprived of judicial power.... Discontents in Virginia.... Population of the colony. 

{1660}

The restoration of Charles II. Was soon known in America, and excited, in the different colonies very different emotions. In Virginia, and inMaryland, the intelligence was received with transport, and the Kingwas proclaimed amidst acclamations of unfeigned joy. In Massachusetts, the unwelcome information was heard with doubt, and in silence. Republicans in religion and in politics, all their affections wereengaged in favour of the revolutionary party in England, and they saw, in the restoration of monarchy, much more to fear than to hope forthemselves. Nor were they mistaken in their forebodings. 

No sooner was Charles seated on the throne, than Parliament voted aduty of five _per centum_ on all merchandises exported from, orimported into, any of the dominions belonging to the English crown;and, in the course of the same session the celebrated navigation actwas re-enacted. The difficulty of carrying this system into executionamong a distant people, accustomed to the advantages of a free trade, was foreseen; and the law directed that the governors of the severalplantations should, before entering into office, take an oathfaithfully to observe it. [85]

 [Footnote 85: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

As some compensation to the colonists for these commercial restraints, it was also enacted that no tobacco should be planted or made inEngland or Ireland, Guernsey, or Jersey. These regulations confinedthe trade of the colonies to England; and confined on them, exclusively, the production of tobacco. 

Charles, on ascending the throne, transmitted to Sir William Berkeleya commission as governor of Virginia, with instructions to summon anassembly, and to assure it of his intention to grant a general pardonto all persons, other than those who were attainted by act ofParliament; provided all acts passed during the rebellion, derogatingfrom the obedience due to the King and his government, should berepealed. 

{1661}

The assembly, which had been summoned in March 1660, in the name ofthe King, though he was not then acknowledged in England, and whichhad been prorogued by the governor to the following March, thenconvened, and engaged in the arduous task of revising the laws of thecolony. One of the motives assigned for this revision strongly marksthe temper of the day. It is that they may "repeal and expunge allunnecessary acts, and chiefly such as might keep in memory theirforced deviation from his majesty's obedience. "[86]

 [Footnote 86: Virginia Laws. Chalmer. ]

This laborious work was accomplished; and, in its execution, the firstobject of attention was religion. The church of England wasestablished by law, and provision was made for its ministers. Topreserve the purity and unity of its doctrines and discipline, thoseonly who had been ordained by some bishop in England, and who shouldsubscribe an engagement to conform to the constitution of the churchof England and the laws there established, could be inducted by thegovernor: and no others were permitted to preach. The day of theexecution of Charles I. Was ordered to be kept as a fast; and theanniversaries of the birth, and of the restoration of Charles II. Tobe celebrated as holy days. The duties on exports and tonnage wererendered perpetual; the privilege of the burgesses from arrest wasestablished, and their number fixed; the courts of justice wereorganised; and many useful laws were passed, regulating the interioraffairs of the colony. [87]

 [Footnote 87: Virginia Laws. Chalmer. ]

An effort was made to encourage manufactures, especially that of silk. For each pound of that article which should be raised, a premium offifty pounds of tobacco was given; and every person was enjoined toplant a number of mulberry trees proportioned to his quantity of land, in order to furnish food for the silk worm. But the labour of thecolony had been long directed to the culture of tobacco, and Indiancorn; and new systems of culture can seldom be introduced until theirnecessity becomes apparent. This attempt to multiply the objects oflabour did not succeed, and the acts on the subject were soonrepealed. 

In Maryland, the legislature was also convened, and, as in Virginia, their first employment was to manifest their satisfaction with therestoration; after which they entered upon subjects of generalutility. 

{1662}

[Sidenote: Rhode Island incorporated. ]

Rhode Island, excluded from the confederacy of the other New Englandcolonies, and dreading danger to her independence from Massachusetts, was well pleased at the establishment of an authority which couldoverawe the strong, and protect the weak. Charles II. Was immediatelyproclaimed; and an agent was deputed to the court of that monarch, forthe purpose of soliciting a patent, confirming the right of theinhabitants to the soil, and jurisdiction of the country. The objectof the mission was obtained, and the patentees were incorporated bythe name of "The governor and company of the English colony of RhodeIsland and Providence. " The legislative power was vested in anassembly to consist of the governor, deputy governor, the assistants, and such of the freemen as should be chosen by the towns. The presenceof the governor or his deputy, and of six assistants, was required toconstitute an assembly. They were empowered to pass laws adapted tothe situation of the colony, and not repugnant to those of England. "That part of the dominions of the crown in New England containing theislands in Narraghansetts bay, and the countries and parts adjacent, "was granted to the governor and company and their successors, with theprivilege to pass through, and trade with, any other Englishcolonies. [88]

 [Footnote 88: Chalmer. ]

[Sidenote: Patent to Connecticut. ]

In Connecticut, the intelligence of the restoration was not attendedby any manifestation of joy or sorrow. Winthrop was deputed to attendto the interests of the colony; and, in April, 1662, he obtained acharter incorporating them by the name of "The governor and company ofthe English colony of Connecticut in New England. " The executive, asin the other colonies of New England, consisted of a governor, deputygovernor, and assistants. The legislature was composed of the membersof the executive, and of two deputies from every town. It wasauthorised to appoint annually the governor, assistants, and otherofficers; to erect courts of justice, and to make such laws as mightbe necessary for the colony, with the usual proviso, that they shouldnot be contrary to those of England. To this corporation, the Kinggranted that part of his dominions in New England, bounded, on theeast, by Narraghansetts bay, on the north, by the southern line ofMassachusetts, on the south, by the sea, and extending in longitudefrom east to west, with the line of Massachusetts, to the south sea. 

{1663}

[Sidenote: Contest between Connecticut and New Haven. ]

By this charter, New Haven was, without being consulted, included inConnecticut. The freemen of that province, dissatisfied with thismeasure, determined in general meeting, "that it was not lawful tojoin;" and unanimously resolved to adhere to their former association. A committee was appointed to address the assembly of Connecticut onthis interesting subject. They insisted, not that the charter wasvoid, but that it did not include them. 

A negotiation between the two provinces was commenced, in which thepeople of New Haven maintained their right to a separate governmentwith inflexible perseverance, and with a considerable degree ofexasperation. They appealed to the crown from the explanation given byConnecticut to the charter; and governor Winthrop, the agent who hadobtained that instrument, and who flattered himself with being able, on his return, to conciliate the contending parties, deemed itadvisable to arrest all proceeding on their petition, by pledginghimself that no injury should be done to New Haven by Connecticut; andthat the incorporation of the two colonies should be effected only bythe voluntary consent of both. 

The government of Connecticut, however, still persisting to assert itsjurisdiction, attempted to exercise it by claiming obedience from thepeople, appointing constables in their towns, disavowing the authorityof the general court of New Haven, and protecting those who denied it. Complaints of these proceedings were laid before the commissioners ofthe united colonies, who declared that New Haven was still an integralmember of the union, and that its jurisdiction could not be infringedwithout a breach of the articles of confederation. 

Disregarding this decision, Connecticut pursued unremittingly, theobject of incorporation. The inhabitants of New Haven were encouragedto refuse the payment of taxes imposed by their legislature; and, whendistress was made on the disobedient, assistance was obtained fromHartford. These proceedings seemed only to increase the irritation onthe part of New Haven, where a deep sense of injury was entertained, and a solemn resolution taken to break off all farther treaty on thesubject. 

This state of things was entirely changed by a piece of intelligencewhich gave the most serious alarm to all New England. Information wasreceived that the King had granted to his brother, the duke of York, all the lands claimed by the Dutch, to which he had annexed aconsiderable part of the territory over which the northern colonieshad exercised jurisdiction; and that an armament for the purpose oftaking possession of the grant might soon be expected. To this it wasadded, that commissioners were to come at the same time, empowered tosettle the disputes, and to new model the governments, of thecolonies. 

The commissioners of the united colonies, perceiving the necessity ofaccommodating internal differences, now took a decided part in favourof the proposed incorporation. The most intelligent inhabitants of NewHaven became converts to the same opinion; but the prejudices imbibedby the mass of the people being still insurmountable, a vote in favourof the union could not be obtained. 

At length, after the arrival of the commissioners appointed by thecrown, and a manifestation of their opinion in favour of theincorporation; after a long course of negotiation which terminated ina compact establishing certain principles of equality required by thejealousy of New Haven; the union was completed, and therepresentatives of the two colonies met in the same assembly. 

During the frequent changes which took place in England after thedeath of Cromwell, Massachusetts preserved a cautious neutrality; andseemed disposed to avail herself of any favourable occurrences, without exposing herself to the resentments of that party which mightultimately obtain the ascendancy. Although expressly ordered, she didnot proclaim Richard as lord-protector; nor did she take any step torecognise the authority of Parliament. The first intelligence of therestoration of Charles was received with the hesitation of men who areunwilling to believe a fact too well supported by evidence to bediscredited; and when they were informed of it in a manner not to bequestioned, they neither proclaimed the King, nor manifested, by anypublic act, their admission of his authority. This was not the onlytestimony of their dissatisfaction. Whaley and Goff, two of the judgesof Charles I. , came passengers in the vessel which brought thisintelligence, and were received with distinction by the government, and with affection by the people. [89]

 [Footnote 89: Chalmer. Trumbull. ]

In a session of the general court, held in October, 1660, an addressto the King was moved; but reports of the yet unsettled state of thekingdom being received, the motion did not prevail. They had seen somany changes in the course of a few months, as to think it notimprobable that an address to the King might find the executive powerin the hands of a committee of safety, or council of state. Thisuncertain state of things was not of long continuance. In November, aship arrived from Bristol, bringing positive advices of the joyful anduniversal submission of the nation to the King, with letters fromtheir agent, and from others, informing them that petitions had beenpresented against the colony, by those who thought themselvesaggrieved by its proceedings. The time for deliberation was passed. Ageneral court was convened, and a loyal address to the King was voted, in which, with considerable ability, though in the peculiar languageof the day, they justified their whole conduct; and, withoutabandoning any opinion concerning their own rights, professedunlimited attachment to their sovereign. A similar address was made toParliament; and letters were written to those noblemen who were theknown friends of the colony, soliciting their interposition in itsbehalf. A gracious answer being returned by the King, a day ofthanksgiving was appointed to acknowledge their gratitude to Heavenfor inclining the heart of his majesty favourably to receive andanswer their address. 

Their apprehensions, however, of danger from the revolution in Englandstill continued. Reports prevailed that their commercial intercoursewith Virginia and the islands was to be interdicted; and that agovernor-general might be expected whose authority should extend overall the colonies. On this occasion, the general court came to severalresolutions, respecting the rights of the people, and the obediencedue from them, which are strongly expressive of their deliberateopinions on these interesting subjects. 

It was resolved, That the patent (under God) is the first and main foundation of thecivil polity of the colony. 

That the governor and company are, by the patent, a body politic, invested with the power to make freemen. 

That the freemen have authority to choose annually a governor, deputygovernor, assistants, representatives, and all other officers. 

That the government thus constituted hath full power, both legislativeand executive, for the government of all the people, whetherinhabitants or strangers, without appeals; save only in the case oflaws repugnant to those of England. 

That the government is privileged by all means, even by force of arms, to defend itself both by land and sea, against all who should attemptinjury to the plantation or its inhabitants, and that in theiropinion, any imposition prejudicial to the country, contrary to anyjust law of theirs, (not repugnant to the laws of England) would be aninfringement of their rights. [90]

 [Footnote 90: Hutchison. Chalmer. ]

These strong and characteristic resolutions were accompanied by arecognition of the duties to which they were bound by theirallegiance. These were declared to consist, in upholding that colonyas belonging of right to his majesty, and not to subject it to anyforeign prince; in preserving his person and dominions; and insettling the peace and prosperity of the King and nation, by punishingcrimes, and by propagating the Gospel. [91]

 [Footnote 91: Idem. ]

It was, at the same time, determined that the royal warrant, which hadbeen received sometime before, for apprehending Whaley and Goff, oughtto be faithfully executed. These persons however were permitted toescape to Connecticut, where they were received with everydemonstration of regard, and to remain during life in New England, only taking care not to appear in public. 

At length, in August 1661, it was determined to proclaim the King;but, as if unable to conceal the reluctance with which this step wastaken, an order was made, on the same day, prohibiting all disorderlybehaviour on the occasion, and, in particular, directing that no manshould presume to drink his majesty's health, "which, " adds the order, "he hath in a special manner forbid. "

Farther intelligence being received from England of the increasingcomplaints against the government of Massachusetts, agents weredeputed with instructions to represent the colonists as loyal andobedient subjects, to remove any ill impressions that had been madeagainst them, and to learn the disposition of his majesty toward them;but to do nothing which might prejudice their charter. 

The agents, who engaged reluctantly in a service from which theyrightly augured to themselves censure rather than approbation, werereceived more favourably than had been expected. They soon returnedwith a letter from the King, confirming their charter, and containinga pardon for all treasons committed during the late troubles, with theexception of those only who were attainted by act of Parliament. Butthe royal missive also required that the general court should reviewits ordinances, and repeal such of them as were repugnant to theauthority of the crown; that the oath of allegiance should be taken byevery person; that justice should be administered in the King's name;that all who desired it, should be permitted to use the book of commonprayer, and to perform their devotions according to the ceremonials ofthe church of England; and that freeholders of competent estates, notvicious, should be allowed to vote in the election of officers, thoughthey were of different persuasions in church government. [92]

 [Footnote 92: Hutchison. Chalmer. ]

These requisitions gave much disquiet; and that alone seems ever tohave been complied with which directed judicial proceedings to becarried on in the name of the King. The agents on their return wereill received by the people; and were considered as having sacrificedthe interests of their country, because, with the agreeable, weremingled some bitter though unavoidable ingredients. 

During these transactions, the Parliament of England proceeded tocomplete its system of confining the trade of the colonies to themother country. It was enacted that no commodity of the growth ormanufacture of Europe, shall be imported into the settlements ofEngland, in Asia, Africa, or America, but such as shall be shipped inEngland, and proceed directly in English bottoms, navigated byEnglishmen. Salt for the fisheries, wine from Madeira and the Azores;and servants, horses, and victuals, from Scotland and Ireland, wereexcepted from this general rule. 

To counterbalance these restrictions, duties were imposed on saltedand dried fish caught or imported by other vessels than thosebelonging to subjects of the crown; and additional regulations weremade for enforcing the prohibition of the culture of tobacco inEngland. 

These commercial restrictions were the never failing source ofdiscontent and controversy between the mother country and hercolonies. Even in those of the south, where similar restraints hadbeen enforced by Cromwell, they were executed imperfectly; but, in NewEngland, where the governors were elected by the people, they appearto have been, for some time, entirely disregarded. [93]

 [Footnote 93: Hutchison. Chalmer. ]

[Sidenote: Discontents in Virginia. ]

The good humour which prevailed in Virginia on the restoration ofCharles to the throne, was not of long duration. The restraints oncommerce, and the continually decreasing price of tobacco, soonexcited considerable discontents. The legislature endeavoured, byprohibiting its culture for a limited time, to raise its value; but, Maryland refusing to concur in the measure, the attempt wasunsuccessful. Other legislative remedies were applied with as littleadvantage. Acts were passed suspending all proceedings in the courtsof law, except for goods imported; giving to country creditorspriority in payment of debts; and to contracts made within the colony, precedence in all courts of justice. Such expedients as these havenever removed the discontents which produced them. 

{1664}

[Sidenote: Grant to the duke of York. ]

The English government seems, at all times, to have questioned theright of the Dutch to their settlements in America; and never to haveformally relinquished its claim to that territory. Charles nowdetermined to assert it; and granted to his brother the duke of York"all that part of the main land of New England, beginning at a certainplace called and known by the name of St. Croix, next adjoining to NewEngland in America, and from thence extending along the sea coast untoa certain place called Pemaquie, or Pemaquid, and so up the riverthereof to the farthest Head of the same, as it tendeth northward; andextending from thence to the river Kernbequin, and so upwards by theshortest course to the river Canada northward; and also all thatisland or islands commonly called by the general name or names ofMeitowax, or Long Island, situate and being towards the west of CapeCod, and the narrow Highgansetts, abutting upon the main land betweenthe two rivers there called and known by the several names ofConnecticut and Hudson's river, and all the land from the west side ofConnecticut river to the east side of Delaware bay, and also all thoseseveral islands called or known by the names of Martha's Vineyard orNantucks, otherwise Nantucket. "

[Sidenote: Commissioners appointed by the Crown. ]

To reduce this country, part of which was then in the peaceablepossession of the Dutch, colonel Nichols was dispatched with fourfrigates, carrying three hundred soldiers. In the same ships, camefour commissioners, of whom colonel Nichols was one, "empowered tohear and determine complaints and appeals in causes, as well militaryas civil and criminal, within New England; and to proceed in allthings for settling the peace and security of the country. "Intelligence of this deputation preceded its arrival, and thepreparation made for its reception, evidences the disposition thenprevailing in Massachusetts. A committee was appointed to repair onboard the ships as soon as they should appear, and to communicate totheir commanders the desire of the local government that the inferiorofficers and soldiers should be ordered, when they came on shore torefresh themselves, "at no time to exceed a convenient number, to comeunarmed, to observe an orderly conduct, and to give no offence to thepeople and laws of the country. " As if to manifest in a still moresolemn manner their hostility, to the objects of the commissioners, aday of fasting and prayer was appointed to implore the mercy of Godunder their many distractions and troubles. [94]

 [Footnote 94: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

The commissioners arrived in July, and their commission wasimmediately laid before the council, with a letter from the Kingrequiring prompt assistance for the expedition against NewNetherlands. 

[Sidenote: Conquest of the Dutch colony. ]

The general court, which was immediately convened, after having firstresolved "that they would bear faith and true allegiance to hismajesty, and adhere to their patent, so dearly obtained, and so longenjoyed, by undoubted right in the sight of God and man, " determinedto raise two hundred men for the expedition. In the mean time colonelNichols proceeded to Manhadoes. The auxiliary force raised byMassachusetts was rendered unnecessary by the capitulation of NewAmsterdam, which was soon followed by the surrender of the wholeprovince. 

The year after captain Argal had subdued Manhadoes, the garrison, having obtained a reinforcement from Holland, returned to theirancient allegiance. In 1621, the states general made a grant of thecountry to the West India company, who erected a fort called Good Hopeon Connecticut (which they denominated Fresh) river, and anothercalled Nassau on the east side of Delaware bay. The fort onConnecticut river, however, did not protect that frontier against thepeople of New England, who continued to extend their settlementstowards the south. The Dutch remonstrated in vain against theseencroachments, and were under the necessity of receding as their morepowerful neighbours advanced, until the eastern part of Long Island, and the country within a few miles of the Hudson were relinquished. Farther south, the Dutch had built fort Casimir (now New Castle) onthe Delaware. This fort was taken from them by the Swedes, who claimedthe western shore of that river, but was retaken by the Dutch, who, atthe same time, conquered Christina, and received the submission of thefew Swedes who were scattered on the margin of the river. They alsomade a settlement at cape Henlopen, which attracted the attention oflord Baltimore, who sent a commission to New Castle ordering the Dutchgovernor to remove beyond the 40th degree of north latitude, to whichhis lordship's claim extended. This mandate however was not obeyed. 

On the appearance of colonel Nichols before New Amsterdam, Stuyvesant, the governor, was disposed to defend the place; but the inhabitants, feeling no inclination for the contest, took part with their invaders;and Stuyvesant was compelled to sign a capitulation, by which hesurrendered the town to the English, stipulating for the inhabitantstheir property, and the rights of free denizens. New Amsterdam tookthe name of New York, and the island of Manhattans that of YorkIsland. [95]

 [Footnote 95: Chalmer. Smith. ]

Hudson's, and the south, or Delaware river, were still to be reduced. Carteret commanded the expedition against fort Orange, up Hudson'sriver, which surrendered on the twenty-fourth of September, andreceived the name of Albany. While at that place, he formed a leaguewith the five nations, which proved eminently useful to the views ofthe English in America. 

The command of the expedition against the settlement on the Delawarewas given to sir Robert Carr, who completed the conquest of thatcountry. 

Thus did England acquire all that fine country lying between hersouthern and northern colonies; an acquisition deriving not lessimportance from its situation, than from its extent and fertility. 

Nichols took possession of the conquered territory, but was compelledto surrender a part of it to Carteret. 

Soon after the patent to the duke of York, and before the conquest ofNew Netherlands, that prince had granted to lord Berkeley, and sirGeorge Carteret, all that tract of land adjacent to New England, tothe westward of Long Island, bounded on the east, south, and west, bythe river Hudson, the sea, and the Delaware; and, on the north, byforty-one degrees and forty minutes north latitude. This country wasdenominated New Jersey. [96]

 [Footnote 96: Chalmer. Smith. ]

The conquest of New Netherlands being achieved, the commissionersentered on the other duties assigned them. A great part of Connecticuthad been included in the patent to the duke of York; and a controversyconcerning limits arose between that colony and New York. In December, their boundaries were adjusted by the commissioners in a manner whichappears to have been satisfactory to all parties. 

In Plymouth, and in Rhode Island, the commissioners found nodifficulty in the full exercise of the powers committed to them. InMassachusetts, they were considered as men clothed with an authoritysubversive of the liberties of the colony, which the sovereign couldnot rightly confer. The people of that province had been long inhabits of self-government, and seem to have entertained opinions whichjustified their practice. They did not acknowledge that allegiance tothe crown which is due from English subjects residing within therealm; but considered themselves as purchasers from independentsovereigns of the territory which they occupied, and as owing toEngland, only that voluntary subjection which was created and definedby their charter. They considered this instrument as a compact betweenthe mother country and themselves, and as enumerating all the cases inwhich obedience was due from them. In this spirit, they agreed, soonafter the arrival of the commissioners, on an address to the crown. This address, in which they express great apprehension of danger totheir rights from the extraordinary powers granted to men notappointed in conformity with their charter, is drawn up in a style ofmuch earnestness and sincerity, and concludes with these remarkablewords, "let our government live, our patent live, our magistrateslive, our religious enjoyments live; so shall we all yet have farthercause to say from our hearts, let the King live for ever. " Thisaddress was accompanied with letters to many of the nobility supposedto possess influence at court, praying their intercession in behalf ofthe colony; but neither the address, nor the letters were favourablyreceived. [97]

 [Footnote 97: Hutchison. ]

{1665}

[Sidenote: Conduct of Massachusetts to the royal commissioners. ]

In April the commissioners arrived at Boston, and their communicationswith the general court commenced. The suspicions which these twobodies entertained of each other, opposed great obstacles to anycordial co-operation between them. The papers, on the part of thecommissioners, display high ideas of their own authority, as therepresentatives of the crown, and a pre-conceived opinion that therewas a disposition in the government to resist that authority. Those onthe part of the general court manifest a wish to avoid a contest withthe crown, and a desire to gratify his majesty, so far as professionsof loyalty and submission could gratify him; but they manifest also aconviction of having done nothing improper, and a steadfastdetermination to make no concession incompatible with their rights. With these impressions, the correspondence soon became an altercation. The commissioners, finding their object was to be obtained neither byreasoning, nor by threats, attempted a practical assertion of theirpowers by summoning the parties before them, in order to hear anddecide a complaint against the governor and company. The generalcourt, with a decision which marked alike their vigour, and the highvalue they placed on their privileges, announced by sound of trumpet, their disapprobation of this proceeding, which they termedinconsistent with the laws and established authority; and declaredthat, in observance of their duty to God and to his majesty, and ofthe trust reposed in them by his majesty's good subjects in thecolony, they could not consent to such proceedings, nor countenancethose who would so act, or such as would abet them. 

As a ground of compromise, the court stated their willingness to hearthe case themselves in the presence of the commissioners, who wouldthereby be enabled to understand its merits; but this proposition wasat once rejected, and every effort towards reconciliation provedunavailing. [98]

 [Footnote 98: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

{1666}

From Massachusetts, the commissioners proceeded to New Hampshire andMaine. They decided in favour of the claims of Mason and Gorges, anderected a royal government in each province, appointed justices of thepeace, and exercised other acts of sovereignty; after which theyreturned to Boston. The general court, declaring that theirproceedings to the eastward tended to the disturbance of the publicpeace, asked a conference on the subject, which was refused with abitterness of expression that put an end to all farther communicationbetween the parties. Massachusetts, soon afterwards, re-establishedher authority both in New Hampshire and Maine. 

[Sidenote: They are recalled. ]

Charles, on being informed of these transactions, recalled hiscommissioners, and ordered the general court to send agents toEngland, to answer the complaints made against its proceedings. Thecourt, having more than once experienced the benefits ofprocrastination, affected at first to disbelieve the authenticity ofthe letter; and afterwards excused themselves from sending agents bysaying that the ablest among them could not support their cause betterthan had already been done. 

During these transactions in the north, new colonies were forming inthe south. 

In the year 1663, that tract of country extending from the 36th degreeof north latitude to the river St. Matheo, was made a province by thename of Carolina, and granted to lord Clarendon, the duke ofAlbemarle, lord Craven, lord Berkeley, lord Ashley, sir GeorgeCarteret, sir John Colleton, and sir William Berkeley, in absoluteproperty for ever. This charter bears a strong resemblance to that ofMaryland, and was probably copied from it. 

[Sidenote: Settlement of Carolina. ]

The proprietors took immediate measures for Settlement the settlementof their colony. Its constitution consisted of a governor, to bechosen by themselves from thirteen persons nominated by the colonists;and an assembly to be composed of the governor, council, andrepresentatives of the people, who should have power to make laws notcontrary to those of England, which were to remain in force until thedissent of the proprietors should be published. Perfect freedom inreligion was promised; and, as an inducement to emigration, onehundred acres of land, at the price of a half penny for each acre, were allowed for every freeman, and fifty for every servant, whoshould, within the space of five years, be settled in the province. 

A small settlement had been made on Albemarle sound by some emigrantsfrom Virginia, the superintendence of which had been conferred by theproprietors, on sir William Berkeley, then governor of that colony;with instructions to visit it, to appoint a governor and council ofsix persons for the management of its affairs, and to grant lands tothe inhabitants on the same terms that those in Virginia might beobtained. 

The attention of the proprietors was next turned to the country southof cape Fear, which, as far as the river St. Matheo, was erected intoa county by the name of Clarendon. Considerable numbers from Barbadoesemigrated into it, one of whom, Mr. John Yeamans, was appointedcommander in chief; and, in 1665, a separate government was erected init, similar to that in Albemarle. 

The proprietors having discovered some valuable lands not comprehendedin their original patent, obtained a new charter which bestowed onthem a more extensive territory. This charter grants that provincewithin the King's dominions in America, extending north eastward toCarahtuke inlet, thence in a straight line to Wyonok, which lies under36 degrees 30 minutes north latitude; south westward to the 29thdegree of north latitude; and from the Atlantic ocean to the Southsea. Powers of government and privileges analogous to those comprisedin other colonial charters, were also contained in this. 

{1667}

The people of Albemarle, employed like those of Virginia, in thecultivation of corn and tobacco, received their scanty suppliesprincipally from New England; and carried on their small commerce inthe vessels of those colonies. Their progress was slow, but they werecontented. A new constitution was given them, by which the executivepower was placed in a governor, to act by the advice of a council oftwelve, six of whom were to be chosen by himself, and the others bythe assembly, which was composed of the governor, the council, andtwelve delegates, to be elected annually by the freeholders. Perfectfreedom in religion was established, and all were entitled to equalprivileges, on taking the oaths of allegiance to the King, and offidelity to the proprietors. 

The first acts of this legislature indicate the condition and opinionsof the people. It was declared that none should be sued, during fiveyears, for any cause of action arising out of the country; and that noperson should accept a power of attorney to receive debts contractedabroad. 

{1669}

[Sidenote: Constitution of Mr. Locke. ]

The proprietors, dissatisfied with their own systems, applied to Mr. Locke for the plan of a constitution. They supposed that this profoundand acute reasoner must be deeply skilled in the science ofgovernment. In compliance with their request, he framed a body offundamental laws which were approved and adopted. A palatine for lifewas to be chosen from among the proprietors, who was to act aspresident of the palatine court, which was to be composed of all thosewho were entrusted with the execution of the powers granted by thecharter. A body of hereditary nobility was created, to be denominatedLandgraves, and Caciques, the former to be invested with fourbaronies, consisting each of four thousand acres, and the latter tohave two, containing each two thousand acres of land. These estateswere to descend with the dignities for ever. 

The provincial legislature, denominated a Parliament was to consist ofthe proprietors, in the absence of any one of whom, his place was tobe supplied by a deputy appointed by himself; of the nobility; and ofthe representatives of the freeholders, who were elected by districts. These discordant materials were to compose a single body which couldinitiate nothing. The bills to be laid before it were to be preparedin a grand council composed of the governor, the nobility, and thedeputies of the proprietors, who were invested also with the executivepower. At the end of every century, the laws were to become voidwithout the formality of a repeal. Various judicatories were erected, and numerous minute perplexing regulations were made. Thisconstitution, which was declared to be perpetual, soon furnishedadditional evidence, to the many afforded by history, of the great butneglected truth, that experience is the only safe school in which thescience of government is to be acquired; and that the theories of thecloset must have the stamp of practice, before they can be receivedwith implicit confidence. 

{1670}

The duke of Albemarle was chosen the first palatine, but did not longsurvive his election; and lord Berkeley was appointed his successor. The other proprietors were also named to high offices; and Mr. Lockewas created a landgrave. 

After this change of constitution, the attention of the proprietorswas first directed to the south. A settlement was made at Port Royal, under the conduct of William Sayle, who had been appointed governor ofthat part of the coast which lies south-west of cape Carteret. He wasaccompanied by Joseph West, who was intrusted with the commercialaffairs of the proprietors, and who, with the governor, conducted thewhole mercantile business of the colony. 

William Sayle, after leading the first colony to Port Royal, andconvening a parliament in which there were neither landgraves norcaciques, became the victim of the climate; after which, the authorityof sir John Yeamans, who had hitherto governed the settlement at capeFear, was extended over the territory south-west of cape Carteret. Inthe same year, the foundation of _old Charlestown_ was laid, whichcontinued, for some time, to be the capital of the southernsettlements. 

While these exertions were making in the south, great dissatisfactionwas excited in Albemarle. In 1670, Stevens, the governor, had beenordered to introduce into that settlement, the constitution preparedby Mr. Locke. This innovation was strenuously opposed; and thediscontent it produced was increased by a rumour, which was not theless mischievous for being untrue, that the proprietors designed todismember the province. There was also another cause which increasedthe ill humour pervading that small society. The proprietors attemptedto stop the trade carried on in the vessels of New England, and theattempt produced the constant effect of such measures--much ill temperboth on the part of those who carried on the traffic, and of those forwhom it was conducted. 

At length, these discontents broke out into open insurrection. Theinsurgents, led by Culpeper, who had been appointed surveyor-generalof Carolina, obtained possession of the country, seized the revenues, and imprisoned the president, with seven deputies who had been namedby the proprietors. Having taken possession of the government, theyestablished courts of justice, appointed officers, called aparliament, and, for several years, exercised the powers of anindependent state; yet they never, formally, disclaimed the power ofthe proprietors. 

All this time, the titheables of Albemarle, a term designating all themen, with the negroes and Indian women, between sixteen and sixtyyears of age, amounted only to fourteen hundred; and the exportsconsisted of a few cattle, a small quantity of Indian corn, and abouteight hundred thousand weight of tobacco. 

{1688}

About this time, an event occurred in the southern settlements, showing as well the poverty of the people, as the manner in which theaffairs of the proprietors were conducted. Joseph West, their agent, was appointed to succeed Yeamans in the government; and, the colonybeing unable to pay his salary, the plantation, and mercantile stockof the proprietors, were assigned to him in satisfaction of hisclaims. 

In England, the opinion had been long entertained that the southerncolonies were adapted to the production of those articles whichsucceed in the warmer climates of Europe. In pursuance of thisopinion, Charles, in 1679, employed two vessels to transport foreignprotestants into the southern colony for the purpose of raising wine, oil, silk, and other productions of the south; and, to encourage thegrowth of these articles, exempted them, for a limited time, fromtaxation. The effort, however, did not succeed. 

Old Charlestown being found an inconvenient place for the seat ofgovernment, the present Charleston became the metropolis of SouthCarolina. This situation was deemed so unhealthy, that directions weregiven to search out some other position for a town. The seat ofgovernment, however, remained unaltered until the connexion with GreatBritain was dissolved. 

Carolina continued to increase slowly in wealth and population withoutany remarkable incident, except the invasion of its most southernsettlement by the Spaniards from St. Augustine. This was occasioned, in part, by the jealousy with which the English colony inspired itsneighbours, but was principally, and immediately attributable to thecountenance given, in Charleston, to the buccaneers who then infestedthose seas, and who were particularly hostile to the Spaniards. It waswith difficulty the colonists were prevented by the proprietors fromtaking ample vengeance for this injury. Their resentments, thoughrestrained, were not extinguished; and, until the annexation of theFloridas to the British crown, these colonies continued to view eachother with distrust and enmity. 

[Sidenote: Constitution of Mr. Locke abandoned. ]

The dissatisfaction of the colony with its constitution grew with itspopulation. After some time a settled purpose was disclosed, to thwartand oppose the wishes of the proprietors in every thing. Wearied witha continued struggle to support a system not adapted to the conditionof the people, the proprietors at length abandoned the constitution ofMr. Locke, and restored the ancient form of government. [99]

 [Footnote 99: Chalmer. History of South Carolina and Georgia. ]

[Sidenote: Discontents of Virginia. ]

The discontents which arose in Virginia soon after the restoration, continued to augment. To the regularly decreasing price of tobacco, and the restraints imposed on commerce by the acts of navigation, other causes of dissatisfaction were soon added. Large grants of landwere made to the favourites of the crown: and considerable burdenswere produced, and injuries inflicted by the hostility of the Indians. Agents were deputed to remonstrate against these improvident grants, as well as to promote the views of the colony with regard to otherobjects of great moment; and a considerable tax was imposed to supportthe expense of the deputation. They are said to have been on the pointof obtaining the objects of their mission, when all fartherproceedings were suspended in consequence of a rebellion, which, for atime, wore a very serious aspect. 

[Sidenote: Bacon's rebellion. ]

{1663}

At the head of the insurgents was colonel Nathaniel Bacon, a gentlemanwho had received his education, in England, at the inns of court; andhad been appointed a member of the council soon after his arrival inVirginia. Young, bold, and ambitious; possessing an engaging person, and commanding elocution; he was well calculated to rouse and directthe passions of the people. Treading the path by which ambitionmarches to power, he harangued the people on their grievances, increased their irritation against the causes of their disgust, andascribed the evils with which they thought themselves oppressed tothose who governed them, while he professed no other object than theirgood. He declaimed particularly against the languor with which theIndian war had been prosecuted; and, striking the note to which theirfeelings were most responsive, declared that, by proper exertions, itmight have been already terminated. 

The people, viewing him as their only friend, and believing the zealhe manifested to be produced solely by his devotion to their causegave him their whole confidence and elected him their general. Inreturn, he assured them that he would never lay down his arms until hehad avenged their sufferings on the savages, and redressed their othergrievances. 

{1676}

He applied to the governor for a commission appointing him general toprosecute the war against the Indians. A temporising policy beingpursued, he entered Jamestown at the head of six hundred armed men, and obtained all he demanded, from an intimidated government. Nosooner had he withdrawn from the capital than the governor, at therequest of the assembly which was then in session, issued aproclamation declaring him a rebel, and commanding his followers todeliver him up, and to retire to their respective homes. Bacon and hisarmy, equally incensed at this piece of impotent indiscretion, returned to Jamestown, and the governor fled to Accomack. 

The general of the insurgents called a convention of his friends, whoinveighed against the governor, for having, without cause, endeavouredto foment a civil war in the country, and after failing in thisattempt, for having abdicated the government, to the greatastonishment of the people. They stated farther that, the governorhaving informed the King "that their commander and his followers wererebellious, and having advised his majesty to send forces to reducethem, it consisted with the welfare of the colony, and with theirallegiance to his sacred majesty, to oppose and suppress all forceswhatsoever until the King be fully informed of the state of the caseby such persons as shall be sent by Nathaniel Bacon in behalf of thepeople. " This extraordinary manifesto was concluded with therecommendation of an oath, first taken by the members of theconvention, to join the general and his army against the common enemyin all points whatever; and to endeavour to discover and apprehendsuch evil disposed persons as design to create a civil war by raisingforces against him, and the army under his command. 

[Sidenote: His death. ]

In the mean time, the governor collected a considerable force whichcrossed the bay under the command of major Robert Beverly, and severalsharp skirmishes were fought. A civil war was commenced; agriculturedeclined; Jamestown was burnt by the insurgents; those parts of thecountry which remained in peace were pillaged; and the wives of thosewho supported the government were carried to camp, where they werevery harshly treated. Virginia was relieved from this threateningstate of things, and from the increasing calamities it portended, bythe sudden death of Bacon. 

{1677}

Having lost their leader, the malcontents were incapable of fartheragreement among themselves. They began, separately, to make terms withthe government, and all opposition soon ended. Sir William Berkeleywas re-instated in his authority, and an assembly was convened, whichseems to have been actuated by the spirit of revenge common to thosewho suffer in civil contests. [100]

 [Footnote 100: Chalmer. Beverly. ]

The real motives and objects of this rebellion are not perfectlyunderstood. Many were disposed to think that Bacon's original designextended no farther than to gratify the common resentments against theIndians, and to acquire that reputation and influence which resultfrom conducting a popular war successfully. Others believe that heintended to seize the government. Whatever may have been his object, the insurrection produced much misery, and no good, to Virginia. [101]

 [Footnote 101: Idem. ]

{1680}

Soon after the restoration of domestic quiet, sir William Berkeleyreturned to England, and was succeeded by Herbert Jeffreys, whorelieved the colony from one of its complaints by making peace withthe Indians. 

[Sidenote: Assembly deprived of judicial power. ]

About the year 1680, an essential change was made in the jurisprudenceof Virginia. In early times, the assembly was the supreme appellatecourt of the province. During the administration of lord Culpeper, acontroversy arose between the burgesses, and counsellors, who composedalso the general court, concerning the right of the latter to sit as apart of the assembly, on appeals from their own decisions. Theburgesses claimed, exclusively, the privilege of judging in the lastresort. This controversy was determined by taking all judicial powerfrom the assembly, and allowing an appeal from judgments of thegeneral court to the King in council, where the matter in contestexceeded the value of three hundred pounds sterling. [102]

 [Footnote 102: Chalmer. Beverly. ]

From the rebellion of Bacon to the revolution in 1688, the history ofVirginia affords no remarkable occurrence. The low price of tobacco, that perpetual source of dissatisfaction, still continued to disquietthe country. Combinations were formed among the people to raise itsvalue by preventing, for a time, the growth of the article; anddisorderly parties assembled to destroy the tobacco plants in the bedswhen it was too late to sow the seed again. Violent measures wereadopted to prevent these practices, and several individuals wereexecuted. 

These discontents did not arrest the growth of the colony. A letterfrom sir William Berkeley, dated in June, 1671, states its populationat forty thousand, and its militia at eight thousand. A letter fromlord Culpeper in December, 1681, supposes that there might then be inthe colony fifteen thousand fighting men. This calculation however isprobably exaggerated, as the report of general Smith, prepared in 1680from actual returns, represents the militia as then consisting ofeight thousand five hundred and sixty-eight men, of whom thirteenhundred were cavalry. [103]

 [Footnote 103: Chalmer. ]

CHAPTER VI. 

 Prosperity of New England.... War with Philip.... Edward Randolph arrives in Boston.... Maine adjudged to Gorges.... Purchased by Massachusetts.... Royal government erected in New Hampshire.... Complaints against Massachusetts.... Their letters patent cancelled.... Death of Charles II.... James II. Proclaimed.... New commission for the government of New England.... Sir Edmond Andros.... The charter of Rhode Island abrogated.... Odious measures of the new government.... Andros deposed.... William and Mary proclaimed.... Review of proceedings in New York and the Jerseys.... Pennsylvania granted to William Penn.... Frame of government.... Foundation of Philadelphia laid.... Assembly convened.... First acts of the legislature.... Boundary line with lord Baltimore settled. 

{1680}

[Sidenote: Prosperity of New England. ]

After the departure of the commissioners, New England was for sometime quiet and prosperous. The plague, the fire of London, and thediscontents of the people of England, engrossed the attention of theKing, and suspended the execution of his plans respectingMassachusetts. In the mean time, that colony disregarded the acts ofnavigation, traded as an independent state, and governed New Hampshireand Maine without opposition. [104]

 [Footnote 104: From a paper in possession of the British administration, it appears that in 1673, New England was supposed to contain one hundred and twenty thousand souls, of whom sixteen thousand were able to bear arms. Three-fourths of the wealth and population of the country, were in Massachusetts and its dependencies. The town of Boston alone contained fifteen hundred families. ]

[Sidenote: War with Philip. ]

{1675}

{1676}

This state of prosperous repose was interrupted by a combination ofIndians so formidable, and a war so bloody, as to threaten the warwith very existence of all New England. This combination was formed byPhilip, the second son of Massassoet. The father and eldest son hadcultivated the friendship of the colonists; but Philip, equally braveand intelligent, saw the continuing growth of the English withapprehension, and by his conduct soon excited their suspicion. He gaveexplicit assurances of his pacific disposition; but, from the year1670 till 1675, when hostilities commenced, he was secretly preparingfor them. The war was carried on with great vigour and varioussuccess: the savages, led by an intrepid chief, who believed that thefate of his country depended on the entire destruction of the English, made exertions of which they had not been thought capable. Severalbattles were fought; and all that barbarous fury which distinguishesIndian warfare, was displayed in its full extent. Wherever the Indiansmarched, their route was marked with murder, fire, and desolation. Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Plymouth, were the greatestsufferers. In those provinces especially, the Indians were sointermingled with the whites, that there was scarcely a part of thecountry in perfect security, or a family which had not to bewail theloss of a relation or friend. For a considerable time no decisiveadvantage was gained. At length, the steady efforts of the Englishprevailed; and in August 1676, when the tide of success was runningstrong in favour of the colonists, Philip, after losing his family andchief counsellors, was himself killed by one of his own nation, whomhe had offended. After his death, the war was soon terminated by thesubmission of the Indians. Never had the people of New England beenengaged in so fierce, so bloody, and so desolating a conflict. Thoughthe warriors of the nation of which Philip was prince, were estimatedat only five hundred men, he had, by alliances, increased his force tothree thousand. In this estimate the eastern Indians are not included. Many houses, and flourishing villages were reduced to ashes, and sixhundred persons were either killed in battle, or murderedprivately. [105]

 [Footnote 105: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

[Sidenote: Edward Randolph. ]

While this war was raging with its utmost violence, the government ofMassachusetts was under the necessity of directing a part of itsattention to the claims of Mason and Gorges. The efforts of Charles toprocure an appearance of the colony before the council having provedineffectual, he determined to give judgment in its absence, unless anappearance should be entered within six months. Edward Randolph, whowas dispatched to give notice of this determination, arrived in Bostonin the summer of 1676; and, as other letters brought by the samevessel gave assurance that this resolution would be adhered to, thegeneral court hastened the departure of deputies to represent thecolony, and support its interests. 

[Sidenote: Maine adjudged to Gorges. ]

It was the opinion of the King in council that the line ofMassachusetts did not run more than three miles north of theMerrimack; and Maine was adjudged to Gorges. The claim of Mason to NewHampshire being confined to the soil, all title to which, though solong exercised, was now waived by Massachusetts; and the terre-tenantsnot being before the court, that part of the case was decided so faronly as respected the boundary of Massachusetts, which, being againstthe pretensions of that colony, its jurisdiction over New Hampshireceased. Charles had been for some time treating for the purchase bothof New Hampshire and Maine which he intended to bestow on hisfavourite son, the duke of Monmouth, but his poverty had prevented thecontract. Massachusetts, though not ignorant of this fact, findingthat the decision respecting Maine would be in favour of Gorges, purchased his title for twelve hundred pounds sterling. The offendedmonarch insisted on a relinquishment of the contract; butMassachusetts, apologising for what had been done, retained thepurchase, and governed the country as a subordinate province. [106]

 [Footnote 106: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

{1679}

[Sidenote: Royal government in New Hampshire. ]

New Hampshire having become a distinct colony, a royal government waserected in that province; the legislature of which voted anaffectionate address to Massachusetts, avowing a willingness to haveretained their ancient connexion, had such been the pleasure of theircommon sovereign. 

{1679}

The temper and conduct of Massachusetts remaining unchanged, thecharges against its government were renewed. The complaints of theQuakers were perseveringly urged; and the neglect of the acts ofnavigation, constituted a serious accusation against the colony. Thegeneral court, in a letter to their agents, declared these acts "to bean invasion of the rights, liberty, and property of the subjects ofhis majesty in the colony, they not being represented in Parliament. "But as his majesty had signified his pleasure that they should beconformed to, "they had made provision by a law of the colony thatthey should be strictly attended to from time to time, although itgreatly discouraged trade, and was a great damage to his majesty'splantation. " Their agents gave correct information of the state ofthings in England, and assured them that only a fair compliance withthe regulations respecting trade could secure them from an open breachwith the crown. These honest representations produced the usual effectof unwelcome truths. They diminished the popularity of the agents, andexcited a suspicion in Boston that they had not supported theinterests of the colony with sufficient zeal. On their return, theybrought with them a letter containing the requisitions of the King;and were soon followed by Randolph, who had been appointed collectorat Boston. The general court began to manifest some disposition toappease their sovereign, and passed several laws for this purpose; butstill declined complying with his directions to send agents with fullpowers to attend to the new ordering of the province; and thecollector encountered insuperable obstacles in his attempts to executethe laws of trade. Almost every suit he instituted for the recovery ofpenalties or forfeitures was decided against him, at the costs of theprosecutor. These difficulties induced him to return to England, tosolicit additional powers, which were equally disregarded. 

The complaints of the King on these subjects were answered byprofessions of loyalty, and by partial compliances with the demands ofthe crown; but the main subject of contest remained unaltered. 

{1684}

At length, being convinced that the King was determined to annul thecharter, Massachusetts so far yielded to his will, as to appointagents to represent the colony. But persons empowered to submit tosuch regulations as might be made by government, were, in other words, persons appointed to surrender the charter. They were thereforeinstructed not to do, or consent to, any thing that might infringe theliberties granted by charter, or the government established thereby. These powers were declared to be insufficient; and the agents wereinformed that, unless others, in every respect satisfactory, should beimmediately obtained, it was his majesty's pleasure that a _quowarranto_ should be issued without delay. This unpleasant intelligencewas immediately communicated to the general court, accompanied withinformation of the proceedings which had lately taken place inEngland. In that country, many corporations had surrendered theircharters; and, on the refusal of London, a _quo warranto_ had issuedagainst the city, which had been decided in favour of the crown. Thequestion whether it was advisable to submit to his majesty's pleasure, or to permit the _quo warranto_ to issue, was seriously referred tothe general court, and was as seriously taken into considerationthroughout the colony. In concurrence with the common sentiment, thegeneral court determined that "it was better to die by other handsthan their own. " On receiving this final resolution, the fatal writwas issued, and was committed to the care of Randolph, who broughtalso a declaration of the King, that if the colony, before the writshould be prosecuted, would submit to his pleasure, he would regulatetheir charter for his service, and their good; and would make nofarther alterations in it than should be necessary for the support ofhis government in the province. The governor and assistants passed avote of submission; but, the deputies refusing their assent thereto, the high court of chancery, in Trinity term 1684, decreed against thegovernor and company, "that their letters patent, and the enrolmentthereof be cancelled. "

{1685}

[Sidenote: Death of Charles II. ]

[Sidenote: James II. Proclaimed. ]

Charles did not survive this decree long enough to complete his systemrespecting the New England colonies, or to establish a new governmentfor Massachusetts. He died early in the following year; and hissuccessor, from whose stern temper, and high toned opinions, the mostgloomy presages had been drawn, was proclaimed, in Boston, withmelancholy pomp. 

{1686}

Their presages were soon verified. Immediately after James hadascended the throne, a commission was issued for a president andcouncil, as a temporary government for Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, and Narraghansetts; whose powers were entirely executive andjudicial. This commission reached Boston in May, and was laid beforethe general court, not as a body invested with political authority, but as one composed of individuals of the first respectability andinfluence in the province. The general court agreed unanimously to anaddress, in answer to this communication, declaring "that the libertyof the subject is abridged, by the new system, both in matters oflegislation and in laying taxes; and that it highly concerns them towhom it is directed to consider whether it be safe;" and added "that, if the newly appointed officers, mean to take upon themselves thegovernment of the people, though they could not give their assentthereto, they should demean themselves as loyal subjects, and humblymake their addresses to God, and, in due time, to their graciousprince, for relief. "

Mr. Dudley, the president named in the commission, was a native ofMassachusetts, and seems to have mingled with his respect for theconstitutional prerogative of the crown, a due regard for the rightsof the people. Any immediate alterations, therefore, in the interiorarrangements of the country were avoided; and the commissionerstransmitted a memorial to the lords of the council for the colonies, stating the necessity of a well regulated assembly to represent thepeople, and soliciting an abatement of the taxes. This moderateconduct did not accord with the wishes of that class of men who courtpower wherever it may be placed. These sought the favour of theirsovereign by prostrating every obstacle to the execution of his will;and soon transmitted complaints to administration, charging thecommissioners with conniving at violations of the laws respectingtrade, and countenancing ancient principles in religion andgovernment. 

[Sidenote: Sir Edmond Andros. ]

James was dissatisfied with the conduct of his commissioners; and wasalso of opinion that a wise policy required a consolidation of thecolonies, and a permanent administration for New England. With a viewto this object, he appointed Sir Edmond Andros, who had governed NewYork, captain-general and vice-admiral of Massachusetts, NewHampshire, Maine, New Plymouth, Pemaquid, and Narraghansetts; andempowered him, with the consent of a council to be appointed by thecrown, to make ordinances not inconsistent with the laws of the realm, which should be submitted to the King for his approbation or dissent;and to impose taxes for the support of government. 

In December 1685, Andros arrived at Boston, where he was received withthe respect which was due to the representative of the crown. Inpursuance of his orders, he dissolved the government of Rhode Island, broke its seal, and assumed the administration of the colony. In thepreceding year, articles of high misdemeanour had been exhibitedagainst that colony and referred to Sayer, the attorney general, withorders to issue a writ of _quo warranto_ to annul their patent. Theassembly stopped farther proceedings, by passing an act formallysurrendering their charter. Their submission, however, availed themnothing. Their fate was involved in that of Massachusetts. [107]

 [Footnote 107: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

[Sidenote: Odious measures of government. ]

{1687}

In pursuance of the determination to break the charters and unite thecolonies, articles of misdemeanour had been also exhibited against thegovernor and company of Connecticut, on which a writ of _quo warranto_had been issued. The government of that colony addressed a letter tothe secretary of state, desiring, with many professions of loyalty, toremain in its present situation; but, if it should be the purpose ofhis majesty to dispose otherwise of them, submitting to his royalcommands, and requesting to be annexed to Massachusetts. No fartherproceedings were had on the _quo warranto_, and Andros was ordered toaccept the submission of the colony, and annex it to Massachusetts. This order was executed in October, when Andros appeared in Hartfordat the head of a small corps of regular troops, demanded the charter, and declared the government to be dissolved. The colony submitted, butthe charter was concealed in a tree, which was venerated longafterwards and is still in existence. [108]

 [Footnote 108: Trumbull. Hutchison. Chalmer. ]

The grand legislative council, composed of individuals selected by thecrown throughout the united colonies, readily assembled, and proceededto execute the duties assigned to it. 

The measures of the new government were not calculated to diminish theodium excited by its objectionable form. The fees of office wereenormous; and the regulations respecting divine worship, marriages, the acts of navigation, and taxes, were deemed highly oppressive. Inaddition to these causes of discontent, the governor general tookoccasion to cast a doubt on the validity of the titles by which landswere holden. 

{1688}

To obtain relief from these oppressive grievances, Mather, an eminentpolitician and divine, was deputed by the colonies of New England tolay their complaints before the King. He was graciously received, butcould effect no substantial change in the colonial administration. James had determined to reduce all the governments, proprietary aswell as royal, to an immediate dependence on the crown; and, to effectthis purpose, had directed writs of _quo warranto_ to issue againstthose charters which still remained in force. This plan was adopted, not only for the purpose of establishing his favourite system ofgovernment, but also of forming a barrier to the encroachments ofFrance, by combining the force of the colonies as far as the Delaware. During this reign, Canada was pushed south of Lake Champlain; andfortresses were erected within the immense forests which thenseparated that province from New York and New England. With a view tothis union of force, a new commission was made out for Andros, annexing New York and the Jerseys to his government, and appointingFrancis Nicholson his lieutenant. 

{1689}

The dissatisfaction of the people continued to increase; and every actof the government, even those which were in themselves laudable, wasviewed through the medium of prejudice. 

