THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE AND PROGRESS CONSIDERED AS A PHASE OF THE DEVELOPMENTAND SPREAD OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION

BY

ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY

TO MY WIFEFOR THIRTY YEARS BEST OF COMPANIONS IN BOTH WORK AND PLAY

PREFACE

The present volume, as well as the companion volume of _Readings_, aroseout of a practical situation. Twenty-two years ago, on entering StanfordUniversity as a Professor of Education and being given the history of thesubject to teach, I found it necessary, almost from the first, to beginthe construction of a Syllabus of Lectures which would permit of myteaching the subject more as a phase of the history of the rise andprogress of our Western civilization than would any existing text. Throughsuch a study it is possible to give, better than by any other means, thatvision of world progress which throws such a flood of light over all oureducational efforts. The Syllabus grew, was made to include detailedcitations to historical literature, and in 1902 was published in bookform. In 1905 a second and an enlarged edition was issued, [1] and thesevolumes for a time formed the basis for classwork and reading in a numberof institutions, and, though now out of print, may still be found in manylibraries. At the same time I began the collection of a series of short, illustrative sources for my students to read. 

It had been my intention, after the publication of the second edition ofthe Syllabus, to expand the outline into a Text Book which would embody myideas as to what university students should be given as to the history ofthe work in which they were engaged. I felt then, and still feel, that thehistory of education, properly conceived and presented, should occupy animportant place in the training of an educational leader. Two things nowhappened which for some time turned me aside from my original purpose. Thefirst was the publication, late in 1905, of Paul Monroe's verycomprehensive and scholarly _Text Book in the History of Education_, andthe second was that, with the expansion of the work in education in theuniversity with which I was connected, and the addition of new men to thedepartment, the general history of education was for a time turned over toanother to teach. I then began, instead, the development of thatintroductory course in education, dealing entirely with Americaneducational history and problems, out of which grew my _Public Educationin the United States_. 

The second half of the academic year 1910-11 I acted as visiting Lectureron the History of Education at both Harvard University and RadcliffeCollege, and while serving in this capacity I began work on what hasfinally evolved into the present volume, together with the accompanyingbook of illustrative _Readings_. Other duties, and a deep interest inproblems of school administration, largely engaged my energies and writingtime until some three years ago, when, in rearranging courses at theuniversity, it seemed desirable that I should again take over theinstruction in the general history of education. Since then I have pushedthrough, as rapidly as conditions would permit, the organization of theparallel book of sources and documents, and the present volume of text. 

In doing so I have not tried to prepare another history of educationaltheories. Of such we already have a sufficient number. Instead, I havetried to prepare a history of the progress and practice and organizationof education itself, and to give to such a history its proper setting as aphase of the history of the development and spread of our Westerncivilization. I have especially tried to present such a picture of therise, struggle for existence, growth, and recent great expansion of theidea of the improvability of the race and the elevation and emancipationof the individual through education as would be most illuminating anduseful to students of the subject. To this end I have traced the greatforward steps in the emancipation of the intellect of man, and the effortsto perpetuate the progress made through the organization of educationalinstitutions to pass on to others what had been attained. I have alsotried to give a proper setting to the great historic forces which haveshaped and moulded human progress, and have made the evolution of modernstate school systems and the world-wide spread of Western civilizationboth possible and inevitable. 

To this end I have tried to hold to the main lines of the story, and havein consequence omitted reference to many theorists and reformers andevents and schools which doubtless were important in their land and time, but the influence of which on the main current of educational progresswas, after all, but small. For such omission I have no apology to make. Intheir place I have introduced a record of world events and forces, notincluded in the usual history of education, which to me seem important ashaving contributed materially to the shaping and directing of intellectualand educational progress. While in the treatment major emphasis has beengiven to modern times, I have nevertheless tried to show how all moderneducation has been after all a development, a culmination, a flowering-outof forces and impulses which go far back in history for their origin. In acivilization such as we of to-day enjoy, with roots so deeply embedded inthe past as is ours, any adequate understanding of world practices and ofpresent-day world problems in education calls for some tracing ofdevelopment to give proper background and perspective. The rise of modernstate school systems, the variations in types found to-day in differentlands, the new conceptions of the educational purpose, the rise of sciencestudy, the new functions which the school has recently assumed, the world-wide sweep of modern educational ideas, the rise of many entirely newtypes of schools and training within the past century--these and manyother features of modern educational practice in progressive nations arebetter understood if viewed in the light of their proper historicalsetting. Standing as we are to-day on the threshold of a new era, and witha strong tendency manifest to look only to the future and to ignore thepast, the need for sound educational perspective on the part of theleaders in both school and state is given new emphasis. 

To give greater concreteness to the presentation, maps, diagrams, andpictures, as commonly found in standard historical works, have been usedto an extent not before employed in writings on the history of education. To give still greater concreteness to the presentation I have built up aparallel volume of _Readings_, containing a large collection ofillustrative source material designed to back up the historical record ofeducational development and progress as presented in this volume. Theselections have been fully cross-referenced (R. 129; R. 176; etc. ) in thepages of the Text. Depending, as I have, so largely on the companionvolume for the necessary supplemental readings, I have reduced the chapterbibliographies to a very few of the most valuable and most commonly foundreferences. To add to the teaching value of the book there has beenappended to each chapter a series of questions for discussion, bearing onthe Text, and another series of questions bearing on the Readings to befound in the companion volume. In this form it is hoped that the Text willbe found good in teaching organization; that the treatment may prove to beof such practical value that it will contribute materially to relieve thehistory of education from much of the criticism which the devotion in thepast to the history of educational theory has brought upon it; and thatthe two volumes which have been prepared may be of real service inrestoring the subject to the position of importance it deserves to hold, for mature students of educational practice, as the interpreter of worldprogress as expressed in one of its highest creative forms. 

ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY_Stanford University, Cal. September_ 4, 1920

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION: THE SOURCES OF OUR CIVILIZATION

PART ITHE ANCIENT WORLDFOUNDATION ELEMENTS OF OUR WESTERN CIVILIZATION GREECE--ROME--CHRISTIANITY

CHAPTER I. THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION I. GREECE AND ITS PEOPLE II. EARLY EDUCATION IN GREECE

CHAPTER II. LATER GREEK EDUCATION III. THE NEW GREEK EDUCATION

CHAPTER III. THE EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME I. THE ROMANS AND THEIR MISSION II. THE PERIOD OF HOME EDUCATION III. THE TRANSITION TO SCHOOL EDUCATION IV. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM AS FINALLY ESTABLISHED V. ROME'S CONTRIBUTION TO CIVILIZATION

CHAPTER IV. THE RISE AND CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY I. THE RISE AND VICTORY OF CHRISTIANITY II. EDUCATIONAL AND GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION OF THE EARLY CHURCH III. WHAT THE MIDDLE AGES STARTED WITH

PART IITHE MEDIAEVAL WORLDTHE DELUGE OF BARBARISM; THE MEDIAEVAL STRUGGLE TO PRESERVE ANDREËSTABLISH CIVILIZATION

CHAPTER V. NEW PEOPLES IN THE EMPIRE

CHAPTER VI. EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES I. CONDITION AND PRESERVATION OF LEARNING

CHAPTER VII. EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES I. SCHOOLS ESTABLISHED AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED

CHAPTER VIII. INFLUENCES TENDING TOWARD A REVIVAL OF LEARNING I. MOSLEM LEARNING FROM SPAIN II. THE RISE OF SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY III. LAW AND MEDICINE AS NEW STUDIES IV. OTHER NEW INFLUENCES AND MOVEMENTS

CHAPTER IX. THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES

PART IIITHE TRANSITION FROM MEDIAEVAL TO MODERN ATTITUDESTHE RECOVERY OF THE ANCIENT LEARNING; THE REAWAKENING OF SCHOLARSHIP; ANDTHE RISE OF RELIGIOUS AND SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

CHAPTER X. THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING

CHAPTER XI. EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING

CHAPTER XII. THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY

CHAPTER XIII. EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS I. AMONG LUTHERANS AND ANGLICANS

CHAPTER XIV. EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS II. AMONG CALVINISTS AND CATHOLICS

CHAPTER XV. EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS III. THE REFORMATION AND AMERICAN EDUCATION

CHAPTER XVI. THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

CHAPTER XVII. THE NEW SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS I. HUMANISTIC REALISM II. SOCIAL REALISM III. SENSE REALISM IV. REALISM AND THE SCHOOLS

CHAPTER XVIII. THEORY AND PRACTICE BY THE MIDDLE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY I. PRE-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL THEORIES II. MID-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS

PART IVMODERN TIMESTHE ABOLITION OF PRIVILEGE; THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY; A NEW THEORY FOREDUCATION EVOLVED; THE STATE TAKES OVER THE SCHOOL

CHAPTER XIX. THE EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY I. WORK OF THE BENEVOLENT DESPOTS OF CONTINENTAL EUROPE II. THE UNSATISFIED DEMAND FOR REFORM IN FRANCE III. ENGLAND THE FIRST DEMOCRATIC NATION IV. INSTITUTION OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT AND RELIGIOUS FREEDOM IN AMERICA V. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION SWEEPS AWAY ANCIENT ABUSES

CHAPTER XX. THE BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION I. NEW CONCEPTIONS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE II. THE NEW STATE THEORY IN FRANCE III. THE NEW STATE THEORY IN AMERICA

CHAPTER XXI. A NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER FOR THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL I. THE NEW THEORY STATED II. GERMAN ATTEMPTS TO WORK OUT A NEW THEORY III. THE WORK AND INFLUENCE OF PESTALOZZI IV. REDIRECTION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

CHAPTER XXII. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA I. THE BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL ORGANIZATION II. A STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM AT LAST CREATED

CHAPTER XXIII. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE AND ITALY I. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE II. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ITALY

CHAPTER XXIV. THE STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND I. THE CHARITABLE-VOLUNTARY BEGINNINGS II. THE PERIOD OF PHILANTHROPIC EFFORT (1800-33) III. THE STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL EDUCATION IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM

CHAPTER XXV. AWAKENING AN EDUCATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE UNITED STATES I. EARLY NATIONAL ATTITUDES AND INTERESTS II. AWAKENING AN EDUCATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS III. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC INFLUENCES IV. ALIGNMENT OF INTERESTS, AND PROPAGANDA

CHAPTER XXVI. THE AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE STATE SCHOOLS I. THE BATTLE FOR TAX SUPPORT II. THE BATTLE TO ELIMINATE THE PAUPER-SCHOOL IDEA III. THE BATTLE TO MAKE THE SCHOOLS ENTIRELY FREE IV. THE BATTLE TO ESTABLISH SCHOOL SUPERVISION V. THE BATTLE TO ELIMINATE SECTARIANISM VI. THE BATTLE TO ESTABLISH THE AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL VII. THE STATE UNIVERSITY CROWNS THE SYSTEM

CHAPTER XXVII. EDUCATION BECOMES A GREAT NATIONAL TOOL I. SPREAD OF THE STATE-CONTROL IDEA II. NEW MODIFYING FORCES III. EFFECT OF THESE CHANGES ON EDUCATION

CHAPTER XXVIII. NEW CONCEPTIONS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS I. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION II. NEW IDEAS FROM HERBARTIAN SOURCES III. THE KINDERGARTEN, PLAY, AND MANUAL ACTIVITIES IV. THE ADDITION OF SCIENCE STUDY V. SOCIAL MEANING OF THESE CHANGES

CHAPTER XXIX. NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS I. POLITICAL II. SCIENTIFIC III. VOCATIONAL IV. SOCIOLOGICAL V. THE SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION

CONCLUSION: THE FUTURE

LIST OF PLATES

 1. THE CLOISTERS OF A MONASTERY, NEAR FLORENCE, ITALY 2. THE LIBRARY OF THE CHURCH OF SAINT WALLBERG, AT ZUTPHEN, HOLLAND 3. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS 4. A LECTURE ON THEOLOGY BY ALBERTUS MAGNUS 5. STRATFORD-ON-AVON GRAMMAR SCHOOL 6. EDUCATIONAL LEADERS IN PROTESTANT GERMANY 7. THE FREE SCHOOL AT HARROW 8. MAP SHOWING THE SPREAD OF JESUIT SCHOOLS IN NORTHERN TERRITORY BY THE YEAR 1725 9. TWO TABLETS ON THE WEST GATEWAY AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY10. JOHN AMOS COMENIUS (1592-1670)11. JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI12. FELLENBERG'S INSTITUTE AT HOFWYL13. TWO LEADERS IN THE REGENERATION OF PRUSSIA14. FRANCOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME GUIZOT (1787-1874)15. JOHN POUNDS' RAGGED SCHOOL AT PORTSMOUTH16. AN ENGLISH VILLAGE VOLUNTARY SCHOOL17. TWO LEADERS IN THE EDUCATIONAL AWAKENING IN THE UNITED STATES18. TWO LEADERS IN THE REORGANIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL THEORY

LIST OF FIGURES

 1. THE GREEK CONCEPTION OF THE WORLD 2. ANCIENT GREECE AND THE AEGEAN WORLD 3. THE CITY-STATE OF ATTICA 4. DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION OF ATHENS AND ATTICA, ABOUT 430 B. C. 5. A GREEK BOY 6. AN ATHENIAN INSCRIPTION 7. GREEK WRITING-MATERIALS 8. A GREEK COUNTING-BOARD 9. AN ATHENIAN SCHOOL 10. GREEK SCHOOL LESSONS 11. GROUND-PLAN OF THE GYMNASIUM AT EPHESOS, IN ASIA MINOR 12. SOCRATES (469-399 B. C. ) 13. EVOLUTION OF THE GREEK UNIVERSITY 14. THE GREEK UNIVERSITY WORLD 15. THE KNOWN WORLD ABOUT 150 A. D. 16. THE EARLY PEOPLES OF ITALY, AND THE EXTENSION OF THE ROMAN POWER 17. THE PRINCIPAL ROMAN ROADS 18. THE GREAT EXTENT OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 19. A ROMAN FATHER INSTRUCTING HIS SON 20. CATO THE ELDER (234-148 B. C. ) 21. ROMAN WRITING-MATERIALS 22. A ROMAN COUNTING-BOARD 23. A ROMAN PRIMARY SCHOOL 24. A ROMAN SCHOOL OF RHETORIC 25. THE ROMAN VOLUNTARY EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM, AS FINALLY EVOLVED 26. ORIGIN OF OUR ALPHABET 27. THE GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY TO THE END OF THE FOURTH CENTURY 28. A BISHOP 29. A BENEDICTINE MONK, ABBOT, AND ABBESS 30. SHOWING THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE AND THE CHURCH 31. A BODYGUARD OF GERMANS 32. THE GERMAN MIGRATIONS 33. THE KNOWN WORLD IN 800 34. A GERMAN WAR CHIEF 35. ROMANS DESTROYING A GERMAN VILLAGE 36. A PAGE OF THE GOTHIC GOSPELS 37. A TYPICAL MONASTERY OF SOUTHERN EUROPE 38. BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF A MEDIEVAL MONASTERY 39. INITIAL LETTER FROM AN OLD MANUSCRIPT 40. A MONK IN A SCRIPTORIUM 41. CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE, AND THE IMPORTANT MONASTERIES OF THE TIME 42. WHERE THE DANES RAVAGED ENGLAND 43. AN OUTER MONASTIC SCHOOL 44. THE MEDIAEVAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION SUMMARIZED 45. A SCHOOL: A LESSON IN GRAMMAR 46. AN ANGLO-SAXON MAP OF THE WORLD 47. AN EARLY CHURCH MUSICIAN 48. A SQUIRE BEING KNIGHTED 49. A KNIGHT OF THE TIME OF THE FIRST CRUSADE 50. EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 51. SHOWING CENTERS OF MOSLEM LEARNING 52. ARISTOTLE 53. THE CATHEDRAL OF NOTRE DAME, AT PARIS 54. THE CITY-STATES OF NORTHERN ITALY 55. FRAGMENT FROM THE RECOVERED "DIGEST" OF JUSTINIAN 56. THE FATHER OF MEDICINE, HIPPOCRATES OF COS 57. A PILGRIM OF THE MIDDLE AGES 58. A TYPICAL MEDIAEVAL TOWN (PRUSSIAN) 59. THE EDUCATIONAL PYRAMID 60. TRADE ROUTES AND COMMERCIAL CITIES 61. SHOWING LOCATION OF THE CHIEF UNIVERSITIES FOUNDED BEFORE 1600 62. SEAL OF A DOCTOR, UNIVERSITY OF PARIS 63. NEW COLLEGE, AT OXFORD 64. A LECTURE ON CIVIL LAW BY GUILLAUME BENEDICTI 65. LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEYDEN, IN HOLLAND 66. A UNIVERSITY DISPUTATION 67. A UNIVERSITY LECTURE AND LECTURE ROOM 68. PETRARCH (1304-74) 69. BOCCACCIO (1313-75) 70. DEMETRIUS CHALCONDYLES (1424-1511) 71. BOOKCASE AND DESK IN THE MEDICEAN LIBRARY AT FLORENCE 72. TWO EARLY NORTHERN HUMANISTS 73. AN EARLY SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRESS 74. AN EARLY SPECIMEN OF CAXTON'S PRINTING 75. THE WORLD AS KNOWN TO CHRISTIAN EUROPE BEFORE COLUMBUS 76. SAINT ANTONINUS AND HIS SCHOLARS 77. TWO EARLY ITALIAN HUMANIST EDUCATORS 78. GUILLAUME BUDAEUS (1467-1540) 79. COLLÈGE DE FRANCE 80. JOHANN REUCHLIN (1455-1522) 81. JOHANN STURM (1507-89) 82. DESIDERIUS ERASMUS (1467-1536) 83. SAINT PAUL'S SCHOOL, LONDON 84. GIGGLESWICK GRAMMAR SCHOOL 85. THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN STUDIES 86. JOHN WYCLIFFE (1320?-84) 87. RELIGIOUS WARFARE IN BOHEMIA 88. SHOWING THE RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS 89. HULDREICH ZWINGLI (1487-1531) 90. JOHN CALVIN (1509-64) 91. A FRENCH PROTESTANT (c. 1600) 92. TWO EARLY VERNACULAR SCHOOLS 93. THE FIRST PAGE OF WYCLIFFE'S BIBLE 94. LUTHER GIVING INSTRUCTION 95. JOHANNES BUGENHAGEN (1485-1558) 96. EVOLUTION OF GERMAN STATE SCHOOL CONTROL 97. A CHAINED BIBLE 98. A FRENCH SCHOOL OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 99. A DUTCH VILLAGE SCHOOL100. JOHN KNOX (1505?-72)101. IGNATIUS DE LOYOLA (1491-1556)102. PLAN OF A JESUIT SCHOOLROOM103. AN URSULINE104. A SCHOOL OF LA SALLE AT PARIS, 1688105. THE BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS BY 1792106. TENDENCIES IN EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EUROPE, 1500 TO 1700107. MAP SHOWING THE RELIGIOUS SETTLEMENTS IN AMERICA108. HOMES OF THE PILGRIMS, AND THEIR ROUTE TO AMERICA109. NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS, 1660110. THE BOSTON LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL111. WHERE YALE COLLEGE WAS FOUNDED112. AN OLD QUAKER MEETING-HOUSE AND SCHOOL AT LAMPETER, PENNSYLVANIA113. NICHOLAS KOPERNIK (COPERNICUS) (1473-1543)114. TYCHO BRAKE (1546-1601)115. GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642)116. SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727)117. WILLIAM HARVEY (1578-1657)118. FRANCIS BACON (1561-1626)119. THE LOSS AND RECOVERY OF THE SCIENCES120. RENÉ DESCARTES (1596-1650)121. FRANCOIS RABELAIS (1483-1553)122. JOHN MILTON (1608-74)123. MICHEL DE MONTAIGNE (1533-92)124. JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)125. AN ACADEMIE DES ARMES126. A SAMPLE PAGE FROM THE "ORBIS PICTUS"127. PART OF A PAGE FROM A LATIN-ENGLISH EDITION OF THE "VESTIBULUM"128. AUGUSTUS HERMANN FRANCKE (1663-1727)129. A FRENCH SCHOOL BEFORE THE REVOLUTION130. A HORN BOOK131. THE WESTMINSTER CATECHISM132. THOMAS DILWORTH (?-1780)133. FRONTISPIECE TO NOAH WEBSTER'S "AMERICAN SPELLING BOOK"134. TITLE-PAGE OF HODDER'S ARITHMETIC135. A "CHRISTIAN BROTHERS" SCHOOL136. AN ENGLISH DAME SCHOOL137. GRAVEL LANE CHARITY-SCHOOL, SOUTHWARK138. A CHARITY-SCHOOL GIRL IN UNIFORM139. A CHARITY-SCHOOL BOY IN UNIFORM140. ADVERTISEMENT FOR A TEACHER TO LET141. A SCHOOL WHIPPING-POST142. AN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY GERMAN SCHOOL143. CHILDREN AS MINIATURE ADULTS144. A PENNSYLVANIA ACADEMY145. FREDERICK THE GREAT146. MARIA THERESA147. MONTESQUIEU (1689-1755)148. TURGOT (1727-81)149. VOLTAIRE (1694-1778)150. DIDEROT (1713-84)151. JOHN WESLEY (1707-82)152. NATIONALITY OF THE WHITE POPULATION, AS SHOWN BY THE FAMILY NAMES IN THE CENSUS OF 1790153. THE STATES-GENERAL IN SESSION AT VERSAILLES154. ROUSSEAU (1712-78)155. LA CHALOTAIS (1701-83)156. ROLLAND (1734-93)157. COUNT DE MIRABEAU (1749-91)158. TALLEYRAND (1758-1838)159. CONDORCET (1743-94)160. THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE161. LAKANAL (1762-1845)162. THOMAS JEFFERSON (1743-1826)163. THE ROUSSEAU MONUMENT AT GENEVA164. BASEDOW (1723-90)165. IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804)166. THE SCENE OF PESTALOZZI'S LABORS167. FELLENBERG (1771-1844)168. THE SCHOOL OF A HANDWORKER169. THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 1740-86170. A GERMAN LATE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY SCHOOL171. DINTER (1760-1831)172. DIESTERWEG (1790-1866)173. THE PRUSSIAN STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM CREATED174. AN OLD FOUNDATION TRANSFORMED175. COUNT DE FOURCROY (1755-1809)176. VICTOR COUSIN (1792-1867)177. OUTLINE OF THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE FRENCH STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM178. EUROPE IN 1810179. THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY, SINCE 1848180. COUNT OF CAVOUR (1810-61)181. OUTLINE OF THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE ITALIAN STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM182. A RAGGED-SCHOOL PUPIL183. ADAM SMITH (1723-90)184. THE REVEREND T. R. MALTHUS (1766-1834)185. THE CREATORS OF THE MONITORIAL SYSTEM186. THE LANCASTRIAN MODEL SCHOOL IN BOROUGH ROAD, SOUTH-WARE, LONDON187. MONITORS TEACHING READING AT "STATIONS"188. PROPER MONITORIAL-SCHOOL POSITIONS189. ROBERT OWEN (1771-1858)190. LORD BROUGHAM (1778-1868)191. AN ENGLISH VILLAGE SCHOOL IN 1840192. EXPENDITURE FROM THE EDUCATION GRANTS, 1839-70193. LORD T. B. MACAULAY (1800-59)194. WORK OF THE SCHOOL BOARDS IN PROVIDING SCHOOL ACCOMMODATIONS195. THE ENGLISH EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AS FINALLY EVOLVED196. THE FIRST SCHOOLHOUSE BUILT BY THE FREE SCHOOL SOCIETY IN NEW YORK CITY197. "MODEL" SCHOOL BUILDING OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SOCIETY198. EVOLUTION OF THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM199. DATES OF THE GRANTING OF FULL MANHOOD SUFFRAGE200. THE FIRST FREE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN DETROIT201. THE PENNSYLVANIA SCHOOL ELECTIONS OF 1835202. THE NEW YORK REFERENDUM OF 1850203. STATUS OF SCHOOL SUPERVISION IN THE UNITED STATES BY 1861204. A TYPICAL NEW ENGLAND ACADEMY205. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES206. THE FIRST HIGH SCHOOL IN THE UNITED STATES207. HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES BY 1860208. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES ESTABLISHED BY 1860209. THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL LADDER210. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF DENMARK211. THE PROGRESS OF LITERACY IN EUROPE BY THE CLOSE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY212. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC213. THE JAPANESE TWO-CLASS SCHOOL SYSTEM214. THE CHINESE EDUCATIONAL LADDER215. BARON JUSTUS VON LIEBIG (1803-73)216. CHARLES DARWIN (1809-82)217. LOUIS PASTEUR (1822-95)218. MAN POWER BEFORE THE DAYS OF STEAM219. THRESHING WHEAT A CENTURY AGO220. A CITY WATER-SUPPLY, ABOUT 1830221. THE GREAT TRADE ROUTES OF THE MODERN WORLD222. AN EXAMPLE OF THE SHIFTING OF OCCUPATIONS223. THE PHILIPPINE SCHOOL SYSTEM224. THE FIRST MODERN NORMAL SCHOOL225. TEACHER-TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES BY 1860226. EVOLUTION OF THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL CURRICULUM, AND OF METHODS OF TEACHING227. AN "USHER" AND HIS CLASS228. REDIRECTED MANUAL TRAINING229. HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903)230. THOMAS H. HUXLEY (1825-95)231. A REORGANIZED KINDERGARTEN232. THE PEKING UNION MEDICAL COLLEGE233. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE TRADES IN MODERN INDUSTRY234. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE OF AMERICAN CHILDREN, FOURTEEN TO TWENTY YEARS OF AGE235. ABBÉ DE L'ÉPÉE (1712-89)236. THE REVEREND THOMAS H. GALLAUDET TEACHING THE DEAF AND DUMB237. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS MAINTAINED BY THE STATE238. KARL GEORG VON RAUMER (1783-1865)239. THE ESTABLISHED AND EXPERIMENTAL NATIONS OF EUROPE240. THE EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURE

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

In addition to the List of Readings and the Supplemental References givenin the chapter bibliographies, the following works, not cited in thechapter bibliographies, will be found in most libraries and may beconsulted, on all points to which they are likely to apply, for additionalmaterial:

I. GENERAL HISTORIES OF EDUCATION

 1. Davidson, Thomas. _History of Education_. 292 pp. New York, 1900. Good on the interpretation of the larger movements of history. 

*2. Monroe, Paul. _Text Book in the History of Education_. 772 pp. New York, 1905. Our most complete and scholarly history of education. This volume should be consulted freely. See analytical table of contents. 

 3. Munroe, Jas. P. _The Educational Ideal_. 262 pp. Boston, 1895. Contains very good short chapters on the educational reformers. 

*4. Graves, F. P. _A History of Education_. 3 vols. New York, 1909- 13. Vol. I. _Before the Middle Ages_. 304 pp. Vol. II. _During the Middle Ages_. 314 pp. Vol. III. _In Modern Times_. 410 pp. These volumes contain valuable supplementary material, and good chapter bibliographies. 

 5. Hart, J. K. _Democracy in Education_. 418 pp. New York, 1918. An interpretation of educational progress. 

 6. Quick, R. H. _Essays on Educational Reformers_. 508 pp. 2d ed. , New York, 1890. A series of well-written essays on the work of the theorists in education since the time of the Renaissance. 

*7. Parker, S. C. _The History of Modern Elementary Education_. 506 pp. Boston, 1912. An excellent treatise on the development of the theory for our modern elementary school, with some good descriptions of modern practice. 

II. GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF EDUCATION

 1. Cubberley, E. P. _Syllabus of Lectures on the History of Education_. 358 pp. New York. First ed. , 1902; 2d ed. , 1905. Gives detailed and classified bibliographies for all phases of the subject. Now out of print, but may be found in most normal school and college libraries, and many public libraries. 

III. CYCLOPAEDIAS

*1. Monroe, Paul, Editor. _Cyclopedia of Education_. 5 vols. New York, 1911-13. The most important Cyclopaedia of Education in print. Contains excellent articles on all historical points and events, with good selected bibliographies. A work that should be in all libraries, and freely consulted in using this Text. Its historical articles are too numerous to cite in the chapter bibliographies, but, due to the alphabetical arrangement and good cross-referencing, they may be found easily. 

*2. _Encylopaedia Britannica_. 11th ed. , 29 vols. Cambridge, 1910-11. Contains numerous important articles on all types of historical topics, and excellent biographical sketches. Should be consulted freely in using this Text. 

IV. MAGAZINES

*1. Barnard's _American Journal of Education_. Edited by Henry Barnard. 31 vols. Hartford, 1855-81. Reprinted, Syracuse, 1902. _Index_ to the 31 vols. Published by the United States Bureau of Education, Washington, 1892. A wonderful mine of all kinds of historical and educational information, and should be consulted freely on all points relating to European or American educational history. 

In the chapter bibliographies, as above, the most important references areindicated with an asterisk (*). 

THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

THE SOURCES OF OUR CIVILIZATION

The Civilization which we of to-day enjoy is a very complex thing, made upof many different contributions, some large and some small, from people inmany different lands and different ages. To trace all these contributionsback to their sources would be a task impossible of accomplishment, and, while specific parts would be interesting, for our purposes they would notbe important. Especially would it not be profitable for us to attempt totrace the development of minor features, or to go back to the rudimentarycivilizations of primitive peoples. The early development of civilizationamong the Chinese, the Hindoos, the Persians, the Egyptians, or theAmerican Indians all alike present features which to some form a veryinteresting study, but our western civilization does not go back to theseas sources, and consequently they need not concern us in the study we areabout to begin. While we have obtained the alphabet from the Phoeniciansand some of our mathematical and scientific developments through themedium of the Mohammedans, the real sources of our present-daycivilization lie elsewhere, and these minor sources will be referred tobut briefly and only as they influenced the course of western progress. 

The civilization which we now know and enjoy has come down to us from fourmain sources. The Greeks, the Romans, and the Christians laid thefoundations, and in the order named, and the study of the early history ofour western civilization is a study of the work and the blending of thesethree main forces. It is upon these three foundation stones, superimposedupon one another, that our modern European and American civilization hasbeen developed. The Germanic tribes, overrunning the boundaries of theRoman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries, added another new force oflargest future significance, and one which profoundly modified allsubsequent progress and development. To these four main sources we havemade many additions in modern times, building an entirely newsuperstructure on the old foundations, but the groundwork of ourcivilization is composed of these four foundation elements. For thesereasons a history of even modern education almost of necessity goes back, briefly at least, to the work and contributions of these ancient peoples. 

Starting, then, with the work of the Greeks, we shall state briefly thecontributions to the stream of civilization which have come down to usfrom each of the important historic peoples or groups or forces, and shalltrace the blending and assimilating processes of the centuries. Whiledescribing briefly the educational institutions and ideas of the differentpeoples, we shall be far less concerned, as we progress down thecenturies, with the educational and philosophical theories advanced bythinkers among them than with what was actually done, and with the lastingcontributions which they made to our educational practices and to ourpresent-day civilization. 

The work of Greece lies at the bottom and, in a sense, was the mostimportant of all the earlier contributions to our education andcivilization. These people, known as Hellenes, were the pioneers ofwestern civilization. Their position in the ancient world is well shown onthe map reproduced opposite. To the East lay the older politicaldespotisms, with their caste-type and intellectually stagnant organizationof society, and to the North and West a little-known region inhabited bybarbarian tribes. It was in such a world that our western civilization hadits birth. These Greeks, and especially the Athenian Greeks, representedan entirely new spirit in the world. In place of the repression of allindividuality, and the stagnant conditions of society that hadcharacterized the civilizations before them, they developed a civilizationcharacterized by individual freedom and opportunity, and for the firsttime in world history a premium was placed on personal and politicalinitiative. In time this new western spirit was challenged by the oldereastern type of civilization. Long foreseeing the danger, and in fear ofwhat might happen, the little Greek States had developed educationalsystems in part designed to prepare their citizens for what might come. Finally, in a series of memorable battles, the Greeks, led by Athens, broke the dread power of the Persian name and made the future of this newtype of civilization secure. At Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea the fate ofour western civilization trembled in the balance. Now followed the greatcreative period in Greek life, during which the Athenian Greeks maturedand developed a literature, philosophy, and art which were to be enjoyednot only by themselves, but by all western peoples since their time. Inthese lines of culture the world will forever remain debtor to this smallbut active and creative people. 

[Illustration: FIG. I. THE EARLY GREEK CONCEPTION OF THE WORLDThe World according to Hecataeus, a geographer of Miletus, Asia Minor. Hecataeus was the first Greek traveler and geographer. The map dates fromabout 500 B. C. ]

The next great source of our western civilization was the work of Rome. Like the Greeks, the Romans also occupied a peninsula jutting southwardinto the Mediterranean, but in most respects they were far different intype. Unlike the active, imaginative, artistic, and creative Greeks, theRomans were a practical, concrete, unimaginative, and executive people. Energy, personality, and executive power were in greatest demand amongthem. 

The work of Rome was political, governmental, and legal--not artistic orintellectual. Rome was strong where Greece was weak, and weak where Greecewas strong. As a result the two peoples supplemented one another well inlaying the foundations for our western civilization. The conquests ofGreece were intellectual; those of Rome legal and governmental. Romeabsorbed and amalgamated the whole ancient world into one Empire, to whichshe gave a common language, dress, manners, religion, literature, andpolitical and legal institutions. Adopting Greek learning and educationalpractices as her own, she spread them throughout the then-known world. Byher political organization she so fixed Roman ideas as to law andgovernment throughout the Empire that Christianity built firmly on theRoman foundations, and the German barbarians, who later swept over theEmpire, could neither destroy nor obliterate them. The Roman conquest ofthe world thus decisively influenced the whole course of western history, spread and perpetuated Greek ideas, and ultimately saved the world from agreat disaster. 