At length these latent ill humours burst forth into action. Some vagueintelligence was received concerning the proceedings of the Prince ofOrange in England. The old magistrates and leading men silentlywished, and secretly prayed, that success might attend him, butdetermined to commit nothing unnecessarily to hazard, and quietly toawait an event, which no movement of theirs could accelerate orretard. 

[Sidenote: Andros deposed. ]

[Sidenote: William and Mary proclaimed. ]

The people were less prudent. Stung with the recollection of pastinjuries, their impatience, on the first prospect of relief, could notbe restrained. On the 18th of April, without any apparentpre-concerted plan, a sudden insurrection broke out in Boston, andabout fifty of the most unpopular individuals, including thegovernors, were seized and imprisoned; and the government was oncemore placed in the hands of the ancient magistrates. All apprehensionsof danger from this precipitate measure were soon quieted by theinformation that William and Mary had been crowned King and Queen ofEngland. They were immediately proclaimed in Boston with unusual pomp, and with demonstrations of proclaimed unaffected joy. [109]

 [Footnote 109: Chalmer. Hutchison. ]

The example of Massachusetts was quickly followed by Connecticut andRhode Island. Andros was no sooner known to be in prison than he wasdeposed also in Connecticut; and, in both colonies the ancient form ofgovernment was restored. 

In New Hampshire a convention was called, which determined to re-annexthat colony to Massachusetts, and deputies were elected to representthem in the general court. This reunion continued to be their wish, but was opposed by the King, who, in 1692, appointed for it a distinctgovernor. 

In order to bring the affairs of the middle colonies to this period, it will be necessary briefly to review the transactions of severalyears. 

[Sidenote: Review of proceedings in New York and New Jersey. ]

The treaty of Breda, which restored Acadié to France, confirmed NewNetherlands to England. Quiet possession of that valuable territorywas retained until 1673, when, England being engaged again in war withHolland, a small Dutch squadron appeared before the fort at New York, which surrendered without firing a shot. The example was followed bythe city and country; and, in a few days, the submission of NewNetherlands was complete. After this acquisition the old claim to LongIsland was renewed, and some attempts were made to wrest it fromConnecticut. That province however, after consulting its confederates, and finding that offensive operations would be agreeable to the union, declared war against the Dutch; and not content with defending its ownpossessions, prepared an expedition against New York. The terminationof the war between England and Holland prevented its prosecution, andrestored to the English the possessions they had lost. [110]

 [Footnote 110: Trumbull. Hutchison. ]

To remove all controversy concerning his title, which had beenacquired while the granted lands were in possession of the Dutch, theduke of York, after the peace of 1674, obtained a renewal of hispatent, and appointed sir Edmond Andros governor of his territories inAmerica. This commission included New Jersey, his former grant ofwhich he supposed to be annulled by the conquest thereof in 1673. Andros, disregarding the decision of the commissioners, claimed forthe duke that part of Connecticut which lies west of the river of thatname; and, during the war with Philip, endeavoured to support hisclaim by force. The determined resistance of Connecticut compelled himto relinquish an attempt on Saybrooke; after which he returned to NewYork. The taxes which had been laid by the Dutch were collected, andduties, for a limited time, were imposed, by authority of the duke. This proceeding excited great discontent. The public resentment wasdirected, first against the governor, whose conduct was inquired intoand approved by his master, and afterwards against the collector, whowas seized and sent to England; but never prosecuted. Therepresentatives of the duke in New York, feeling the difficulty ofgoverning a high spirited people on principles repugnant to all theirsettled opinions, repeatedly, but ineffectually, urged him to placethe colony on the same footing with its neighbours, by creating alocal legislature, one branch of which should be elected by thepeople. It was not until the year 1683, when the revenue laws wereabout to expire, when the right of the duke to re-enact them wasdenied in America, and doubted in England, that he could be prevailedon to appoint a new governor with instructions to convene anassembly. [111]

 [Footnote 111: Smith. ]

In 1674, lord Berkeley assigned his interest in the Jerseys to WilliamPenn and his associates. They afterwards acquired the title of sirGeorge Carteret also, and immediately conveyed one-half of theirinterest to the earl of Perth and others, who, in 1683, obtained aconveyance from the duke of York directly to themselves. 

During these transactions, continual efforts were made to re-annex theJerseys to New York. Carteret had endeavoured to participate in theadvantages of commerce by establishing a port at Amboy; but Androsseized and condemned the vessels trading thither, and was supported bythe duke in this exercise of power. The assembly of New York claimedthe right of taxing the people of Jersey; and the collector, continuedto exercise his former authority within their territory. On hiscomplaining, after the accession of the duke of York to the throne, that every vessel he prosecuted was discharged by the verdict of thejury, a writ of _quo warranto_ was directed. The English judges didnot then hold their offices during good behaviour; and the proprietorsof East Jersey, confident that the cause would be decided againstthem, surrendered their patent to the crown, praying only a grant ofthe soil. The Jerseys were, soon afterwards, annexed to NewEngland. [112]

 [Footnote 112: Chalmer. Smith. ]

Dongan, who, in 1683, had succeeded Andros in the government of NewYork, took a deep interest in the affairs of the five nations, who hadbeen engaged in bloody wars with Canada. The French, by establishing asettlement at Detroit, and a fort at Michilimackinack, had beenenabled to extend their commerce among the numerous tribes of Indianswho hunted on the banks of the great lakes, and the upper branches ofthe Mississippi. They excluded the people of New York from any sharein this gainful commerce; in consequence of which Dongan solicited andobtained permission to aid the five nations. This order, however, wassoon countermanded; and a treaty was concluded, stipulating that noassistance should be given to the savages by the English colonists;soon after which Dongan was recalled, and New York was annexed to NewEngland. 

From the accession of James to the throne, he had discontinued theassemblies of New York, and empowered the governor, with the consentof his council, to make laws "as near as might be" to those ofEngland. The reinstatement of this arbitrary system gave generaldisgust, and, together with the apprehension that the Roman Catholicreligion would be established, prepared the people of New York, aswell as those of the other colonies, for that revolution which wrestedpower from hands accustomed to abuse it. On receiving intelligence ofthe revolution at Boston, the militia were raised by a captain JacobLeisler, who took possession of the fort in the name of King William, and drove Nicholson, the lieutenant governor, out of the country. Thisevent gave rise to two parties, who long divided New York, and whosemutual animosities were the source of much uneasiness and mischief tothe province. [113]

 [Footnote 113: Chalmer. Smith. ]

[Sidenote: Pennsylvania granted to William Penn. ]

William Penn having gained some knowledge of the country west of theDelaware, formed the design of acquiring that territory as a separateestate. On his petition, a charter was issued in 1681, granting tohim, in absolute property, by the name of Pennsylvania, that tract ofcountry bounded on the east by the river Delaware, extending westwardfive degrees of longitude, stretching to the north from twelve milesnorth of New Castle to the forty-third degree of latitude, and limitedon the south by a circle of twelve miles, drawn round New Castle tothe beginning of the fortieth degree of latitude. 

In this charter, the acts of navigation were recognised, a locallegislature was created, and provision made that a duplicate of itslaws should be transmitted, within five years, to the King in council;any of which that were repugnant to those of England, or inconsistentwith the authority of the crown, might be declared void in six months. This charter conveyed nearly the same powers and privileges with thatof Maryland, but recognised the right of Parliament to tax the colony. 

Penn soon commenced the settlement of the province, and immediatelyasserted a claim to a part of the territory which had been supposed bylord Baltimore to be within the bounds of Maryland. In this claimoriginated a controversy between the two proprietors, productive ofconsiderable inconvenience and irritation to both. 

He published a frame of government for Pennsylvania, the chiefintention of which was declared to be "for the support of power inreverence with the people, and to secure the people from the abuse ofpower; that they may be free by their just obedience, and themagistrates honourable for their just administration; for libertywithout obedience is confusion, and obedience without liberty isslavery. "

This scheme of fundamental law contains many provisions indicatinggood sense and just notions of government, but was too complex for aninfant settlement; and, after many fruitless attempts to amend it, waslaid aside, and a more simple form was adopted, resembling in itsprincipal features, those established in the other colonies, whichremained until the proprietary government itself was dissolved. 

[Sidenote: Foundation of Philadelphia. ]

In August 1682, Penn obtained from the duke of York a conveyance ofthe town of New Castle, with the territory twelve miles around it, andthat tract of land extending thence southward, on the Delaware, tocape Henlopen. Soon after this grant was issued, he embarked forAmerica, accompanied by about two thousand emigrants; and, in theOctober following, landed on the banks of the Delaware. In addition tothe colonists sent out by himself, he found, on his arrival severalsmall settlements of Swedes, Dutch, Finlanders, and English, amountingto about three thousand persons. Penn cultivated the good will of thenatives, from whom he purchased such lands as were necessary for thepresent use of the colonists. At this time the foundation ofPhiladelphia was laid, which we are assured contained near one hundredhouses within twelve months from its commencement. An assembly wasconvened which, instead of being composed of all the freemen, according to the frame of government, was, at the request of thepeople themselves, constituted of their representatives. Among thelaws which were enacted was one annexing the territories latelypurchased from the duke of York to the province, and extending to themall its privileges. Universal freedom in religion was established; andevery foreigner who promised allegiance to the King, and obedience tothe proprietor was declared a freeman. [114]

 [Footnote 114: History of Pennsylvania. Chalmer. ]

In the hope of extending his limits to the Chesapeake, Penn, soonafter his arrival, met lord Baltimore for the purpose of adjustingtheir boundaries. The patent of that nobleman calls for the fortiethdegree of north latitude, and he proposed to determine theintersection of that degree with the Delaware by actual observation. Penn, on the contrary, insisted on finding the fortieth degree bymensuration from the capes of Virginia, the true situation of whichhad been already ascertained. Each adhering firmly to his ownproposition, the controversy was referred to the committee ofplantations, who, after the crown had descended on James, decided thatthe peninsula between the bays of Chesapeake and Delaware, should bedivided into two equal parts by a line drawn from the latitude of capeHenlopen to the fortieth degree, and adjudged that the land lying fromthat line towards the Delaware should belong to his majesty, and theother moiety to Lord Baltimore. This adjudication was ordered to beimmediately executed. 

Pennsylvania was slow in acknowledging the Prince and Princess ofOrange. The government continued to be administered in the name ofJames for some time after his abdication was known. At length, however, William and Mary were proclaimed; and Penn had the address toefface the unfavourable impressions which this delay was calculated tomake on them. 

CHAPTER VII. 

 New charter of Massachusetts.... Affairs of New York.... War with France.... Schenectady destroyed.... Expedition against Port Royal.... Against Quebec.... Acadié recovered by France.... Pemaquid taken.... Attempt on St. Johns.... Peace.... Affairs of New York.... Of Virginia.... Disputes between England and France respecting boundary in America.... Recommencement of hostilities.... Quotas of the respective colonies.... Treaty of neutrality between France and the five nations.... Expedition against Port Royal.... Incursion into Massachusetts.... Plan for the invasion of Canada.... Port Royal taken.... Expedition against Quebec.... Treaty of Utrecht.... Affairs of New York.... Of Carolina.... Expedition against St. Augustine.... Attempt to establish the Episcopal church.... Invasion of the colony.... Bills of credit issued.... Legislature continues itself.... Massacre in North Carolina by the Indians.... Tuscaroras defeated.... Scheme of a Bank. 

{1689}

The revolution which placed the Prince and Princess of Orange on thethrone, revived in Massachusetts, the hope of recovering the ancientcharter. Elections were held by authority of the temporary government, and the representatives requested the council to exercise, untilorders should be received from England, the powers and authoritiesvested in that body by the charter. The council acceded to thisproposition; and the ancient system was re-established. It was soonperceived by the agents of Massachusetts that the old charter wouldnot be restored, and that the King was determined to retain theappointment of the governor in his own hands. The colony, however, wasauthorised to exercise the powers of government according to theancient system, until a new arrangement should be made. The vessel bywhich these directions were transmitted, carried also orders that sirEdmond Andros, and those imprisoned with him should be sent toEngland. 

{1691}

[Sidenote: New Charter. ]

The general court deputed additional agents, with instructions tosolicit the confirmation of their beloved charter; but thesesolicitations were ineffectual. The King was inflexible; and, atlength, a new charter was framed, introducing some changes whichaffected radically the independence that had been long practicallypossessed by the colony. The governor was to be appointed by thecrown, was enabled to call, adjourn, prorogue, and dissolve theassembly at pleasure; he had the appointment solely, of all militaryofficers; and, with the consent of his council, of all officersbelonging to the courts of justice. 

{1692}

Sir William Phipps, the first governor, arrived in May, andimmediately issued writs for a general assembly, which met in June, and accepted the charter; though a considerable party had been formedto oppose it. This instrument annexed Plymouth and Nova Scotia toMassachusetts; but, contrary to the wishes of both colonies, omittedNew Hampshire, which became permanently a separate government. [115]

 [Footnote 115: Hutchison. ]

[Sidenote: Affairs of New York. ]

In New York, Leisler, who had obtained the entire control of the lowercountry, associated with himself in the government, a few trustypartisans, denominated a committee of safety, over whom he presided. Some of the principal inhabitants of the city, dissatisfied at seeinga man of low birth, without education, in possession of supreme power, retired to Albany, where a convention of the people was assembled, whodetermined to hold the fort and country for the King and Queen, butnot to submit to the authority of Leisler. On receiving intelligenceof these transactions, Jacob Milbourne was detached with a small forceto reduce the place; but, finding that the people adhered to theconvention, and that his harangues against James and popery made noimpression on them, he returned to New York. The next spring heappeared again before the fort; and, being favoured by an irruption ofthe Indians, obtained possession of it. The principal members of theconvention absconded, upon which their effects were seized andconfiscated. This harsh measure produced resentments which weretransmitted from father to son. 

Leisler retained the supreme power, without farther opposition, untilthe arrival of sir Henry Slaughter, who had been appointed governor ofthe province. Though informed of the commission which Slaughter bore, this infatuated man refused to yield the government to him; and showeda disposition, without the ability, to resist. This ill judgedobstinacy threw the governor, who soon obtained possession of thefort, into the arms of the opposite party. Leisler and Milbourne werearrested, tried for high treason, condemned, and executed. Theirestates were confiscated, but were afterwards restored to theirfamilies. [116]

 [Footnote 116: Smith. ]

[Sidenote: War with France. ]

While these things were passing in the interior, the colonies of NewEngland and New York were engaged in a bloody and desolating war withthe French of Canada, and with the Indians. The English people hadlong viewed with apprehension, the advances of France towardsuniversal dominion; and with infinite disgust, the influence of LouisXIV. In their cabinet. On the elevation of the Prince of Orange to thethrone, they entered with alacrity into all his views for opposingbarriers to the power, and restraints on the ambition, of that haughtymonarch. The war which was proclaimed between the two nations, extended itself to their possessions in America. De Calliers, whosailed from Canada to France in 1688, had formed a plan for theconquest of New York, which was adopted by his government. Caffinierecommanded the ships which sailed from Rochefort on this expedition, subject however to the count de Frontignac, who was general of theland forces destined to march from Canada by the route of the riverSorel and of lake Champlain. The fleet and troops arrived at Chebucta, whence the count proceeded to Quebec leaving orders with Caffiniere tosail to New York. 

On reaching Quebec, the count found all Canada in the utmost distress. In the preceding summer, twelve hundred warriors of the Five nationshad suddenly landed on the island of Montreal, and put to death aboutone thousand of the inhabitants whom they found in perfect security. The place was again attacked in October, and the lower part of theisland entirely destroyed. In consequence of these calamitous events, fort Frontignac, on lake Ontario, was evacuated, and two vessels whichhad been constructed there were burnt. 

[Sidenote: Schenectady destroyed. ]

Count Frontignac, who, in his sixty-eighth year, possessed theactivity of youth, after remaining a few days on shore, re-embarked ina canoe for Montreal. In the hope of conciliating the Five nations, heheld a great council with them at Onondago, where the Indians showedsome disposition towards a peace without concluding one. To influencetheir deliberations, and raise the depressed spirits of the Canadians, he sent out several parties against the English colonies. That againstNew York, consisting of about two hundred French, and some Indians;after marching twenty-two days with their provisions on their backs, through a wilderness covered deep with snow, arrived, on 8th ofFebruary 1690, about eleven at night, at Schenectady, a village a fewmiles north-west of Albany. Finding the gates open and unguarded, theyimmediately entered the town, the inhabitants of which were asleep;and, dividing themselves into small parties, invested every house atthe same time. No alarm was given until the doors were broken open;and then was commenced the perpetration of those barbarities which addso much to the ordinary horrors of war. The whole village wasinstantly in flames; pregnant women were ripped open and their infantscast into the flames, or dashed against the posts of the doors. Sixtypersons were massacred, twenty-seven carried into captivity, and thosewho escaped fled naked, through a deep snow and storm to Albany. Inthe flight, twenty-five lost their limbs from the intensity of thecold. The town was pillaged until about noon the next day, when theenemy marched off with their plunder. Being pursued by a party ofyoung men from Albany, about twenty-five of them were killed andcaptured. [117]

 [Footnote 117: Smith. ]

[Sidenote: Expedition against Port Royal. ]

In the spring and summer of 1689, several settlements and forts in NewHampshire and Maine, were successfully attacked by the Indians; who, wherever they were victorious, perpetrated their usual cruelties. Knowing that these depredations originated in Canada and Acadié, thegeneral court of Massachusetts planned an expedition against both PortRoyal and Quebec. Early in the spring, eight small vessels, carryingseven or eight hundred men, sailed under the command of sir WilliamPhipps; and, almost without opposition, took possession of Port Royal, and of the whole coast between that place and New England. The fleetreturned in May, having taken nearly plunder enough to discharge theexpense of the equipment. But two detachments made about the same timeby count Frontignac, attacked the Salmon falls, and fort Casco, wherethey killed and took about one hundred and eighty persons. 

[Illustration: Penn Seeking Freedom for Imprisoned Friends

_© by Violet Oakley; From a Copley print copyright by Curtis andCameron, Boston_

_The reference made in the panel inscription at the top of thispicture is to William Penn's imprisonment in the Tower of London forpublishing "The Sandy Foundation Shaken, " in which he attacked thedoctrines of the Trinity. While in prison he wrote his most famous andpopular book, "No Cross, No Crown" and "Innocency With Her Open Face", in vindication of his Quaker faith. In 1681 Penn obtained from theBritish Crown, in lieu of a debt of £16, 000 due him as heir to hisfather, Admiral Penn, a grant of territory now comprising the State ofPennsylvania. There he founded Philadelphia, as a Quaker colony, inthe following year. _]

[Sidenote: Against Quebec. ]

A vessel had been dispatched to England in April with letters urgingthe importance of conquering Canada, and soliciting the aid of theKing to that enterprise. He was however too much occupied in Europe toattend to America; and it was determined to prosecute the expeditionwithout his assistance. New York and Connecticut, engaged to furnish abody of men, to march, by the way of lake Champlain, against Montreal, while the troops of Massachusetts should proceed by sea to Quebec. Thefleet, consisting of between thirty and forty vessels, the largest ofwhich carried forty-four guns, sailed from Nantucket the ninth ofAugust, having on board two thousand men. This expedition also wascommanded by sir William Phipps, a brave man, but not qualified for sodifficult an enterprise. He did not arrive before Quebec untilOctober, when it was too late for a regular siege. Instead of availinghimself of the first impression, sir William is charged with havingwasted two or three days in sight of the place, after which hesummoned it to surrender. Having performed this ceremony, he landedbetween twelve and thirteen hundred men, and marched until night, under a scattering fire from an enemy concealed in the woods. Atnight, a deserter gave such an account of the French force as entirelydiscouraged him. 

Connecticut and New York were disappointed in receiving the assistanceexpected from the Five nations; who furnished neither the warriorsthey had promised, nor canoes to transport their troops over thelakes. The commissary too had neglected to lay up the necessarysupplies of provisions. These disappointments obliged the partydestined against Montreal to retreat without making an attempt on thatplace; which enabled the French general to oppose the whole force ofCanada to Phipps. 

The evening after the troops were landed, the ships were drawn upbefore the place, but received more damage from the batteries thanthey could do to the town. After wasting a few days in unavailingparade, the army re-embarked with precipitation, and returned toBoston. 

The general court, so far from suspecting that the expedition mightpossibly miscarry, seem to have counted, not only on success, but onacquiring sufficient treasure from the enemy to pay their soldiers. The army, finding the government totally unprepared to satisfy itsclaims, was on the point of mutinying. In this state of difficulty, bills of credit were issued, and were received in lieu of money. A taxwas imposed at the same time, payable in the paper notes of the colonyat five per centum above par. Notwithstanding the exertions to keep upits credit, the paper depreciated to fourteen shillings in the pound, which depreciation was, almost entirely, sustained by the army. As thetime for collecting the tax approached, the paper rose above par, butthis appreciation was gained by the holders. [118]

 [Footnote 118: See note No. I, at the end of the volume. ]

Colonel Phipps, soon after his return from Canada, embarked forEngland, to renew the solicitations of the colony for aid in anotherattempt on Quebec. Though unsuccessful in this application, thegovernment of the province was bestowed on him; and, in thischaracter, he returned to Boston. A desultory war continued to becarried on, which, without furnishing any events that would now beinteresting, produced heavy expense, and much individual misery. 

{1693}

Canada being considered as the source of all these evils, its conquestcontinued to be the favourite object of Massachusetts. At length, KingWilliam yielded to the solicitations of that colony and determined toemploy a force for the reduction of Quebec. Unfortunately the firstpart of the plan was to be executed in the West Indies, where thecapture of Martinique was contemplated. While on that service acontagious fever attacked both the land and sea forces; and, beforethey reached Boston, thirteen hundred sailors, and eighteen hundredsoldiers, were buried. The survivors not being in a condition toprosecute the enterprise, it was abandoned. [119]

 [Footnote 119: Hutchison. Belknap. ]

{1696}

On the conquest of Acadié by sir William Phipps, the government ofMassachusetts had been extended over that province; but, as theprejudices and affections of the inhabitants were entirely on the sideof France, it was soon perceived that a military force alone couldpreserve the acquisition; and Massachusetts was unable, at her ownexpense, to support a sufficient body of troops for the defence of thecountry. Port Royal was recovered by Villebonne, after which allAcadié shook off the government of Massachusetts, and resumed itsallegiance to France. About the same time a fort at Pemaquid wasattacked and carried by Iberville. 

[Sidenote: Peace. ]

In December, the treaty of peace which had been concluded at Riswickwas proclaimed at Boston; and hostilities with the French in Canadaimmediately ceased. The depredations of the Indians continued only ashort time after this event; and, in the course of the following year, general tranquillity was restored. 

{1697}

The frontiers of New Hampshire had been not less exposed during thewar, than those of Massachusetts. Perpetual and distressing incursionshad been made into the country, which were marked by the burning ofundefended habitations, and the massacre of men, women, andchildren. [120]

 [Footnote 120: Belknap. ]

[Sidenote: Affairs of New York. ]

The frontiers of New York were covered by the Five nations. Hostilities were carried on between them and the French, but they werenot attended by any material circumstance. 

During the war the English government meditated a union of thecolonies for the purpose of forming an army to defend New York; andthe governors were instructed to propose to the several provinces toraise the quota of troops assigned to each[121] by the crown. Thoughthis plan never took effect, the fact is of some interest. 

 [Footnote 121: The quotas assigned by the crown are as follows:

 To Massachusetts Bay 350 Rhode Island and Providence plantations 48 Connecticut 120 New York 200 Pennsylvania 80 Maryland 160 Virginia 240 ----- Total, 1, 198]

[Sidenote: Of Virginia. ]

The influence of the French not yet extending far enough south toinvolve the colonies beyond New York in the calamities of Indianwarfare, few occurrences took place among them which deserveattention. In Virginia, the college of William and Mary, to which acharter had been granted in 1692, was liberally endowed, and wasestablished at Williamsburg by an act of assembly which passed in theyear 1693. In 1698, the state-house at Jamestown, with many valuablepapers, was consumed by fire; and, in the following year, thelegislature passed an act for removing the seat of government toWilliamsburg, then called the middle plantation, and for building acapitol at that place. 

By the treaty of Riswick, it was agreed that France and England shouldmutually restore to each other all conquests made during the war; andit was farther stipulated that commissioners should be appointed toexamine and determine the rights and pretensions of each monarch tothe places situated in Hudson's bay. 

The consequences of not ascertaining boundaries were soon perceived. The English claimed as far west as the St. Croix, while Franceasserted her right to the whole country east of the Kennebeck. 

[Sidenote: War renewed. ]

These claims remained unsettled; and were mingled with otherdifferences of more importance, which soon occasioned there-commencement of hostilities. 

{1702}

The whole weight of the war in America fell on New England. Previousto its commencement, the earl of Bellamont, who was at that timegovernor of New York as well as of Massachusetts and of New Hampshire, had required that the quotas of men, assigned by the crown to thedifferent colonies for the defence of New York, should be furnished. This requisition however was not complied with; and, beforehostilities began, a treaty of neutrality was negotiated between theFive nations and the governor of Canada, which was assented to by lordCornbury, then governor of New York. This treaty preserved the peaceof that province, but left Massachusetts and New Hampshire to strugglewith the combined force of the French and their Indian allies;--astruggle which seems to have been viewed by New York with the utmostcomposure. 

Hostilities between Great Britain and France were immediately followedby incursions of French and Indians into the exposed parts of NewEngland. A predatory and desolating war, attended with no strikingcircumstance, but with considerable expense and great individualdistress, was carried on for some years. During its continuance, propositions were made for a cessation of hostilities; and thenegotiations on this subject were protracted to a considerable length;but Dudley, who had succeeded the earl of Bellamont as governor ofMassachusetts and New Hampshire, declined engaging for the neutralityof those provinces, in the hope that Nova Scotia and Canada might besubdued in the course of the war. 

{1707}

The battle of Almanza, in Spain, having induced the British cabinet todirect an armament intended for New England to European objects, Dudley determined to make an attempt on Acadié, though no aid shouldarrive from England. With this view, he applied, early in the spring, to the assemblies of both his provinces, and to the colonies ofConnecticut and Rhode Island; requesting them to raise one thousandmen for the expedition. Connecticut declined furnishing her quota; butthe other three colonies raised the whole number, who were disposedinto two regiments, one commanded by colonel Wainright, and the otherby colonel Hilton. On the 13th of May, they embarked at Nantucket onboard a fleet of transports furnished with whale boats, under convoyof a man of war and a galley. The chief command was given to colonelMarch, who had behaved gallantly in several encounters with theIndians, but had never been engaged in such service as this. Theyarrived before Port Royal in a few days, and landed withoutopposition. After making some ineffectual attempts to bombard thefort, a disagreement among the officers, and a misapprehension of thestate of the fort and garrison, induced the troops to re-embark in adisorderly manner. [122] Dudley, who was unwilling to relinquish theenterprise, directed the army to remain in its position till fartherorders. March was beloved by the soldiers, and was known to be brave, but his capacity was doubted. It was therefore thought unsafe eitherto recall him, to place an officer over him, or to continue him in thechief command. The expedient devised in this perplexity was, to send acommission to the army, composed of three members of the council, invested with all the powers which the governor himself, if present, would possess. These commissioners arrived at Casco about the middleof July, where they found the army insubordinate, and indisposed tothe service. The troops, however, were again embarked, and arrived atPassamaquodi, on the seventh of August. The spirits of the generalwere broken, and his health was impaired. While dispositions forlanding the army were making, he declared his inability to act, andthe command devolved on colonel Wainright. The landing was effected onthe 10th of August; but the troops could not be inspired with thatunion and firmness which are essential to success. After devoting tendays to inefficient, unmeaning operations, they re-embarked, andreturned, sickly, fatigued and dispirited. 

 [Footnote 122: Belknap. ]

{1708}

[Sidenote: Incursion into Massachusetts. ]

During this unfortunate expedition, the frontiers were kept inperpetual alarm by small parties of Indians; and, in the succeedingyear, a formidable armament was destined by Vaudreuil, the governor ofCanada, against New England. This enterprise was not fully prosecuted, in consequence of the failure of several Indian tribes to furnish thenumber of warriors expected from them. A considerable force, however, penetrated into Massachusetts, and burnt a part of the town ofHaverhill; where about one hundred persons were killed and many otherscarried off as prisoners. These invaders were pursued and overtaken bya body of troops collected in the neighbourhood, who killed a few ofthem, and recovered several of their own countrymen. 

{1709}

The New England colonies, still attributing all these calamities tothe French were earnest in their solicitations to the crown, for aidswhich might enable them to conquer Canada. Their application wassupported by the representations of Francis Nicholson, who had beenlieutenant governor, first of New York, and afterward of Virginia; ofSamuel Vietch, a trader to Nova Scotia, and of colonel Schuyler, agentleman of great influence in New York, who undertook a voyage toEngland for the purpose of communicating his sentiments more fully toadministration, and carried with him resolutions of the assembly, expressing the high opinion that body entertained of his merit. Influenced by these representations, the British cabinet determined toundertake an expedition against the French settlements on thecontinent of North America, and on New Foundland, to consist of asquadron, having on board five regiments of regular troops, which wereto be at Boston by the middle of May, 1709, where they were to bejoined by twelve hundred men to be raised in Massachusetts and RhodeIsland. Fifteen hundred men also were to be raised in the governmentssouth of Rhode Island, who should proceed, by the way of lakeChamplain, against Montreal. All the colonies, except Pennsylvania, executed with punctuality the part assigned to them. Nicholson, whowas appointed to command the troops destined against Montreal, marchedto Wood creek, where he was ordered to continue, until the arrival ofthe forces from Europe; that the two armies might co-operate with eachother. The New England troops, who had been assembled at Bostonremained at that place till September, expecting the arrival of thefleet and army from England. About that time, Nicholson returned fromWood creek, and it was obviously too late to proceed against Quebec. Ameeting of the commanding officers, and governors of provinces wasrequested, in order to deliberate on future operations. A few daysbefore this meeting was to take place, a ship arrived from England, with the intelligence that the armament intended for America had beenordered to Portugal, and with directions to hold a council of war, inorder to determine on the propriety of employing the troops raised inAmerica, against Port Royal; in which event the ships of war then atBoston were to aid the expedition. The commanders of the ships, exceptcaptain, afterwards admiral, Matthews, refused to engage in thisservice; and, it being unsafe to proceed without convoy, the men weredisbanded. [123]

 [Footnote 123: Belknap. Hutchison. ]

{1710}

A congress, composed of governors, and of delegates from several ofthe assemblies, met at Rhode Island, and recommended the appointmentof agents to assist colonel Nicholson in representing the state of thecountry to the Queen, and soliciting troops for an expedition againstCanada, the next spring. Government seems at first to have thoughtfavourably of this proposal, but finally determined to proceed onlyagainst Port Royal. Five frigates and a bomb ketch, which wereassigned for this service, arrived with Nicholson, in July. Althoughthe troops were then to be raised, the whole armament, consisting ofone regiment of marines, and four regiments of infantry, sailed fromBoston the 18th of September; and on the 24th arrived before PortRoyal. The place was immediately invested, and, after the exchange ofa few shot and shells, was surrendered. Vietch was appointed governor, and its name, in compliment to the Queen, was changed to Annapolis. 

{1711}

After the reduction of Port Royal, Nicholson returned to England torenew the often repeated solicitations for an expedition againstCanada. The ministry was now changed; and the colonists despaired ofobtaining from those in power, any aids against the French. Contraryto the general expectation, his application succeeded; and he arrivedat Boston, in June, with orders to the governors as far south asPennsylvania, to get their quotas of men and provisions in readinessto act with the fleet and army expected from Europe. Within sixteendays, while the several governors were yet deliberating on the subjectof these orders, the fleet arrived. The service according perfectlywith the wishes of the people as well as of the governors, everypracticable exertion was made; and difficulties were overcome which, on other occasions, might have been deemed insurmountable. To supplythe money which the English treasury could not then advance, thegeneral court of Massachusetts issued bills of credit to the amount offorty thousand pounds; and the example was followed by Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey. Provisions were obtained by impressment. 

The army consisted of seven veteran regiments, who had served underthe duke of Marlborough; one regiment of marines; and two regiments ofprovincials; amounting, in the whole, to six thousand five hundredmen; a force equal to that which afterwards reduced Quebec, when in amuch better state of defence. This armament sailed from Boston on the30th of July. Their sanguine hopes were all blasted in one fatalnight. On the 23d of August, in the river St. Lawrence, the weatherbeing thick and dark, eight transports were wrecked on Egg Island, near the north shore, and one thousand persons perished. The next daythe fleet put back, and was eight days beating down the river againstan easterly wind, which, in two, would have carried it to Quebec. After holding a fruitless consultation respecting an attempt onPlacentia, the expedition was abandoned; and the squadron sailed forEngland. Loud complaints were made, and heavy charges reciprocated, onthis occasion. The ignorance of the pilots, the obstinacy of theadmiral, the detention of the fleet at Boston, its late arrival there, the want of seasonable orders, and the secret intentions of theministry, were all subjects of bitter altercation; but no regularinquiry was ever made into the causes of the miscarriage. 

The plan of this campaign embraced also an attack on Montreal. Fourthousand men raised in Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey, andcommanded by colonel Nicholson, marched against that place by the wayof Albany and lake Champlain. The failure of the expedition againstQuebec enabling the governor of Canada to turn his whole force towardsthe lakes, Nicholson was under the necessity of making a precipitateretreat. 

[Sidenote: Peace. ]

No other event of importance took place during this war, which wasterminated by the treaty of Utrecht. By the 12th article of thistreaty, France ceded to England "all Nova Scotia or Acadié, with itsancient boundaries, as also the city of Port Royal, now calledAnnapolis Royal, and all other things in those parts which depend onthe said lands. " This territory, which had been comprehended in thegrant made to the Plymouth company, was, with the consent of thatcompany, afterwards granted by James as King of Scotland, under thename of Nova Scotia, to sir William Alexander. 

[Sidenote: Affairs of New York. ]

In New York, the Leislerian and anti-Leislerian parties continued topersecute each other. To this calamity was added, in the year 1702, the still heavier affliction of a malignant fever, imported in avessel from the West Indies, which, in almost every instance, provedmortal. A similar disease raged, about the same time, in several othersea port towns; and was probably the same which has since producedsuch fatal effects under the name of the yellow fever. 

In the same year, lord Cornbury, a needy and profligate nobleman, wasappointed governor of the province. He embraced the anti-Leislerianparty, that being then the strongest. On meeting the assembly, heurged the necessity of providing money for the public exigencies; and, as he had arranged himself with the ruling party, the vote of supplywas liberal. 

It was soon perceived that the confidence in the governor wasmisplaced. Considerable sums levied for objects of great interest, were applied to his private use. The system adopted in New York, forcollecting and keeping public money, was calculated to favour thispeculation. The colony having no treasurer, its revenue came into thehands of the receiver general for the crown, whence it was drawn by awarrant from the governor. Contests soon arose, between his lordshipand the legislature, on the subject of money; the house requiring astatement of disbursements, and the appointment of a treasurer, to becontrolled by them. At length, in 1706, an act was passed raisingthree thousand pounds for fortifications, and directing the money tobe placed in the hands of a person named by the legislature. Theassent of the governor to this act was not given till the succeedingyear, and was then accompanied with a message stating, that he had itin command from the Queen "to permit the general assembly to nametheir own treasurer when they raised extraordinary supplies forparticular uses and which are no part of the standing and constantrevenue. "

The continual demands of the governor for money, his misapplication ofit, his extortion in the form of fees, and his haughty tyrannicalconduct increased the irritation subsisting between him and thelegislature. At length, the Queen yielded to the complaints of bothNew York and New Jersey, and consented to recall him. 

During these altercations, some spirited resolutions were entered intoby the assembly; one of which claims particular notice. It is in thesewords: "Resolved, that the imposing and levying of any monies upon hermajesty's subjects in this colony, under any pretence or colourwhatsoever, without their consent in general assembly, is a grievance, and violation of the people's property. "

This strong assertion of a principle, which afterwards dismembered theBritish empire, then passed away without notice. It was probablyunderstood to be directed only against the assumption of that power bythe governor. [124]

 [Footnote 124: So early as the year 1692, the difference of opinion between the mother country and the colonies on the great point, which afterwards separated them, made its appearance. The legislature of Massachusetts, employed in establishing a code of laws under their new charter, passed an act containing the general principles respecting the liberty of the subject, that are asserted in magna charta, in which was the memorable clause, "no aid, tax, talliage, assessment, custom, benevolence, or imposition whatsoever, shall be laid, assessed, imposed, or levied, on any of his majesty's subjects or their estates, on any pretence whatsoever, but by the act and consent of the governor, council, and representatives of the people, assembled in general court. "

 It is scarcely necessary to add that the royal assent to this act was refused. ]

{1702}

In Carolina, the vexatious contests with the proprietors stillcontinued. The public attention was for a time diverted from these, byhostilities with their neighbours of Florida. Before the declarationof war made against France and Spain, had been officiallycommunicated, it was reported in the colonies that this event hadtaken place, and Mr. Moore, the governor of the southern settlements, proposed to the assembly an expedition against St. Augustine. Temperate men were opposed to this enterprise; but the assurances ofthe governor, that Florida would be an easy conquest, and that immensetreasure would be the reward of their valour, were too seductive to beresisted. A great majority of the assembly declared in favour of theexpedition, and voted the sum of two thousand pounds sterling for itsprosecution. Six hundred militia were embodied for the service, and anequal number of Indians engaged as auxiliaries. 

[Sidenote: Expedition against St. Augustine. ]

In the plan of operations which had been concerted, colonel Daniel wasto move by the inland passage, with a party of militia and Indians, and attack the town by land; while the governor, with the main bodyshould proceed by sea, and block up the harbour. Colonel Danielexecuted his part of the plan with promptitude and vigour. He advancedagainst the town, which he entered and plundered before the governorreached the harbour. The Spaniards, however, had been apprised of thepreparations making at Charleston, and had laid up provisions for fourmonths, in the castle, into which they retired, as Daniel entered thetown. On the arrival of the governor, the place was completelyinvested; but, it being impossible to carry the castle withoutbattering artillery, colonel Daniel was dispatched to Jamaica forcannon, bombs, and mortars. During his absence, two small Spanishvessels of war were seen off the mouth of the harbour; upon which thegovernor raised the siege, abandoned his transports, and made aprecipitate retreat to Carolina. Colonel Daniel returned soonafterwards, and, having no suspicion that the siege was raised, stoodin for the harbour. He fortunately discovered his situation in time toescape, though with much difficulty. 

This rash and ill conducted expedition entailed on the colony a debtof six thousand pounds sterling. The ignominy attached to it was soonwiped off by one that was attended with better success. TheAppalachian Indians, who were attached to the Spaniards, had becomeextremely troublesome to the inhabitants of the frontiers. Thegovernor, at the head of a body of militia and friendly Indians, marched into the heart of their settlements, laid their towns inashes, made several prisoners, and compelled them to sue for peace, and submit to the British government. [125]

 [Footnote 125: History of South Carolina. ]

[Sidenote: Governor Johnson. ]

Soon after this transaction, sir Nathaniel Governor Johnson, who hadbeen appointed to succeed Mr. Moor arrived in Charleston. Heendeavoured, but ineffectually to turn the attention of the coloniststo the culture of silk. This article, as well as cotton was neglected, and rice became the great staple of the country. 

[Sidenote: Attempt to establish the Episcopal church. ]

During his administration, the contests between the proprietors andthe people increased. An attempt to establish the Episcopal church wasadded to other pre-existing causes of discord. The colony having beensettled by emigrants from different nations, of different religiouspersuasions, the indiscreet endeavour to produce uniformity, could notfail to increase their irritation. The influence of the governor inthe legislature obtained the passage of such acts as were necessaryfor his purpose; but many petitions against them were laid beforeparliament; and the house of lords presented so decisive an address toher majesty on the subject, that a writ of _quo warranto_ against thecharter was directed. This measure, however, was not put in execution;and the attention of the colonists was diverted, for a time, fromthese intestine broils, by the appearance of danger from abroad. 

{1704}

Spain claimed the whole country, as part of Florida; and was preparingan expedition to enforce this claim. Governor Johnson, who hadacquired some military skill in European service, having receivedintelligence of these preparations, made great exertions to fortifythe entrance into the harbour of Charleston, and to put the provincein a state of defence. 

There was reason to rejoice that these precautions were used; for, although no armament arrived from Europe, yet an expedition planned inthe Havanna, was carried into execution. 

[Sidenote: Colony invaded. ]

A French frigate and four armed Spanish sloops, commanded by MonsieurLe Febour, sailed for Charleston, with orders to touch at St. Augustine for men. His force is said to have amounted to about eighthundred. A government cruiser descried this squadron off the bar ofSt. Augustine, and brought the intelligence to Charleston. Scarcelyhad the captain delivered his information, when signals fromSullivan's island announced its appearance off the coast. The alarmwas immediately given, and the militia of the town were under arms. Inthe evening the fleet reached Charleston bar, but deferred attemptingto pass it until the morning. 

After consuming a day in sounding the south bar, the Spanish flotillacrossed it, and anchored above Sullivan's island. The governor thendirected some pieces of heavy artillery to be placed in the vessels inthe harbour; and gave the command of them to William Rhet. A summonsto surrender being rejected, a party of the enemy landed on James'island, and burnt a few houses. Another party, consisting of onehundred and sixty men, landed, about the same time, on the oppositeside of the river. Both these were attacked and defeated. 

Encouraged by this success, Johnson determined to attack the invadersby sea. In execution of this determination, Rhet, with six smallvessels, proceeded down the river to the place where the hostileflotilla rode at anchor which, at his approach, precipitatelyre-crossed the bar. For some days it was believed that the enterprisewas abandoned; but while the inhabitants were rejoicing at theirdeliverance, advice was received that a ship of force had been seen inSewee bay, and had landed a number of men. On examining his prisoners, the governor was informed that the enemy had expected a ship of warwith a reinforcement of two hundred men, under the command of MonsieurArbuset. Taking his measures with the promptness of an experiencedofficer, he ordered captain Fenwick to pass the river, and marchagainst the detachment which had landed; while Rhet, with two smallarmed vessels, sailed round by sea, with orders to meet the ship inSewee bay. Fenwick came up with the party on shore, charged thembriskly, and drove them to their ship, which, on the appearance ofRhet, surrendered without firing a shot. The prize with about ninetyprisoners was brought up to Charleston. 

Thus was terminated with the loss of near three hundred men killed andprisoners, among the latter of whom were the general and some navalofficers, the invasion of Carolina by Monsieur Le Febour. It seems tohave been undertaken in the confidence that the colony was too weakfor resistance; and was conducted without skill or courage. 

[Sidenote: Bills of credit. ]

To defray the expenses incurred in repelling this invasion, bills ofcredit to the amount of eight thousand pounds were issued. The effectof this emission was such a depreciation of the currency under theform of a rise in the price of commodities and of exchange, that onehundred and fifty pounds in paper, were given for one hundred poundssterling. 

{1707}

{1708}

[Sidenote: Legislature continues itself. ]

Lord Granville, the palatine, a bigoted churchman, under whoseinfluence violent measures had been taken for the establishment ofreligious conformity in Carolina, died in the year 1707. He wassucceeded by lord Craven, who, though of the same religious tenets, supported them with moderation. His disposition to indulge, andthereby mollify, the dissenters, was considered by the zealots of theestablished church, as endangering religion; and the legislature, which was elected under the influence of the late palatine, and of hisgovernor, dreading a change in the administration, adopted theextraordinary measure of continuing itself "for two years, and for thetime and term of eighteen months after the change of government, whether by the death of the present governor, or the succession ofanother in his time. "[126] Thus adding one other humiliating proof tothose which perpetually occur, that principles are deplorably weak, when opposed by the passions. 

 [Footnote 126: Chalmer. ]

{1712}

[Sidenote: Massacre in North Carolina by the Indians. ]

In the year 1712, the Indians in North Carolina, alarmed, as theircountrymen had been in the other colonies, by the increasingpopulation and regular encroachments of the whites, formed with theiraccustomed secrecy, the plan of exterminating in one night theseformidable neighbours. No indication of their design was given untilthey broke into the houses of the planters. The slaughter on Roanokewas immense. In that settlement alone, one hundred and thirty-sevenpersons were murdered. A few escaped by concealing themselves in thewoods, who, the next day, gave the alarm. The remaining whites werecollected together in a place of safety, and guarded by the militiauntil assistance could be received from South Carolina. 

[Sidenote: Indians defeated. ]

This was prompt and effectual. The assembly at Charleston voted fourthousand pounds for the service; and colonel Barnwell was detachedwith six hundred militia, and three hundred and sixty Indians, to therelief of the afflicted North Carolinians. With the utmost celerity hepassed through the difficult and dangerous wilderness which thenseparated the northern from the southern settlements; and, attackingthe savages with unexpected fury, killed three hundred of them, andmade one hundred prisoners. The survivors retreated to the Tuscororatown, and took refuge within a wooden breast-work, in which they weresurrounded by the whites. 

After sustaining considerable loss, they sued for peace and obtainedit; but soon afterwards abandoned their country, and united themselveswith the Iroquois, or Five nations. 

The expense of this expedition greatly transcended the scanty means ofSouth Carolina. To supply the exigencies of government, and to promotethe convenience of commerce, the legislature determined to issueforty-eight thousand pounds in bills of credit, to be denominated bankbills. This money was to be lent out, at interest, on security, and tobe redeemed gradually by the annual payment of one-twelfth part of thesum loaned. The bills were made a legal tender; and the creditor whoshould refuse them, lost his debt. 

After the emission of these bills, exchange rose, the first year, toone hundred and fifty, and in the second to two hundred per centum, above par. The effect of this depreciation, and of the tender lawswhich accompanied it, on creditors, and on morals, was obvious andcertain. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

 Proceedings of the legislature of Massachusetts.... Intrigues of the French among the Indians.... War with the savages.... Peace.... Controversy with the governor.... Decided in England.... Contests concerning the governor's salary.... The assembly adjourned to Salem.... Contest concerning the salary terminated.... Great depreciation of the paper currency.... Scheme of a land bank.... Company dissolved by act of Parliament.... Governor Shirley arrives.... Review of transactions in New York. 

{1714}

The heavy expenses of Massachusetts during the late war had producedsuch large emissions of paper money, that a considerable depreciationtook place, and specie disappeared. The consequent rise of exchange, instead of being attributed to its true cause, was ascribed to thedecay of trade. 

The colony, having now leisure for its domestic concerns, turned itsattention to this interesting subject. 

[Sidenote: Affairs of Massachusetts. ]

Three parties were formed. The first, a small one, actuated by theprinciple that "honesty is the best policy, " was in favour of callingin the paper money, and relying on the industry of the people, toreplace it with a circulating medium of greater stability. 

The second proposed a private bank, which was to issue bills ofcredit, to be received by all the members of the company, but at nocertain value compared with gold and silver. It was not intended todeposit specie in the bank for the redemption of its notes as theymight be offered; but to pledge real estates as security that thecompany would perform its engagements. 

The third party was in favour of a loan of bills from the government, to any of the inhabitants who would mortgage real estate to securetheir re-payment in a specified term of years; the interest to be paidannually, and applied to the support of government. 

The first party, perceiving its numerical weakness, joined the third;and the whole province was divided between a public and private bank. 

At length, the party for the public bank prevailed in the generalcourt, and fifty thousand pounds were issued and placed in the handsof trustees; to be lent for five years, at an interest of five _percentum per annum_, one-fifth part of the principal to be paidannually. 

{1716}

This scheme failing to improve the commerce of the colony, governorShute, who had succeeded Dudley, reminded the assembly of the badstate of trade, which he ascribed to the scarcity of money; andrecommended the consideration of some effectual measures to supplythis want. The result of this recommendation was a second loan of onehundred thousand pounds for ten years, to be placed in the hands ofcommissioners in each county, in proportion to its taxes. The wholecurrency soon depreciated to such a degree, that the entire sum incirculation did not represent more real value, than was represented bythat which was circulating before the emission. The governor had nowsufficient leisure, and the general court furnished him withsufficient motives, to reflect on the policy he had recommended. Anattempt to raise his salary as money depreciated, did not succeed, andonly the usual nominal sum was voted for his support. 

{1719}

In Massachusetts, peace abroad was the signal for dissension at home. Independent in her opinions and habits, she had been accustomed toconsider herself rather as a sister kingdom, acknowledging one commonsovereign with England, than as a colony. The election of all thebranches of the legislature, a principle common to New England, contributed, especially while the mother country was occupied with herown internal divisions, to nourish these opinions and habits. Althoughthe new charter of Massachusetts modified the independence of thatcolony, by vesting the appointment of the governor in the crown, yetthe course of thinking which had prevailed from the settlement of thecountry, had gained too much strength to be immediately changed; andMassachusetts sought, by private influence over her chief magistrate, to compensate herself for the loss of his appointment. With this view, it had become usual for the general court to testify its satisfactionwith his conduct by presents; and this measure was also adopted inother colonies. 

Apprehending that this practice might dispose the governors toconciliate the legislatures at the expense of their duty to the crown, the Queen had given peremptory orders to receive no more gifts; and toobtain acts fixing their salaries permanently at a sum named byherself. The mandate respecting presents was, of course, obeyed; andsome of the colonies complied with the requisition respecting thesalary; but in Massachusetts and New York, it was steadily resisted. 

{1720}

A controlling power over salaries was a source of influence which waspertinaciously maintained; and its efficacy was tried in all theconflicts between Massachusetts and her governor. Almost everyimportant measure brought before the legislature, was productive ofcontests between these departments. They disagreed, not only on thepolicy of particular acts, but on the limits of their power. Thegovernor claimed the right of negativing the speaker chosen by therepresentatives, which was denied by them; and, each party persistingin its pretensions, the assembly was dissolved, and new elections tookplace. The same members being generally re-chosen, the house ofrepresentatives assembled with increased irritation, and passed someangry resolutions respecting its dissolution. The governor, in turn, charged the house with encroachments on the power of the executive;among other instances of which, he mentioned certain resolutionspassed on the commencement of hostilities by the Indians, which weredeemed equivalent to a declaration of war, and had therefore beenrejected. 

{1721}

Disagreements were multiplied between them. Paper money and trade wereinexhaustible sources of discontent. New elections produced no changeof temper. After war was formally declared against the Indians, thehouse endeavoured to exercise executive powers in its prosecution;and, the council not concurring with them, the representativesattempted, in one instance, to act alone. 

The measures recommended by the governor to successive assemblies, were disregarded; irritating resolves were adopted and reiterated; anda course of angry crimination and recrimination took place betweenthem in the progress of which the governor's salary was reduced in itsnominal as well as real amount; and the sum granted, instead of beingvoted, as had been usual, at the commencement of the session, wasreserved to its close. 

{1722}

In the midst of these contests, governor Shute, who had privatelysolicited and obtained leave to return to England, suddenly embarkedon board the Sea Horse man of war, leaving the controversy concerningthe extent of the executive power, to devolve on the lieutenantgovernor. [127]

 [Footnote 127: Hutchison. ]

The house of representatives persisted in asserting its control overobjects which had been deemed within the province of the executive;but its resolutions were generally negatived by the council. Thisproduced some altercation between the two branches of the legislature;but they at length united in the passage of a resolution desiringtheir agent in England to take the best measures for protecting theinterests of the colony, which were believed to be in danger from therepresentations of governor Shute. 

[Sidenote: Intrigues of the French with the Indians. ]

During these contests in the interior, the frontiers had sufferedseverely from the depredations of the Indians. The French had acquiredgreat influence over all the eastern tribes. Jesuit missionariesgenerally resided among them, who obtained a great ascendancy in theircouncils. After the cession of Nova Scotia to Great Britain, fatherRahlé, a missionary residing among the savages of that provinceexerted successfully all his address to excite their jealousies andresentments against the English. By his acts, and those of othermissionaries, all the eastern Indians, as well as those of Canada, were combined against New England. They made incursions intoMassachusetts, in consequence of which, some troops were detached tothe village in which Rahlé resided, for the purpose of seizing hisperson. He received intimation of their approach in time to make hisescape; but they secured his papers, among which were some showingthat in exciting the savages to war against the English colonists, hehad acted under the authority of the governor of Canada, who hadsecretly promised to supply them with arms and ammunition. 

{1726}

[Sidenote: Peace. ]

Envoys were deputed with a remonstrance against conduct soincompatible with the state of peace then subsisting between Franceand England. The governor received this embassy politely, and, atfirst, denied any interference in the quarrel, alleging that theIndians were independent nations who made war and peace without beingcontrolled by him. On being shown his letters to Rahlé, he changed hislanguage, and gave assurances of his future good offices in effectinga peace. On the faith of these assurances, conferences were held withsome Indian chiefs then in Canada; several captives were ransomed;and, soon after the return of the commissioners to New England, thewar was terminated by a treaty of peace signed at Boston. [128]

 [Footnote 128: Hutchison. Belknap. ]

[Sidenote: Decision against the house on the controversy with thegovernor. ]

[Sidenote: New Charter. ]

Meanwhile the complaints of governor Shute against the house ofrepresentatives were heard in England. Every question was decidedagainst the house. In most of them, the existing charter was deemedsufficiently explicit; but, on two points, it was thought advisable tohave explanatory articles. These were, the right of the governor tonegative the appointment of the speaker, and the right of the house onthe subject of the adjournment. An explanatory charter thereforeaffirming the power claimed by the governor to negative a speaker, anddenying to the house of representatives the right of adjourning itselffor a longer time than two days. This charter was submitted to thegeneral court, to be accepted or refused; but it was accompanied withthe intimation that, in the event of its being refused, the wholecontroversy between the governor and house of representatives would belaid before Parliament. The conduct of the representatives had been sogenerally condemned in England, as to excite fears that an act tovacate the charter would be the consequence of a parliamentaryinquiry. The temper of the house too had undergone a change. Theviolence and irritation which marked its proceedings in the contestwith governor Shute had subsided; and a majority determined to acceptthe new charter. 

{1727}

The trade of the province still languished, and complaints of thescarcity of money were as loud as when only specie was in circulation. To remedy these evils, a bill for emitting a farther sum in paperpassed both houses, but was rejected by the lieutenant governor, asbeing inconsistent with his instructions. The house ofrepresentatives, thereupon, postponed the consideration of salariestill the next session. The assembly was then adjourned at its ownrequest, and, after a recess of a fortnight, was again convened. As anexpedient to elude the instructions to the governor which interdictedhis assent to any act for issuing bills of credit, except for chargesof government, a bill passed with the title of "an act for raising andsettling a public revenue for and towards defraying the necessarycharges of government, by an emission of sixty thousand pounds inbills of credit. " This bill providing for the payment of the salariesto which several members of the council were entitled, passed thathouse also; and the lieutenant governor gave a reluctant assent to it. Its passage into a law furnishes strong evidence of the influencewhich the control over salaries gave to the house of representatives. 

{1728}

[Sidenote: Contest respecting salary. ]

Mr. Burnet, who had been appointed governor of Massachusetts and NewHampshire, was received with great pomp in Boston. At the firstmeeting of the assembly, he stated the King's instructions to insiston an established salary, and his intention firmly to adhere to them. The assembly was not less firm in its determination to resist thisdemand; and, that no additional and unnecessary obloquy might beencountered, resolved, not to mingle any difference concerning theamount of the salary, with the great question of its depending on thewill of the legislature. As soon therefore as the compliments usual onthe arrival of a governor had passed, the house voted one thousandseven hundred pounds towards his support, and to defray the charges ofhis journey. This vote was understood to give him, as a presentsalary, a sum equal to one thousand pounds sterling per annum. Thegovernor declared his inability to assent to this bill, it beinginconsistent with his instructions. After a week's deliberation, theassembly granted three hundred pounds for the expenses of his journey, which he accepted; and, in a distinct vote, the farther sum of onethousand four hundred pounds was granted toward his support. Thelatter vote was accompanied with a joint message from both houses, wherein they asserted their undoubted right as Englishmen, and theirprivilege by the charter, to raise and apply money for the support ofgovernment; and their willingness to give the governor an ample andhonourable support; but they apprehended it would be most for hismajesty's service to do so without establishing a fixed salary. Thegovernor returned an answer on the same day, in which he said, that, if they really intended to give him an ample and honourable support, they could have no just objection to making their purpose effectual byfixing his salary; for he would never accept a grant of the kind thenoffered. 

The council was disposed to avoid the contest, and to grant a salaryto the present governor for a certain time; but the house ofrepresentatives, remaining firm to its purpose, sent a message to thegovernor requesting that the court might rise. He answered, that acompliance with this request would put it out of the power of thelegislature to pay immediate regard to the King's instructions; and hewould not grant a recess, until the business of the session should befinished. The representatives then declared that, "in faithfulness tothe people, they could not come into an act for establishing a salaryon the governor or commander in chief for the time being, " and, therefore, renewed their request that the court might rise. 

Both the governor and the house of representatives seem, thus far, tohave made their declarations with some reserve. A salary during hisown administration might, perhaps, have satisfied him, though hedemanded that one should be settled, generally, on the commander inchief for the time being; and the house had not yet declared againstsettling a salary on him for a limited time. Each desired that theother should make some concession. Both declined; both were irritatedby long altercation; and, at length, instead of mutually advancingfixed at the opposite extremes. After several ineffectual efforts oneach side, the representatives sent a message to the governor, statingat large the motives which induced the resolution they had formed. Thegovernor returned a prompt answer, in which he also detailed thereasons in support of the demand he had made. These two papers, manifesting the principles and objects of both parties, deserveattention even at this period. 

The house, not long after receiving this message, far from making anyadvances towards a compliance with his request, came to tworesolutions strongly expressive of its determination not to recedefrom the ground which had been taken. 

These resolutions gave the first indication, on the part of therepresentatives, of a fixed purpose to make no advance towards acompromise. They induced the governor to remind the court of thedanger to which the proceedings of that body might expose the charter. This caution did not deter the house from preparing, and transmittingto the several towns of the province a statement of the controversy, which concludes with saying, "we dare neither come into a fixed salaryon the governor for ever, nor for a limited time, for the followingreasons:

First, Because it is an untrodden path which neither we, nor ourpredecessors have gone in, and we cannot certainly foresee the manydangers that may be in it, nor can we depart from that way which hasbeen found safe and comfortable. 

Secondly, Because it is the undoubted right of all Englishmen, by_magna charta_, to raise and dispose of money for the public service, of their own free accord, without compulsion. 

Thirdly, Because it must necessarily lessen the dignity and freedom ofthe house of representatives, in making acts, and raising and applyingtaxes, &c. And, consequently, cannot be thought a proper method topreserve that balance in the three branches of the legislature, whichseems necessary to form, maintain, and uphold, the constitution. 

Fourthly, Because the charter fully empowers the general assembly tomake such laws and orders as they shall judge for the good and welfareof the inhabitants; and if they, or any part of them, judge this notto be for their good, they neither ought nor could come into it, for, as to act beyond or without the powers granted in the charter mightjustly incur the King's displeasure, so not to act up and agreeable tothose powers, might justly be deemed a betraying of the rights andprivileges therein granted; and if they should give up this right, they would open a door to many other inconveniences. "

Many messages passed in quick succession between the governor and thehouse, in the course of which the arguments stated in the papers whichhave been mentioned, were enlarged and diversified. At length, thehouse repeated its request for an adjournment; but the governorreplied that "unless his majesty's pleasure had due weight with them, their desires would have very little with him. "

The council now interposed with a resolution declaring "that it isexpedient for the court to ascertain a sum as a salary for hisexcellency's support, as also the term of time for its continuance. "This resolution was transmitted to the house of representatives, andimmediately rejected. 

After much controversy, a small seeming advance towards anaccommodation was made. Instead of voting a salary, as had been usual, for half a year, a grant was made to the governor of three thousandpounds, equal to one thousand pounds sterling, to enable him to managethe affairs of the province. This was generally understood to be asalary for a year. The governor having withheld his assent from thisvote, the house entreated him to accept the grant; and added "wecannot doubt but that succeeding assemblies, according to the abilityof the province, will be very ready to grant as ample a support; andif they should not, your excellency will then have an opportunity ofshowing your resentment. " The governor however persisted to withholdhis assent from the vote. 

[Sidenote: Adjournment of the Assembly to Salem. ]

The colony generally, and especially Boston, was opposed to acompliance with the instructions of the crown. At a general meeting ofthe inhabitants, the town passed a vote, purporting to be unanimousagainst fixing a salary on the governor. In consequence of this vote, and of an opinion that the members of the house were influenced by theinhabitants of the town, the governor determined to change the placeat which the court should hold its session; and on the 24th ofOctober, adjourned it to the 30th then to meet at Salem, in thecountry of Essex. 

Change of place did not change the temper of the house. This was not, as in the contests with governor Shute, an angry altercation, intowhich the representatives were precipitated by a restless andencroaching temper, but a solemn and deliberate stand, made in defenceof a right believed to be unquestionable, and of a principle deemedessential to the welfare of the colony. The ground taken wasconsidered well, and maintained with firmness. Votes and messages ofthe same tenor with those which had been often repeated, continued topass between the representatives and the governor, until the subjectwas entirely exhausted. Each party being determined to adhere to itsprinciples, the house met and adjourned daily, without entering onbusiness. 

In the mean time, the governor received no salary. To the members ofBoston, who had not been accustomed to the expense of attending thelegislature at a distant place, a compensation, above their ordinarywages, was made by that town. 

The house, firmly persuaded of the propriety of its conduct, prepareda memorial to the King praying a change in the royal instructions tothe governor. Agents were appointed to represent the general court inEngland, and a vote was passed for defraying the expenses attendant onthe business. The council refused to concur in this vote, because theagents had been appointed by the house of representatives singly; andthe measure must have been abandoned for want of money, had not theinhabitants of Boston raised the sum required, by subscription. 

{1729}

Letters were soon received from these agents, inclosing a report fromthe board of trade, before whom they had been heard by council, entirely disapproving the conduct of the house. The letters alsoindicated that, should the house persist in its refusal to comply withthe King's instructions, the affair might be carried beforeparliament. But, should even this happen, the agents thought it moreadvisable that the salary should be fixed by the supreme legislature, than by that of the province. "It was better, " they said, "that theliberties of the people should be taken from them, than given up bythemselves. "

The governor, at length, refused to sign a warrant on the treasury forthe wages of the members. "One branch of the legislature, " he said, "might as well go without their pay as the other. " The act, and thereason for it, were alike unsatisfactory to the house. 

[Sidenote: Death of Governor Burnet. ]

After a recess from the 20th of December to the 2d of April, thegeneral court met again at Salem. Repeated meetings at that placehaving produced no accommodation, the governor adjourned thelegislature to Cambridge. A few days after the commencement of thesession, he was seized with a fever, of which he died. 

Mr. Burnet is said to have possessed many valuable qualities; and, hadhe not been engaged, by a sense of duty, in this long contest, hewould, in all probability, have been a favourite of the province. [129]

 [Footnote 129: Hutchison. ]

{1730}

[Sidenote: Arrival of Governor Belcher. ]

Mr. Belcher, who succeeded Burnet, arrived at Boston early in Augustwhere he was cordially received. At the first meeting of the generalcourt, he pressed the establishment of a permanent salary, and laidbefore them his instructions, in which it was declared that, in theevent of the continued refusal of the assembly, "his majesty will findhimself under the necessity of laying the undutiful behaviour of theprovince before the legislature of Great Britain, not only in thissingle instance, but in many others of the same nature and tendency, whereby it manifestly appears that this assembly, for some years lastpast, have attempted, by unwarrantable practices, to weaken, if notcast off, the obedience they owe to the crown, and the dependencewhich all colonies ought to have on the mother country. "

At the close of these instructions, his majesty added his expectation, "that they do forthwith comply with this proposal, as the lastsignification of our royal pleasure to them on this subject, and ifthe said assembly shall not think fit to comply therewith, it is ourwill and pleasure, and you are required, immediately, to come over tothis kingdom of Great Britain, in order to give us an exact account ofall that shall have passed on this subject, that we may lay the samebefore our parliament. "

The house proceeded, as in the case of governor Burnet, to make agrant to Mr. Belcher of one thousand pounds currency for defraying theexpense of his voyage, and as a gratuity for his services while theagent of the colony in England; and, some time after, voted a sumequal to one thousand pounds sterling to enable him to manage thepublic affairs, &c. ; but fixed no time for which the allowance wasmade. The council concurred in this vote, adding an amendment "andthat the same sum be annually allowed for the governor's support. " Thehouse not agreeing to this amendment, the council carried it so as toread "that the same sum should be annually paid during hisexcellency's continuance in the government, and residence here. " Thisalso was disagreed to and the resolution fell. 

The small-pox being in the town of Cambridge, the assembly wasadjourned to Roxbury. 

{1731}

Two or three sessions passed with little more, on the part of thegovernor, than a repetition of his demand for a fixed salary, and anintimation that he should be obliged to return to England, and statethe conduct of the house of representatives to the King. Someunsuccessful attempts were made by his friends to pass a bill fixingthe salary during his administration, with a protest against theprinciple, and against that bill's being drawn into precedent. Failingin this expedient, and finding the house inflexible, he despaired ofsucceeding with that body, and turned his attention to the relaxationof his instructions. He advised an address from the house to hismajesty, praying that he might be permitted to receive the sum whichthe legislature had offered to grant him. This was allowed by thecrown; with the understanding that he was still to insist on acompliance with his instructions. Leave to accept particular grantswas obtained for two or three years successively; and, at length, ageneral permission was conceded to accept such sums as might be givenby the assembly. [130]

 [Footnote 130: Hutchison. ]

[Sidenote: Contest concerning the salary terminated. ]

Thus was terminated, the stubborn contest concerning a permanentsalary for the governor. Its circumstances have been given more indetail than consists with the general plan of this work, because it isconsidered as exhibiting, in genuine colours, the character of thepeople engaged in it. It is regarded as an early and an honourabledisplay of the same persevering temper in defence of principle, of thesame unconquerable spirit of liberty, which at a later day, and on amore important question, tore the British colonies from a country towhich they had been strongly attached. 

{1733}

The immense quantity of depreciated paper which was in circulationthroughout New England, had no tendency to diminish the complaints ofthe scarcity of money. Massachusetts and New Hampshire were restrainedfrom farther emissions by the instructions to their governors, whoreceived their appointments from the crown. Connecticut, engagedchiefly in agricultural pursuits, suffered less from this depreciatedmedium than her neighbours, and was less disposed to increase itsevils. Rhode Island, equally commercial with Massachusetts, andequally fond of paper, chose her own governor, and might thereforeindulge, without restraint, her passion for a system alikeunfavourable to morals and to industry. That colony now issued onehundred thousand pounds on loan, to its inhabitants, for twenty years. The merchants of Boston, apprehensive that this capital would transferthe stock of Massachusetts to Rhode Island, associated againstreceiving the new emission; and many of them formed a company whichissued one hundred and ten thousand pounds, redeemable with specie, inten years, a tenth part annually, at the then current value of paper. The association against receiving the new emission of Rhode Island wasnot long observed; and the bills of New Hampshire and Connecticut werealso current. Silver immediately rose to twenty-seven shillings theounce, and the notes issued by the merchants soon disappeared, leavingin circulation only the government paper. 

{1739}

Great uneasiness prevailed through Massachusetts on this subject. Thelast instalment of the bills would become due in 1741, and no powerexisted to redeem them by new emissions. Serious consequences wereapprehended from calling in the circulating medium withoutsubstituting another in its place, and the alarm was increased by thecircumstance that the taxes had been so lightly apportioned on thefirst years, as to require the imposition of heavy burdens for theredemption of what remained in circulation. The discontents excited bythese causes were manifested in the elections, and were directedagainst the governor, who was openly hostile to the paper system. 

[Sidenote: Land bank. ]

The projector of the bank again came forward; and, placing himself atthe head of seven or eight hundred persons, some of whom possessedproperty, proposed to form a company which should issue one hundredand fifty thousand pounds in bills. By this scheme, every borrower ofa sum larger than one hundred pounds, was to mortgage real estate tosecure its re-payment. The borrowers of smaller sums might securetheir re-payment either by mortgage, or by bond with two securities. Each subscriber, or partner was to pay, annually, three per centuminterest on the sum he should take, and five per centum of theprincipal, either in the bills themselves, or in the produce andmanufactures of the country, at such rates as the directors should, from time to time, establish. 

{1740}

[Sidenote: Company dissolved. ]

Although the favourers of this project were so successful at theelections as to obtain a great majority in the general court, men offortune, and the principal merchants, refused to receive these bills. Many small traders, however, and other persons interested in thecirculation of a depreciated currency, gave them credit. The directorsthemselves, it was said, became traders; and issued bills withoutlimitation, and without giving security for their redemption. Thegovernor, anticipating the pernicious effects of the institution, exerted all his influence against it. He displaced such executiveofficers as were members of it, and negatived the speaker, andthirteen members elected to the council, who were also of the company. General confusion being apprehended, application was made toparliament for an act to suppress the company. This being readilyobtained, the company was dissolved, and the holders of the bills wereallowed their action against its members, individually. [131]

 [Footnote 131: Hutchison. ]

About this time governor Belcher was recalled, and Mr. Shirley wasappointed to succeed him. He found the land bank interest predominantin the house, and the treasury empty. 

{1741}

In this state of things, he deemed it necessary to depart from theletter of his instructions, in order to preserve their spirit. A billwas passed declaring that all contracts should be understood to bepayable in silver at six shillings and eight pence the ounce, or ingold at its comparative value. Bills of a new form were issued, purporting to be for ounces of silver, which were to be received inpayment of all debts, with this proviso, that if they shoulddepreciate between the time of contract and of payment, a proportionaladdition should be made to the debt. 

[Sidenote: Affairs of New York. ]

While these transactions were passing in New England, symptoms of thatjealousy which an unsettled boundary must produce between neighbours, began to show themselves in Canada and New York. The geographicalsituation of these colonies had, at an early period, directed theattention of both towards the commerce of the lakes. Mr. Burnet, thegovernor both of New York and New Jersey, impressed with theimportance of acquiring the command of lake Ontario, had, in the year1722, erected a trading house at Oswego in the country of the Senecas. This measure excited the jealousy of the French, who launched twovessels on the lake, and transported materials to Niagara for buildinga large store house, and for repairing the fort at that place. Theseproceedings were strongly opposed by the Senecas, and by thegovernment of New York. Mr. Burnet remonstrated against them asencroachments on a British province, and also addressed administrationon the subject. Complaints were made to the cabinet of Versailles; butthe governor of Canada proceeded to complete the fort. To countervailthe effects of a measure which he could not prevent, governor Burneterected a fort at Oswego; soon after the building of which, while Mr. Vandam was governor of New York, the French took possession of CrownPoint, which they fortified; and thus acquired the command of lakeChamplain. Obviously as this measure was calculated to favour both theoffensive and defensive operations of France in America, the Englishminister, after an unavailing remonstrance, submitted to it. 

CHAPTER IX. 

 War with the southern Indians.... Dissatisfaction of Carolina with the proprietors.... Rupture with Spain.... Combination to subvert the proprietary government.... Revolution completed.... Expedition from the Havanna against Charleston.... Peace with Spain.... The proprietors surrender their interest to the crown.... The province divided.... Georgia settled.... Impolicy of the first regulations.... Intrigues of the Spaniards with the slaves of South Carolina.... Insurrection of the slaves. 

{1715}

In Carolina, the contests between the inhabitants and the proprietors, added to the favour with which the Queen heard the complaints of thedissenters, had turned the attention of the people towards the crown, and produced a strong desire to substitute the regal, for theproprietary government. This desire was increased by an event whichdemonstrated the incompetency of their government. 

[Sidenote: War with the Indians. ]

The Yamassees, a powerful tribe of Indians on the north east of theSavanna, instigated by the Spaniards at St. Augustine, secretlyprepared a general combination of all the southern Indians, againstthe province. Having massacred the traders settled among them, theyadvanced in great force against the southern frontier, spreadingdesolation and slaughter on their route. The inhabitants were driveninto Charleston; and governor Craven proclaimed martial law. He alsoobtained an act of assembly empowering him to impress men; to seizearms, ammunition, and stores; to arm such negroes as could be trusted;and, generally, to prosecute the war with the utmost vigour. Agentswere sent to Virginia and to England to solicit assistance, and billswere issued for the payment and subsistence of the army. 

At the same time, the Indians entered the northern part of theprovince, and were within fifty miles of the capital. Thus surroundedby enemies, the governor took the course which was suggested equallyby courage and by prudence. Leaving the less active part of thepopulation to find security in the forts at Charleston, he marchedwith the militia, towards the southern frontier, which was invaded bythe strongest body of Indians; and, at a place called Salt Catchers, attacked and totally defeated them. The victors pursued them intotheir own country, expelled them from it, and drove them over theSavanna river. The fugitives found protection in Florida, where theymade a new settlement, from which they continued long afterwards, tomake distressing incursions into Carolina. 

The agent who had been sent by the legislature to England to implorethe protection of the proprietors, had received ulterior instructions, should he not succeed with them, to apply directly to the King. Beingdissatisfied with his reception by the proprietors, he petitioned thehouse of commons, who addressed the King, praying his interposition, and immediate assistance to the colony. The King referred the matterto the lords commissioners of trade and plantations, whose report wasunfavourable to the application, because the province of Carolina wasa proprietary government. They were of opinion that, if the colony wasto be protected at the expense of the nation, its government ought tobe vested in the crown. On receiving this opinion, the proprietors, ina general meeting, avowed their inability to protect the province, anddeclared that, unless his majesty would graciously please tointerpose, they could foresee nothing but the utter destruction of hisfaithful subjects in those parts. 

A government unable to afford protection to the people, was illadapted to the situation of Carolina. 

The dissatisfaction growing out of this cause was still fartheraugmented by the unpopular, and, in some instances, unwise acts of theproprietors. 

To relieve the distress produced by war, considerable sums of papermoney had been issued; and the proprietors, on the complaint of themerchants, of London engaged in the trade of the province, had giveninstructions to reduce the quantity in circulation. 

{1715 to 1717}

The assembly had appropriated the country of the Yamassees, to the useof such of his majesty's European subjects, as would settle it. Extracts from the law on this subject being published in England, andin Ireland, five hundred men from the latter kingdom emigrated toCarolina. The proprietors repealed this law; and, to the utter ruin ofthe emigrants, as well as to the destruction of this barrier againstthe savages, ordered the lands to be surveyed, and erected intobaronies, for themselves. 

While the population was confined to the neighbourhood of Charleston, all the members of the assembly had been elected at that place. As thesettlements extended, this practice became inconvenient; and an actwas passed, declaring that every parish should choose a certain numberof representatives, and that the elections should be held, in each, atthe parish church. As if to destroy themselves in the province, theproprietors repealed this popular law also. 

Heavy expenses being still incurred for defence against the inroads ofthe southern Indians, the people complained loudly of theinsufficiency of that government which, unable itself to protect them, prevented the interposition of the crown in their favour. 

In this temper, governor Johnson, son of the former governor of thatname, found the province. He met the assembly with a conciliatoryspeech, and received an answer expressing great satisfaction at hisappointment. His original popularity was increased by the courage hedisplayed in two expeditions against a formidable band of pirates whohad long infested the coast, which he entirely extirpated. 

{1717}

These expeditions occasioned still farther emissions of paper money. The governor, being instructed to diminish its quantity, had influenceenough with the assembly to obtain an act for redeeming the bills ofcredit, in three years, by a tax on lands and negroes. This taxfalling heavily on the planters, they sought to elude it by obtainingan act for a farther emission of bills. The proprietors, beinginformed of this design, and also of an intention to make the produceof the country a tender in payment of all debts, at a fixed value, enjoined the governor not to give his assent to any bill, until itshould be laid before them. 

About the same time, the King, by an order in council, signified hisdesire to the proprietors, that they would repeal an act passed inCarolina, for imposing a duty of ten per centum on all goods ofBritish manufacture imported into the province. The repeal of thisact, and of one declaring the right of the assembly to name a receiverof the public money, and of the election law, were transmitted to thegovernor, in a letter directing him to dissolve the assembly, and tohold a new election at Charleston, according to ancient usage. 

{1718}

The assembly being employed in devising means for raising revenue, their dissolution was deferred; but the repeal of the law imposingduties, and the royal displeasure at the clause laying a duty onBritish manufactures, were immediately communicated, with arecommendation to pass another act, omitting that clause. 

Meanwhile the governor's instructions were divulged. They excitedgreat irritation; and produced a warm debate on the right of theproprietors to repeal a law enacted with the consent of their deputyin the province. 

{1719}

About this time, chief justice Trott, who had become extremelyunpopular in the colony, was charged with many iniquitous proceedings;and the governor, the major part of the council, and the assembly, united in a memorial representing his malpractices to the proprietors. Mr. Young was deputed their agent to enforce these complaints. 

Soon after his arrival in London, he presented a memorial to theproprietors, detailing the proceedings of Carolina, and stating theobjections of the assembly to the right of their lordships to repeallaws, which had been approved by their deputies. 

This memorial was very unfavourably received, and the members of thecouncil who had subscribed it, were displaced. The proprietorsasserted their right to repeal all laws passed in the province, approved the conduct of the chief justice, censured that of thegovernor in disobeying their instructions respecting the dissolutionof the assembly, and repeated their orders on this subject. 

However the governor might disapprove the instructions given him, hedid not hesitate to obey them. The new council was summoned, theassembly was dissolved, and writs were issued for electing another atCharleston. 

[Sidenote: War with Spain. ]

The public mind had been gradually prepared for a revolution, andthese irritating measures completed the disgust with which the peopleviewed the government of the proprietors. An opportunity to make thechange so generally desired was soon afforded. A rupture having takenplace between Great Britain and Spain, advice was received fromEngland of a plan formed in the Havanna for the invasion of Carolina. The governor convened the council, and such members of the assembly aswere in town, and laid his intelligence before them. He, at the sametime, stated the ruinous condition of the fortifications, and proposedthat a sum for repairing them should be raised, by voluntarysubscription, of which he set the example by a liberal donation. 

The assembly declared a subscription to be unnecessary, as the dutieswould afford an ample fund for the object. The repeal of the lawimposing them was said to be utterly void, and would be disregarded. 

[Sidenote: Combination to subvert the government. ]

The members of the new assembly, though they had not been regularlyconvened at Charleston, had held several private meetings in thecountry to concert measures of future resistance. They had drawn up anassociation for uniting the whole province in opposition to theproprietary government, which was proposed to the militia at theirpublic meetings, and subscribed almost unanimously. This confederacywas formed with such secrecy and dispatch, that, before the governorwas informed of it, almost every inhabitant of the province wasengaged in it. 

The members of the assembly, thus supported by the people, resolved tosubvert the power of the proprietors. 

The governor, who resided in the country, had no intimation of thesesecret meetings and transactions, until he received a letter from acommittee of the representatives of the people, offering him thegovernment of the province under the King; it having been determinedto submit no longer to that of the proprietors. 

Mr. Johnson resolved to suppress this spirit of revolt, and hastenedto town in order to lay the letter before his council. They advisedhim to take no notice of it, until the legislature should be regularlyconvened. On meeting, the assembly declared, "that the laws, pretendedto be repealed, continued to be in force; and that no power, otherthan the general assembly, could repeal them: That the writs underwhich they were elected were void, inasmuch as they had been issued byadvice of an unconstitutional council: That the representativescannot, therefore, act as an assembly, but as a convention delegatedby the people to prevent the utter ruin of the government: And, lastly, that the lords proprietors had unhinged the frame of thegovernment, and forfeited their right thereto; and that an address beprepared to desire the honourable Robert Johnson, the presentgovernor, to take on himself the government of the province in thename of the King. " The address was signed by Arthur Middleton, aspresident of the convention, and by twenty-two members. 

After several unavailing efforts, on the part of the assembly, toinduce Mr. Johnson to accept the government under the King; and, onhis part, to reinstate the government of the proprietors; he issued aproclamation dissolving the assembly, and retired into the country. 

The proclamation was torn from the hands of the officer, and theassembly elected colonel James Moore chief magistrate of the colony. 

[Sidenote: Revolution completed. ]

After proclaiming him in the name of the King, and electing a council, the legislature published a declaration stating the revolution thathad taken place, with the causes which produced it; and thenproceeded, deliberately to manage the affairs of the province. 

[Sidenote: The proprietors surrender to the crown. ]

While Carolina was effecting this revolution, the agent of the colonyobtained a hearing before the lords of the regency and council inEngland, (the King being then in Hanover) who were of opinion that theproprietors had forfeited their charter. They ordered the attorneygeneral to take out a _scire facias_ against it, and appointed FrancisNicholson provisional governor of the province under the King. He wasreceived with universal joy; and the people of Carolina passed, withgreat satisfaction, from the proprietary government to the immediatedominion of the crown. This revolution was completed by an agreementbetween the crown and seven of the proprietors, whereby, for the sumof seventeen thousand five hundred pounds sterling, they surrenderedtheir right and interest both in the government and soil. Thisagreement was confirmed by an act of parliament; soon after which JohnLord Carteret, the remaining proprietor, also surrendered all hisinterest in the government, but retained his rights of property. [132]

 [Footnote 132: History of South Carolina. ]

{1721}

{1732}

[Sidenote: The province divided. ]

Carolina received with joy the same form of government which had beenbestowed on her sister colonies. The people pleased with theirsituation, and secure of protection, turned their attention todomestic and agricultural pursuits; and the face of the country soonevidenced the happy effects which result from contented industry, directed by those who are to receive its fruits. For the convenienceof the inhabitants, the province was divided; and was, thenceforward, distinguished by the names of North and South Carolina. [133]

 [Footnote 133: Idem. ]

[Sidenote: Georgia settled. ]

About this period, the settlement of a new colony was planned inEngland. The tract of country lying between the rivers Savanna andAlatamaha being unoccupied by Europeans, a company was formed for thehumane purpose of transplanting into this wilderness, the sufferingpoor of the mother country. This territory, now denominated Georgia, was granted to the company; and a corporation, consisting oftwenty-one persons, was created under the name of "trustees forsettling and establishing the colony of Georgia. " Large sums of moneywere subscribed for transporting, and furnishing with necessaries, such poor people as should be willing to pass the Atlantic, and toseek the means of subsistence in a new world. One hundred and sixteenpersons embarked at Gravesend, under the conduct of Mr. JamesOglethorpe, one of the trustees, who, after landing at Charleston, proceeded to the tract of country allotted for the new colony, andlaid the foundation of the town of Savanna, on the river which bearsthat name. A small fort was erected on its bank, in which some gunswere mounted; and a treaty was held with the Creek Indians, from whomthe cession of a considerable tract was obtained. 

The trustees continued to make great efforts for the accomplishment oftheir object, and settled several companies of emigrants in Georgia. Unfortunately, the wisdom of their regulations did not equal thehumanity of their motives. Totally unacquainted with the country theywere to govern, they devised a system for it, rather calculated toimpede than to promote its population. 

{1733}

[Sidenote: Impolicy of the first regulation. ]

Considering each male inhabitant both as a soldier and a planter, tobe provided with arms and ammunition for defence as well as withutensils for cultivation, they adopted the pernicious resolution ofintroducing such tenures for holding lands as were most favourable toa military establishment. Each tract granted, was considered as amilitary fief, for which the possessor was to appear in arms, and takethe field, when required for the public defence. The grants were in_tail male_; and, on the termination of the estate, the lands were torevert to the trust, to be re-granted to such persons as would mostbenefit the colony. Any lands which should not be enclosed, cleared, and cultivated, within eighteen years, reverted to the trust. Theimportation of negroes, and of rum, was prohibited; and those onlywere allowed to trade with the Indians, to whom a license should begiven. 

However specious the arguments in support of these regulations mightappear to the trustees, human ingenuity could scarcely have devised asystem better calculated to defeat their hopes. 

The tenure of lands drove the settlers into Carolina where thatproperty might be acquired in fee simple. The prohibition of slaveryrendered the task of opening the country, too heavy to be successfullyundertaken in that burning climate; and the restriction on their tradeto the West Indies, deprived them of the only market for lumber, anarticle in which they abounded. 

{1734}

Mr. Oglethorpe's first employment was the construction offortifications for defence. He erected one fort on the Savanna, atAugusta, and another on an island of the Alatamaha, called Frederica, for defence against the Indians and the inhabitants of Florida. TheSpaniards remonstrated against them; and a commissioner from theHavanna insisted on the evacuation of the country to the thirty-thirddegree of north latitude, which he claimed in the name of the King ofSpain; but this remonstrance and claim were equally disregarded. 

The restrictions imposed by the trustees, on the inhabitants ofGeorgia, were too oppressive to be endured in silence. Theyremonstrated, particularly, against the tenure by which their landswere held, and against the prohibition of the introduction of slaves. These complaints, the result of experience, were addressed to personsignorant of the condition of the petitioners, and were neglected. Thecolony languished; while South Carolina, not unlike Georgia both insoil and climate, advanced with considerable rapidity. Althoughemigration was encouraged by paying the passage money of theemigrants, by furnishing them with clothes, arms, ammunition, andimplements of husbandry, by maintaining their families for the firstyear, and, in some instances, by furnishing them with stock; yet theunwise policy, which has been mentioned, more than counterbalancedthese advantages; and for ten years, during which time the exportsfrom Carolina more than doubled, the settlers in Georgia could, withdifficulty, obtain a scanty subsistence. 

{1737}

The differences between Great Britain and Spain not admitting ofadjustment, both nations prepared for war. The Spaniards strengthenedEast Florida; and the British government ordered a regiment, consisting of six hundred effective men, into Georgia. The command ofthe troops, both of Georgia and Carolina, was given to major generalOglethorpe, who fixed his headquarters at Frederica. 

[Sidenote: Insurrection of the slaves. ]

Before hostilities had commenced, the Spaniards at St. Augustineengaged in criminal intrigues among the blacks of Carolina. Agents hadbeen secretly employed in seducing the slaves of that province toescape to St. Augustine, where liberty was promised them, and wherethey were formed into a regiment officered by themselves. Hithertothese practices had been attended only with the loss of property; but, about this time, the evil assumed a much more alarming form. A largenumber of slaves assembled at Stono, where they forced a warehousecontaining arms and ammunition, murdered the whites in possession ofit, and, after choosing a captain, directed their march southwestward, with drums beating and colours flying. On their march, theymassacred the whites, seized all the arms they could find, and forcedsuch blacks as did not voluntarily join them, to follow their party. Intoxicated with ardent spirits, and with their short lived success, they considered their work as already achieved, and halted in an openfield, where the time which might have been employed in promotingtheir design, was devoted to dancing and exultation. Fortunately, thepeople of the neighbourhood had assembled on the same day, to attenddivine service; and, as was then directed by law, all the men camearmed. They marched immediately against the blacks, whom theycompletely surprised. Many were killed, and the residue dispersed ortaken. Thus the insurrection was suppressed on the day of itscommencement; and such of its leaders as survived the battle wereimmediately executed. 

During the long repose, which the pacific temper of the duke ofOrleans, Regent of France during the minority of Louis XV. And theequally pacific temper of sir Robert Walpole, minister of England, gave to their respective countries, the British colonies in Americahad increased rapidly in population and in wealth. Lands were cheap, and subsistence easily acquired. From New York to Virginia inclusive, no enemy existed to restrain new settlements, and no fears ofinability to maintain a family, checked the natural propensity toearly marriages. The people were employed in cultivating the earth, and in spreading themselves over the vast regions which were open tothem; and, during this period, their history furnishes none of thoseremarkable events which interest posterity. 

CHAPTER X. 

 War declared against Spain.... Expedition against St. Augustine.... Georgia invaded.... Spaniards land on an island in the Alatamaha.... Appearance of a fleet from Charleston.... Spanish army re-embarks.... Hostilities with France.... Expedition against Louisbourg.... Louisbourg surrenders.... Great plans of the belligerent powers.... Misfortunes of the armament under the duke D'Anville.... The French fleet dispersed by a storm.... Expedition against Nova Scotia.... Treaty of Aix la Chapelle.... Paper money of Massachusetts redeemed.... Contests between the French and English respecting boundaries.... Statement respecting the discovery of the Mississippi.... Scheme for connecting Louisiana with Canada.... Relative strength of the French and English colonies.... Defeat at the Little Meadows.... Convention at Albany.... Plan of union.... Objected to both in America and Great Britain. 

{1739}

[Sidenote: War with Spain. ]

The increasing complaints of the merchants, and the loud clamours ofthe nation, at length forced the minister to abandon his pacificsystem; and war was declared against Spain. A squadron commanded byadmiral Vernon was detached to the West Indies, with instructions toact offensively; and general Oglethorpe was ordered to annoy thesettlements in Florida. He planned an expedition against St. Augustine, and requested the assistance of South Carolina. Thatcolony, ardently desiring the expulsion of neighbours alike feared andhated, entered zealously into the views of the general, and agreed tofurnish the men and money he requested. A regiment, commanded bycolonel Vanderdussen, was immediately raised in Virginia and the twoCarolinas. A body of Indians was also engaged, and captain Price, whocommanded the small fleet on that station, promised his co-operation. These arrangements being made, and the mouth of St. John's river, onthe coast of Florida, being appointed as the place, of rendezvousgeneral Oglethorpe hastened to Georgia, to prepare his regiment forthe expedition. 

{1740}

Those unexpected impediments, which always embarrass militarymovements conducted by men without experience, having delayed thearrival of his northern troops, Oglethorpe entered Florida at the headof his own regiment, aided by a party of Indians; and invested Diego, a small fort about twenty-five miles from St. Augustine, whichcapitulated after a short resistance. He then returned to the place ofrendezvous, where he was joined by colonel Vanderdussen, and by acompany of Highlanders under the command of captain M'Intosh; a fewdays after which, he marched with his whole force, consisting of abouttwo thousand men, to fort Moosa, in the neighbourhood of St. Augustine, which was evacuated on his approach. The general nowperceived that the enterprise would be attended with more difficultythan had been anticipated. In the time which intervened between hisentering Florida and appearing before the town, supplies of provisionshad been received from the country, and six Spanish half galliescarrying long brass nine pounders, and two sloops laden withprovisions, had entered the harbour. Finding the place betterfortified than had been expected, he determined to invest itcompletely, and to advance by regular approaches. In execution of thisplan, colonel Palmer, with ninety-five Highlanders, and forty-twoIndians, remained at fort Moosa, while the army took differentpositions near the town, and began an ineffectual bombardment from theisland of Anastasia. The general was deliberating on a plan forforcing the harbour and taking a nearer position, when colonel Palmerwas surprised, and his detachment cut to pieces. At the same time somesmall vessels from the Havanna, with a reinforcement of men and supplyof provisions, entered the harbour through the narrow channel of theMatanzas. 

The army began to despair of success; and the provincials, enfeebledby the heat, dispirited by sickness, and fatigued by fruitlessefforts, marched away in large bodies. The navy being ill suppliedwith provisions, and the season for hurricanes approaching, captainPrice was unwilling to hazard his majesty's ships on that coast. Thegeneral, labouring under a fever, finding his regiment, as well ashimself, worn out with fatigue, and rendered unfit for action bydisease; reluctantly abandoned the enterprise, and returned toFrederica. 

The colonists, disappointed and chagrined by the failure of theexpedition, attributed this misfortune entirely to the incapacity ofthe general, who was not less dissatisfied with them. Whatever mayhave been the true causes of the failure, it produced a mutual andinjurious distrust between the general and the colonists. [134]

 [Footnote 134: In the same year Charleston was reduced to ashes. A large portion of its inhabitants passed, in one day, from prosperity to indigence. Under the pressure of this misfortune, the legislature applied to parliament for aid; and that body, with a liberality reflecting honour on its members, voted twenty thousand pounds, to be distributed among the sufferers. ]

{1742}

The events of the war soon disclosed the dangers resulting from thiswant of confidence in general Oglethorpe, and, still more, from thewant of power to produce a co-operation of the common force for thecommon defence. 

Spain had ever considered the settlement of Georgia as an encroachmenton her territory, and had cherished the intention to seize everyproper occasion to dislodge the English by force. With this view, anarmament consisting of two thousand men, commanded by Don Antonio diRidondo, embarked at the Havanna, under convoy of a strong squadron, and arrived at St. Augustine in May. The fleet having been seen on itspassage, notice of its approach was given to general Oglethorpe, whocommunicated the intelligence to governor Glenn of South Carolina, andurged the necessity of sending the troops of that province to hisassistance. 

Georgia being a barrier for South Carolina, the policy of meeting aninvading army on the frontiers of the former, especially onecontaining several companies composed of negroes who had fled from thelatter, was too obvious not to be perceived: yet either from prejudiceagainst Oglethorpe, or the disposition inherent in separategovernments to preserve their own force for their own defence, Carolina refused to give that general any assistance. Its attentionwas directed entirely to the defence of Charleston; and theinhabitants of its southern frontier, instead of marching to the campof Oglethorpe, fled to that city for safety. In the mean time, thegeneral collected a few Highlanders, and rangers of Georgia, togetherwith as many Indian warriors as would join him, and determined todefend Frederica. 

[Sidenote: Georgia invaded. ]

Late in June, the Spanish fleet, consisting of thirty-two sail, carrying above three thousand men, crossed Simon's bar into Jekylsound, and passing Simon's fort, then occupied by general Oglethorpe, proceeded up the Alatamaha, out of the reach of his guns; after which, the troops landed on the island, and erected a battery of twentyeighteen pounders. 

Fort Simon's being indefensible, Oglethorpe retreated to Frederica. His whole force, exclusive of Indians, amounted to little more thanseven hundred men, a force which could only enable him to act on thedefensive until the arrival of reinforcements which he still expectedfrom South Carolina. The face of the country was peculiarly favorableto this system of operations. Its thick woods and deep morassesopposed great obstacles to the advance of an invading enemy, not wellacquainted with the paths which passed through them. Oglethorpe turnedthese advantages to the best account. In an attempt made by theSpanish general to pierce these woods in order to reach Frederica, several sharp rencounters took place; in one of which he lost acaptain and two lieutenants killed, and above one hundred privatestaken prisoners. He then changed his plan of operations; and, abandoning his intention of forcing his way to Frederica by land, called in his parties, kept his men under cover of his cannon, anddetached some vessels up the river, with a body of troops on board, toreconnoitre the fort, and draw the attention of the English to thatquarter. 

About this time, an English prisoner escaped from the Spaniards, andinformed general Oglethorpe that a difference existed between thetroops from Cuba, and those from St. Augustine, which had been carriedso far that they encamped in separate places. This intelligencesuggested the idea of attacking them while divided; and his perfectknowledge of the woods favoured the hope of surprising one of theirencampments. In execution of this design, he drew out the flower ofhis army, and marched in the night, unobserved, within two miles ofthe Spanish camp. There, his troops halted, and he advanced, himself, at the head of a select corps, to reconnoitre the situation of theenemy. While he was using the utmost circumspection to obtain thenecessary information without being discovered, a French soldier ofhis party discharged his musket, and ran into the Spanish lines. Discovery defeating every hope of success, the general retreated toFrederica. 

Oglethorpe, confident that the deserter would disclose his weakness, devised an expedient which turned the event to advantage. He wrote tothe deserter as if in concert with him, directing him to give theSpanish general such information as might induce him to attackFrederica; hinting also at an attempt meditated by admiral Vernon onSt. Augustine, and at late advices from Carolina, giving assurances ofa reinforcement of two thousand men. He then tampered with one of theSpanish prisoners, who, for a small bribe, promised to deliver thisletter to the deserter, after which, he was permitted to escape. Theprisoner, as was foreseen delivered the letter to his general, whoordered the deserter to be put in irons; and, was, in no small degree, embarrassed to determine whether the letter ought to be considered asa stratagem to save Frederica, and induce the abandonment of theenterprise; or as real instructions to direct the conduct of a spy. While hesitating on the course to be pursued, his doubts were removedby one of those incidents, which have so much influence on humanaffairs. 

[Sidenote: Spanish army re-embarks in confusion. ]

The assembly of South Carolina had voted a supply of money to generalOglethorpe; and the governor had ordered some ships of force to hisaid. These appeared off the coast while the principal officers of theSpanish army were yet deliberating on the letter. They deliberated nolonger. The whole army was seized with a panic; and, after settingfire to the fort, embarked in great hurry and confusion, leavingbehind several pieces of heavy artillery, and a large quantity ofprovisions and military stores. 

Thus was Georgia delivered from an invasion which threatened the totalsubjugation of the province. 

The ill success of these reciprocal attempts at conquest, seems tohave discouraged both parties; and the Spanish and English colonies, in the neighbourhood of each other, contented themselves, for theresidue of the war, with guarding their own frontiers. 

The connexion between the branches of the house of Bourbon was toointimate for the preservation of peace with France, during theprosecution of war against Spain. Both nations expected and preparedfor hostilities. War had commenced in fact, though not in form, on thecontinent of Europe; but as they carried on their military operationsas auxiliaries, in support of the contending claims of the elector ofBavaria, and the queen of Hungary, to the imperial throne, theypreserved in America a suspicious and jealous suspension of hostility, rather than a real peace. 

{1744}

This state of things was interrupted by a sudden incursion of theFrench into Nova Scotia. 

[Sidenote: Hostilities with France. ]

The governor of Cape Breton having received information that Franceand Great Britain had become principals in the war, took possession ofde Canseau with a small military and naval force, and made thegarrison, and inhabitants prisoners of war. This enterprise wasfollowed by an attempt on Annapolis, which was defeated by the timelyarrival of a reinforcement from Massachusetts. These offensiveoperations stimulated the English colonists to additional efforts toexpel such dangerous neighbors, and to unite the whole northerncontinent bordering on the Atlantic, under one common sovereign. 

The island of Cape Breton, so denominated from one of its capes, liesbetween the 45th and 47th degree of north latitude, at the distance offifteen leagues from Cape Ray, the south western extremity ofNewfoundland. Its position rendered the possession of it very materialto the commerce of France; and the facility with which the fisheriesmight be annoyed from its ports, gave it an importance to which itcould not otherwise have been entitled. Thirty millions oflivres, [135] and the labour of twenty-five years, had been employed onits fortifications. From its strength, and still more from thenumerous privateers that issued from its ports, it had been termed theDunkirk[136] of America. On this place, governor Shirley meditated anattack. 

 [Footnote 135: About five and a half millions of dollars. ]

 [Footnote 136: Belknap. ]

The prisoners taken at Canseau, and others who had been captured atsea and carried to Louisbourg, were sent to Boston. The informationthey gave, if it did not originally suggest this enterprise, contributed greatly to its adoption. They said that Duvivier had goneto France to solicit assistance for the conquest of Nova Scotia, inthe course of the ensuing campaign; and that the store ships fromFrance for Cape Breton, not having arrived on the coast until it wasblocked up with ice, had retired to the West Indies. 

In several letters addressed to administration, governor Shirleyrepresented the danger to which Nova Scotia was exposed, and pressedfor naval assistance. These letters were sent by captain Ryal, anofficer of the garrison which had been taken at Canseau, whoseknowledge of Louisbourg, of Cape Breton, and of Nova Scotia, enabledhim to make such representations to the lords of the admiralty, aswere calculated to promote the views of the northern colonies. 

The governor was not disappointed. Orders were dispatched to commodoreWarren, then in the West Indies, to proceed towards the north, earlyin the spring; and to employ such a force as might be necessary toprotect the northern colonies in their trade and fisheries, as well asto distress the enemy. On these subjects, he was instructed to consultwith Shirley, to whom orders of the same date were written, directinghim to assist the King's ships with transports, men, and provisions. 

Such deep impression had the design of taking Louisbourg made on themind of Shirley, that he did not wait for intelligence of thereception given to his application for naval assistance. He wasinduced to decide on engaging in the enterprise, even without suchassistance, by the representations of Mr. Vaughan, son of thelieutenant governor of New Hampshire, a man of a sanguine and ardenttemper, who could think nothing impracticable which he wished toachieve. Mr. Vaughan had never been at Louisbourg, but had learnedsomething of the strength of the place, from fishermen and others; andthe bold turn of his mind suggested the idea of surprising it. Thereis something infectious in enthusiasm, whatever be its object; andVaughan soon communicated his own convictions to Shirley. [137]

 [Footnote 137: Belknap. ]

{1745}

The governor informed the general court that he had a proposition ofgreat importance to communicate, and requested that the members wouldtake an oath of secrecy, previous to his laying it before them. Thisnovel request being complied with, he submitted his plan for attackingLouisbourg. It was referred to a committee of both houses; thearguments for and against the enterprise were temperately considered;and the part suggested by prudence prevailed. The expedition wasthought too great, too hazardous, and too expensive. 

The report of the committee was approved by the house ofrepresentatives, and the expedition was supposed to be abandoned; but, notwithstanding the precaution taken to secure secrecy, the subjectwhich had occupied the legislature was divulged, [138] and the peopletook a deep interest in it. Numerous petitions were presented, prayingthe general court to re-consider its vote, and to adopt theproposition of the governor. Among the several arguments urged in itsfavour, that which the petitioners pressed most earnestly, was thenecessity of acquiring Louisbourg, to save the fisheries from ruin. 

 [Footnote 138: It is said the secret was kept until a member who performed family devotion at his lodgings, betrayed it by praying for the divine blessing on the attempt. ]

The subject being re-considered, a resolution in favour of theenterprise was carried by a single voice, in the absence of severalmembers known to be against it. Yet all parties manifested equal zealfor its success. A general embargo was laid, and messengers weredespatched to the several governments as far south as Pennsylvania, soliciting their aid. These solicitations succeeded only in thenorthern provinces. There being at that time no person in New Englandwho had acquired any military reputation, the chief command wasconferred on colonel Pepperel, a merchant, who was also a large landholder, and was highly respected throughout Massachusetts. [139]

 [Footnote 139: Hutchison. ]

All ranks of men combined to facilitate the enterprise, and thosecircumstances which are beyond human control, also concurred to favourthe general wish. 

The governors of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, whose orders forbadetheir assent to a farther emission of bills of credit, departed fromtheir instructions to promote this favourite project; the peoplesubmitted to impressments of their property; and a mild winter gave nointerruption to their warlike preparations. 

The troops of Massachusetts, [140] New Hampshire, and Connecticut, amounting to rather more than four thousand men, assembled at Canseauabout the middle of April; soon after which, to the great joy of thecolonial troops, admiral Warren arrived, with a considerable part ofhis fleet. The army then embarked for Chapeau-rouge bay, and the fleetcruised off Louisbourg. 

 [Footnote 140: The day before the armament sailed from Massachusetts, an express boat, which had been dispatched to admiral Warren to solicit assistance, returned with the unwelcome intelligence that he declined furnishing the aid required. This information could not arrest the expedition. Fortunately for its success, the orders from England soon afterwards reached the admiral, who immediately detached a part of his fleet; which he soon followed himself in the Superb, of sixty guns. ]

After repulsing a small detachment of French troops, the landing waseffected; and, in the course of the night, a body of about fourhundred men led by Vaughan, marched round to the north east part ofthe harbour, and set fire to a number of warehouses containingspirituous liquors and naval stores. The smoke being driven by thewind into the grand battery, caused such darkness that the men placedin it were unable to distinguish objects; and, being apprehensive ofan attack from the whole English army, abandoned the fort and fledinto the town. 

The next morning, as Vaughan was returning to camp with only thirteenmen, he ascended the hill which overlooked the battery, and observingthat the chimneys in the barracks were without smoke, and the staffwithout its flag, he hired an Indian, with a bottle of rum, to crawlthrough an embrasure, and open the gate. Vaughan entered with his menand defended the battery against a party then landing to regainpossession until the arrival of a reinforcement. 

For fourteen nights successively, the troops were employed in draggingcannon from the landing place to the encampment, a distance of neartwo miles, through a deep morass. The army, being totally unacquaintedwith the art of conducting sieges, made its approaches irregularly, and sustained some loss on this account. 

While these approaches were making by land, the ships of war whichcontinued to cruise off the harbour, fell in with and captured theVigilant, a French man of war of sixty-four guns, having on board areinforcement of five hundred and sixty men, and a large quantity ofstores for the garrison. Soon after this, an unsuccessful, and, perhaps, a rash attempt was made on the island battery by four hundredmen; of whom sixty were killed, and one hundred and sixteen takenprisoners. All these prisoners, as if by previous concert, exaggeratedthe numbers of the besieging army, a deception which was favoured bythe unevenness of the ground, and the dispersed state of the troops;and which probably contributed to the surrender of the place. Theprovincial army did indeed present a formidable front, but, in therear, all was frolic and confusion. 

The Vigilant had been anxiously expected by the garrison, and theinformation of her capture excited a considerable degree ofperturbation. This event, with the erection of some works on the highcliff at the light house, by which the island battery was muchannoyed, and the preparations evidently making for a general assault, determined Duchambon, the governor of Louisbourg, to surrender; and, in a few days, he capitulated. 

[Sidenote: Louisbourg surrenders. ]

Upon entering the fortress, and viewing its strength, and its means ofdefence, all perceived how impracticable it would have been to carryit by assault. [141]

 [Footnote 141: Belknap. Hutchison. ]

The joy excited in the British colonies by the success of theexpedition against Louisbourg was unbounded. Even those who hadrefused to participate in its hazards and expense, were sensible ofits advantages, and of the lustre it shed on the American arms. Although some disposition was manifested in England, to ascribe thewhole merit of the conquest to the navy, colonel Pepperel received, with the title of baronet, the more substantial reward of a regimentin the British service, to be raised in America; and the same mark ofroyal favour was bestowed on governor Shirley. Reimbursements too weremade by parliament for the expenses of the expedition. It was the onlydecisive advantage obtained by the English during the war. 