To Rome, then, we are indebted most of all for ideas as to government, andfor the introduction of law and order into an unruly world. In all theintervening centuries between ancient Rome and ourselves, and in spite ofmany wars and repeated onslaughts of barbarism, Roman governmental lawstill influences and guides our conduct, and this influence is even yetextending to other lands and other peoples. We are also indebted to Romefor many practical skills and for important engineering knowledge, whichwas saved and passed on to Western Europe through the medium of the monks. On the other side of the picture, the recent great World War, with all itsawful destruction of life and property, and injury to the orderly progressof civilization, may be traced directly to the Roman idea of world empireand the sway of one imperial government, imposing its rule and its cultureon the rest of mankind. 

Into this Roman Empire, united and made one by Roman arms and government, came the first of the modern forces in the ancient world--that ofChristianity--the third great foundation element in our westerncivilization. Embracing in its early development many Greek philosophicalideas, building securely on the Roman governmental organization, and withits new message for a decaying world, Christianity forms the connectinglink between the ancient and modern civilizations. Taking the conceptionof one God which the Jewish tribes of the East had developed, Christianitychanged and expanded this in such a way as to make it a dominant idea inthe world. Exalting the teachings of the fatherhood of God, thebrotherhood of man, the future life, and the need for preparation for ahereafter, Christianity introduced a new type of religion and offered anew hope to the poor and oppressed of the ancient world. In so doing a newethical force of first importance was added to the effective energies ofmankind, and a basis for the education of all was laid, for the firsttime, in the history of the world. 

Christianity came at just the right time not only to impart new energy andhopefulness to a decadent ancient civilization, but also to meet, conquer, and in time civilize the barbarian hordes from the North which overwhelmedthe Roman Empire. A new and youthful race of German barbarians nowappeared upon the scene, with resulting ravage and destruction, andanarchy and ignorance, and long centuries ensued during which ancientcivilization fell prey to savage violence and superstition. Progressceased in the ancient world. The creative power of antiquity seemedexhausted. The digestive and assimilative powers of the old world seemedgone. Greek was forgotten. Latin was corrupted. Knowledge of the arts andsciences was lost. Schools disappeared. Only the Christian Church remainedto save civilization from the wreck, and it, too, was almost submerged inthe barbaric flood. It took ten centuries partially to civilize, educate, and mould into homogeneous units this heterogeneous horde of new peoples. During this long period it required the strongest energies of the few whounderstood to preserve the civilization of the past for the enjoyment anduse of a modern world. 

Yet these barbarian Germans, great as was the havoc they wrought at first, in time contributed much to the stream of our modern civilization. Theybrought new conceptions of individual worth and freedom into a worldthoroughly impregnated with the ancient idea of the dominance of the Stateover the individual. The popular assembly, an elective king, and anindependent and developing system of law were contributions of firstimportance which these peoples brought. The individual man and not theState was, with them, the important unit in society. In the hands of theAngles and Saxons, particularly, but also among the Celts, Franks, Helvetii, and Belgae, this idea of individual freedom and of thesubordination of the State to the individual has borne large fruit inmodern times in the self-governing States of France, Switzerland, Belgium, England and the English self-governing dominions, and in the United Statesof America. After much experimenting it now seems certain that the Anglo-Saxon type of self-government, as developed first in England and furtherexpanded in the United States, seems destined to be the type of governmentin future to rule the world. 

It took Europe almost ten centuries to recover from the effects of theinvasion of barbarism which the last two centuries of the Roman Empirewitnessed, to save itself a little later from Mohammedan conquest, and topick up the lost threads of the ancient life and begin again the work ofcivilization. Finally, however, this was accomplished, largely as a resultof the labor of monks and missionaries. The barbarians were in timeinduced to settle down to an agricultural life, to accept Christianity inname at least, and to yield a more or less grudging obedience to monk andpriest that they might thereby escape the torments of a world to come. Slowly the monasteries and the churches, aided here and there by far-sighted kings, worked at the restoration of books and learning, andfinally, first in Italy, and later in the nations evolved from the tribesthat had raided the Empire, there came a period of awakening andrediscovery which led to the development of the early universityfoundations, a wonderful revival of ancient learning, a great expansion ofmen's thoughts, a great religious awakening, a wonderful period of worldexploration and discovery, the founding of new nations in new lands, thereawakening of the spirit of scientific inquiry, the rise of thedemocratic spirit, and the evolution of our modern civilization. 

By the end of the eleventh century it was clear that the long battle forthe preservation of civilization had been won, but it was not until thefourteenth century that the Revival of Learning in Italy gave clearevidence of the rise of the modern spirit. By the year 1500 much had beenaccomplished, and the new modern questioning spirit of the Italian Revivalwas making progress in many directions. Most of the old learning had beenrecovered; the printing-press had been invented, and was at workmultiplying books; the study of Greek and Hebrew had been revived in thewestern world; trade and commerce had begun; the cities and theuniversities which had arisen had become centers of a new life; a new searoute to India had been found and was in use; Columbus had discovered anew world; the Church was more tolerant of new ideas than it had been forcenturies; and thought was being awakened in the western world to a degreethat had not taken place since the days of ancient Rome. The world seemedabout ready for rapid advances in many directions, and great progress inlearning, education, government, art, commerce, and invention seemedalmost within its grasp. Instead, there soon opened the most bitter andvindictive religious conflict the world has ever known; western Christiancivilization was torn asunder; a century of religious warfare ensued; andthis was followed by other centuries of hatred and intolerance andsuspicion awakened by the great conflict. 

Still, out of this conflict, though it for a time checked the orderlydevelopment of civilization, much important educational progress wasultimately to come. In promulgating the doctrine that the authority of theBible in religious matters is superior to the authority of the Church, thebasis for the elementary school for the masses of the people, and inconsequence the education of all, was laid. This meant the creation of anentirely new type of school--the elementary, for the masses, and taught inthe native tongue--to supplement the Latin secondary schools which hadbeen an outgrowth of the revival of ancient learning, and the stillearlier cathedral and monastery schools of the Church. 

The modern elementary vernacular school may then be said to be essentiallya product of the Protestant Reformation. This is true in a special senseamong those peoples which embraced some form of the Lutheran orCalvinistic faiths. These were the Germans, Moravians, Swedes, Norwegians, Finns, Danes, Dutch, Walloons, Swiss, Scotch, Scotch-Irish, FrenchHuguenots, and the English Puritans. As the Renaissance gave a newemphasis to the development of secondary schools by supplying them with alarge amount of new subject-matter and a new motive, so the Reformationmovement gave a new motive for the education of children not intended forthe service of the State or the Church, and the development of elementaryvernacular schools was the result. Only in England, of all the revoltingcountries, did this Protestant conception as to the necessity of educationfor salvation fail to take deep root, with the result that elementaryeducation in England awaited the new political and social and industrialimpulses of the latter half of the nineteenth century for its realdevelopment. 

The rise of the questioning and inferring spirit in the ItalianRenaissance marked the beginnings of the transition from mediaeval tomodern attitudes, and one of the most important outgrowths of this was therise of scientific inquiry which in time followed. This meant theapplication of human reason to the investigation of the phenomena ofnature, with all that this eventually implied. This, slowly to be sure, turned the energies of mankind in a new direction, led to the substitutionof inquiry and patient experimentation for assumption and disputation, andin time produced a scientific and industrial revolution which has changedthe whole nature of the older problems. The scientific spirit has to-daycome to dominate all lines of human thinking, and the applications ofscientific principles have, in the past century, completely changed almostall the conditions surrounding human life. Applied to education, this newspirit has transformed the instruction and the methods of the schools, ledto the creation of entirely new types of educational institutions, andintroduced entirely new aims and methods and purposes into the educationalprocess. 

From inquiry into religious matters and inquiry into the phenomena ofnature, it was but a short and a natural step to inquiry into the natureand functions of government. This led to a critical questioning of the oldestablished order, the rise of new types of intellectual inquiry, thegrowth of a consciousness of national problems, and the bringing to thefront of questions of political interest to a degree unknown since thedays of ancient Rome. The eighteenth century marks, in these directions, asharp turning-point in human thinking, and the end of mediaevalism and theushering in of modern forms of intellectual liberty. The eighteenthcentury, too, witnessed a culmination of a long series of progressivechanges which had been under way for centuries, and the flood time of aslowly but steadily rising tide of protest against the enslavement of theintellect and the limitation of natural human liberties by either Churchor State. The flood of individualism which characterized the second halfof the eighteenth century demanded outlet, and, denied, it rose and sweptaway ancient privileges, abuses, and barriers--religious, intellectual, social, and political--and opened the way for the marked progress in alllines which characterized the nineteenth century. Out of this new spiritwas to come the American and the French Revolutions, the establishment ofconstitutional liberty and religious freedom, the beginnings of theabolition of privilege, the rise of democracy, a great extension ofeducational advantages, and the transfer of the control of the school fromthe Church to the State that the national welfare might be better promotedthereby. 

Now arose the modern conception of the school as the great constructiveinstrument of the State, and a new individual and national theory as toboth the nature and the purpose of education was advanced. Schools weredeclared to be essentially civil affairs; their purpose was asserted to beto promote the common welfare and advance the interests of the politicalState; ministers of education began to be appointed by the State to takeover and exercise control; the citizen supplanted the ecclesiastic in theorganization of education and the supervision of classroom teaching; theinstruction in the school was changed in direction, and in time vastlybroadened in scope; and the education of all now came to be conceived ofas a birthright of the child of every citizen. 

Since the middle of the nineteenth century a great world movement for therealization of these new aims, through the taking-over of education fromreligious bodies and the establishment of state-controlled school systems, has taken place. This movement is still going on. Beginning in the nationswhich were earliest in the front of the struggle to preserve and extendwhat was so well begun by little Greece and Imperial Rome, the state-control conception of education has, in the past three quarters of acentury, spread to every continent on the globe. For ages a Church andprivate affair, of no particular concern to government and of importanceto but a relatively small number of the people, education has to-daybecome, with the rise and spread of modern ideas as to human freedom, political equality, and industrial progress, a prime essential to themaintenance of good government and the promotion of national welfare, andit is now so recognized by progressive nations everywhere. With the spreadof the state-control idea as to education have also gone western ideas asto government, human rights, social obligations, political equality, pureand applied science, trade, industry, transportation, intellectual andmoral improvement, and humanitarian influences which are rapidlytransforming and modernizing not only less progressive western nations, but ancient civilizations as well, and along the lines so slowly and sopainfully worked out by the inheritors of the conceptions of human freedomfirst thought out in little Greece, and those of political equality andgovernment under law so well worked out by ancient Rome, Westerncivilization thus promises to become the dominant force in worldcivilization and human progress, with general education as its agent andgreatest constructive force. 

Such is a brief outline sketch of the history of the rise and spread andprogress of our western civilization, as expressed in the history of theprogress of education, and as we shall trace it in much more detail in thechapters which are to follow. The road that man has traveled from the dayswhen might made right, and when children had no claims which the State orparents were bound to respect, to a time when the child is regarded as offirst importance, and adults represented in the State declare by law thatthe child shall be protected and shall have abundant educationaladvantages, is a long road and at times a very crooked one. Its ups anddowns and forward movements have been those of the progress of the race, and in consequence a history of educational progress must be in part ahistory of the progress of civilization itself. Human civilization, though, represents a more or less orderly evolution, and the education ofman stands as one of the highest expressions of a belief in theimprovability of the race of which mankind is capable. 

It is such a development that we propose to trace, and, having nowsketched the broader outlines of the treatment, we next turn to a filling-in of the details, and begin with the Ancient World and the firstfoundation element as found in the little City-States of ancient Greece. 

PART I

THE ANCIENT WORLD

THE FOUNDATION ELEMENTS OF OUR WESTERN CIVILIZATIONGREECE--ROME--CHRISTIANITY

CHAPTER I

THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION

I. GREECE AND ITS PEOPLE

THE LAND. Ancient Greece, or Hellas as the Greeks called their homeland, was but a small country. The map given below shows the Aegean worldsuperimposed on the States of the old Northwest Territory, from which itmay be seen that the Greek mainland was a little less than half as largeas the State of Illinois. Greece proper was about the size of the State ofWest Virginia, but it was a much more mountainous land. No spot in Greecewas over forty miles from the sea. Attica, where a most wonderfulintellectual life arose and flourished for centuries, and whosecontributions to civilization were the chief glory of Greece, was smallerthan two average-size Illinois counties, and about two thirds the size ofthe little State of Rhode Island. [1] The country was sparsely populated, except in a few of the City-States, and probably did not, at its mostprosperous period, contain much more than a million and a half of people--citizens, foreigners, and slaves included. 

[Illustration: FIG. 2. ANCIENT GREECE AND THE AEGEAN WORLDSuperimposed on the East-North-Central Group of American States, to showrelative size. Dotted lines indicate the boundaries of the AmericanStates--Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, etc. All of Greece will be seen to bea little less than half the size of the State of Illinois, the Aegean Seaabout the size of the State of Indiana, and Attica not quite so large astwo average-size Illinois counties. ]

The land was rough and mountainous, and deeply indented by the sea. Theclimate and vegetation were not greatly unlike the climate and vegetationof Southern California. Pine and fir on the mountain-slopes, and figs, olives, oranges, lemons, and grapes on the hillsides and plains below, were characteristic of the land. Fishing, agriculture, and the raising ofcattle and sheep were the important industries. A temperate, bracingclimate, short, mild winters, and a long, dry summer gave an opportunityfor the development of this wonderful civilization. Like SouthernCalifornia or Florida in winter, it was essentially an out-of-doorscountry. The high mountains to the rear, the sun-steeped skies, and thebrilliant sea in front were alike the beauty of the land and theinspiration of the people. Especially was this true of Attica, which hadthe seashore, the plain, the high mountains, and everywhere magnificentviews through an atmosphere of remarkable clearness. A land ofincomparable beauty and charm, it is little wonder that the Greek citizen, and the Athenian in particular, took pride in and loved his country, andwas willing to spend much time in preparing himself to govern and defendit. 

THE GOVERNMENT. Politically, Greece was composed of a number ofindependent City-States of small size. They had been settled by earlytribes, which originally held the land in common. Attica, with itsapproximately seven hundred square miles of territory, was an average-sizeCity-State. The central city, the surrounding farming and grazing lands, and the coastal regions all taken together, formed the State, the citizensof which--city-residents, farmers, herdsmen, and fishermen--controlled thegovernment. There were in all some twenty of these City-States in mainlandGreece, the most important of which were Attica, of which Athens was thecentral city; Laconia, of which Sparta was the central city; and Boeotia, of which Thebes was the central city. Some of the States developeddemocracies, of which class Athens became the most notable example, whilesome were governed as oligarchies. Of all the different States but fewplayed any conspicuous part in the history of Greece. Of these few Atticastands clearly above them all as the leader in thought and art and themost progressive in government. Here, truly, was a most wonderful people, and it is with Attica that the student of the history of education is mostconcerned. The best of all Greece was there. 

[Illustration: FIG. 3. THE CITY-STATE OF ATTICA]

The little City-States of Greece, as has just been said, were independentStates, just like modern nations. While all the Greeks regarded themselvesas tribes of a single family, descended from a common ancestor, Hellen, and the bonds of a common race, language, and religion tended to unitethem into a sort of brotherhood, the different City-States were held apartby their tribal origins, by narrow political sympathies, and by pettylaws. A citizen of one city, for example, was an alien in another, andcould not hold property or marry in a city not his own. Such attitudes andlaws were but natural, the time and age considered. 

Sometimes, in case of great danger, as at the time of the Persianinvasions (492-479 B. C. ), a number of the States would combine to form adefensive league; at other times they made war on one another. The federalprinciple, such as we know it in the United States in our state andnational governments, never came into play. At different times Athens, Sparta, and Thebes aspired to the leadership of Greece and tried to unitethe little States into a Hellenic Nation, but the mutual jealousies andthe extreme individualism of the people, coupled with the isolation of theStates and the difficulties of intercommunication through the mountainpasses, stood in the way of any permanent union. [2] What Rome lateraccomplished with relative ease and on a large scale, Greece was unable todo on even a small scale. A lack of capacity to unite for coöperativeundertakings seemed to be a fatal weakness of the Greek character. 

THE PEOPLE. The Greeks were among the first of the European peoples toattain to any high degree of civilization. Their story runs back almost tothe dawn of recorded history. As early as 3500 B. C. They were in anadvanced stone age, and by 2500 B. C. Had reached the age of bronze. Thedestruction of Homer's Troy dates back to 1200 B. C. , and the Homeric poemsto 1100 B. C. , while an earlier Troy (Schliemann's second city) goes backto 2400 B. C. This history concerns the mainland of Asia Minor. By 1000B. C. The southern peninsula of Greece had been colonized, between 900 and800 B. C. Attica and other portions of upper Greece had been settled, andby 650 B. C. Greek colonization had extended to many parts of theMediterranean. [3]

The lower part of the Greek peninsula, known as Laconia, was settled bythe Dorian branch of the Greek family, a practical, forceful, but a whollyunimaginative people. Sparta was their most important city. To the northwere the Ionic Greeks, a many-sided and a highly imaginative people. Athens was their chief city. In the settlement of Laconia the Spartansimposed themselves as an army of occupation on the original inhabitants, whom they compelled to pay tribute to them, and established a militarymonarchy in southern Greece. The people of Attica, on the other hand, absorbed into their own body the few earlier settlers of the Attic plain. They also established a monarchy, but, being a people more capable ofprogress, this later evolved into a democracy. The people of Attica werein consequence a somewhat mixed race, which possibly in part accounts fortheir greater intellectual ability and versatility. [4]

It accounts, though, only in part. Climate, beautiful surroundings, andcontact with the outside world probably also contributed something, butthe real basis underneath was the very superior quality of the people ofAttica. In some way, just how we do not know, these people came to beendowed with a superior genius and the rather unusual ability to makethose progressive changes in living and government which enabled them tomake the most of their surroundings and opportunities, and to advancewhile others stood still. Far more than other Greeks, the people of Atticawere imaginative, original, versatile, adaptable, progressive, endowedwith rare mental ability, keenly sensitive to beauty in nature and art, and possessed of a wonderful sense of proportion and a capacity formoderation in all things. Only on such an assumption can we account fortheir marvelous achievements in art, philosophy, literature, and scienceat this very early period in the development of the civilization of theworld. 

CLASSES IN THE POPULATION. Greece, as was the ancient world in general, was built politically on the dominant power of a ruling class. Inconsequence, all of course could not become citizens of the State, evenafter a democracy had been evolved. Citizenship came with birth and propereducation, and, before 509 B. C. , foreigners were seldom admitted toprivileges in the State. Only a male citizen might hold office, protecthimself in the courts, own land, or attend the public assemblies. Only acitizen, too, could participate in the religious festivals and rites, forreligion was an affair of the ruling families of the State. Inconsequence, family, religion, and citizenship were all bound up together, and education and training were chiefly for citizenship and religious(moral) ends. 

Even more, citizenship everywhere in the earlier period was a degree to beattained to only after proper education and preliminary military andpolitical training. This not only made some form of education necessary, but confined educational advantages to male youths of proper birth. Therewas of course no purpose in educating any others. [5] From Figure 4 itwill be seen what a small percentage of the total population thisincluded. Education in Greece was essentially the education of thechildren of the ruling class to perpetuate the rule of that class. 

Attica almost alone among the Greek States adopted anything approaching aliberal attitude toward the foreign-born; in Sparta, and generallyelsewhere in Greece, they were looked upon with deep suspicion. As aresult most of the foreign residents of Greece were to be found in Athens, or its neighboring port city (the Piraeus), attracted there by thehospitality of the people and the intellectual or commercial advantages ofthese cities. After Athens had become the center of world thought, manyforeigners took up their residence in the city because of the importanceof its intellectual life. Foreigners, though, they remained up to 509 B. C. (See page 40. ) Only rarely before this date, and then only for someconspicuous act of patriotism, and by special vote of the citizens, was aforeigner admitted to citizenship. Unlike Rome, which received those ofalien birth freely into its citizenship, and opened up to them largeopportunities of every kind, the Greeks persistently refused to assimilatethe foreign-born. Regarding themselves as a superior people, descendedfrom the gods, they held themselves apart rather exclusively as aboveother peoples. This kept the blood pure, but, from the standpoint of worldusefulness, it was a serious defect in Greek life. [6]

Beneath both citizens and foreign residents was a great foundation mass ofworking slaves, who rendered all types of menial and intellectualservices. Sailors, household servants, field workers, clerks in shops andoffices, accountants, and pedagogues were among the more commonoccupations of slaves in Greece. Many of these had been citizens andlearned men of other City-States or countries, but had been carried off ascaptives in some war. This was a common practice in the ancient world, slavery being the lot of alien conquered people almost without exception. The composition of Attica, just before the outbreak of the PeloponnesianWar (431 B. C. ) is shown in Figure 4. The great number of slaves andforeigners is clearly seen, even though the citizenship had by this timebeen greatly extended. In Sparta and in other City-States somewhat similarconditions prevailed as to numbers [7] but there the slaves (Helots)occupied a lower status than in Athens, being in reality serfs, tied toand being sold with the land, and having no rights which a citizen wasbound to respect. 

[Illustration: FIG. 4. DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION OF ATHENS ANDATTICA, ABOUT 430 B. C. (After Gulick)]

Education, then, being only for the male children of citizens, andcitizenship a degree to be attained to on the basis of education andtraining, let us next see in what that education consisted, and what wereits most prominent characteristics and results. 

II. EARLY EDUCATION IN GREECE

Some form of education that would train the son of the citizen forparticipation in the religious observances and duties of a citizen of theState, and would prepare the State for defense against outward enemies, was everywhere in Greece recognized as a public necessity, though itsprovision, nature, and extent varied in the different City-States. We haveclear information only as to Sparta and Athens, and will consider onlythese two as types. Sparta is interesting as representing the old Greektribal training, from which Sparta never progressed. Many of the otherGreek City-States probably maintained a system of training much like thatof Sparta. Such educational systems stand as undesirable examples ofextreme state socialism, contributed little to our western civilization, and need not detain us long. It was Athens, and a few other City-Stateswhich followed her example, which presented the best of Greece and passedon to the modern world what was most valuable for civilization. 

1. _Education in Sparta_

THE PEOPLE. The system of training which was maintained in Sparta was inpart a reflection of the character of the people, and in part a result ofits geographical location. A warlike people by nature, the Spartans werefor long regarded as the ablest fighters in Greece. Laconia, their home, was a plain surrounded by mountains. They represented but a smallpercentage of the total population, which they held in subjection to themby their military power. [8] The slaves (Helots) were often troublesome, and were held in check by many kinds of questionable practices. Educationfor citizenship with the Spartans meant education for usefulness in anintensely military State, where preparedness was a prerequisite to safety. Strength, courage, endurance, cunning, patriotism, and obedience were thevirtues most highly prized, while the humane, literary, and artisticsentiments were neglected (R. I). Aristotle well expressed it when he saidthat "Sparta prepared and trained for war, and in peace rusted like asword in its scabbard. "

THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. At birth the child was examined by a council ofelders (R. I), and if it did not appear to be a promising child it wasexposed to die in the mountains. If kept, the mother had charge of thechild until seven if a boy, and still longer if a girl. At the beginningof the eighth year, and until the boy reached the age of eighteen, helived in a public barrack, where he was given little except physical drilland instruction in the Spartan virtues. His food and clothing were scantand his bed hard. Each older man was a teacher. Running, leaping, boxing, wrestling, military music, military drill, ball-playing, the use of thespear, fighting, stealing, and laconic speech and demeanor constituted thecourse of study. From eighteen to twenty was spent in professionaltraining for war, and frequently the youth was publicly whipped to develophis courage and endurance. For the next ten years--that is, until he wasthirty years old--he was in the army at some frontier post. At thirty theyoung man was admitted to full citizenship and compelled to marry, thoughcontinuing to live at the public barrack and spending his energies intraining boys (R. 1). Women and girls were given gymnastic training tomake them strong and capable of bearing strong children. The family wasvirtually suppressed in the interests of defense and war. [9] Theintellectual training consisted chiefly in committing to memory the Lawsof Lycurgus, learning a few selections from Homer, and listening to theconversation of the older men. 

As might naturally be supposed, Sparta contributed little of anything toart, literature, science, philosophy, or government. She left to the worldsome splendid examples of heroism, as for example the sacrifice ofLeonidas and his Spartans to hold the pass at Thermopylae, and a warningexample of the brutalizing effect on a people of excessive devotion tomilitary training. It is a pleasure to turn from this dark picture to thewonderful (for the time) educational system that was gradually developedat Athens. 

2. _The old Athenian education_

SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS. Athenian education divides itself naturally into twodivisions--the old Athenian training which prevailed up to about the timeof the close of the Persian Wars (479 B. C. ) and was an outgrowth ofearlier tribal observances and practices, and later Athenian education, which characterized the period of maximum greatness of Athens andafterward. We shall describe these briefly, in order. 

The state military socialism of Sparta made no headway in more democraticAttica. The citizens were too individualistic, and did their own thinkingtoo well to permit the establishment of any such plan. While education wasa necessity for citizenship, and the degree could not be obtained withoutit, the State nevertheless left every citizen free to make his ownarrangements for the education of his sons, or to omit such education ifhe saw fit. Only instruction in reading, writing, music, and gymnasticswere required. If family pride, and the sense of obligation of a parentand a citizen were not sufficient to force the father to educate his son, the son was then by law freed from the necessity of supporting his fatherin his old age. The State supervised education, but did not establish it. 

The teachers were private teachers, and derived their livelihood fromfees. These naturally varied much with the kind of teacher and the wealthof the parent, much as private lessons in music or dancing do to-day. Aswas common in antiquity, the teachers occupied but a low social position(R. 5), and only in the higher schools of Athens was their standing of anyimportance. Greek literature contains many passages which show the lowsocial status of the schoolmaster. [10] Schools were open from dawn todark. The school discipline was severe, the rod being freely used both inthe school and in the home. There were no Saturday and Sunday holidays orlong vacations, such as we know, but about ninety festival and other stateholidays served to break the continuity of instruction (R. 3). Theschoolrooms were provided by the teachers, and were wholly lacking inteaching equipment, in any modern sense of the term. However, but littlewas needed. The instruction was largely individual instruction, the boycoming, usually in charge of an old slave known as a _pedagogue_, toreceive or recite his lessons. The teaching process was essentially atelling and a learning-by-heart procedure. 

For the earlier years there were two schools which boys attended--themusic and literary school, and a school for physical training. Boysprobably spent part of the day at one school and part at the other, thoughthis is not certain. They may have attended the two schools on alternatedays. From sixteen to eighteen, if his parents were able, the boy attendeda state-supported _gymnasium_, where an advanced type of physical trainingwas given. As this was preparatory for the next two years of army service, the _gymnasia_ were supported by the State more as preparedness measuresthan as educational institutions, though they partook of the nature ofboth. 

[Illustration: FIG. 5. A GREEK BOY]

EARLY CHILDHOOD. As at Sparta the infant was examined at birth, but thefather, and not a council of citizens, decided whether or not it was to be"exposed" or preserved. Three ceremonies, of ancient tribal origin, markedthe recognition and acceptance of the child. The first took place fivedays after birth, when the child was carried around the family hearth bythe nurse, followed by the household in procession. This ceremony, followed by a feast, was designed to place the child forever under thecare of the family gods. On the tenth day the child was named by thefather, who then formally recognized the child as his own and committedhimself to its rearing and education. The third ceremony took place at theautumn family festival, when all children born during the preceding yearwere presented to the father's clansmen, who decided, by vote, whether ornot the boy or girl was the legitimate and lawful child of Athenianparents. If approved, the child's name was entered on the registry of theclan, and he might then aspire to citizenship and inherit property fromhis parent (R. 4). 

Up to the age of seven both boys and girls grew up together in the home, under the care of the nurse and mother, engaging in much the same gamesand sports as do children anywhere. From the first they were carefullydisciplined for good behavior and for the establishment of self-control(R. 3). After the age of seven the boy and girl parted company in thematter of their education, the girl remaining closely secluded in the home(women and children were usually confined to the upper floor of the house)and being instructed in the household arts by her mother, while the boywent to different teachers for his education. Probably many girls learnedto read and write from their mothers or nurses, and the daughters of well-to-do citizens learned to spin, weave, sew, and embroider. Music was alsoa common accomplishment of women. [11]

THE SCHOOL OF THE GRAMMATIST. A Greek boy, unlike a modern school child, did not go to one teacher. Instead he had at least two teachers, andsometimes three. To the _grammatist_, who was doubtless an evolution froman earlier tribal scribe, he went to learn to read and write and count. The grammatist represented the earliest or primary teacher. To the musicteacher, who probably at first taught reading and writing also, he wentfor his instruction in music and literature. Finally, to the _palaestra_he went for instruction in physical training (R. 3). 

[Illustration: FIG. 6. AN ATHENIAN INSCRIPTIONA decree of the Council and Assembly, dating from about 450 B. C. Note thedifficulty of trying to read without any punctuation, and with onlycapital letters. ]

Reading was taught by first learning the letters, then syllables, andfinally words. [12] Plaques of baked earth, on which the alphabet waswritten, like the more modern horn-book (see Figure 130), were frequentlyused. [13] The ease with which modern children learn to read was unknownin Greece. Reading was very difficult to learn, as accentuation, punctuation, spacing between words, and small letters had not as yet beenintroduced. As a result the study required much time, [14] and muchpersonal ingenuity had to be exercised in determining the meaning of asentence. The inscription shown in Figure 6 will illustrate thedifficulties quite well. The Athenian accent, too, was hard to acquire. 

[Illustration: FIG. 7. GREEK WRITING-MATERIALS]

The pupil learned to write by first tracing, with the stylus, letters cutin wax tablets, and later by copying exercises set for him by his teacher, using the wax tablet and writing on his knee. Still later the pupillearned to write with ink on papyrus or parchment, though, due to the costof parchment in ancient times, this was not greatly used. Slates and paperwere of course unknown in Greece. 

There was little need for arithmetic, and but little was taught. Arithmetic such as we teach would have been impossible with their cumbroussystem of notation. [15] Only the elements of counting were taught, theGreek using his fingers or a counting-board, such as is shown in Figure 8, to do his simple reckoning. 

[Illustration: FIG. 8 A GREEK COUNTING-BOARDPebbles of different size or color were used for thousands, hundreds, tens, and units. Their position on the board gave them their values. Theboard now shows the total 15, 379. ]

GREAT IMPORTANCE OF READING AND LITERATURE. After the pupil had learned toread, much attention was given to accentuation and articulation, in orderto secure beautiful reading. Still more, in reading or reciting, the partswere acted out. The Greeks were a nation of actors, and the recitations inthe schools and the acting in the theaters gave plenty of opportunity forexpression. There were no schoolbooks, as we know them. The masterdictated and the pupils wrote down, or, not uncommonly, learned by heartwhat the master dictated. Ink and parchment were now used, the boy makinghis own schoolbooks. Homer was the first and the great reading book of theGreeks, the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ being the Bible of the Greek people. Then followed Hesiod, Theognis, the Greek poets, and the fables of Aesop. [16] Reading, declamation, and music were closely interrelated. To appealto the emotions and to stir the will along moral and civic lines was afundamental purpose of the instruction (R. 5). A modern writer wellcharacterizes the ancient instruction in literature in the followingwords:

By making the works of the great poets of the Greek people the material oftheir education, the Athenians attained a variety of objects difficult ofattainment by any other one means. The fact is, the ancient poetry ofGreece, with its finished form, its heroic tales and characters, itsaccounts of peoples far removed in time and space, its manliness andpathos, its directness and simplicity, its piety and wisdom, its respectfor law and order, combined with its admiration for personal initiativeand worth, furnished, in the hands of a careful and genial teacher, amaterial for a complete education such as could not well be matched evenin our own day. What instruction in ethics, politics, social life, andmanly bearing could not find a fitting vehicle in the Homeric poems, notto speak of the geography, the grammar, the literary criticism, and thehistory which the comprehension of them involved? Into what a wholesome, unsentimental, free world did these poems introduce the imaginative Greekboy! What splendid ideals of manhood and womanhood did they hold up forhis admiration and imitation! From Hesiod he would learn all that heneeded to know about his gods and their relation to him and his people. From the elegiac poets he would derive a fund of political and socialwisdom, and an impetus to patriotism, which would go far to make him agood man and a good citizen. From the iambic poets he would learn toexpress with energy his indignation at meanness, feebleness, wrong, andtyranny, while from the lyric poets he would learn the language suitableto every genial feeling and impulse of the human heart. And in reciting orsinging all these, how would his power of terse, idiomatic expression, hissense of poetic beauty and his ear for rhythm and music be developed! Withwhat a treasure of examples of every virtue and vice, and with what a fundof epigrammatic expression would his memory be furnished! How familiar hewould be with the character and ideals of his nation, how deeply insympathy with them! And all this was possible even before the introductionof letters. With this event a new era in education begins. The boy now notonly learns and declaims his Homer, and sings his Simonides or Sappho; helearns also to write down their verses from dictation, and so at once toread and to write. This, indeed, was the way in which these two (to us)fundamental arts were acquired. As soon as the boy could trace with hisfinger in sand, or scratch with a stylus on wax, the forms of the letters, and combine them into syllables and words, he began to write poetry fromhis master's dictation. The writing-lesson of to-day was the reading, recitation, or singing-lesson of to-morrow. Every boy made his own readingbook, and, if he found it illegible, and stumbled in reading, he had onlyhimself to blame. The Greeks, and especially the Athenians, laid thegreatest stress on reading well, reciting well, and singing well, and theyouth who could not do all three was looked upon as uncultured. Nor couldhe hide his want of culture, since young men were continually called upon, both at home and at more or less public gatherings, to perform their partin the social entertainment. [17]

[Illustration: FIG. 9. AN ATHENIAN SCHOOLFrom a cup discovered at Caere, signed by the painter Duris, and now inthe Museum of Berlin. 

A LESSON IN MUSIC AND LANGUAGE _Explanation_: At the right is the_paidagogos_; he is seated, and turns his head to look at his pupil, whois standing before his master. The latter holds a writing-tablet and astylus; he is perhaps correcting a task. At the left a pupil is taking amusic lesson. On the wall are hung a roll of manuscript, a folded writing-tablet, a lyre, and an unknown cross-shaped object. 

A LESSON IN MUSIC AND POETRY _Explanation_: At the right sits, cross-legged, the _paidagogos_, who has just brought in his pupil. The boystands before the teacher of poetry and recites his lesson. The master, ina chair, holds in his hand a roll which he is unfolding, upon which we seeGreek letters. Above these three figures we see on the wall a cup, a lyre, and a leather case of flutes. To the bag is attached the small boxcontaining mouthpieces of different kinds for the flutes. Farther on apupil is receiving a lesson in music. The master and pupil are both seatedon seats without backs. The master, with head erect, looks at the pupilwho, bent over his lyre, seems absorbed in his playing. Above are hanginga basket, a lyre, and a cup. On the wall is an inscription in Greek. ]

THE MUSIC SCHOOL. The teacher in this school gradually separated himselffrom the grammatist, and often the two were found in adjoining rooms inthe same school. In his functions he succeeded the wandering poet orminstrel of earlier times. Music teachers were common in all the City-States of Greece. To this teacher the boy went at first to recite hispoetry, and after the thirteenth year for a special music course. Theteacher was known as a _citharist_, and the instrument usually used wasthe seven-stringed lyre. This resembled somewhat our modern guitar. Theflute was also used somewhat, but never grew into much favor, partlybecause it tended to excite rather than soothe, and partly because of thecontortions of the face to which its playing gave rise. Rhythm, melody, and the feeling for measure and time were important in instruction, whoseoffice was to soothe, purge, and harmonize man within and make him fit formoral instruction through the poetry with which their music was everassociated. Instead of being a distinct art, as with us, and taught byitself, music with the Greeks was always subsidiary to the expression ofthe spirit of their literature, and in aim it was for moral-training ends. [18] Both Aristotle and Plato advocate state control of school music toinsure sound moral results. Inferior as their music was to present-daymusic, it exerted an influence over their lives which it is difficult foran American teacher to appreciate. 

[Illustration: FIG. 10. GREEK SCHOOL LESSONS

THE SINGING LESSON The boy is singing, to the accompaniment of a flute. Onthe wall hangs a bag of flutes. 

THE LITERATURE LESSON The boy is reciting, while the teacher follows himon a roll of manuscript. ]

The first lessons taught the use of the instrument, and the simple chantsof the religious services were learned. As soon as the pupil knew how toplay, the master taught him to render the works of the great lyric poetsof Greece. Poetry and music together thus formed a single art. At thirteena special music course began which lasted until sixteen, but which onlythe sons of the more well-to-do citizens attended. Every boy, though, learned some music, not that he might be a musician, but that he might bemusical and able to perform his part at social gatherings and participatein the religious services of the State. Professional playing was left toslaves and foreigners, and was deemed unworthy a free man and a citizen. Professionalism in either music or athletics was regarded as disgraceful. The purpose of both activities was harmonious personal development, whichthe Greeks believed contributed to moral worth. 

THE PALAESTRA; GYMNASTICS. Very unlike our modern education, fully onehalf of a boy's school life, from eight to sixteen, was given to sportsand games in another school under different teachers, known as thepalaestra. The work began gradually, but by fifteen had taken precedenceover other studies. As in music, harmonious physical development and moralends were held to be of fundamental importance. The standards of successwere far from our modern standards. To win the game was of littlesignificance; the important thing was to do the part gracefully and, forthe person concerned, well. To attain to a graceful and dignified carriageof the body, good physical health, perfect control of the temper, and todevelop quickness of perception, self-possession, ease, and skill in thegames were the aims--not mere strength or athletic prowess (R. 2). Only afew were allowed to train for participation in the Olympian games. 

The work began with children's games, contests in running, and ball gamesof various kinds. Deportment--how to get up, walk, sit, and how to achieveeasy manners--was taught by the masters. After the pupils came to be alittle older there was a definite course of study, which included, insuccession: (1) leaping and jumping, for general bodily and lungdevelopment; (2) running contests, for agility and endurance; (3) throwingthe discus, [19] for arm exercise; (4) casting the javelin, for bodilypoise and coördination of movement, as well as for future use in hunting;(5) boxing and wrestling, for quickness, agility, endurance, and thecontrol of the temper and passions. Swimming and dancing were alsoincluded for all, dancing being a slow and graceful movement of the bodyto music, to develop grace of motion and beauty of form, and to exercisethe whole human being, body and soul. The minuet and some of our folk-dancing are our nearest approach to the Greek type of dancing, thoughstill not like it. The modern partner dance was unknown in ancient Greece. 

The exercises were performed in classes, or in small groups. They tookplace in the open air, and on a dirt or sandy floor. They were accompaniedby music--usually the flute, played by a paid performer. A number ofteachers looked after the boys, examining them physically, supervising theexercises, directing the work, and giving various forms of instruction. 

THE GYMNASIAL TRAINING, SIXTEEN TO EIGHTEEN. Up to this point theeducation provided was a private and a family affair. In the home and inthe school the boy had now been trained to be a gentleman, to revere thegods, to be moral and upright according to Greek standards, and inaddition he had been given that training in reading, writing, music, andathletic exercises that the State required parents to furnish. It iscertain that many boys, whose parents could ill afford further expense forschooling, were allowed to quit the schools at from thirteen to fifteen. Those who expected to become full citizens, however, and to be a part ofthe government and hold office, were required to continue until twentyyears of age. Two years more were spent in schooling, largely athletic, and two years additional in military service. Of this additional training, if his parents chose and could afford it, the State now took control. 

[Illustration: FIG. II. GROUND-PLAN OF THE GYMNASIUM AT EPHESOS, IN ASIAMINOR_Explanation:_ A, B, C, pillared corridors, or portico; D, an open space, possibly a palaestra, evidently intended to supply the peristylium; E, along, narrow hall used for games of ball; F, a large hall with seats; G, in which was suspended a sack filled with chaff for the use of boxers; H, where the young men sprinkled themselves with dust; I, the cold bath; K, where the wrestling-master anointed the bodies of the contestants; L, thecooling-off room; M, the furnace-room; N, the vapor bath; 0, the dry-sweating apartment; P, the hot bath; Q, Q', rooms for games, for thekeepers, or for other uses; R, R', covered stadia, for use in bad weather;S, S, S, S, S, rows of seats, looking upon T, the uncovered _stadium_; U, groves, with seats and walks among the trees; V, V', recessed seats forthe use of philosophers, rhetoricians, and others. ]

For the years from sixteen to eighteen the boy attended a state_gymnasium_, of which two were erected outside of Athens by the State, ingroves of trees, in 590 B. C. Others were erected later in other parts ofGreece. Figure 11 shows the ground plan of one of these _gymnasia_, and astudy of the explanation of the plan will reveal the nature of theseestablishments. The boy now had for teachers a number of gymnasts ofability. The old exercises of the _palaestra_ were continued, but running, wrestling, and boxing were much emphasized. The youth learned to run inarmor, while wrestling and boxing became more severe. He also learned toride a horse, to drive a chariot, to sing and dance in the publicchoruses, and to participate in the public state and religiousprocessions. 

Still more, the youth now passed from the supervision of a familypedagogue to the supervision of the State. For the first time in his lifehe was now free to go where he desired about the city; to frequent thestreets, market-place, and theater; to listen to debates and jury trials, and to witness the great games; and to mix with men in the streets and tomingle somewhat in public affairs. He saw little of girls, except hissisters, but formed deep friendships with other young men of his age. [20]Aside from a requirement that he learn the laws of the State, hiseducation during this period was entirely physical and civic. If he abusedhis liberty he was taken in hand by public officials charged with thesupervision of public morals. He was, however, still regarded as a minor, and his father (or guardian) was held responsible for his public behavior. 

THE CITIZEN-CADET YEARS, EIGHTEEN TO TWENTY. The supervision of the Stateduring the preceding two years had in a way been joint with that of hisfather; now the State took complete control. At the age of eighteen hisfather took him before the proper authorities of his district or ward inthe city, and presented him as a candidate for citizenship. He wasexamined morally and physically, and if sound, and if the records showedthat he was the legitimate son of a citizen, his name was entered on theregister of his ward as a prospective member of it (R. 4). His long hairwas now cut, he donned the black garb of the citizen, was presented to thepeople along with others at a public ceremony, was publicly armed with aspear and a shield, and then, proceeding to one of the shrines of thecity, on a height overlooking it, he solemnly took the Ephebic oath:

 I will never disgrace these sacred arms, nor desert my companion in the ranks. I will fight for temples and public property, both alone and with many. I will transmit my fatherland, not only not less, but greater and better, than it was transmitted to me. I will obey the magistrates who may at any time be in power. I will observe both the existing laws and those which the people may unanimously hereafter make, and, if any person seek to annul the laws or to set them at naught, I will do my best to prevent him, and will defend them both alone and with many. I will honor the religion of my fathers. And I call to witness Aglauros, Enyalios, Ares, Zeus, Thallo, Auxo, and Hegemone. 

He was now an _Ephebos_, or citizen-cadet, with still two years of severetraining ahead of him before he could take up the full duties ofcitizenship. The first year he spent in and near Athens, learning to be asoldier. He did what recruits do almost everywhere--drill, camp in theopen, learn the army methods and discipline, and march in publicprocessions and take part in religious festivals. This first year was muchlike that of new troops in camp being worked into real soldiers. At theend of the year there was a public drill and inspection of the cadets, after which they were sent to the frontier. It was now his business tocome to know his country thoroughly--its topography, roads, springs, seashores, and mountain passes. He also assisted in enforcing law andorder throughout the country districts, as a sort of a state constabularyor rural police. At the end of this second year of practical training thesecond examination was held, the cadet was now admitted to fullcitizenship, and passed to the ranks of a trained citizen in the reservearmy of defense, as does a boy in Switzerland to-day (R. 4). 

RESULTS UNDER THE OLD GREEK SYSTEM. Such was the educational system whichwas in time evolved from the earlier tribal practices of the citizens ofold Athens. If we consider Sparta as representing the earlier tribaleducation of the Greek peoples, we see how far the Athenians, due to theirwonderful ability to make progress, were able to advance beyond thisearlier type of preparation for citizenship (R. 5). Not only did Athenssurpass all Greece, but, for the first time in the history of the world, we find here, expressing itself in the education of the young, the modernwestern, individualistic and democratic spirit, as opposed to thedeadening caste and governmental systems of the East. Here first we find afree people living under political conditions which favored liberty, culture, and intellectual growth, and using their liberty to advance theculture and the knowledge of the people (R. 6). 

Here also we find, for the first time, the thinkers of the State deeplyconcerned with the education of the youth of the State, and viewingeducation as a necessity to make life worth living and secure the Statefrom dangers, both within and without. To prepare men by a severe butsimple and honest training to fear the gods, to do honest work, to despisecomfort and vice, to obey the laws, to respect their neighbors andthemselves, and to reverence the wisdom of their race, was the aim of thisold education. The schooling for citizenship was rigid, almostpuritanical, but it produced wonderful results, both in peace and in war. [21] Men thus trained guided the destinies of Athens during some twocenturies, and the despotism of the East as represented by Persia couldnot defeat them at Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea. 

THE SIMPLE AND EFFECTIVE CURRICULUM. The simplicity of the curriculum wasone of its marked features. In a manner seldom witnessed in the world'seducational history, the Greeks used their religion, literature, government, and the natural activities of young men to impart an educationof wonderful effectiveness. [22] The subjects we have valued so highly fortraining were to them unknown. They taught no arithmetic or grammar, noscience, no drawing, no higher mathematics, and no foreign tongue. Music, the literature and religion of their own people, careful physicaltraining, and instruction in the duties and practices of citizenshipconstituted the entire curriculum. 

It was an education by doing; not one of learning from books. That it wasan attractive type of education there is abundant testimony by the Greeksthemselves. We have not as yet come to value physical education as did theGreeks, nor are we nearly so successful in our moral education, despitethe aid of the Christian religion which they did not know. It was, to besure, class education, and limited to but a small fraction of the totalpopulation. In it girls had no share. There were many features of Greeklife, too, that are repugnant to modern conceptions. Yet, despite theselimitations, the old education of Athens still stands as one of the mostsuccessful in its results of any system of education which has beenevolved in the history of the world. Considering its time and place in thehistory of the world and that it was a development for which there werenowhere any precedents, it represented a very wonderful evolution. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Why are imaginative ability and many-sided natures such valuablecharacteristics for any people?

2. Why is the ability to make progressive changes, possessed so markedlyby the Athenian Greeks, an important personal or racial characteristic?

3. Are the Athenian characteristics, stated in the middle of page 19, characteristics capable of development by training, or are they native, orboth?

4. How do you explain the Greek failure to achieve political unity?

5. Would education for citizenship with us to-day possess the same defectsas in ancient Greece? Why? Do we give an equivalent training?

6. Which is the better attitude for a nation to assume toward theforeigner--the Greek, or the American? Why?

7. Why does a state military socialism, such as prevailed at Sparta, tendto produce a people of mediocre intellectual capacity?

8. How do you account for the Athenian State leaving literary and musicaleducation to private initiative, but supporting state _gymnasia_?

9. Would the Athenian method of instruction have been possible had allchildren in the State been given an education? Why?

10. How did the education of an Athenian girl differ from that of a girlin the early American colonies?

11. Why did the Greek boy need three teachers, whereas the American boy istaught all and more by one primary teacher?

12. Contrast the Greek method of instruction in music, and the purposes ofthe instruction, with our own. 

13. How could we incorporate into our school instruction some of theimportant aspects of Greek instruction in music?

14. What do you think of the contentions of Aristotle and Plato that theState should control school music as a means of securing sound moralinstruction?

15. Does the Greek idea that a harmonious personal development contributesto moral worth appeal to you? Why?

16. Contrast the Greek ideal as to athletic training with the conceptionof athletics held by an average American schoolboy. 

17. Contrast the education of a Greek boy at sixteen with that of anAmerican boy at the same age. 

18. Contrast the emphasis placed on expression as a method in teaching inthe schools of Athens and of the United States. 

19. Do the needs of modern society and industrial life warrant the greateremphasis we place on learning from books, as opposed to the learning bydoing of the Greeks?

20. Compare the compulsory-school period of the Greeks with our own. If wewere to add some form of compulsory military training, for all youthsbetween eighteen and twenty, and as a preparedness measure, would weapproach still more nearly the Greek requirements?

21. Explain how the Athenian Greeks reconciled the idea of social serviceto the State with the idea of individual liberty, through a form ofeducation which developed personality. Compare this with our Americanideal. 

22. The Greek schoolboy had no long summer vacation, as do Americanchildren. Is there any special reason why we need it more than did they?

23. Do we believe that virtue can be taught in the way the Hellenicpeoples did? Do we carry such a belief into practice?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 1. Plutarch: Ancient Education in Sparta. 2. Plato: An Athenian Schoolboy's Life. 3. Lucian: An Athenian Schoolboy's Day. 4. Aristotle: Athenian Citizenship and the Ephebic Years. 5. Freeman: Sparta and Athens compared. 6. Thucydides: Athenian Education summarized. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Describe and characterize the Laws which Lycurgus framed for Spartantraining (1). 

2. Describe and characterize the instruction of the Ireus at Sparta. Compare with the training given among the best of the American Indiantribes (1). 

3. Contrast the type of education given an Athenian and a Spartan boy, asto nature and purpose and character (1 and 2). 

4. What degree of State supervision of education is indicated by Plato(2)? By Freeman (5)?

5. Compare an Athenian school day as described by Lucian (3) with a schoolday in a modern Gary-type school. 

6. Compare the Ephebic years of an Athenian youth (4) with those of aSpartan youth (1). 

7. What were some of the chief defects of Athenian schools (5)?

8. What was the position of the State in the matter of the education ofyouth (5)?

9. What were the great merits of the Athenian educational and politicalsystem of training (6)?

(For SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES, see following chapter. )

CHAPTER II

LATER GREEK EDUCATION

III. THE NEW GREEK EDUCATION

POLITICAL EVENTS: THE GOLDEN AGE OF GREECE. The Battle of Marathon (490B. C. ) has long been considered one of the "decisive battles of the world. "Had the despotism of the East triumphed here, and in the subsequentcampaign that ended in the defeat of the Persian fleet at Salamis (480B. C. ) and of the Persian army at Plataea (479 B. C. ), the whole history ofour western world would have been different. The result of the war withPersia was the triumph of this new western democratic civilization, prepared and schooled for great national emergencies by a severe buteffective training, over the uneducated hordes led to battle by theautocracy of the East. This was the first, but not the last, of the manybattles which western democracy and civilization has had to fight to avoidbeing crushed by autocracy and despotism. Marathon broke the dread spellof the Persian name and freed the more progressive Greeks to pursue theirintellectual and political development. Above all it revealed the strengthand power of the Athenians to themselves, and in the half-centuryfollowing the most wonderful political, literary, and artistic developmentthe world had ever known ensued, and the highest products of Greekcivilization were attained. Attica had braved everything for the commoncause of Greece, even to leaving Athens to be burned by the invader, andfor the next fifty years she held the position of political as well ascultural preëminence among the Greek City-States. Athens now became theworld center of wealth and refinement and the home of art and literature(R. 7), and her influence along cultural lines, due in part to her masteryof the sea and her growing commerce, was now extended throughout theMediterranean world. 

From 479 to 431 B. C. Was the Golden Age of Greece, and during this shortperiod Athens gave birth to more great men--poets, artists, statesmen, andphilosophers--than all the world beside had produced [1] in any period ofequal length. Then, largely as a result of the growing jealousy ofmilitary Sparta came that cruel and vindictive civil strife, known as thePeloponnesian War, which desolated Greece, left Athens a wreck of herformer self, permanently lowered the moral tone of the Greek people, andimpaired beyond recovery the intellectual and artistic life of Hellas. Formany centuries Athens continued to be a center of intellectualachievement, and to spread her culture throughout a new and a differentworld, but her power as a State had been impaired forever by a revengefulwar between those who should have been friends and allies in the cause ofcivilization. 

TRANSITION FROM OLD TO THE NEW. As early as 509 B. C. A new constitutionhad admitted all the free inhabitants of Attica to citizenship, and theresult was a rapid increase in the prestige, property, and culture ofAthens. Citizenship was now open to the commercial classes, and no longerrestricted to a small, properly born, and properly educated class. Wealthnow became important in giving leisure to the citizen, and was no longerlooked down upon as it had been in the earlier period. After thePeloponnesian War the predominance of Attica among the Greek States, thegrowth of commerce, the constant interchange of embassies, the traveloverseas of Athenian citizens, and the presence of many foreigners in theState all alike led to a tolerance of new ideas and a criticism of oldones which before had been unknown. A leisure class now arose, andpersonal interest came to have a larger place than before, with aconsequent change in the earlier conceptions as to the duty of the citizento the State. Literature lost much of its earlier religious character, andthe religious basis of morality [2] began to be replaced by that ofreason. Philosophy was now called upon to furnish a practical guide forlife to replace the old religious basis. A new philosophy in which "manwas the measure of all things" arose, and its teachers came to have largefollowings. The old search for an explanation of the world of matter [3]was now replaced by an attempt to explain the world of ideas and emotions, with a resulting evolution of the sciences of philosophy, ethics, andlogic. It was a period of great intellectual as well as political changeand expansion, and in consequence the old education, which had answeredwell the needs of a primitive and isolated community, now found itself butpoorly adapted to meet the larger needs of the new cosmopolitan State. [4]The result was a material change in the old education to adapt it to theneeds of the new Athens, now become the intellectual center of thecivilized world. 

CHANGES IN THE OLD EDUCATION. A number of changes in the character of theold education were now gradually introduced. The rigid drill of theearlier period began to be replaced by an easier and a more pleasurabletype of training. Gymnastics for personal enjoyment began to replace drillfor the service of the State, and was much less rigid in type. The oldauthors, who had rendered important service in the education of youth, began to be replaced by more modern writers, with a distinct loss of theearlier religious and moral force. New musical instruments, giving asofter and more pleasurable effect, took the place of the seven-stringedlyre, and complicated music replaced the simple Doric airs of the earlierperiod. Education became much more individual, literary, and theoretical. Geometry and drawing were introduced as new studies. Grammar and rhetoricbegan to be studied, discussion was introduced, and a certain glibness ofspeech began to be prized. The citizen-cadet years, from sixteen totwenty, formerly devoted to rather rigorous physical training, were nowchanged to school work of an intellectual type. 

NEW TEACHERS; THE SOPHISTS. New teachers, known as Sophists, who professedto be able to train men for a political career, [5] began to offer a morepractical course designed to prepare boys for the newer type of stateservice. These in time drew many Ephebes into their private schools, wherethe chief studies were on the content, form, and practical use of theGreek language. Rhetoric and grammar before long became the master studiesof this new period, as they were felt to prepare boys better for the newpolitical and intellectual life of Hellas than did the older type oftraining. In the schools of the Sophists boys now spent their time informing phrases, choosing words, examining grammatical structure, andlearning how to secure rhetorical effect. Many of these new teachers mademost extravagant claims for their instruction (R. 8) and drew muchridicule from the champions of the older type of education, but within acentury they had thoroughly established themselves, and had permanentlychanged the character of the earlier Greek education. 

By 350 B. C. We find that Greek school education had been differentiatedinto three divisions, as follows:

 1. _Primary education_, covering the years from seven or eight to thirteen, and embracing reading, writing, arithmetic, and chanting. The teacher of this school came to be known as a _grammatist_. 

 2. _Secondary education_, covering the years from thirteen to sixteen, and embracing geometry, drawing, and a special music course. Later on some grammar and rhetoric were introduced into this school. The teacher of this school came to be known as a _grammaticus_. 

 3. _Higher or university education_, covering the years after sixteen. 

THE FLOOD OF INDIVIDUALISM. This period of artistic and intellectualbrilliancy of Greece following the Peloponnesian War marked the beginningof the end of Greece politically. The war was a blow to the strength ofGreece from which the different States never recovered. Greece was bledwhite by this needless civil strife. The tendencies toward individualismin education were symptomatic of tendencies in all forms of social andpolitical life. The philosophers--Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle--proposedideal remedies for the evils of the State, [6] but in vain. The old idealof citizenship died out. Service to the State became purely subordinate topersonal pleasure and advancement. Irreverence and a scoffing attitudebecame ruling tendencies. Family morality decayed. The State in timebecame corrupt and nerveless. Finally, in 338 B. C. , Philip of Macedonbecame master of Greece, and annexed it to the world empire which he andhis son Alexander created. Still later, in 146 B. C. , the new world powerto the west, Rome, conquered Greece and made of it a Roman province. 

Though dead politically, there now occurred the unusual spectacle of"captive Greece taking captive her rude conqueror, " and spreading Greekart, literature, philosophy, science, and Greek ideas throughout theMediterranean world. It was the Greek higher learning that now becamepredominant and exerted such great influence on the future of our worldcivilization. It remains now to trace briefly the development and spreadof this higher learning, and to point out how thoroughly it modified thethinking of the future. 

NEW SCHOOLS; SOCRATES. In the beginning each Sophist teacher was a freelance, and taught what he would and in the manner he thought best. Many ofthem made extraordinary efforts to attract students and win popularapproval and fees. Plato represents the Sophist Protagoras as saying, withreference to a youth ambitious for success in political life, "If he comesto me he will learn that which he comes to learn. " At first theinstruction was largely individual, but later classes were organized. Isocrates, who lived from 436 to 338 B. C. , organized the instruction forthe first time into a well-graded sequence of studies, with definite aimsand work (R. 8). He shifted the emphasis in instruction from training forsuccess in argumentation, to training to think clearly and to expressideas properly. His pupils were unusually successful, and his school didmuch to add to the fame of Athens as an intellectual center. From his worksprang a large number of so called Rhetorical Schools, much like ourbetter private schools and academies, offering to those Ephebes who couldafford to attend a very good preparation for participation in the publiclife of the period. 

In contrast with the Sophists, a series of schools of philosophy alsoarose in Athens. These in a way were the outgrowth of the work ofSocrates. Accepting the Sophists' dictum that "man is the measure of allthings, " he tried to turn youths from the baser individualism of theSophists of his day to the larger general truths which measure the life ofa true man. In particular he tried to show that the greatest of all arts--the art of living a good life--called for correct individual thinking anda knowledge of the right. "Know thyself" was his great guiding principle. His emphasis was on the problems of everyday morality. Frankly acceptingthe change from the old education as a change that could not be avoided, he sought to formulate a new basis for education in personal morality andvirtue, and as a substitute for the old training for service to the State. He taught by conversation, engaging men in argument as he met them in thestreet, and showing to them their ignorance (R. 9). Even in Athens, wherefree speech was enjoyed more than anywhere else in the world at that time, such a shrewd questioner would naturally make enemies, and in 399 B. C. Atthe age of seventy-one, he was condemned to death by the Athenian populaceon the charge of impiety and corrupting the youth of Athens. 

[Illustration: FIG. 12 SOCRATES (469-399 B. C. )(After a marble bust in the Vatican Gallery, at Rome)]

Socrates' greatest disciple was a citizen of wealth by the name of Plato, who had abandoned a political career for the charms of philosophy, and tohim we owe our chief information as to the work and aims of Socrates. In386 B. C. He founded the Academy, where he passed almost forty years inlecturing and writing. His school, which formed a model for others, consisted of a union of teachers and students who possessed in common achapel, library, lecture-rooms, and living-rooms. Philosophy, mathematics, and science were taught, and women as well as men were admitted. 

Other schools of importance in Athens were the Lyceum, founded in 335 B. C. By a foreign-born pupil of Plato's by the name of Aristotle, who did aremarkable work in organizing the known knowledge of his time; [7] theschool of the Stoics, founded by Zeno in 308 B. C. ; and the school of theEpicureans, founded by Epicurus in 306 B. C. Each of these schools offereda philosophical solution of the problem of life, and Plato and Aristotlewrote treatises on education as well. Each school evolved into a form ofreligious brotherhood which perpetuated the organization after the deathof the master. In time these became largely schools for expounding thephilosophy of the founder. 

[Illustration: FIG. 13. EVOLUTION OF THE GREEK UNIVERSITY]

THE UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS. Coincident with the founding of these schoolsand the political events we have previously recorded, certain furtherchanges in Athenian education were taking place. The character of thechanges in the education before the age of sixteen we have described. As aresult in part of the development of the schools of the Sophists, whichwere in themselves only attempts to meet fundamental changes in Athenianlife, the education of youths after sixteen tended to become literary, rather than physical and military. The Ephebic period of service (fromeighteen to twenty) was at first reduced from two years to one, and afterthe Macedonian conquest, in 338 B. C. , when there was no longer an AthenianState to serve or protect, the entire period of training was madeoptional. The Ephebic corps was now opened to foreigners, and in timebecame merely a fashionable semi-military group. Instead of the militarytraining, attendance at the lectures of the philosophical schools was nowrequired, and attendance at the rhetorical schools was optional. Later thephilosophical schools were granted public support by the AthenianAssembly, professorships were created over which the Assembly exercisedsupervision, the rhetorical and philosophical schools were graduallymerged, the study years were extended from two to six, or seven, a form ofuniversity life as regards both students and professors was developed, andwhat has since been termed "The University of Athens" was evolved. Figure13 shows how this evolution took place. 

As Athens lost in political power her citizens turned their attention tomaking their city a center of world learning. This may be said to havebeen accomplished by 200 B. C. Though Greece had long since become aMacedonian province, and was soon to pass under the control of Rome, theso-called University of Athens was widely known and much frequented forthe next three hundred years, and continued in existence until finallyclosed, as a center of pagan thought, by the edict of the Roman-ChristianEmperor, Justinian, in 529 A. D. Though reduced to the rank of a Romanprovincial town, Athens long continued to be a city of letters and acenter of philosophic and scientific instruction. 

SPREAD AND INFLUENCE OF GREEK HIGHER EDUCATION. Alexander the Greatrendered a very important service in uniting the western Orient and theeastern Mediterranean into a common world empire, and in establishingtherein a common language, literature, philosophy, a common interest, anda common body of scientific knowledge and law. It was his hope to create anew empire, in which the distinction between European and Asiatic shouldpass away. No less than seventy cities were established with a view toholding his empire together. These served to spread Hellenic culture. Greek schools, Greek theaters, Greek baths, and Greek institutions ofevery type were to be found in practically all of them, and the Greektongue was heard in them all. With Alexander the Great the history ofGreek life, culture, and learning merges into that of the history of theancient world. Everywhere throughout the new empire Greek philosophers andscientists, architects and artists, merchants and colonists, followedbehind the Macedonian armies, spreading Greek civilization and becomingthe teachers of an enlarged world. [8] "Greek cities stretched from theNile to the Indus, and dotted the shores of the Black and the Caspianseas. The Greek language, once the tongue of a petty people, grew to be auniversal language of culture, spoken even by barbarian lips, and the art, the science, the literature, the principles of politics and philosophy, developed in isolation by the Greek mind, henceforth became the heritageof many nations. " [9]

Greek universities were established at Pergamum and Tarsus in Asia Minor;at Rhodes on the island of that name in the Aegean; and at the newlyfounded city of Alexandria in Egypt. Antioch, in Syria, became anotherimportant center of Greek influence and learning. A large library wasdeveloped at Pergamum, and it was here that writing on prepared skins ofanimals [10] was begun, from which the term "parchment" (originally "per-gament") comes. It was also at Pergamum that Galen (born c. 130 A. D. )organized what was then known of medical science, and his work remainedthe standard treatise for more than a thousand years. Rhodes became afamous center for instruction in oratory. During Roman days many eminentmen, among whom were Cassius, Caesar, and Cicero, studied oratory here. 

[Illustration: FIG. 14 THE GREEK UNIVERSITY WORLD]

MINGLING OF ORIENT AND OCCIDENT AT ALEXANDRIA. The most famous of allthese Greek institutions, however, was the University of Alexandria, whichgradually sapped Athens as a center of learning and became theintellectual capital of the world. The greatest library of manuscripts theworld had ever known was collected together here. [11] It is said to havenumbered over 700, 000 volumes. These included Greek, Jewish, Egyptian, andOriental works. In connection with the library was the museum, where menof letters and investigators were supported at royal expense. These twoconstituted an institution so like a university that it has been giventhat name. Alexandria became not only a great center of learning, but, still more important, the chief mingling place for Greek, Jew, Egyptian, Roman, and Oriental, and here Greek philosophy, Hebrew and Christianreligion, and Oriental faith and philosophy met and mixed. It was thismingled civilization and culture, all tinged through and through with theGreek, with which the Romans came in contact as they pushed theirconquering armies into the eastern Mediterranean (R. 10). 

[Illustration: FIG. 15. THE KNOWN WORLD ABOUT 150 A. D. A map by Ptolemy, geographer and astronomer at Alexandria. Compare thiswith the map on page 4, and note the progress in geographical discoverywhich had been made during the intervening centuries. ]

CHARACTER OF ALEXANDRIAN LEARNING. The great advances in knowledge made atAlexandria were in mathematics, geography, and science. The method ofscientific investigation worked out by Aristotle at Athens was introducedand used. Instead of speculating as to phenomena and causes, as had beenthe earlier Greek practice, observation and experiment now became therule. Euclid (c. 323-283 B. C. ) opened a school at Alexandria as early as300 B. C. , and there worked out the geometry which is still used in ourschools. Archimedes (287-212 B. C. ), who studied under Euclid, made manyimportant discoveries and advances in mechanics and physics. Eratosthenes(226-196 B. C. ), librarian at Alexandria, is famous as a geographer [12]and astronomer, and made some studies in geology as well. Ptolemy (b. ?; d. 168 A. D. ) here completed his Mechanism of the Heavens (_Syntaxis_) in 138A. D. , and this became the standard astronomy in Europe for nearly fifteenhundred years, while his geography was used in the schools until well intothe fifteenth century. The map of the known world, shown in Figure 15, wasmade by him. Hipparcus, the Newton of the Greeks, studied the heavens bothat Alexandria and Rhodes, and counted the stars and arranged them inconstellations. Many advances also were made in the study of medicine, theAlexandrian schools having charts, models, and dissecting rooms for thestudy of the human body, The functions of the brain, nerves, and heartwere worked out there. 

Except in science and mathematics, though, the creative ability of theearlier Greeks was now largely absent. Research, organization, and commentupon what had previously been done rather was the rule. Still muchimportant work was done here. Books were collected, copied, and preserved, and texts were edited and purified from errors. Here grammar, criticism, prosody, and mythology were first developed into sciences. The study ofarchaeology was begun, and the first dictionaries were made. Thetranslation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek was begun for the benefitof the Alexandrian Jews who had forgotten their Mother tongue, this beingthe origin of the famous _Septuagint_ [13] version of the Old Testament. It is owing to these Alexandrian scholars, also, that we now possess thetheory of Greek accents, and have good texts of Homer and other Greekwriters. 

ALEXANDRIA SAPPED IN TURN. In 30 B. C. Alexandria, too, came under Romanrule and was, in turn, gradually sapped by Rome. Greek influencecontinued, but the interest became largely philosophical. UltimatelyAlexandria became the seat of a metaphysical school of Christian theology, and the scene of bitter religious controversies. In 330 A. D. , Constantinople was founded on the site of the earlier Byzantium, and soonthereafter Greek scholars transferred their interest to it and made it anew center of Greek learning. There Greek science, literature, andphilosophy were preserved for ten centuries, and later handed back to aEurope just awakening from the long intellectual night of the Middle Ages. In 640 A. D. Alexandria was taken by the Mohammedans, and the universityceased to exist. The great library was destroyed, furnishing, it is said, "fuel sufficient for four thousand public baths for a period of sixmonths, " and Greek learning was extinguished in the western world. 