The capture of Louisbourg, most probably, preserved Nova Scotia. Duvivier, who had embarked for France to solicit an armament for theconquest of that province, sailed, in July, 1745, with seven ships ofwar, and a body of land forces. He was ordered to stop at Louisbourg, and thence to proceed in the execution of his plan. Hearing, at sea, of the fall of that place, and that a British squadron was stationedat it, he relinquished the expedition against Nova Scotia, andreturned to Europe. 

The British empire on the American continent consisted, originally, oftwo feeble settlements unconnected with, and almost unknown to eachother. For a long time the southern colonies, separated from those ofNew England by an immense wilderness, and by the possessions of otherEuropean powers, had no intercourse with them, except what wasproduced by the small trading vessels of the north, which occasionallyentered the rivers of the south. Neither participated in the wars orpursuits of the other; nor were they, in any respect, actuated bycommon views, or united by common interest. The conquest of thecountry between Connecticut and Maryland, laid a foundation, which thesettlement of the middle colonies completed, for connecting thesedisjoined members, and forming one consolidated whole, capable ofmoving, and acting in concert. This gradual change, unobserved in itscommencement, had now become too perceptible to be longer overlooked;and, henceforward, the efforts of the colonies, were in a greatmeasure combined, and directed to a common object. 

France, as well as England, had extended her views with hersettlements; and, after the fall of Louisbourg, the governments ofboth nations meditated important operations for the ensuing campaignin America. 

[Sidenote: Great plans of the belligerents. ]

France contemplated, not only the recovery of Cape Breton and NovaScotia, but the total devastation of the sea coast, if not the entireconquest of New England. 

Britain, on her part, calculated on the reduction of Canada, and theentire expulsion of the French from the American continent. 

{1746}

Shirley repaired to Louisbourg, after its surrender, where he held aconsultation with Warren and Pepperel on the favourite subject offuture and more extensive operations against the neighbouringpossessions of France. From that place he wrote pressingly toadministration, for reinforcements of men and ships to enable him toexecute his plans. The capture of Louisbourg gave such weight to hissolicitations that, in the following spring, the duke of New Castle, then secretary of state, addressed a circular letter to the governorsof the provinces as far south as Virginia, requiring them to raise asmany men as they could spare, and hold them in readiness to actaccording to the orders that should be received. Before this letterwas written, an extensive plan of operations had been digested in theBritish cabinet. It was proposed to detach a military and navalarmament which should, early in the season, join the troops to beraised in New England, at Louisbourg; whence they were to proceed upthe St. Lawrence to Quebec. The troops from New York, and from themore southern provinces, were to be collected at Albany, and to marchagainst Crown Point, and Montreal. 

This plan, so far as it depended on the colonies, was executed withpromptness and alacrity. The men were raised, and waited withimpatience for employment; but neither troops, nor orders, arrivedfrom England. The fleet destined for this service, sailed seven timesfrom Spithead; and was compelled as often, by contrary winds, toreturn. 

Late in the season, the military commanders in America, despairing ofthe succours promised by England, determined to assemble a body ofprovincials at Albany, and make an attempt on Crown Point. Whilepreparing for the execution of this plan, they received accountsstating that Annapolis was in danger from a body of French and Indiansassembled at Minas; upon which, orders were issued for the troops ofMassachusetts, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire, to embark for NovaScotia. Before these orders could be executed, intelligence wasreceived which directed their attention to their own defence. 

It was reported that a large fleet and army, under the command of theduke D'Anville, had arrived in Nova Scotia, and the views of conquest, which had been formed by the northern colonies, were converted intofears for their own safety. For six weeks, continual apprehensions ofinvasion were entertained; and the most vigorous measures were takento repel it. From this state of anxious solicitude, they were atlength relieved by the arrival of some prisoners set at liberty by theFrench, who communicated the extreme distress of the fleet. 

[Sidenote: The French fleet dispersed by a storm. ]

This formidable armament consisted of near forty ships of war, sevenof which were of the line; of two artillery ships; and of fifty-sixtransports laden with provisions and military stores, carrying threethousand five hundred land forces, and forty thousand stand of smallarms, for the use of the Canadians and Indians. The fleet sailed inJune, but was attacked by such furious and repeated storms, that manyof the ships were wrecked, and others dispersed. In addition to thisdisaster, the troops were infected with a disease which carried themoff in great numbers. While lying in Chebucto, under thesecircumstances, a vessel which had been dispatched by governor Shirleyto admiral Townshend at Louisbourg, with a letter stating hisexpectation that a British fleet would follow that of France toAmerica, was intercepted by a cruiser, and brought in to the admiral. These dispatches were opened in a council of war, which wasconsiderably divided respecting their future conduct. Thiscircumstance, added to the calamities already sustained, so affectedthe commander in chief, that he died suddenly. The vice-admiral fellby his own hand; and the command devolved on Monsieur le Jonguiere, governor of Canada, who had been declared _chef d'escadre_ after thefleet sailed. 

The design of invading New England was relinquished, and it wasresolved to make an attempt on Annapolis. With this view the fleetsailed from Chebucto, but was again overtaken by a violent tempestwhich scattered the vessels composing it. Those which escapedshipwreck returned singly to France. [142]

 [Footnote 142: Hutchison. Belknap. ]

"Never, " says Mr. Belknap, "was the hand of divine providence morevisible than on this occasion. Never was a disappointment more severeon the part of the enemy, nor a deliverance more complete, withouthuman help, in favour of this country. "

As soon as the fears excited by this armament were dissipated, theproject of dislodging the French and Indians, who had invaded NovaScotia, was resumed. Governor Shirley detached a part of the troops ofMassachusetts on this service; and pressed the governors of RhodeIsland and New Hampshire, to co-operate with him. The quotas furnishedby these colonies were prevented by several accidents from joiningthat of Massachusetts, which was inferior to the enemy in numbers. TheFrench and Indians, under cover of a snow storm, surprised the Englishat Minas; who, after an obstinate resistance, in which they lostupwards of one hundred men, were compelled to capitulate, and toengage not to bear arms against his Most Christian Majesty, in NovaScotia for one year. De Ramsay, who commanded the French, returnedsoon afterwards to Canada. 

No farther transactions of importance took place in America during thewar, which was terminated by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle. By thistreaty, it was stipulated that all conquests made during the warshould be restored; and the colonists had the mortification to see theFrench re-possess themselves of Cape Breton. 

The heavy expenses which had been incurred by the New Englandcolonies, and especially by Massachusetts, had occasioned largeemissions of paper money, and an unavoidable depreciation. Instead ofavailing themselves of peace, to discharge the debts contracted duringwar, they eagerly desired to satisfy every demand on the publictreasury, by farther emissions of bills of credit, redeemable atfuture and distant periods. Every inconvenience under which commercewas supposed to labour, every difficulty encountered in the interioreconomy of the province, was attributed to a scarcity of money; andthis scarcity was to be removed, not by increased industry, but byputting an additional sum in circulation. The rate of exchange, andthe price of all commodities, soon disclosed the political truth that, however the quantity of the circulating medium may be augmented, itsaggregate value cannot be arbitrarily increased; and that the effectof such a depreciating currency must necessarily be, to discourage thepayment of debts, by holding out the hope of discharging contractswith less real value than that for which they were made; and tosubstitute cunning and speculation, for honest and regular industry. Yet the majority had persevered in this demoralising system. Thedepreciation had reached eleven for one; and the evil was almostdeemed incurable, when the fortunate circumstance of a reimbursementin specie, made by parliament for colonial expenditures on account ofthe expeditions against Louisbourg and Canada, suggested to Mr. Hutchinson, speaker of the house of representatives in Massachusetts, the idea of redeeming the paper money in circulation, at its then realvalue. 

This scheme, at first deemed Utopian, was opposed by many well meaningmen who feared that its effect would be to give a shock to the tradeand domestic industry of the province; and who thought that, as thedepreciation had been gradual, justice required that the appreciationshould be gradual also. 

[Sidenote: Paper money redeemed. ]

With great difficulty, the measure was carried; and the bills ofcredit in circulation, were redeemed at fifty shillings the ounce. Theevils which had been apprehended were soon found to be imaginary. Specie immediately took the place of paper. Trade, so far fromsustaining a shock, nourished more than before this change in thedomestic economy of the colony; and the commerce of Massachusettsimmediately received an impulse, which enabled it to surpass that ofher neighbours who retained their paper medium. [143]

 [Footnote 143: Hutchison. ]

[Sidenote: Renewal of contests with the French colonies respectingboundary. ]

The treaty of Aix la Chapelle did not remove the previously existingcontroversies between the colonies of France and England respectingboundary. These controversies, originating in the manner in whichtheir settlements had been made, and at first of small consequence, were now assuming a serious aspect. America was becoming an object ofgreater attention; and, as her importance increased, the questionconcerning limits became important also. 

{1749}

In settling this continent, the powers of Europe, estimating the rightof the natives at nothing, adopted, for their own government, theprinciple, that those who first discovered and took possession of anyparticular territory, became its rightful proprietors. But as only asmall portion of it could then be reduced to actual occupation, theextent of country thus acquired was not well ascertained. Contestsrespecting prior discovery, and extent of possession, arose among allthe first settlers. England terminated her controversy with Sweden andwith Holland, by the early conquest of their territories; but herconflicting claims with France and with Spain, remained unadjusted. 

On the south, Spain had pretensions to the whole province of Georgia, while England had granted the country as far as the river St. Matheo, in Florida. 

On the north, the right of France to Canada was undisputed; but thecountry between the St. Lawrence and New England had been claimed byboth nations, and granted by both. The first settlement appears tohave been made by the French; but its principal town, called PortRoyal, or Annapolis, had been repeatedly taken by the English; and, bythe treaty of Utrecht, the whole province, by the name of Nova Scotia, or Acadié, according to its ancient limits had been ceded to them. 

But the boundaries of Nova Scotia, or Acadié, had never beenascertained. Though the treaty of Utrecht had provided thatcommissioners should be appointed by the two crowns, to adjust thelimits of their respective colonies, the adjustment had never beenmade. France claimed to the Kennebec; and insisted "that only thepeninsula which is formed by the bay of Fundy, the Atlantic ocean, andthe gulf of St. Lawrence, " was included in the cession of "NovaScotia, or Acadié, according to its ancient limits. " England, on theother hand, claimed all the country on the main land south of theriver St. Lawrence. Under the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, commissionerswere again appointed to settle these differences, who maintained therights of their respective sovereigns with great ability, andlaborious research; but their zeal produced a degree of asperityunfavourable to accommodation. 

While this contest for the cold and uninviting country of Nova Scotiawas carried on with equal acrimony and talents, a controversy arosefor richer and more extensive regions in the south and west. 

[Sidenote: Discovery of the Mississippi. ]

So early as the year 1660, information was received, in Canada, fromthe Indians, that, west of that colony, was a great river, flowingneither to the north, nor to the east. The government, conjecturingthat it must empty itself either into the gulf of Mexico or the southsea, committed the care of ascertaining the fact to Joliet, aninhabitant of Quebec, and to the Jesuit Marquette. These men proceededfrom lake Michigan up the river of the Foxes, almost to its source, whence they travelled westward to the Ouisconsing, which they pursuedto its confluence with the Mississippi. They sailed down this river tothe 33d degree of north latitude, and returned by land, through thecountry of the Illinois, to Canada. 

The mouth of the Mississippi was afterwards discovered by la Salle, anenterprising Norman, who, immediately after his return to Quebec, embarked for France, in the hope of inducing the cabinet of Versaillesto patronise a scheme for proceeding by sea to the mouth of that riverand settling a colony on its banks. 

Having succeeded in this application, he sailed for the gulf ofMexico, with a few colonists; but, steering too far westward, hearrived at the bay of St. Bernard, about one hundred leagues from themouth of the Mississippi. In consequence of a quarrel between him andBeaulieu, who commanded the fleet, the colonists were landed at thisplace. La Salle was, soon afterwards, assassinated by his own men; andhis followers were murdered or dispersed by the Spaniards and theIndians. 

Several other attempts were made by the French to settle the country;but, by some unaccountable fatality, instead of seating themselves onthe fertile borders of the Mississippi, they continually landed aboutthe barren sands of Biloxi, and the bay of Mobile. It was not untilthe year 1722, that the miserable remnant of those who had beencarried thither at various times, was transplanted to New Orleans; noruntil the year 1731, that the colony began to flourish. 

[Sidenote: Scheme for connecting Louisiana with Canada. ]

It had received the name of Louisiana, and soon extended itself bydetached settlements, up the Mississippi and its waters, towards thegreat lakes. [144] As it advanced northward, the vast and interestingplan was formed of connecting it with Canada by a chain of forts. 

 [Footnote 144: Abbe Raynal. ]

The fine climate and fertile soil of upper Louisiana enabling it toproduce and maintain an immense population, rendered it an objectwhich promised complete gratification to the views of France; whilethe extent given to it by that nation, excited the most serious alarmamong the colonies of Britain. 

The charters granted by the crown of England to the first adventurers, having extended from the Atlantic to the South Sea, their settlementshad regularly advanced westward, in the belief that their title to thecountry in that direction, could not be controverted. The settlementsof the French, stretching from north to south, necessarily interferedwith those of the English. Their plan, if executed, would completelyenviron the English. Canada and Louisiana united, as has been aptlysaid, would form a bow, of which the English colonies would constitutethe chord. 

While Great Britain claimed, indefinitely, to the west, asappertaining to her possession of the sea coast; France insisted onconfining her to the eastern side of the Apalachian, or Alleghany, mountains; and claimed the whole country drained by the Mississippi, in virtue of her right as the first discoverer of that river. Thedelightful region which forms the magnificent vale of the Mississippiwas the object for which these two powerful nations contended; and itsoon became apparent that the sword must decide the contest. 

The white population of the English colonies was supposed to exceedone million of souls, while that of the French was estimated at onlyfifty-two thousand. [145]

 [Footnote 145: The following estimate is taken from "The History of the British empire in North America, " and is there said to be an authentic account from the militia rolls, poll taxes, bills of mortality, returns from governors, and other authorities. 

 The colonies of Inhabitants. 

 Halifax and Lunenberg in Nova Scotia 5, 000 New Hampshire 30, 000 Massachusetts Bay 220, 000 Rhode Island and Providence 35, 000 Connecticut 100, 000 New York 100, 000 The Jerseys 60, 000 Pennsylvania (then including Delaware) 250, 000 Maryland 85, 000 Virginia 85, 000 North Carolina 45, 000 South Carolina 30, 000 Georgia 6, 000 --------- Total 1, 051, 000

 The white inhabitants of the French colonies were thus estimated:

 The colonies of Inhabitants. 

 Canada 45, 000 Louisiana 7, 000 ------ Total 52, 000]

This disparity of numbers did not intimidate the governor of NewFrance--a title comprehending both Canada and Louisiana; nor deter himfrom proceeding in the execution of his favourite plan. The Frenchpossessed advantages which, he persuaded himself, would counterbalancethe superior numbers of the English. Their whole power was unitedunder one governor, who could give it such a direction as his judgmentshould dictate. The genius of the people and of the government wasmilitary; and the inhabitants could readily be called into the field, when their service should be required. Great reliance too was placedon the Indians. These savages, with the exception of the Five Nations, were generally attached to France, and were well trained to war. Tothese advantages was added a perfect knowledge of the country about tobecome the theatre of action. 

The British colonies, on the other hand, were divided into distinctgovernments, unaccustomed, except those of New England, to act inconcert; were jealous of the power of the crown; and were spread overa large extent of territory, the soil of which, in all the middlecolonies, was cultivated by men unused to arms. 

The governors of Canada, who were generally military men, had, forseveral preceding years, judiciously selected and fortified suchsituations as would give them most influence over the Indians, andfacilitate incursions into the northern provinces. The command of LakeChamplain had been acquired by the erection of a strong fort at CrownPoint; and a connected chain of posts was maintained from Quebec, upthe St. Lawrence, and along the great lakes. It was intended to unitethese posts with the Mississippi by taking positions which wouldfavour the design of circumscribing and annoying the frontiersettlements of the English. 

[Illustration: Great Meadows and the Site of Fort Necessity

_On this battleground in the western Pennsylvania wilderness, whichmarked the beginning of the French and Indian War, July 3, 1754, aforce of 400 men under young Major Washington was defeated by 900French and Indian allies, and for the first and last time in hismilitary career Washington surrendered. He stipulated, however, thathe and his troops were to have safe conduct back to civilization, andagreed not to build a fort west of the Allegheny Mountains for a year. Washington was then twenty-two years old. _]

{1750}

The execution of this plan was, probably, accelerated by an act of theBritish government. The year after the conclusion of the war, severalindividuals both in England and Virginia who were associated under thename of the Ohio company, obtained from the crown a grant of sixhundred thousand acres of land, lying in the country claimed by bothnations. The objects of this company being commercial as well asterritorial, measures were taken to derive all the advantages expectedfrom their grant, in both these respects, by establishing tradinghouses, and by employing persons to survey the country. 

The governor of Canada, who obtained early information of thisintrusion, as he deemed it, into the dominions of his most christianmajesty, wrote to the governors of New York and Pennsylvania, informing them that the English traders had encroached on the Frenchterritory by trading with their Indians; and giving notice that, ifthey did not desist, he should be under the necessity of seizing themwherever they should be found. At the same time the jealousy of theIndians was excited by impressing them with fears that the Englishwere about to deprive them of their country. 

His threat having been disregarded, the governor of Canada put it inexecution by seizing the British traders among the Twightwees, andcarrying them prisoners to Presque-isle, on Lake Erie; where he waserecting a strong fort. About the same time, a communication wasopened from Presque-isle, down French creek, and the Alleghany river, to the Ohio. This communication was kept up by detachments of troops, posted at proper distances from each other, in works capable ofcovering them from an attack made only with small arms. [146]

 [Footnote 146: Minot Gazette. ]

{1753}

This territory having been granted as part of Virginia, to the Ohiocompany, who complained loudly of these aggressions, Dinwiddie, thelieutenant governor of that province, laid the subject before theassembly, and dispatched MAJOR WASHINGTON, the gentleman whoafterwards led his countrymen to independence, with a letter to thecommandant of the French forces on the Ohio; requiring him to withdrawfrom the dominions of his Britannic majesty. 

This letter was delivered at a fort on the river Le Boeuf, the westernbranch of French creek, to Monsieur le Guarduer de St. Pierre, thecommanding officer on the Ohio, who replied that he had takenpossession of the country by the directions of his general, then inCanada, to whom he would transmit the letter of the lieutenantgovernor, and whose orders he should implicitly obey. 

{1754}

[Sidenote: Defeat at the Little Meadows. ]

Preparations were immediately made, in Virginia, to assert the rightsof the British crown; and a regiment was raised for the protection ofthe frontiers. Early in the spring, Major Washington had advanced witha small detachment from this regiment into the country to be contendedfor, where he fell in with and defeated a party of French and Indianswho were approaching him in a manner indicating hostile designs. Onbeing joined by the residue of his regiment, the command of which haddevolved on him, he made great exertions to pre-occupy the post at theconfluence of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers; but, on his marchthither, was met by a much superior body of French and Indians, whoattacked him in a small stockade hastily erected at the LittleMeadows, and compelled him, after a gallant defence to capitulate. TheFrench had already taken possession of the ground to which Washingtonwas proceeding, and, having driven off some militia, and workmen sentthither by the Ohio company, had erected thereon a strongfortification called fort Du Quêsne. 

The earl of Holderness, secretary of state, perceiving war to beinevitable, and aware of the advantages of union, and of securing thefriendship of the Five Nations, had written to the governors of therespective colonies recommending these essential objects; and, at thesame time, ordering them to repel force by force; and to takeeffectual measures to dislodge the French from their posts on theOhio. 

[Sidenote: Convention at Albany. ]

At the suggestion of the commissioners for the plantations, aconvention of delegates from the several colonies met at Albany, tohold a conference with the Five Nations on the subject of Frenchencroachments, and to secure their friendship in the approaching war. Availing himself of this circumstance governor Shirley had recommendedto the other governors to instruct their commissioners on the subjectof union. Ample powers for this object were given to the delegates ofMassachusetts; and those of Maryland were instructed to observe whatothers should propose respecting it. But no direct authority forconcerting any system to call out and employ the strength of thecolonies, was given by any other of the governments. 

The congress, consisting of delegates from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, with the lieutenant governor and council of New York, afterendeavouring to secure the friendship of the Five Nations by largepresents, directed a committee, consisting of one member for eachcolony, to draw and report a plan of union. 

[Sidenote: Plan of union. ]

A plan[147] was reported which was approved on the 4th of July. Itsessential principles were, that application be made for an act ofparliament authorising the formation of a grand council to consist ofdelegates from the several legislatures, and a president general, tobe appointed by the crown, and to be invested with a negative power. This council was to enact laws of general import; to apportion theirquotas of men and money on the several colonies; to determine on thebuilding of forts; to regulate the operations of armies; and toconcert all measures for the common protection and safety. 

 [Footnote 147: See note No. II, at the end of the volume. ]

The delegates of Connecticut alone dissented from this plan. Thatcautious people feared that the powers vested in the president generalmight prove dangerous to their welfare. 

In England, the objections were of a different character. The colonieshad, in several instances, manifested a temper less submissive thanwas required; and it was apprehended that this union might be thefoundation of a concert of measures opposing the pretensions ofsupremacy maintained by the mother country. 

This confederation, therefore, notwithstanding the pressure ofexternal danger, did not prevail. It was not supported in America, because it was supposed to place too much power in the hands of theKing; and it was rejected in England from the apprehension that thecolonial assemblies would be rendered still more formidable by beingaccustomed to co-operate with each other. 

In its stead, the minister proposed that the governors, with one ortwo members of the councils of the respective provinces, shouldassemble to consult, and resolve on measures necessary for the commondefence, and should draw on the British treasury for the sums to beexpended, which sums should be afterwards raised by a general tax, tobe imposed by parliament on the colonies. 

This proposition being entirely subversive of all the opinions whichprevailed in America, was not pressed for the present; and nosatisfactory plan for calling out the strength of the colonies beingdevised, it was determined to carry on the war with British troops, aided by such reinforcements as the several provincial assemblieswould voluntarily afford. [148]

 [Footnote 148: Minot. ]

CHAPTER XI. 

 General Braddock arrives.... Convention of governors and plan of the campaign.... French expelled from Nova Scotia, and inhabitants transplanted.... Expedition against fort Du Quêsne.... Battle of Monongahela.... Defeat and death of general Braddock.... Expedition against Crown Point.... Dieskau defeated.... Expedition against Niagara.... Frontiers distressed by the Indians.... Meeting of the governors at New York.... Plan for the campaign of 1756.... Lord Loudoun arrives.... Montcalm takes Oswego.... Lord Loudoun abandons offensive operations.... Small-pox breaks out in Albany.... Campaign of 1757 opened.... Admiral Holbourne arrives at Halifax.... Is joined by the earl of Loudoun.... Expedition against Louisbourg relinquished.... Lord Loudoun returns to New York.... Fort William Henry taken.... Controversy between lord Loudoun and the assembly of Massachusetts. 

{1755}

[Sidenote: General Braddock. ]

The establishment of the post on the Ohio, and the action at theLittle Meadows, being considered by the British government as thecommencement of war in America, the resolution to send a few regimentsto that country was immediately taken; and early in the year, generalBraddock embarked at Cork, at the head of a respectable body of troopsdestined for the colonies. 

An active offensive campaign being meditated, general Braddockconvened the governors of the several provinces, on the 14th of April, in Virginia, who resolved to carry on three expeditions. 

[Sidenote: Plan of the campaign. ]

The first, and most important, was against fort Du Quêsne. This was tobe conducted by general Braddock in person at the head of the Britishtroops, with such aids as could be drawn from Maryland and Virginia. 

The second, against Niagara and fort Frontignac, was to be conductedby governor Shirley. The American regulars, consisting of Shirley andPepperel's regiments, constituted the principal force destined for thereduction of these places. 

The third was against Crown Point. This originated with Massachusetts;and was to be prosecuted entirely with colonial troops, to be raisedby the provinces of New England, and by New York. It was to becommanded by colonel William Johnson of the latter province. [149]

 [Footnote 149: Minot. ]

While preparations were making for these several enterprises, anexpedition, which had been previously concerted by the government ofMassachusetts, was carried on against the French in Nova Scotia. 

It has been already stated that the limits of this province remainedunsettled. While the commissioners of the two crowns were supportingthe claims of their respective sovereigns in fruitless memorials, theFrench occupied the country in contest, and established military postsfor its defence. Against these posts this enterprise was to beconducted. 

[Sidenote: French expelled from Nova Scotia. ]

On the 20th of May, the troops of Massachusetts, together withShirley's and Pepperel's regiments, amounting in the whole to aboutthree thousand men, embarked, at Boston, under the command oflieutenant colonel Winslow. The fleet anchored about five miles fromfort Lawrence, where a reinforcement was received of three hundredBritish troops and a small train of artillery. The whole army, commanded by lieutenant colonel Monckton, immediately after landing, marched against Beau Sejour, the principal post held by the French inthat country. At the river Mussaquack, which the French considered asthe western boundary of Nova Scotia, some slight works had been thrownup with the intention of disputing its passage. After a shortconflict, the river was passed with the loss of only one man; and, infive days, Beau Sejour capitulated. Other small places fell insuccession, and, in the course of the month of June, with the loss ofonly three men killed, the English acquired complete possession of thewhole province of Nova Scotia. 

The recovery of this province was followed by one of those distressingmeasures which involve individuals in indiscriminate ruin, andaggravate the calamities of war. 

Nova Scotia having been originally settled by France, its inhabitantswere, chiefly, of that nation. In the treaty of Utrecht, it wasstipulated for the colonists that they should be permitted to holdtheir lands on condition of taking the oaths of allegiance to theirnew sovereign. With this condition they refused to comply, unlesspermitted to qualify it with a proviso that they should not berequired to bear arms in defence of the province. Though thisqualification, to which the commanding officer of the British forcesacceded, was afterwards disallowed by the crown, yet the Frenchinhabitants continued to consider themselves as neutrals. Theirdevotion to France, however, would not permit them to conform theirconduct to the character they had assumed. In all the contests for thepossession of their country, they were influenced by their wishesrather than their duty; and three hundred of them were captured withthe garrison of Beau Sejour. 

[Sidenote: The inhabitants transported. ]

Their continuance in the country, during the obstinate conflict whichwas commencing, would, it was feared, endanger the colony; and toexpel them from it, leaving them at liberty to choose their place ofresidence, would be to reenforce the French in Canada. A council washeld by the executive of Nova Scotia aided by the admirals Boscawenand Morty, for the purpose of deciding on the destiny of theseunfortunate people; and the severe policy was adopted of removing themfrom their homes, and dispersing them through the other Britishcolonies. This harsh measure was immediately put in execution; and themiserable inhabitants of Nova Scotia were, in one instant, reducedfrom ease and contentment to a state of beggary. Their lands, andmoveables, with the exception of their money and household furniture, were declared to be forfeited to the crown; and, to prevent theirreturn, the country was laid waste, and their houses reduced toashes. [150]

 [Footnote 150: Minot. ]

As soon as the convention of governors had separated, general Braddockproceeded from Alexandria to a fort at Wills' creek, afterwards calledfort Cumberland, at that time the most western post in Virginia orMaryland; from which place the army destined against fort Du Quêsnewas to commence its march. The difficulties of obtaining wagons, andother necessary supplies for the expedition, and delays occasioned byopening a road through an excessively rough country, excitedapprehensions that time would be afforded the enemy to collect in suchforce at fort Du Quêsne, as to put the success of the enterprise intosome hazard. 

Under the influence of this consideration, it was determined to selecttwelve hundred men, who should be led by the general in person to thepoint of destination. The residue of the army, under the command ofcolonel Dunbar, was to follow, with the baggage, by slow and easymarches. 

This disposition being made, Braddock pressed forward to his object, in the confidence that he could find no enemy capable of opposing him;and reached the Monongahela on the eighth of July. 

As the army approached fort Du Quêsne, the general was cautioned ofthe danger to which the character of his enemy, and the face of thecountry, exposed him; and was advised to advance the provincialcompanies in his front, for the purpose of scouring the woods, anddiscovering ambuscades. But he held both his enemy and the provincialsin too much contempt, to follow this salutary counsel. Three hundredBritish troops comprehending the grenadiers and light infantry, commanded by colonel Gage, composed his van; and he followed, at somedistance, with the artillery, and the main body of the army, dividedinto small columns. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Monongahela. ]

Within seven miles of fort Du Quêsne, immediately after crossing theMonongahela the second time, in an open wood, thick set with highgrass, as he was pressing forward without fear of danger, his frontreceived an unexpected fire from an invisible enemy. The van wasthrown into some confusion; but, the general having ordered up themain body, and the commanding officer of the enemy having fallen, theattack was suspended, and the assailants were supposed to bedispersed. This delusion was soon dissipated. The attack was renewedwith increased fury; the van fell back on the main body; and the wholearmy was thrown into utter confusion. 

The general possessed personal courage in an eminent degree; but waswithout experience in that species of war, in which he was engaged;and seems not to have been endowed with that rare fertility of geniuswhich adapts itself to the existing state of things, and inventsexpedients fitted to the emergency. In the impending crisis, he waspeculiarly unfortunate in his choice of measures. Neither advancingnor retreating, he exerted his utmost powers to form his brokentroops, under an incessant and galling fire, on the very ground wherethey had been attacked. In his fruitless efforts to restore order, every officer on horseback except Mr. Washington, one of hisaides-de-camp, was killed or wounded. At length, after losing threehorses, the general himself received a mortal wound; upon which hisregulars fled in terror and confusion. Fortunately, the Indian enemywas arrested by the plunder found on the field, and the pursuit wassoon given over. The provincials exhibited an unexpected degree ofcourage, and were among the last to leave the field. 

[Sidenote: Death of Braddock. ]

The defeated troops fled precipitately to the camp of Dunbar, whereBraddock expired of his wounds. Their panic was communicated to theresidue of the army. As if affairs had become desperate, all thestores, except those necessary for immediate use, were destroyed; andthe British troops were marched to Philadelphia, where they went intoquarters. The western parts of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, were left exposed to the incursions of the savages; the frontiersettlements were generally broken up; and the inhabitants were driveninto the interior. So excessive was the alarm, that even the people ofthe interior entertained apprehensions for their safety, and manysupposed that the seaboard itself was insecure. 

The two northern expeditions, though not so disastrous as that againstfort Du Quêsne, were neither of them successful. That against CrownPoint was so retarded by those causes of delay to which militaryoperations conducted by distinct governments are always exposed, thatthe army was not ready to move until the last of August. At lengthgeneral Johnson reached the south end of lake George, on his way toTiconderoga, of which he designed to take possession. 

An armament fitted out in the port of Brest for Canada, had eluded aBritish squadron which was stationed off the banks of Newfoundland tointercept it; and, with the loss of two ships of war, had entered theSt. Lawrence. After arriving at Quebec the baron Dieskau, whocommanded the French forces, resolved, without loss of time, toproceed against the English. At the head of about twelve hundredregulars, and about six hundred Canadians and Indians, he marchedagainst Oswego. On hearing of this movement, general Johnson appliedfor reinforcements; and eight hundred men were ordered byMassachusetts to his assistance. An additional body of two thousandmen was directed to be raised for the same object, and theneighbouring colonies also determined to furnish reinforcements. 

Dieskau did not wait for their arrival. Perceiving that Johnson wasapproaching lake George, and being informed that the provincials werewithout artillery, he determined to postpone his designs upon Oswego, and to attack them in their camp. 

[Sidenote: Dieskau defeated. ]

On being informed that Dieskau was approaching, Johnson detachedcolonel Williams, with about one thousand men, to reconnoitre andskirmish with him. This officer met the French about four miles fromthe American camp, and immediately engaged them. He fell early in theaction; and his party was soon overpowered and put to flight. A seconddetachment, sent in aid of the first, experienced the same fate; andboth were closely pursued to the main body, who were posted behind abreast-work of fallen trees. At this critical moment, within about onehundred and fifty yards of this work, the French halted for a shorttime. This interval having given the Americans an opportunity torecover from the first alarm, they determined on a resolute defence. 

When the assailants advanced to the charge, they were received withfirmness. The militia and savages fled; and Dieskau was under thenecessity of ordering his regulars to retreat. A close and ardentpursuit ensued; and the general himself, being mortally wounded andleft alone, was taken prisoner. 

During the engagement, a scouting party from fort Edward, undercaptains Folsom and McGennis, fell in with the baggage of the enemyand routed the guard which had been placed over it. Soon afterwards, the retreating army of Dieskau approached, and was gallantly attackedby the Americans. This unexpected attack from an enemy whose numberswere unknown, completed the confusion of the defeated army, which, abandoning its baggage, fled towards the posts on the lake. [151]

 [Footnote 151: Minot. Belknap. Entic. ]

The repulse of Dieskau, magnified into a splendid victory, had sometendency to remove the depression of spirits occasioned by the defeatof Braddock, and to inspire the provincials with more confidence inthemselves. General Johnson, who was wounded in the engagement, received very solid testimonials of the gratitude and liberality ofhis country. Five thousand pounds sterling, and the title of baronet, were the rewards of his service. 

This success was not improved. The hopes and expectations of thepublic were not gratified; and the residue of the campaign was spentin fortifying the camp. Massachusetts pressed a winter campaign; butwhen her commissioners met those of Connecticut and the lieutenantgovernor and council of New York, it was unanimously agreed that thearmy under general Johnson should be discharged, except six hundredmen to garrison fort Edward, on the great carrying place between theHudson and lake George, and fort William Henry on that lake. 

The French took possession of Ticonderoga, and fortified it. 

[Sidenote: Expedition against Niagara. ]

The expedition against Niagara and fort Frontignac, was also defeatedby delays in making the preparations necessary for its prosecution. Shirley did not reach Oswego till late in August. After ascertainingthe state of the garrison, he determined to abandon that part of theenterprise which respected fort Frontignac, and to proceed againstNiagara. While employed in the embarkation of his troops on the lake, the rains set in with such violence as to suspend his operations untilthe season was so far advanced that the attempt against Niagara wasalso relinquished, and Shirley returned to Albany. [152]

 [Footnote 152: Minot. Belknap. Entic. ]

Thus terminated the campaign of 1755. It opened with so decided asuperiority of force on the part of the English, as to promise themost important advantages. But, if we except the expulsion of theFrench from Nova Scotia, no single enterprise was crowned withsuccess. Great exertions were made by the northern colonies, but theirefforts were productive of no benefit. From the want of one generalsuperintending authority in their councils, which could contemplateand control the different parts of the system, which could combine alltheir operations, and direct them with effect towards the attainmentof the object pursued, every thing failed. Such delays anddeficiencies were experienced that, though a considerable force was inmotion, it could not be brought to the point against which it was toact, until the season for action was over; nor execute the plans whichwere concerted until the opportunity had passed away. 

[Illustration: General Braddock's Grave

_Showing the monument recently erected_

_It is not generally appreciated that this British commander waschosen to head the expedition to destroy the French power in America, in 1754-5, because of his distinguished army record. In the Battle ofFontency, for instance, he was colonel in command of the famousColdstream Guards, who covered themselves with glory; and shortlybefore embarking for America he was made major-general of the line. Braddock had won his promotion solely through gallantry and at a timewhen a lieutenant-colonelcy in this crack British regiment sold for£5000 Sterling. _

_Despite his fatal mistake in not heeding the advice of his aide, Washington, in conducting his expedition against Fort Duquesne(Pittsburgh), Braddock regarded Washington and Franklin as thegreatest men in the colonies. Meeting the French and Indians on July9, 1755, the British were routed and Braddock was fatally wounded, after having four horses shot under him. Dying four days later atGreat Meadows, where he is buried, he bequeathed his favoritesurviving horse and body servant to Washington, then a colonel. _]

The system adopted by the British cabinet, for conducting the war inAmerica, left to the colonial governments to determine, what number ofmen each should bring into the field; but required them to supporttheir own troops, and to contribute to the support of those sent fromGreat Britain to their assistance. But this system could not beenforced. The requisitions of the minister were adopted, rejected, ormodified, at the discretion of the government on which they were made;and, as no rule of apportionment had been adopted, each colony wasinclined to consider itself as having contributed more than its equalshare towards the general object, and as having received, less thanits just proportion, of the attention and protection of the mothercountry. This temper produced a slow and reluctant compliance on thepart of some, which enfeebled and disconcerted enterprises, for theexecution of which the resources of several were to be combined. 

[Sidenote: Distress of the frontiers. ]

In the mean time the whole frontier, as far as North Carolina, wasexposed to the depredations of the savages, who were, almostuniversally, under the influence of the French. Their bloodyincursions were made in all directions, and many settlements wereentirely broken up. 

It is a curious and singular fact that, while hostilities were thuscarried on by France and England against each other in America, therelations of peace and amity were preserved between them in Europe. Each nation had, in consequence of the military operations in 1754, determined to fit out a considerable armament to aid the efforts madein its colonies; and, when it was understood that admiral Boscawen wasordered to intercept that of France, the Duc de Mirepoix, the Frenchambassador at London, complained of the proposed measure, and gaveformal notice that the King his master would consider the first gunfired at sea, as a declaration of war. On receiving intelligence ofthe capture of a part of the squadron by Boscawen, the French ministerat the court of St. James was recalled without asking an audience ofleave; upon which, letters of marque and reprisal were issued by theBritish government. This prompt and vigorous measure had muchinfluence on the war, which was declared, in form, the followingspring. 

General Shirley, on his return to Albany after the close of thecampaign in 1755, received a commission appointing him commander inchief of the King's forces in North America. A meeting of all thegovernors was immediately called at New York, for the purpose ofconcerting a plan for the ensuing campaign. Operations equallyextensive with those proposed for the preceding campaign were againcontemplated. To ensure their success, it was determined to raise tenthousand men, for the expedition against Crown Point; six thousand, for that against Niagara; and three thousand, for that against fort DuQuêsne. To favour the operations of this formidable force, it wasfarther determined that two thousand men should advance up theKennebec, destroy the settlement on the Chaudière, and, descending tothe mouth of that river, keep all that part of Canada in alarm. 

In the mean time, it was proposed to take advantage of the season whenthe lake should be frozen, to seize Ticonderoga, in order tofacilitate the enterprise against Crown Point. This project wasdefeated by the unusual mildness of the winter; and, about the middleof January, general Shirley repaired to Boston in order to make thenecessary preparations for the ensuing campaign. 

Such was the solicitude to accomplish the objects in contemplation, and so deep an interest did the colonists take in the war, that everynerve was strained, to raise and equip the number of men required. 

{1756}

[Sidenote: Command bestowed on Lord Loudoun. ]

Having made in Massachusetts all the preparations for the nextcampaign, so far as depended on the government, Shirley repaired toAlbany, where he was superseded[153] by major general Abercrombie;who, soon afterwards, yielded the command to the earl of Loudoun. Early in the year, that nobleman had been appointed to the command ofall his majesty's forces in North America; and extensive powers, civilas well as military, had been conferred on him. But he did not arriveat Albany until midsummer. 

 [Footnote 153: He was also recalled from his government. ]

In the spring, the provincial troops destined for the expeditionagainst Crown Point, were assembled in the neighbourhood of lakeGeorge. They were found not much to exceed seven thousand men; andeven this number was to be reduced in order to garrison posts in therear. This army being too weak to accomplish its object, major generalWinslow, who commanded it, declared himself unable to proceed on theexpedition without reinforcements. The arrival of a body of Britishtroops, with general Abercrombie, removed this difficulty; but anotheroccurred which still farther suspended the enterprise. 

The regulations respecting rank had given great disgust in America;and had rendered it disagreeable and difficult to carry on anymilitary operations which required a junction of British andprovincial troops. When consulted on this delicate subject, Winslowassured general Abercrombie of his apprehensions that, if the resultof the junction should be to place the provincial troops under Britishofficers, it would produce general discontent, and perhaps desertion. His officers concurred in this opinion; and it was finally agreed thatBritish troops should succeed the provincials in the posts thenoccupied by them, so as to enable the whole colonial force to proceedunder Winslow, against Crown Point. 

On the arrival of the earl of Loudoun, this subject was revived. Thequestion was seriously propounded, "whether the troops in the severalcolonies of New England, armed with his majesty's arms, would, inobedience to his commands signified to them, act in conjunction withhis European troops; and under the command of his commander in chief?"The colonial officers answered this question in the affirmative; butentreated it as a favour of his lordship, as the New England troopshad been raised on particular terms, that he would permit them, so faras might consist with his majesty's service, to act separately. Thisrequest was acceded to; but before the army could be put in motion, the attention both of the Europeans and provincials, was directed totheir own defence. 

[Sidenote: Montcalm takes Oswego. ]

Monsieur de Montcalm, an able officer, who succeeded Dieskau in thecommand of the French troops in Canada, sought to compensate bysuperior activity, for the inferiority of his force. While the Britishand Americans were adjusting their difficulties respecting rank, anddeliberating whether to attack Niagara or fort Du Quêsne, Montcalmadvanced at the head of about five thousand Europeans, Canadians, andIndians, against Oswego. In three days he brought up his artillery, and opened a battery which played on the fort with considerableeffect. Colonel Mercer, the commanding officer, was killed; and, in afew hours, the place was declared by the engineers to be no longertenable. The garrison, consisting of the regiments of Shirley andPepperel, amounting to sixteen hundred men, supplied with provisionsfor five months, capitulated, and became prisoners of war. Arespectable naval armament, then on the lake, was also captured. 

The fort at Oswego had been erected in the country of the FiveNations, and had been viewed by them with some degree of jealousy. Montcalm, actuated by a wise policy, destroyed it in their presence;declaring at the same time, that the French wished only to enable themto preserve their neutrality, and would, therefore, make no other useof the rights of conquest, than to demolish the fortresses which theEnglish had erected in their country to overawe them. 

The British general, disconcerted at this untoward event, abandonedall his plans of offensive operations. General Winslow was ordered torelinquish his intended expedition, and to fortify his camp, andendeavour to prevent the enemy from penetrating into the country bythe way of South bay, or Wood creek. Major general Webb, with fourteenhundred men, was posted at the great carrying place; and, to securehis rear, sir William Johnson, with one thousand militia, wasstationed at the German flats. 

These dispositions being made, the colonies were strenuously urged toreinforce the army. It was represented to them that, should anydisaster befall Winslow, the enemy might be enabled to overrun thecountry, unless opposed by a force much superior to that in thefield. [154]

 [Footnote 154: The northern colonies had been enabled to attend to these representations, and, in some degree to comply with the requisitions made on them, by having received from the British government, in the course of the summer, a considerable sum of money as a reimbursement for the extraordinary expenses of the preceding year. One hundred and fifteen thousand pounds sterling had been apportioned among them, and this sum gave new vigour and energy to their councils. ]

[Sidenote: Small-pox in Albany. ]

During this state of apprehensive inactivity, the small-pox broke outin Albany. This enemy was more dreaded by the provincials thanMontcalm himself. So great was the alarm, that it was found necessaryto garrison the posts in that quarter, entirely with British troops, and to discharge all the provincials except a regiment raised in NewYork. 

Thus terminated for a second time, in defeat and utter disappointment, the sanguine hopes which the colonists had formed of a brilliant andsuccessful campaign. After all their expensive and laboriouspreparations, not an effort had been made to drive the invaders of thecountry even from their out-post at Ticonderoga. 

The expedition to lake Ontario had not been commenced; and nopreparations had been made for that against fort Du Quêsne. Thecolonies of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, far fromcontemplating offensive operations, had been unable to defendthemselves; and their frontiers were exposed to all the horrors ofIndian warfare. 

The expedition up the Kennebec was also abandoned. Thus, no oneenterprise contemplated at the opening of the campaign, was carriedinto execution. [155]

 [Footnote 155: Minot. Belknap. Entic. ]

{1757}

About the middle of January, the governors of the northern provinceswere convened in a military council at Boston. The earl of Loudounopened his propositions to them with a speech in which he attributedall the disasters that had been sustained, to the colonies; and inwhich he proposed that New England should raise four thousand men forthe ensuing campaign. Requisitions proportionably large were also madeon New York and New Jersey. 

[Sidenote: Campaign of 1757. ]

The ill success which had, thus far, attended the combined arms ofGreat Britain and her colonies, did not discourage them. Theirexertions to bring a powerful force into the field were repeated; andthe winter was employed in preparations for the ensuing campaign. Therequisitions of lord Loudoun were complied with; and he found himself, in the spring, at the head of a respectable army. Some importantenterprise against Canada, when the armament expected from Europeshould arrive, was eagerly anticipated; and the most sanguine hopes ofsuccess were again entertained. 

[Sidenote: Admiral Holbourne arrives. ]

[Sidenote: Is joined by Lord Loudoun. ]

In the beginning of July, Admiral Holbourne reached Halifax with apowerful squadron, and reinforcement of five thousand British troopscommanded by George Viscount Howe, and, on the 6th of the same month, the earl of Loudoun sailed from New York with six thousand regulars. Ajunction of these formidable armaments was effected withoutopposition, and the Loudoun colonists looked forward with confidencefor a decisive blow which would shake the power of France in America. 

[Sidenote: The expedition against Louisbourg relinquished. ]

The plan of this campaign varied from that which had been adopted inthe preceding years. The vast and complex movements heretoforeproposed, were no longer contemplated, and offensive operations wereto be confined to a single object. Leaving the posts on the lakesstrongly garrisoned, the British general determined to direct hiswhole disposable force against Louisbourg; and fixed on Halifax as theplace of rendezvous for the fleet and army. 

After assembling the land and naval forces at this place, informationwas received that a fleet had lately arrived from France, and thatLouisbourg was so powerfully defended as to render any attempt upon ithopeless. In consequence of this intelligence the enterprise wasdeferred until the next year; the general and admiral returned to NewYork in August; and the provincials were dismissed. 

[Sidenote: Fort William Henry taken. ]

The French general, feeling no apprehension for Louisbourg, determinedto avail himself of the absence of a large part of the British force, and to obtain complete possession of lake George. With an armycollected chiefly from the garrisons of Crown Point, Ticonderoga, andthe adjacent forts; amounting, with the addition of Indians, andCanadians, to nine thousand men, the marquis de Montcalm laid siege tofort William Henry. That place was well fortified, and garrisoned bythree thousand men; and derived additional security from an army offour thousand men at fort Edwards, under the command of major generalWebb. Notwithstanding the strength of the place and its means ofdefence, Montcalm urged his approaches with so much vigour, thatarticles of capitulation, surrendering the fort, artillery, andstores, and stipulating that the garrison should not serve against hisMost Christian Majesty or his allies for the space of eighteen months, were signed within six days after its investment. 

When this important place was surrendered, the commander in chief hadnot returned from Halifax. General Webb, alarmed for fort Edward, applied for reinforcements; and the utmost exertions were made tofurnish the aids he required. The return of the army to New York onthe last of August, dispelled all fear of an invasion, and enabled thegeneral, who contemplated no farther active operations, to dismiss theprovincials. 

Unsuccessful in all his attempts to gather laurels from the commonenemy, the earl of Loudoun engaged in a controversy withMassachusetts; in the commencement of which, he displayed a degree ofvigour which had been kept in reserve for two campaigns. Thiscontroversy is thus stated by Mr. Minot. 

Upon information from the governor that a regiment of Highlanders wasexpected in Boston, the general court provided barracks for theaccommodation of one thousand men at Castle Island. Soon afterwards, several officers arrived from Nova Scotia to recruit their regiments. Finding it impracticable to perform this service while in the barracksat the castle, they applied to the justices of the peace to quarterand billet them, as provided by act of parliament. The justicesrefused to grant this request, on the principle that the act did notextend to the colonies. When informed of this refusal, lord Loudounaddressed a letter to the justices, insisting peremptorily on theright, as the act did, in his opinion, extend to America, and to everypart of the King's dominions, where the necessities of the peopleshould oblige him to send his troops. He concluded a long dissertationon the question in the following decisive terms, "that having usedgentleness and patience, and confuted their arguments, without effect, they having returned to their first mistaken plan, their not complyingwould lay him under the necessity of taking measures to prevent thewhole continent from being thrown into a state of confusion. Asnothing was wanting to set things right, but the justices doing theirduty (for no act of the assembly was necessary or wanting for it) hehad ordered the messenger to remain only forty-eight hours in Boston;and if on his return he found things not settled, he would instantlyorder into Boston the three battalions from New York, Long Island, andConnecticut; and if more were wanting, he had two in the Jerseys athand, besides those in Pennsylvania. As public business obliged him totake another route, he had no more time left to settle this materialaffair, and must take the necessary steps before his departure, incase they were not done by themselves. "

The general court passed a law for the purpose of removing theinconveniences of which the officers complained; but, this law notequalling the expectations of lord Loudoun, he communicated hisdissatisfaction in a letter to the governor, which was laid before theassembly, who answered by an address to his excellency in which thespirit of their forefathers seemed to revive. They again asserted thatthe act of parliament did not extend to the colonies; and that theyhad for this reason enlarged the barracks at the castle, and passed alaw for the benefit of recruiting parties, as near the act ofparliament as the circumstances of the country would admit; that sucha law was necessary to give power to the magistrates, and they werewilling to make it, whenever his majesty's troops were necessary fortheir defence. They asserted their natural rights as Englishmen; thatby the royal charter, the powers and privileges of civil governmentwere granted to them; that their enjoyment of these was their supportunder all burdens, and would animate them to resist an invading enemyto the last. If their adherence to their rights and privileges should, in any measure, lessen the esteem which his lordship had conceived forthem, it would be their great misfortune; but that they would have thesatisfaction of reflecting that, both in their words and actions, theyhad been governed by a sense of duty to his majesty, and faithfulnessto the trust committed to them. 

This address being forwarded to lord Loudoun, he affected to rely ontheir removing all difficulties in future, and not only countermandedthe march of the troops, but condescended to make some conciliatoryobservations respecting the zeal of the province in his majesty'sservice. For these the two houses made an ample return in a message tothe governor, in which they disavowed any intention of lessening theirdependence on parliament; and expressly acknowledged the authority ofall acts which concerned, and extended to, the colonies. 

This explicit avowal of sentiments so different from those whichMassachusetts had long cherished respecting her connexion with themother country, would induce a belief that she had recently becomemore colonial in her opinions. This was probably the fact; but Mr. Minot, who may be presumed to have been personally acquainted with thetransaction, does not attribute to that cause entirely, theconciliating temper manifested at the close of a contest, which hadcommenced with such appearances of asperity. Massachusetts had madelarge advances for the prosecution of the war, for which she expectedreimbursements from parliament; and was not willing, at such ajuncture, to make impressions unfavorable to the success of herclaims. 

CHAPTER XII. 

 Preparations for the campaign of 1758.... Admiral Boscawen and general Amherst arrive at Halifax.... Plan of the campaign.... Expedition against Louisbourg, Ticonderoga, and Crown Point.... General Abercrombie repulsed under the walls of Ticonderoga.... Fort Frontignac taken.... Expedition against fort Du Quêsne.... Preparations for the campaign of 1759.... General Amherst succeeds general Abercrombie.... Plan of the campaign.... Ticonderoga and Crown Point taken.... Army goes into winter quarters.... French repulsed at Oswego.... Defeated at Niagara.... Niagara taken.... Expedition against Quebec.... Check to the English army.... Battle on the Plains of Abraham.... Death of Wolfe and Montcalm.... Quebec capitulates.... Garrisoned by the English under the command of general Murray.... Attempt to recover Quebec.... Battle near Sillery.... Quebec besieged by Monsieur Levi.... Siege raised.... Montreal capitulates.... War with the southern Indians.... Battle near the town of Etchoe.... Grant defeats them and burns their towns.... Treaty with the Cherokees.... War with Spain.... Success of the English.... Peace. 

{1758}

The affairs of Great Britain in North America wore a more gloomyaspect, at the close of the campaign of 1757, than at any formerperiod. By the acquisition of fort William Henry, the French hadobtained complete possession of the lakes Champlain and George. By thedestruction of Oswego, they had acquired the dominion of those lakeswhich connect the St. Lawrence with the waters of the Mississippi, andunite Canada to Louisiana. By means of fort Du Quêsne, they maintainedtheir ascendency over the Indians, and held undisturbed possession ofthe country west of the Allegheny mountains; while the Englishsettlers were driven to the Blue Ridge. The great object of the war inthat quarter was gained, and France held the country for whichhostilities had been commenced. With inferior numbers, the French hadbeen victorious in every campaign, and had uniformly gained ground onthe English colonies. Nor were they less successful elsewhere. Theflame of war which was kindled in America, had communicated itself toEurope and Asia. In every quarter of the world where hostilities hadbeen carried on, the British arms were attended with defeat anddisgrace. 