OUR DEBT TO HELLAS. As a political power the Greek States left the worldnothing of importance. As a people they were too individualistic, andseemed to have a strange inability to unite for political purposes. To thenew power slowly forming to the westward--Rome--was left the importanttask, which the Greek people were never able to accomplish, of unitingcivilization into one political whole. The world conquest that Greece madewas intellectual. As a result, her contribution to civilization wasartistic, literary, philosophical, and scientific, but not political. TheAthenian Greeks were a highly artistic and imaginative rather than apractical people. They spent their energy on other matters than governmentand conquest. As a result the world will be forever indebted to them foran art and a literature of incomparable beauty and richness which stillcharms mankind; a philosophy which deeply influenced the early Christianreligion, and has ever since tinged the thinking of the western world; andfor many important beginnings in scientific knowledge which were lost forages to a world that had no interest in or use for science. So deeply hasour whole western civilization been tinctured by Greek thought that oneenthusiastic writer has exclaimed, --"Except the blind forces of Nature, nothing moves in this world which is not Greek in its origin. " [14] (R. 11)

In education proper the old Athenian education offers us many lessons ofimportance that we of to-day may well heed. In the emphasis they placed onmoral worth, education of the body as well as the mind, and moderation inall things, they were much ahead of us. Their schools became a type forthe cities of the entire Mediterranean world, being found from the BlackSea south to the Persian Gulf and westward to Spain. When Rome became aworld empire the Greek school system was adopted, and in modified formbecame dominant in Rome and throughout the provinces, while theuniversities of the Greek cities for long furnished the highest form ofeducation for ambitious Roman youths. In this way Greek influence wasspread throughout the Mediterranean world. The higher learning of theGreeks, preserved first at Athens and Alexandria, and later atConstantinople, was finally handed back to the western world at the timeof the Italian Revival of Learning, after Europe had in part recoveredfrom the effects of the barbarian deluge which followed the downfall ofRome. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Try to picture what might have been the result for western civilizationhad the small and newly-developed democratic civilization of Greece beencrushed by the Persians at the time they overran the Greek peninsula. 

2. Do periods of great political, commercial, and intellectual expansionusually subject old systems of morality and education to severe strain?Illustrate. 

3. Why was the change in the type of Athenian education during the Ephebicyears a natural and even a necessary one for the new Athens?

4. Do you understand that the system of training before the Ephebic yearswas also seriously changed, or was the change largely a re-shaping andextension of the education of youths after sixteen?

5. Were the Sophists a good addition to the Athenian instructing force, ornot? Why?

6. How may a State establish a corrective for such a flood ofindividualism as overwhelmed Greece, and still allow individualeducational initiative and progress?

7. Do we as a nation face danger from the flood of individualism we haveencouraged in the past? How is our problem like and unlike that of Athensafter the Peloponnesian War?

8. What is the place in Greek life and thought of the ideal treatises oneducation written by Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle, after the flood ofindividualism had set in?

9. In what ways was the conquest of Alexander good for world civilization?

10. Of what importance is it, in the history of our western civilization, that Greek thought had so thoroughly permeated the eastern Mediterraneanworld before Roman armies conquered the region?

11. Picture for yourself the great intellectual advances of the Greeks bycontrasting the tribal preparedness-type of education of the early GreekStates and the learning possessed by the scholars of the University atAlexandria. 

12. Compare the spread of Greek language and knowledge throughout theeastern Mediterranean world, following the conquests of Alexander, withthe spread of the English language and ideas as to government throughoutthe modern world. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 7. Wilkins: Athens in the Time of Pericles. 8. Isocrates: The Instruction of the Sophists. 9. Xenophon: An Example of Socratic Teaching. 10. Draper: The Schools of Alexandria. 11. Butcher: What we Owe to Greece. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Characterize the many educational influences of Athens, as pictured byWilkins (7). 

2. Were the evils of the Sophist teachers, which Isocrates points out (8), natural ones? Compare with teachers of vocal training to-day. 

3. What would be necessary for the proper training of one for eloquence?Could any Sophist teacher have trained anyone?

4. Would it be possible to-day for any one city to become such a center ofthe world's intellectual life as did Alexandria (10)? Why?

5. Could the Socratic method (9) be applied to instruction in psychology, ethics, history, and science equally well? Why? To what class of subjectsis the Socratic quiz applicable?

6. How do you account for the fact that the wonderful promise ofAlexandrian science was not fulfilled?

7. State our debt to the Greeks (11). 

SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES

_The most important references are indicated by an *_

* Bevan, J. O. _University Life in Olden Time_. * Butcher, S. H. _Some Aspects of the Greek Genius_. * Davidson, Thos. _Aristotle, and Ancient Educational Ideals_. * Freeman, K. J. _Schools of Hellas_. Gulick, C. B. _The Life of the Ancient Greeks_. * Kingsley, Chas. _Alexandria and her Schools_. Laurie, S. S. _Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education_. * Mahaffy, J. P. _Old Greek Education_. Sandys, J. E. _History of Classical Scholarship_, vol. I. Walden, John W. H. _The Universities of Ancient Greece_. Wilkins, A. S. _National Education in Greece in the Fourth Century_, B. C. 

CHAPTER III

THE EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME

I. THE ROMANS AND THEIR MISSION

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROMAN STATE. About the time that the Hellenes, in theCity-States of the Greek peninsula, had brought their civilization to itsGolden Age, another branch of the great Aryan race, which had previouslysettled in the Italian peninsula, had begun the creation of a newcivilization there which was destined to become extended and powerful. Atthe beginning of recorded history we find a number of tribes of thisbranch of the Aryan race settled in different parts of Italy, as is shownin Figure 16. Slowly, but gradually, the smallest of these divisions, theLatins, extended its rule over the other tribes, and finally over theGreek settlements to the south and the Gauls to the north, so that by 201B. C. The entire Italian peninsula had become subject to the City-Stategovernment at Rome. 

[Illustration: FIG. 16. THE EARLY PEOPLES OF ITALY, AND THE EXTENSION OFTHE ROMAN POWERIn 509 B. C. Attica opened her citizenship to all free inhabitants, andhalf a century later the Golden Age of Greece was in full swing. By 338B. C. Greece's glory had departed. Philip of Macedon had become master, andits political freedom was over. By 264 B. C. The center of Greek life andthought had been transferred to Alexandria, and Rome's great expansion hadbegun. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 17. THE PRINCIPAL ROMAN ROADS]

By a wise policy of tolerance, patience, conciliation, and assimilationthe Latins gradually became the masters of all Italy. Unlike the GreekCity-States, Rome seemed to possess a natural genius for the art ofgovernment. Upon the people she conquered she bestowed the great gift ofRoman citizenship, and she attached them to her by granting localgovernment to their towns and by interfering as little as possible withtheir local manners, speech, habits, and institutions. By foundingcolonies among them and by building excellent military roads to them, sheinsured her rule, and by kindly and generous treatment she bound thedifferent Italian peoples ever closer and closer to the central governmentat Rome. By a most wonderful understanding of the psychology of otherpeoples, new in the world before the work of Rome, and not seen againuntil the work of the English in the nineteenth century, Rome graduallyassimilated the peoples of the Italian peninsula and in time amalgamatedthem into a single Roman race. In speech, customs, manners, and finally inblood she Romanized the different tribes and brought them under herleadership. Later this same process was extended to Spain, Gaul, and evento far-off Britain. 

A CONCRETE, PRACTICAL PEOPLE. The Roman people were a concrete, practical, constructive nation of farmers and herdsmen (R. 14), merchants andsoldiers, governors and executives. The whole of the early struggle of theLatins to extend their rule and absorb the other tribes of the peninsulacalled for practical rulers--warriors who were at the same timeconstructive statesmen and executives who possessed power and insight, energy, and personality. The long struggle for political and socialrights, [1] carried on by the common people (_plebeians_) with the rulingclass (_patricians_), tended early to shape their government along roughbut practical lines, [2] and to elevate law and orderly procedure amongthe people. The later extension of the Empire to include many distantlands--how vast the Roman Empire finally became may be seen from the mapon the following page--called still more for a combination of force, leadership, tolerance, patience, executive power, and insight into thepsychology of subject people to hold such a vast empire together. Only agreat, creative people, working along very practical lines, could haveused and used so well the opportunity which came to Rome [3]

[Illustration: FIG. 18. THE GREAT EXTENT OF THE ROMAN EMPIREThe map shows the Roman Empire as it was by the end of the first centuryA. D. , and the tribes shown beyond the frontier are as they were at thebeginning of the fourth century A. D. It was 2500 miles, air line, from theeastern end of the Black Sea to the western coasts of Spain, 1400 milesfrom Rome to Palestine, and 1100 miles from Rome to northern Britain. Tomaintain order in this vast area Rome depended on the loyalty of hersubjects, the strength of her armies, her military roads, and a messengerservice by horse, yet throughout this vast area she imposed her law and aunified government for centuries. ]

THE GREAT MISSION OF ROME. Had Rome tried to impose her rule and her waysand her mode of thought on her subject people, and to reduce them tocomplete subjection to her, as the modern German and Austrian Empires, forexample, tried to do with the peoples who came under their control, theRoman Empire could never have been created, and what would have savedcivilization from complete destruction during the period of the barbarianinvasions is hard to see. Instead, Rome treated her subjects as herfriends, and not as conquered peoples; led them to see that theirinterests were identical with hers; gave them large local independence andfreedom in government, under her strong control of general affairs; openedup her citizenship [4] and the line of promotion in the State to herprovincials; [5] and won them to the peace and good order which sheeverywhere imposed by the advantages she offered through a commonlanguage, common law, common coinage, common commercial arrangements, common state service, and the common treatment of all citizens of everyrace. [6] In consequence, the provincial was willingly absorbed into thecommon Roman race [7]--absorbed in dress, manners, religion, political andlegal institutions, family names, and, most important of all, in language. As a result, race pride and the native tongues very largely disappeared, and Latin became the spoken language of all except the lower classesthroughout the whole of the Western Empire. Only in the easternMediterranean, where the Hellenic tongue and the Hellenic civilizationstill dominated, did the Latin language make but little headway, and hereRome had the good sense not to try to impose her speech or her culture. Instead she absorbed the culture of the East, while the East accepted inreturn the Roman government and Roman law, and Latin in time became thelanguage of the courts and of government. 

Having stated thus briefly the most prominent characteristics of the Romanpeople, and indicated their great work for civilization, let us turn backand trace the development of such educational system as existed amongthem, see in what it consisted, how it modified the life and habits ofthinking of the Roman people, and what educational organization ortraditions Rome passed on to western civilization. 

II. THE PERIOD OF HOME EDUCATION

THE EARLY ROMANS AND THEIR TRAINING. In the early history of the Romansthere were no schools, and it was not until about 300 B. C. That evenprimary schools began to develop. What education was needed was impartedin the home or in the field and in the camp, and was of a very simpletype. Certain virtues were demanded--modesty, firmness, prudence, piety, courage, seriousness, and regard for duty--and these were instilled bothby precept and example. Each home was a center of the religious life, andof civic virtue and authority. In it the father was a high priest, withpower of life and death over wife and children. He alone conversed withthe gods and prepared the sacrifices. The wife and mother, however, held ahigh place in the home and in the training of the children, the marriagetie being regarded as very sacred. She also occupied a respected positionin society, and was complete mistress of the house (R. 17). 

The religion of the city was an outgrowth of that of the home. Virtue, courage, duty, justice--these became the great civic virtues. Theirreligion, both family and state, lacked the beauty and stately ceremonialof the Greeks, lacked that lofty faith and aspiration after virtue thatcharacterized the Hebrew and the later Christian faith, was singularlywanting in awe and mystery, and was formal and mechanical and practical[8] in character, but it exercised a great influence on these earlypeoples and on their conceptions of their duty to the State. 

The father trained the son for the practical duties of a man and acitizen; the mother trained the daughter to become a good housekeeper, wife, and mother. Morality, character, obedience to parents and to theState, and whole-hearted service were emphasized. The boy's father taughthim to read, write, and count. Stories of those who had done great deedsfor the State were told, and martial songs were learned and sung. After450 B. C. Every boy had to learn the Laws of the Twelve Tables (R. 12), andbe able to explain their meaning (R. 13). As the boy grew older hefollowed his father in the fields and in the public place and listened tothe conversation of men. [9] If the son of a patrician he naturallylearned much more from his father, by reason of his larger knowledge andlarger contact with men of affairs and public business, than if he werethe son of a plebeian. Through games as a boy, and later in the exercisesof the fields and the camps, the boy gained what physical training hereceived. [10]

[Illustration: FIG. 19. A ROMAN FATHER INSTRUCTING HIS SON(From a Roman Sarcophagus)]

EDUCATION BY DOING. It was largely an education by doing, as was that ofthe old Greek period, though entirely different in character. Either byapprenticeship to the soldier, farmer, or statesman, or by participationin the activities of a citizen, was the training needed imparted. Itspurpose was to produce good fathers, citizens, and soldiers. [11] Itsideals were found in the real and practical needs of a small State, wherethe ability to care for one's self was a necessary virtue. To be healthyand strong, to reverence the gods and the institutions of the State, toobey his parents and the laws, to be proud of his family connections andhis ancestors, to be brave and efficient in war, to know how to farm or tomanage a business, were the aims and ends of this early training. Itproduced a nation of citizens who willingly subordinated themselves to theinterests of the State, [12] a nation of warriors who brought all Italyunder their rule, a calculating, practical people who believed themselvesdestined to become the conquerors and rulers of the world, and a reservedand proud race, trained to govern and to do business, but not possessed oflofty ideals or large enthusiasms in life (Rs. 15, 16). 

III. THE TRANSITION TO SCHOOL EDUCATION

BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOL EDUCATION. Up to about 300 B. C. Education had beenentirely in the home, and in the activities of the fields and the State. It was a period of personal valor and stern civic virtue, in a ratherprimitive type of society, as yet but little in contact with the outsideworld, and little need of any other type of training had been felt. By theend of the third century B. C. , the influence of contact with the Greekcities of southern Italy and Sicily (_Magna Graecia_), and the influenceof the extensive conquests of Alexander the Great in the easternMediterranean (334-323 B. C. ), had begun to be felt in Italy. By that timeGreek had become the language of commerce and diplomacy throughout theMediterranean, and Greek scholars and tradesmen had begun to frequentRome. By 303 B. C. It seems certain that a few private teachers had set upprimary schools at Rome to supplement the home training, and had begun theintroduction of the pedagogue as a fashionable adjunct to attractattention to their schools. These schools, however, were only a fad atfirst, and were patronized only by a few of the wealthy citizens. Up toabout 250 B. C. , at least, Roman education remained substantially as it hadbeen in the preceding centuries. Reading, writing, declamation, chanting, and the Laws of the Twelve Tables still constituted the subject-matter ofinstruction, and the old virtues continued to be emphasized. 

By the middle of the third century B. C. Rome had expanded its rule toinclude nearly all the Italian peninsula (see Figure 16), and wastransforming itself politically from a little rural City-State into anEmpire, with large world relationships. A knowledge of Greek now came tobe demanded both for diplomatic and for business reasons, and the need ofa larger culture, to correspond with the increased importance of theState, began to be felt by the wealthier and better-educated classes. Greek scholars, brought in as captured slaves from the Greek colonies ofsouthern Italy, soon began to be extensively employed as teachers and assecretaries. 

About 233 B. C. , Livius Andronicus, who had been brought to Rome as a slavewhen Tarentum, one of the Greek cities of southern Italy, was captured, [13] and who later had obtained his freedom, made a translation of theOdyssey into Latin, and became a teacher of Latin and Greek at Rome. Thishad a wonderful effect in developing schools and a literary atmosphere atRome. The _Odyssey_ at once became the great school textbook, in timesupplanting the Twelve Tables, and literary and school education nowrapidly developed. The Latin language became crystallized in form, andother Greek works were soon translated. The beginnings of a native Latinliterature were now made. Greek higher schools were opened, many Greekteachers and slaves offered instruction, and the Hellenic scheme ofculture, as it had previously developed in Attica, soon became the fashionat Rome. 

CHANGES IN NATIONAL IDEALS. The second century B. C. Was even more a periodof rapid change in all phases and aspects of Roman life. During thiscentury Rome became a world empire, annexing Spain, Carthage, Illyria, andGreece, and during the century that followed she subjugated northernAfrica, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Gaul to the Elbe and the Danube (see Figure18). Rome soon became mistress of the whole Mediterranean world. Her shipsplied the seas, her armies and governors ruled the land. The introductionof wealth, luxuries, and slaves from the new provinces, which followedtheir capture, soon had a very demoralizing influence upon the people. Private and public religion and morality rapidly declined; religion cameto be an empty ceremonial; divorce became common; wealth and influenceruled the State; slaves became very cheap and abundant, and were used foralmost every type of service. From a land of farmers of small farms, sturdy and self-supporting, who lived simply, reared large families, feared the gods, respected the State, and made an honest living, it becamea land of great estates and wealthy men, and the self-respecting peasantrywere transformed into soldiers for foreign wars, or joined the rabble inthe streets of Rome. [14] Wealth became the great desideratum, and thegreat avenue to this was through the public service, either as armycommanders and governors, or as public men who could sway the multitudeand command votes and influence. Manifestly the old type of education wasnot intended to meet such needs, and now in Rome, as previously in Athens, a complete transformation in the system of training for the young tookplace. The imaginative and creative Athenians, when confronted by a greatchange in national ideals, evolved a new type of education adapted to thenew needs of the time; the unimaginative and practical Romans merelyadopted that which the Athenians had created. 

THE HELLENIZATION OF ROME. The result was the Hellenization of theintellectual life of Rome, making complete the Hellenization of theMediterranean world. After the fall of Greece, in 146 B. C. , a great influxof educated Greeks took place. As the Latin poet Horace expressed it:

 Captive Greece took captive her rude conqueror, And brought the arts to Latium. 

So completely did the Greek educational system seem to meet the needs ofthe changed Roman State that at first the Greek schools were adoptedbodily--Greek language, pedagogue, higher schools of rhetoric andphilosophy, and all--and the schools were in reality Greek schools butslightly modified to meet the needs of Rome. _Gymnasia_ were erected, andwealthy Romans, as well as youths, began to spend their leisure instudying Greek and in trying to learn gymnastic exercises. 

In time the national pride and practical sense of the Romans led them toopen so-called "culture schools" of their own, modeled after the Greek. The Latin language then replaced the Greek as the vehicle of instruction, though Greek was still studied extensively, and Rome began the developmentof a system of private-school instruction possessing some elements thatwere native to Roman life and Roman needs. 

[Illustration: FIG. 20. CATO THE ELDER (234-149 B. C. )]

STRUGGLE AGAINST, AND FINAL VICTORY. That this great change in nationalideals and in educational practice was accepted without protest should notbe imagined. Plutarch and other writers appealed to the family as thecenter for all true education. Cato the elder, who died in 149 B. C. , labored hard to stem the Hellenic tide. He wrote the first Roman book oneducation, in part to show what education a good citizen needed as anorator, husbandman, jurist, and warrior, and in part as a protest againstHellenic innovations. In 167 B. C. , the first library was founded in Rome, with books brought from Greece by the conqueror Paulus Emilius. In 161B. C. , the Roman Senate directed the Praetor to see "that no philosophersor rhetoricians be suffered in Rome" (R. 20 a), but the edict could not beenforced. In 92 B. C. , the Censors issued an edict expressing theirdisapproval of such schools (R. 20 b). By 100 B. C. , the Hellenic victorywas complete, and the Graeco-Roman school system had taken form. In 27B. C. , Rome ceased to be a Republic and became an Empire, and under theEmperors the professors of the new learning were encouraged and protected, higher schools were established in the provinces, literature andphilosophy were opened as possible careers, and the Greek language, literature, and learning were spread, under Roman imperial protection, toevery corner of the then civilized world. This victory of Hellenic thoughtand learning at Rome, viewed in the light of the future history of thecivilization of the world, was an event of large importance. 

IV. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM AS FINALLY ESTABLISHED

THE LUDUS, OR PRIMARY SCHOOL. The elementary school, known as the _ludus_, or _ludus literarum_, the teacher of which was known as a _ludi magister_, was the beginning or primary school of the scheme as finally evolved. Thiscorresponded to the school of the Athenian _grammatist_, and like it theinstruction consisted of reading, writing, and counting. These schoolswere open to both sexes, but were chiefly frequented by boys. They wereentered at the age of seven, sometimes six, and covered the period up totwelve. Reading and writing were taught by much the same methods as in theGreek schools, and approximately the same writing materials were used. Something of the same difficulty was experienced also in mastering thereading art (R. 21). Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek historian wholived in Rome for twenty-two years, during the first century B. C. , hasleft us a clear description of the Roman method of teaching reading:

 When we learned to read was it not necessary at first to know the name of the letters, their shape, their value in syllables, their differences, then the words and their case, their quantity long or short, their accent, and the rest?

 Arrived at this point we began to read and write, slowly at first and syllable by syllable. Some time afterwards, the forms being sufficiently engraved on our memory, we read more cursorily, in the elementary book, then in all sorts of books, finally with incredible quickness and without making any mistake. 

[Illustration: FIG. 21. ROMAN WRITING-MATERIALS. Inkstand, pen, letter, box of manuscripts, wax tablets, stylus. ]

Writing seems rather to have followed reading, and, as in the Greekschools, the pupils copied down from dictation and made their own books(_dictata_). Literature received no such emphasis in the elementaryschools of Rome as in those of the Greeks, and the _palaestra_ of theGreeks was not reproduced at Rome. 

Due in part to the practical character of the Roman people, to theestablished habit of keeping careful household accounts, to thedifficulties of their system of calculation, [15] to the practice offinger reckoning, and to the vast commercial and financial interests thatthe Romans formed throughout the world which they conquered, arithmeticbecame a subject of fundamental importance in their schools, and much timewas given to securing perfection in calculation and finger reckoning. [16]Hence it occupied a place of large importance in the primary school. Anabacus or counting-board was used, similar to the one shown in Figure 22, and Horace mentions a bag of stones (_calculi_) as a part of a schoolboy'sequipment. 

[Illustration: FIG. 22. A ROMAN COUNTING-BOARD. Pebbles were used, those nearest the numbered dividing partition beingcounted. Each pebble above when moved downward counted five of those inthe same division below. The board now shows 8, 760, 254. ]

THE _LUDI MAGISTER_. The _ludi magister_ at Rome held a position even lessenviable than that held by the _grammatist_ at Athens. "The starvelingGreek, " who was glad to barter his knowledge for the certainty of a gooddinner, was sneered at by many Roman writers. Many slaves were engaged inthis type of instruction, bringing in fees for their owners. It was notregarded as of importance that the teachers of these schools be of highgrade. The establishment of and attendance at these primary schools waswholly voluntary, and the children in them probably represented but asmall percentage of those of school age in the total population. Theseschools became quite common in the Italian cities, and in time were foundin the provincial cities of the Empire as well. They remained, however, entirely private-adventure undertakings, the State doing nothing towardencouraging their establishment, supervising the instruction in them, orrequiring attendance at them. They were in no sense free schools, nor werethe prices for instruction fixed, as in our private schools of to-day. Instead, the pupil made a present to the master, usually at someunderstood rate, though some masters left the size of the fee to theliberality of their pupils. [17] The pedagogue, copied from Greece, wasnearly always an old or infirm slave of the family. 

[Illustration: FIG. 23. A ROMAN PRIMARY SCHOOL(_Ludus_)(From a fresco found at Herculaneum). This shows a school held in aportico of a house. ]

The schools were held anywhere--in a portico (see Figure 23), in a shed orbooth in front of a house, in a store, or in a recessed corner shut in bycurtains. A chair for the master, benches for the pupils, an outer roomfor cloaks and for the pedagogues to wait in, and a bundle of rods(_ferula_) constituted the necessary equipment. The pupils brought withthem boxes containing writing-materials, book-rolls, and reckoning-stones. Schools began early in the morning, pupils in winter going with lanternsto their tasks. There was much flogging of children, and in Martial wefind an angry epigram which he addressed to a schoolmaster who disturbedhis sleep (R. 23 a). 

THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Secondary or Latin grammar schools, under a_grammaticus_, and covering instruction from the age of twelve to sixteen, had become clearly differentiated from the primary schools under a _ludimagister_ by the time of the death of Cato, 149 B. C. At first this higherinstruction began in the form of private tutors, probably in the homes ofthe wealthy, and Greek was the language taught. By the beginning of thefirst century B. C. , however, Latin secondary schools began to arise, andin time these too spread to all the important cities of the Empire. Attendance at them was wholly voluntary, and was confined entirely to thechildren of the well-to-do classes. The teachers were Greeks, or Latinswho had been trained by the Greeks. Each teacher taught as he wished, butthe schools throughout the Empire came to be much the same in character. The course of study consisted chiefly of instruction in grammar andliterature, the purpose being to secure such a mastery of the Latinlanguage and Greek and Latin literatures as might be most helpful ingiving that broader culture now recognized as the mark of an educated man, and in preparing the young Roman to take up the life of an orator andpublic official (R. 24). Both Greek and Latin secondary schools were inexistence, and Quintilian, the foremost Roman writer on educationalpractice, recommends attendance at the Greek school first. 

Grammar was studied first, and was intended to develop correctness in theuse of speech. With its careful study of words, phonetic changes, drill oninflections, and practice in composing and paragraphing, this made astrong appeal to the practical Roman and became a favorite study. Literature followed, and was intended to develop an appreciation forliterary style, elevate thought, expand one's knowledge, and, bymemorization and repetition, to train the powers of expression. The methodpracticed was much as follows: The selection was carefully read first bythe teacher, and then by the pupils. [18] After the reading the selectionwas gone over again and the historical, geographical, and mythologicalallusions were carefully explained by the teacher. [19] The text was nextcritically examined, to point out where and how it might be improved andits expressions strengthened, and much paraphrasing of it was engaged in. Finally the study of the selection was rounded out by _a judgment_--thatis, a critical estimate of the work, a characterization of the author'sstyle, and a resume of his chief merits and defects. The foundations werehere laid for Grammar and Rhetoric as the great studies of the MiddleAges. 

Homer and Menander were the favorite authors in Greek, and Vergil, Horace, Sallust, and Livy in Latin, with much use of _Aesop's Fables_ for work incomposition. The pupils made their own books from dictation, though inlater years educated slave labor became so cheap that the copying and saleof books was organized into a business at Rome, and it was possible forthe children of wealthy parents to own their own books. Grammar, composition, elocution, ethics, history, mythology, and geography were allcomprehended in the instruction in grammar and literature in the secondaryschools. A little music was added at times, to help the pupil intone hisreading and declamation. A little geometry and astronomy were alsoincluded, for their practical applications. The athletic exercises of theGreeks were rejected, as contributing to immorality and being a waste oftime and strength. In a sense these schools were finishing schools forRoman youths who went to any school at all, much as are our high schoolsof to-day for the great bulk of American children. The schools were betterhoused than those of the _ludi_, and the masters were of a better qualityand received larger fees. Like the elementary schools, the State exercisedno supervision or control over these schools or the teachers or pupils inthem. 

THE SCHOOLS OF RHETORIC. Up to this point the schools established had beenfor practical and useful information (the primary schools) or cultural(the grammar or secondary schools). On top of these a higher andprofessional type of school was next developed, to train youths inrhetoric and oratory, preparatory to the great professions of law andpublic life at Rome. [20] These schools were direct descendants of theGreek rhetorical schools, which evolved from the schools of the Sophists. Suetonius [21] tells us that:

 Rhetoric, also, as well as grammar, was not introduced amongst us till a late period, and with still more difficulty, inasmuch as we find that, at times, the practice of it was even prohibited. [22] ... However, by slow degrees, rhetoric manifested itself to be a useful and honorable study, and many persons devoted themselves to it both as a means of defense and of acquiring a reputation. In consequence, public favor was so much attracted to the study of rhetoric that a vast number of professional and learned men devoted themselves to it; and it flourished to such a degree that some of them raised themselves by it to the rank of senators and to the highest offices. 

These schools, the teachers of which were known as _rhetors_, furnished atype of education representing a sort of collegiate education for theperiod. They were oratorical in purpose, because the orator had become theRoman ideal of a well-educated man (R. 24). During the life of theRepublic the orator found many opportunities for the constructive use ofhis ability, and all young men ambitious to enter law or politics foundthe training of these schools a necessary prerequisite. They were attendedfor two or three years by boys over sixteen, but only the wealthier andmore aristocratic families could afford to send their boys to them. 

In addition to oratorical and some legal training, these schools includeda further linguistic and literary training, some mathematical andscientific knowledge, and even some philosophy. The famous "Seven LiberalArts" of the Middle Ages--Grammar, Rhetoric, and Dialectic; Music, Arithmetic, Geometry, and Astronomy--all seem to have been included in theinstruction of these schools. [23] The great studies, though, were thefirst three and some Law, Music being studied largely to help withgestures and to train the voice, Geometry to aid in settling lawsuitsrelating to land, Dialectic (logic) to aid in detecting fallacies, andAstronomy to understand the movements of the heavenly bodies and thereferences of literary writers. [24] There was much work in debate and inthe declamation of ethical and political material the fine distinctions inRoman Law and Ethics were brought out, [25] and there was much drill inpreparing and delivering speeches and much attention given to the factorsinvolved in the preparation and delivery of a successful oration (R. 25). 

[Illustration: FIG. 24. A ROMAN SCHOOL OF RHETORIC. This picture, which has been drawn from a description, shows a much bettertype of school than that of the _ludi_. ]

These schools became very popular as institutions of higher learning, andcontinued so even after the later Emperors, by seizing the power of theState, had taken away the inspiration that comes from a love of freedomand had thus deprived the rhetorical art of practical value. The work ofthe schools then became highly stilted and artificial in character, andoratory then came to be cultivated largely as a fine art. [26] Meneducated in these schools came to boast that they could speak with equaleffectiveness on either side of any question, and the art came to dependon the use of many and big words and on the manners of the stage. Suchideals naturally destroyed the value of these schools, and stoppedintellectual progress so far as they contributed to it. 

Much was done by the later Emperors to encourage these schools, and theytoo came to exist in almost every provincial city in the Empire. Oftenthey were supported by the cities in which they were located. The EmperorVespasian, about 75 A. D. Began the practice of paying, from the ImperialTreasury, the salaries of grammarians and rhetoricians [27] at Rome. Antoninus Pius, who ruled as Emperor from 138 to 161 A. D. , extendedpayment to the provinces, gave to these teachers the privileges of thesenatorial class, and a certain number in each city were exempted frompayment of taxes, support of soldiers, and obligations to militaryservice. Other Emperors extended these special privileges (R. 26) whichbecame the basis for the special rights afterwards granted to theChristian clergy (R. 38) and, still later, to teachers in the universities(Rs. 101-04). 

UNIVERSITY LEARNING. Roman youths desiring still further training couldnow journey to the eastward and attend the Greek universities (see Figure14). A few did so, much as American students in the middle of thenineteenth century went to Germany for higher study. Athens and Rhodeswere most favored. Brutus, Horace, and Cicero, among others, studied atAthens; Caesar, Cicero, and Cassius at Rhodes. Later Alexandria was infavor. In a library founded in the Temple of Peace by Vespasian (ruled 69to 79 A. D. ) the University at Rome had its origin, and in time thisdeveloped into an institution with professors in law, medicine, architecture, mathematics and mechanics, and grammar and rhetoric in boththe Latin and Greek languages. In this many youths from provincial citiescame to study. The lines of instruction represented nothing, however, inthe way of scientific investigation or creative thought; the instructionwas formal and dogmatic, being largely a further elaboration of what hadpreviously been well done by the Greeks. 

NATURE OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM DEVELOPED. Such was the educationalsystem which was finally evolved to meet the new cultural needs of theRoman Empire. In all its foundation elements it was Greek. Havingborrowed--conquered one might almost say--Greek religion, philosophy, literature, and learning, the Romans naturally borrowed also the schoolsystem that had been evolved to impart this culture. Never before or sincehas any people adapted so completely to their own needs the system ofeducational training evolved by another. To the Greek basis somedistinctively Roman elements were added to adapt it better to the peculiarneeds of their own people, while on the other hand many of the finer Greekcharacteristics were omitted entirely. Having once adopted the Greek plan, the constructive Roman mind organized it into a system superior to theoriginal, but in so doing formalized it more than the Greeks had ever done(R. 19). 

[Illustration: FIG. 25. THE ROMAN VOLUNTARY EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM, AS FINALLYEVOLVED]

That the system afforded an opportunity to wealthy Romans to obtain fortheir children some understanding and appreciation of the culture of theGreek world with which their Empire was now in contact, and answeredfairly well the preparatory needs along political and governmental linesof those Romans who could afford to educate their boys for such careers, can hardly be doubted (R. 22). Roman writers on education, especiallyCicero (R. 24) and Quintilian (R. 25), give us abundant testimony as tothe value and usefulness of the system evolved in the training of oratorsand men for the public service. In the provinces, too, we know that theschools were very useful in inculcating Roman traditions and in helpingthe Romans to assimilate the sons of local princes and leaders. [28]During the days of the Republic the schools were naturally more usefulthan after the establishment of the Empire, and especially after the laterEmperors had stamped out many of the political and civic liberties for theenjoyment of which the schools prepared. On the other hand, the schoolsreached but a small, selected class of youths, trained for only thepolitical career, and cannot be considered as ever having been general oras having educated any more than a small percentage of the future citizensof the State. Many of the important lines of activity in which the Romansengaged, and which to-day are regarded as monuments to their constructiveskill and practical genius, such as architectural achievements, thebuilding of roads and aqueducts, the many skilled trades, and the largecommercial undertakings, these schools did nothing to prepare youths for. The State, unlike Athens, never required education of any one, did notmake what was offered a preparation for citizenship, and made no attemptto regulate either teachers or instruction until late in the history ofthe Empire. Education at Rome was from the first purely a private-adventure affair, most nearly analogous with us to instruction in musicand dancing. Those who found the education offered of any value could takeit and pay for it; those who did not could let it alone. A few did theformer, the great mass of the Romans the latter. For the great slave classthat developed at Rome there was, of course, no education at all. 

RESULTS ON ROMAN LIFE AND GOVERNMENT. Still, out of this private andtuition system of schools many capable political leaders and executivescame--men who exercised great influence on the history of the State, fought out her political battles, organized and directed her government athome and in the provinces, and helped build up that great scheme ofgovernment and law and order which was Rome's most significantcontribution to future civilization. [29] It was in this direction, and inpractical and constructive work along engineering and architectural lines, that Rome excelled. The Roman genius for government and law and order andconstructive undertakings must be classed, in importance for the future ofcivilization in the world, along with the ability of Greece in literatureand philosophy and art. "If, " says Professor Adams, "as is sometimes said, that in the course of history there is no literature which rivals theGreek except the English, it is perhaps even more true that the Anglo-Saxon is the only race which can be placed beside the Romans in creativepower and in politics. " The conquest of the known world by this practicaland constructive people could not have otherwise than decisivelyinfluenced the whole course of human history, and, coming at the time inworld affairs that it did, the influence on all future civilization of thework of Rome has been profound. The great political fact which dominatedall the Middle Ages, and shaped the religion and government andcivilization of the time, was the fact that the Roman Empire had been andhad done its work so well. 

V. ROME'S CONTRIBUTION TO CIVILIZATION

GREECE AND ROME CONTRASTED. The contrast between the Greeks and the Romansis marked in almost every particular. The Greeks were an imaginative, subjective, artistic, and idealistic people, with little administrativeability and few practical tendencies. The Romans, on the other hand, werean unimaginative, concrete, practical, and constructive nation. Greecemade its great contribution to world civilization in literature andphilosophy and art; Rome in law and order and government. The Greeks liveda life of aesthetic enjoyment of the beautiful in nature and art, andtheir basis for estimating the worth of a thing was intellectual andartistic; to the Romans the aesthetic and the beautiful made littleappeal, and their basis for estimating the worth of a thing wasutilitarian. The Greeks worshiped "the beautiful and the good, " and triedto enjoy life rationally and nobly, while the Romans worshiped force andeffectiveness, and lived by rule and authority. The Greeks thought inpersonal terms of government and virtue and happiness, while the Romansthought in general terms of law and duty, and their happiness was ratherin present denial for future gain than in any immediate enjoyment. 

As a result the Romans developed no great scholarly or literaryatmosphere, as the Greeks had done at Athens, They built up no greatspeculative philosophies, and framed no great theories of government. Eventheir literature was, in part, an imitation of the Greek, thoughpossessing many elements of native strength and beauty. They were a peoplewho knew how to accomplish results rather than to speculate about meansand ends. Usefulness and effectiveness were with them the criteria of theworth of any idea or project. They subdued and annexed an empire, theygave law and order to a primitive world, they civilized and Romanizedbarbarian tribes, they built roads connecting all parts of their Empirethat were the best the world had ever known, their aqueducts and bridgeswere wonders of engineering skill, their public buildings and monumentsstill excite admiration and envy, in many of the skilled trades theydeveloped tools and processes of large future usefulness, and theiragriculture was the best the world had known up to that time. They werestrong where the Greeks were weak, and weak where the Greeks were strong. 

By reason of this difference the two peoples supplemented one another wellin the work of laying the foundations upon which our modern civilizationhas been built. Greece created the intellectual and aesthetic ideals andthe culture for our life, while Rome developed the political institutionsunder which ideals may be realized and culture may be enjoyed. From theGreeks and Hebrews our modern life has drawn its great inspirations andits ideals for life, while from the Romans we have derived our ideals asto government and obedience to law. One may say that the Romans as apeople specialized in government, law, order, and constructive practicalundertakings, and bequeathed to posterity a wonderful inheritance ingovernmental forms, legal codes, commercial processes, and engineeringundertakings, while the Greeks left to us a philosophy, literature, art, and a world culture which the civilized world will never cease to enjoy. The Greeks were an imaginative, impulsive, and a joyous people; the Romanssedate, severe, and superior to the Greeks in persistence and moral force. The Greeks were ever young; the Romans were always grown and serious men. 

ROME'S GREAT CONTRIBUTION. Rome's great contribution, then, was along thelines just indicated. To this, the school system which became establishedin the Roman State contributed only indirectly and but little. Theunification of the ancient world into one Empire, with a common body oftraditions, practices, coinage, speech, and law, which made the triumph ofChristianity possible; the formulation of a body of law [30] whichbarbarian tribes accepted, which was studied throughout the Middle Ages, which formed the basis of the legal system of the mediaeval Church, andwhich has largely influenced modern practice; the development of alanguage from which many modern tongues have been derived, and which hasmodified all western languages; and the perfection of an alphabet whichhas become the common property of all nations whose civilization has beenderived from the Greek and Roman--these constitute the chief contributionsof Rome to modern civilization. 

Roman city government, too, had been established throughout all theprovincial cities, and this remained after the Empire had passed away. Themunicipal corporation, with its charter of rights, has ever since been afixed idea in the western world. Roman law, organized into a compact code, and studied in the law schools of the Middle Ages, has modified our modernideas and practices to a degree we scarcely realize. It was accepted bythe German rulers as a permanent thing after they had overrun the Empire, and it remained as the law of the courts wherever Roman subjects weretried. Preserved and codified at Constantinople under Justinian in thesixth century, and re-introduced into western Europe when the study of lawwas revived in the newly founded universities in the twelfth andthirteenth centuries, Roman law has greatly modified all modern legalpractices and has become the basis of the legal systems of a number ofmodern states. [31]

[Illustration: FIG. 26. ORIGIN OF OUR ALPHABETThe German type, like the so-called Old English (see Fig. 45), illustratesthe corruption of letter forms through the copying of manuscripts duringthe Middle Ages. ]

Of all the Roman contributions to modern civilization perhaps the one thatmost completely permeates all our modern life is their alphabet andspeech. Figure 26 shows how our modern alphabet goes back to the oldRoman, which they obtained from the Greek colonies in southern Italy, andwhich the Greeks obtained from the still earlier Phoenicians. Thisalphabet has become the common property of almost all the civilized world. [32] In speech, the French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian tongues goback directly to the Latin, and these are the tongues of Mexico and SouthAmerica as well. The English language, which is spoken throughout a largepart of the civilized world, and by one third of its inhabitants, has alsoreceived so many additions from Romanic sources that we to-day scarcelyutter a sentence without using some word once used by the citizens ofancient Rome. 

Among the smaller but nevertheless important contributions which we owe toRome, and which were passed on to mediaeval and modern Europe, should bementioned certain practical knowledge in agriculture and the mechanicarts; many inventions and acquired skills in the arts and trades; anorganized sea and land trade and commerce; cleared and improved lands, good houses, roads and bridges; great architectural and engineeringremains, scattered all through the provinces; the beginnings of thetransformation of the slave into the serf, from which the great body offreemen of modern Europe later were evolved; and certain educationalconceptions and practices which later profoundly influenced educationalmethods and procedure. 

How large these contributions were we shall appreciate better as weproceed with our history. Of the negative contributions, the mostdangerous has been the idea of the rule of one imperial government, whichhas inspired the autocratic governments of modern Europe to try to imitatethe world-wide rule of Imperial Rome. 

THE WAY PAVED FOR CHRISTIANITY. It was the great civilizing and unifyingwork of the Roman State that paved the way for the next great contributionto the foundations of the structure of our modern civilization--thecontribution of Christianity. Had Italy never been consolidated; had thebarbarian tribes to the north never been conquered and Romanized; hadSpain and Africa and the eastern Mediterranean never known the rule ofRome; had the Latin language never become the speech of the then civilizedpeoples; had Roman armies never imposed law and order throughout an unrulyworld; had Roman governors and courts never established common rights andsecurity; had Roman municipal government never come to be the common typein the cities of the provinces; had Roman schools in the provincial citiesnever trained the foreign citizen in Roman ways and to think Romanthoughts; had Rome never established free trade and intercourse throughouther Empire; had Rome never developed processes and skills in agricultureand the creative arts; had there been no Roman roads and common coinage;and had Rome not done dozens of other important things to unify andcivilize Europe and reduce it to law and order, it is hard to imagine thechaos that would have resulted when the Empire gave way to the barbarianhordes which finally overwhelmed it. Where we should have been to-day inthe upward march of civilization, without the work of Rome, it isimpossible to say. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Contrast the Romans as a colonizing power with the modern Germans. TheEnglish. The French. 

2. At what period in our national development did home education with usoccupy substantially the same place as it did in Rome before 300 B. C. ? Inwhat respects was the education given boys and girls similar? Different?

3. What was the most marked advance over the Greeks in the early Romantraining?

4. Contrast the education of the Athenian, Spartan, and Roman boy, duringthe early period in each State. 

5. To what extent does early Roman education indicate the importance ofthe parent and of study of biography in the education of the young?

6. Was the change in character of the education of Roman youths, after theexpansion of the Roman State and the establishment of world contacts, preventable, or was it a necessary evolution? Why? Have we everexperienced similar changes?

7. As a State increases in importance and enlarges its world contacts, isa correspondingly longer training and enlarged culture necessary at home?

8. What idea do you get as to the extent to which the Latinized Odysseywas read from the fact that the Latin language was crystallized in formshortly after the translation was made?

9. What does the rapid adoption of the Greek educational system, and thelater evolution of a native educational system out of it, indicate as tothe nature of Roman expansion?

10. Was the introduction of the Greek pedagogue as a fashionable adjunctnatural? Why?

11. Why is a period of very rapid expansion in a State likely to bedemoralizing? How may the demoralization incident to such expansion beanticipated and minimized?

12. Why does the coming of large landed estates introduce important socialproblems? Have we the beginnings of a social problem of this type? Whatcorrectives have we that Rome did not have?

13. State the economic changes which hastened the introduction of a newtype of higher training at Rome. 

14. Was the Hellenization of Rome which ensued a good thing? Why?

15. How do you account for Rome not developing a state school system inthe period of great national need and change, instead of leaving thematter to private initiative? Do you understand that any large percentageof youths in the Roman State ever attended any school?

16. Why do older people usually oppose changes in school work manifestlyneeded to meet changing national demands?

17. Compare the difficulties met with in learning to read Greek and Latin. Either and English. 

18. How do you account for the much smaller emphasis on literature andmusic in the elementary instruction at Rome than at Athens? How for themuch larger emphasis on formal grammar in the secondary schools at Rome?

19. What subjects of study as we now know them were included in the Romanstudy of grammar and rhetoric?

20. How do you explain the greater emphasis placed by the Romans onsecondary education than on elementary education?

21. What particular Roman need did the higher schools of oratory andrhetoric supply?

22. What does the exclusive devotion of these schools to such studiesindicate as to professional opportunities at Rome?

23. How do you account for the continuance of these schools in favor, andfor the aid and encouragement they received from the later Emperors, whenthe very nature of the Empire in large part destroyed the careers forwhich they trained?

24. Compare Rome and the United States in their attitudes toward foreign-born peoples. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 12. The Laws of the Twelve Tables. 13. Cicero: Importance of the Twelve Tables in Education. 14. Schreiber: A Roman Farmer's Calendar. 15. Polybius: The Roman Character. 16. Mommsen: The Grave and Severe Character of the Earlier Romans. 17. Epitaph: The Education of Girls. 18. Marcus Aurelius: The Old Roman Education described. 19. Tacitus: The Old and the New Education contrasted. 20. Suetonius: Attempts to Prohibit the Introduction of Greek Higher Learning. (a) Decree of the Roman Senate, 161 B. C. (b) Decree of the Censor, 92 B. C. 21. Vergil: Difficulty experienced in Learning to Read. 22. Horace: The Education given by a Father. 23. Martial: The Ludi Magister. (a) To the Master of a Noisy School. (b) To a Schoolmaster. 24. Cicero: Oratory the Aim of Education. 25. Quintilian: On Oratory. 26. Constantine: Privileges granted to Physicians and Teachers. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Give reasons why the Laws of the Twelve Tables (12) were considered ofsuch fundamental importance (13) in the education of the early Roman boy?How do you explain their being supplanted later by the Latinized_Odyssey_?

2. What does the Farmer's Calendar (14) reveal as to the character ofRoman life?

3. Contrast the Roman character (15, 16) with that of the Athenian. 

4. Compare the education of a Roman matron, as revealed by the epitaph(17), with that of a girl in later American colonial times. 

5. After reading Marcus Aurelius (18) and Tacitus (19), what is yourjudgment as to the relative merits of the old and the new education: (_a_)as a means of training youths? (_b_) as adapted to the changed conditionsof Imperial Rome?

6. How do you account for the attempts of the conservative officials ofthe State to prohibit the introduction of Greek higher schools (20 a-b)proving so unsuccessful?

7. Compare the difficulties involved in learning to read Greek (Fig. 6)and Latin (21). Either and English. 

8. What type of higher educational advantages does the selection fromHorace (22) indicate as prevailing in Roman cities? Compare with present-day advanced education. 

9. What do Martial's Epigrams to the Roman schoolmasters (23 a-b) indicateas to the nature of the schools, school discipline, and social status ofthe Roman primary teacher?

10. Do the selections from Cicero (24) and Quintilian (25) satisfy youthat oratory was a sufficiently broad idea for the higher education ofyouths under the Empire? Why?

11. What does the decree of Constantine (26) indicate as to the socialstatus of the higher teachers under the Empire?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

 Abbott, F. F. _Society and Politics in Ancient Rome_. * Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. Anderson, L. F. "Some Facts regarding Vocational Education among the Greeks and Romans"; in _School Review_, vol. 20, pp. 191-201. * Clarke, Geo. _Education of Children at Rome_. * Dill, Sam'l. _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_. * Laurie, S. S. _Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education_. Mahaffy, J. P. _The Silver Age of the Greek World_. Ross, C. F. "The Strength and Weakness of Roman Education"; in _School and Society_, vol. 6, pp. 457-63. Sandys, J. E. _History of Classical Scholarship_, vol. I. Thorndike, Lynn. _History of Mediaeval Europe_. Westermann, W. L. Vocational Training in Antiquity; in _School Review_, vol. 22, pp. 601-10. 

CHAPTER IV

THE RISE AND CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY

I. THE RISE AND VICTORY OF CHRISTIANITY

RELIGIONS IN THE ROMAN WORLD. As was stated in the preceding chapter (p. 58), the Roman state religion was an outgrowth of the religion of thehome. Just as there had been a number of fireside deities, who weresupposed to preside over the different activities of the home, so therewere many state deities who were supposed to preside over the differentactivities of the State. In addition, the Romans exhibited toward thereligions of all other peoples that same tolerance and willingness toborrow which they exhibited in so many other matters. Certain Greekdeities were taken over and temples erected to them in Rome, and newdeities, to guard over such functions as health, fortune, peace, concord, sowing, reaping, etc. , were established. [1] Extreme tolerance also wasshown toward the special religions of other peoples who had been broughtwithin the Empire, and certain oriental divinities had even been admittedand given their place in Rome. 

Like many other features of Roman life, their religion was essentially ofa practical nature, dealing with the affairs of everyday life, and havinglittle or no relation to personal morality. [2] It promised no rewards orpunishments or hopes for a future life, but rather, by uniting allcitizens in a common reverence and fear of certain deities, helped tounify the Empire and hold it together. After the death of Augustus (14A. D. ), the Roman Senate deified the Emperor and enrolled his name amongthe gods, and Emperor worship was added to their ceremonies. Thisnaturally spread rapidly throughout the Empire, tended to unite allclasses in allegiance to the central government at Rome, and seemed toform the basis for a universal religion for a universal empire. 

FEELING THE NEED FOR SOMETHING MORE. As an educated class arose in Rome, this mixture of diverse divinities failed to satisfy; the Roman religion, made up as it was of state and parental duties and precautions, lost withthem its force; and the religious ceremonies of the home and the Statelost for them their meaning. The mechanical repetition of prayers andsacrifices made no appeal to the emotions or to the moral nature ofindividuals, and offered no spiritual joy or consolation as to a lifebeyond. The educated Greeks before had had this same feeling, and hadindulged in much speculation as to the moral nature of man. Many educatedRomans now turned to the Greek philosophers for some more philosophicalexplanation of the great mystery of life and death. 

Of all the philosophies developed in the philosophical schools of Athens, the one that made the deepest appeal to the practical Roman mind was thatof the Stoics, founded by Zeno, 308 B. C. Virtue, claimed the Stoics, consists in so living that one's life is in accordance with that UniversalReason which rules the world. Riches, position, fame, success--these countfor but little. He who trains himself to be above grief, hope, joy, fear, and the ills of life--be he slave or peasant or king--may be happy becausehe is virtuous. Reason, rather than the feelings, is the proper rule oflife. The Stoics also preached the brotherhood of man, and to a degreeexpressed a humble reliance on a providence which controlled affairs. Thisphilosophy in a way met the need for a religion among the better-educatedRomans, and made considerable headway during the early days of the Empire. [3] While serving as a sort of religion for those capable of embracing it, it was too intellectual to reach more than a few, and was not adapted tobecome a universal religion for all sorts and conditions of men. What wasneeded was a new moral philosophy or religion that would touch allmankind. To do this it must appeal to the emotions more than to theintellect. Such a religion was at this time taking shape and gatheringforce and strength in a remote corner of the Empire. 

WHERE THIS NEW RELIGION AROSE. Far to the eastern end of the Mediterraneanthere had long lived a branch of the Semitic race, which had developed anational character and made a contribution of first importance to thereligious thought of the world. These were the Hebrew people who, leavingEgypt about 1500 B. C. , in the Exodus, had come to inhabit the land ofCanaan, south of Phoenicia and east and north of Egypt. From a wandering, pastoral people they had gradually changed to a settled, agriculturalpeople, and had begun the development of a regular State. Unwilling, however, to bear the burdens of a political State, and objecting totaxation, a standing army, and forced labor for the State, the nationalitywhich promised at one time fell to pieces, and the land was overrun byhostile neighbors and the people put under the yoke. After a sad andtempestuous history, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem bythe Romans in 70 A. D. , the inhabitants were sold into slavery anddispersed throughout the Roman Empire. 

These people developed no great State, and made no contributions togovernment or science or art. Their contribution was along religiouslines, and so magnificent and uplifting is their religious literature thatit is certain to last for all time. Alone among all eastern people theyearly evolved the idea of one omnipotent God. The religion that theydeveloped declared man to be the child of God, erected personal moralityand service to God as the rule of life, and asserted a life beyond thegrave. It was about these ideas that the whole energy of the peopleconcentrated, and religion became the central thought of their lives. Thisreligion, unlike the other religions of the Mediterranean world, emphasized duty to God, service, personal morality, chastity, honesty, andtruth as its essential elements. The Law of Moses became the law of theland. Woman was elevated to a new place in the life of the ancient world. [4] Children became sacred in the eyes of the people. Their literarycontribution, the Old Testament--written by a series of patriarchs, lawgivers, prophets, and priests--pictures, often in sublime language, thevarious migrations, deliverances, calamities, and religious hopes, aspirations, and experiences of this Chosen People. 

THE UNITY OF THIS PEOPLE. Just before their country was overrun and theywere carried captive to Babylon, in 588 B. C. , the Pentateuch [5] had beenreduced to writing and made an authoritative code of laws for the people. This served as a bond of union among them during the exile, and aftertheir return to Palestine, in 538 B. C. , the study and observance of thislaw became the most important duty of their lives. The synagogue wasestablished in every village for its exposition, where twice on everySabbath day the people were to gather to hear the law expounded. A race of_Scribes_, or scripture scholars, also arose to teach the law, as well asmeans for educating additional scribes. They were to interpret the law, and to apply it to the daily lives of the people. As the law was acombination of religious, ceremonial, civil, and sanitary law, thesescribes became both teachers and judges for the people. In time theybecame the depositaries of all learning, superseded the priesthood, andbecame the leaders (_rabbins_, whence _rabbi_) of the people. "The voiceof the rabbi is the voice of God, " says the Talmud, a collection of Hebrewcustoms and traditions, with comments and interpretations, written by therabbis after 70 B. C. By most Jews this is held to be next in sacredness tothe Old Testament (R. 27). 

Realizing, after the return from captivity, that the future existence ofthe Hebrew people would depend, not upon their military strength, but upontheir moral unity, and that this must be based upon the careful trainingof each child in the traditions of his fathers, the leaders of the peoplebegan the evolution of a religious school system to meet the nationalneed. Realizing, too, that parents could not be depended upon in all casesto provide this instruction, the leaders provided it and made itcompulsory. Great open-air Bible classes were organized at first, andthese were gradually extended to all the villages of the country. Elementary schools were developed later and attached to the synagogues, and finally, in 64 A. D. , the high priest, Joshua ben Gamala, ordered theestablishment of an elementary school in every village, made attendancecompulsory for all male children, and provided for a combined type ofreligious and household instruction at home for all girls. Reading, writing, counting, the history of the Chosen People, the poetry of thePsalms, the Law of the Pentateuch, and a part of the Talmud constitutedthe subject-matter of instruction. The instruction was largely oral, andlearning by heart was the common teaching plan. The child was taught theLaw of his fathers, trained to make holiness a rule of his life and tosubordinate his will to that of the one God, and commanded to revere histeachers (R. 27) and uphold the traditions of his people. 

After the destruction of Jerusalem (70 A. D. ) and the scatterment of thepeople, the school instruction was naturally more or less disrupted, butin one way or another the Hebrew people have ever since managed to keep upthe training of rabbis and the instruction of the young in the Law and thetraditions of their people, and as a consequence of this instruction wehave to-day the interesting result of a homogeneous people who, for overeighteen centuries, have had no national existence, and who have beenscattered and persecuted as have no other people. History offers us nobetter example of the salvation of a people by means of the compulsoryeducation of all. 

THE NEW CHRISTIAN FAITH. It was into this Hebrew race that Jesus was born, [6] and there he lived, learned, taught, made his disciples, and wascrucified. Building on the old Hebrew moral law and the importance of thepersonal life, Jesus made his appeal to the individual, and sought themoral regeneration of society through the moral regeneration of individualmen and women. This idea of individuality and of personal souls worthsaving was a new idea in a world where the submergence of the individualin the State had everywhere up to that time been the rule. Even theHebrews, in their great desire to perpetuate their race and faith, hadsuppressed and absorbed the individual in their religious State. Theteachings of Jesus, on the other hand, with their emphasis on charity, sympathy, self-sacrifice, and the brotherhood of all men, tended toobliterate nationality, while the emphasis they gave to the future life, for which life here was but a preparation, tended to subordinate theinterests of the State and withdraw the concern of men from worldlyaffairs. In a series of simple sermons, Jesus set forth the basis of thisnew faith which he, and after him his disciples, offered to the world. 

At the time of his crucifixion his disciples numbered scarcely one hundredpersons. For some years after his death his disciples remained inJerusalem, preaching that he was the Messiah or Christ, whom the Hebrewpeople had long expected, and making converts to the idea. Later inSamaria, Damascus, and Antioch they made additional converts among theJews. Up to this point the Christians had been careful to keep up all theold Jewish customs, and it was even doubted at first whether any but Jewscould properly be admitted to the new faith. A new convert, Saul ofTarsus, a Jew who had studied in the Greek university there and whoafterwards became the Apostle Paul, did much to open the new faith to theGentiles, as the men of other nations were known. Speaking Greek, andbeing versed in Greek philosophy, and especially Stoicism, he gave thirtyyears of most effective service to the establishment of Christian churches[7] in Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece (R. 29), and Italy (R. 28). His workwas so important that he has often been called the second founder of theChristian Church. 

THE CHALLENGE OF CHRISTIANITY. Into a Roman world that had already passedthe zenith of its greatness came this new Christian faith, challengingalmost everything for which the Roman world had stood. In place of Romancitizenship and service to the State as the purpose of life, theChristians set up the importance of the life to come. Instead of pleasureand happiness and the satisfaction of the senses as personal ends, theChristians preached denial of all these things for the greater joy of afuture life. In a society built on a huge basis of slavery and filled withsocial classes, the Christians proclaimed the equality of all men beforeGod. To a nation in which family life had become corrupt, infidelity anddivorce common, and infanticide a prevailing practice, the Christiansproclaimed the sacredness of the marriage tie and the family life, and theexposure of infants as simple murder. In place of the subjection of theindividual to the State, the Christians demanded the subjection of theindividual only to God. In place of a union of State and religion, theChristians demanded the complete separation of the two and thesubordination of the State to the Church. Unlike all other religions thatRome had absorbed, the Christians refused to be accepted on any other thanexclusive terms. The worship of all other gods the Christians held to besinful idol-worship, a deadly sin in the eyes of God, and they werewilling to give up their lives rather than perform the simplest rite ofwhat they termed pagan worship (R. 28). To the deified Emperor theChristians naturally could not bend the knee (Rs. 30 b, 31 a-b, 34). 

At first the new faith attracted but little attention from anybody ofeducation or influence. Its converts were few during the first century, and these largely from among the lowest social classes in the Empire. Workmen and slaves, and women rather than men, constituted the largemajority of the early converts to the new faith. The character of itsmissionaries [8] also was against it, and its challenge of almost all thatcharacterized the higher social and governmental life of Rome was certainto make its progress difficult, and in time to awaken powerful opposition[9] to it. Yet, notwithstanding all these obstacles, its progress wasrelatively rapid. 

THE VICTORY OF CHRISTIANITY. By the close of the first century there wereChristian churches throughout most of Judea and Asia Minor, and in partsof Greece and Macedonia. During the second century other churches wereestablished in Asia Minor, in Greece, and along the Black Sea, and at afew places in Italy and France; and before four centuries had elapsed fromthe crucifixion Christian churches had been established throughout almostall the Roman world. This is well shown by the map on the opposite page. The message of hope that Christianity had to offer to all; the simplicityof its organization and teachings; the great appeal which it made to theemotional side of human life; the hope of a future life of reward for theburdens of this which it extended to all who were weary and heavy laden;the positiveness of conviction of its apostles and followers; and thecompleteness with which it satisfied the religious need and longings ofthe time, first among the poor and among women and later among educatedmen--all helped the new faith to win its way. The unity in that Rome hadeverywhere established; [10] the Roman peace (_pax Romana_) that Rome hadeverywhere imposed; the spread of the Greek and Latin languages and ideasthroughout the Mediterranean world; the right of freedom of travel andspeech enjoyed by a Roman citizen, and of which Saint Paul and others ontheir travels took advantage; [11] the scatterment of Jews throughout theEmpire, after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A. D. --all these elementsalso helped. 

[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 27. THE GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY TO THE END OF THEFOURTH CENTURY]

That Christianity made its headway unmolested must not be supposed. Whileat first the tendency of educated Romans and of the government was toignore or tolerate it, its challenge was so direct and provocative thatthis attitude could not long continue. Under the Emperor Claudius (41-54A. D. ) "all the Jews who were continually making disturbances at theinstigation of one Chrestus" were unsuccessfully ordered banished fromRome. In the reign of the Emperor Nero, in 64 A. D. , many horrible tortureswere inflicted on this as yet small sect. It was not, however, till later, when the continued refusal of the Christians to offer sacrifices to theEmperor brought them under the law as disloyal (R. 30 a) subjects, thatthey began to be much punished for their faith (R. 31 a-b). The times werebad and were going from bad to worse, and the feelings of many were thatthe adverse conditions in the Empire--war, famine, floods, pestilence, andbarbarian inroads--were due to the neglect of the old state religion andto the tolerance extended the vast organized defiance of the law by theChristians. In the first century they had been largely ignored. In thesecond, in some places, they were punished. In the third century, impelledby the calamities of the State and the urging of those who would restorethe national religion to its earlier position, the Emperors were graduallydriven to a series of heavy persecutions of the sect (R. 30 a). But it hadnow become too late. The blood of the martyrs proved to be the seed of theChurch (R. 35). The last great persecution under the Emperor Diocletian, in 303 (R. 33), ended in virtual failure. In 311 the Emperor Galeriusplaced Christianity on a plane of equality with other forms of worship (R. 36). In 313 Constantine made it in part the official religion of the State[12] and ordered freedom of worship for all. He and succeeding Emperorsgradually extended to the Christian clergy a long list of importantprivileges (R. 38) and exemptions, [13] analogous to those formerlyenjoyed by the teachers of rhetoric under the Empire (R. 26), and likewisebegan the policy, so liberally followed later, of endowing the Church. In391 the Emperor Theodosius forbade all pagan worship, thus making thevictory of Christianity complete. In less than four centuries from thebirth of its founder the Christian faith had won control of the greatEmpire in which it originated. In 529 the Emperor Justinian ordered theclosing of all pagan schools, and the University of Athens, which hadremained the center of pagan thought after the success of Christianity, closed its doors. The victory was now complete. 

THE CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY. We have now before us the third greatcontribution upon which our modern civilization has been built. To thegreat contributions of Greece and Rome, which we have previously studied, there now was added, and added at a most opportune time, the contributionof Christianity. In taking the Jewish idea of one God and freeing it fromthe narrow tribal limitations to which it had before been subject, Christianity made possible its general acceptance, first in the Romanworld, and later in the Mohammedan world. [14] With this was introducedthe doctrine of the fatherhood of God and his love for man, the equalitybefore God of all men and of the two sexes, and the sacredness of eachindividual in the eyes of the Father. An entirely new conception of theindividual was proclaimed to the world, and an entirely new ethical codewas promulgated. The duty of all to make their lives conform to these newconceptions was asserted. These ideas imparted to ancient society a newhopefulness and a new energy which were not only of great importance indealing with the downfall of civilization and the deluge of barbarismwhich were impending, but which have been of prime importance during allsucceeding centuries. In time the church organization which was developedgradually absorbed all other forms of government, and became virtually theState during the long period of darkness known as the Middle Ages. 

It remains now to sketch briefly how the Church organized itself andbecame powerful enough to perform its great task during the Middle Ages, what educational agencies it developed, and to what extent these wereuseful. 

II. EDUCATIONAL AND GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION OF THE EARLY CHURCH

SCHOOLING OF THE EARLY CHURCH; CATECHUMENAL INSTRUCTION. The earlychurches were bound together by no formal bond of union, and felt littleneed for such. It was the belief of many that Christ would soon return andthe world would end, hence there was little necessity for organization. There was also almost no system of belief. An acknowledgment of God as theFather, a repentance for past sins, a godly life, and a desire to be savedwere about all that was expected of any one. [15] The chief concern wasthe moral regeneration of society through the moral regeneration ofconverts. To accomplish this, in face of the practices of Roman society, aprocess of instruction and a period of probation for those wishing to jointhe faith soon became necessary. Jews, pagans, and the children ofbelievers were thereafter alike subjected to this before full acceptanceinto the Church. At stated times during the week the probationers met forinstruction in morality and in the psalmody of the Church (R. 39). Thesetwo subjects constituted almost the entire instruction, the period ofprobation covering two or three years. The teachers were merely the olderand abler members of the congregation. 

This personal instruction became common everywhere in the early Church, and the training was known as _catechumenal_, that is, rudimentary, instruction. Two sets of catechumenal lectures have survived, which givean idea as to the nature of the instruction. They cover the essentials ofchurch practice and the religious life (RS. 39, 40). It was droppedentirely in the conversion of the barbarian tribes. This instruction, andthe preaching of the elders (presbyters, who later evolved into priests), constituted the formal schooling of the early converts to Christianity inItaly and the East. Such instruction was never known in England, and butlittle in Gaul. 

The life in the Church made a moral and emotional, rather than anintellectual appeal. In fact the early Christians felt but little need forthe type of intellectual education provided by the Roman schools, and thecharacter of the educated society about them, as they saw it, did not makethem wish for the so-called pagan learning. Even if the parents ofconverts wished to provide additional educational advantages for theirchildren, what could they do? A modern author states well the predicamentof such Christian parents, when he says:

 All the schools were pagan. Not only were all the ceremonies of the official faith--and more especially the festivals of Minerva, who was the patroness of masters and pupils--celebrated at regular intervals in the schools, but the children were taught reading out of books saturated with the old mythology. There the Christian child made his first acquaintance with the deities of Olympus. He ran the danger of imbibing ideas entirely contrary to those which he had received at home. The fables he had learned to detest in his own home were explained, elucidated, and held up to his admiration every day by his masters. Was it right to put him thus into two schools of thought? What could be done that he might be educated, like every one else, and yet not run the risk of losing his faith? [16]

CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS. After Christianity had begun to make converts amongthe more serious-minded and better-educated citizens of the Roman Empire, the need for more than rudimentary instruction in the principles of thechurch life began to be felt. Especially was this the case in the placeswhere Christian workers came in contact with the best scholars of theHellenic learning, and particularly at Alexandria, Athens, and the citiesof Asia Minor. The speculative Greek would not be satisfied with thesimple, unorganized faith of the early Christians. He wanted to understandit as a system of thought, and asked many questions that were hard toanswer. To meet the critical inquiry of learned Greeks, it becamedesirable that the clergy of the Church, in the East at least, should beequipped with a training similar to that of their critics. As a resultthere was finally evolved, first at Alexandria, and later at other placesin the Empire, training schools for the leaders of the Church. 