But this inglorious scene was about to be succeeded by one ofunrivalled brilliancy. From the point of extreme depression to whichtheir affairs had sunk, the brightest era of British history was tocommence. Far from being broken by misfortune, the spirit of thenation was high; and more of indignation than dismay was inspired bythe ill success of their arms. The public voice had, at length, madeits way to the throne, and had forced, on the unwilling monarch, aminister who has been justly deemed one of the greatest men of the agein which he lived. 

Mr. Pitt had been long distinguished in the House of Commons, for theboldness and the splendour of his eloquence. His parliamentarytalents, and the independent grandeur of his character, had given hima great ascendency in that body, and had made him the idol of thenation. In 1756, he had been introduced into the cabinet, but couldnot long retain his place. The public affection followed him out ofoffice; and, the national disasters continuing, it was foundimpracticable to conduct the complicated machine of government withouthis aid. In the summer of 1757, an administration was formed, whichconciliated the great contending interests in parliament; and Mr. Pittwas placed at its head. The controlling superiority of his charactergave him the same ascendency in the cabinet which he had obtained inthe house of commons; and he seemed to dictate the measures of thenation. Only a short time was required to show that qualities, seldomunited in the same person, were combined in him; and his talents foraction seemed to eclipse even those he had displayed in debate. Hisplans partaking of the proud elevation of his own mind, and theexalted opinion he entertained of his countrymen, were always grand;and the means he employed for their execution, were always adequate tothe object. Possessing the public confidence without limitation, hecommanded all the resources of the nation, and drew liberally from thepublic purse; but the money was always faithfully and judiciouslyapplied to the public service. Too great in his spirit, too lofty inhis views, to become the instrument of faction; when placed at thehead of the nation, he regarded only the interest of the nation; and, overlooking the country or the party, which had given birth to merit, he searched for merit only, and employed it wherever it was found. From the elevation of the house of Brunswick to the British throne, agreat portion of the people, under the denomination of tories, hadbeen degraded, persecuted, and oppressed. Superior to this narrow andshort sighted policy, Mr. Pitt sought to level these enfeebling andirritating distinctions, and to engage every British subject in thecause of his country. Thus commanding both the strength and the wealthof the kingdom, with perhaps greater talents, he possessed certainlygreater means, than any of his predecessors. [156]

 [Footnote 156: Fussel. ]

In no part of his majesty's dominions was the new administration morepopular than in his American colonies. Deeply and peculiarlyinterested in the events of the war, they looked for a change offortune from this change of men, and cheerfully made every exertion, of which they were capable, for the ensuing campaign. The circularletter of Mr. Pitt assured the several governors that, to repair thelosses and disappointments of the last inactive campaign, the cabinetwas determined to send a formidable force, to operate by sea and land, against the French in America; and he called upon them to raise aslarge bodies of men, within their respective governments, as thenumber of inhabitants might allow. Arms, ammunition, tents, provisions, and boats, would, he said, be furnished by the crown; andhe required the colonies to clothe and pay their men; assuring them, at the same time, that it should be recommended to parliament to makethem compensation. 

[Sidenote: Great preparations for the campaign. ]

The legislature of Massachusetts agreed to furnish seven thousand men;Connecticut five thousand; and New Hampshire three thousand. Thesetroops, great as were their numbers, when compared with the populationof the country, were in the field early in May; and the transports forcarrying those of Massachusetts to Halifax, were ready to sail infifteen days after they were engaged. Near one-third of the effectivemen of that province, are said to have been in military service; andthe taxes were so heavy that, in the capital, they amounted totwo-thirds of the income of real estate. [157]

 [Footnote 157: Minot. ]

[Sidenote: Admiral Boscawen and General Amherst arrive. ]

In the mother country too, the utmost activity was transfused intoevery department. Her fleets blocked up in the French ports the menand stores designed for Canada, and captured, on the seas, most ofthose which had been able to make their way into the ocean. At thesame time, a powerful armament, equipped with unusual expedition, sailed from her ports. Early in the spring, admiral Boscawen arrivedat Halifax with a formidable fleet, and twelve thousand Britishtroops, under the command of general Amherst. 

The earl of Loudoun had returned to England, and the command of theBritish and American forces in the colonies, had devolved on generalAbercrombie. That officer found himself at the head of the mostpowerful army ever seen in the new world. His whole numbers, comprehending troops of every description, have been computed by Mr. Belsham at fifty thousand men, of whom twenty thousand wereprovincials. 

The objects of the campaign were no longer defeated by delays. Thepreparations for action were made during the winter, and militaryoperations commenced in the spring. 

[Sidenote: Plan of the campaign. ]

Three expeditions were proposed. The first was against Louisbourg; thesecond against Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and the third against fortDu Quêsne. [158]

 [Footnote 158: Minot. Belknap. ]

[Sidenote: Expedition against Louisbourg. ]

The army destined against Louisbourg, consisting of fourteen thousandmen, was commanded by major general Amherst; and the fleet, consistingof twenty ships of the line and eighteen frigates, by admiralBoscawen. On the 24th of May, the troops embarked at Halifax; and, onthe 2d of June, arrived before Louisbourg. 

The use made by Great Britain of her naval superiority was felt in nopart of the possessions of his Most Christian Majesty more sensiblythan in Louisbourg. The garrison of that important place was composedof only two thousand five hundred regulars, aided by six hundredmilitia. The harbour was defended by five ships of the line; one shipof fifty guns; and five frigates, three of which were sunk across themouth of the basin. 

Soon after investment of the place, one of the large ships was set onfire by a bomb from a battery on the light house point, and blown up. The flames were communicated to two others which shared the same fate. The English admiral then sent a detachment of six hundred seamen, inboats, into the harbour, under captains La Forcey and Balfour, to makean attempt on the two remaining ships of the line, which still keptpossession of the basin. This service was executed with greatgallantry. One, which was aground, was destroyed, and the other wastowed off in triumph. 

The harbour being in possession of the English, and severalpracticable breaches made in the works, the place was no longer deemeddefensible, and the governor was under the necessity of capitulating. The garrison became prisoners of war, and Louisbourg, with itsartillery, provisions and military stores; and also Island Royal, St. Johns, and their dependencies, were surrendered to the English, whoencountered no farther difficulty in taking possession of the wholeisland. [159]

 [Footnote 159: Minot. Belknap. Belsham. Russel. ]

This important acquisition was made with the loss of between five andsix hundred men, killed and wounded. The joy it diffused throughoutthe colonies, long familiarised to disaster, was in proportion totheir former disappointments. 

[Sidenote: Against Ticonderoga. ]

The expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point was conducted bygeneral Abercrombie in person. His army, consisting of near sixteenthousand effectives, of whom nine thousand were provincials, wasattended by a formidable train of artillery, and possessed everyrequisite to ensure success. 

On the 5th of July, he embarked on lake George, and reached thelanding place early the next morning. A disembarkation being effectedwithout opposition, the troops were immediately formed into fourcolumns, the British in the centre, and the Provincials on the flanks;in which order they marched towards the advanced guard of the French, composed of one battalion posted in a log camp, which, on the approachof the English, made a precipitate retreat. 

Abercrombie continued his march towards Ticonderoga, with theintention of investing that place; but, the woods being thick, and theguides unskilful, his columns were thrown into confusion, and, in somemeasure, entangled with each other. In this situation lord Howe, atthe head of the right centre column, fell in with a part of theadvance guard of the French, which, in retreating from lake George, was likewise lost in the wood. He immediately attacked and dispersedthem; killing several, and taking one hundred and forty-eightprisoners, among whom were five officers. 

This small advantage was purchased at a dear rate. Though only twoofficers, on the side of the British, were killed, one of these waslord Howe himself, who fell on the first fire. This gallant youngnobleman had endeared himself to the whole army. The British andprovincials alike lamented his death; and the assembly ofMassachusetts passed a vote for the erection of a superb cenotaph tohis memory, in the collegiate church of Westminster, among the heroesand patriots of Great Britain. 

Without farther opposition, the English army took possession of thepost at the Saw Mills, within two miles of Ticonderoga. This fortress, which commands the communication between the two lakes, is encompassedon three sides by water, and secured in front by a morass. Theordinary garrison amounting to four thousand men, was stationed underthe cannon of the place, and covered by a breast-work, the approach towhich had been rendered extremely difficult by trees felled in front, with their branches outward, many of which were sharpened so as toanswer the purpose of chevaux-de-frize. This body of troops wasrendered still more formidable by its general than by its position. Itwas commanded by the marquis de Montcalm. 

Having learned from his prisoners the strength of the army under thewalls of Ticonderoga, and that a reinforcement of three thousand menwas daily expected, general Abercrombie thought it advisable to stormthe place before this reinforcement should arrive. Being informed byan engineer directed to reconnoitre the works, that they wereunfinished, and were practicable, he resolved, without waiting for hisartillery, to storm the lines; and the dispositions for an assaultwere instantly made. 

The rangers, the light infantry, and the right wing of theprovincials, were ordered to form a line out of cannon shot of theintrenchments, with their right extending to lake George, and theirleft to lake Champlain. The regulars who were to storm the works, wereformed in the rear of this line. The piquets were to begin the attack, and to be sustained by the grenadiers; and the grenadiers by thebattalions. The whole were ordered to march up briskly, to rush uponthe enemy's fire, and to reserve their own until they had passed thebreast-work. 

The troops marched to the assault with great intrepidity; but theirutmost efforts could make no impression on the works. The impedimentsin front of the intrenchments retarded their advance, and exposedthem, while entangled among the boughs of the trees, to a very gallingfire. The breast-work itself was eight or nine feet high, and muchstronger than had been represented; so that the assailants, who do notappear to have been furnished with ladders, were unable to pass it. After a contest of near four hours, and several repeated attacks, general Abercrombie ordered a retreat. 

[Sidenote: General Abercrombie repulsed under the walls ofTiconderoga. ]

The army retired to the camp from which it had marched in the morning;and, the next day, resumed its former position on the south side oflake George. [160]

 [Footnote 160: Letter of general Abercrombie. ]

In this rash attempt, the killed and wounded of the English amountedto near two thousand men, of whom not quite four hundred wereprovincials. The French were covered during the whole action, andtheir loss was inconsiderable. [161]

 [Footnote 161: Minot. Belknap. ]

Entirely disconcerted by this unexpected and bloody repulse, GeneralAbercrombie relinquished his designs against Ticonderoga and CrownPoint. Searching however for the means of repairing the misfortune, ifnot the disgrace, sustained by his arms, he readily acceded to aproposition made by colonel Bradstreet, for an expedition against fortFrontignac. This fortress stands on the north side of Ontario, at thepoint where the St. Lawrence issues from that lake; and though a postof real importance, had been left, in a great degree, undefended. 

The detachment designed for this service was commanded by colonelBradstreet. It consisted of three thousand men, of whom two hundredwere British, and was furnished with eight pieces of cannon, and threemortars. 

[Sidenote: Fort Frontignac taken. ]

Colonel Bradstreet embarked on the Ontario at Oswego, and on the 25thof August, landed within one mile of the fort. In two days, hisbatteries were opened at so short a distance that almost every shelltook effect; and the governor, finding the place absolutely untenable, surrendered at discretion. The Indians having deserted, the prisonersamounted only to one hundred and ten men. A great quantity of militarystores, together with nine armed vessels, mounting from eight toeighteen guns, also fell into the hands of the English. [162]

 [Footnote 162: Letter of colonel Bradstreet. ]

After destroying the fort and vessels, and such stores as could not bebrought off, colonel Bradstreet returned to the army which undertooknothing farther during the campaign. 

[Sidenote: Expedition against Fort Du Quêsne. ]

The demolition of fort Frontignac and of the stores which had beencollected there, contributed materially, to the success of theexpedition against fort Du Quêsne. The conduct of this enterprise hadbeen entrusted to general Forbes, who marched from Philadelphia, aboutthe beginning of July, at the head of the main body of the army, destined for this service, in order to join colonel Bouquet atRaystown. So much time was employed in preparing to move from thisplace, that the Virginia regulars, commanded by colonel Washington, were not ordered to join the British troops until the month ofSeptember. It had been determined not to use the road made byBraddock, but to cut a new one from Raystown to fort du Quêsne. Aboutthe time this resolution was formed, and before the army was put inmotion, major Grant was detached from the advanced post at LoyalHannan with eight hundred men, to reconnoitre the fort and theadjacent country. This gentleman invited an attack from the garrison, the result of which was that upwards of three hundred of thedetachment were killed and wounded, and major Grant himself was made aprisoner. [163]

 [Footnote 163: MSS. ]

[Sidenote: Fort Du Quêsne evacuated. ]

Early in October general Forbes moved from Raystown; but theobstructions to his march were so great that he did not reach fort DuQuêsne until late in November. The garrison, being deserted by theIndians, and too weak to maintain the place against the formidablearmy which was approaching, abandoned the fort the evening before thearrival of the British, and escaped down the Ohio in boats. TheEnglish placed a garrison in it, and changed its name to Pittsburg, incompliment to their popular minister. The acquisition of this post wasof great importance to Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. Itspossession had given the French an absolute control over the Indiansof the Ohio, who were accustomed to assemble at that place, for thepurpose of making their destructive incursions into those colonies. Their route was marked by fire and the scalping knife; and neither agenor sex could afford exemption from their ferocity. The expulsion ofthe French gave the English entire possession of the country, andproduced a complete revolution in the disposition of the Indiansinhabiting it. Finding the current of success to be running againsttheir ancient friends, they were willing to reconcile themselves tothe most powerful; and all the Indians between the lakes and the Ohioconcluded a peace with the English. 

Although the events of 1758 did not equal the expectations which hadbeen formed from the force brought into the field, the advantages weredecisive. The whole country constituting the original cause of thewar, had changed masters, and was in possession of the English. Theacquisition of the island of Cape Breton opened the way to Quebec; andtheir success in the west enabled them to direct all their forceagainst Canada. The colonists, encouraged by this revolution in theiraffairs, and emboldened, by the conquests already made, to hope forothers still more extensive, prepared vigorously on the application ofMr. Pitt, for the farther prosecution of the war. 

[Sidenote: General Amherst succeeds General Abercrombie. ]

Late in the year 1758, general Abercrombie was succeeded in thecommand of the army by major general Amherst, who formed the bold planof conquering Canada in the course of the ensuing campaign. 

{1759}

[Sidenote: Plan of the campaign. ]

The decided superiority of Great Britain at sea, and the greatexertions of France in other quarters of the world, still preventedthe arrival of such reinforcements as were necessary for thepreservation of his most christian majesty's possessions in NorthAmerica. To take advantage of this weakness, the English proposed toenter Canada by three different routes, with three powerful armies;and to attack all the strongholds by which that country was defended. 

It was determined that one division of the army, to be commanded bybrigadier general Wolfe, a young officer who had signalised himself inthe siege of Louisbourg, should ascend the St. Lawrence, and lay siegeto Quebec. A strong fleet was to escort the troops destined for thisenterprise, and to co-operate with them. 

Major general Amherst was to lead the central and main army againstTiconderoga and Crown Point. After making himself master of theseplaces, he was to proceed over lake Champlain, and by the way ofRichelieu, to the St. Lawrence, and down that river, so as to effect ajunction with general Wolfe before the walls of Quebec. From theircombined force, the conquest of the capital of Canada was expected. 

The third army was to be commanded by general Prideaux. Its firstdestination was against Niagara. After the reduction of this place, Prideaux was to embark on lake Ontario, and proceed down the St. Lawrence against Montreal. Should Montreal fall into his hands beforethe surrender of Quebec, he was to join the grand army at thatplace. [164]

 [Footnote 164: Minot. Belknap. Belsham. Russel. Entic. ]

It could not be expected that a plan so extensive and so complex, should succeed in all its parts; and it was greatly to be apprehended, that the failure of one part might defeat the whole. But it suited thedaring spirit which eminently distinguished the officers thencommanding the British forces, and was entered upon with zeal andactivity. 

[Sidenote: Ticonderoga abandoned. ]

As the other two expeditions, especially that against Quebec, weresupposed to depend greatly on the celerity with which the movements ofthe main army should be made, general Amherst began his preparationsin the commencement of winter, for the enterprise he was to undertake. Early in the spring, he transferred his head quarters from New York toAlbany, where his troops were assembled by the last of May. Notwithstanding his continued exertions, the summer was far advancedbefore he could cross lake George; nor did he reach Ticonderoga untilthe 22d of July. The lines drawn around that place were immediatelyabandoned, and the English took possession of them. 

The French troops in this quarter being unequal to the defence of theposts they held, their object seems to have been to embarrass anddelay the invading army; but not to hazard any considerable diminutionof strength, by persevering in the defence of places until the retreatof the garrison should become impracticable. The hope was entertained, that by retreating from post to post, and making a show of intendingto defend each, the advance of the English might be retarded, untilthe season for action on the lakes should pass away; while the Frenchwould be gradually strengthened by concentration, and thus enabled tomaintain some point, which would arrest the progress of Amherst downthe St. Lawrence. 

In pursuance of this plan, as soon as the English had completed theirarrangements for taking possession of lake Champlain, the garrison ofTiconderoga retreated to Crown Point. 

[Sidenote: and Crown Point. ]

Early in the month of August, Amherst advanced to Crown Point, whichwas abandoned on his approach; and the garrison retired to isle AuxNoix, at the northern extremity of lake Champlain. The French hadcollected between three and four thousand men at this place, in anentrenched camp, defended by artillery, and protected by several armedvessels on the lake. After making great exertions to obtain a navalsuperiority, General Amherst embarked his army on lake Champlain; but, a succession of storms compelling him to abandon the fartherprosecution of the enterprise, he returned to Crown Point, where thetroops were put into winter quarters. [165]

 [Footnote 165: Minot. Belknap. Belsham. Russel. New York Gazette. ]

In the beginning of July, general Prideaux, embarked on lake Ontariowith the army destined against Niagara. Immediately after hisdeparture from Oswego, that place, which was defended by twelvehundred men under the command of colonel Haldiman, was vigorouslyattacked by a body of French and Indians, who were repulsed with someloss. 

In the mean time, Prideaux proceeded towards Niagara, and landedwithout opposition, about three miles from the fort. The place wasinvested in form, and the siege was carried on by regular approaches. In its progress, General Prideaux was killed by the bursting of acohorn, and the command devolved on general Johnson. Great effortswere made to relieve this important place. A considerable body oftroops drawn from the neighbouring garrisons, aided by some Indianauxiliaries, advanced on the English army, with the determination torisk a battle, in order to raise the siege. Early in the morning ofthe 24th, the approach of this party was announced, and a strongdetachment marched out to meet it. The action, which immediatelycommenced, was not of long duration. The French were forsaken by theirsavage allies, and victory soon declared in favour of the English. 

[Sidenote: Niagara capitulates. ]

This battle decided the fate of Niagara. The works of the besiegershad been pushed within one hundred yards of the walls, and a fartherattempt to defend the place being hopeless, a capitulation was signed, by which the garrison, amounting to rather more than six hundred men, became prisoners of war. 

Although important advantages were gained by the British arms in UpperCanada, yet, as neither division of the army, in that quarter, succeeded so completely as to co-operate with general Wolfe, seriousfears were entertained for the fate of that officer. The enterpriseconducted by him being of the greatest hazard and of the deepestinterest, its success was to decide, whether the whole campaign wouldterminate in a manner favourable to the future conquest of Canada. 

[Sidenote: Expedition against Quebec. ]

As soon as the waters were sufficiently freed from ice to benavigable, Wolfe embarked eight thousand men with a formidable trainof artillery, at Louisbourg, under convoy of admirals Saunders andHolmes. Late in June, he anchored about half way up the island ofOrleans, on which he landed, without opposition. 

From this position, he could take a near and accurate view of theobstacles to be surmounted, before he could hope for success in hisenterprise. These were so great, that even his bold and sanguinetemper perceived more to fear than to hope; and, in a celebratedletter written to Mr. Pitt, and afterwards published, he declared thathe could not flatter himself with being able to reduce the place. [166]

 [Footnote 166: Belsham. ]

Quebec stands on the north side of the St. Lawrence, and on the westof the St. Charles, which rivers unite immediately below the town. Itconsists of an upper and a lower town; the latter is built upon thestrand, which stretches along the base of the lofty rock, on which theformer is situated. This rock continues, with a bold and steep front, far to the westward, parallel to, and near the river St. Lawrence. Onthis side, therefore, the city might well be deemed inaccessible. Onthe other, it was protected by the river St. Charles, in which wereseveral armed vessels, and floating batteries, deriving additionalsecurity from a strong boom drawn across its mouth. The channel ofthis river is rough and broken, and its borders intersected withravines. On its left, or eastern bank, was encamped a French army, strongly entrenched, and amounting, according to the English accounts, to ten thousand men. [167] The encampment extended from St. Charles, eastward, to the Montmorency, and its rear was covered by an almostimpenetrable wood. To render this army still more formidable, it wascommanded by a general, who had given signal proofs of active courage, and consummate prudence. The marquis de Montcalm, who, when strongenough to act offensively, had so rapidly carried Oswego, and fortWilliam Henry, and who, when reduced to the defensive, had drivenAbercrombie with such slaughter from the walls of Ticonderoga, was nowat the head of the army which covered Quebec, and was an antagonist, in all respects, worthy of Wolfe. 

 [Footnote 167: These accounts must be exaggerated. According to the letter of general Townshend, the force engaged on the Plains of Abraham amounted to three thousand five hundred men; and not more than fifteen hundred are stated to have been detached under Bougainville. ]

The British general perceived these difficulties in their full extent, but, his ardent mind glowing with military enthusiasm, sought only howto subdue them. 

He took possession of Point Levi, on the southern side of the St. Lawrence, where he erected several heavy batteries, which opened onthe town, but were at too great a distance to make any considerableimpression on the works. Nor could his ships be employed in thisservice. The elevation of the principal fortifications placed thembeyond the reach of the guns of the fleet; and the river was socommanded by the batteries on shore, as to render a station near thetown ineligible. 

The English general, sensible of the impracticability of reducingQuebec, unless he should be enabled to erect his batteries on thenorth side of the St. Lawrence, determined to use his utmostendeavours to bring Montcalm to an engagement. After severalunavailing attempts to draw that able officer from his advantageousposition, Wolfe resolved to pass the Montmorency, and to attack him inhis entrenchments. 

In consequence of this resolution, thirteen companies of Britishgrenadiers, and part of the second battalion of royal Americans, werelanded near the mouth of the Montmorency, under cover of the cannon ofthe ships; while two divisions, under generals Townshend and Murray, prepared to cross that river higher up. The original plan was to makethe first attack on a detached redoubt close to the water's edge, apparently unprotected by the fire from the entrenchments, in the hopethat Montcalm might be induced to support this work, and therebyenable Wolfe to bring on a general engagement. [168]

 [Footnote 168: Belsham. ]

On the approach of the British troops, this redoubt was evacuated. Observing some confusion in the French camp, Wolfe determined to availhimself of the supposed impression of the moment, and to storm thelines. With this view, he directed the grenadiers and royal Americansto form on the beach, where they were to wait until the whole armycould be arranged to sustain them. Orders were at the same timedispatched to Townshend and Murray to be in readiness for fording theriver. 

[Sidenote: The English army repulsed. ]

The grenadiers and royal Americans, disregarding their orders, rushedforward, with impetuous valour on the entrenchments of the enemy. Theywere received with so steady and well supported a fire, that they werethrown into confusion, and compelled to retreat. The general advancingin person with the remaining brigades, the fugitives formed again inthe rear of the army; but the plan of the attack was effectuallydisconcerted, and the English commander gave orders for re-passing theriver, and returning to the island of Orleans. 

Convinced by this disaster of the impracticability of approachingQuebec on the side of the Montmorency, Wolfe again turned his wholeattention to the St. Lawrence. To destroy some ships of war lying inthe river, and at the same time to distract the attention of Montcalmby descents at different places, twelve hundred men were embarked intransports under the command of general Murray, who made two vigorous, but unsuccessful attempts, to land on the northern shore. In the thirdhe was more fortunate. In a sudden descent on Chambaud, he burnt avaluable magazine filled with military stores, but was still unable toaccomplish the main object of the expedition. The ships were securedin such a manner as not to be approached by the fleet or army. Murraywas recalled; and on his return brought with him the intelligence thatNiagara was taken, that Ticonderoga and Crown Point had beenabandoned, and that general Amherst was making preparations to attackthe isle Aux Noix. [169]

 [Footnote 169: Belsham. Russel. ]

This intelligence, though joyfully received, promised no immediateassistance; and the season for action was rapidly wasting away. [170]Nor was it easy for Wolfe to avoid contrasting the success of theBritish arms under other auspices, with the ill fortune attending hisown. 

 [Footnote 170: Belsham. ]

A council of war having determined that all their future effortsshould be directed towards effecting a landing above the town, thetroops were withdrawn from the island of Orleans, and embarked onboard the fleet. Some of them were landed at Point Levi, and theresidue carried higher up the river. [171]

 [Footnote 171: Belsham. ]

Montcalm could not view this movement without alarm. That part ofQuebec, which faces the country, had not been well fortified; and hewas apprehensive that a landing might be effected high up the river, and the town approached on its weak side. At the same time, he couldnot safely relinquish his position, because the facility oftransportation which the command of the water gave the English, wouldenable them to seize the ground he then occupied, should his army bemoved above the town. 

Thus embarrassed, he detached Monsieur de Bougainville with fifteenhundred men, to watch the motions of the English, and to prevent theirlanding. 

In this state of things Wolfe formed the bold and hazardous plan oflanding in the night, a small distance above the city, on the northernbank of the river; and, by scaling a precipice, accessible only by anarrow path, and therefore but weakly guarded, to gain the heights inthe rear of the town. 

This resolution being taken, the admiral moved up the river, severalleagues above the place where the landing was to be attempted, andmade demonstrations of an intention to disembark a body of troops atdifferent places. During the night, a strong detachment, in flatbottomed boats, fell silently down with the tide to the place fixed onfor the descent. This was made an hour before day-break, about a mileabove cape Diamond, Wolfe being the first man who leaped on shore. TheHighlanders and light infantry, who composed the van, under theparticular command of colonel Howe, had been directed to secure a fourgun battery defending an entrenched path by which the heights were tobe ascended, and to cover the landing of the remaining troops. Theviolence of the current forced them rather below the point ofdisembarkation; a circumstance which increased their difficulties. However, scrambling up the precipice, they gained the heights, andquickly dispersed the guard. The whole army followed up this narrowpass; and, having encountered only a scattering fire from someCanadians and Indians, gained the summit by the break of day, when theseveral corps were formed under their respective leaders. [172]

 [Footnote 172: Belsham. Russel. ]

The intelligence that the English had gained the heights of Abrahamwas soon conveyed to Montcalm, who comprehended at once the full forceof the advantage obtained by his adversary, and prepared for theengagement which could no longer be avoided. Leaving his camp atMontmorency, he crossed the St. Charles, for the purpose of attackingthe English army. [173]

 [Footnote 173: Townshend's letter. ]

This movement was made in the view of Wolfe, who immediately formedhis order of battle. His right wing was commanded by general Monckton, and his left by general Murray. The right flank was covered by theLouisbourg grenadiers, and the rear and left by the light infantry ofHowe. The reserve consisted of Webb's regiment, drawn up in eightsubdivisions, with large intervals between them. 

Montcalm had formed his two wings of European and colonial troops innearly equal numbers. A column of Europeans composed his centre; andtwo small field pieces were brought up to play on the English line. Inthis order he marched to the attack, advancing in his front aboutfifteen hundred militia and Indians, who kept up an irregular andgalling fire under cover of the bushes. 

The movements of the French indicating an intention to flank his left, general Wolfe ordered the battalion of Amherst, and the two battalionsof royal Americans, to that part of his line; where they were formed_en potence_ under general Townshend, presenting a double front. Disregarding the fire of the militia and Indians, he ordered histroops to reserve themselves for the column advancing in the rear ofthese irregulars. 

[Sidenote: Battle on the plains of Abraham. ]

[Sidenote: Death of Wolfe, ]

[Sidenote: and of Montcalm. ]

Montcalm had taken post on the left of the French army, and Wolfe onthe right of the British; so that the two generals met each other, atthe head of their respective troops; and there the battle was mostsevere. The French advanced briskly to the charge, and commenced theaction with great animation. The English reserved their fire until theenemy were within forty yards of them, when they gave it with immenseeffect. The action was kept up for some time with great spirit. Wolfe, advancing at the head of his grenadiers with charged bayonets, received a mortal wound and soon afterwards expired. Undismayed by theloss of their general, the English continued their exertions underMonckton, on whom the command devolved. He also received a ballthrough his body, and general Townshend took command of the Britisharmy. About the same time Montcalm received a mortal wound, andgeneral Senezergus, the second in command, also fell. The left wingand centre of the French began to give way; and, being pressed closeby the British, were driven from the field. 

On the left and rear of the English, the action was less severe. Thelight infantry had been placed in houses; and colonel Howe, the betterto support them, had taken post still farther to the left, behind acopse. As the right of the French attacked the English left, hesallied from this position, upon their flanks, and threw them intodisorder. In this critical moment, Townshend advanced several platoonsagainst their front, and completely frustrated the attempt to turn theleft flank. 

[Sidenote: Victory of the English. ]

In this state of the action, Townshend was informed that the commandhad devolved on him. Proceeding instantly to the centre, he found thatpart of the army thrown into some disorder by the ardour of pursuit;and his immediate efforts were employed in restoring the line. Scarcely was this effected, when Monsieur de Bougainville, who hadbeen detached as high as cape Rouge to prevent a landing above, andwho, on hearing that the English had gained the plains of Abraham, hastened to the assistance of Montcalm, appeared in the rear at thehead of fifteen hundred men. Fortunately for the English, the rightwing of the French, as well as their left and centre, had beenentirely broken, and driven off the field. Two battalions and twopieces of artillery being advanced towards Bougainville, he retired;and Townshend did not think it advisable to risk the importantadvantages already gained, by pursuing this fresh body of troopsthrough a difficult country. [174]

 [Footnote 174: Townshend's letter. Belsham. Russel. Gazette. ]

In this decisive battle, nearly equal numbers appear to have beenengaged. The English however possessed this immense advantage:--theywere all veterans; while not more than half the French were of thesame description. This circumstance would lead to an opinion that somemotive, not well explained, must have induced Montcalm to hazard anaction before he was assured of being joined by Bougainville. 

The French regulars were almost entirely cut to pieces. The loss ofthe English was not so considerable as the fierceness of the actionwould indicate. The killed and wounded were less than six hundred men;but among the former, was the commander in chief. This gallantofficer, whose rare merit, and lamented fate, have presented a richtheme for panegyric to both the poet and historian, received a ball inhis wrist in the commencement of the action; but, wrapping ahandkerchief around his arm, he continued to encourage his troops. Soon afterwards he received a shot in the groin, which he alsoconcealed; and was advancing at the head of the grenadiers, when athird bullet pierced his breast. Though expiring, it was withreluctance he permitted himself to be carried into the rear, where hedisplayed, in the agonies of death, the most anxious solicitudeconcerning the fate of the day. Being told that the enemy was visiblybroken, he reclined his head, from extreme faintness, on the arm of anofficer standing near him; but was soon roused with the distant cry of"they fly, they fly. " "Who fly?" exclaimed the dying hero. On beinganswered "the French. " "Then, " said he, "I depart content;" and, almost immediately expired. "A death more glorious, " adds Mr. Belsham, "and attended with circumstances more picturesque and interesting, isno where to be found in the annals of history. "

The less fortunate, but not less gallant Montcalm expired on the sameday. The same love of glory, and the same fearlessness of death, whichso remarkably distinguished the British hero, were equally conspicuousin his competitor for victory and for fame. He expressed the highestsatisfaction on hearing that his wound was mortal; and when told thathe could survive only a few hours, quickly replied, "so much thebetter, I shall not then live to see the surrender of Quebec. "[175]

 [Footnote 175: Russel. ]

[Sidenote: Quebec capitulates. ]

The first days after the action were employed by general Townshend inmaking preparations for the siege of Quebec. But before his batterieswere opened, the town capitulated; on condition that the inhabitantsshould, during the war, be protected in the free exercise of theirreligion, and the full enjoyment of their civil rights, leaving theirfuture destinies to be decided by the treaty of peace. 

Quebec was garrisoned by about five thousand English, under thecommand of general Murray; and the fleet sailed from the St. Lawrence. 

The English minister, aware of the importance of completing the workthus fortunately begun, was not of a temper to relax his exertions. His letters to the governors of the several colonies containeddeclarations of his intention to employ a strong military force forthe ensuing year, and exhortations to them to continue their effortsfor the annihilation of the French power in Canada. These exhortationswere accompanied with assurances that he would again apply toparliament to reimburse their future extraordinary expenses; and wereproductive of the desired effect. The several assemblies voted thesame number of troops, and amount of supplies, as had been furnishedthe preceding year. 

In the mean time the governor of New France, and the general of thearmy, made great exertions to retrieve their affairs, and to avert theruin which threatened them. 

The remaining European troops were collected about Montreal; wherethey were reinforced with six thousand militia, and a body of Indians. Monsieur de Levi, on whom the command had devolved, determined toattempt the recovery of Quebec, before the opening of the St. Lawrenceshould enable the English to reinforce the garrison, and to afford itthe protection of their fleet. But the out-posts being found toostrong to admit of his carrying the place by _a coup de main_, he wasunder the necessity of postponing the execution of this design, untilthe upper part of the St. Lawrence should open, and afford atransportation by water, for his artillery and military stores. 

{1760}

In the month of April these were embarked at Montreal, under convoy ofsix frigates; which, sailing down the St. Lawrence, while the armymarched by land, reached Point au Tremble in ten days. 

[Sidenote: Battle near Sillery. ]

To avoid the hardships and dangers of a siege in a town too extensiveto be defended by his sickly garrison, and inhabited by persons knownto be hostile, Murray took the bold resolution of hazarding a battle. Having formed this determination, he led out his garrison to theheights of Abraham, and attacked the French near Sillery. He wasreceived with unexpected firmness; and, perceiving that his utmostefforts could make no impression, he called off his army, and retiredinto the city. In this fierce encounter, the English loss amounted tonear one thousand men; and they represent that of the French to havebeen not less considerable. 

[Sidenote: Quebec besieged. ]

Monsieur de Levi improved his victory to the utmost. His trenches wereopened before the town, on the same evening; but such was thedifficulty of bringing up his heavy artillery, that near a fortnightelapsed before he could mount his batteries, and bring his guns tobear on the city. The batteries had been opened but a few days, whenthe garrison was relieved from its perilous situation, by the arrivalof a British fleet. 

Quebec being secure, Monsieur de Levi raised the siege, and retired toMontreal. 

During these transactions, general Amherst was taking measures for theannihilation of the remnant of French power in Canada. He determinedto employ the immense force under his command for the accomplishmentof this object, and made arrangements, during the winter, to bring thearmies from Quebec, lake Champlain, and lake Ontario, to act againstMontreal. 

The preparations being completed, the commander in chief marched atthe head of upwards of ten thousand British and provincials, from thefrontiers of New York to Oswego, where he was joined by sir WilliamJohnson, with one thousand Indians. He embarked his army at thatplace, and proceeded down the St. Lawrence to Montreal. 

Murray, who had been directed to advance up the river to the samepoint, with as many men as could be spared from Quebec, appeared belowthe town on the very day that Amherst approached it from above. Thetwo generals found no difficulty in disembarking their troops, and thewhole plan of co-operation had been so well concerted that, in a shorttime, they were joined by colonel Haviland with the detachment fromCrown Point. 

[Sidenote: Montreal capitulates. ]

The junction of these armies presenting before Montreal a force not tobe resisted, the governor offered to capitulate. In the month ofSeptember, Montreal, and all other places within the government ofCanada, then remaining in the possession of France, were surrenderedto his Britannic majesty. The troops were to be transported to France, and the Canadians to be protected in their property, and the fullenjoyment of their religion. [176]

 [Footnote 176: Minot. Belknap. Belsham. Russel. ]

That colossal power, which France had been long erecting in America, with vast labour and expense; which had been the motive for one of themost extensive and desolating wars of modern times; was thus entirelyoverthrown. The causes of this interesting event are to be found inthe superior wealth and population of the colonies of England, and inher immense naval strength; an advantage, in distant war, not to becounterbalanced by the numbers, the discipline, the courage, and themilitary talents, which may be combined in the armies of an inferiormaritime power. 

[Illustration: The Death of Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham

_From the painting by Benjamin West, in the Capitol at Ottawa, Canada_

_Surrounded by his devoted officers, General James Wolfe died in thehour of victory over the French General Montcalm, in which the Englishcaptured Quebec, September 13, 1759, and decided the destiny of NorthAmerican civilization. General Wolfe lived to hear the cry "Theyrun!", and expired with the words "Now God be praised, I will die inpeace. "_

_In this canvas, painted in 1771, West departed from the veneratedcustom of clothing pictorial characters in Greek or Roman costume. SirJoshua Reynolds, who had endeavored to dissuade him, later said, "Iretract my objections. I foresee that this picture will not onlybecome one of the most popular, but will occasion a revolution inart. "_]

The joy diffused throughout the British dominions by this splendidconquest, was mingled with a proud sense of superiority which did notestimate with exact justice, the relative means employed by thebelligerents. In no part of those dominions was this joy felt, in ahigher degree, or with more reason, than in America. In that region, the wars between France and England had assumed a form, happilyunknown to other parts of the civilised world. Not confined, as inEurope, to men in arms; women and children were its common victims. Ithad been carried by the savage to the fire side of the peacefulpeasant, where the tomahawk and scalping knife were appliedindiscriminately to every age, and to either sex. The hope was nowfondly indulged that these scenes, at least in the northern and middlecolonies, were closed for ever. 

The colonies of South Carolina and Georgia had been entirely exemptedfrom the sharp conflicts of the north. France having been unable todraw Spain into the war, their neighbours in Florida remained quiet;and the Indians on their immediate frontiers were in the Englishinterest. As the prospect of establishing peace in the north seemed tobrighten, this state of repose in the south sustained a shortinterruption. 

When the garrison of fort Du Quêsne retired down the Ohio intoLouisiana, the French employed their address in the management ofIndians, to draw the Cherokees from their alliance with Great Britain. Their negotiations with these savages were favoured by the irritationsgiven to their warriors in Virginia, where they had been employedagainst the French, and the Indians in the French interest. 

Their ill humour began to show itself in 1759. Upon its firstappearance, governor Lyttleton prepared to march into their country atthe head of a respectable military force. Alarmed at these hostileappearances, they dispatched thirty-two of their chiefs to Charleston, for the purpose of deprecating the vengeance with which their nationwas threatened. Their pacific representations did not arrest theexpedition. The governor not only persisted in the enterprise, but, under the pretext of securing the safe return of the Indianmessengers, took them into the train of his army, where they were, inreality, confined as prisoners. To add to this indignity, they were, when arrived at the place of destination, shut up together in a singlehut. 

Notwithstanding the irritation excited by this conduct, a treaty wasconcluded, in which it was agreed that the chiefs detained by thegovernor should remain with him as hostages, until an equal number ofthose who had committed murder on the frontiers, should be deliveredin exchange for them; and that, in the meantime, the Indians shouldseize and deliver up every white or red man coming into their country, who should endeavour to excite them to war against the English. Aftermaking this accommodation, the governor returned to Charleston, leaving his hostages prisoners in fort Prince George. 

Scarcely had the army retired, when the Cherokees began to contriveplans for the relief of their chiefs. In an attempt to execute theseplans, they killed the captain of the fort and wounded two officers. Orders were immediately given to put the hostages in irons; anindignity so resented by these fierce savages, that the first personswho attempted to execute the orders were stabbed. The soldiers enragedat this resistance, fell on the hostages and massacred them. 

[Sidenote: War with the southern Indians. ]

Inflamed to madness by this event, the whole nation flew to arms; and, according to their established mode of warfare, wreaked their fury onthe inhabitants of the country in indiscriminate murder. 

Mr. Bull, on whom the government of the province had devolved, represented the distresses of South Carolina in such strong terms togeneral Amherst, that colonel Montgomery was ordered into that colonywith a detachment of regular troops. He arrived in April; but, as allthe forces would be required in the north, in order to complete theconquest of Canada, he was directed to strike a sudden blow, and toreturn to New York in time for the expedition against Montreal. 

[Sidenote: Battle near Etchoe. ]

The utmost exertions were made by the colony in aid of colonelMontgomery, and he entered the Cherokee country with all the forcesthat could be collected. Their lower towns were destroyed; but, nearthe village of Etchoe, the first of their middle settlements, in analmost impenetrable wood, he was met by a large body of savages, and asevere action ensued. The English claimed the victory, but withoutmuch reason. They were so roughly handled, that colonel Montgomerywithdrew his army, and retired to fort Prince George, at which placehe prepared to embark for New York. 

The consternation of the province was the greater, as serious fearswere entertained that the Creeks and Choctaws, might be induced by theFrench to join the Cherokees. Colonel Montgomery was pressed in themost earnest manner, not to leave the province; and was, withdifficulty, prevailed on to permit four companies to remain, while, with the main body of his detachment, he returned to New York. 

{1761}

Mean while, the war continued to rage. The savages surrounded fortLoudoun; and the garrison amounting to four hundred men, was compelledby famine to surrender, on condition of being permitted to march intothe settlements. The Indians, who regard conventions no longer thanthey are useful, attacked the garrison on its march, killed a number, and made the residue prisoners. Carolina again applied to generalAmherst for assistance, who having completed the conquest of Canada, had leisure to attend to the southern colonies. Late in May, a strongdetachment, commanded by colonel Grant, arrived at fort Prince George;and the colony raised a body of provincials, and of friendly Indians, to join him. 

[Sidenote: Indians defeated. ]

Early in June, he marched for the Cherokee towns. Near the place wherethe action had been fought the preceding year by Montgomery, theIndians again assembled in force, and gave battle in defence of theircountry. The action commenced about eight in the morning, and wasmaintained with spirit until eleven, when the Cherokees began to giveway. They were pursued for two or three hours, after which Grantmarched to the adjacent village of Etchoe, which he reduced to ashes. All the towns of the middle settlement shared the same fate. Theirhouses and corn fields were destroyed, and the whole country laidwaste. Reduced to extremity, they sued sincerely for peace; and, inthe course of the summer, the war was terminated by a treaty. [177]

 [Footnote 177: History of South Carolina and Georgia. ]

It was not in America only that the vigour presiding in the councilsof Britain shed lustre on the British arms. Splendid conquests werealso made in Asia and Africa; and in Europe, her aids of men and moneyenabled the greatest monarch of his age to surmount difficulties whichonly Frederick and Mr. Pitt could have dared to encounter. 

{1762}

At length, Spain, alarmed at the increase of British power in America, and apprehensive for the safety of her own dominions, determined totake part against Great Britain; and, early in the year 1762, the twocrowns declared war against each other. It was prosecuted, on the partof Great Britain, with signal success; and, in the course of the year, Martinique, Granada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and all the CaribbeeIslands were wrested from France; and the very important city ofHavanna, which in a great degree commands the gulf of Mexico, wastaken from Spain. 

This course of conquest, which no force in possession of France andSpain seemed capable of checking, while any of their distantpossessions remained to be subdued, was arrested by preliminaryarticles of peace signed at Paris. 

By this treaty, his Christian Majesty ceded to Britain, all theconquests made by that power on the continent of North America, together with the river and port of Mobile; and all the territory towhich France was entitled on the left bank of the Mississippi, reserving only the island of New Orleans. And it was agreed that, forthe future, the confines between the dominions of the two crowns, inthat quarter of the world, should be irrevocably fixed by a line drawnalong the middle of the Mississippi, from its source as far as theriver Iberville, and thence, by a line drawn along the middle of thatriver, and of the lakes Maurepas and Pont Chartrain. 

The Havanna was exchanged with Spain for the Floridas. By establishingthese great natural boundaries to the British empire in North America, all causes of future contest respecting that continent, with anypotentate of Europe, were supposed to be removed. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

 Opinions on the supremacy of parliament, and its right to tax the colonies.... The stamp act.... Congress at New York.... Violence in the towns.... Change of administration.... Stamp act repealed.... Opposition to the mutiny act.... Act imposing duties on tea, &c. Resisted in America.... Letters from the assembly of Massachusetts to members of the administration.... Petition to the King.... Circular letter to the colonial assemblies.... Letter from the earl of Hillsborough.... Assembly of Massachusetts dissolved.... Seizure of the Sloop Liberty.... Convention at Fanueil Hall.... Moderation of its proceedings.... Two British regiments arrive at Boston.... Resolutions of the house of Burgesses of Virginia.... Assembly dissolved.... The members form an association.... General measures against importation.... General court convened in Massachusetts.... Its proceedings.... Is prorogued.... Duties, except that on tea, repealed.... Circular letter of the earl of Hillsborough.... New York recedes from the non-importation agreement in part.... Her example followed.... Riot in Boston.... Trial and acquittal of Captain Preston. 

{1763}

The attachment of the colonies to the mother country was neverstronger than at the signature of the treaty of Paris. [178] The unionof that tract of country which extends from the Atlantic to theMississippi, and from the gulf of Mexico to the north pole, was deemeda certain guarantee of future peace, and an effectual security againstthe return of those bloody scenes from which no condition in lifecould afford an exemption. 

 [Footnote 178: After the expulsion of the French from Canada, a considerable degree of ill humour was manifested in Massachusetts with respect to the manner in which the laws of trade were executed. A question was agitated in court, in which the colony took a very deep interest. A custom house officer applied for what was termed "a writ of assistance, " which was an authority to search any house for dutiable articles suspected to be concealed in it. The right to grant special warrants was not contested; but this grant of a general warrant was deemed contrary to the principles of liberty, and an engine of oppression equally useless and vexatious, which would enable every petty officer of the customs to gratify his resentments by harassing the most respectable men in the province. The ill temper excited on this occasion was shown by a reduction of the salaries of the judges; but no diminution of attachment to the mother country appears to have been produced by it. ]

This state of things, long and anxiously wished for by BritishAmerica, had, at length, been effected by the union of British andAmerican arms. The soldiers of the parent state and her colonies hadco-operated in the same service, their blood had mingled in the sameplains, and the object pursued was common to both people. 

While the British nation was endeared to the Americans by thiscommunity of danger, and identity of interest, the brilliantachievements of the war had exalted to enthusiasm their admiration ofBritish valour. They were proud of the land of their ancestors, andgloried in their descent from Englishmen. But this sentiment was notconfined to the military character of the nation. While the excellenceof the English constitution was a rich theme of declamation, everycolonist believed himself entitled to its advantages; nor could headmit that, by crossing the Atlantic, his ancestors had relinquishedthe essential rights of British subjects. 

The degree of authority which might rightfully be exercised by themother country over her colonies, had never been accurately defined. In Britain, it had always been asserted that Parliament possessed thepower of binding them in all cases whatever. In America, at differenttimes, and in different provinces, different opinions had beenentertained on this subject. 

In New England, originally settled by republicans, habits ofindependence had nourished the theory that the colonial assembliespossessed every legislative power not surrendered by compact; that theAmericans were subjects of the British crown, but not of the nation;and were bound by no laws to which their representatives had notassented. From this high ground they had been compelled reluctantly torecede. The Judges, being generally appointed by the governors withthe advice of council, had determined that the colonies were bound byacts of parliament which concerned them, and which were expresslyextended to them; and the general court of Massachusetts had, on alate occasion, explicitly recognised the same principle. This hadprobably become the opinion of many of the best informed men of theprovince; but the doctrine seems still to have been extensivelymaintained, that acts of parliament possessed only an externalobligation; that they might regulate commerce, but not the internalaffairs of the colonies. 

In the year 1692, the general court of Massachusetts passed an act, denying the right of any other legislature to impose any tax whateveron the colony; and also asserting those principles of nationalliberty, which are found in Magna Charta. Not long afterwards, thelegislature of New York, probably with a view only to the authorityclaimed by the governor, passed an act in which its own supremacy, notonly in matters of taxation, but of general legislation, is expresslyaffirmed. Both these acts however were disapproved in England; and theparliament asserted its authority, in 1696, by declaring "that alllaws, bye laws, usages, and customs, which shall be in practice in anyof the plantations, repugnant to any law made or to be made in thiskingdom relative to the said plantations, shall be void and of noneeffect. " And three years afterwards, an act was passed for the trialof pirates in America, in which is to be found the followingextraordinary clause: "Be it farther declared that, if any of thegovernors, or any person or persons in authority there, shall refuseto yield obedience to this act, such refusal is hereby declared to bea forfeiture of all and every [_sic_] the charters granted for thegovernment and propriety of such plantations. "

The English statute book furnishes many instances in which thelegislative power of parliament over the colonies was extended toregulations completely internal; and it is not recollected that theirauthority was in any case openly controverted. 

In the middle and southern provinces, no question respecting thesupremacy of parliament, in matters of general legislation, everexisted. The authority of such acts of internal regulation as weremade for America, as well as of those for the regulation of commerce, even by the imposition of duties, provided those duties were imposedfor the purpose of regulation, had been at all times admitted. Butthese colonies, however they might acknowledge the supremacy ofparliament in other respects, denied the right of that body to taxthem internally. 

Their submission to the act for establishing a general post office, which raised a revenue on the carriage of letters, was not thought adereliction of this principle; because that regulation was notconsidered as a tax, but as a compensation for a service rendered, which every person might accept or decline. And all the duties ontrade were understood to be imposed, rather with a view to preventforeign commerce, than to raise a revenue. Perhaps the legality ofsuch acts was the less questioned, because they were not rigorouslyexecuted, and their violation was sometimes designedly overlooked. Ascheme for taxing the colonies by authority of parliament had beenformed so early as the year 1739, and recommended to government by aclub of American merchants, at whose head was sir William Keith, governor of Pennsylvania. In this scheme, it was proposed to raise abody of regulars, to be stationed along the western frontier of theBritish settlements, for the protection of the Indian traders; theexpense of which establishment was to be paid with monies arising froma duty on stamped paper and parchment in all the colonies. This plan, however, was not countenanced by those in power; and seems never tohave been seriously taken up by the government until the year 1754. The attention of the minister was then turned to a plan of taxation byauthority of parliament; and it will be recollected that a system wasdevised and recommended by him, as a substitute for the articles ofunion proposed by the convention at Albany. The temper and opinion ofthe colonists, and the impolicy of irritating them at a crisis whichrequired all the exertions they were capable of making, suspended thisdelicate and dangerous measure; but it seems not to have been totallyabandoned. Of the right of parliament, as the supreme legislature, ofthe nation, to tax as well as govern the colonies, those who guidedthe councils of Britain seem not to have entertained a doubt; and thelanguage of men in power, on more than one occasion through the war, indicated a disposition to put this right in practice when thetermination of hostilities should render the experiment lessdangerous. The failure of some of the colonies, especially those inwhich a proprietary government was established, to furnish, in time, the aids required of them, contributed to foster this disposition. This opposition of opinion on a subject the most interesting to thehuman heart, was about to produce a system of measures which toreasunder all the bonds of relationship and affection that had subsistedfor ages, and planted almost inextinguishable hatred in bosoms wherethe warmest friendship had long been cultivated. 

{1764}

The unexampled expenses of the war required a great addition to theregular taxes of the nation. Considerable difficulty was found insearching out new sources of revenue, and great opposition was made toevery tax proposed. Thus embarrassed, administration directed itsattention to the continent of North America. The system which had beenlaid aside was renewed; and, on the motion of Mr. Grenville, firstcommissioner of the treasury, a resolution passed without much debate, declaring that it would be proper to impose certain stamp duties inthe colonies and plantations, for the purpose of raising a revenue inAmerica, payable into the British exchequer. This resolution was notcarried into immediate effect, and was only declaratory of anintention to be executed the ensuing year. [179]

 [Footnote 179: Belsham. ]

Other resolutions were passed at the same time, laying new duties onthe trade of the colonies, which being in the form of commercialregulations, were not generally contested on the ground of right, though imposed expressly for the purpose of raising revenue. Greatdisgust, however, was produced by the increase of the duties, by thenew regulations which were made, and by the manner in which thoseregulations were to be executed. The gainful commerce long carried onclandestinely with the French and Spanish colonies, in the progress ofwhich an evasion of the duties imposed by law had been overlooked bythe government, was to be rigorously suppressed by taxes amounting toa prohibition of fair trade; and their exact collection was to beenforced by measures not much less offensive in themselves, than onaccount of the object to be effected. [180]

 [Footnote 180: Belsham. Minot. ]

Completely to prevent smuggling, all the officers in the sea service, who were on the American station, were converted into revenueofficers; and directed to take the custom house oaths. Many vexatiousseizures were made, for which no redress could be obtained but inEngland. The penalties and forfeitures, too, accruing under the act, as if the usual tribunals could not be trusted, were made recoverablein any court of vice-admiralty in the colonies. It will be readilyconceived how odious a law, made to effect an odious object, must havebeen rendered by such provisions as these. 