These came to be known as _catechetical_ schools, from their oralquestioning method of instruction, and this term was later applied toelementary religious instruction (whence _catechism_) throughout westernEurope. Pantaenus, a converted Greek Stoic, who became head of thecatechumenal instruction at Alexandria, in 179 A. D. , brought to thetraining of future Christian leaders the strength of Greek learning andGreek philosophic thought. He and his successors, Clement and Origen, developed here an important school of Christian theology where Greeklearning was used to interpret the Scriptures and train leaders for theservice of the Church. Similar schools were opened at Antioch, Edessa, Nisibis, and Caesarea (See Map, p. 89), and these developed into arudimentary form of theological schools for the education of the easternChristian clergy. In these schools Christian faith and doctrine wereformulated into a sort of system, the whole being tinctured through andthrough with Greek philosophic thought. Out of these schools came some ofthe great Fathers of the early Church; men who strove to uphold the paganlearning and reconcile Christianity and Greek philosophic thinking. [17]

REJECTION OF PAGAN LEARNING IN THE WEST. In the West, where the leaders ofthe Church came from the less philosophic and more practical Roman stock, and where the contact with a decadent society wakened a greater reaction, the tendency was to reject the Hellenic learning, and to depend more uponemotional faith and the enforcement of a moral life. By the close of thethird century the hostility to the pagan schools and to the Helleniclearning had here become pronounced (R. 41). Even the Fathers of the LatinChurch, the greatest of whom had been teachers of oratory or rhetoric inRoman schools before their conversion, [18] gradually came to reject thepagan learning as undesirable for Christians and in a large degree as arobbery from God. Saint Augustine, in his _Confessions_, hopes that Godmay forgive him for having enjoyed Vergil. Jerome's dream [19] was knownand quoted throughout the Middle Ages. Tertullian, in his _Prescriptionagainst Heresies_, exclaims:

 What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord is there between the Academy and the Church? What between heretics and Christians?... Away with all attempts to produce a mottled Christianity of Stoic, Platonic, and dialectic composition. 

Gregory the Great, Pope of the Church from 590 to 604, and who had beenwell educated as a youth in the surviving Roman-type schools, turnedbitterly against the whole of pagan learning. "I am strongly of theopinion, " he says, "that it is an indignity that the words of the oracleof Heaven should be restrained by the rules of Donatus" (grammar). In aletter to the Bishop of Vienne he berates him for giving instruction ingrammar, concluding with--"the praise of Christ cannot lie in one mouthwith the praise of Jupiter. Consider yourself what a crime it is forbishops to recite what would be improper for religiously-minded laymen. "

As a result Hellenic learning declined rapidly in importance in the Westas the Church attained supremacy, and finally, in 401, the Council ofCarthage, largely at the instigation of Saint Augustine, forbade theclergy to read any pagan author. In time Greek learning largely died outin the West, and was for a time almost entirely lost. Even the Greeklanguage was forgotten, and was not known again in the West for nearly athousand years. [20]

THE CHURCH PERFECTS A STRONG ORGANIZATION. As was previously stated (p. 92), but little need was felt during the first two centuries for a systemof belief or church government. As the expected return of Christ did nottake place, and as the need for a formulation of belief and a system ofgovernment began to be felt, the next step was the development of thesefeatures. The system of belief and the ceremonials of worship finallyevolved are more the products of Greek thought and practices of the East, while the form of organization and government is derived more from Romansources. In the second century the Old Testament was translated into Greekat Alexandria, and the "Apostles' Creed" was formulated. During the thirdcentury the writings deemed sacred were organized into the New Testament, also in Greek. In 325 the first General Council of the Church was held atNicaea, in Asia Minor. It formulated the Nicene Creed (R. 42), and twentycanons or laws for the government of the Church. A second General Council, held at Constantinople in 381, revised the Nicene Creed and adoptedadditional canons. 

[Illustration: FIG. 28. A BISHOPSeventh Century (Santo Venanzio, Rome)]

The great organizing genius of the western branch of the Church was SaintAugustine (354-430). He gave to the Western or Latin Church, thenbeginning to take on its separate existence, the body of doctrine neededto enable it to put into shape the things for which it stood. The systemof theology evolved before the separation of the eastern and westernbranches of the Church was not so finished and so finely speculative asthat of the Greek branch, but was more practical, more clearly legal, andmore systematically organized. 

The influence of Rome was strong also in the organization of the system ofgovernment finally adopted for the Church. There being no other model, theRoman governmental system was copied. The bishop of a city corresponded tothe Roman municipal officials; the archbishop of a territory to thegovernor of a province; and the patriarch to the ruler of a division ofthe Empire. As Rome had been a universal Empire, and as the city of Romehad been the chief governing city, [21] the idea of a universal Church wasnatural and the supremacy of the Bishop of Rome was gradually asserted anddetermined. [22]

A STATE WITHIN A STATE. There was thus developed in the West, as it were aState within a State. That is, within the Roman Empire, with its Emperor, provincial governors, and municipal officials, governing the people anddrawing their power from the Roman Senate and imperial authority, therewas also gradually developed another State, consisting of those who hadaccepted the Christian faith, and who rendered their chief allegiance, through priest, bishop, and archbishop, to a central head of the Churchwho owed allegiance to no earthly ruler. That Christianity, viewed fromthe governmental point of view, was a serious element of weakness in theRoman State and helped its downfall, there can be no question. In theeastern part of the Empire the Church was always much more closelyidentified with the State. Fortunately for civilization, before the RomanEmpire had fallen and the impending barbarian deluge had descended, theChristian Church had succeeded in formulating a unifying belief and a formof government capable of commanding respect and of enforcing authority, and was fast taking over the power of the State itself. 

THE CATHEDRAL OR EPISCOPAL SCHOOLS. The first churches throughout theEmpire were in the cities, and made their early converts there. [23]Gradually these important cities evolved into the residences of asupervising priest or bishop, the territory became known as a _bishopric_, and the church as a _cathedral church_. In time, also, some of theoutlying territory was organized into parishes, and churches wereestablished in these. These were made tributary to and placed under thedirection of the bishop of the large central city. To supply clergy forthese outlying parishes came to be one of the functions of the bishop, and, to insure properly trained clergy and to provide for promotions inthe clerical ranks, schools of a rudimentary type were established inconnection with the cathedral churches. These came to be known as_cathedral_, or _episcopal schools_. At first they were probably under theimmediate charge of the bishop, but later, as his functions increased, theschool was placed under a special teacher, known as a _Scholasticus_, or_Magister Scholarum_, who directed the cathedral school, assisted thebishop, and trained the future clergy. As the pagan secondary schools diedout, these cathedral schools, together with the monastic schools whichwere later founded, gradually replaced the pagan schools as the importanteducational institutions of the western world. In these two types ofschools the religious leaders of the early Middle Ages were trained. 

THE MONASTIC ORGANIZATION. In the early days of Christianity, it will beremembered (p. 87), the Christian convert held himself apart from thewicked world all about him, and had little to do with the society or thegovernment of his time. He regarded the Church as having no relationshipto the State. As the Church grew stronger, however, and became a Statewithin a State, the Christian took a larger and larger part in the worldaround him, and in time came to be distinguished from other men by hisprofession of the Christian religion rather than by any other mark. Manyof the early bishops were men of great political sagacity, fully capableof realizing to the full the political opportunities, afforded by theirposition, to strengthen the power of the Church. It was the work of men ofthis type that created the temporal power of the Church, and made of it aninstitution capable of commanding respect and enforcing its decisions. 

To some of the early Christians this life did not appeal. To them holinesswas associated with a complete withdrawal from contact with this sinfulworld and all its activities. Some betook themselves to the desert, othersto the forests or mountains, and others shut themselves up alone that theymight be undisturbed in their religious meditations. To such devoted soulsmonasticism, a scheme of living brought into the Christian world from theEast, made a strong appeal. It provided that such men should live togetherin brotherhoods, renouncing the world, taking vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, and devoting their lives to hard labor and themortification of the flesh that the soul might be exalted and madebeautiful. The members lived alone in individual cells, but came togetherfor meals, prayer, and religious service. 

As early as 330 a monastery had been organized on the island of Tebernae, in the Nile. About 350 Saint Basil introduced monasticism into Asia Minor, where it flourished greatly. In 370 the Basilian order was founded. Themonastic idea was soon transferred to the West, a monastery beingestablished at Rome probably as early as 340. The monastery of SaintVictor, at Marseilles, was founded by Cassian in 404, and this type ofmonastery and monastic rule was introduced into Gaul, about 415. Themonastery of Lerins (off Cannes, in southern France) was established in405. During the fifth century a rapid extension of monastic foundationstook place in western Europe, particularly along the valleys of the Rhoneand the Loire in Gaul. 

[Illustration: FIG. 29. A BENEDICTINE MONK, ABBOT, AND ABBESS(From a thirteenth-century manuscript)]

In 529 Saint Benedict, a Roman of wealth who fled from the corruption ofhis city, founded the monastery of Monte Cassino, south of Rome, andestablished a form of government, or rule of daily life, which wasgradually adopted by nearly all the monasteries of the West. In timeEurope came to be dotted with thousands of these establishments, many ofwhich were large and expensive institutions both to found and to maintain. [24] By the time the barbarian invasions were in full swing monasticismhad become an established institution of the Christian Church. Nunneriesfor women also were established early. A letter from Saint Jerome toMarcella, a Roman matron, in 382, in which he says that "no high-born ladyat Rome had made profession of the monastic life ... Or had ventured ... Publicly to call herself a nun, " would seem to imply that suchinstitutions had already been established in Rome. 

MONASTIC SCHOOLS. Poverty, chastity, obedience, labor, and religiousdevotion were the essential features of a monastic life. The Rule of SaintBenedict (R. 43) organized in a practical way the efforts of those whotook the vows. In a series of seventy-three rules which he laid down, covering all phases of monastic life, the most important from thestandpoint of posterity was the forty-eighth, prescribing at least sevenhours of daily labor and two hours of reading "for all able to bear theload. " From that part of the rule requiring regular manual labor the monksbecame the most expert farmers and craftsmen of the early Middle Ages, while to the requirement of daily reading we owe in large part thedevelopment of the school and the preservation of learning in the Westduring the long intellectual night of the mediaeval period (R. 44). 

Into these monastic institutions the _oblati_, that is, those who wishedto become monks, were received as early as the age of twelve, andoccasionally earlier (R. 53 a). The final vows (R. 53 b) could not betaken until eighteen, so during this period the novice was taught to workand to read and write, given instruction in church music, and taught tocalculate the church festivals and to do simple reckoning. In time somecondensed and carefully edited compendium of the elements of classicallearning was also studied, and still later a more elaborate type ofinstruction was developed in some of the monasteries. This, however, belongs to a later division of this history, and further description ofchurch and monastic education will be deferred until we study theintellectual life of the Middle Ages. 

THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS. Aside from the general instruction in thepractices of the church and home instruction in the work of a woman, therewas but little provision made for the education of girls not desiring tojoin a convent or nunnery. A few, however, obtained a limited amount ofintellectual training. The letter of Saint Jerome to the Roman lady Paula(R. 45), regarding the education of her daughter, is a very importantdocument in the history of early Christian education for girls. Datingfrom 403, it outlines the type of training a young girl should be givenwho was to be properly educated in Christian faith and properlyconsecrated to God. What he outlined was education for nunneries, a numberof which had been founded in the East and a few in the West. In the Westthese institutions later experienced an extensive development, and offeredthe chief opportunity for any intellectual education for women during thewhole of the Middle Ages. 

III. WHAT THE MIDDLE AGES STARTED WITH

WHAT THE CHURCH BROUGHT TO THE MIDDLE AGES. From a small and purelyspiritual organization, devoting its energies to exhortation and to themoral regeneration of mankind, and without creed or form of government, asthe Christian Church was in the first two centuries of its development, wehave traced the organization of a body of doctrine, the perfection of astrong system of church government, and the development of a very limitededucational system designed merely to train leaders for its service. Wehave also shown how it added to its early ecclesiastical organization astrong governmental organization, became a State within a State, andgradually came to direct the State itself. It was thus ready, when thevirtual separation of the Roman Empire into an eastern and westerndivision took place, in 395, and when the western division finally fellbefore the barbarian onslaughts, to take up in a way the work of theState, force the barbarian hordes to acknowledge its power, and begin theprocess of civilizing these new tribes and building up once more acivilization in the western world. In addition to its spiritual andpolitical power, the Church also had developed, in its catechumenalinstruction and in the cathedral and monastic schools, a very meager formof an educational system for the training of its future leaders andservants. A great change had now taken place in the nature of education asa preparation for life, and intellectual education, in the sense that itwas known and understood in Greece and Rome, was not to be known again inthe western world for almost a thousand years. The distinguishingcharacteristic of the centuries which follow, up to the Revival ofLearning, are, first, a struggle against very adverse odds to preventcivilization from disappearing entirely, and later a struggle to build upnew foundations upon which world civilization might begin once more whereit had left off in Greece and Rome. 

THE THREE GREAT CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ANCIENT WORLD. Thus, before theMiddle Ages began, the three great contributions of the ancient worldwhich were to form the foundations of our future western civilization hadbeen made. Greece gave the world an art and a philosophy and a literatureof great charm and beauty, the most advanced intellectual and aestheticideas that civilization has inherited, and developed an educational systemof wonderful effectiveness--one that in its higher development in timetook captive the entire Mediterranean world and profoundly modified alllater thinking. Rome was the organizing and legal genius of the ancientworld, as Greece was the literary and philosophical. To Rome we areespecially indebted for out conceptions of law, order, and government, andfor the ability to make practical and carry into effect the ideals ofother peoples. To the Hebrews we are indebted for the world's loftiestconceptions of God, religious faith, and moral responsibility, and toChristianity and the Church we are indebted for making these ideasuniversal in the Roman Empire and forcing them on a barbaric world. 

All these great foundations of our western civilization have not come downto us directly. The hostility to pagan learning that developed on the partof the Latin Fathers; the establishment of an eastern capital for theEmpire at Constantinople, in 328; the virtual division of the Empire intoan East and West, in 395; and the final division of the Christian Churchinto a Western Latin and an Eastern Greek Church, which was graduallyeffected, finally drove Greek philosophy and learning and the Greeklanguage from the western world. Greek was not to be known again in theWest for hundreds of years. Fortunately the Eastern Church was moretolerant of pagan learning than was the Western, and was better able towithstand conquest by barbarian tribes. In consequence what the Greeks haddone was preserved at Constantinople until Europe had once more becomesufficiently civilized and tolerant to understand and appreciate it. Hellenic learning was then handed back to western Europe, first throughthe medium of the Saracens, and then in that great Revival of Learningwhich we know as the _Renaissance_. Of the Latin literature and learningmuch was lost, and much was preserved almost by accident in themonasteries of mediaeval Europe. Even the Church itself was seriouslydeflected from its earlier purpose and teachings during the long period ofbarbarism and general ignorance through which it passed, and only inmodern times has it tried to come back to the spirit of the teachings ofits founder. 

[Illustration: FIG. 30. SHOWING THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE AND THECHURCH

The map also shows conditions as they were in Europe at the end of thefourth century A. D. Syria, Egypt, Africa, and a portion of Asia Minor wereoverwhelmed by the Saracens in the seventh century and became Mohammedan, but Constantinople held out until 1453. The eastern division eventuallygave rise to the Greek Catholic Church of Greece, the Balkans, and Russia, while the western division became the Roman Catholic Church of westernEurope. At Constantinople Greek learning was preserved until the West wasagain ready to receive it. The Eastern Empire for a time retained controlof Sicily and southern Italy (the old _Magna Graecia_), but eventuallythese were absorbed by western or Latin Christianity. ]

THE FUTURE STORY. For the long period of intellectual stagnation which nowfollowed, the educational story is briefly told. But little formaleducation was needed, and that of but one main type. It was only after theChurch had won its victory over the barbarian hordes, and had built up thefoundations upon which a new civilization could be developed, thateducation in any broad and liberal sense was again needed. This requirednearly a thousand years of laborious and painful effort. Then, whenschools again became possible and learning again began to be demanded, education had to begin again with the few at the top, and thecontributions of Greece and Rome had to be recovered and put into usableform as a basis upon which to build. It is only very recently that it hasbecome possible to extend education to all. 

In Part II we shall next trace briefly the intellectual life of the MiddleAges, and the reawakening, and in Part III we shall, among other things, point out the deep and lasting influence of the work of these ancientcivilizations on our modern educational thoughts and practices. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Point out the many advantages of a universal religion for such auniversal Empire as Rome developed, and the advantages of Emperor worshipfor such an Empire. 

2. What do modern nations have that is much akin to Emperor worship?

3. Explain why Stoicism made such an appeal to the better-educated classesat Rome. 

4. Why is an emotional faith better adapted to the mass of people than anintellectual one?

5. Explain how the Hebrew scribes, administering such a mixed body oflaws, naturally came to be both teachers and judges for the people. 

6. Illustrate how the Hebrew tradition that the moral and spiritual unityof a people is stronger than armed force has been shown to be true inhistory. 

7. What great lessons may we draw from the work of the Hebrews inmaintaining a national unity through compulsory education?

8. Why was Jesus' idea as to the importance of the individual destined tomake such slow headway in the world? What is the status of the idea to-day(a) in China? (b) in Germany? (c) in England? (d) in the United States? Isthe idea necessarily opposed to nationality or even to a strong stategovernment?

9. Show how the political Church, itself the State, was the naturaloutcome during the Middle Ages of the teachings of the early Christians asto the relationship of Church and State. 

10. Is it to be wondered that the Romans were finally led to persecute"the vast organized defiance of law by the Christians"?

11. Show how the Christian idea of the equality and responsibility of allgave the citizen a new place in the State. 

12. State the reasons for the gradually increasing lack of sympathy andunderstanding between the eastern and western Fathers of the Church, andwhich finally led to the division of the Church. 

13. Explain what is meant by "a State within a State" as applied to theChurch of the third and fourth centuries. Did this prove to be a goodthing for the future of civilization? Why?

14. Would Rome probably have been better able to withstand the barbarianinvasions if Christianity had not arisen, or not? Why?

15. Show how the Christian attitude toward pagan learning tended to stopschools and destroy the accumulated learning. 

16. What was the effect of the Christian attitude toward the care of thebody, on scientific and medical knowledge, and on education? Was theChristian or the pagan attitude more nearly like that of modern times?

17. Why did the emphasis on form of belief, in the third and fourthcenturies, come to supersede the emphasis on personal virtues and simplefaith of the first and second centuries?

18. Compare the work of the Sunday School of to-day with the catechumenalinstruction of the early Christians. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 27. The Talmud: Educational Maxims from. 28. Saint Paul: Epistle to the Romans. 29. Saint Paul: To the Athenians. 30. The Crimes of the Christians. (a) Minucius Felix: The Roman Point of View. (b) Tertullian: The Christian Point of View. 31. Persecution of the Christians as Disloyal Subjects of the Empire. (a) Pliny to Trajan. (b) Trajan to Pliny. 32. Tertullian: Effect of the Persecutions. 33. Eusebius: Edicts of Diocletian against the Christians. 34. Workman: Certificate of having Sacrificed to the Pagan Gods. 35. Kingsley: The Empire and Christianity in Conflict. 36. Lactantius: The Edict of Toleration by Galerius. 37. Theodosian Code: The Faith of Catholic Christians. 38. Theodosian Code: Privileges and Immunities granted the Clergy. 39. Apostolic Constitutions: How the Catechumens are to be instructed. 40. Leach: Catechumenal Schools of the Early Church. 41. Apostolic Constitutions: Christians should abstain from all Heathen Books. 42. The Nicene Creed of 325 A. D. 43. Saint Benedict: Extracts from the Rule of. 44. Lanfranc: Enforcing Lenten Reading in the Monasteries. 45. Saint Jerome: Letter on the Education of Girls. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Characterize the type of education to be provided and the status of theteacher, as shown in the selections from the Talmud (27). Compare withRome. With Athens. 

2. Characterize the attitude of Saint Paul toward the Romans (28). Doeshis description of Athens (29) tally with the description of the Atheniansgiven in the text?

3. Was it possible for the Roman and the Christian to understand oneanother, thinking as they did in such different terms (30 a-b)?

4. Considering Pliny and Trajan (31 a-b) as Roman officials, with theRoman point of view, and taking into account the time in the history ofworld civilization, would you say that they were quite tolerant of rebelswithin the State?

5. Compare the privileges and immunities granted the clergy (38) with theprivileges previously given by Constantine to physicians and teachers(26). 

6. Characterize the irrepressible conflict as pictured by Kingsley (35). Name a few other somewhat similar conflicts in world history. 

7. Outline the type of instruction for catechumens as directed in theApostolic Constitutions (39). 

8. What would have been the effect of the continued rejection of secularbooks called for in the Apostolic Constitutions (41)?

9. What was the governmental advantage of the adoption of the Nicene Creed(42)?

10. Why did the rule of Saint Benedict (43) requiring readings and studylead to the copying and preservation of manuscripts?

11. What does the selection from Lanfranc (44) indicate as to the state ofmonastic learning?

12. Was there anything pedagogically sound about the letter of SaintJerome (45) on the education of girls? Discuss. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Dill, Sam'l. _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_. Fisher, Geo. P. _Beginnings of Christianity_. * Fisher, Geo. P. _History of the Christian Church_. * Hatch, Edw. _Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church_. (Hibbert Lectures, 1888. ) Hodgson, Geraldine. _Primitive Church Education_. Kretzmann, P. E. _Education among the Jews_. MacCabe, Joseph. _Saint Augustine_. * Monro, D. C. And Sellery, G. E. _Mediaeval Civilization_. * Swift, F. H. _Education in Ancient Israel to 70 A. D. _ Taylor, H. O. _Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages_. Wishart, A. W. _Short History of Monks and Monasticism_. 

PART II

THE MEDIAEVAL WORLD

THE DELUGE OF BARBARISMTHE MEDIAEVAL STRUGGLE TO PRESERVE AND REËSTABLISH CIVILIZATION

CHAPTER V

NEW PEOPLES IN THE EMPIRE

THE WEAKENED EMPIRE. Though the first and second centuries A. D. Have oftenbeen called one of the happiest ages in all human history, due to asuccession of good Emperors and peace and quiet throughout the Romanworld, [1] the reign of the last of the good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius(161-180 A. D. ), may be regarded as clearly marking a turning-point in thehistory of Roman society. Before his reign Rome was ascendant, prosperous, powerful; during his reign the Empire was beset by many difficulties--pestilence, floods, famine, troubles with the Christians, and heavy Germaninroads--to which it had not before been accustomed; and after his reignthe Empire was distinctly on the defensive and the decline. Though theelements contributing to this change in national destiny had their originin the changes in the character of the national life at least twocenturies earlier, it was not until now that the Empire began to feelseriously the effects of these changes in a lowered vitality and aweakened power of resistance. 

The virtues of the citizens of the early days of the Republic, trainedaccording to the old ideas, had gradually given way in the face of thevices and corruption which beset and sapped the life of the upper andruling classes in the later Empire. The failure of Rome to put itsprovincial government on any honest and efficient civil-service basis, thefailure of the State to establish and direct an educational system capableof serving as a corrective of dangerous national tendencies, the lack of aguiding national faith, the gradual admission of so many Germans into theEmpire, the great extent and demoralizing influence of slavery [2]--allcontributed to that loss of national strength and resisting power whichwas now becoming increasingly evident. Other contributing elements ofimportance were the almost complete obliteration of the peasantry by thecreation of great landed estates and cattle ranches worked by slaves, inplace of the small farms of earlier days; the increase of the poor in thecities, and the declining birth-rate; the introduction of large numbers ofbarbarians as farmers and soldiers; and the demoralization of the cityrabble by political leaders in need of votes. Captured slaves performedalmost every service, and a lavish display of wealth on the part of a fewcame to be a characteristic feature of city life. [3] The great middle, commercial, and professional classes were still prosperous and contented, but luxury, imported vices, slavery, political corruption, and new ideals[4] had gradually sapped the old national vitality and destroyed theresisting power of the State in the face of a great national calamity. Rome now stood, much like the shell of a fine old tree, apparently in goodcondition, but in reality ready to fall before the blast because it hadbeen allowed to become rotten at the heart. Sooner or later the boundariesof the Empire, which had held against the pressure from without for solong, were destined to be broken and the barbarian deluge from the northand east would pour over the Empire. 

[Illustration: FIG. 31. A BODYGUARD OF GERMANSA relief from the Column of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome, erected to celebratehis victories over the Marcomanni, and other German tribes. ]

THE BOUNDARIES OF THE EMPIRE ARE BROKEN. While temporary extensions ofterritory had at times been made beyond the Rhine and the Danube, theserivers had finally come to be the established boundaries of the Empire onthe north, and behind these rivers the Teutonic barbarians, or _Germani_, as the Romans called them, had by force been kept. To do even this theRomans had been obliged to admit bands of Germans into the Empire, and hadtaken them into the Roman army as "allies, " making use of their great lovefor fighting to hold other German tribes in check. In 166 A. D. The plague, brought back by soldiers returning from the East, carried offapproximately half the population of Italy. This same year the Marcomanni(see Figure 18), a former friendly tribe, invaded the Empire as far as thehead of the Adriatic Sea, and it required thirteen years of warfare to putthem back behind the Danube. Even this was accomplished only by the aid offriendly German tribes. From this time on the Empire was more or less onthe defensive, with the barbarian tribes to the north casting increasinglylonging eyes toward "a place in the sun" and the rich plunder that lay tothe south, and frequently breaking over the boundaries. Rome, though, wasstill strong enough to put them back again. 

In 275 A. D. , after a five years' struggle, the Eastern Emperor gave theprovince of Dacia, to the south of the Danube, to the Visigoths, in aneffort to buy them off from further invasion and warfare. This eased thepressure for another century. In 378 A. D. , now pressed on by the terribleHuns from behind, the Visigoths, as a body, invaded the Eastern Empire, and in the Battle of Adrianople, near Constantinople, defeated the Romanarmy, slew the Roman Emperor, definitely broke the boundaries of theEmpire, and they and the Ostrogoths now moved southward and settled inMoesia and Thrace. The Germans at Adrianople learned that they could beatthe Roman legions, and from this time on it was they, and not the Romans, who named the terms of ransom and the price of peace. A few years later, under Alaric, the Visigoths invaded Greece, then turned westward throughIllyria to the valley of the Po, in northern Italy, which they reached inthe year 400. In 410 the great calamity came when they captured and sackedRome. The effect produced on the Roman world by the fall of the EternalCity, as the news of the almost incredible disaster penetrated to theremote provinces, was profound (R. 48). For eight hundred years Rome hadnot been touched by foreign hands, and now it had been captured andplundered by barbarian hordes. It seemed to many as though the end of theworld were approaching. The Visigoths now turned west once more, carryingwith them the beautiful sister of the Emperor as a captive bride of thechief, and finally settled in Spain and southern Gaul, which provinceswere thenceforth lost to Rome. This was the first of the great permanentinroads into the Empire, and from now on Roman resistance seemed powerlessto stop the flood. 

[Illustration: FIG. 32. THE GERMAN MIGRATIONSThe barriers of the Empire along the Rhine and the Danube now are brokendown. Take a pencil and trace the route followed by each of thesepeoples. ]

A PERIOD OF TRIBAL MOVEMENTS. The Hunnish pressure also started theVandals and Suevi, and within fifty years they had been able to moveacross Germany, France, and Spain, plundering the cities on their way. Finally they crossed to the northern coast of Africa, where they becamenoted as the great sea pirates of the Mediterranean. In 455 they crossedback to Italy, and Rome was sacked for the second time by barbarianhordes. The Huns, under the leadership of Attila, the so-called "Scourgeof God, " now moved in and ravaged Gaul (451) and northern Italy (452), andthen, at the intercession of the Roman Pope Leo, were induced by a ransomprice to return to the lower Danube, where they have since remained. In476 the barbarian soldiers of the Empire, tired of camp life and demandingland on which they too might settle, rose in revolt, displaced the last ofthe Western Emperors, and elevated Odovacar, a tribesman from the north, as ruler in his stead. The Western Roman Empire was now at an end. In 493Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, became king of Italy. 

Between 443 and 485 the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes left their earlier homesin what is now Denmark and northwestern Germany, and overran eastern andsouthern Britain. In 486 the Franks, a great nation living along the lowerRhine, began to move, and within two generations had overrun almost all ofGaul. In 586 the Lombards invaded and settled the valleys of northernItaly, displacing the Ostrogoths there. Slavic tribes now moved into theEastern Empire--Serbs and Bulgars--and settled in Moesia and Thrace. Southeastern Europe thus became Slavic-Greek, as western Europe had becomeTeutonic-Latin. Figure 32 shows the results of these different migrationsup to about 500 A. D. 

EUROPE TO BE TEUTONIC-LATIN. In the seventh century another great wave ofpeople, of a different racial stock and religion--Semitic and Mohammedan--starting from Arabia and along the shores of the Red Sea, swept rapidlythrough Egypt and Africa and across into Spain and France. For a time itlooked as though they might overrun all western Europe and bring theGerman tribes under subjection. Fortunately they were definitely stoppedand decisively defeated by the Franks, in the great Battle of Tours, in732. They also overran Syria and Persia, but were held in check in AsiaMinor by the Eastern Empire, which did not completely succumb to barbarianinroads until Constantinople was taken by the Turks, in 1453. 

The importance of the result, to the future of our western civilization, of this battle in the West can hardly be overestimated. The future ofEuropean government, law, education, and civilization was settled on thatSaturday afternoon in October, on the battle plains of Tours. [5] It was astruggle for mastery and dominion between the Aryan and Semitic races, between the Christian and Mohammedan religions, between the forcesrepresenting order on the one side and destruction on the other, andbetween races destined to succeed to the civilization of Greece and Romeand a race representing oriental despotism and static conditions. 

[Illustration: FIG. 33. THE KNOWN WORLD IN 800This map shows the great extent of the Mohammedan conquests. The partmarked as "European Heathen" was added to Christianity within the next fewcenturies, and became a part of our Latin-Teutonic or westerncivilization. ]

Driven back across the Pyrenees by the Franks, these people settled inSpain; later developed there, for a short period, a for-the-timeremarkable civilization, but one that only slightly influenced the currentof European development; and then disappeared as a force in our westerndevelopment and progress. We shall meet them again a little later, butonly for a little while, and then they concern our western development nomore. 

Our interest from now on lies with the Teutonic-Latin peoples of westernEurope, for it is through them that our western civilization has beenworked out and has come down to us. 

WHO THESE INVADERS WERE. A long-continued series of tribal migrations, unsurpassed before in history, had brought a large number of new peopleswithin the boundaries of the old Empire. They finally came so fast thatthey could not have been assimilated even in the best days of Rome, andnow the assimilative and digestive powers of Rome were gone. Tall, huge oflimb, white-skinned, flaxen-haired, with fierce blue eyes, and clad inskins and rude cloths, they seemed like giants to the short, small, dark-skinned people of the Italian peninsula. Quarrelsome; delighting infighting and gambling; given to drunkenness and gluttonous eating;possessed of a rude polytheistic religion in which _Woden_, the war god, held the first place, and Valhalla was a heaven for those killed inbattle; living in rude villages in the forest, and maintaining themselvesby hunting and fishing--it is not to be wondered that Rome dreaded thecoming of these forest barbarians (R. 46). 

[Illustration: FIG 34. A GERMAN WAR CHIEFRestored, and rather idealized (From the Musée d'Artillerie at Paris)]

The tribes nearest the Rhine and the Danube had taken on a littlecivilization from long contact with the Romans, but those farther awaywere savage and unorganized (Rs. 46, 47). In general they represented adegree of civilization not particularly different from that of the betterAmerican Indians in our colonial period, [6] though possessing a muchlarger ability to learn. The "two terrible centuries" which brought thesenew peoples into the Empire were marked by unspeakable disorder andfrightful destruction. It was the most complete catastrophe that had everbefallen civilized society. 

[Illustration: FIG. 35. ROMANS DESTROYING A GERMAN VILLAGE(From the Column of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome) Note the circular huts ofreeds, without windows, and with but a single door. ]

THEY SETTLE DOWN WITHIN THE EMPIRE. Finally, after a period of wanderingand plundering, each of these new peoples settled down within the Empireas rulers over the numerically larger native Roman population, and slowlybegan to turn from hunting to a rude type of farming. For three or fourcenturies after the invasions ceased, though, Europe presented a drearyspectacle of ignorance, lawlessness, and violence. Force reigned where lawand order had once been supreme. Work largely ceased, because there was nosecurity for the results of labor. The Roman schools gradually died out, in part because of pagan hostility (all pagan schools were closed byimperial edict in 529 A. D. ), and in part because they no longer ministeredto any real need. The church and the monastery schools alone remained, theinstruction in these was meager indeed, and they served almost entirelythe special needs of the priestly and monastic classes. The Latin languagewas corrupted and modified into spoken dialects, and the written languagedied out except with the monks and the clergy. Even here it became greatlycorrupted. Art perished, and science disappeared. The former Roman skillin handicrafts was largely lost. Roads and bridges were left withoutrepair. Commerce and intercourse almost ceased. The cities decayed, andmany were entirely destroyed (R. 49). 

The new ruling class was ignorant--few could read or write their names--and they cared little for the learning of Greece and Rome. Much of whatwas excellent in the ancient civilizations died out because these newpeoples were as yet too ignorant to understand or use it, and what waspreserved was due to the work of others than themselves. It was with suchpeople and on such a basis that it was necessary for whatever constructiveforces still remained to begin again the task of building up newfoundations for a future European civilization. This was the work ofcenturies, and during the period the lamp of learning almost went out. 

BARBARIAN AND ROMAN IN CONTACT. Civilization was saved from almostcomplete destruction chiefly by reason of the long and substantial workwhich Rome had done in organizing and governing and unifying the Empire;by the relatively slow and gradual coming of the different tribes; and bythe thorough organization of the governing side of the Christian Church, which had been effected before the Empire was finally overrun and Romangovernment ceased. In unifying the government of the Empire andestablishing a common law, language, and traditions, and in earlybeginning the process of receiving barbarians into the Empire andeducating them in her ways and her schools, [7] Rome rendered the westernworld a service of inestimable importance and one which did much toprepare the way for the reception and assimilation of the invaders. [8] Inthe cities, which remained Roman in spirit even after their rulers hadchanged, and where the Roman population greatly preponderated even afterthe invaders had come, some of the old culture and handicrafts were keptup, and in the cities of southern Europe the municipal form of citygovernment was retained. Roman law still applied to trials of Romancitizens, and many Roman governmental forms passed over to the invaderchiefly because he knew no other. The old Roman population for longcontinued to furnish the clergy, and these, because of their ability toread and write, also became the secretaries and advisers of their rudeTeutonic overlords. In one capacity or another they persuaded the leadersof the tribes to adopt, not only Christianity, but many of the customs andpractices of the old civilization as well. These various influences helpedto assimilate and educate the newcomers, and to save something of the oldcivilization for the future. Being strong, sturdy, and full of youthfulenergy, and with a large capacity for learning, the civilizing process, though long and difficult, was easier than it might otherwise have been, and because of their strength and vigor these new races in time infusednew life and energy into every land from Spain to eastern Europe (R. 50). 