{1765}

The resolution concerning the duties on stamps excited a great andgeneral ferment in America. The right of parliament to impose taxes onthe colonies for the purpose of raising a revenue, became the subjectof universal conversation, and was almost universally denied. Petitions to the King, and memorials to both houses of parliamentagainst the measure, were transmitted by several of the provincialassemblies to the board of trade in England, to be presented to hismajesty immediately; and to parliament, when that body should beconvened. The house of representatives of Massachusetts instructedtheir agent to use his utmost endeavours to prevent the passage of thestamp act, or any other act levying taxes or impositions of any kindon the American provinces. A committee was appointed to act in therecess of the general court, with instructions to correspond with thelegislatures of the several colonies, to communicate to them theinstructions given to the agent of Massachusetts, and to solicit theirconcurrence in similar measures. These legislative proceedings were, in many places, seconded by associations entered into by individuals, for diminishing the use of British manufactures. [181]

 [Footnote 181: Minot. ]

The administration, perceiving the opposition to be encountered byadhering to the vote of the preceding session, informed the agents ofthe colonies in London that, if they would propose any other mode ofraising the sum required[182], their proposition would be accepted, and the stamp duty laid aside. The agents replied that they were notauthorised to propose any substitute, but were ordered to oppose thebill when it should be brought into the house, by petitionsquestioning the right of parliament to tax the colonies. This replyplaced the controversy on ground which admitted of no compromise. Determined to persevere in the system he had adopted, and believingsuccessful resistance to be impossible, Mr. Grenville brought intoparliament his celebrated act for imposing stamp duties in America;and it passed both houses by great majorities, but not withoutanimated debate. So little weight does the human mind allow to themost conclusive arguments, when directed against the existence ofpower in ourselves, that general Conway is said to have stoodalone[183] in denying the right claimed by parliament. 

 [Footnote 182: 100, 000_l_. Sterling. ]

 [Footnote 183: Mr. Pitt was not in the house; and Mr. Ingersoll, in his letter, states that Alderman Beckford joined General Conway. Mr. Belsham, therefore, who makes this statement, was probably mistaken. ]

This act excited serious alarm throughout the colonies. It wassincerely believed to wound vitally the constitution of the country, and to destroy the most sacred principles of liberty. Combinationsagainst its execution were formed; and the utmost exertions were usedto diffuse among the people a knowledge of the pernicious consequenceswhich must flow from admitting that the colonists could be taxed by alegislature in which they were not represented. 

The assembly of Virginia was in session when the intelligence wasreceived; and, by a small majority, passed several resolutionsintroduced by Mr. Henry, and seconded by Mr. Johnson, [184] one ofwhich asserts the exclusive right of that assembly to lay taxes andimpositions on the inhabitants of that colony. [185]

 [Footnote 184: See note No. III, at the end of the volume. ]

 [Footnote 185: Prior documents. Virginia Gazette. ]

On the passage of these resolutions, the governor dissolved theassembly; and writs for new elections were issued. In almost everyinstance, the members who had voted in favour of the resolutions werere-elected, while those who had voted against them were generallyexcluded. 

The legislatures of several other colonies passed resolutions similarto those of Virginia. The house of representatives of Massachusetts, contemplating a still more solemn and effectual expression of thegeneral sentiment, recommended a congress of deputies from all thecolonial assemblies, to meet at New York the first Monday in October. Circular letters communicating this recommendation, were addressed tothe respective assemblies wherever they were in session. New Hampshirealone, although concurring in the general opposition, declined sendingmembers to the congress; and the legislatures of Virginia and NorthCarolina were not in session. [186]

 [Footnote 186: Minot. ]

In the meantime, the press teemed with the most animating exhortationsto the people, to unite in defence of their liberty and property; andthe stamp officers were, almost universally, compelled to resign. 

[Sidenote: Congress at New York. ]

At the time appointed, the commissioners from the assemblies ofMassachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, the three lower counties on the Delaware, Maryland, andSouth Carolina assembled at New York; and, having chosen TimothyRuggles, of Massachusetts, their chairman, proceeded on the importantobjects for which they had convened. The first measure of congress wasa declaration[187] of the rights and grievances of the colonists. Thispaper asserts their title to all the rights and liberties of naturalborn subjects within the kingdom of Great Britain; among the mostessential of which are, the exclusive power to tax themselves, and thetrial by jury. 

 [Footnote 187: See note No. IV, at the end of the volume. ]

The act granting certain stamp and other duties in the Britishcolonies was placed first on the list of grievances. Its directtendency they said, was, by taxing the colonists without theirconsent, and by extending the jurisdiction of courts of admiralty, tosubvert their rights and liberties. They also addressed a petition tothe King, and a memorial to each house of parliament. 

These papers were drawn with temperate firmness. They express, unequivocally, the attachment of the colonists to the mother country;and assert the rights they claim in the earnest language ofconviction. 

Having, in addition to these measures, recommended to the severalcolonies to appoint special agents, with instructions to unite theirutmost endeavours in soliciting a redress of grievances; and directedtheir clerk to make out a copy of their proceedings for each colony, congress adjourned. [188]

 [Footnote 188: Minot. Prior documents. ]

To interest the people of England against the measures ofadministration, associations were formed for the encouragement ofdomestic manufactures, and against the use of those imported fromGreat Britain. To increase their quantity of wool, the colonistsdetermined to kill no lambs, and to use all the means in their powerto multiply their flocks of sheep. To avoid the use of stamps, proceedings in the courts of justice were suspended; and a settlementof all controversies by arbitration was strongly recommended. 

[Sidenote: Violence in the large towns. ]

While this determined and systematic opposition was made by thethinking part of the community, some riotous and disorderly meetingstook place, especially in the large towns, which threatened seriousconsequences. Many houses were destroyed, much property injured, andseveral persons, highly respectable in character and station, weregrossly abused. 

While these transactions were passing in America, causes entirelyunconnected with the affairs of the colonies, produced a totalrevolution in the British cabinet. The Grenville party was succeededby an administration unfriendly to the plan for taxing the colonieswithout their consent. General Conway, one of the principalsecretaries of state, addressed a circular letter to the severalgovernors, in which he censured, in mild terms, the violent measuresthat had been adopted, and recommended to them, while they maintainedthe dignity of the crown and of parliament, to observe a temperate andconciliatory conduct towards the colonists, and to endeavour, bypersuasive means, to restore the public peace. 

{1766}

Parliament was opened by a speech from the throne, in which hismajesty declared his firm confidence in their wisdom and zeal, whichwould, he doubted not, guide them to such sound and prudentresolutions, as might tend at once to preserve the constitutionalrights of the British legislature over the colonies, and to restore tothem that harmony and tranquillity which had lately been interruptedby disorders of the most dangerous nature. 

In the course of the debate in the house of commons, on the motion forthe address, Mr. Pitt, in explicit terms, condemned the act forcollecting stamp duties in America; and avowed the opinion thatparliament had no right to tax the colonies. He asserted, at the sametime, "the authority of that kingdom to be sovereign and supreme inevery circumstance of government and legislation whatever. " Hemaintained the difficult proposition "that taxation is no part of thegoverning, or legislative power; but that taxes are a voluntary giftand grant of the commons alone;" and concluded an eloquent speech, byrecommending to the house, "that the stamp act be repealed, _absolutely_, _totally_, and _immediately_. "

The opinions expressed by Mr. Pitt were warmly opposed by the lateministers. Mr. Grenville said, "that the disturbances in America weregrown to tumults and riots; he doubted, they bordered on openrebellion; and, if the doctrine he had heard that day should beconfirmed, he feared they would lose that name to take that ofrevolution. The government ever them being dissolved, a revolutionwould take place in America. " He contended that taxation was a part ofthe sovereign power;--one branch of legislation; and had beenexercised over those who were not represented. He could not comprehendthe distinction between external and internal taxation; and insistedthat the colonies ought to bear a part of the burdens occasioned by awar for their defence. 

[Sidenote: Stamp act repealed. ]

The existing administration, however, concurred in sentiment with Mr. Pitt, and the act was repealed; but its repeal was accompanied with adeclaratory act, asserting the right of Great Britain to bind thecolonies in all cases whatsoever. 

The intelligence of this event was received in America with generalmanifestations of joy. The assertion of the abstract principle ofright gave many but little concern, because they considered it merelyas a salve for the wounded pride of the nation, and believedconfidently that no future attempt would be made to reduce it topractice. The highest honours were conferred on those parliamentaryleaders who had exerted themselves to obtain a repeal of the act; and, in Virginia, the house of Burgesses voted a statue to his majesty, asan acknowledgment of their high sense of his attention to the rightsand petitions of his people. 

Though all the colonies rejoiced at the repeal of the stamp act, thesame temper did not prevail in all of them. In the commercial citiesof the north, the regulations of trade were nearly as odious as thestamp act itself. Political parties too had been formed, and hadassumed a bitterness in some of the colonies, entirely unknown inothers. These dispositions were not long concealed. The first measuresof Massachusetts and of New York demonstrated that, in them, thereconciliation with the mother country was not cordial. 

The letter of secretary Conway, transmitting the repeal of the actimposing a duty on stamps, enclosed also a resolution of parliamentdeclaring that those persons who had suffered injuries in consequenceof their assisting to execute that act, ought to be compensated by thecolony in which such injuries were sustained. This was chiefly inMassachusetts. The resolution of parliament was laid before thegeneral court of that province, by governor Bernard, in a speechrather in the spirit of the late, than the presentadministration;--rather calculated to irritate than assuage the angrypassions that had been excited. The house of representatives resentedhis manner of addressing them; and appeared more disposed to inquireinto the riots, and to compel those concerned in them to makeindemnities, than to compensate the sufferers out of the public purse. But, after a second session, and some intimation that parliament wouldenforce its requisition, an act of pardon to the offenders, and ofindemnity to the sufferers, was passed; but was rejected by the King, because the colonial assembly had no power, by their charter, to passan act of general pardon, but at the instance of the crown. [189]

 [Footnote 189: Minot. ]

In New York, where general Gage was expected with a considerable bodyof troops, a message was transmitted by the governor to thelegislature, desiring their compliance with an act of parliamentcalled "the mutiny act, " which required that the colony in which anyof his majesty's forces might be stationed, should provide barracksfor them, and necessaries in their quarters. The legislature postponedthe consideration of this message until the troops were actuallyarrived; and then, after a second message from the governor, reluctantly and partially complied with the requisitions of the act. 

At a subsequent session, the governor brought the subject again beforethe assembly, who determined that the act of parliament could beconstrued only to require that provision should be made for troops ona march, and not while permanently stationed in the country. [190] Thereason assigned for not furnishing the accommodations required by thegovernor, implies the opinion that the act of parliament wasrightfully obligatory; and yet the requisitions of the mutiny act wereunquestionably a tax; and no essential distinction is perceivedbetween the power of parliament to levy a tax by its own authority, and to levy it through the medium of the colonial legislatures; theyhaving no right to refuse obedience to the act. It is remarkable thatsuch inaccurate ideas should still have prevailed, concerning thecontrolling power of parliament over the colonies. 

 [Footnote 190: Minot. Prior documents. Belsham. ]

In England it was thought to manifest a very forbearing spirit, thatthis instance of disobedience was punished with no positive penalties;and that the ministers contented themselves with a law prohibiting thelegislature of the province from passing any act, until it shouldcomply, in every respect, with the requisitions of parliament. Thepersevering temper of Massachusetts not having found its way to NewYork, this measure produced the desired effect. 

Two companies of artillery, driven into the port of Boston by stressof weather, applied to the governor for supplies. He laid theapplication before his council, who advised that, "in pursuance of theact of parliament" the supplies required should be furnished. Theywere furnished, and the money to procure them was drawn from thetreasury by the authority of the executive. 

{1767}

On the meeting of the legislature, the house of representativesexpressed in pointed terms their disapprobation of the conduct of thegovernor. Particular umbrage was given by the expression "_inpursuance of an act of parliament_. " "After the repeal of the stampact, they were surprised to find that this act, equally odious andunconstitutional, should remain in force. They lamented the entry ofthis reason for the advice of council the more, as it was anunwarrantable and unconstitutional step which totally disabled themfrom testifying the same cheerfulness they had always shown ingranting to his majesty, of their free accord, such aids as hisservice has from time to time required. "[191] Copies of these messageswere transmitted by governor Bernard to the minister, accompanied byletters not calculated to diminish the unpleasantness of thecommunication. 

 [Footnote 191: Minot. ]

The idea of raising revenue in America, was so highly favoured inEngland, especially by the landed interest, that not even theinfluence of administration could have obtained a repeal of the stampact, on the naked principle of right. Few were hardy enough toquestion the supremacy of parliament; and the act receding from thepractical assertion of the power to tax the colonists, deeply woundedthe pride of the King, and of the nation. 

The temper discovered in some of the colonies was ill calculated toassuage the wound, which this measure had inflicted, on the haughtyspirit of the country; and is supposed to have contributed to therevival of a system, which had been reluctantly abandoned. 

Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer, said boastingly in thehouse of commons, "that he knew how to draw a revenue from thecolonies without giving them offence. "[192] Mr. Grenville eagerlycaught at the declaration, and urged this minister to pledge himselfto bring forward the measure, at which he had hinted. During thesickness and absence of lord Chatham, the cabinet had decided onintroducing a bill for imposing certain duties on tea, glass, paper, and painter's colours, imported into the colonies from Great Britain;and appropriating the money in the first instance, to the salaries ofthe officers of government. This bill was brought into parliament, andpassed almost without opposition. 

 [Footnote 192: Belsham. ]

The friends of America, in England, had distinguished between internaland external taxation; and the same distinction had been made in thecolonies. But the discussions originating in the stamp act, while theydiffused among the colonists a knowledge of their political rights, had inspired also more accurate ideas respecting them. 

These duties were plainly intended, not to regulate commerce, but toraise revenue, which would be as certainly collected from thecolonists, as the duties on stamps could have been. The principle ofthe two measures was the same. Many of the Americans were toointelligent to be misguided by the distinction between internal andexternal taxation, or by the precedents quoted in support of theright, for which parliament contended. This measure was considered asestablishing a precedent of taxation for the mere purpose of revenue, which might afterwards be extended at the discretion of parliament;and was spoken of as the _entering wedge_, designed to make way forimpositions too heavy to be borne. The appropriation of the money didnot lessen the odium of the tax. The colonists considered thedependence of the officers of government, on the colonial legislature, for their salaries, as the best security for their attending to theinterests, and cultivating the affections of the provinces. [193] Yetthe opinion that this act was unconstitutional, was not adopted soimmediately, or so generally, as in the case of the stamp act. Manyable political essays appeared in the papers, demonstrating that itviolated the principles of the English constitution and of Englishliberty, before the conviction became general, that the same principlewhich had before been successfully opposed, was again approaching in adifferent form. 

 [Footnote 193: Prior documents. ]

{1768}

The general court of Massachusetts, perceiving plainly that the claimto tax America was revived, and being determined to oppose it, addressed an elaborate letter to Dennis de Berdt, agent for the houseof representatives, detailing at great length, and with much weight ofargument, all the objections to the late acts of parliament. Letterswere also addressed to the earl of Shelburne and general Conway, secretaries of state, to the marquis of Rockingham, lord Camden, theearl of Chatham, and the lords commissioners of the treasury. Theseletters, while they breathe a spirit of ardent attachment to theBritish constitution, and to the British nation, manifest a perfectconviction that their complaints were just. 

Conclusive as the arguments they contained might have appeared toEnglishmen, if urged by themselves in support of their own rights, they had not much weight, when used to disprove the existence of theirauthority over others. The deep and solemn tone of conviction, however, conveyed in all these letters, ought to have produced acertainty that the principles assumed in them had made a strongimpression, and would not be lightly abandoned. It ought to have beenforeseen that with such a people, so determined, the conflict must bestern and hazardous; and, it was well worth the estimate, whether theobject would compensate the means used to obtain it. 

[Sidenote: Petition to the King. ]

The assembly also voted a petition to the King, replete withprofessions of loyalty and attachment; but stating, in explicit terms, their sense of the acts against which they petitioned. 

A proposition was next made for an address to the other colonies onthe power claimed by parliament, which, after considerable debate, wascarried in the affirmative; and a circular letter to the assemblies ofthe several provinces, setting forth the proceedings of the house ofrepresentatives, was prepared and adopted. [194]

 [Footnote 194: See note V, at the end of the volume. ]

To rescue their measures from the imputation of systematic oppositionto the British government, the house, without acknowledging theobligation of the mutiny act, complied with a requisition of thegovernor to make a farther provision for one of the King's garrisonswithin the province. The governor, soon afterwards, prorogued thegeneral court with an angry speech, not calculated to diminish theresentments of the house directed against himself; resentmentsoccasioned as much by the haughtiness of his manners, and a persuasionthat he had misrepresented their conduct and opinions to ministers, asby the unpopular course his station required him to pursue. [195]

 [Footnote 195: Minot. ]

The circular letter of the house of representatives of Massachusettswas well received in the other colonies. They approved the measureswhich had been taken, and readily united in them. They, too, petitioned the King against the obnoxious acts of parliament, andinstructed their several agents to use all proper means to obtaintheir repeal. Virginia transmitted a statement of her proceedings[196]to her sister colonies; and her house of Burgesses, in a letter toMassachusetts, communicating the representation made to parliament, say, "that they do not affect an independency of their parent kingdom, the prosperity of which they are bound, to the utmost of theirabilities, to promote; but cheerfully acquiesce in the authority ofparliament to make laws for the preserving a necessary dependence, andfor regulating the trade of the colonies; yet they cannot conceive, and humbly insist, it is not essential to support a proper relationbetween the mother country, and colonies transplanted from her, thatshe should have a right to raise money from them without theirconsent, and presume they do not aspire to more than the right ofBritish subjects, when they assert that no power on earth has a rightto impose taxes on the people, or take the smallest portion of theirproperty without their consent given by their representatives inparliament. "[197]

 [Footnote 196: Prior documents. ]

 [Footnote 197: In this letter the house of Burgesses express their opinion of the mutiny act in the following terms: "The act suspending the legislative power of New York, they consider as still more alarming to the colonies, though it has that single province in view. If parliament can compel them to furnish a single article to the troops sent over, they may, by the same rule, oblige them to furnish clothes, arms, and every other necessary, even the pay of the officers and soldiers; a doctrine replete with every mischief, and utterly subversive of all that's dear and valuable; for what advantage can the people of the colonies derive from choosing their own representatives, if those representatives, when chosen, be not permitted to exercise their own judgments, be under a necessity (on pain of being deprived of their legislative authority) of enforcing the mandates of a British parliament. "]

On the first intimation of the measures taken by Massachusetts, theearl of Hillsborough, who had been appointed to the newly createdoffice of secretary of state for the department of the colonies, addressed a circular to the several governors, to be laid before therespective assemblies, in which he treated the circular letter ofMassachusetts, as being of the most dangerous tendency, calculated toinflame the minds of his majesty's good subjects in the colonies, topromote an unwarrantable combination, to excite an open opposition tothe authority of parliament, and to subvert the true principles of theconstitution. [198]

 [Footnote 198: Prior documents. ]

His first object was to prevail on the several assemblies openly tocensure the conduct of Massachusetts; his next, to prevent theirapproving the proceedings of that colony. The letter, far fromproducing the desired effect, rather served to strengthen thedetermination of the colonies to unite in their endeavours to obtain arepeal of laws universally detested. On manifesting this disposition, the assemblies were generally dissolved;--probably in pursuance ofinstructions from the crown. 

When the general court of Massachusetts was again convened, governorBernard laid before the house of representatives, an extract of aletter from the earl of Hillsborough, in which, after animadverting inharsh terms on the circular letter to the colonies, he declared it tobe "the King's pleasure" that the governor "should require the houseof representatives, in his majesty's name, to rescind the resolutionon which the circular letter was founded, and to declare theirdisapprobation of, and dissent from, that rash and hasty proceeding. "

This message excited considerable agitation; but the house, withoutcoming to any resolution on it, requested the governor to lay beforethem the whole letter of the earl of Hillsborough, and also copies ofsuch letters as had been written by his excellency to that nobleman, on the subject to which the message referred. 

The copies were haughtily refused; but the residue of the letter fromthe earl of Hillsborough was laid before them. That minister said, "if, notwithstanding the apprehensions which may justly be entertainedof the ill consequence of a continuance of this factious spirit, whichseems to have influenced the resolutions of the assembly at theconclusion of the last session, the new assembly should refuse tocomply with his majesty's reasonable expectation, it is the King'spleasure that you immediately dissolve them. "

This subject being taken into consideration, a letter to the earl wasreported, and agreed to by a majority of ninety-three to thirteen, inwhich they defended their circular letter in strong and manly, butrespectful terms; and concluded with saying, "the house humbly rely onthe royal clemency, that to petition his majesty will not be deemed byhim to be inconsistent with a respect to the British constitution assettled at the revolution by William III. , and that to acquaint theirfellow subjects involved in the same distress, of their having sodone, in full hopes of success, even if they had invited the union ofall America in one joint supplication, would not be discountenanced bytheir gracious sovereign, as a measure of an inflammatory nature. Thatwhen your lordship shall in justice lay a true state of these mattersbefore his majesty, he will no longer consider them as tending tocreate unwarrantable combinations, or excite an unjustifiableopposition to the constitutional authority of parliament; that he willthen truly discern who are of that desperate faction which iscontinually disturbing the public tranquillity; and that, while hisarm is extended for the protection of his distressed and injuredsubjects, he will frown upon all those who, to gratify their ownpassions, have dared to attempt to deceive him. "[199]

 [Footnote 199: Prior documents. ]

[Sidenote: Legislature of Massachusetts dissolved. ]

A motion to rescind the resolution on which their circular letter wasfounded, passed in the negative, by a majority of ninety-two toseventeen; and a letter to the governor was prepared, stating theirmotives for refusing to comply with the requisition of the earl ofHillsborough. Immediately after receiving it, he prorogued theassembly, with an angry speech; and, the next day, dissolved it byproclamation. [200]

 [Footnote 200: Minot. ]

While the opposition was thus conducted by the legislature withtemperate firmness, and legitimate means, the general irritationoccasionally displayed itself at Boston, in acts of violence denotingevidently that the people of that place, were prepared for muchstronger measures than their representatives had adopted. 

[Sidenote: Seizure of the sloop Liberty. ]

The seizure of the sloop Liberty belonging to Mr. Hancock, by thecollector of the customs, occasioned the assemblage of a tumultuousmob, who beat the officers and their assistants, took possession of aboat belonging to the collector, burnt it in triumph, and patrolledthe streets for a considerable time. The revenue officers fled forrefuge, first to the Romney man of war, and afterwards to CastleWilliam. After the lapse of some time, the governor moved the councilto take into consideration some measure for restoring vigour andfirmness to government. The council replied "that the disorders whichhappened were occasioned by the violent and unprecedented manner inwhich the sloop Liberty had been seized by the officers of thecustoms. " And the inhabitants of Boston, in a justificatory memorial, supported by affidavits, insisted that the late tumults wereoccasioned, principally, by the haughty conduct of the commissionersand their subordinate officers, and by the illegal and offensiveconduct of the Romney man of war. [201]

 [Footnote 201: Minot. Prior documents. ]

The legislature however did not think proper to countenance this actof violence. A committee of both houses, appointed to inquire into thestate of the province, made a report which, after reprobating thecircumstances attending the seizure, to which the mob was ascribed, declared their abhorrence of a procedure which they pronouncedcriminal; desired the governor to direct a prosecution against allpersons concerned in the riot; and to issue a proclamation offering areward to any person who should make discoveries by which the riotersor their abettors should be brought to condign punishment. 

This report, however, seems to have been intended, rather to saveappearances, than to produce any real effect. It was perfectlyunderstood that no person would dare to inform; or even to appear, asa witness, in any prosecution which might be instituted. Suits wereafterwards brought against Mr. Hancock and others, owners of thevessel and cargo; but they were never prosecuted to a finaldecision. [202]

 [Footnote 202: Minot. ]

This riot accelerated a measure, which tended, in no inconsiderabledegree, to irritate still farther the angry dispositions alreadyprevalent in Boston. 

The governor had pressed on administration the necessity of stationinga military force in the province, for the protection of the officersemployed in collecting the revenue, and of the magistrates, inpreserving the public peace. In consequence of these representations, orders had already been given to general Gage to detach, at least, oneregiment on this service, and to select for the command of it, anofficer on whose prudence, resolution, and integrity, he could rely. The transactions respecting the sloop Liberty rendered any attempt toproduce a countermand of these orders entirely abortive; and, probablyoccasioned two regiments, instead of one, to be detached by generalGage. [203]

 [Footnote 203: Minot. ]

It seems to have been supposed that a dissolution of the assembly ofMassachusetts would dissolve also the opposition to the measures ofadministration; and that the people, having no longer constitutionalleaders, being no longer excited and conducted by theirrepresentatives, would gradually become quiet, and return to, what wastermed, their duty to government. But the opinions expressed by thehouse of representatives were the opinions of the great body of thepeople, and had been adopted with too much ardour to be readilysuppressed. The most active and energetic part of society had embracedthem with enthusiasm; and the dissolution of the assembly, by creatinga necessity for devising other expedients, hastened the mode ofconducting opposition at least as efficacious, and afterwardsuniversally adopted. 

At a town meeting of the inhabitants of Boston, a committee wasdeputed for the purpose of praying the governor to convene anothergeneral assembly. He replied that no other could be convened until hismajesty's commands to that effect should be received. This answerbeing reported, the meeting resolved "that to levy money within thatprovince by any other authority than that of the general court, was aviolation of the royal charter, and of the undoubted natural rights ofBritish subjects. 

"That the freeholders, and other inhabitants of the town of Bostonwould, at the peril of their lives and fortunes, take all legal andconstitutional measures to defend all and singular the rights, liberties, privileges, and immunities, granted in their royal charter. 

"That as there was an apprehension in the minds of many of anapproaching war with France, those inhabitants who were not providedwith arms should be requested duly to observe the laws of theprovince, which required that every freeholder should furnish himselfwith a complete stand. "

But the important resolution was "that, as the governor did not thinkproper to call a general court for the redress of their grievances, the town would then make choice of a suitable number of persons to actfor them as a committee in a convention, to be held at Faneuil Hall inBoston, with such as might be sent to join them from the several townsin the province. "

These votes were communicated by the select men, in a circular letterto the other towns in the province, which were requested to concur, and to elect committee men, to meet those of Boston in convention. 

[Sidenote: Convention assembles in Boston. ]

The measure was generally adopted; and a convention met, which wasregarded with all the respect that could have been paid to alegitimate assembly. [204]

 [Footnote 204: Minot. ]

[Sidenote: Its moderation. ]

The country in general, though united on the great constitutionalquestion of taxation, was probably not so highly exasperated as thepeople of Boston; and the convention acted with unexpected moderation. They disclaimed all pretensions to any other character than that ofmere individuals, assembled by deputation from the towns, to consultand advise on such measures as might tend to promote the peace of hismajesty's subjects in the province, but without power to pass any actspossessing a coercive quality. 

They petitioned the governor to assemble a general court, andaddressed a letter to the agent of the province in England, statingthe character in which they met, and the motives which brought themtogether. After expressing their opinions with temper and firmness onthe subjects of general complaint, and recommending patience and orderto the people, they dissolved themselves, and returned to theirrespective homes. [205]

 [Footnote 205: Minot. ]

[Sidenote: Two regiments arrive. ]

The day before the convention rose, the two regiments which had beendetached by general Gage arrived, under convoy, in Nantasket road. Thecouncil had rejected an application of the governor to providequarters for them, because the barracks in the castle were sufficientfor their accommodation; and, by act of parliament, the British troopswere not to be quartered elsewhere until those barracks were full. General Gage had directed one regiment to be stationed in Boston; but, on hearing a report that the people were in a state of open revolt, hegave additional orders, which left the whole subject to the discretionof the commanding officer; who was induced, by some rash threats ofopposing the disembarkation of the troops to land both regiments inthat place. The ships took a station which commanded the whole town, and lay with their broad sides towards it, ready to fire, should anyresistance be attempted. The troops landed under cover of theircannon, and marched into the common with loaded muskets and fixedbayonets;[206] a display of military pomp, which was believed by theinhabitants to have been intended for the purpose either ofintimidation, or of irritation. 

 [Footnote 206: Gazette. ]

The select men, as well as the council, having refused to providequarters for the troops, the governor ordered the state house to beopened for their reception; and they took possession of all theapartments in it, except that which was reserved for the council. Thepeople were filled with indignation at seeing the chamber of theirrepresentatives crowded with regular soldiers, their counsellorssurrounded with foreign troops, and their whole city exhibiting theappearance of a garrisoned town. With the difference of mannersbetween the soldiers and the inhabitants, and the strong prejudicesreciprocally felt against each other, it is not wonderful thatpersonal broils should frequently occur, and that mutual antipathiesshould be still farther increased. [207]

 [Footnote 207: Minot. ]

While these measures were pursuing in America, every session ofparliament was opened with a speech from the King, stating that adisposition to refuse obedience to the laws, and to resist theauthority of the supreme legislature of the nation, still prevailedamong his misguided subjects in some of the colonies. In the addressesto the throne, both houses uniformly expressed their abhorrence of therebellious spirit manifested in the colonies, and their approbation ofthe measures taken by his majesty for the restoration of order andgood government. 

To give a more solemn expression to the sense of parliament on thissubject, the two houses entered into joint resolutions, condemning themeasures pursued by the Americans; and agreed to an address, approvingthe conduct of the crown, giving assurances of effectual support tosuch farther measures as might be found necessary to maintain thecivil magistrates in a due execution of the laws within the provinceof Massachusetts Bay, and beseeching his majesty to direct thegovernor of that colony to obtain and transmit information of alltreasons committed in Massachusetts since the year 1767, with thenames of the persons who had been most active in promoting suchoffences, that prosecutions might be instituted against them withinthe realm, in pursuance of the statute of the 35th of Henry VIII. [208]

 [Footnote 208: Belsham. Prior documents. ]

{1769}

The impression made by these threatening declarations, which seem tohave been directed particularly against Massachusetts, in the hope ofdeterring the other provinces from involving themselves in herdangers, was far from being favourable to the views of the mothercountry. The determination to resist the exercise of the authorityclaimed by Great Britain not only remained unshaken, but wasmanifested in a still more decided form. 

[Sidenote: Resolutions of the house of Burgesses of Virginia. ]

Not long after these votes of parliament, the assembly of Virginia wasconvened by lord Botetourt, a nobleman of conciliating manners, whohad lately been appointed governor of that province. The house tookthe state of the colony into their immediate consideration, and passedunanimously several resolutions asserting the exclusive right of thatassembly to impose taxes on the inhabitants within his majesty'sdominion of Virginia, and their undoubted right to petition for aredress of grievances, and to obtain a concurrence of the othercolonies in such petitions. "That all persons charged with thecommission of any offence within that colony, were entitled to a trialbefore the tribunals of the country, according to the fixed and knowncourse of proceeding therein, and that to seize such persons, andtransport them beyond sea for trial, derogated in a high degree fromthe rights of British subjects, as thereby the inestimable privilegeof being tried by a jury from the vicinage, as well as the liberty ofsummoning and producing witnesses on such trial, will be taken fromthe party accused. "

An address to his majesty was also agreed on, which states in thestyle of loyalty and real attachment to the crown, the deep convictionof the house of Burgesses of Virginia, that the complaints of thecolonists were well founded. [209]

 [Footnote 209: Gazette. Prior documents. ]

[Sidenote: Assembly dissolved. ]

Intelligence of these proceedings having reached the governor, hesuddenly dissolved the assembly. This measure did not produce thedesired effect. The members convened at a private house, and, havingchosen their speaker, moderator, proceeded to form a non-importingassociation, which was signed by every person present, and afterwards, almost universally throughout the province. [210]

 [Footnote 210: Gazette. Prior documents. ]

From the commencement of the controversy, the opinion seems to haveprevailed in all the colonies, that the most effectual means ofsucceeding in the struggle in which they were engaged, were thosewhich would interest the merchants and manufacturers of Great Britainin their favour. Under the influence of this opinion, associations hadbeen proposed in Massachusetts, as early as May 1765, for thenon-importation of goods from that country. The merchants of some ofthe trading towns in the other colonies, especially those ofPhiladelphia, refused, at that time, to concur in a measure which theythought too strong for the existing state of things; and it was laidaside. But, in the beginning of August, it was resumed in Boston; andthe merchants of that place entered into an agreement not to importfrom Great Britain any articles whatever, except a few of the firstnecessity, between the first of January 1769, and the first of January1770; and not to import tea, glass, paper, or painter's colours, untilthe duties imposed on those articles should be taken off. Thisagreement was soon afterwards adopted in the town of Salem, the cityof New York, and the province of Connecticut; but was not generallyentered into through the colonies, until the resolutions and addressof the two houses of parliament which have already been mentioned, seemed to cut off the hope that petitions and memorials alone, wouldeffect the object for which they contended. [211]

 [Footnote 211: Minot. ]

[Sidenote: Measures against the importation of British goods. ]

The proceedings of the house of Burgesses of Virginia had beentransmitted to the speakers of the several assemblies throughout thecontinent. In the opinion of the neighbouring colonies, the occasionrequired efficacious measures; and an association, similar to thatwhich had been formed by their elder sister, was entered into byMaryland, and the Carolinas. The inhabitants of Charleston went so faras to break off all connexion with Rhode Island and Georgia, which hadrefused to adopt the non-importation agreement. This vigorous measurewas not without its influence; and those provinces, soon afterwards, entered into the association. [212]

 [Footnote 212: Gazette. Prior documents. ]

In Portsmouth in New Hampshire, where governor Wentworth possessedgreat influence, some repugnance to this measure was also discovered;but, being threatened with a suspension of their intercourse with theother colonies, the merchants of that place concurred in the generalsystem. 

All united in giving effect to this agreement. The utmost exertionswere used to improve the manufactures of the country; and the fairsex, laying aside the late fashionable ornaments of England, exulted, with patriotic pride, in appearing dressed in the produce of their ownlooms. Committees chosen by the people superintended importations; andthe force of public opinion went far to secure the agreement fromviolation. 

[Sidenote: General court in Massachusetts. ]

The necessities of government requiring a supply of money, the generalcourt of Massachusetts was again convened. The members of the formerhouse of representatives were generally re-elected, and brought withthem the temper which had occasioned their dissolution. Instead ofentering on the business for which they were called together, theyengaged in a controversy with the governor concerning the removal ofthe ships of war from the harbour, and of the troops from the town ofBoston, to which they contended, his power, as the representative ofthe crown was adequate. 

The governor, ascribing this temper to the influence of themetropolis, adjourned the general court to Cambridge; but this measureserved to increase the existing irritation. The business recommendedto them remained unnoticed; their altercations with the governorcontinued; and they entered into several warm resolutions enlargingthe catalogue of their grievances, in terms of greater exasperationthan had appeared in the official acts of any legislature on thecontinent. [213]

 [Footnote 213: Prior documents. Minot. ]

[Sidenote: It is prorogued. ]

Not long after the passage of these resolutions, the house explicitlyrefused to make the provision required by the mutiny act for thetroops stationed in Massachusetts; upon which, the legislature wasprorogued until the first of January. [214]

 [Footnote 214: Minot. ]

The committees, appointed to examine the cargoes of vessels arrivingfrom Great Britain, continued to execute the trust reposed in them. Votes of censure were passed on such as refused to concur in theassociation, or violated its principles; and the names of theoffenders were published, as enemies to their country. In some cases, the goods imported in contravention of it, were locked up inwarehouses; and, in some few instances, they were re-shipped to GreatBritain. 

[Sidenote: Administration resolved on a partial repeal of duties. ]

Not long after the strong resolutions already noticed had been agreedto by parliament, while their effect was unfolding itself in everypart of the American continent, an important revolution took place inthe British cabinet. The duke of Grafton was placed at the head of anew administration. He supported, with great earnestness, aproposition to repeal the duties imposed for the purpose of raisingrevenue in the colonies; but his whole influence was insufficient tocarry this measure completely. It was deemed indispensable to themaintenance of the legislative supremacy of Great Britain, to retainthe duty on some one article; and that on tea was reserved while theothers were relinquished. 

Seldom has a wise nation adopted a more ill judged measure than this. The contest with America was plainly a contest of principle, and hadbeen conducted entirely on principle by both parties. The amount oftaxes proposed to be raised was too inconsiderable to interest thepeople of either country. But the principle was, in the opinion ofboth, of the utmost magnitude. The measure now proposed, while itencouraged the colonists to hope that their cause was gaining strengthin Britain, had no tendency to conciliate them. 

[Sidenote: Circular letter of the earl of Hillsborough. ]

In pursuance of this resolution of the cabinet, a circular letter waswritten by the earl of Hillsborough to the several governors, informing them "that it was the intention of his majesty's ministersto propose, in the next session of parliament, taking off the dutieson glass, paper, and painter's colours, in consideration of suchduties having been laid contrary to the true spirit of commerce; andassuring them that, at no time, had they entertained the design topropose to parliament to lay any further taxes on America for thepurpose of raising a revenue. "[215]

 [Footnote 215: Prior documents. ]

This measure was soon communicated in letters from private individualsin England to their correspondents in Massachusetts. The merchants ofBoston, apprehensive that an improper opinion concerning its operationmight be formed, resolved that the partial repeal of the duties didnot remove the difficulties under which their trade laboured, and wasonly calculated to relieve the manufacturers of Great Britain; andthat they would still adhere to their non-importation agreement. [216]

 [Footnote 216: Minot. ]

The communication of the earl of Hillsborough to the severalgovernors, was laid before the respective assemblies as they convened, in terms implying an intention to renounce the imposition, in future, of any taxes in America. But this communication seems not to haverestored perfect content in any of the colonies. 

The Virginia legislature was in session on its arrival, and governorBotetourt laid it before them. Their dissatisfaction with it wasmanifested by a petition to the King re-asserting the rightspreviously maintained; and by an association, signed by the members asindividuals, renewing their non-importation agreement, until the dutyon tea should be repealed. [217]

 [Footnote 217: Gazette. ]

Yet several causes combined to prevent a rigid observance of theseassociations. The sacrifice of interest made by the merchants could becontinued only under the influence of powerful motives. Suspicionswere entertained of each other in the same towns; and committees tosuperintend the conduct of importers were charged with grosspartiality. The different towns too watched each other withconsiderable jealousy; and accusations were reciprocally made ofinfractions of the association to a great extent. Letters werepublished purporting to be from England, stating that large orders forgoods had been received; and the inconvenience resulting from even apartial interruption of commerce, and from the want of thosemanufactures which the inhabitants had been accustomed to use, beganto be severely and extensively felt. In Rhode Island and Albany, itwas determined to import as usual, with the exception of such articlesas should be dutiable. On the remonstrances of other commercialplaces, especially of Boston, these resolutions were changed; and thehope was entertained that the general system on which the coloniesrelied, would still be maintained. 

[Sidenote: New York recedes in part from the non-importationagreement. ]

These hopes were blasted by New York. That city soon manifested adisposition to import as usual, with the exception of those articlesonly which were subject to a duty. At first, the resolution thus tolimit the operation of the non-importation agreement, was made todepend on its being acceded to by Boston and Philadelphia. These townsrefused to depart from the association as originally formed, andstrenuously urged their brethren of New York to persevere with them inthe glorious struggle. This answer was communicated to the people, andtheir opinion on the question of rescinding, or adhering to, was takenin from their respective wards. This determination excited the mostlively chagrin in New England and Philadelphia. Their remonstrancesagainst it were, however, ineffectual; and the example was soonfollowed throughout the colonies. [218]

 [Footnote 218: Minot. Prior documents. Gazette. ]

The people of New York alleged, in justification of themselves, thatthe towns of New England had not observed their engagements fairly;and that the merchants of Albany had been in the practice of receivinggoods from Quebec. But no sufficient evidence in support of theseassertions was ever produced. 

{1770}

[Sidenote: March. ]

[Sidenote: Riot in Boston. ]

About this time a circumstance occurred, which produced the mostserious agitation. The two regiments stationed in Boston, to support, as was said, the civil authority, and preserve the peace of the town, were viewed by the inhabitants with very prejudiced eyes. Frequentquarrels arose between them; and at length, an affray took place inthe night, near the gates of the barracks, which brought out captainPreston, the officer of the day, with a part of the main guard, between whom and the townsmen blows ensued; on which some of thesoldiers fired, and four of the people were killed. 

The alarm bells were immediately rung, the drums beat to arms, and animmense multitude assembled. Inflamed to madness by the view of thedead bodies, they were with difficulty restrained from rushing on the29th regiment, which was then drawn up under arms in King street. Theexertions of the lieutenant governor, who promised that the lawsshould be enforced on the perpetrators of the act, and the efforts ofseveral respectable and popular individuals, prevented theirproceeding to extremities, and prevailed on them, after the regimenthad been marched to the barracks, to disperse without farthermischief. Captain Preston, and the soldiers who had fired, werecommitted to prison for trial. On the next day, upwards of fourthousand citizens of Boston assembled at Faneuil Hall; and, in amessage to the lieutenant governor, stated it to be "the unanimousopinion of the meeting, that the inhabitants and soldiers can nolonger live together in safety; that nothing can rationally beexpected to restore the peace of the town, and prevent farther bloodand carnage, but the immediate removal of the troops; and theytherefore most fervently prayed his honour that his power andinfluence might be exerted for their instant removal. "

The lieutenant governor expressed his extreme sorrow at the melancholyevent which had occurred; and declared that he had taken measures tohave the affair inquired into, and justice done. That the militarywere not under his command, but received their orders from the generalat New York, which orders it was not in his power to countermand. That, on the application of the council for the removal of the troops, colonel Dalrymple, their commanding officer, had engaged that thetwenty-ninth regiment, which had been concerned in the affair, shouldbe marched to the castle, and there placed in barracks until fartherorders should be received from the general; and that the main guardshould be removed, and the fourteenth regiment laid under suchrestraints, that all occasions of future disturbance should beprevented. This answer was voted to be unsatisfactory; and a committeewas deputed to wait on the lieutenant governor, and inform him thatnothing could content them but an immediate and total removal of thetroops. 

This vote was laid before the council by Mr. Hutchinson, who hadsucceeded Mr. Bernard in the government of the province. The councildeclared themselves unanimously of opinion "that it was absolutelynecessary for his Majesty's service, the good order of the town, andthe peace of the province, that the troops should be immediatelyremoved out of the town of Boston. "

This opinion and advice being communicated to colonel Dalrymple, hegave his honour that measures should be immediately taken for theremoval of both regiments. Satisfied with this assurance, the meetingsecured the tranquillity of the town by appointing a strong militarywatch, and immediately dissolved itself. 

[Sidenote: Trial of captain Preston and the soldiers. ]

This transaction was very differently related by the differentparties. Mr. Gordon, whose history was written when the resentments ofthe moment had subsided, and who has collected the facts of the casecarefully, states it in such a manner as nearly, if not entirely, toexculpate the soldiers. It appears that an attack upon them had beenpre-concerted; and that, after being long insulted with the grossestlanguage, they were repeatedly assaulted by the mob with balls of iceand snow, and with sticks, before they were induced to fire. Thisrepresentation is strongly supported by the circumstances, thatcaptain Preston, after a long and public trial, was acquitted by aBoston jury; and that six of the eight soldiers who were prosecuted, were acquitted, and the remaining two found guilty of manslaughteronly. Mr. Quincy, and Mr. John Adams, two eminent lawyers, anddistinguished leaders of the patriotic party, defended the accused, without sustaining any diminution of popularity. Yet this event wasvery differently understood through the colonies. It was generallybelieved to be a massacre, equally barbarous and unprovoked; and itincreased the detestation in which the soldiers were universally held. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

 Insurrection in North Carolina.... Dissatisfaction of Massachusetts.... Corresponding committees.... Governor Hutchinson's correspondence communicated by Dr. Franklin.... The assembly petition for his removal.... He is succeeded by general Gage.... Measures to enforce the act concerning duties.... Ferment in America.... The tea thrown into the sea at Boston.... Measures of Parliament.... General enthusiasm in America.... A general congress proposed.... General Gage arrives.... Troops stationed on Boston neck.... New counsellors and judges.... Obliged to resign.... Boston neck fortified.... Military stores seized by general Gage.... Preparations for defence.... King's speech.... Proceedings of Parliament.... Battle of Lexington.... Massachusetts raises men.... Meeting of Congress.... Proceedings of that body.... Transactions in Virginia.... Provincial congress of South Carolina.... Battle of Breed's hill. 

{1770}

[Sidenote: Insurrection in North Carolina. ]

In the middle and southern colonies, the irritation against the mothercountry appears to have gradually subsided and no disposition wasmanifested to extend opposition farther than to the importation oftea. Their attention was a good deal directed to an insurrection inNorth Carolina, where a number of ignorant people, supposingthemselves to be aggrieved by the fee bill, rose in arms for thepurpose of shutting up the courts of justice, destroying all officersof government, and all lawyers, and of prostrating government itself. Governor Tryon marched against them, defeated them in a decisivebattle, quelled the insurrection, and restored order. 

[Sidenote: Dissatisfaction of Massachusetts. ]

In Massachusetts, where the doctrine that parliament could notrightfully legislate for the colonies was maintained as a corollaryfrom the proposition that parliament could not tax them, a gloomydiscontent was manifested. That the spirit of opposition seemed to beexpiring, without securing the rights they claimed, excitedapprehensions of a much more serious nature in the bosoms of thatinflexible people, than the prospect of any conflict, howeverterrible. This temper displayed itself in all their proceedings. 

The legislature, which the governor continued to convene at Cambridge, remonstrated against this removal as an intolerable grievance; and, for two sessions, refused to proceed on business. In one of theirremonstrances, they asserted the right of the people to appeal toheaven in disputes between them and persons in power, when power shallbe abused. 

[Sidenote: Corresponding committees. ]

From the commencement of the contest, Massachusetts had beenpeculiarly solicitous to unite all the colonies in one system ofmeasures. In pursuance of this favourite idea, a committee ofcorrespondence was elected by the general court, to communicate withsuch committees as might be appointed by other legislatures. [219]Similar committees were soon afterwards chosen by the towns[220]throughout the province, for the purpose of corresponding with eachother; and the example was soon followed by other colonies. 

 [Footnote 219: Almost at the same time, and without concert, the same measure was adopted in Virginia. ]

 [Footnote 220: See note No. VI, at the end of the volume. ]

{1772}

[Sidenote: Governor Hutchinson's correspondence. ]

While this system of vigilance was in progress, a discovery was madewhich greatly increased the ill temper of New England. DoctorFranklin, the agent of Massachusetts, by some unknown means, obtainedpossession of the letters which had been addressed by governorHutchinson, and by lieutenant governor Oliver, to the department ofstate. He transmitted these letters to the general court. They wereobviously designed to induce government to persevere in the systemwhich was alienating the affections of the colonists. The oppositionwas represented as being confined to a few factious men, whose conductwas not generally approved, and who had been emboldened by theweakness of the means used to restrain them. More vigorous measureswere recommended; and several specific propositions were made, whichwere peculiarly offensive. Among these was a plan for altering thecharters of the colonies, and rendering the high officers dependentsolely on the crown for their salaries. [221]

 [Footnote 221: Minot. ]

{1773}

[Sidenote: Petition for the removal of the governor and lieutenantgovernor. ]

The assembly, inflamed by these letters, unanimously resolved, "thattheir tendency and design were to overthrow the constitution of thegovernment, and to introduce arbitrary power into the province. " Atthe same time, a petition to the King was voted, praying him to removegovernor Hutchinson and lieutenant governor Oliver, for ever, from thegovernment of the colony. This petition was transmitted to DoctorFranklin, and laid before the King in council. After hearing it, thelords of the council reported "that the petition in question wasfounded upon false and erroneous allegations, and that the same isgroundless, vexatious, and scandalous, and calculated only for theseditious purposes of keeping up a spirit of clamour and discontent inthe provinces. " This report, his majesty was pleased to approve. 

[Sidenote: Hutchinson succeeded by Gage. ]

Governor Hutchinson however was soon afterwards removed, and generalGage appointed to succeed him. 

[Sidenote: Measures to enforce the duties. ]

{1774}

The fears of Massachusetts, that the spirit which had been roused inthe colonies might gradually subside, were not of long continuance. The determination not to import tea from England, had so lessened thedemand for that article, that a considerable quantity had accumulatedin the magazines of the East India company. They urged the minister totake off the import American duty of three pence per pound, andoffered, in lieu of it, to pay double that sum on exportation. Insteadof acceding to this proposition, drawbacks were allowed on teaexported to the colonies; and the export duty on that article wastaken off. These encouragements induced the company to make shipmentson their own account; and large quantities were consigned to agents inBoston, New York, Philadelphia, Charleston, and other principal placeson the continent. [222]

 [Footnote 222: Minot. Belsham. ]

[Sidenote: Ferment in America. ]

The crisis was arrived; and the conduct of the colonies was now todetermine whether they would submit to be taxed by parliament, or meetthe consequences of a practical assertion of the opinions they hadmaintained. The tea, if landed, would be sold; the duties would, consequently, be paid; and the precedent for taxing them established. The same sentiment on this subject appears to have pervaded the wholecontinent at the same time. This ministerial plan of importation wasconsidered by all, as a direct attack on the liberties of the peopleof America, which it was the duty of all to oppose. A violent fermentwas excited in all the colonies; the corresponding committees wereextremely active; and it was almost universally declared that whoevershould, directly or indirectly, countenance this dangerous invasion oftheir rights, was an enemy to his country. The consignees were, generally, compelled to relinquish their consignments; and, in mostinstances, the ships bringing the tea were obliged to return with it. 