The most powerful force with which the barbarians came in contact, though, and the one which did most to reduce them to civilization, was theChristian Church. Organized, as we have seen, after the Roman governmentalmodel, and as a State within a State, the Church gained in strength as theRoman government grew weaker, and was ready to assume governmentalauthority when Rome could no longer exert it. The barbarians hereencountered an organization stronger than force and greater than kings, [9] which they must either accept and make terms with or absolutelydestroy. As all the tribes, though heathen, possessed some form of spiritor nature worship or heathen gods, which served as a basis forunderstanding the appeal of the Church, the result was the ultimatevictory, and the Christianizing, in name at least, of all the barbariantribes. This was the first step in the long process of civilizing andeducating them. 

THE IMPRESS OF CHRISTIANITY UPON THEM. The importance of the servicesrendered by bishops, priests, and monks during what are known as the _DarkAges_ can hardly be overestimated. In the face of might they upheld theright of the Church and its representatives to command obedience andrespect. [10] The Christian priest gradually forced the barbarian chief todo his will, though at times he refused to be awed into submission, murdered the priest, and sacked the sacred edifice. That the Church lostmuch of its early purity of worship, and adopted many practices fitted tothe needs of the time, but not consistent with real religion, there can beno question. In time the Church gained much from the mixture of these newpeoples among the old, as they infused new vigor and energy into the bloodof the old races, but the immediate effect was quite otherwise. The Churchitself was paganized, but the barbarians were in time Christianized. 

Priests and missionaries went among the heathen tribes and labored fortheir conversion. Of course the leaders were sought out first, and oftenthe conversion of a chieftain was made by first converting his wife. Afterthe chieftain had been won the minor leaders in time followed. The lessonof the cross was proclaimed, and the softening and restraining influencesof the Christian faith were exerted on the barbarian. It was, however, along and weary road to restore even a semblance of the order and respectfor life and property which had prevailed under Roman rule. 

One of the most interesting of all the conversions was that made by theBishop Ulphilas (c. 313-383) among the Visigoths, before they movedwestward from their original home north of the Danube, in what is nowsouthwestern Russia. Ulphilas was made bishop and sent among them in 343, and spent the remainder of his life in laboring with them. He devised analphabet for them, based on the Greek, and gave them a written languageinto which he translated for them the Bible, or rather large portions ofit. In the translation he omitted the two books of Kings and the twoSamuels, that the people might not find in them a further stimulus totheir great warlike activity. 

[Illustration: FIG. 36. A PAGE OF THE GOTHIC GOSPELS (_reduced_)One of the treasures of the library of the University or Upsala, inSweden, is a manuscript of this translation by Bishop Ulphilas. Greekletters, with a few Runic signs were used to represent Gothic sounds. Theword "rune" comes from a Gothic word meaning "mystery. " To the primitiveGermans it seemed a mysterious thing that a series of marks could expressthought. ]

Christianity had been carried early to Great Britain by Romanmissionaries, and in 440 Saint Patrick converted the Irish. In 563 SaintColumba crossed to Scotland, founded the monastery at Iona, and began theconversion of the Scots. After the Angles and Saxons and Jutes had overruneastern and southern Britain there was a period of several generationsduring which this portion of the island was given over to Teutonicheathenism. In 597 Saint Augustine, "the Apostle to the English, " landedin Kent and began the conversion of the people, that year succeeding inconverting Ethelbert, King of Kent. In 626 Edwin, King of Northumbria, wasconverted, and in 635 the English of Wessex accepted Christianity. TheEnglish at once became strong supporters of the Christian faith, and in878 they forced the invading Danes to accept Christianity as one of theconditions of the Peace of Wedmore. (See Map, Figure 42. )

In 496 Clovis, King of the Franks, and three thousand of his followerswere baptized, following a vow and a victory in battle; [11] in 587Recarred, King of the Goths in Spain, was won over; and in 681 the SouthSaxons accepted Christianity. The Germans of Bavaria and Thuringia werefinally won over by about 740. Charlemagne repeatedly forced the northernSaxons to accept Christianity, between 772 and 804, when the finalsubmission of this German tribe took place. Finally, in the tenth century, Rollo, Duke of the Normans, was won (912); Boleslav II, King of theBohemians, in 967; and the Hungarians in 972. In the tenth century theSlavs were converted to the Eastern or Greek type of Christianity, andPoland, Norway, and Sweden to the Western or Roman type. The last peopleto be converted were the Prussians, a half-Slavic tribe inhabiting EastPrussia and Lithuania, along the eastern Baltic, who were not brought toaccept Christianity, in name, until near the middle of the thirteenthcentury, though efforts were begun with them as early as 900. As late as1230 they were still offering human sacrifices to their heathen gods tosecure their favor, but soon after this date they were forced to a nominalacceptance of Christianity as a result of conquest by the "TeutonicKnights. " It was thus a thousand years after its foundation before Europehad accepted in name the Christian faith. To change a nominal acceptanceto some semblance of a reality has been the work of the succeedingcenturies. 

WORK OF THE CHURCH DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. Everywhere throughout the oldEmpire, and far into the forest depths of barbarian lands, went bishops, priests, and missionaries, and there parishes were organized, rudechurches arose, and the process of educating the fighting tribesmen in theways of civilized life was carried out. It was not by schools of learning, but by faith and ceremonial that the Church educated and guided herchildren into the type she approved. Schools for other than monks andclergy for a time were not needed, and such practically died out. TheChurch and its offices took the place of education and exercised awholesome and restraining influence over both young and old throughout thelong period of the Middle Ages. These the Church in time taught thebarbarian to respect. The great educational work of the Church during thisperiod of insecurity and ignorance has seldom been better stated than inthe following words by Draper:

 Of the great ecclesiastics, many had risen from the humblest ranks of society, and these men, true to their democratic instincts, were often found to be the inflexible supporters of right against might. Eventually coming to be the depositaries of the knowledge that then existed, they opposed intellect to brute force, in many instances successfully, and by the example of the organization of the Church, which was essentially republican, they showed how representative systems may be introduced into the State. Nor was it over communities and nations that the Church displayed her chief power. Never in the world before was there such a system. From her central seat at Rome, her all-seeing eye, like that of Providence itself, could equally take in a hemisphere at a glance, or examine the private life of any individual. Her boundless influences enveloped kings in their palaces, and relieved the beggar at the monastery gate. In all Europe there was not a man too obscure, too insignificant, or too desolate for her. Surrounded by her solemnities, every one received his name at her altar; her bells chimed at his marriage, her knell tolled at his funeral. She extorted from him the secrets of his life at her confessionals, and punished his faults by her penances. In his hour of sickness and trouble her servants sought him out, teaching him, by her exquisite litanies and prayers, to place his reliance on God, or strengthening him for the trials of life by the example of the holy and just. Her prayers had an efficacy to give repose to the souls of his dead. When, even to his friends, his lifeless body had become an offense, in the name of God she received it into her consecrated ground, and under her shadow he rested till the great reckoning-day. From little better than a slave she raised his wife to be his equal, and, forbidding him to have more than one, met her recompense for those noble deeds in a firm friend at every fireside. Discountenancing all impure love, she put round that fireside the children of one mother, and made that mother little less than sacred in their eyes. In ages of lawlessness and rapine, among people but a step above savages, she vindicated the inviolability of her precincts against the hand of power, and made her temples a refuge and sanctuary for the despairing and oppressed. Truly she was the shadow of a great rock in many a weary land. [12. ]

THE CIVILIZING WORK OF THE MONASTERIES. No less important than the Churchand its clergy was the work of the monasteries and their monks in buildingup a basis for a new civilization. These, too, were founded all overEurope. To make a map of western Europe showing the monasteriesestablished by 800 A. D. Would be to cover the map with a series of dots. [13] The importance of their work is better understood when we rememberthat the Germans had never lived in cities, and did not settle in them onentering the Empire. The monasteries, too, were seldom established intowns. Their sites were in the river valleys and in the forests (R. 69), and the monks became the pioneers in clearing the land and preparing theway for agriculture and civilization. Not infrequently a swamp was takenand drained. The Middle-Age period was essentially a period of settlementof the land and of agricultural development, and the monks lived on theland and among a people just passing through the earliest stages ofsettled and civilized life. In a way the inheritors of the agriculturaland handicraft knowledge of the Romans, the monks became the most skillfulartisans and farmers to be found, and from them these arts in time reachedthe developing peasantry around them. Their work and services have beenwell summed up by the same author just quoted, as follows:

 It was mainly by the monasteries that to the peasant class of Europe was pointed out the way of civilization. The devotions and charities; the austerities of the brethren; their abstemious meal; their meager clothing, the cheapest of the country in which they lived; their shaven heads, or the cowl which shut out the sight of sinful objects; the long staff in their hands; their naked feet and legs; their passing forth on their journeys by twos, each a watch on his brother; the prohibitions against eating outside of the wall of the monastery, which had its own mill, its own bakehouse, and whatever was needed in an abstemious domestic economy (Figure 38); their silent hospitality to the wayfarer, who was refreshed in a separate apartment; the lands around their buildings turned from a wilderness into a garden, and, above all, labor exalted and ennobled by their holy hands, and celibacy, forever, in the eye of the vulgar, a proof of separation from the world and a sacrifice to heaven--these were the things that arrested the attention of the barbarians of Europe, and led them on to civilization. [14]

THE PROBLEM FACED BY THE MIDDLE AGES. That the lamp of learning burned lowduring this period of assimilation is no cause for wonder. Recovery fromsuch a deluge of barbarism on a weakened society is not easy. In fact therecovery was a long and slow process, occupying nearly the whole of athousand years. The problem which faced the Church, as the sole survivingforce capable of exerting any constructive influence, was that of changingthe barbarism and anarchy of the sixth century, with its low standards ofliving and lack of humane ideals, into the intelligent, progressivecivilization of the fifteenth century. This was the work of the MiddleAges, and largely the work of the Christian Church. It was not a period ofprogress, but one of assimilation, so that a common western civilizationmight in time be developed out of the diverse and hostile elements mixedtogether by the rude force of circumstances. The enfeebled Roman race wasto be reinvigorated by mixture with the youthful and vigorous Germans (R. 50); to the institutions of ancient society were to be added certainsocial and political institutions of the Germanic peoples; all were to bebrought under the rule of a common Christian Church; and finally, whenthese people had become sufficiently civilized and educated to enable themto understand and appreciate, "nearly every achievement of the Greeks andthe Romans in thought, science, law, and the practical arts" was to berecovered and made a part of our western civilization. 

In this chapter we have dealt largely with the great fundamental movementswhich have so deeply influenced the course of human history. In thechapters which immediately follow we shall tell how learning was preservedduring the period and what facilities for education actually existed;trace the more important efforts made to reëstablish schools and learning;and finally describe the culmination of the process of absorbing andeducating the Germans in the civilization they had conquered that came inthe great period of recovery of the ancient learning and civilization--theage of the Renaissance. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Do the peculiar problems of assimilation of the foreign-born, revealedto us by the World War, put us in a somewhat similar position to Romeunder the Empire as relates to the need of a guiding national faith?

2. Outline how Rome might have been helped and strengthened by a nationalschool system under state control. 

3. Outline how our state school systems could be made much more effectiveas national instruments by the infusion into their instruction of a strongnational faith. 

4. Try to picture the results upon our civilization had western Europebecome Mohammedan. 

5. The movement of new peoples into the Roman Empire was much slower thanhas been the immigration of foreign peoples into the United States, since1840. Why the difference in assimilative power?

6. How do you think the Roman provinces and Italy, after the tribes fromthe North had settled down within the Empire, compared with Mexico afterthe years of revolution with peons and brigands in control? With Russia, after the destruction wrought by the Bolshevists?

7. Explain the importance of the long civilizing and educating work ofRome among the German tribes, in preparing the means for the preservationof Roman institutions after the downfall of the Roman government. 

8. What does the fact that Roman institutions and Roman thinking continuedand profoundly modified mediaeval life indicate as to the nature of Romangovernment and the Roman power of assimilation?

9. Though Rome never instituted a state school system, was there not afterall large educational work done by the government through its intelligentadministration?

10. Show how the breakdown of Roman government and Roman institutions wasnaturally more complete in Gaul than in northern Italy, and more completein northern than in central or southern Italy, and hence how Romancivilization was naturally preserved in larger measure in the cities ofItaly than elsewhere. 

11. Show how the Christian Church, too, could not have completelydispensed with Roman letters and Roman civilization, had it desired to doso, but was forced of necessity to preserve and pass on important portionsof the civilization of Rome. 

12. What do you think would have been the effect on the future ofcivilization had the barbarian tribes overrun Spain, Italy, and Greeceduring the Age of Pericles?

13. What modern analogies do we have to the civilizing work of the monksand clergy during the Middle Ages?

14. Picture the work of the monasteries in handing on to western Europethe arts and handicrafts and skilled occupations of Rome. Cite someexamples. 

15. What civilizing problem, somewhat comparable to that of barbarianEurope, have we faced in our national history? Why have we been able toobtain results so much more rapidly?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 46. Caesar: The Hunting Germans and their Fighting Ways. 47. Tacitus: The Germans and their Domestic Habits. 48. Dill: Effect on the Roman World of the News of the Sacking of Rome by Alaric. 49. Giry and Reville: Fate of the Old Roman Towns. 50. Kingsley: The Invaders, and what they brought. 51. General Form for a Grant of Immunity to a Bishop. 52. Charlemagne: Powers and Immunities granted to the Monastery of Saint Marcellus. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. State the differences in character Caesar observes (46) between theGauls to the west of the Rhine and the Germans to the east. 

2. What German characteristics that Tacitus describes (47) would provegood additions to Roman life?

3. Do the emotions of Saint Jerome on hearing of the sacking of Rome (48)reveal anything as to the extent to which the Roman had become a Churchmanand the Churchman a Roman? Illustrate. 

4. Is it probable that a quarter-century of Bolsheviki rule in Russiawould produce results comparable to those described by Giry and Réville(49)?

5. Is Kingsley right in stating (50) that the best elements of all themodern European peoples came from the barbarian invaders? State what seemto you to be the important contributions of barbarian invader, Roman, andChurchman. 

6. Do the grants of privileges and immunities shown in the general form(51)and the specific form (52) seem to follow naturally from the earliergrants to physicians and teachers (26) and to the clergy (38)? Point outthe relationship. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. Church, R. W. _The Beginnings of the Middle Ages_. Kingsley, Chas. _The Roman and Teuton_. * Thorndike, Lynn. _History of Mediaeval Europe_. 

CHAPTER VI

EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES [1]

I. CONDITION AND PRESERVATION OF LEARNING

THE LOW INTELLECTUAL LEVEL. As was stated in the preceding chapter, thelamp of learning burned low throughout the most of western Europe duringthe period of assimilation and partial civilization of the barbariantribes. The western portion of the Roman Empire had been overrun, and rudeGermanic chieftains were establishing, by the law of might, new kingdomson the ruins of the old. The Germanic tribes had no intellectual life oftheir own to contribute, and no intellectual tastes to be ministered unto. With the destruction of cities and towns and country villas, with theirartistic and literary collections, much that represented the old culturewas obliterated, [2] and books became more and more scarce. [3] Thedestruction was gradual, but by the beginning of the seventh century theloss had become great. The Roman schools also gradually died out as theneed for an education which prepared for government and gave a knowledgeof Roman law passed away, and the type of education approved by the Churchwas left in complete control of the field. As the security and leisureneeded for study disappeared, and as the only use for learning was now inthe service of the Church, education became limited to the narrow lineswhich offered such preparation and to the few who needed it. Amid theruins of the ancient civilization the Church stood as the onlyconservative and regenerative force, and naturally what learning remainedpassed into its hands and under its control. 

The result of all these influences and happenings was that by thebeginning of the seventh century Christian Europe had reached a very lowintellectual level, and during the seventh and eighth centuries conditionsgrew worse instead of better. Only in England and Ireland, as will bepointed out a little later, and in a few Italian cities, was thereanything of consequence of the old Roman learning preserved. On theContinent there was little general learning, even among the clergy (R. 64a). Many of the priests were woefully ignorant, [4] and the Latin writingsof the time contain many inaccuracies and corruptions which reveal the lowstandard of learning even among the better educated of the clerical class. The Church itself was seriously affected by the prevailing ignorance ofthe period, and incorporated into its system of government and worshipmany barbarous customs and practices of which it was a long time inridding itself. So great had become the ignorance and superstition of thetime, among priests, monks, and the people; so much had religion taken onthe worship of saints and relics and shrines; and so much had the Churchdeveloped the sensuous and symbolic, that religion had in reality become acrude polytheism instead of the simple monotheistic faith of the earlyChurch. Along scientific lines especially the loss was very great. Scientific ideas as to natural phenomena disappeared, and crude andchildish ideas as to natural forces came to prevail. As if barbarianchiefs and robber bands were not enough, popular imagination peopled theworld with demons, goblins, and dragons, and all sorts of superstitionsand supernatural happenings were recorded. Intercommunication largelyceased; trade and commerce died out; the accumulated wealth of the pastwas destroyed; and the old knowledge of the known world became badlydistorted, as is evidenced by the many crude mediaeval maps. (See Figure46. ) The only scholarship of the time, if such it might be called, was thelittle needed by the Church to provide for and maintain its government andworship. Almost everything that we to-day mean by civilization in that agewas found within the protecting walls of monastery or church, and theseinstitutions were at first too busy building up the foundations upon whicha future culture might rest to spend much time in preserving learning, much less in advancing it. 

[Illustration: FIG. 37. A TYPICAL MONASTERY of SOUTHERN EUROPE]

THE MONASTERIES DEVELOP SCHOOLS. In this age of perpetual lawlessness anddisorder the one opportunity for a life of repose and scholarlycontemplation lay in the monasteries. Here the rule of might and force wasabsent (R. 52), and the timid, the devout, and the studiously inclinedhere found a refuge from the turbulence and brutality of a rudecivilization. The early monasteries, and especially the monastery of SaintVictor, at Marseilles, founded by Cassian in 404, had represented aculmination of the western feeling of antagonism to all ancient learning, but with the founding of Monte Cassino by Saint Benedict, in 529 A. D. , andthe promulgation of the Benedictine rule (R. 43), a more liberal attitudewas shown. [5] This rule was adopted generally by the monasteriesthroughout what is now Italy, Spain, France, Germany, and England, and theBenedictine became the type for the monks of the early Middle Ages. Tothis order we are largely indebted for the copying of books and thepreservation of learning throughout the mediaeval period. 

The 48th rule of Saint Benedict, it will be remembered (R. 43), hadimposed reading and study as a part of the daily duty of every monk, buthad said nothing about schools. Subsequent regulations issued by superiorshad aimed at the better enforcement of this rule (R. 44), that the monksmight lead devout lives and know the Bible and the sacred writings of theChurch. Imposed at first as a matter of education and discipline for themonks, this rule ultimately led to the establishment of schools and thedevelopment of a system of monastic instruction. As youths were receivedat an early age [6] into the monasteries to prepare for a monastic life, it was necessary that they be taught to read if they were later to use thesacred books. This led to the duty of instructing novices, which marks thebeginning of monastic instruction for those within the walls. As bookswere scarce and at the same time necessary, and the only way to get newones was to copy from old ones, the monasteries were soon led to take upthe work once carried on by the publishing houses of ancient Rome, and inmuch the same way. This made writing necessary, and the novices had to beinstructed carefully in this, as well as in reading. [7] The chants andmusic of the Church called for instruction of the novices in music, andthe celebration of Easter and the fast and festival days of the Churchcalled for some rudimentary instruction in numbers and calculation. 

Out of these needs rose the monastery school, the copying of manuscripts, and the preservation of books. Due to their greater security and quiet themonasteries became the leading teaching institutions of the early part ofthe Middle-Age period, and those who wished their children trained for theservice of the Church gave them to the monasteries (R. 53 a). Thedevelopment of the monastic schools was largely voluntary, though from anearly date bishops and rulers began urging the monasteries to open schoolsfor boys in connection with their houses, and schools became in time aregular feature of the monastic organization. From schools only for thoseintending to take the vows (_oblati_), the instruction was graduallyopened, after the ninth century, to others (_externi_) not intending totake the vows, and what came to be known as "outer" monastic schools werein time developed. 

[Illustration: FIG. 38. BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF A MEDIAEVAL MONASTERY(From an engraving by Viollet-le-Duc, dated 1718, of the Cistercian Abbeyof Cîteaux, in France) This monastery was founded in the forests of whatis now northeastern France, in 1198 A. D. , and was the first of a reformedBenedictine order, known as Cistercians. For an explanation of themonastery, see the opposite page. (Note: explanation follows. )

_Explanation of the Monastery opposite_: The cross, by the roadside, indicates the entrance gate. Passing through the orchards and fields, thetraveler reached the outer gate-house. At the almonry (_C_) food and drinkwere given out; on the second floor rooms for the night could be had; inthe little chapel (_D_) prayers could be said; and in the stable (_F_) thetraveler's horse could be cared for for the night. An inner gate through(_E_) opened into an inner court, around which were the barns, chicken-yards, cow-sheds, etc. The Abbot lived at _H_. _G_ was a dormitory for thelay brothers who did the heavy work of the monastery, and who entered thechurch (_N_) at the rear through a special doorway (_S_). All of thesebuildings were considered as outside the monastery proper. 

Inside were the great church (_N_), with the library (_P_) in the rear. Seven _scriptoria_ are shown on the side of the library building. _M_ wasthe large dormitory for the monks, and _R_ the infirmary for old and sickbrothers. _I_ was the kitchen, _K_ was the dining-hall (refectory), and_L_ the stairs to the upper dormitory rooms. _C_ and _E_ are two cloisterswith corridors on the four sides, somewhat similar to the cloisters shownfor the monastery on Plate I. The copying of books often took place inthese cloisters, though a _scriptorium_ was usually found under thelibrary, the library proper, as in Plate 2, being on the second floor(_P_) and reached by a winding stair. A wall surrounded the monasterygrounds, and a stream of running water passed through them. ]

The monasteries became the preservers of learning. Another need developedthe copying of pagan books, and incidentally the preservation of some ofthe best of Roman literature. The language of the Church very naturallywas Latin, as it was a direct descendant of Roman life, governmentalorganization, citizenship, and education. The writings of the Fathers ofthe Western Church had all been in Latin, and in the fourth century theBible had been translated from the Greek into the Latin. This edition, known as the _Vulgate_ [8] _Bible_, became the standard for western Europefor ten centuries to come. The German tribes which had invaded the Empirehad no written languages of their own, and their spoken dialects differedmuch from the Latin speech of those whom they had conquered. Latin wasthus the language of all those of education, and naturally continued asthe language of the Church and the monastery for both speech and writing. All books were, of course, written in Latin. 

Under the rude influences and the general ignorance of the period, though, the language was easily and rapidly corrupted, and it became necessary forthe monasteries and the churches to have good models of Latin prose andverse to refer to. These were best found in the old Latin literaryauthors--particularly Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil. To have these, due tothe great destruction of old books which had taken place during theintervening centuries, it was necessary to copy these authors, [9] as wellas the Psalter, the Missal, [10] the sacred books, and the writings of theFathers of the Church (Rs. 55, 56). It thus happened that the monasteriesunintentionally began to preserve and use the ancient Roman books, andfrom using them at first as models for style, an interest in theircontents was later awakened. While many of the monasteries remained asfarming, charitable, and ascetic institutions almost exclusively, and werenever noted for their educational work, a small but increasing numbergradually accumulated libraries and became celebrated for their literaryactivity and for the character of their instruction. The monasteries thusin time became the storehouses of learning, the publishing houses of theMiddle Ages (Rs. 54, 55, 56), teaching institutions of first importance, and centers of literary activity and religious thought, as well as centersfor agricultural development, work in the arts and crafts, and Christianhospitality. Many developed into large and important institutions (R. 69). 

THE COPYING OF MANUSCRIPTS. [11] The work of the more importantmonasteries and the monastic churches in copying books was a service tolearning of large future significance. While many of the books copied werefor the promotion of the religious service, such as Missals and Psalters(R. 55), and many others were tales of saints and wearisome comments onthe sacred writings, a few were old classical texts representing the bestof Roman literary work. A few monastic chronicles and histories ofimportance were composed by the brothers, and also preserved for us by thecopying process. 

The production of a single book was a task of large proportions, andexplains in part the small number of volumes the monasteries accumulated. After the raids of the Mohammedans across Egypt, in the seventh century, the supply of Egyptian papyrus stopped because of the interruption ofcommunications, and the only writing material during the Middle Ages wasthe skin of sheep or goats or calves. Sheepskins were chiefly used, and abook of size might require a hundred or more skins. These were firstsoaked in limewater to loosen the hair, then scraped clean of hair andflesh, and then carefully stretched on board frames to dry. After they haddried they were again scraped with sharp knives to secure an eventhickness, and then rubbed smooth with pumice and chalk. When finished, the clean, shining, cream-colored skin was known as vellum, [12] orparchment. This was next cut into pages of the desired size and arrangedready for writing. The larger pieces were used for large books, such asare shown in Plate 2, and the remnants to produce small books. The inks, too, had to be prepared, and the pages ruled. 

The main writing was done with black, but the page was frequently borderedwith red, gold, or some other bright color, while many beautifulillustrations were inserted by artistic monks. Sometimes an initial letterwas beautifully embellished, as is shown in Figure 39; sometimesillustrations were introduced in the body of the page, of which Figures 39and 40 are types; and sometimes a colored illustration was painted on asheet of vellum and inserted in the book. Figure 44 represents such anillustrated page in an old manuscript. Finally, when completed, thelettered and illustrated parchment sheets were arranged in order, sewedtogether with a deerskin or pigskin string, bound together between oakenboards and covered with pigskin, properly lettered in gold, fitted withmetal corners and clasps (R. 57), as shown in Plate 2, and often chainedto their bookrack in the library with heavy iron chains as well. (SeeFigure 71 and Plate 2. ) Still further to protect the volume from theft, ananathema against the thief was usually lettered in the volume (R. 58). 

[Illustration: FIG. 39. INITIAL LETTER FROM AN OLD MANUSCRIPTThis shows the beautiful work done by some of the nuns and monks in"illuminating" the books they copied. This was done in colors by a nun, who pictured her own work in this initial letter L. ]

Such was the painfully slow method of producing and multiplying booksbefore the advent of printing, and in days when skill in copyingmanuscripts was not particularly common, even among the monks. It requiredfrom a few months to a year or more to produce a few copies, depending onthe size and nature of the work, whereas to-day, with printing-presses, five thousand copies of such a book as this can be printed and bound in afew days. 

[Illustration: FIG. 40. A MONK IN A SCRIPTORIUM(From an illuminated picture in a manuscript in the Royal Library atBrussels) This picture shows the beautiful work done in "illuminating"manuscript books by mediaeval writers. Each copy was a work of art. Thisrepresents a better type of _scriptorium_ than is usually shown. ]

THE SCRIPTORIUM. An important part of the material equipment of manymonasteries, in consequence, came to be a _scriptorium_, or writing-room, where the copying of manuscripts could take place undisturbed. In somemonasteries one general room was provided, though it was customary to havea number of small rooms at the side of the library. In the monastery shownin Figure 38, seven small rooms for this purpose are shown built out onone side of the library. Sometimes individual cells along a corridor wereprovided. The advantage of the single room in which a number of monksworked came when an edition of eight or ten copies of a book was to beprepared. One monk could then dictate, while eight or ten others carefullyprinted on the skins before them what was dictated by the reader. [13]Figure 40 shows a monk at work, though here he is copying from a bookbefore him. After an edition of eight or ten copies of a book had beenprepared and bound the extra copies were sent to neighboring and sometimesdistant monasteries, sometimes in exchange for other books, and sometimesas gifts to brothers who had longed to read the work (R. 55). Newmonasteries were provided with the beginnings of a library in this way, and churches were supplied with Missals, Psalters, and other books neededfor their services. 

The writing-room, or rooms, came to be a very important place in thosemonasteries noted for their literary activity. West gives an interestingdescription of the _scriptorium_ at Tours, where the learned English monk, Alcuin, was Abbot from 796 to 804, and which at the time was the principalbook-writing monastery in Frankland. Describing Alcuin's labors to securebooks to send to other monasteries in Charlemagne's kingdom, he says:

We can almost reconstruct the scene. In the intervals between the hours ofprayer and the observance of the round of cloister life, come hours forthe copying of books under the presiding genius of Alcuin. The young monksfile into the _scriptorium_, and one of them is given the preciousparchment volume containing a work of Bede or Isidore or Augustine, orelse some portion of the Latin Scriptures, or even a heathen author. Hereads slowly and clearly at a measured rate while all the others seated attheir desks take down his words, and thus perhaps a score of copies aremade at once. Alcuin's observant eye watches each in turn, and hiscorrecting hand points out the mistakes in orthography and punctuation. The master of Charles the Great, in that true humility that is the charmof his whole behavior, makes himself the writing-master of his monks, stooping to the drudgery of faithfully and gently correcting their manypuerile mistakes, and all for the love of studies and the love of Christ. Under such guidance, and deeply impressed by the fact that in the copyingof a few books they were saving learning and knowledge from perishing, andthereby offering a service most acceptable to God, the copying in the_scriptorium_ went on in sobriety from day to day. Thus were producedthose improved copies of books which mark the beginning of a new age inthe conserving and transmission of learning. Alcuin's anxiety in thisregard was not undue, for the few monasteries where books could beaccurately transcribed were as necessary for publication in that time asare the great publishing houses to-day. [14]

[Illustration: FIG. 41. CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE, AND THE IMPORTANTMONASTERIES OF THE TIMECharlemagne's empire at his death is shaded darker than other parts of themap. ]

MONASTIC COLLECTION. Despite the important work done by a few of themonasteries in preserving and advancing learning, large collections ofbooks were unknown before the Revival of Learning, in the fourteenthcentury. The process of book production in itself was very slow, and manyof the volumes produced were later lost through fire, or pillage by newinvaders. During the early days of wood construction a number of monasticand church libraries were burned by accident. In the pillaging of theDanes and Northmen on the coasts of England and northern France, in theninth and tenth centuries, a number of important monastic collectionsthere were lost. In Italy the Lombards destroyed some collections in theirsixth-century invasion, and the Saracens burned some in southern Italy inthe ninth. Monte Cassino, among other monasteries, was destroyed by boththe Lombards and the Saracens. From a number of extant catalogues of oldmonastic libraries we know that, even as late as the thirteenth andfourteenth centuries, a library of from two to three hundred volumes waslarge. [15] The catalogues show that most of these were books of areligious nature, being monastic chronicles, manuals of devotion, commentson the Scriptures, lives of miracle-working saints, and books of a similarnature (Rs. 55, 56). A few were commentaries on the ancient learning, ormediaeval textbooks on the great subjects of study of the time (R. 60). Astill smaller number were copies of old classical literary works, and ofthe utmost value (R. 57). 

THE CONVENTS AND THEIR SCHOOLS. The early part of the Middle Ages alsowitnessed a remarkable development of convents for women, these receivinga special development in Germanic lands. Filled with the same aggressivespirit as the men, but softened somewhat by Christianity, many women ofhigh station among the German tribes founded convents and developedinstitutions of much renown. This provided a rather superior class ofwomen as organizers and directors, and a conventual life continued, throughout the entire Middle Ages, to attract an excellent class of women. This will be understood when it is remembered that a conventual lifeoffered to women of intellectual ability and scholarly tastes the oneopportunity for an education and a life of learning. The convents, too, were much earlier and much more extensively opened for instruction tothose not intending to take the vows than was the case with themonasteries, and, in consequence, it became a common practice throughoutthe Middle Ages, just as it is to-day among Catholic families, to sendgirls to the convent for education and for training in manners andreligion. Many well-trained women were produced in the convents of Europein the period from the sixth to the thirteenth centuries. 

The instruction consisted of reading, writing, and copying Latin, as inthe monasteries, as well as music, weaving and spinning, and needlework. Weaving and spinning had an obvious utilitarian purpose, and needlework, in addition to necessary sewing, was especially useful in the productionof altar-cloths and sacred vestments. The copying and illuminating ofmanuscripts, music, and embroidering made a special appeal to women (R. 56), and some of the most beautifully copied and illuminated manuscriptsof the mediaeval period are products of their skill. [16] Theircontribution to music and art, as it influenced the life of the time, wasalso large. The convent schools reached their highest development aboutthe middle of the thirteenth century, after which they began to decline inimportance, LEARNING IN IRELAND AND BRITAIN. As was stated earlier in this chapter, the one part of western Europe where something of the old learning wasretained during this period was in Ireland, and in those parts of Englandwhich had not been overrun by the Germanic tribes. Christian civilizationand monastic life had been introduced into Ireland probably as early as425 A. D. , and probably by monastic missionaries from Lerins and SaintVictor (see Figure 41). Saint Patrick preached Christianity to the Irish, about 440 A. D. , and during the fifth and sixth centuries churches andmonasteries were founded in such numbers over Ireland that the land hasbeen said to have been dotted all over with churches, monasteries, andschools. Saint Patrick had been educated in the old Roman schools, probably at Tours when it was still an important Roman provincial city. Other early missionaries had had similar training, and these, not sharingthe antipathy to pagan learning of the early Italian church fathers, hadcarried Greek and Latin languages and learning to Ireland. Here itflourished so well, largely due to the island being spared from invasion, that Ireland remained a center for instruction in Greek long after it hadvirtually disappeared elsewhere in western Christendom. So much was thisthe case, says Sandys, in his _History of Classical Scholarship_, "that ifany one knew Greek it was assumed that he must have come from Ireland. "

In 565 A. D. , Saint Columba, an eminent Irish scholar and religious leader, crossed over to what is now southwestern Scotland, founded there themonastery of Iona, and began the conversion of the Picts. Saint Augustinelanded in Kent in 597, and had begun the conversion of the Angles andSaxons and Jutes who had settled in southeastern Britain, while shortlyafterwards the Irish monks from Iona began the conversion of the people ofthe north of Britain. The monastery of Lindisfarne was founded about 635A. D. , and soon became an important center of religious and classicallearning in the north. Irish and English monks also crossed in numbers tonorthern Frankland, and labored for the conversion of the Franks andSaxons. 