At Boston, a town meeting appointed a committee to wait on theconsignees to request their resignation. This request not beingcomplied with, another large meeting[223] assembled at Faneuil Hall, who voted, with acclamation, "that the tea shall not be landed, thatno duty shall be paid, and that it shall be sent back in the samebottoms. " With a foreboding of the probable consequences of themeasure about to be adopted, and a wish that those consequences shouldbe seriously contemplated, a leading member[224] thus addressed themeeting:

"It is not, Mr. Moderator, the spirit that vapours within these wallsthat must stand us in stead. The exertions of this day will call forthevents which will make a very different spirit necessary for oursalvation. Whoever supposes that shouts and hosannahs will terminatethe trials of the day, entertains a childish fancy. We must be grosslyignorant of the importance and value of the prize for which wecontend; we must be equally ignorant of the power of those who havecombined against us; we must be blind to that malice, inveteracy, andinsatiable revenge, which actuate our enemies, public and private, abroad and in our bosoms, to hope that we shall end this controversywithout the sharpest, sharpest conflicts;--to flatter ourselves thatpopular resolves, popular harangues, popular acclamations, and popularvapour, will vanquish our foes. Let us consider the issue. Let us lookto the end. Let us weigh and consider, before we advance to thosemeasures, which must bring on the most trying and terrible strugglethis country ever saw. "[225]

 [Footnote 223: The language said by Mr. Gordon to have been used at this meeting proves that many of the people of Boston were already ripe for the revolution. To the more cautious among "_the sons of liberty_" who had expressed some apprehensions lest they should push the matter too far, and involve the colony in a quarrel with Great Britain, others answered "It must come to a quarrel between Great Britain and the colony sooner or later; and if so what can be a better time than the present? Hundreds of years may pass away before parliament will make such a number of acts in violation as it has done of late years, and by which it has excited so formidable an opposition to the measures of administration. Besides, the longer the contest is delayed, the more administration will be strengthened. Do not you observe how the government at home are increasing their party here by sending over young fellows to enjoy appointments, who marry into our best families, and so weaken the opposition? By such means, and by multiplying posts and places, and giving them to their own friends, or applying them to the corruption of their antagonists, they will increase their own force faster in proportion, than the force of the country party will increase by population. If then we must quarrel ere we can have our rights secured, now is the most eligible period. Our credit also is at stake; we must venture, and unless we do, we shall be discarded by the sons of liberty in the other colonies, whose assistance we may expect upon emergencies, in case they find us steady, resolute, and faithful. "]

 [Footnote 224: Mr. Quincy. ]

 [Footnote 225: Minot. ]

[Sidenote: Tea thrown into the sea. ]

The question was again put, and passed unanimously in the affirmative. The captain of the vessel, aware of the approaching danger, wasdesirous of returning, and applied to the governor for a clearance. Affecting a rigid regard to the letter of his duty, he declined givingone, unless the vessel should be properly qualified at the customhouse. This answer being reported, the meeting was declared to bedissolved; and an immense crowd repaired to the quay, where a numberof the most resolute, disguised as Mohawk Indians, boarded the vessel, broke open three hundred and forty-two chests of tea, and dischargedtheir contents into the ocean. [226]

 [Footnote 226: Minot. ]

[Sidenote: Measures of parliament. ]

These proceedings were laid before parliament in a message from thecrown, and excited a high and general indignation against thecolonies. Both houses expressed, almost unanimously, their approbationof the measures adopted by his Majesty; and gave explicit assurancesthat they would exert every means in their power, to provideeffectually for the due execution of the laws, and to secure thedependence of the colonies upon the crown and parliament of GreatBritain. The temper both of the parliament and of the nation wasentirely favourable to the high-handed system of coercion proposed byministers; and that temper was not permitted to pass away unemployed. A bill was brought in "for discontinuing the lading and shipping ofgoods, wares, and merchandises, at Boston or the harbour thereof, andfor the removal of the custom-house with its dependencies to the townof Salem. " This bill was to continue in force, not only untilcompensation should be made to the East India company for the damagesustained, but until the King in council should declare himselfsatisfied as to the restoration of peace and good order in Boston. Itpassed both houses without a division, and almost withoutopposition. [227]

 [Footnote 227: Belsham. ]

[Illustration: The Boston Tea Party

_From the painting by Robert Reid, in the Massachusetts State House_

_In this picture, a leading modern American artist has succeededadmirably in depicting the band of Boston citizens who, disguised asIndians, boarded three British ships in Boston Harbor, December 16, 1773, and threw their cargoes of tea overboard, in defying England toimpose on the American colonies a tax on tea for the benefit of thestraitened East India Company; 342 chests, valued at about £18, 000were destroyed in this manner, without a sound from a great mob ofonlookers thronging the wharves. The mob dispersed quietly as soon asthe last chest went overboard. _]

Soon afterwards, a bill was brought in "for better regulating thegovernment of the province of Massachusetts Bay. " This act entirelysubverted the charter, and vested in the crown the appointment of thecounsellors, magistrates, and other officers of the colony, who wereto hold their offices during the royal pleasure. This bill also wascarried through both houses by great majorities; but not without avigorous opposition, and an animated debate. [228]

 [Footnote 228: Belsham. ]

The next measure proposed was a bill "for the impartial administrationof justice in the province of Massachusetts Bay. It provided that incase any person should be indicted, in that province, for murder orany other capital offence, and it should appear by information givenon oath to the governor, that the fact was committed in the exerciseor aid of magistracy in suppressing riots, and that a fair trial couldnot be had in the province, he should send the person so indicted toany other colony, or to Great Britain to be tried. " This act was tocontinue in force for four years. [229]

 [Footnote 229: Idem. ]

A bill was also passed for quartering soldiers on the inhabitants; andthe system was completed, by "an act making more effectual provisionfor the government of the province of Quebec. " This bill extended theboundaries of that province so as to comprehend the territory betweenthe lakes, the Ohio, and the Mississippi; and established alegislative council to be appointed by the crown, for itsgovernment. [230]

 [Footnote 230: Belsham. ]

Amidst these hostile measures, one single conciliatory proposition wasmade. Mr. Rose Fuller moved that the house resolve itself into acommittee to take into consideration the duty on the importation oftea into America, with a view to its repeal. This motion was secondedby Mr. Burke, and supported with all the power of reasoning, and allthe splendour of eloquence which distinguished that consummatestatesman; but reason and eloquence were of no avail. It was lost by agreat majority. The earl of Chatham, who had long been too ill toattend parliament, again made his appearance in the house of lords. Hecould have been drawn out, only by a strong sense of the fatalimportance of those measures into which the nation was hurrying. Buthis efforts were unavailing. Neither his weight of character, hissound judgment, nor his manly eloquence, could arrest the hand of fatewhich seemed to propel this lofty nation, with irresistible force, tomeasures which terminated in its dismemberment. [231]

 [Footnote 231: Idem. ]

[Sidenote: General enthusiasm. ]

It was expected, and this expectation was encouraged by Mr. Hutchinson, that, by directing these measures particularly againstBoston, not only the union of the colonies would be broken, butMassachusetts herself would be divided. Never was expectation morecompletely disappointed. All perceived that Boston was to be punishedfor having resisted, only with more violence, the principle which theyhad all resisted; and that the object of the punishment was to coerceobedience to a principle they were still determined to resist. Theyfelt therefore that the cause of Boston was the cause of all, thattheir destinies were indissolubly connected with those of that devotedtown, and that they must submit to be taxed by a parliament, in whichthey were not and could not be represented, or support their brethrenwho were selected to sustain the first shock of a power which, ifsuccessful there, would overwhelm them all. The neighbouring towns, disdaining to avail themselves of the calamities inflicted on a sisterfor her exertions in the common cause, clung to her with increasedaffection; and that spirit of enthusiastic patriotism, which, for atime, elevates the mind above all considerations of individualacquisition, became the ruling passion in the American bosom. 

On receiving intelligence of the Boston port bill, a meeting of thepeople of that town was called. They perceived that "the sharpest, sharpest conflict" was indeed approaching, but were not dismayed byits terrors. Far from seeking to shelter themselves from thethreatening storm by submission, they grew more determined as itincreased. 

Resolutions were passed, expressing their opinion of the impolicy, injustice, inhumanity, and cruelty of the act, from which theyappealed to God, and to the world; and also inviting the othercolonies to join with them in an agreement to stop all imports andexports to and from Great Britain, Ireland, and the West Indies, untilthe act should be repealed. [232]

 [Footnote 232: Minot. ]

It was not in Boston only that this spirit was roused. Addresses werereceived from every part of the continent, expressing sentiments ofsympathy in their afflictions, exhorting them to resolution andperseverance, and assuring them that they were considered as sufferingin the common cause. 

The legislature of Virginia was in session when intelligence of theBoston port bill reached that province. The house of Burgesses setapart the first of June, the day on which the bill was to go intooperation, for fasting, prayer, and humiliation, to implore the divineinterposition to avert the heavy calamity which threatened thedestruction of their civil rights, the evils of a civil war; and togive one heart and one mind to the people, firmly to oppose everyinvasion of their liberties. Similar resolutions were adopted inalmost every province; and the first of June became, throughout thecolonies, a day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer, in the course ofwhich sermons were preached to the people, well calculated to inspirethem with horror, against the authors of the unjust sufferings oftheir fellow subjects in Boston. 

[Sidenote: A general congress proposed. ]

This measure occasioned the dissolution of the assembly. The members, before separation, entered into an association, in which they declaredthat an attack on one colony to compel submission to arbitrary taxes, is an attack on all British America, and threatens ruin to the rightsof all, unless the united wisdom of the whole be applied inprevention. They, therefore, recommended to the committee ofcorrespondence, to communicate with the several committees of theother provinces, on the expediency of appointing deputies from thedifferent colonies, to meet annually in congress, and to deliberate onthe common interests of America. This measure had already beenproposed in town meetings, both in New York and Boston. 

[Sidenote: General Gage arrives in Boston. ]

While the people of Boston were engaged in the first consultationsrespecting the bill directed particularly against themselves, generalGage arrived in town. He was received, notwithstanding the deep gloomof the moment, with those external marks of respect which had beenusual, and which were supposed to belong to his station. 

The general court convened by the governor at Salem, passedresolutions, declaring the expediency of a meeting of committees fromthe several colonies; and appointed five gentlemen as a committee onthe part of Massachusetts. The colonies from New Hampshire to SouthCarolina inclusive, adopted this measure; and, where the legislatureswere not in session, elections were made by the people. Thelegislature of Massachusetts also passed declaratory resolutionsexpressing their opinion on the state of public affairs, andrecommending to the inhabitants of that province to renounce, totally, the consumption of East India teas, and to discontinue the use of allgoods imported from the East Indies and Great Britain, until thegrievances of America should be completely redressed. 

The governor, having obtained intelligence of the manner in which thehouse was employed, sent his secretary with directions to dissolve theassembly. Finding the doors shut, and being refused admittance, heread the order of dissolution aloud on the staircase. The next day, the governor received an address from the principal inhabitants ofSalem, at that time the metropolis of the province, which marks thedeep impression made by a sense of common danger. No longerconsidering themselves as the inhabitants of Salem, but as Americans, and spurning advantages to be derived to themselves from the distressinflicted on a sister town, for its zeal in a cause common to all, they expressed their deep affliction for the calamities of Boston. 

About this time rough drafts of the two remaining bills relative tothe province of Massachusetts, as well as of that for quarteringtroops in America, were received in Boston, and circulated through thecontinent. They served to confirm the wavering, to render the moderateindignant, and to inflame the violent. 

An agreement was framed by the committee of correspondence in Boston, entitled "a solemn league and covenant, " whereby the subscribers boundthemselves, "in the presence of God, " to suspend all commercialintercourse with Great Britain, from the last day of the ensuing monthof August, until the Boston port bill, and the other late obnoxiouslaws should be repealed. They also bound themselves, in the samemanner, not to consume, or purchase from any other, any goods whateverwhich should arrive after the specified time; and to break off alldealings with the purchasers as well as with the importers of suchgoods. They renounced, also, all intercourse and connexion with thosewho should refuse to subscribe to that covenant, or to bind themselvesby some similar agreement; and annexed to the renunciation ofintercourse, the dangerous penalty of publishing to the world, thenames of all who refused to give this evidence of attachment to therights of their country. 

General Gage issued a proclamation in which he termed this covenant"an unlawful, hostile, and traitorous combination, contrary to theallegiance due to the King, destructive of the legal authority ofparliament, and of the peace, good order, and safety of thecommunity. " All persons were warned against incurring the pains andpenalties due to such dangerous offences; and all magistrates werecharged to apprehend and secure for trial such as should be guilty ofthem. But the time when the proclamation of governors could commandattention had passed away; and the penalties in the power of thecommittee of correspondence were much more dreaded than those whichcould be inflicted by the civil magistrate. [233]

 [Footnote 233: Belsham. Minot. ]

Resolutions were passed in every colony in which legislatures wereconvened, or delegates assembled in convention, manifesting differentdegrees of resentment, but concurring in the same great principles. All declared that the cause of Boston was the cause of BritishAmerica; that the late acts respecting that devoted town weretyrannical and unconstitutional; that the opposition to thisministerial system of oppression ought to be universally andperseveringly maintained; that all intercourse with the parent stateought to be suspended, and domestic manufactures encouraged; and thata general congress should be formed for the purpose of uniting andguiding the councils, and directing the efforts, of North America. 

The committees of correspondence selected Philadelphia for the place, and the beginning of September as the time, for the meeting of thisimportant council. 

[Sidenote: Congress assembles. ]

On the fourth of September, the delegates from eleven[234] provincesappeared at the place appointed; and, the next day, they assembled atCarpenter's Hall, when Peyton Randolph, late speaker of the house ofBurgesses of Virginia, was unanimously chosen president. Therespective credentials of the members were then read and approved; andthis august assembly, having determined that each colony should haveonly one vote; that their deliberations should be conducted withclosed doors; and that their proceedings, except such as they mightdetermine to publish, should be kept inviolably secret; entered on thesolemn and important duties assigned to them. [235]

 [Footnote 234: Those of North Carolina arrived on the fourteenth. ]

 [Footnote 235: See note No. VII, at the end of the volume. ]

Committees were appointed to state the rights claimed by the colonies, which had been infringed by acts of parliament passed since the year1763; to prepare a petition to the King, and addresses to the peopleof Great Britain, to the inhabitants of the province of Quebec, and tothe twelve colonies represented in congress. 

Certain resolutions[236] of the county of Suffolk in Massachusetts, having been taken into consideration, it was unanimously resolved"that this assembly deeply feels the suffering of their countrymen inMassachusetts Bay, under the operation of the late unjust, cruel, andoppressive acts of the British parliament; that they most thoroughlyapprove the wisdom and fortitude with which opposition to these wickedministerial measures has hitherto been conducted; and they earnestlyrecommend to their brethren, a perseverance in the same firm andtemperate conduct, as expressed in the resolutions determined upon, ata meeting of the delegates for the county of Suffolk, on Tuesday thesixth instant; trusting that the effect of the united efforts of NorthAmerica in their behalf, will carry such conviction to the Britishnation of the unwise, unjust, and ruinous policy of the presentadministration, as quickly to introduce better men, and wisermeasures. "

 [Footnote 236: See note No. VIII, at the end of the volume. ]

It was resolved, unanimously, "that contributions from all thecolonies, for supplying the necessities, and alleviating thedistresses of our brethren in Boston, ought to be continued, in suchmanner, and so long, as their occasions may require. "

The merchants of the several colonies were requested not to send toGreat Britain any orders for goods, and to direct the execution ofthose already sent to be suspended, until the sense of congress on themeans to be taken for preserving the liberties of America, be madepublic. In a few days, resolutions were passed, suspending theimportation of goods from Great Britain, or Ireland, or any of theirdependencies, and of their manufactures from any place whatever, afterthe first day of the succeeding December; and against the purchase oruse of such goods. It was also determined that all exports to GreatBritain, Ireland, and the West Indies, should cease on the 10th ofSeptember, 1775 less American grievances should be redressed beforethat time. An association, corresponding with these resolutions, wasthen framed, and signed by every member present. Never were laws morefaithfully observed, than were these resolutions of congress; andtheir association was, of consequence, universally adopted. 

Early in the session, a declaration[237] of rights was made in theshape of resolutions. This paper merits particular attention, becauseit states precisely the ground then taken by America. It is observablethat it asserted rights which were not generally maintained, at thecommencement of the contest; but the exclusive right of legislation inthe colonial assemblies, with the exception of acts of the Britishparliament _bona fide_ made to regulate external commerce, was notaverred unanimously. 

 [Footnote 237: See note No. IX, at the end of the volume. ]

The addresses prepared, the various papers drawn up, and the measuresrecommended by this congress, form the best eulogy of the members whocomposed it. Affection to the mother country, an exalted admiration ofher national character, unwillingness to separate from her, aknowledge of the hazards and difficulties of the approaching contest, mingled with enthusiastic patriotism, and a conviction that all whichcan make life valuable was at stake, characterise their proceedings. 

[Sidenote: Address to the people of Great Britain. ]

"When, " they say in the address to the people to the people of GreatBritain, "a nation led to greatness by the hand of liberty, andpossessed of all the glory that heroism, munificence, and humanity, can bestow, descends to the ungrateful task of forging chains for herfriends and children, and, instead of giving support to freedom turnsadvocate for slavery and oppression, there is reason to suspect shehas either ceased to be virtuous, or been extremely negligent in theappointment of her rulers. 

"In almost every age, in repeated conflicts, in long and bloody wars, as well civil as foreign, against many and powerful nations, againstthe open assaults of enemies, and the more dangerous treachery offriends, have the inhabitants of your island, your great and gloriousancestors, maintained their independence, and transmitted the rightsof men and the blessings of liberty to you their posterity. 

"Be not surprised therefore that we, who are descended from the samecommon ancestors, that we, whose forefathers participated in all therights, the liberties, and the constitution, you so justly boast of, and who have carefully conveyed the same fair inheritance to us, guaranteed by the plighted faith of government, and the most solemncompacts with British sovereigns, should refuse to surrender them tomen, who found their claims on no principles of reason, and whoprosecute them with a design, that by having _our_ lives and propertyin their power, they may with the greater facility enslave _you_. "

After stating the serious condition of American affairs, and theoppressions, and misrepresentations of their conduct, which hadinduced the address; and their claim to be as free as their fellowsubjects in Britain; they say, "are not the proprietors of the soil ofGreat Britain lords of their own property? Can it be taken from themwithout their consent? Will they yield it to the arbitrary disposal ofany men, or number of men whatever? You know they will not. 

"Why then are the proprietors of the soil of America less lords oftheir property than you are of yours, or why should they submit it tothe disposal of your parliament, or any other parliament or council inthe world, not of their election? Can the intervention of the sea thatdivides us cause disparity of rights, or can any reason be given whyEnglish subjects, who live three thousand miles from the royal palace, should enjoy less liberty than those who are three hundred milesdistant from it?

"Reason looks with indignation on such distinctions, and freemen cannever perceive their propriety. "

After expatiating on the resources which the conquest of America wouldplace in the hands of the crown for the subjugation of Britain, theaddress proceeds, "we believe there is yet much virtue, much justice, and much public spirit in the English nation. To that justice we nowappeal. You have been told that we are seditious, impatient ofgovernment, and desirous of independency. Be assured that these arenot facts but calumnies. Permit us to be as free as yourselves, and weshall ever esteem a union with you to be our greatest glory, and ourgreatest happiness;--we shall ever be ready to contribute all in ourpower to the welfare of the empire;--we shall consider your enemies asour enemies, and your interest as our own. 

"But if you are determined that your ministers shall wantonly sportwith the rights of mankind:--if neither the voice of justice, thedictates of the law, the principles of the constitution, nor thesuggestions of humanity, can restrain your hands from shedding humanblood in such an impious cause, we must then tell you that we willnever submit to be hewers of wood or drawers of water for any ministryor nation in the world. 

"Place us in the same situation that we were at the close of the latewar, and our former harmony will be restored. "[238]

 [Footnote 238: The committee which prepared this eloquent and manly address, were Mr. Lee, Mr. Livingston, and Mr. Jay. The composition has been generally attributed to Mr. Jay. ]

[Sidenote: Petition to the King. ]

The petition to the King states succinctly the grievances complainedof, and then proceeds to say:

"Had our creator been pleased to give us existence in a land ofslavery, the sense of our condition might have been mitigated byignorance and habit. But thanks be to his adorable goodness, we wereborn the heirs of freedom, and ever enjoyed our right under theauspices of your royal ancestors, whose family was seated on theBritish throne, to rescue and secure a pious and gallant nation fromthe popery and despotism of a superstitious and inexorable tyrant. Your majesty, we are confident, justly rejoices that your title to thecrown is thus founded on the title of your people to liberty; and, therefore, we doubt not but your royal wisdom must approve thesensibility that teaches your subjects anxiously to guard the blessingthey received from divine providence, and thereby to prove theperformance of that compact, which elevated the illustrious house ofBrunswick to the imperial dignity it now possesses. 

"The apprehensions of being degraded into a state of servitude, fromthe pre-eminent rank of English freemen, while our minds retain thestrongest love of liberty, and clearly foresee the miseries preparingfor us and for our posterity, excites emotions in our breasts, which, though we cannot describe, we should not wish to conceal. Feeling asmen, and thinking as subjects, in the manner we do, silence would bedisloyalty. By giving this faithful information, we do all in ourpower to promote the great objects of your royal cares--thetranquillity of your government, and the welfare of your people. 

"Duty to your majesty and regard for the preservation of ourselves andour posterity, --the primary obligations of nature and society, commandus to entreat your royal attention; and, as your majesty enjoys thesignal distinction of reigning over freemen, we apprehend the languageof freemen cannot be displeasing. Your royal indignation, we hope, will rather fall on those designing and dangerous men, who, daringlyinterposing themselves between your royal person and your faithfulsubjects, and for several years past incessantly employed to dissolvethe bonds of society, by abusing your majesty's authority, misrepresenting your American subjects, and prosecuting the mostdesperate and irritating projects of oppression, have at lengthcompelled us, by the force of accumulated injuries, too severe to beany longer tolerable, to disturb your majesty's repose by ourcomplaints. 

"These sentiments are extorted from hearts that much more willinglywould bleed in your majesty's service. Yet so greatly have we beenmisrepresented, that a necessity has been alleged of taking ourproperty from us without our consent, to defray the charge of theadministration of justice, the support of civil government, and thedefence, protection, and security of the colonies. "

After assuring his majesty of the untruth of these allegations, theysay, "yielding to no British subjects in affectionate attachment toyour majesty's person, family, and government, we too dearly prize theprivilege of expressing that attachment, by those proofs that arehonourable to the prince that receives them, and to the people whogive them, ever to resign it to any body of men upon earth. 

"We ask but for peace, liberty, and safety. We wish not a diminutionof the prerogative, nor do we solicit the grant of any new right inour favour. Your royal authority over us, and our connection withGreat Britain, we shall always carefully and zealously endeavour tosupport and maintain. "

After re-stating in a very affecting manner the most essentialgrievances of which they complain, and professing that their futureconduct, if their apprehensions should be removed, would prove themworthy of the regard they had been accustomed, in their happier daysto enjoy, they add:

"Permit us then most gracious sovereign, in the name of all yourfaithful people in America, with the utmost humility to implore you, for the honour of Almighty God, whose pure religion our enemies areundermining; for your glory which can be advanced only by renderingyour subjects happy, and keeping them united; for the interest of yourfamily, depending on an adherence to the principles that enthroned it;for the safety and welfare of your kingdom and dominions, threatenedwith almost unavoidable dangers and distresses; that your majesty, asthe loving father of your whole people, connected by the same bonds oflaw, loyalty, faith, and blood, though dwelling in various countries, will not suffer the transcendent relation formed by these ties, to befarther violated, in uncertain expectation of effects that, ifattained, never can compensate for the calamities, through which theymust be gained. "[239]

 [Footnote 239: The committee which brought in this admirably well drawn, and truly conciliatory address, were Mr. Lee, Mr. John Adams, Mr. Johnson, Mr. Henry, Mr. Rutledge, and Mr. Dickinson. The original composition has been generally attributed to Mr. Dickinson. ]

[Sidenote: Address to the American people. ]

The address to their constituents is replete with serious andtemperate argument. In this paper, the several causes which had led tothe existing state of things, were detailed more at large; and muchlabour was used to convince their judgments that their liberties mustbe destroyed, and the security of their property and personsannihilated, by submission to the pretensions of Great Britain. Thefirst object of congress being to unite the people of America, bydemonstrating the sincerity with which their leaders had sought forreconciliation on terms compatible with liberty, great earnestness wasused in proving that the conduct of the colonists had been uniformlymoderate and blameless. After declaring their confidence in theefficacy of the mode of commercial resistance which had beenrecommended, the address concludes with saying, "your own salvation, and that of your posterity, now depends upon yourselves. You havealready shown that you entertain a proper sense of the blessings youare striving to retain. Against the temporary inconveniences you maysuffer from a stoppage of trade, you will weigh in the oppositebalance, the endless miseries you and your descendants must endure, from an established arbitrary power. You will not forget the honour ofyour country, that must, from your behaviour, take its title in theestimation of the world to glory or to shame; and you will, with thedeepest attention, reflect, that if the peaceable mode of oppositionrecommended by us, be broken and rendered ineffectual, as your crueland haughty ministerial enemies, from a contemptuous opinion of yourfirmness, insolently predict will be the case, you must inevitably bereduced to choose, either a more dangerous contest, or a final, ruinous, and infamous submission. 

"Motives thus cogent, arising from the emergency of your unhappycondition, must excite your utmost diligence and zeal, to give allpossible strength and energy to the pacific measures calculated foryour relief. But we think ourselves bound in duty to observe to you, that the schemes agitated against the colonies have been so conducted, as to render it prudent that you should extend your views to mournfulevents, and be in all respects prepared for every contingency. Aboveall things, we earnestly entreat you, with devotion of spirit, penitence of heart, and amendment of life, to humble yourselves, andimplore the favour of Almighty God; and we fervently beseech hisdivine goodness to take you into his gracious protection. "[240]

 [Footnote 240: Mr. Lee, Mr. Livingston, and Mr. Jay, were also the committee who brought in this address. ]

The letter to the people of Canada required no inconsiderable degreeof address. The extent of that province was not so alarming to itsinhabitants as to their neighbours; and it was not easy to persuadethe French settlers, who were far the most numerous, that theestablishment of their religion, and the partial toleration of theirancient jurisprudence, were acts of oppression which ought to beresisted. This delicate subject was managed with considerabledexterity, and the prejudices of the Canadians were assailed with somesuccess. 

Letters were also addressed to the colonies of St. Johns, Nova Scotia, Georgia, and the Floridas, inviting them to unite with their brethrenin a cause common to all British America. [241]

 [Footnote 241: These letters, as well as that to the inhabitants of the province of Quebec, were prepared by Mr. Cushing, Mr. Lee, and Mr. Dickinson. ]

After completing the business before them, and recommending thatanother Congress should be held at the same place on the tenth of thesucceeding May, the House dissolved itself. 

{October. }

The proceedings of Congress were read throughout America, withenthusiastic admiration. Their recommendations were revered asrevelations, and obeyed as laws of the strongest obligation. Absoluteunanimity could not be expected to exist; but seldom has a wholepeople been more united; and never did a more sincere and perfectconviction of the justice of a cause animate the human bosom, than wasfelt by the great body of the Americans. The people, generally, madegreat exertions to arm and discipline themselves. Independentcompanies of gentlemen were formed in all the colonies; and the wholeface of the country exhibited the aspect of approaching war. Yet themeasures of Congress demonstrate that, although resistance by forcewas contemplated as a possible event, the hope was fondly cherishedthat the non-importation of British goods would induce a repeal of thelate odious acts. It is impossible to account for the non-importationagreement itself. Had war been considered as inevitable, everyprinciple of sound policy required that imports should be encouraged, and the largest possible stock of supplies for an army be obtained. 

[Sidenote: New counsellors and judges. ]

With the laws relative to the province, governor Gage received a listof thirty-two new counsellors, a sufficient number of whom, to carryon the business of the government, accepted the office, and entered onits duties. 

[Sidenote: Obliged to resign. ]

All those who accepted offices under the new system, were denounced asenemies to their country. The new judges were unable to proceed in theadministration of justice. When the court houses were opened, thepeople crowded into them in such numbers that the judges could notobtain admittance; and, on being ordered by the officers to make wayfor the court, they answered that they knew no court, independent ofthe ancient laws and usages of their country, and to no other wouldthey submit. [242] The houses of the new counsellors were surrounded bygreat bodies of people, whose threats announced to them that they mustresign their offices, or be exposed to the fury of an enragedpopulace. The first part of the alternative was generally embraced. 

 [Footnote 242: Minot. ]

[Sidenote: Boston neck fortified. ]

In this irritable state of the public mind, and critical situation ofpublic affairs, it was to be expected that every day would furnish newmatter of discontent and jealousy. General Gage deemed it a necessarymeasure of security, to fortify Boston neck; and this circumstanceinduced the inhabitants to contemplate seriously an evacuation of thetown, and removal into the country. Congress was consulted on thisproposition; but was deterred from recommending it, by thedifficulties attending the measure. It was however referred to theprovincial congress, with the declaration that, if the removal shouldbe deemed necessary, the expense attending it ought to be borne by allthe colonies. 

[Sidenote: Military stores seized by general Gage. ]

The fortification of Boston neck was followed by a measure whichexcited still greater alarm. The time for the general muster of themilitia approached. Under real or pretended apprehensions from theirviolence, the ammunition and stores which were lodged in theprovincial arsenal at Cambridge, and the powder in the magazines atCharlestown, and some other places which was partly private and partlyprovincial property, were seized, by order of the governor, andconveyed to Boston. 

Under the ferment excited by this measure, the people assembled ingreat numbers, and were with difficulty dissuaded from marching toBoston, and demanding a re-delivery of the stores. Not longafterwards, the fort at Portsmouth in New Hampshire was stormed by anarmed body of provincials; and the powder it contained was transportedto a place of safety. A similar measure was adopted in Rhode Island. 

About the same time a report reached Connecticut that the ships andtroops had attacked Boston, and were actually firing on the town. Several thousand men immediately assembled in arms, and marched withgreat expedition a considerable distance, before they were undeceived. 

It was in the midst of these ferments, and while these indications ofan opinion that hostilities might be expected daily were multiplyingon every side, that the people of Suffolk assembled in convention, andpassed the resolutions already mentioned, which in boldness surpassany that had been adopted. 

[Sidenote: Provincial congress in Massachusetts. ]

Before the general agitation had risen to its present alarming height, governor Gage had issued writs for the election of members to ageneral assembly. These writs were afterwards countermanded byproclamation; but the proclamation was disregarded; the elections wereheld; and the delegates, who assembled and voted themselves aprovincial congress, conducted the affairs of the colony as if theyhad been regularly invested with all the powers of government; andtheir recommendations were respected as sacred laws. 

[Sidenote: Prepares for defence. ]

They drew up a plan for the defence of the province; providedmagazines, ammunition and prepares stores for twelve thousand militia;and enrolled a number of minute men, a term designating a select partof the militia, who engaged to appear in arms at a minute's warning. 

On the approach of winter, the general had ordered temporary barracksto be erected for the troops, partly for their security, and partly toprevent the disorders which would unavoidably result from quarteringthem in the town. Such however was the detestation in which they wereheld, that the select men and committees obliged the workmen to desistfrom the work, although they were paid for their labour by the crown, and although employment could, at that time, be seldom obtained. Hewas not much more successful in his endeavours to obtain carpenters inNew York; and it was with considerable difficulty that these temporarylodgments could be erected. 

The agency for purchasing winter covering for the troops was offeredto almost every merchant in New York; but such was the danger ofengaging in this odious employment, that not only those who wereattached to the party resisting the views of administration, but thosealso who were in secret friendly to those views, refused undertakingit, and declared "that they never would supply any article for thebenefit of men who were sent as enemies to their country. "

[Sidenote: King's speech to parliament. ]

In Great Britain, a new parliament was assembled; and the King, in hisopening speech, informed them, "that a most daring spirit ofresistance and disobedience still prevailed in Massachusetts, and hadbroken forth in fresh violences of a very criminal nature; that themost proper and effectual measures had been taken to prevent thesemischiefs; and that they might depend upon a firm resolution towithstand every attempt to weaken or impair the supreme authority ofthis legislature over all the dominions of the crown. "

[Sidenote: Proceedings of that body. ]

{1775}

The addresses re-echoed the sentiments of the speech; all amendmentsto which were rejected in both houses by considerable majorities. [243]Yet the business respecting America was not promptly introduced. Administration seems to have hesitated on the course to be adopted;and the cabinet is said to have been divided respecting futuremeasures. The few friends of conciliation availed themselves of thisdelay, to bring forward propositions which might restore harmony tothe empire. Lord Chatham was not yet dead. "This splendid orb, " to usethe bold metaphor of Mr. Burke, "was not yet entirely set. The westernhorizon was still in a blaze with his descending glory;" and theevening of a life which had exhibited one bright unchequered course ofelevated patriotism, was devoted to the service of that country whoseaggrandisement seemed to have swallowed up every other passion of hissoul. Taking a prophetic view of the future, he demonstrated theimpossibility of subjugating America, and urged, with all the powersof his vast mind, the immediate removal of the troops from Boston, asa measure indispensably necessary, to open the way for an adjustmentof the existing differences with the colonies. Not discouraged by thegreat majority against this motion, he brought forward a bill forsettling the troubles in America, which was rejected by sixty-one tothirty-two voices. 

 [Footnote 243: Belsham. ]

The day after the rejection of this bill, lord North moved, in thehouse of commons, an address to his Majesty, declaring that, from aserious consideration of the American papers, "they find a rebellionactually exists in the province of Massachusetts Bay. " In the courseof the debate on this address, several professional gentlemen spokewith the utmost contempt of the military character of the Americans;and general Grant, who ought to have known better, declared that "atthe head of five regiments of infantry, he would undertake to traversethe whole country, and drive the inhabitants from one end of thecontinent to the other. "

The address was carried by 288 to 106; and on a conference, the houseof lords agreed to join in it. Lord North, soon after, moved a billfor restraining the trade and commerce of the New England provinces, and prohibiting them from carrying on the fisheries on the banks ofNewfoundland. [244]

 [Footnote 244: Belsham. ]

While this bill was pending, and only vengeance was breathed by themajority, his lordship, to the astonishment of all, suddenly moved, what he termed his conciliatory proposition. Its amount was, thatparliament would forbear to tax any colony, which should tax itself insuch a sum as would be perfectly satisfactory. Apparent as it musthave been that this proposition would not be accepted in America, itwas received with indignation by the majority of the house; andministers found some difficulty in showing that it was in maintenanceof the right to tax the colonies. Before it could be adopted lordNorth condescended to make the dangerous, and not very reputableacknowledgment, that it was a proposition designed to divide America, and to unite Great Britain. It was transmitted to the governors of theseveral colonies, in a circular letter from lord Dartmouth, withdirections to use their utmost influence to prevail on thelegislatures to accede to the proposed compromise. These endeavourswere not successful. The colonists were universally impressed with toostrong a conviction of the importance of union, and understood toowell the real principle of the contest, to suffer themselves to bedivided or deceived by a proposition, conciliatory only in name. 

After the passage of the bill for restraining the trade of NewEngland, information was received that the inhabitants of the middleand southern colonies, were supporting their northern brethren inevery measure of opposition. In consequence of this intelligence, asecond bill was passed for imposing similar restrictions on East andWest Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, South Carolina, and thecounties on the Delaware. The favourite colonies of New York and NorthCarolina were omitted, as being less disaffected than the others. Fortunately, some time afterwards, the house of commons refused tohear a petition from the legislature of New York, which alone haddeclined acceding to the resolutions of congress, on the suggestion ofthe minister that it contained claims incompatible with the supremacyof parliament. This haughty rejection had some tendency to convincethe advocates of milder measures than had been adopted in their sistercolonies, that there was no medium between resistance and absolutesubmission. 

The King's speech, and the proceedings of parliament, served only toconvince the leaders of opposition in America, that they must indeedprepare to meet "mournful events. " They had flattered themselves thatthe union of the colonies, the petition of congress to the King, andthe address to the people of Great Britain, would produce happyeffects. But these measures removed the delusion. The provincialcongress of Massachusetts published a resolution informing the peoplethat there was real cause to fear that the reasonable and justapplications of that continent to Great Britain for peace, liberty, and safety, would not meet with a favourable reception; that, on thecontrary, the tenor of their intelligence, and general appearances, furnished just cause for the apprehension that the sudden destructionof that colony, at least, was intended. They therefore urged themilitia in general, and the minute men in particular, to spare neithertime, pains, nor expense, to perfect themselves in militarydiscipline; and also passed resolutions for procuring and making firearms and bayonets. [245]

 [Footnote 245: Prior documents. Minot. ]

In the mean time, delegates were elected for the ensuing congress. Even in New York, where the influence of administration in thelegislature had been sufficient to prevent an adoption of therecommendations of congress, a convention was chosen for the purposeof electing members to represent that province in the grand council ofthe colonies. 

In New England, although a determination not to commence hostilityappears to have been maintained, an expectation of it, and a settledpurpose to repel it, universally prevailed. 

It was not long before the firmness of this resolution was put to thetest. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Lexington. ]

On the night preceding the 19th of April, general Gage detachedlieutenant colonel Smith, and major Pitcairn, with the grenadiers andlight infantry of the army, amounting to eight or nine hundred men, with orders to destroy some military stores which had been collectedat Concord, about eighteen miles from Boston, notwithstanding thesecrecy and dispatch which were used, the country was alarmed bymessengers sent out by Doctor Warren; and, on the arrival of theBritish troops at Lexington, about five in the morning, part of thecompany of militia belonging to the town, was found on the parade, under arms. Major Pitcairn, who led the van, galloped up, calling out, "disperse, rebels, disperse. " He was followed close by his soldiers, who rushed upon the militia with loud huzzas. Some scattering gunswere fired, which were immediately followed by a general discharge, and the firing was continued as long as any of the militia appeared. Eight men were killed, and several wounded. 

After dispatching six companies of light infantry to guard two bridgeswhich lay at some distance beyond the town, lieutenant colonel Smithproceeded to Concord. While the main body of the detachment wasemployed in destroying the stores in the town, some minute men andmilitia, who were collected from that place and its neighbourhood, having orders not to give the first fire, approached one of thebridges, as if to pass it in the character of common travellers. Theywere fired on, and two of them were killed. The fire was instantlyreturned, and a skirmish ensued, in which the regulars were worsted, and compelled to retreat with some loss. The alarm now becominggeneral, the people rushed to the scene of action, and attacked theKing's troops on all sides. Skirmish succeeded skirmish, and they weredriven, from post to post, into Lexington. Fortunately for theBritish, general Gage did not entertain precisely the opinion of themilitary character of the Americans, which had been expressed in thehouse of commons. Apprehending the expedition to be not entirelywithout hazard, he had, in the morning, detached lord Percy withsixteen companies of foot, a corps of marines, and two companies ofartillery, to support lieutenant colonel Smith. This seasonablereinforcement, happening to reach Lexington about the time of hisarrival at that place, kept the provincials at a distance with theirfield pieces, and gave the grenadiers and light infantry time tobreathe. But as soon as they resumed their march, the attack wasre-commenced; and an irregular but galling fire was kept up on eachflank, as well as in front and rear, until they arrived, on the commonof Charlestown. Without delay, they passed over the neck to Bunker'shill, where they remained secure for the night, under the protectionof their ships of war; and, early next morning, crossed over toBoston. 

In this action, the loss of the British in killed, wounded, andprisoners, was two hundred and seventy-three; while that of theprovincials did not exceed ninety. This affair, however trivial initself, was of great importance in its consequences. It was thecommencement of a long and obstinate war, and had no inconsiderableinfluence on that war, by increasing the confidence which theAmericans felt in themselves, and by encouraging opposition, with thehope of being successful. It supported the opinion which the colonistshad taken up with some doubt, that courage and patriotism were amplesubstitutes for the knowledge of tactics; and that their skill in theuse of fire arms, gave them a great superiority over theiradversaries. 

Although the previous state of things was such as to render thecommencement of hostilities unavoidable, each party seemed anxious tothrow the blame on its opponent. The British officers alleged thatthey were fired on from a stone wall, before they attacked the militiaat Lexington; while the Americans proved, by numerous depositions, that at Lexington, as well as at the bridge near Concord, the firstfire was received by them. The statement made by the Americans issupported, not only by the testimony adduced, but by othercircumstances. In numbers, the militia at Lexington did not exceedone-ninth of the British; and it is not probable that their friendswould have provoked their fate while in that perilous situation, bycommencing a fire on an enraged soldiery. It is also worthy ofattention, that the Americans uniformly sought to cover theirproceedings with the letter of the law; and, even after the affair atLexington, made a point of receiving the first fire at the bridgebeyond Concord. 

The provincial congress, desirous of manifesting the necessity underwhich the militia had acted, sent to their agents, the depositionswhich had been taken relative to the late action, with a letter to theinhabitants of Great Britain, stating that hostilities had beencommenced against them, and detailing the circumstances attending thatevent. 

But they did not confine themselves to addresses. They immediatelypassed a resolution for raising thirteen thousand six hundred men inMassachusetts, to be commanded by general Ward; and called on NewHampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, for their respective quotas, to complete an army of thirty thousand men for the common defence. They also authorised the receiver general to borrow one hundredthousand pounds on the credit of the colony, and to issue securitiesfor the re-payment thereof, bearing an interest of six per centum perannum. 

The neighbouring colonies complied promptly with this requisition;and, in the mean time, such numbers assembled voluntarily, that manywere dismissed in consequence of the defect of means to subsist themin the field; and the King's troops were themselves blocked up in thepeninsula of Boston. 

About the same time, that enterprising spirit, which pervaded NewEngland, manifested itself in an expedition of considerable merit. 

The possession of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and the command oflakes George and Champlain, were objects of importance in theapproaching conflict. It was known that these posts were weaklydefended; and it was believed that the feeble garrisons remaining inthem were the less to be dreaded, because they thought themselvesperfectly secure. Under these impressions, some gentlemen ofConnecticut, at the head of whom were Messrs. Deane, Wooster, andParsons, formed the design of seizing these fortresses by surprise;and borrowed a small sum of money from the legislature of the colony, to enable them to carry on the expedition. About forty volunteersmarched from Connecticut towards Bennington, where they expected tomeet with colonel Ethan Allen, and to engage him to conduct theenterprise, and to raise an additional number of men. 

[Sidenote: Ticonderoga surprised. ]

[Sidenote: Crown Point surrenders. ]

Colonel Allen readily entered into their views, and engaged to meetthem at Castleton. Two hundred and seventy men assembled at thatplace, where they were joined by colonel Arnold, who was associatedwith colonel Allen in the command. They reached lake Champlain in thenight of the ninth of May. Both Allen and Arnold embarked with thefirst division consisting of eighty-three men, who effected a landingwithout being discovered, and immediately marched against the fort, which, being completely surprised, surrendered without firing a gun. The garrison consisted of only forty-four rank and file, commanded bya captain and one lieutenant. From Ticonderoga, colonel Seth Warrenwas detached to take possession of Crown Point, which was garrisonedonly by a sergeant and twelve men. This service was immediatelyexecuted, and the fort was taken without opposition. 

At both these places, military stores of considerable value fell intothe hands of the Americans. The pass at Skeensborough was seized aboutthe same time by a body of volunteers from Connecticut. 

To complete the objects of the expedition, it was necessary to obtainthe command of the lakes, which could be accomplished only by seizinga sloop of war lying at St. Johns. This service was effected byArnold, who, having manned and armed a schooner found in South bay, surprised the sloop, and took possession of her without opposition. 

Thus, by the enterprise of a few individuals, and without the loss ofa single man, the important posts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point wereacquired, with the command of the lakes on which they stand. 

[Sidenote: Meeting of congress. ]

Intelligence of the capture of Ticonderoga was immediately transmittedto congress, then just assembled at Philadelphia. The resolutionspassed on the occasion, furnish strong evidence of the solicitude feltby that body, to exonerate the government, in the opinion of thepeople, from all suspicion of provoking a continuance of the war, bytranscending the limits of self defence. Indubitable evidence, it wasasserted, had been received of a design for a cruel invasion of thecolonies from Canada, for the purpose of destroying their lives andliberties; and it was averred that some steps had actually been takentowards carrying this design into execution. To a justifiable desireof securing themselves from so heavy a calamity, was attributed theseizure of the posts on the lakes by the neighbouring inhabitants; andit was recommended to the committees of New York and Albany to takeimmediate measures for the removal of the cannon and military storesto some place on the south end of lake George, there to be preservedin safety. An exact inventory of the stores was directed to be taken, "in order that they might be safely returned, when the restoration ofthe former harmony between Great Britain and the colonies, so ardentlywished for by the latter, should render it prudent, and consistentwith the overruling law of self preservation. "

Measures, however, were adopted to maintain the posts; but, to quietthe apprehensions of their neighbours, congress resolved that, havingnothing more in view than self defence, "no expedition or incursionought to be undertaken or made by any colony, or body of colonists, against, or into, Canada. "

This resolution was translated into the French language, andtransmitted to the people of that province, in a letter in which alltheir feelings, and particularly their known attachment to France, were dexterously assailed; and the effort was earnestly made to kindlein their bosoms, that enthusiastic love of liberty which was felt toostrongly by the authors of the letter, to permit the belief that itcould be inoperative with others. 

During these transactions, generals Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton, arrived at Boston, soon after which general Gage issued a proclamationdeclaring martial law to be in force, and offering pardon to those whowould lay down their arms and submit to the King, with the exceptionof Samuel Adams, and John Hancock. 

On receiving intelligence of the battle of Lexington, New Yorkappeared to hesitate no longer. In that place also, the spirit whichanimated the colonies generally, obtained the ascendancy. Yet theroyal party remained formidable; and it was thought advisable to marcha body of Connecticut troops into the neighbourhood, professedly toprotect the town against some British regiments expected from Ireland, but really with the design of protecting the patriotic party. 

The middle and southern colonies, though not so forward as those ofthe north, laid aside the established government, and prepared forhostilities. 

[Sidenote: Transactions in Virginia. ]

In Virginia, the governor, lord Dunmore, had just returned from asuccessful expedition against the Indians, in which he had acquiredconsiderable popularity. Presuming too much on the favour of themoment, and dissatisfied with some recommendations concerning themilitia and independent companies made by the colonial conventionwhich had assembled in Richmond, he employed the captain of an armedvessel then lying in James river, a few miles from Williamsburg, toconvey to his ship by night, a part of the powder in the magazine, belonging to the colony. 

This measure, though conducted with great secrecy, was discovered; andthe people of the town assembled next morning in arms, for the purposeof demanding restitution of the property which had been taken. Themagistrates, having prevailed on them to disperse, presented anaddress to the governor, remonstrating against the removal of thepowder, which they alleged to be the more injurious, because it wasnecessary for their defence in the event of an insurrection amongtheir slaves. 

The governor acknowledged that the powder had been removed by hisorder, but gave assurances that he would restore it, if aninsurrection of the slaves should render the measure necessary. Unsatisfactory as this answer was, no farther means were used inWilliamsburg for its recovery. 

This transaction excited a strong sensation in the interior of thecountry. Meetings were held in several counties, and the conduct ofthe governor was greatly condemned. The independent companies ofHanover and King William, at the instance of Mr. Patrick Henry, amember of congress, assembled, and marched for Williamsburg, with theavowed design of compelling restitution of the powder, or of obtainingits value. Their march was stopped by the active interposition of Mr. Braxton, who obtained from the King's receiver general, a bill for thevalue of the property that had been removed, with which he returned tothe companies, and prevailed on them to relinquish a fartherprosecution of the enterprise. [246]

 [Footnote 246: The independent companies of the upper part of the northern neck, also assembled to the number of about six hundred men, and proceeded on horseback as far as Fredericksburg, when a council was held in which Richard Henry Lee, then on his way to congress, presided, which advised their return to their respective homes. ]

The alarm occasioned by this movement induced lady Dunmore, to retirewith her family on board the Fowey man of war, lying in James river;whilst his lordship fortified his palace, which he garrisoned with acorps of marines; and published a proclamation in which he chargedthose who had procured the bill from the receiver general, withrebellious practices. 

During this state of irritation, lord North's conciliatory propositionwas received; and an assembly was suddenly called, to whoseconsideration it was submitted. The governor used all his address toprocure its acceptance; but, in Virginia, as in the other colonies, itwas rejected, because it obviously involved a surrender of the wholesubject in contest. 

[Sidenote: Governor Dunmore retires to the Fowey ship of war. ]

One of the first measures of the assembly was to inquire into thecauses of the late disturbances, and particularly to examine the stateof the magazine. Although this building belonged to the colony, it wasin the custody of the governor; and, before admittance could beobtained; some persons of the neighbourhood broke into it, one of whomwas wounded by a spring gun, and it was found that the powder whichremained had been buried, and that the guns were deprived of theirlocks. These circumstances excited so great a ferment that thegovernor thought proper to withdraw to the Fowey man of war. Severalletters passed between him and the legislature containing reciprocalcomplaints of each other, in the course of which they pressed hisreturn to the seat of government, while he insisted on their coming onboard the Fowey. They were content that he should, even there, givehis assent to some bills that were prepared, but he refused so to do, and the assembly dissolved itself; the members being generally electedto a convention then about to meet in Richmond. 

Thus terminated for ever, the regal government in Virginia. 

[Sidenote: Provisional congress of South Carolina. ]

In South Carolina, so soon as intelligence of the battle of Lexingtonwas received, a provincial congress was called by the committee ofcorrespondence. An association was formed, the members of whichpledged themselves to each other to repel force by force, whenever thecontinental or provincial congress should determine it to benecessary; and declared that they would hold all those inimical to thecolonies, who should refuse to subscribe it. The congress alsodetermined to put the town and province in a posture of defence, andagreed to raise two regiments of infantry, and one of rangers. 

[Sidenote: Arrival of lord William Campbell. ]

While the congress was in session, lord William Campbell, who had beenappointed governor, arrived in the province, and was received withthose demonstrations of joy which had been usual on such occasions. The congress waited on him with an address expressing the causes oftheir proceedings; in which they declared that no love of innovation, no desire of altering the constitution of government, no lust ofindependence, had the least influence on their councils; but that theyhad been compelled to associate and take up arms, solely for thepreservation, and in defence, of their lives, liberties, and property. They entreated his excellency to make such a representation of thestate of the colony, and of their true motives, as to assure hismajesty that he had no subjects who more sincerely desired to testifytheir loyalty and affection, or would be more willing to devote theirlives and fortunes to his real service. His lordship returned a mildand prudent answer. [247]

 [Footnote 247: Gordon. ]

For some time lord William Campbell conducted himself with suchapparent moderation, as to remain on good terms with the leaders ofthe opposition; but he was secretly exerting all the influence of hisstation to defeat their views; and was, at length, detected incarrying on negotiations with the Indians, and with the disaffected inthe interior. These people had been induced to believe that theinhabitants of the sea coast, in order to exempt their tea from atrifling tax, were about to engage them in a contest, which woulddeprive them of their salt, osnaburgs, and other imported articles ofabsolute necessity. The detection of these intrigues excited such aferment that the governor was compelled to fly from Charleston, andtake refuge on board a ship of war in the river. The government wasthen, as elsewhere, taken entirely into the hands of men chosen by thepeople; and a body of provincial troops was ordered into that part ofthe country which adhered to the royal cause, where many individuals, contrary to the advice of governor Campbell, had risen in arms. Theleaders were seized, and their followers dispersed. 

In North Carolina also, governor Martin was charged with fomenting acivil war, and exciting an insurrection among the negroes. Relying onthe aid he expected from the disaffected, especially from someHighland emigrants, he made preparations for the defence of hispalace; but the people taking the alarm before his troops were raised, he was compelled to seek safety on board a sloop of war in Cape Fearriver; soon after which, the committee resolved "that no person orpersons whatsoever should have any correspondence with him, on pain ofbeing deemed enemies to the liberties of America, and dealt withaccordingly. "

As soon as congress was organised, Mr. Hancock laid before that bodythe depositions showing that, in the battle of Lexington, the King'stroops were the aggressors; together with the proceedings of theprovincial congress of Massachusetts on that subject. 

The affairs of America were now arrived at a crisis to which they hadbeen, for some time, rapidly tending; and it had become necessary forthe delegates of the other provinces finally to determine, either toembark with New England in war, or, by separating from her, tosurrender the object for which they had jointly contended, and submitto that unlimited supremacy which was claimed by parliament. 

Even among the well informed, the opinion, that the contest wouldultimately be determined by the sword, had not become general. Thehope had been indulged by many of the popular leaders, that the unionof the colonies, the extent and serious aspect of the opposition, andthe distress which their non-importation agreements would produceamong the merchants and manufacturers of the parent state, wouldinduce administration to recede from its high pretensions, and restoreharmony and free intercourse. This opinion had derived strength fromthe communications made them by their zealous friends in England. Thedivisions and discontents of that country had been represented as muchgreater than the fact would justify; and the exhortations transmittedto them to persevere in the honourable course which had been commencedwith so much glory, had generally been accompanied with assurancesthat success would yet crown their patriotic labours. Many had engagedwith zeal in the resistance made by America, and had acted on a fullconviction of the correctness of the principles for which theycontended, who would have felt some reluctance in supporting themeasures which had been adopted, had they believed that those measureswould produce war. But each party counted too much on the divisions ofthe other; and each seems to have taken step after step, in the hopethat its adversary would yield the point in contest, without resortingto open force. Thus, on both sides, the public feeling had beengradually conducted to a point, which would, in the first instance, have been viewed with horror, and had been prepared for events, which, in the beginning of the controversy, would have alarmed the mostintrepid. The prevailing sentiment in the middle and southern coloniesstill was, that a reconciliation, on the terms proposed by America, was not even yet impracticable, and was devoutly to be wished; butthat war was to be preferred to a surrender of those rights, for whichthey had contended, and to which they believed every British subject, wherever placed, to be unquestionably entitled. They did not hesitatetherefore which part of the alternative to embrace; and theirdelegates united cordially with those of the north, in such measuresas the exigency required. The resolution was unanimous that, ashostilities had actually commenced, and as large reinforcements to theBritish army were expected, these colonies should be immediately putin a state of defence, and the militia of New York be armed andtrained, and kept in readiness to act at a moment's warning. Congressalso determined to embody a number of men, without delay, for theprotection of the inhabitants of that place, but did not authoriseopposition to the landing of any troops which might be ordered to thatstation by the crown. The convention of New York had already consultedcongress on this subject, and had been advised to permit the soldiersto take possession of the barracks, and to remain there so long asthey conducted themselves peaceably; but, if they should commithostilities, or invade private property, to repel force by force. Thusanxious was congress even after a battle had been fought, not to widenthe breach between the two countries. In addition to the real wish forreconciliation, sound policy directed that the people of Americashould engage in the arduous conflict which was approaching, with aperfect conviction that it was forced upon them, and not invited bythe intemperate conduct of their leaders. The divisions existing inseveral of the States suggested the propriety of this conduct, even tothose who despaired of deriving any other benefit from it, than agreater degree of union among their own countrymen. In this spirit, congress mingled with the resolutions for putting the country in astate of defence, others expressing the most earnest wish forreconciliation with the mother country, to effect which, that bodydetermined to address, once more, an humble and dutiful petition tothe King, and to adopt measures for opening a negotiation in order "toaccommodate the unhappy disputes subsisting between Great Britain andthe colonies. "

As no great confidence could be placed in the success of pacificpropositions, the resolution for putting the country in a state ofdefence was accompanied with others rendered necessary by thatundetermined state between war and peace, in which America was placed. All exports to those colonies, which had not deputed members tocongress, were stopped; and all supplies of provisions, and othernecessaries, to the British fisheries, or to the army or navy inMassachusetts Bay, or to any vessels employed in transporting Britishtroops to America, or from one colony to another, were prohibited. Though this resolution was only an extension of the system ofcommercial resistance which had been adopted before the commencementof hostilities, and was evidently provoked by the late act ofparliament, it seems to have been entirely unexpected, and certainlyproduced great distress. 

Massachusetts having stated the embarrassments resulting from beingwithout a regular government, "at a time when an army was to be raisedto defend themselves against the butcheries and devastations of theirimplacable enemies, " and having declared a readiness to conform tosuch general plan as congress might recommend to the colonies, it wasresolved "that no obedience is due to the act of parliament foraltering the charter of that colony, nor to officers who, instead ofobserving that charter, seek its subversion. " The governor andlieutenant governor, therefore, were to be considered as absent, andtheir offices vacant. To avoid the intolerable inconveniences arisingfrom a total suspension of government, "especially at a time whengeneral Gage had actually levied war, and was carrying on hostilitiesagainst his majesty's peaceable and loyal subjects in that colony, " itwas "recommended to the convention to write letters to the inhabitantsof the several places which are entitled to representation in theassembly, requesting them to choose such representatives; and thatsuch assembly or council exercise the powers of government until agovernor of his majesty's appointment will consent to govern thecolony, according to its charter. "[248]

 [Footnote 248: Journals of congress. ]

These resolutions were quickly followed by others of greater vigour, denoting more decidedly, a determination to prepare for the lastresort of nations. 

It was earnestly recommended to the conventions of all the colonies toprovide the means of making gun powder, and to obtain the largestpossible supplies of ammunition. Even the non-importation agreementwas relaxed in favour of vessels importing these precious materials. The conventions were also urged to arm and discipline the militia; andso to class them, that one-fourth should be minute men. They were alsorequested to raise several regular corps for the service of thecontinent; and a general resolution was entered into, authorising anyprovince thinking itself in danger, to raise a body of regulars notexceeding one thousand men, to be, paid by the united colonies. 

Congress also proceeded to organise the higher departments of thearmy, of which, colonel George Washington of Virginia was appointedcommander in chief. [249]

 [Footnote 249: Artemus Ward of Massachusetts, then commanding the troops before Boston; Colonel Charles Lee, lately an officer in the British service; and Israel Putnam of Connecticut, were appointed major generals; Horatio Gates, who had held the rank of major in the British service, was appointed adjutant general. ]

[Sidenote: Manifesto of congress. ]

Bills of credit to the amount of three millions of dollars wereemitted for the purpose of defraying the expenses of the war, and thefaith of the twelve confederated colonies was pledged for theirredemption. Articles of war for the government of the continental armywere formed; though the troops were raised under the authority of therespective colonies, without even a requisition from congress, exceptin a few instances. A solemn dignified declaration, in form of amanifesto, was prepared, to be published to the army in orders, and tothe people from the pulpit. After detailing the causes of theiropposition to the mother country, with all the energy of men feelingthe injuries of which they complain, the manifesto exclaims, "but whyshould we enumerate our injuries in detail? By one statute, it isdeclared that parliament can, of right, make laws to bind us in allcases whatsoever! What is to defend us against so enormous, sounlimited a power? Not a single man of those who assume it, is chosenby us, or is subject to our control or influence: but, on thecontrary, they are, all of them, exempt from the operation of suchlaws; and an American revenue, if not diverted from the ostensiblepurposes for which it is raised, would actually lighten their ownburdens in proportion as they increase ours. We saw the misery towhich such despotism would reduce us. We, for ten years, incessantlyand ineffectually, besieged the throne as supplicants; we reasoned, weremonstrated with parliament in the most mild and decent language. "

The manifesto next enumerates the measures adopted by administrationto enforce the claims of Great Britain, and then adds, --"we arereduced to the alternative of choosing an unconstitutional submissionto the tyranny of irritated ministers, or resistance by force. --Thelatter is our choice. We have counted the cost of this contest, andfind nothing so dreadful as voluntary slavery. Honour, justice, andhumanity, forbid us tamely to surrender that freedom which we receivedfrom our gallant ancestors, and which our innocent posterity have aright to receive from us. We cannot endure the infamy and guilt ofresigning succeeding generations to that wretchedness which inevitablyawaits them, if we basely entail hereditary bondage upon them. 

"Our cause is just. Our union is perfect. Our internal resources aregreat; and, if necessary, foreign assistance is undoubtedlyattainable. We gratefully acknowledge, as signal instances of thedivine favour towards us, that his providence would not permit us tobe called into this severe controversy, until we were grown up to ourpresent strength, had been previously exercised in warlike operation, and possessed of the means of defending ourselves. With heartsfortified with these animating reflections, we most solemnly, beforeGod and the world, DECLARE that, exerting the utmost energy of thosepowers which our beneficent creator hath graciously bestowed upon us, the arms we have been compelled by our enemies to assume, we will, indefiance of every hazard, with unabating firmness and perseverance, employ for the preservation of our liberties; being with one mindresolved to die freemen, rather than to live slaves. 

"Lest this declaration should disquiet the minds of our friends andfellow subjects in any part of the empire, we assure them that we meannot to dissolve that union which has so long and so happily subsistedbetween us, and which we sincerely wish to see restored. Necessity hasnot yet driven us to that desperate measure, or induced us to exciteany other nation to war against them. We have not raised armies withambitious designs of separating from Great Britain, and establishingindependent states. We fight not for glory, or for conquest. Weexhibit to mankind the remarkable spectacle of a people attacked byunprovoked enemies, without any imputation or even suspicion ofoffence. _They_ boast of their privileges and civilization, and yetproffer no milder conditions than servitude or death. 

"In our own native land in defence of the freedom that is our birthright, and which we ever enjoyed until the late violation of it, forthe protection of our property, acquired solely by the honest industryof our forefathers, and ourselves, against violence actually offered, we have taken up arms. We shall lay them down when hostilities shallcease on the part of the aggressors, and all danger of their beingrenewed shall be removed, and not before. "

Some intelligence respecting the movements of the British army havingexcited a suspicion that general Gage intended to penetrate into thecountry, the provincial congress recommended it to the council of warto take measures for the defence of Dorchester neck, and to occupyBunker's hill, a commanding piece of ground just within the peninsulaon which Charlestown stands. In observance of these instructions, adetachment of one thousand men, commanded by colonel Prescott, wasordered to take possession of this ground; but, by some mistake, Breed's hill, situate nearer to Boston, was marked out, instead ofBunker's hill, for the proposed intrenchments. 

The party sent on this service worked with so much diligence andsecrecy that, by the dawn of day, they had thrown up a small squareredoubt, without alarming some ships of war which lay in the river atno great distance. As soon as the returning light discovered this workto the ships, a heavy cannonade was commenced upon it, which theprovincials sustained with firmness. They continued to labour untilthey had thrown up a small breast work stretching from the east sideof the redoubt to the bottom of the hill, so as to extend considerablytheir line of defence. 

As this eminence overlooked Boston, general Gage determined to drivethe provincials from it; and for this purpose, detached major generalHowe, and brigadier general Pigot, at the head of ten companies ofgrenadiers, and the same number of light infantry with a properproportion of field artillery. These troops landed at Moreton's point;but, perceiving that the Americans waited for them with firmness, theyremained on their ground until the arrival of a reinforcement fromBoston, for which general Howe had applied. During this interval, theAmericans also were reinforced by a detachment under the command ofgenerals Warren and Pommeroy; and they availed themselves of thisdelay to strengthen their defences with some adjoining posts and railswhich they pulled up and arranged in two parallel lines at a smalldistance from each other; rilling the space between with hay, so as toform a complete cover from the musketry of the assailants. 

The British troops, on being joined by their second detachment, advanced slowly, in two lines, under cover of a heavy discharge ofcannon and howitzers, frequently halting in order to allow theirartillery time to demolish the works. While they were advancing, orders were given to set fire to Charlestown, a handsome village, which flanked their line of march, and which was soon consumed. 

It is not easy to conceive a spectacle more grand and more awful thanwas now exhibited, nor a moment of more anxious expectation. The sceneof action was in full view of the heights of Boston and of itsneighbourhood, which were covered with spectators taking deep andopposite interests in the events passing before them. The soldiers ofthe hostile armies not on duty, the citizens of Boston, and theinhabitants of the adjacent country; all feeling emotions which setdescription at defiance, were witnesses of the majestic and tremendousscene. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Breed's hill. ]

The provincials permitted the English to approach unmolested, withinless than one hundred yards of the works, and then poured in upon themso deadly a fire that their line was broken, and they fell back withprecipitation towards the landing place. By the great exertions oftheir officers, they were rallied and brought up to the charge; butwere again driven back in confusion by the heavy and incessant firefrom the works. General Howe is said to have been left, at one time, almost alone; and it is certain that few officers about his personescaped unhurt. 

The impression to be made by victory or defeat in this early stage ofthe war, was deemed so important that extraordinary exertions wereused once more to rally the English. With difficulty, they were led athird time to the works. The redoubt was attacked on three sides, while some pieces of artillery raked the breast work from end to end. At the same time, a cross fire from the ships, and floating batterieslying on both sides of the isthmus by which the peninsula is connectedwith the continent, not only annoyed the works on Breed's hill, butdeterred any considerable reinforcements from entering the peninsula. The ammunition of the Americans being nearly exhausted, they were nolonger able to keep up the same incessant stream of fire which hadtwice repulsed the assailants; and the redoubt, which the Englishmounted with ease, was carried at the point of the bayonet. Yet theAmericans, many of whom were without bayonets, are said to havemaintained the contest with clubbed muskets, until the redoubt washalf filled with the King's troops. 

The redoubt being lost, the breast work was abandoned; and thehazardous movement was accomplished, of retreating in the face of avictorious enemy over Charlestown neck; exposed to the same crossfire, which had deterred the reinforcements from coming to theirassistance. 

The detachment employed on this enterprise consisted of about threethousand men, composing the flower of the British army; and highencomiums were bestowed on the resolution they displayed. According tothe returns, their killed and wounded amounted to one thousand andfifty four, --an immense proportion of the number engaged in theaction. Notwithstanding the danger of the retreat over Charlestownneck, the loss of the Americans was stated at only four hundred andfifty men. Among the killed was Doctor Warren, a gentleman greatlybeloved and regretted, who fell just after the provincials began theirretreat from the breast work. 

At the time, the colonial force on the peninsula was generally statedat fifteen hundred men. It has been since estimated at four thousand. 

Although the Americans lost the ground, they claimed the victory. Manyof the advantages of victory were certainly gained. Their confidencein themselves was greatly increased; and it was asked, universally, how many more such triumphs the invaders of their country couldafford?

The British army had been treated too roughly, to attempt fartheroffensive operations. They contented themselves with seizing andfortifying Bunker's hill, which secured the peninsula of Charlestown;in which, however, they remained as closely blockaded as in that ofBoston. 

The Americans were much elated by the intrepidity the raw troops haddisplayed, and the execution they had done, in this engagement. Theyfondly cherished the belief that courage, and dexterity in the use offire arms, would bestow advantages amply compensating the want ofdiscipline. Unfortunately for the colonies, this course of thinkingwas not confined to the mass of the people. It seems to have extendedto those who guided the public councils, and to have contributed tothe adoption of a system, which, more than once, brought their causeto the brink of ruin. They did not distinguish sufficiently betweenthe momentary efforts of a few brave men, brought together by a highsense of the injuries which threatened their country, and carried intoaction under the influence of keen resentments; and those steadypersevering exertions under continued suffering, which must benecessary to bring an important war to a happy termination. Nor didthey examine with sufficient accuracy, several striking circumstancesattending the battle which had been fought. It is not easy to read theaccounts given of the action without being persuaded, that, had theAmericans on Breed's hill been supplied with ammunition, and beenproperly supported; had the reinforcements ordered to their assistanceentered the peninsula, as soldiers in habits of obedience would havedone, and there displayed the heroic courage which was exhibited bytheir countrymen engaged in defence of the works; the assailants musthave been defeated, and the flower of the British army cut to pieces. It ought also to have been remarked that, while the few who wereendowed with more than a common portion of bravery, encountered thedanger of executing the orders they had received, the many weredeterred by the magnitude of that danger. But it is not by the fewthat great victories are to be gained, or a country to be saved. 

Amidst these hostile operations, the voice of peace was yet heard. Allegiance to the King was still acknowledged; and a lingering hoperemained that an accommodation was not impossible. Congress voted apetition to his majesty, replete with professions of duty andattachment; and addressed a letter to the people of England, conjuringthem by the endearing appellations of "friends, countrymen, andbrethren, " to prevent the dissolution of "that connexion which theremembrance of former friendships, pride in the glorious achievementsof common ancestors, and affection for the heirs of their virtues, hadheretofore maintained. " They uniformly disclaimed any idea ofindependence, and professed themselves to consider union with Englandon constitutional principles, as the greatest blessing which could bebestowed on them. 

But Britain had determined to maintain, by force, the legislativesupremacy of parliament; and America was equally determined, by force, to repel the claim. 

NOTES. 

NOTE--No. I. --_See Page 195. _

The annals of Massachusetts, for this period, exhibit one of thosewonderful cases of popular delusion, which infecting every class ofsociety, and gaining strength from its very extravagance; triumphingover human reason, and cruelly sporting with human life; reveal to manhis deplorable imbecility, and would teach him, if the experience ofothers could teach, never to countenance a departure from thatmoderation, and those safe and sure principles of moral rectitudewhich have stood the test of time, and have received the approbationof the wise and good in all ages. A very detailed and interestingaccount of the humiliating and affecting events here alluded to hasbeen given by Mr. Hutchinson, but is too long to be inserted entire inthis work; they were, however, of too much magnitude while passing, tobe entirely unnoticed even at this day. 

In Great Britain, as well as in America, the opinion had longprevailed that, by the aid of malignant spirits, certain personspossessed supernatural powers, which were usually exercised in themischievous employment of tormenting others; and the criminal code ofboth countries was disgraced with laws for the punishment ofwitchcraft. With considerable intervals between them, some fewinstances had occurred in New England of putting this sanguinary lawin force; but in the year 1692, this weakness was converted intofrenzy; and after exercising successfully its destructive rage onthose miserable objects whose wayward dispositions had excited the illopinion, or whose age and wretchedness ought to have secured them thepity of their neighbours, its baneful activity was extended to personsin every situation of life, and many of the most reputable members ofsociety became its victims. 

The first scene of this distressing tragedy was laid in Salem. Thepublic mind had been prepared for its exhibition by some publications, stating the evidence adduced in former trials for witchcraft both inOld and New England, in which full proof was supposed to have beengiven of the guilt of the accused. Soon after this, some young girlsin Boston had accustomed themselves to fall into fits, and hadaffected to be struck dead on the production of certain popular books, such as the _assembly's catechism_, and _Cotton's milk for babes_, while they could read Oxford's jests, or popish and quaker books, withmany others, which were deemed profane, without being in any manneraffected by them. These pretences, instead of exposing the fraud toinstant detection, seem to have promoted the cheat; and they weresupposed to be possessed by demons who were utterly confounded at theproduction of those holy books. "Sometimes, " says Mr. Hutchinson, "they were deaf, then dumb, then blind; and sometimes, all thesedisorders together would come upon them. Their tongues would be drawndown their throats, then pulled out upon their chins. Their jaws, necks, shoulders, elbows, and all their joints would appear to bedislocated, and they would make most piteous outcries of burnings, ofbeing cut with knives, beat, &c. And the marks of wounds wereafterwards to be seen. " At length an old Irish woman, not of goodcharacter, who had given one of those girls some harsh language, andto whom all this diabolical mischief was attributed, was apprehendedby the magistracy; and neither confessing nor denying the fact, was, on the certificate of physicians that she was _compos mentis_, condemned and executed. 

Sir William Phipps, the governor, on his arrival from England, broughtwith him opinions which could not fail to strengthen the popularprejudice, and the lieutenant governor supported one which was wellcalculated to render it sanguinary. He maintained that though thedevil might appear in the shape of a guilty person, he could never bepermitted to assume that of an innocent one. Consequently, when thosewho affected to perceive the form which tormented them designated anyparticular person as guilty, the guilt of that person was established, because he could not, if innocent, be personated by an evil spirit. 

The public mind being thus predisposed, four girls in Salem complainedof being afflicted in the same manner with those in Boston. Thephysicians, unable to account for the disorder, attributed it towitchcraft, and an old Indian woman in the neighbourhood was selectedas the witch. The attention bestowed on these girls gave them greatimportance; and not only confirmed them in the imposture, but producedother competitors who were ambitious of the same distinction. Severalother persons were now bewitched; and not only the old Indian, but twoother old women, the one bedridden, and the other subject tomelancholy and distraction, were accused as witches. It was necessaryto keep up the agitation already excited, by furnishing fresh subjectsfor astonishment; and in a short time, the accusations extended topersons who were in respectable situations. The manner in which theseaccusations were received, evidenced such a degree of publiccredulity, that the impostors seem to have been convinced of theirpower to assail with impunity, all whom caprice or malignity mightselect for their victims. Such was the prevailing infatuation, that inone instance, a child of five years old was charged as an accomplicein these pretended crimes; and if the nearest relatives of the accusedmanifested either tenderness for their situation, or resentment at theinjury done their friends, they drew upon themselves the vengeance ofthese profligate impostors, and were involved in the dangers fromwhich they were desirous of rescuing those with whom they were mostintimately connected. For going out of church when allusions were madefrom the pulpit to a person of fair fame, a sister was charged as awitch; and for accompanying on her examination a wife who had beenapprehended, the husband was involved in the same prosecution, and wascondemned and executed. In the presence of the magistrates theseflagitious accusers affected extreme agony, and attributed to thosewhom they accused, the power of torturing them by a look. Theexaminations were all taken in writing, and several of them aredetailed at full length in Mr. Hutchinson's history of Massachusetts. They exhibit a deplorable degree of blind infatuation on one side, andof atrocious profligacy on the other, which if not well attested, could scarcely be supposed to have existed. 

Many persons of sober lives, and unblemished characters, werecommitted to prison; and the public prejudices had already pronouncedtheir doom. Against charges of this nature, thus conducted, no defencecould possibly be made. To be accused was to be found guilty. The verygrossness of the imposition seemed to secure its success, and theabsurdity of the accusation to establish the verity of the charge. 

The consternation became almost universal. It was soon perceived thatall attempts to establish innocence must be ineffectual; and theperson accused could only hope to obtain safety, by confessing thetruth of the charge, and criminating others. The extent of crimeintroduced by such a state of things almost surpasses belief. Everyfeeling of humanity is shocked when we learn that to save themselves, children accused their parents; in some instances, parents theirchildren; and in one case, sentence of death was pronounced against ahusband on the testimony of his wife. 

There were examples of persons who under the terrors of examinationconfessed themselves guilty, and accused others; but unable afterwardsto support the reproaches of conscience, retracted their confessionsunder the persuasion that death would be the consequence of doing so. 

During this reign of popular frenzy, the bounds of probability were sofar transcended, that we scarcely know how to give credit to the wellattested fact, that among those who were permitted to save themselvesby confessing that they were witches, and joining in the accusation oftheir parents, were to be found children from seven to ten years ofage! Among the numbers who were accused, only one person wasacquitted. For this he was indebted to one of the girls who would notjoin the others in criminating him. 

The examination had commenced in February, and the list of commitmentshad swelled to a lamentable bulk by June, when the new charter havingarrived, commissioners of oyer and terminer were appointed for thetrial of persons charged with witchcraft. By this court, aconsiderable number were condemned, of whom nineteen, protesting theirinnocence, were executed. It is observed by Mr. Hutchinson, that thosewho were condemned and not executed had most probably saved themselvesby a confession of their guilt. 

Fortunately for those who were still to be tried, the legislature, convened under the new charter, created a regular tribunal for thetrial of criminal as well as civil cases, and the court ofcommissioners rose to sit no more. The first session of the regularcourt for the trial of criminal cases was to be held in January, andthis delay was favourable to reflection and to the recovery of thepublic reason. Other causes contributed to this event. There remainedyet in the various prisons of the colony, a vast number of women, manyof whom were of the most reputable families in the towns in which theyhad resided. Allusion had been made to many others of the first rank, and some had been expressly named by the bewitched and confessingwitches. A Mr. Bradstreet, who had been appointed one of the council, and was son to the old governor of that name; but who as a justice ofthe peace was suspected of not prosecuting with sufficient rigour, wasnamed by the witnesses as a confederate, and found it necessary toabscond. The governor's lady it is said, and the wife of one of theministers who had favoured this persecution, were among the accused;and a charge was also brought against the secretary of the colony ofConnecticut. 

Although the violence of the torrent of prejudice was beginning toabate, yet the grand jury in January, found a true bill against fiftypersons, but of those brought to trial, only three were condemned, andthey were not executed. All those who were not tried in January, weredischarged by order of the governor, "and never, " says Mr. Hutchinson, "has such a jail delivery been known in New England. And never wasthere given a more melancholy proof of the degree of depravity ofwhich man is capable when the public passions countenance crime. "

 * * * * *

NOTE--No. II. --_See Page 291. _

The PLAN of the Union was as follows, viz. 

"It is proposed that humble application be made for an act ofparliament of Great Britain, by virtue of which one general governmentmay be formed in America, including all the said colonies:[Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, NewYork, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina] within and under which government, each colony mayretain its present constitution, except in the particulars wherein achange may be directed by the said act, as hereafter follows:

PRESIDENT GENERAL AND GRAND COUNCIL. 

That the said general government be administered by a presidentgeneral, to be appointed and supported by the crown, and a grandcouncil, to be chosen by the representatives of the people of theseveral colonies, met in their assemblies. 

ELECTION OF MEMBERS. 

That within -- months after passing such act, the houses ofrepresentatives that happen to be sitting within that time, or thatshall be especially for that purpose convened, may and shall choosemembers for the grand council in the following proportion, that is tosay:

Massachusetts Bay 7New Hampshire 2Connecticut 5Rhode Island 2New York 4New Jersey 3Pennsylvania 6Maryland 4Virginia 7North Carolina 4South Carolina 4 -- 48

PLACE OF FIRST MEETING. 

Who shall meet for the first time at the city of Philadelphia, inPennsylvania, being called by the president general as soon asconveniently may be after his appointment. 

NEW ELECTION. 

That there shall be a new election of the members of the grand councilevery three years; and on the death or resignation of any member, hisplace shall be supplied by a new choice, at the next sitting of theassembly of the colony he represented. 

PROPORTION OF THE MEMBERS AFTER THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 

That after the first three years, when the proportion of money arisingout of each colony to the general treasury can be known, the number ofmembers to be chosen for each colony shall, from time to time, in allensuing elections, be regulated by that proportion (yet so as that thenumber to be chosen by any one province be not more than seven, norless than two). 

MEETINGS OF THE GRAND COUNCIL AND CALL. 

That the grand council shall meet once in every year, and oftener, ifoccasion require, at such time and place as they shall adjourn to atthe last preceding meeting, or as they shall be called to meet at bythe president general, on any emergency; he having first obtained inwriting the consent of seven of the members to such call, and sent dueand timely notice to the whole. 

CONTINUANCE. 

That the grand council have power to choose their speaker: and shallneither be dissolved, prorogued, nor continued sitting longer than sixweeks at one time; without their own consent, or the special commandof the crown. 

MEMBERS ATTENDANCE. 

That the members of the grand council shall be allowed for theirservices, ten shillings sterling per diem, during their session andjourney to and from the place of meeting; twenty miles to be reckoneda day's journey. 

ASSENT OF PRESIDENT GENERAL AND HIS DUTY. 

That the assent of the president general be requisite to all acts ofthe grand council; and that it be his office and duty to cause them tobe carried into execution. 

POWER OF PRESIDENT GENERAL AND GRAND COUNCIL, TREATIES OF PEACE ANDWAR. 

That the president general, with the advice of the grand council, holdor direct all Indian treaties in which the general interest of thecolonies may be concerned; and make peace or declare war with Indiannations. 

INDIAN TRADE. 

That they make such laws as they judge necessary for regulating allIndian trade. 

INDIAN PURCHASES. 

That they make all purchases from the Indians for the crown, of landsnot now within the bounds of particular colonies, or that shall not bewithin their bounds, when some of them are reduced to more convenientdimensions. 

NEW SETTLEMENTS. 

That they make new settlements on such purchases by granting lands inthe king's name, reserving a quit rent to the crown, for the use ofthe general treasury. 

LAWS TO GOVERN THEM. 

That they make laws for regulating and governing such new settlements, until the crown shall think fit to form them into particulargovernments. 

RAISE SOLDIERS AND EQUIP VESSELS, &C. 

That they raise and pay soldiers, build forts for the defence of anyof the colonies, and equip vessels of force to guard the coasts andprotect the trade on the ocean, lakes, or great rivers; but they shallnot impress men in any colony, without the consent of the legislature. 

POWER TO MAKE LAWS, LAY DUTIES, &C. 

That for these purposes they have power to make laws, and lay and levysuch general duties, imposts, or taxes, as to them shall appear mostequal and just, (considering the ability and other circumstances ofthe inhabitants in the several colonies) and such may be collectedwith the least inconvenience to the people; rather discouragingluxury, than loading industry with unnecessary burdens. 

GENERAL TREASURER AND PARTICULAR TREASURER. 

That they may appoint a general treasurer and particular treasurer ineach government, when necessary; and from time to time may order thesums in the treasuries of each government into the general treasury, or draw on them for special payments, as they find most convenient. 

MONEY, HOW TO ISSUE. 

Yet no money to issue but by joint orders of the president general andgrand council, except where sums have been appropriated to particularpurposes, and the president general has been previously empowered byan act to draw for such sums. 

ACCOUNTS. 

That the general accounts shall be yearly settled, and reported to theseveral assemblies. 

QUORUM. 

That a quorum of the grand council, empowered to act with thepresident general, do consist of twenty-five members; among whom thereshall be one or more from the majority of the colonies. 

LAWS TO BE TRANSMITTED. 

That the laws made by them for the purposes aforesaid, shall not berepugnant, but, as near as may be, agreeable to the laws of England, and shall be transmitted to the king in council, for approbation, assoon as may be after their passing; and if not disapproved withinthree years after presentation, to remain in force. 

DEATH OF THE PRESIDENT GENERAL. 

That in case of the death of the president general, the speaker of thegrand council for the time being shall succeed, and be vested with thesame powers and authorities, to continue until the king's pleasure beknown. 

OFFICERS, HOW APPOINTED. 

That all military commission officers, whether for land or seaservice, to act under this general constitution, shall be nominated bythe president general; but the approbation of the grand council is tobe obtained, before they receive their commissions. And all civilofficers are to be nominated by the grand council, and to receive thepresident general's approbation before they officiate. 

VACANCIES, HOW SUPPLIED. 

But in case of vacancy, by death, or removal of any officer, civil ormilitary, under this constitution, the governor of the province inwhich such vacancy happens, may appoint until the pleasure of thepresident general and grand council can be known. 

EACH COLONY MAY DEFEND ITSELF ON EMERGENCY, &C. 

That the particular military as well as civil establishments in eachcolony remain in their present state, the general constitutionnotwithstanding; and that on sudden emergencies any colony may defenditself, and lay the accounts of expense thence arising before thepresident general and grand council, who may allow and order paymentof the same as far as they judge such accounts reasonable. "

_Minot. _

 * * * * *

NOTE--No. III. --_See Page 370. _

These being the first resolutions of any assembly after the passage ofthe stamp act, they are inserted. 

_Whereas_, The honourable house of commons in England have of latedrawn into question how far the general assembly of this colony hathpower to enact laws for laying taxes and imposing duties payable bythe people of this his majesty's most ancient colony, for settling andascertaining the same to all future times, the house of Burgesses ofthe present general assembly have come to the several followingresolutions. 

_Resolved_, That the first adventurers and settlers of this hismajesty's colony and dominion of Virginia, brought with them, andtransmitted to their posterity, and all others his majesty's subjectssince inhabiting in this his majesty's colony, all the privileges andimmunities that have at any time been held, enjoyed, and possessed bythe people of Great Britain. 

_Resolved_, That by two royal charters granted by King James I. Thecolonies aforesaid are declared entitled to all the privileges ofdenizens, and natural born subjects, to all intents and purposes as ifthey had been abiding and born within the realm of England. 

_Resolved_, That the taxation of the people by themselves, or bypersons chosen by themselves, to represent them, who can only knowwhat taxes the people are able to bear, and the easiest mode ofraising them, and are equally affected by such taxes themselves, isthe distinguished characteristic of British freedom, and without whichthe ancient constitution cannot subsist. 

_Resolved_, That his majesty's liege people of this most ancientcolony have uninterruptedly enjoyed the right of being thus governedby their own assembly in the article of their taxes and internalpolice, and that the same hath never been forfeited nor any other wayyielded up, but hath been constantly recognised by the King and peopleof Great Britain. 

_Resolved_, Therefore, that the general assembly of this colony havethe sole power to lay taxes and impositions upon the inhabitants ofthis colony; and that every attempt to vest such a power in any personor persons whatsoever, other than the general assembly aforesaid, hasa manifest tendency to destroy British as well as American freedom. 

 * * * * *

NOTE--No. IV. --_See Page 371. _

"The members of this congress, sincerely devoted with the warmestsentiments of affection and duty, to his majesty's person andgovernment, inviolably attached to the present happy establishment ofthe protestant succession, and with minds deeply impressed by a senseof the present and impending misfortunes of the British colonies onthis continent; having considered, as maturely as time will permit, the circumstances of the said colonies, esteem it our indispensableduty to make the following declarations of our humble opinion, respecting the most essential rights and liberties of the colonists, and of the grievances under which they labour, by reason of severallate acts of parliament. 

I. That his majesty's subjects in these colonies, owe the sameallegiance to the crown of Great Britain that is owing from hissubjects born within the realm, and all due subordination to thataugust body the parliament of Great Britain. 

II. That his majesty's liege subjects in these colonies, are entitledto all the inherent rights and liberties of his natural born subjects, within the kingdom of Great Britain. 

III. That it is inseparably essential to the freedom of a people, andthe undoubted right of Englishmen, that no taxes be imposed on them, but with their own consent, given personally, or by theirrepresentatives. 

IV. That the people of these colonies are not, and, from their localcircumstances, cannot be represented in the house of commons of GreatBritain. 

V. That the only representatives of these colonies are persons chosentherein by themselves, and that no taxes ever have been, or can beconstitutionally imposed upon them, but by their respectivelegislatures. 

VI. That all supplies to the crown being free gifts from the people, it is unreasonable, and inconsistent with the principles and spirit ofthe British constitution, for the people of Great Britain to grant tohis majesty the property of the colonists. 

VII. That trial by jury is the inherent and invaluable right of everyBritish subject in these colonies. 

VIII. That the late act of parliament entitled, 'an act for grantingand applying certain stamp duties, and other duties, in the Britishcolonies and plantations in America, ' &c. By imposing taxes on theinhabitants of these colonies; and the said act, and several otheracts, by extending the jurisdiction of the courts of admiralty beyondits ancient limits, have a manifest tendency to subvert the rights andliberties of the colonists. 

IX. That the duties imposed by several late acts of parliament, fromthe peculiar circumstances of these colonies, will be extremelyburdensome and grievous; and from the scarcity of specie, the paymentof them absolutely impracticable. 

X. That as the profits of the trade of these colonies ultimatelycentre in Great Britain, to pay for the manufactures which they areobliged to take from thence, they eventually contribute very largelyto all supplies granted to the crown. 

XI. That the restrictions imposed by several late acts of parliamenton the trade of these colonies, will render them unable to purchasethe manufactures of Great Britain. 

XII. That the increase, prosperity, and happiness of these coloniesdepend on the full and free enjoyment of their rights and liberties, and an intercourse with Great Britain mutually affectionate andadvantageous. 

XIII. That it is the right of the British subjects in these coloniesto petition the king, or either house of parliament. 

XIV. That it is the indispensable duty of these colonies, to the bestof sovereigns, to the mother country, and to themselves, to endeavour, by a loyal and dutiful address to his majesty, and humble applicationsto both houses of parliament, to procure the repeal of the act forgranting and applying certain stamp duties, of all clauses of anyother acts of parliament, whereby the jurisdiction of the admiralty isextended as aforesaid, and of the other late acts for the restrictionof American commerce. "

_Prior Documents. _

 * * * * *

NOTE--No. V. --_See Page 383. _

_Province of Massachusetts Bay, Feb. 11, 1768. _

Sir, The house of representatives of this province have taken into theirconsideration the great difficulties that must accrue to themselvesand their constituents, by the operation of the several acts ofparliament imposing duties and taxes on the American colonies. 

As it is a subject in which every colony is deeply interested, theyhave no reason to doubt but your house is duly impressed with itsimportance: and that such constitutional measures will be come into asare proper. It seems to be necessary, that all possible care should betaken that the representations of the several assemblies, upon sodelicate a point, should harmonise with each other: the house, therefore, hope that this letter will be candidly considered in noother light, than as expressing a disposition freely to communicatetheir mind to a sister colony, upon a common concern, in the samemanner as they would be glad to receive the sentiments of your or anyother house of assembly on the continent. 

The house have humbly represented to the ministry their ownsentiments; that his majesty's high court of parliament is the supremelegislative power over the whole empire: that in all free states theconstitution is fixed: and, as the supreme legislative derives itspower and authority from the constitution, it cannot overleap thebounds of it, without destroying its foundation; that the constitutionascertains and limits both sovereignty and allegiance; and therefore, his majesty's American subjects who acknowledge themselves bound bythe ties of allegiance, have an equitable claim to the full enjoymentof the fundamental rules of the British constitution; that it is anessential unalterable right in nature, ingrafted into the Britishconstitution as a fundamental law, and ever held sacred andirrevocable by the subjects within the realm, that what a man hathhonestly acquired is absolutely his own, which he may freely give, butcannot be taken from him without his consent; that the Americansubjects may therefore, exclusive of any consideration of charterrights, with a decent firmness adapted to the character of freemen andsubjects, assert this natural and constitutional right. 

It is moreover their humble opinion, which they express with thegreatest deference to the wisdom of the parliament, that the acts madethere, imposing duties on the people of this province, with the soleand express purpose of raising a revenue, are infringements of theirnatural and constitutional rights; because as they are not representedin the British parliament, his majesty's commons in Britain by thoseacts grant their property without their consent. 

This house further are of opinion, that their constituents, considering their local circumstances, cannot by any possibility berepresented in the parliament; and that it will forever beimpracticable that they should be equally represented there, andconsequently not at all, being separated by an ocean of a thousandleagues: that his majesty's royal predecessors, for this reason, weregraciously pleased to form a subordinate legislative here, that theirsubjects might enjoy the unalienable right of a representation. Also, that, considering the utter impracticability of their ever being fullyand equally represented in parliament, and the great expense that mustunavoidably attend even a partial representation there, this housethink, that a taxation of their constituents, even without theirconsent, grievous as it is, would be preferable to any representationthat could be admitted for them there. 

Upon these principles, and also considering that were the right in theparliament ever so clear, yet for obvious reasons it would be beyondthe rule of equity, that their constituents should be taxed on themanufactures of Great Britain here, in addition to the duties they payfor them in England, and other advantages arising to Great Britainfrom the acts of trade; this house have preferred a humble, dutiful, and loyal petition to our most gracious sovereign, and made suchrepresentation to his majesty's ministers, as they apprehend wouldtend to obtain redress. 

They have also submitted to consideration, whether any people can besaid to enjoy any degree of freedom, if the crown, in addition to itsundoubted authority of constituting a governor, should appoint himsuch a stipend as it shall judge proper without the consent of thepeople, and at their expense; and whether, while the judges of theland, and other civil officers, hold not their commissions during goodbehaviour, their having salaries appointed for them by the crown, independent of the people, hath not a tendency to subvert theprinciples of equity, and endanger the happiness and security of thesubject. 

In addition to these measures, the house have written a letter totheir agent Mr. De Berdt, the sentiments of which he is directed tolay before the ministry; wherein they take notice of the hardship ofthe act for preventing mutiny and desertion, which requires thegovernor and council to provide enumerated articles for the king'smarching troops and the people to pay the expense: and also thecommission of the gentlemen appointed commissioners of the customs toreside in America, which authorises them to make as many appointmentsas they think fit, and to pay the appointees what sums they please, for whose malconduct they are not accountable: from whence it mayhappen, that officers of the crown may be multiplied to such a degree, as to become dangerous to the liberties of the people, by virtue of acommission which doth not appear to this house to derive any suchadvantages to trade as many have been led to expect. 

These are the sentiments and proceedings of the house, and as theyhave too much reason to believe that the enemies of the colonies haverepresented them to his majesty's ministers and the parliament asfactious, disloyal, and having a disposition to make themselvesindependent of the mother country, they have taken occasion in themost humble terms, to assure his majesty and his ministers, that, withregard to the people of this province, and, as they doubt not, of allthe colonies, the charge is unjust. 

The house is fully satisfied, that your assembly is too generous andenlarged in sentiment to believe, that this letter proceeds from anambition of taking the lead, or dictating to the other assemblies;they freely submit their opinion to the judgment of others; and shalltake it kind in your house to point out to them anything further thatmay be thought necessary. 

This house cannot conclude without expressing their firm confidence inthe king, our common head and father, that the united and dutifulsupplications of his distressed American subjects will meet with hisroyal and favourable acceptance. 

 * * * * *

NOTE--No. VI. --_See Page 410. _

_An account of the origin of these committees, and of their mode ofproceeding, is thus given by Mr. Gordon, and is not unworthy ofattention. _

"Governor Hutchinson and his adherents having been used to representthe party in opposition, as only an uneasy factious few in Boston, while the body of the people were quite contented; Mr. Samuel Adamswas thereby induced to visit Mr. James Warren, of Plymouth. Afterconversing upon the subject, the latter proposed to originate andestablish committees of correspondence in the several towns of thecolony, in order to learn the strength of the friends to the rights ofthe continent, and to unite and increase their force. Mr. Samuel Adamsreturned to Boston, pleased with the proposal, and communicated thesame to his confidents. Some doubted whether the measure wouldprosper, and dreaded a disappointment which might injure the cause ofliberty. But it was concluded to proceed. The prime managers wereabout six in number, each of whom, when separate, headed a division;the several individuals of which, collected and led distinctsubdivisions. In this manner the political engine has beenconstructed. The different parts are not equally good and operative. Like other bodies, its composition includes numbers who actmechanically, as they are pressed this way or that way by those whojudge for them; and divers of the wicked, fitted for evil practices, when the adoption of them is thought necessary to particular purposes, and a part of whose creed it is, that in political matters the publicgood is above every other consideration, and that all rules ofmorality when in competition with it, may be safely dispensed with. When any important transaction is to be brought forward, it isthoroughly considered by the prime managers. If they approve, eachcommunicates it to his own division; from thence, if adopted, itpasses to the several subdivisions, which form a general meeting inorder to canvass the business. The prime managers being known only byfew to be the promoters of it, are desired to be present at thedebate, that they may give their opinion when it closes. If theyobserve that the collected body is in general strongly against themeasure they wish to have carried, they declare it to be improper: isit opposed by great numbers, but not warmly, they advise to are-consideration at another meeting, and prepare for its being thenadopted; if the opposition is not considerable, either in number orweight of persons, they give their reasons, and then recommend theadoption of the measure. The principal actors are determined onsecuring the liberties of their country, or perishing in the attempt. 

"The news of his majesty's granting salaries to the justices of thesuperior court, afforded them a fair opportunity for executing theplan of establishing committees of correspondence through the colony. The most spirited pieces were published, and an alarm spread, that thegranting such salaries tended rapidly to complete the system of theirslavery. 

"A town meeting was called, and a committee of correspondenceappointed, to write circular letters to all the towns in the province, and to induce them to unite in measures. The committee made a report, containing several resolutions contradictory to the supremacy of theBritish legislature. After setting forth, that all men have a right toremain in a state of nature as long as they please, they proceed to areport upon the natural rights of the colonists as men, christians, and subjects; and then form a list of infringements and violations oftheir rights. They enumerate and dwell upon the British parliament'shaving assumed the power of legislation for the colonies in all caseswhatsoever--the appointment of a number of new officers to superintendthe revenues--the granting of salaries out of the American revenue, tothe governor, the judges of the superior court, the king's attorneyand solicitor general. The report was accepted; copies printed; andsix hundred circulated through the towns and districts of theprovince, with a pathetic letter addressed to the inhabitants, whowere called upon not to doze any longer, or sit supinely inindifference, while the iron hand of oppression was daily tearing thechoicest fruits from the fair tree of liberty. The circular letterrequested of each town a free communication of sentiments on thesubjects of the report, and was directed to the select men, who weredesired to lay the same before a town meeting, which has beengenerally practised, and the proceedings of the town upon the businesshave been transmitted to the committee at Boston. This committee havetheir particular correspondents in the several towns, who, uponreceiving any special information, are ready to spread it withdispatch among the inhabitants. It consists of twenty-one persons ofheterogeneous qualities and professions, &c. "

_Gordon's Hist. Am. War_, vol. I. P. 312. 

 * * * * *

NOTE--No. VII. --_See Page 425. _

THE FOLLOWING IS A LIST OF THE MEMBERS COMPOSING THE FIRST CONGRESS:

_New Hampshire. _

John Sullivan, Nathaniel Fulsom. 

_Massachusetts Bay. _

James Bowdoin, Thomas Cushing, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine. 

_Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. _

Stephen Hopkins, Samuel Ward. 

_Connecticut. _

Eliphalet Dyer, Roger Sherman, Silas Deane. 

_From the city and county of New York, and other countiesin province of New York. _

James Duane, Henry Wisner, John Jay, Philip Livingston, Isaac Low, John Alsop. 

_From the county of Suffolk, in the province of New York. _

William Floyd. 

_New Jersey. _

James Kinsey, William Livingston, John Dehart, Stephen Crane, Richard Smith. 

_Pennsylvania. _

Joseph Galloway, Charles Humphreys, Samuel Rhoads, George Ross, John Morton, Thomas Mifflin, Edward Biddle, John Dickinson. 

_Newcastle, Kent, and Sussex, on Delaware. _

Cesar Rodney, Thomas M'Kean, George Read. 

_Maryland. _

Robert Goldsborough, Thomas Johnson, William Paca, Samuel Chase, Matthew Tilghman. 

_Virginia. _

Peyton Randolph, Richard Henry Lee, George Washington, Patrick Henry, Richard Bland, Benjamin Harrison, Edmund Pendleton. 

_North Carolina. _

William Hooper, Joseph Hughes, Richard Caswell. 

_South Carolina. _

Henry Middleton, John Rutledge, Thomas Lynch, Christopher Gadsden, Edward Rutledge. 

 * * * * *

NOTE--No. VIII. --_See Page 425. _

_These resolutions manifested a degree of irritation which had notbefore been displayed. They are introduced in the following manner:_

"Whereas the power but not the justice, the vengeance but not thewisdom of Great Britain, which of old persecuted, scourged, and exiledour fugitive parents from their native shores, now pursues us theirguiltless children, with unrelenting severity; and whereas this, thensavage and uncultivated desert, was purchased by the toil andtreasure, or acquired by the blood and valour of those our venerableprogenitors; to us they bequeathed the dear bought inheritance; to ourcare and protection they consigned it; and the most sacred obligationsare upon us to transmit the glorious purchase, unfettered by power, unclogged with shackles, to our innocent and beloved offspring. On thefortitude, on the wisdom, and on the exertions of this important day, is suspended the fate of this new world, and of unborn millions. If aboundless extent of continent, swarming with millions, will tamelysubmit to live, move, and have their being at the arbitrary will of alicentious minister, they basely yield to voluntary slavery, andfuture generations shall load their memories with incessantexecrations. On the other hand, if we arrest the hand which wouldransack our pockets, if we disarm the parricide which points thedagger to our bosoms, if we nobly defeat that fatal edict whichproclaims a power to frame laws for us in all cases whatsoever, thereby entailing the endless and numberless curses of slavery uponus, our heirs, and their heirs for ever; if we successfully resistthat unparalleled usurpation of unconstitutional power, whereby ourcapital is robbed of the means of life; whereby the streets of Bostonare thronged with military executioners; whereby our coasts are lined, and harbours crowded with ships of war; whereby the charter of thecolony, that sacred barrier against the encroachments of tyranny, ismutilated, and in effect annihilated; whereby a murderous law isframed to shelter villains from the hands of justice; whereby theunalienable and inestimable inheritance, which we derived from nature, the constitution of Britain, and the privileges warranted to us in thecharter of the province, is totally wrecked, annulled, and vacated:Posterity will acknowledge that virtue which preserved them free andhappy; and while we enjoy the rewards and blessings of the faithful, the torrent of panegyrists will roll our reputations to that latestperiod, when the streams of time shall be absorbed in the abyss ofeternity. 

"Therefore resolved, " &c. &c. &c. 

 * * * * *

NOTE--No. IX. --_See Page 427. _

"Whereas, since the close of the last war, the British parliament, claiming a power, of right, to bind the people of America by statutesin all cases whatsoever, hath in some acts expressly imposed taxes onthem; and in others, under various pretences, but in fact for thepurpose of raising a revenue, hath imposed rates and duties payable inthese colonies, established a board of commissioners withunconstitutional powers, and extended the jurisdiction of courts ofadmiralty, not only for collecting the said duties, but for the trialof causes merely arising within the body of a county. 

"And whereas, in consequence of other statutes, judges, who beforeheld only estates at will in their offices, have been made dependenton the crown alone for their salaries, and standing armies kept intimes of peace: And whereas it has lately been resolved in parliament, that by force of a statute, made in the thirty-fifth year of the reignof King Henry VIII. Colonists may be transported to England and triedthere upon accusations for treasons, and mis prisons and concealmentsof treasons committed in the colonies, and by a late statute, suchtrials have been directed in cases therein mentioned. 

"And whereas, in the last session of parliament, three statutes weremade; one entitled, 'An act to discontinue in such manner and for suchtime as are therein mentioned, the landing and discharging, lading orshipping of goods, wares, and merchandise, at the town, and within theharbour of Boston, in the province of Massachusetts Bay in NorthAmerica;' another entitled, 'An act for the better regulating thegovernment of the province of Massachusetts Bay in New England;' andanother act, entitled, 'An act for the impartial administration ofjustice, in the cases of persons questioned for any act done by themin the execution of the law, or for the suppression of riots andtumults, in the province of the Massachusetts Bay in New England;' andanother statute was then made, 'for making more effectual provisionfor the government of the province of Quebec, ' &c. All which statutesare impolitic, unjust, and cruel, as well as unconstitutional, andmost dangerous and destructive of American rights. 

"And whereas, assemblies have been frequently dissolved, contrary tothe rights of the people, when they attempted to deliberate ongrievances; and their dutiful, humble, loyal, and reasonable petitionsto the crown for redress, have been repeatedly treated with contemptby his majesty's ministers of state; the good people of the severalcolonies of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island andProvidence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New Castle, Kent and Sussex on Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, justly alarmed at thearbitrary proceedings of parliament and administration, have severallyelected, constituted and appointed deputies to meet and sit in generalcongress, in the city of Philadelphia, in order to obtain suchestablishment, as that their religion, laws, and liberties, may not besubverted: whereupon the deputies so appointed being now assembled, ina full and free representation of these colonies, taking into theirmost serious consideration, the best means of attaining the endsaforesaid, do in the first place, as Englishmen their ancestors inlike cases have usually done, for asserting and vindicating theirrights and liberties, declare, that the inhabitants of the Englishcolonies in North America, by the immutable laws of nature, theprinciples of the English constitution, and the several charters orcompacts, have the following rights. 

"Resolved, unanimously, 1st, that they are entitled to life, liberty, and property; and they have never ceded to any sovereign powerwhatever, a right to dispose of either without their consent. 

"Resolved, unanimously, 2d, that our ancestors, who first settledthese colonies, were, at the time of their emigration from the mothercountry, entitled to all the rights, liberties, and immunities of freeand natural born subjects, within the realm of England. 

"Resolved, unanimously, 3d, that by such emigration they by no meansforfeited, surrendered, or lost any of those rights, but that theywere, and their descendants now are, entitled to the exercise andenjoyment of all such of them, as their local and other circumstancesenabled them to exercise and enjoy. 

"Resolved, 4th, that the foundation of English liberty and of all freegovernment, is a right in the people to participate in theirlegislative council: and as the English colonists are not represented, and from their local and other circumstances cannot properly berepresented in the British parliament, they are entitled to a free andexclusive power of legislation in their several provinciallegislatures, where their right of representation can alone bepreserved, in all cases of taxation and internal polity subject onlyto the negative of their sovereign, in such manner as has beenheretofore used and accustomed: but from the necessity of the case, and a regard to the mutual interest of both countries, we cheerfullyconsent to the operation of such acts of the British parliament, asare, _bona fide_, restrained to the regulation of our externalcommerce, for the purposes of securing the commercial advantages ofthe whole empire to the mother country, and the commercial benefits ofits respective members; excluding every idea of taxation internal orexternal, for raising a revenue on the subjects in America withouttheir consent. 

"Resolved, unanimously, 5th that the respective colonies are entitledto the common law of England, and more especially to the great andinestimable privilege of being tried by their peers of the vicinage, according to the course of that law. 

"Resolved, 6th, that they are entitled to the benefit of such of theEnglish statutes, as existed at the time of their colonisation; andwhich they have, by experience, respectively found to be applicable totheir several local and other circumstances. 

"Resolved, unanimously, 7th, that these, his majesty's colonies arelikewise entitled to all the immunities and privileges granted andconfirmed to them by royal charters, or secured by their several codesof provincial laws. 

"Resolved, unanimously, 8th, that they have a right peaceably toassemble, consider of their grievances, and petition the King; andthat all prosecutions, prohibitory proclamations, and commitments forthe same, are illegal. 

"Resolved, unanimously, 9th, that the keeping a standing army in thesecolonies, in times of peace, without the consent of the legislature ofthat colony in which such army is kept, is against law. 

"Resolved, unanimously, 10th, it is indispensably necessary to goodgovernment, and rendered essential by the English constitution, thatthe constituent branches of the legislature be independent of eachother; that, therefore, the exercise of legislative power in severalcolonies, by a council appointed, during pleasure, by the crown, isunconstitutional, dangerous, and destructive to the freedom ofAmerican legislation. 

"All and each of which the aforesaid deputies, in behalf of themselvesand their constituents, do claim, demand, and insist on, as theirindubitable rights and liberties; which cannot be legally taken fromthem, altered or abridged by any power whatever, without their ownconsent, by their representatives in their several provinciallegislatures. 

"In the course of our inquiry, we find many infringements andviolations of the foregoing rights, which, from an ardent desire thatharmony and mutual intercourse of affection and interest may berestored, we pass over for the present, and proceed to state such actsand measures as have been adopted since the last war, whichdemonstrate a system formed to enslave America. 

"Resolved, unanimously, that the following acts of parliament areinfringements and violations of the rights of the colonists; and thatthe repeal of them is essentially necessary, in order to restoreharmony between Great Britain and the American colonies, viz. 

"The several acts of 4 Geo. III. Chap. 15, and 34. --5 Geo. III. Chap. 25. --6 Geo. III. Chap. 52. --7 Geo. III. Chap. 41, and chap. 46. --8Geo. III. Chap. 22; which imposed duties for the purpose of raising arevenue in America; extend the power of the admiralty courts beyondtheir ancient limits; deprive the American subject of trial by jury;authorise the judge's certificate to indemnify the prosecutor fromdamages, that he might otherwise be liable to; requiring oppressivesecurity from a claimant of ships and goods seized, before he shall beallowed to defend his property, and are subversive of American rights. 

"Also 12 Geo. III. Chap. 24, intitled, 'an act for the better securinghis majesty's dockyards, magazines, ships, ammunition, and stores, 'which declares a new offence in America, and deprives the Americansubject of a constitutional trial by a jury of the vicinage, byauthorising the trial of any person charged with the committing of anyoffence described in the said act, out of the realm, to be indictedand tried for the same in any shire or county within the realm. 

"Also the three acts passed in the last session of parliament, forstopping the port and blocking up the harbour of Boston, for alteringthe charter and government of Massachusetts Bay, and that which isintitled, 'an act for the better administration of justice, ' &c. 

"Also, the act passed in the same session for establishing the Romancatholic religion in the province of Quebec, abolishing the equitablesystem of English laws, and erecting a tyranny there, to the greatdanger, (from so total a dissimilarity of religion, law, andgovernment) of the neighbouring British colonies, by the assistance ofwhose blood and treasure the said country was conquered from France. 

"Also, the act passed in the same session for the better providingsuitable quarters for officers and soldiers in his majesty's servicein North America. 

"Also, that the keeping a standing army in several of these colonies, in time of peace, without the consent of the legislature of thatcolony in which such army is kept, is against law. 

"To these grievous acts and measures, Americans cannot submit; but inhopes their fellow subjects in Great Britain will, on a revision ofthem, restore us to that state, in which both countries foundhappiness and prosperity, we have for the present only resolved topursue the following peaceable measures: 1. To enter into anon-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation agreement orassociation. 2. To prepare an address to the people of Great Britain, and a memorial to the inhabitants of British America: and, 3. Toprepare a loyal address to his majesty, agreeable to resolutionsalready entered into. "

END OF VOLUME I