In 664 A. D. , at a council held at Whitby, the Irish Church in England andthe Roman Church were united, and a great enthusiasm for religion andlearning swept over the island. In 670, Theodore of Tarsus and the AbbotHadrian, whom Bede, the scholar and historian of the early English Church, describes as men "instructed in secular and divine literature both Greekand Latin" (R. 59 a), arrived in England from southern Italy and begantheir work of instructing pupils in Greek and Latin (R. 59 b). Both taughtat Canterbury, and raised the cathedral school there to high rank. In 674the monastery at Wearmouth was founded, and in 682 its companion Yarrow. These were endowed with books from Rome and Vienne, and soon became famousfor the instruction they provided. It was at the twin monasteries ofWearmouth and Yarrow that the Venerable Bede (673-735), whose_Ecclesiastical History of England_ gives us our chief picture ofeducation in Britain in his time, was educated and remained as a lifelongstudent. [17] As a result of all these efforts a number of northernmonasteries, as well as a few of the cathedral schools, early becamefamous for their libraries, scholars, and learning. This culture inIreland and Britain was of a much higher standard than that obtaining onthe Continent at the time, because the classical inheritance there hadbeen less corrupted. 

THE CATHEDRAL SCHOOL AT YORK. One of the schools which early attained famewas the cathedral school at York, in northern England. This had, by themiddle of the eighth century, come to possess for the time a largelibrary, and contained most of the important Latin authors and textbooksthen known (R. 61). In this school, under the _scholasticus_ Aelbert, wastrained a youth by the name of Alcuin, born in or near York, about 735A. D. In a poem describing the school (R. 60), he gives a good portrayal ofthe instruction he received, telling how the learned Aelbert "moistenedthirsty hearts with diverse streams of teaching and the varied dews oflearning, " and sorted out "youths of conspicuous intelligence" to whom hegave special attention. Alcuin afterward succeeded Aelbert as_scholasticus_, and was widely known as a gifted teacher. Well aware ofthe precarious condition of learning amid such a rude and uncouth society, he handed on to his pupils the learning he had received, and imbued themwith something of his own love for it and his anxiety for its preservationand advancement. It was this Alcuin who was soon to give a new impetus tothe development of schools and the preservation of learning in Frankland. 

CHARLEMAGNE AND ALCUIN. In 768 there came to the throne as king of thegreat Frankish nation one of the most distinguished and capable rulers ofall time--a man who would have been a commanding personality in any age orland. His ancestors had developed a great kingdom, and it was hisgrandfather who had defeated the Saracens at Tours (p. 113) and driventhem back over the Pyrenees into Spain. This man Charlemagne easily standsout as one of the greatest figures of all history. For five hundred yearsbefore and after him there is no ruler who matched him in insight, force, or executive capacity. He is particularly the dominating figure ofmediaeval times. Born in an age of lawlessness and disorder, he used everyeffort to civilize and rule as intelligently as possible the greatFrankish kingdom. Wars he waged to civilize and Christianize the Saxontribes of northern Germany, to reduce the Lombards of northern Italy toorder, and to extend the boundaries of the Frankish nation. At his death, in 814, his kingdom had succeeded to most of the western possessions ofthe old Roman Empire, including all of what to-day comprises France, Belgium, Holland, and Switzerland, large portions of what is now westernGermany and northern Italy, and portions of northern Spain. (See Figure41. )

Realizing better than did his bishops and abbots the need for educationalfacilities for the nobles and clergy, he early turned his attention tosecuring teachers capable of giving the needed instruction. These, though, were scarce and hard to obtain. After two unsuccessful efforts to obtain amaster scholar to become, as it were, his minister of education, hefinally succeeded in drawing to his court perhaps the greatest scholar andteacher in all England. At Parma, in northern Italy, Charlemagne metAlcuin, in 781, and invited him to leave York for Frankland. Afterobtaining the consent of his archbishop and king, Alcuin accepted, andarrived, with three assistants, at Charlemagne's court, in 782, to take upthe work of educational propaganda in Frankland. 

[Illustration: PLATE 1. THE CLOISTERS OF A MONASTERY, NEAR FLORENCE, ITALY. This monastery, located on a high hill and resembling a mediaeval fortressas one approaches it, was founded in 1341 by a Florentine merchant. Thepicture shows the cloisters and interior court. Eighteen cells, twochurches, and other rooms are entered from the cloisters. A few monks werestill in residence there late as 1905, one of whom is seen, but themonastery was then in the process of being closed by the ItalianGovernment. ]

[Illustration: PLATE 2. THE LIBRARY OF THE CHURCH OF SAINT WALLBERG, ATZUTPHEN, HOLLAND

"Ponderous Folios for Scholastics made"

This shows the large oak-bound and chained books as well as a common typeof bookrack used in churches and monasteries during the earlier period. ]

The plight in which he found learning was most deplorable, presenting amarked contrast to conditions in England. Learning had been almostobliterated during the two centuries of wild disorder from 600 on. From600 to 850 has often been called the darkest period of the Dark Ages, andAlcuin arrived when Frankland was at its worst. The monastic and cathedralschools which had been established earlier had in large part been brokenup, and the monasteries had become places for the pensioning of royalfavorites and hence had lost their earlier religious zeal andeffectiveness. The abbots and bishops possessed but little learning, andthe lower clergy, recruited largely from bondmen, were grossly ignorant, greatly to the injury of the Church. The copying of books had almostceased, and learning was slowly dying out. 

THE PALACE SCHOOL. There had for some time been a form of school connectedwith the royal court, known as the _palace school_, though the study ofletters had played but a small part in it. To the reorganization of thisschool Alcuin first addressed himself, introducing into it elementaryinstruction in that learning of which he was so fond. The school includedthe princes and princesses of the royal household, relatives, attachés, courtiers, and, not least in importance as pupils, the king and queen. Tomeet the needs of such a heterogeneous circle was no easy task. 

The instruction which Alcuin provided for the younger members of thecircle was largely of the question and answer (catechetical) type, bothquestions and answers being prepared by Alcuin beforehand and learned bythe pupils. Fortunately examples of Alcuin's instruction have beenpreserved to us in a dialogue prepared for the instruction of Pepin, a sonof Charlemagne, then sixteen years old (R. 62). With the older members thequestions and answers were oral. For all, though, the instruction was of amost elementary nature, ranging over the elements of the subjects ofinstruction of the time. Poetry, arithmetic, astronomy, the writings ofthe Fathers, and theology are mentioned as having been studied. Charlemagne learned to read Latin, but is said never to have mastered theart of writing. It was not an easy position for any one to fill. To quotefrom West's description: [18]

 Charles wanted to know everything and to know it at once. His strong, uncurbed nature eagerly seized on learning, both as a delight for himself and a means of giving stability to his government, and so, while he knew he must be docile, he was at the same time imperious. Alcuin knew how to meet him, and at need could be either patiently jocular or grave and reproving. Thus, on one occasion when he had been informed of the great learning of Augustine and Jerome, he impatiently demanded of Alcuin, "Why can I not have twelve clerks such as these?" Twelve Augustines and Jeromes! and to be made arise at the king's bidding! Alcuin was shocked. "What!" he discreetly rejoined, "the Lord of heaven and earth had but two such, and wouldst thou have twelve?" But his personal affection for the king was most unselfish, and he consequently took great delight in stimulating his desire for learning.... 

 He studied everything Alcuin set before him, but had special anxiety to learn all about the moon that was needed to calculate Easter. With such an eager and impatient pupil as Charles, the other scholars were soon inspired to beset Alcuin with endless puzzling questions, and there are not wanting evidences that some of them were disposed to levity and even carped at his teachings. But he was indefatigable, rising with the sun to prepare for teaching. In one of his poetical exercises he says of himself that "as soon as the ruddy charioteer of the dawn suffuses the liquid deep with the new light of day, the old man rubs the sleep of night from his eyes and leaps at once from his couch, running straightway into the fields of the ancients to pluck their flowers of correct speech and scatter them in sport before his boys. "

CHARLEMAGNE'S PROCLAMATIONS ON EDUCATION. After reorganizing the palaceschool, Alcuin and Charlemagne turned their attention to the improvementof education among the monks and clergy throughout the realm. The firstimportant service was the preparation and sending out of a carefullycollected and edited series of sermons to the churches containing, "in twovolumes, lessons suitable for the whole year and for each separatefestival, and free from error. " These Charlemagne ordered used in thechurches (R. 63). He also says, "we have striven with watchful zeal toadvance the cause of learning, which has been almost forgotten by thenegligence of our ancestors; and, by our example, also we invite thosewhom we can to master the study of the liberal arts, " meaning thereby toincite the bishops and clergy to a study of the learning of the mediaevaltime. The volumes and letter were sent out in 786, four years afterAlcuin's arrival at the court. Further to aid in the revival of learning, Charlemagne, in 787, imported a number of monks from Italy, who werecapable of giving instruction in arithmetic, singing, and grammar, andsent them to the principal monasteries to teach. 

In 787 the first general proclamation on education of the Middle Ages wasissued (R. 64 a), and from it we can infer much as to the state oflearning among the monks and clergy of the time. In this document the kinggently reproves the abbots of his realm for their illiteracy, and exhortsthem to the study of letters. The signature is Charlemagne's, but the handis Alcuin's. In it he tells the abbots, in commenting on the fact thatthey had sent letters to him telling him that "sacred and pious prayers"were being offered in his behalf, that he recognized in "most of theseletters both correct thoughts and uncouth expressions; because what piousdevotion dictated faithfully to the mind, the tongue, uneducated onaccount of the neglect of study, was not able to express in a letterwithout error. " He therefore commands the abbots neither to neglect thestudy of letters, if they wish to have his favor, nor to fail to sendcopies of his letter "to all your suffragans and fellow bishops, and toall the monasteries. " Two years later (789) Charlemagne supplemented thisby a further general admonition (R. 64 b) to the ministers and clergy ofhis realm, exhorting them to live clean and just lives, and closing with:

 And let schools be established in which boys may learn to read. Correct carefully the Psalms, the signs in writing, the songs, the calendar, the grammar, in each monastery and bishopric, and the catholic book; because often some desire to pray to God properly, but they pray badly because of incorrect books. 

In 802 he further commanded that "laymen shall learn thoroughly the Creedand the Lord's Prayer" (R. 64 c). Finally, in his enthusiasm for schools, Charlemagne went so far as to direct that "every one should send his sonto school to study letters, and that the child should remain at schoolwith all diligence until he should become well instructed in learning. "Charlemagne, of course, was addressing freemen of the court and theofficial classes. That he ever meant to include the children of thelaboring classes, or that the idea of compulsory education ever enteredhis head, may well be doubted. 

EFFECT OF THE WORK OF CHARLEMAGNE AND ALCUIN. The actual results of thework of Charlemagne and Alcuin were, after all, rather meager. Thedifficulties they faced are almost beyond our comprehension. Nobles andclergy were alike ignorant and uncouth. There seemed no place to begin. Itmay be said that by Charlemagne's work he greatly widened the area ofcivilization, created a new Frankish-Roman Empire to be the inheritor ofthe civilization and culture of the old one, checked the decline inlearning and reawakened a desire for study, and that he began thesubstitution of ideas for might as a ruling force among the tribes underhis rule. That for a time he gave an important impetus to the study ofletters, which resulted in a real revival in the educational work of someof the monasteries and cathedral schools, seems certain. Men knew more ofbooks and wrote better Latin than before, and those who wished to learnfound it easier to do so. The state of society and the condition of thetimes, however, were against any large success for such an ambitiouseducational undertaking, and after the death of Charlemagne, the divisionof his empire, and the invasions of the Northmen, education slowlydeclined again, though never to quite the level it had reached whenCharlemagne came to the throne. In a few schools there was no decline, andthese became the centers of learning of the future. Charlemagne havingsubstituted merit for favoritism in his realm, promoting to be bishops andabbots the most learned men of his time, many of these became zealousworkers in the cause of education and did much to keep up and advancelearning after his death. 

Among the most able of his helpers was Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans. Hecarried out most thoroughly in his diocese the instructions of the king, giving to his clergy the following directions:

 Let the priests hold schools in the towns and villages, and if any of the faithful wish to entrust their children to them for the learning of letters, let them not refuse to receive and teach such children. Moreover, let them teach them from pure affection, remembering that it is written, "the wise shall shine as the splendor of the firmament, " and "they that instruct many in righteousness shall shine as the stars forever and forever. " And let them exact no price from the children for their teaching, nor receive anything from them, save what their parents may offer voluntarily and from affection. 

Another able assistant was Alcuin himself, who, after fourteen years ofstrenuous service at Charlemagne's court, was rewarded by the king withthe office of Abbot at the monastery of Saint Martin, at Tours. There hespent the last eight years of his life in teaching, copying manuscripts, and writing letters to bishops and abbots regarding the advancement ofreligion and learning. The work of Alcuin in directing the copying ofmanuscripts has been described. In a letter to Charlemagne, soon after hisappointment, he reviews his labors, contrasts the state of learning inEngland and Frankland, and appeals to Charlemagne for books from Englandto copy (R. 65). So important was his work as a teacher as well that athis death, in 814, most of the important educational centers of thekingdom were in the hands of his former pupils. Perhaps the most importantof all these was Rabanus Maurus, who became head of the monastery schoolat Fulda. We shall learn more of him in the next chapter. 

[Illustration: FIG. 42. WHERE THE DANES RAVAGED ENGLAND. ]

NEW INVASIONS; THE NORTHMEN. Five years after Alcuin went to Frankland tohelp Charlemagne revive learning in his kingdom, a fresh series ofbarbarian invasions began with the raiding of the English coast by theDanes. In raid after raid, extending over nearly a hundred years, theseDanes gradually overran all of eastern and central England from Londonnorth to beyond Whitby, plundering and burning the churches andmonasteries, and destroying books and learning everywhere. By the Peace ofWedmore, effected by King Alfred in 878, the Danes were finally givenabout one half of England, and in return agreed to settle down and acceptChristianity. The damage done by these invaders was very large, and KingAlfred, in his introduction to an Anglo-Saxon translation of PopeGregory's _Pastoral Care_ (R. 66), gives a gloomy picture of thedestruction wrought to the churches and the decay of learning in England. 

Other bands of these Northmen (Danes and Norwegians) began to prey on thenorthern coast of Frankland, and in the tenth century seized all the coastof what is now northern France and down as far as Paris and Tours. FromTours to Corbie (see Figure 41) churches and monasteries were pillaged andburned, Tours and Corbie with their libraries both perishing. Amiens andParis were laid siege to, and disorder reigned throughout northernFrankland. _The Annals of Xanten_ and the _Annals of Saint Vaast_, twomediaeval chronicles of importance, give gloomy pictures of this period. Three selections will illustrate:

 According to their custom the Northmen plundered East and West Frisia and burned ... Towns.... With their boats filled with immense booty, including both men and goods, they returned to their own country. [19]

 The Normans inflicted much harm in Frisia and about the Rhine. A mighty army of them collected by the river Elbe against the Saxons, and some of the Saxon towns were besieged, others burned, and most terribly did they oppress the Christians. [20]

 The Northmen ceased not to take Christian people captive and kill them, and to destroy churches and houses and burn villages. Through all the streets lay bodies of the clergy, of laymen, nobles, and others, of women, children, and suckling babes. There was no road or place where the dead did not lie, and all who saw Christian people slaughtered were filled with sorrow and despair. [21]

After much destruction, Rollo, Duke of the Normans, finally acceptedChristianity, in 912, and agreed to settle down in what has ever sincebeen known as _Normandy_. From here portions of the invaders afterwardpassed over to England in the Norman Conquest of 1066. This was the lastof the great German tribes to move, and after they had raided andplundered and settled down and accepted Christianity, western Europe, after six centuries of bloodshed and pillage and turmoil and disorder, wasat last ready to begin in earnest the building-up of a new civilizationand the restoration of the old learning. 

WORK OF ALFRED IN ENGLAND. The set-back to learning caused by this latestdeluge of barbarism was a serious one, and one from which the land did notrecover for a long time. In northern Frankland and in England the resultswere disastrous. The revival which Charlemagne had started was checked, and England did not recover from the blow for centuries. Even in the partsof England not invaded and pillaged, education sadly declined as a resultof nearly a century of struggle against the invaders (R. 66). Alfred, known to history as _Alfred the Great_, who ruled as English king from 871to 901, made great efforts to revive learning in his kingdom. Probablyinspired by the example of Charlemagne, he established a large palaceschool (R. 68), to the support of which he devoted one eighth of hisincome; he imported scholars from Mercia and Frankland (R. 67); restoredmany monasteries; and tried hard to revive schools and encourage learningthroughout his realm, and with some success. [22] With the great decay ofthe Latin learning he tried to encourage the use of the native Anglo-Saxonlanguage, [23] and to this end translated books from Latin into Anglo-Saxon for his people. In his Introduction to Gregory's volume (R. 66) heexpresses the hope, "If we have tranquillity enough, that all the free-born youth now in England, who are rich enough to be able to devotethemselves to it ... Be set to learn ... English writing, " while those whowere to continue study should then be taught Latin. The coming of theNormans in 1066, with the introduction of Norman-French as the officiallanguage of the court and government, for a time seriously interfered withthe development of that native English learning of which Alfred wrote. 

In the preceding chapter and in this one we have traced briefly the greatinvasions, or migrations, which took place in western Europe, andindicated somewhat the great destruction they wrought within the bounds ofthe old Empire. In this chapter we have traced the beginnings of Christianschools to replace the ones destroyed, the preservation of learning in themonasteries, and the efforts of Charlemagne and Alfred to revive learningin their kingdoms. In the chapter which follows we shall describe themediaeval system of education as it had evolved by the twelfth century, after which we shall be ready to pass to the beginnings of that Revival ofLearning which ultimately resulted in the rediscovery of the learning ofthe ancient world. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Picture the gradual dying-out of Roman learning in the Western Empire, and explain why pagan schools and learning lingered longer in Britain, Ireland, and Italy than elsewhere. 

2. At what time was the old Roman civilization and learning most nearlyextinct?

3. Explain how the monasteries were forced to develop schools to maintainany intellectual life. 

4. Explain how the copying of manuscripts led to further educationaldevelopment in the monasteries. 

5. Would the convents have tended to attract a higher quality of womenthan the monasteries did of men? Why?

6. Explain why Greek was known longer in Ireland and Britain thanelsewhere in the West. 

7. What was the relative condition of learning in Frankland and England, about 900 A. D. ?

8. What light is thrown on the conditions of the civilization of the timeby the small permanent success of the efforts of Charlemagne, lookingtoward a revival of learning in Frankland?

9. Explain how Latin came naturally to be the language of the Church, andof scholarship in western Europe throughout all the Middle Ages. 

10. After reading the story of the migrations, and of the fight to savesome vestiges of the old civilization, try to picture what would have beenthe result had Rome not built up an Empire, and had Christianity notarisen and conquered. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 53. Migne: Forms used in connection with monastery life: (a) Form for offering a Child to a Monastery. (b) The Monastic Vow. (c) Letter of Honorable Dismissal from a Monastery. 54. Abbot Heriman: The Copying of Books at a Monastery. 55. Othlonus: Work of a Monk in writing and copying Books. 56. A Monk: Work of a Nun in copying Books. 57. Symonds: Scarcity and Cost of Books. 58. Clark: Anathemas to protect Books from Theft. 59. Bede: On Education in Early England. (a) The Learning of Theodore. (b) Theodore's Work for the English Churches. (c) How Albinus succeeded Abbot Hadrian. 60. Alcuin: Description of the School at York. 61. Alcuin: Catalogue of the Cathedral Library at York. 62. Alcuin: Specimens of the Palace School Instruction. 63. Charlemagne: Letter sending out a Collection of Sermons. 64. Charlemagne: General Proclamations as to Education. (a) The Proclamation of 787 A. D. (b) General Admonition of 789 A. D. (c) Order as to Learning of 802 A. D. 65. Alcuin: Letter to Charlemagne as to Books and Learning. 66. King Alfred: State of Learning in England in his Time. 67. Asser: Alfred obtains Scholars from Abroad. 68. Asser: Education of the Son of King Alfred. 69. Ninth-Century Plan of the Monastery at Saint Gall. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Point out the similarity between: (a) The form for offering a child toa monastery and the monastic vow (53 a-b), and a modern court form forrenouncing or adopting a child. (b) The letter of dismissal from amonastery (53 c), and the modern letter of honorable dismissal of astudent from a college or normal school. 

2. Compare the type of books copied by the Abbot of Saint Martins (55) andthose copied by the nun at Wessebrunn (56). 

3. Was the evolution of the school-teacher out of the copyist at Ratisbon(55), by a specialization of labor, analogous to the process in moremodern times?

4. Explain the mediaeval belief in the effectiveness to protect books fromtheft of such anathemas as are reproduced in 58. 

5. What do the selections from Bede (59 a-c) indicate as to thepreservation of the old learning in the cities of southern Italy? What asto the condition of learning and teaching in England in Bede's day?

6. What is the status of education indicated by the selections fromAlcuin, on the cathedral school at York (60) and the palace schoolinstruction of Pepin (62)?

7. What was the condition of learning among the higher clergy and monks asshown by Charlemagne's proclamations (64)?

8. What was the extent of the destruction wrought by the Danes in England, as indicated by King Alfred's Introduction to Pope Gregory's _PastoralCare_ (66), and his efforts to obtain scholars from abroad (67)?

9. What was the character of the education King Alfred provided for hisson (68)?

10. Study out the plan of the monastery of Saint Gall (69), and enumeratethe various activities of such a center. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. * Clark, J. W. _Libraries in the Medieval and Renaissance Period_. * Cutts, Edw. L. _Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages_. * Eckenstein, Lina. _Women under Monasticism_. Leach, A. F. _The Schools of Mediaeval England_. Munro, D. C. And Sellery, G. E. _Medieval Civilization_. Montalembert, Count de. _The Monks of the West_. Taylor, H. O. _Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages_. Thorndike, Lynn. _History of Mediaeval Europe_. West, A. F. _Alcuin, and the Rise of Christian Schools_. * Wishart, A. W. _Short History of Monks and Monasticism_. 

CHAPTER VII

EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

II. SCHOOLS ESTABLISHED AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED

1. _Elementary instruction and schools_

MONASTIC AND CONVENTIONAL SCHOOLS. In the preceding chapters we foundthat, by the tenth century, the monasteries had developed both innermonastic schools for those intending to take the vows (oblati), and outermonastic schools for those not so intending (externi). The distinction inname was due to the fact that the _oblati_ were from the first consideredas belonging to the brotherhood, participating in the religious servicesand helping the monks at their work. The others were not so admitted, andin all monasteries of any size a separate building, outside the mainportion of the monastery (see Figure 38), was provided for the outerschool. A similar classification of instruction had been evolved for theconvents. 

[Illustration: FIG. 43. AN OUTER MONASTIC SCHOOL(After an old wood engraving)]

The instruction in the inner school was meager, and in the outer schoolprobably even more so. Reading, writing, music, simple reckoning, religious observances, and rules of conduct constituted the range ofinstruction. Reading was taught by the alphabet method, as among theRomans, and writing by the use of wax tablets and the stylus. Muchattention was given to Latin pronunciation, as had been the practice atRome. As Latin by this time had practically ceased to be a living tongue, outside the Church and perhaps in Central Italy, the difficulties ofinstruction were largely increased. The Psalter, or book of Latin psalms, was the first reading book, and this was memorized rather than read. Copy-books, usually wax, with copies expressing some scriptural injunction, were used. Music, being of so much importance in the church services, received much time and attention. In arithmetic, counting and fingerreckoning, after the Roman plan, was taught. Latin was used inconversation as much as possible, some of the old lesson books muchresembling conversation books of to-day in the modern languages (R. 75). Special attention seems to have been given to teaching rules of conduct tothe _oblati_, [1] and much corporal punishment was used to facilitatelearning. Up to the eleventh century this instruction, meager as it was, constituted the whole of the preparatory training necessary for the studyof theology and a career in the Church. In the convents similar schoolswere developed, though, as stated in the last chapter, much more attentionwas given to the education of those not intending to take the vows. 

SONG AND PARISH SCHOOLS. In the cathedral churches, and other larger non-cathedral churches, the musical part of the service was very important, and to secure boys for the choir and for other church services thesechurches organized what came to be known as _song schools_ (R. 70). Inthese a number of promising boys were trained in the same studies and inmuch the same way as were boys in the monastery schools, except that muchmore attention was given to the musical instruction. The students in theseschools were placed under the _precentor_ (choir director) of thecathedral, or other large church, the _scholasticus_ confining hisattention to the higher or more literary instruction provided. The boysusually were given board, lodging, and instruction in return for theirservices as choristers. As the parish churches in the diocese also came toneed boys for their services, parish schools of a similar nature were intime organized in connection with them. It was out of this need, and by avery slow and gradual evolution, that the parish school in western Europewas developed later on. 

CHANTRY SCHOOLS. Still another type of elementary school, which did notarise until near the latter part of the period under consideration in thischapter, but which will be enumerated here as descriptive of a type whichlater became very common, came through wills, and the schools came to beknown as _chantry schools_, or _stipendary schools_. Men, in dying, whofelt themselves particularly in need of assistance for their misdeeds onearth, would leave a sum of money to a church to endow a priest, orsometimes two, who were to chant masses each day for the repose of theirsouls. Sometimes the property was left to endow a priest to say mass inhonor of some special saint, and frequently of the Virgin Mary. As suchpriests usually felt the need for some other occupation, some of thembegan voluntarily to teach the elements of religion and learning toselected boys, and in time it became common for those leaving money forthe prayers to stipulate in the will that the priest should also teach aschool. Usually a very elementary type of school was provided, where thechildren were taught to know the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Salutationto the Virgin, certain psalms, to sign themselves rightly with the sign ofthe cross, and perhaps to read and write (Latin). Sometimes, on thecontrary, and especially was this the case later on in England, a grammarschool was ordered maintained. After the twelfth century this type offoundation (R. 73) became quite common. 

2. _Advanced instruction_

CATHEDRAL AND HIGHER MONASTIC SCHOOLS. As the song schools developed thecathedral schools were of course freed from the necessity of teachingreading and writing, and could then develop more advanced instruction. This they did, as did many of the monasteries, and to these advancedschools those who felt the need for more training went. As grammar was, throughout all the early part of the Middle Ages, the first and mostimportant subject of instruction, the advanced schools came to be known as_grammar schools_, as well as cathedral or episcopal schools (R. 72). Thecathedral churches and monasteries of England and France early becamecelebrated for the high character of their instruction (R. 71) and thetype of scholars they produced. All these schools, though, suffered aserious set-back during the period of the Danish and Norman invasions, many being totally destroyed. On the continent, due to the greater delugeof barbarism and the more unsettled condition of society, more difficultywas experienced in getting cathedral schools established, as the followingdecree of the Lateran Church Council of 826 indicates:

 Complaints have been made that in some places no masters nor endowment for a grammar school is found. Therefore all bishops shall bestow all care and diligence, both for their subjects and for other places in which it shall be found necessary, to establish masters and teachers who shall assiduously teach grammar schools and the principles of the liberal arts, because in these chiefly the commandments of God are manifest and declared. 

These two types of advanced schools--the cathedral or episcopal and themonastic--formed what might be called the secondary-school system of theearly Middle Ages (Rs. 70, 71). They were for at least six hundred yearsthe only advanced teaching institutions in western Europe, and out of oneor the other of these two types of advanced schools came practically allthose who attained to leadership in the service of the Church in either ofits two great branches. Still more, out of the impetus given to advancedstudy by the more important of these schools, the universities of a laterperiod developed; and numerous private gifts of lands and money were madeto establish grammar schools to supplement the work done by the cathedraland other large church schools. 

THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS. The advanced studies which were offered in themore important monastery and cathedral schools comprised what came to beknown as _The Seven Liberal Arts_ [2] of the Middle Ages. The knowledgecontained in these studies, taught as the advanced instruction of theperiod, represents the amount of secular learning which was intentionallypreserved by the Church from neglect and destruction during the period ofthe barbarian deluges and the reconstruction of society. 

These Seven Liberal Arts were comprised of two divisions, known as:

I. THE TRIVIUM: (1) Grammar; (2) Rhetoric; (3) Dialectic (Logic). 

II. THE QUADRIVIUM: (4) Arithmetic; (5) Geometry; (6) Astronomy; (7) Music. 

[Illustration: FIG. 44. THE MEDIEVAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION SUMMARIZEDAllegorical representation of the progress and degrees of education, froman illuminated picture in the 1508 (Basel) edition of the _MargaritaPhilosophica_ of Gregory de Reisch. 

The youth, having mastered the Hornbook (ABC's) and the rudiments oflearning (reading, writing, and the beginnings of music and numbers), advances toward the temple of knowledge. Wisdom is about to place the keyin the lock of the door of the temple. On the door is written the word_congruitas_, signifying Grammar. ("Gramaire first hath for to teche tospeke upon congruite. ") On the first and second floors of the temple hestudies the Grammar of Donatus, and of Priscian, and at the first stage atthe left on the third floor he studies the Logic of Aristotle, followed bythe Rhetoric and Poetry of Tully, thus completing the _Trivium_. TheArithmetic of Boethius also appears on the third floor. On the fourthfloor he completes the studies of the _Quadrivium_, taking in order theMusic of Pythagoras, Euclid's Geometry, and Ptolemy's Astronomy. Thestudent now advances to the study of Philosophy, studying successivelyPhysics, Seneca's Morals, and the Theology (or Metaphysics) of PeterLombard, the last being the goal toward which all has been directed. ]

Beyond these came Ethics or Metaphysics, and the greatest of all studies, Theology. This last represented the one professional study of the earlymiddle-age period, and was the goal toward which all the preceding studieshad tended. This mediaeval system of education is well summarized in thedrawing given on the opposite page, taken from an illuminated pictureinserted in a famous mediaeval manuscript, recopied at Basle, Switzerland, in 1508. 

Not all these studies were taught in every monastery or cathedral school. Many of the lesser monasteries and schools offered instruction chiefly ingrammar, and only a little of the studies beyond. Others emphasized theTrivium, and taught perhaps only a little of the second group. Only a fewtaught the full range of mediaeval learning, and these were regarded asthe great schools of the times (R. 71). 

Rhabanus Maurus (776-865), one of the greatest minds of the Middle Ages, Abbot for years at Fulda, and a mediaeval textbook writer of importance, has left us a good description of each of the Seven Liberal Arts studiesas they were developed in his day, and their use in the Christian schemeof education (R. 74). 

I. THE TRIVIUM

Of the three studies forming the _Trivium_, grammar always came first asthe basal subject. No uniformity existed for the other two. 

1. GRAMMAR. The foundation and source of all the Liberal Arts was grammar, it being, according to Maurus, "the science which teaches us to explainthe poets and historians, and the art which qualifies us to speak andwrite correctly" (R. 74 a). In the introduction to an improved Latingrammar, [3] published about 1119, grammar is defined as "The doorkeeperof all the other sciences, the apt expurgatrix of the stammering tongue, the servant of logic, the mistress of rhetoric, the interpreter oftheology, the relief of medicine, and the praiseworthy foundation of thewhole quadrivium. " Figure 45, from one of the earliest books printed inEnglish, also emphasizes the great importance of grammar with the words:"Wythout whiche science (s)ycherly alle other sciences in especial ben oflytyl recomme(d). " In addition to grammar in the sense we know the studyto-day, grammar in the old Roman and mediaeval mind also included much ofwhat we know as the analytical side of the study of literature, such ascomparison, analysis, versification, prosody, word formations, figures ofspeech, and vocal expression (R. 76). These were considered necessary toenable one to read understandingly the Holy Scriptures, and hence, "thoughthe art be secular, " says Maurus, "it has nothing unworthy about it. "

[Illustration: FIG. 45. A SCHOOL: A LESSON IN GRAMMAR(After a woodcut printed by Caxton in _The Mirror of the World_, 1481 (?). From Blades' _Life and Typography of William Caxton_, ii, Plate LVI)

This is a good example of early English printing. Can you read it? This"Old English, " like the German type (see Fig. 26), shows the change inLatin letters which came about with the copying of manuscripts during theMiddle Ages. After the invention of printing the English soon returned tothe Latin forms; the Germans are only now doing so. ]

The leading textbook was that of Donatus, [4] written in the fourthcentury, and Donatus (_donat_) and grammar came to be synonymous terms. The text by Priscian, [5] written in the sixth century, was alsoextensively used. The treatment in each was catechetical in form; that is, questions and answers, which were learned. The text was of course inLatin, and the teacher usually had the only copy, so that the pupils hadto learn from memory or copy from dictation. The cost of writing-materialusually precluded the latter method. After sufficient ability in grammarhad been attained, simple reading exercises or colloquies (R. 75), usuallyof a religious or moralizing nature, were introduced, though wherepermitted the Latin authors, especially Vergil, [6] were read. At SaintGall, in Switzerland, and at some other places, many Latin authors wereread; at Tours, on the other hand, we find the learned Abbot Alcuin sayingto the monks: "The sacred poets are sufficient for you; there is no reasonwhy you should sully your mind with the rank luxuriance of Vergil'sverse. "

2. RHETORIC. Rhetoric, as defined by Maurus, was "the art of using seculardiscourse effectively in the circumstances of daily life, " and enablingthe preacher or missionary to put the divine message in eloquent andimpressive language (R. 74 b). Much of the old Roman rhetoric had beentaken over by grammar, but in its place was added a certain amount ofletter and legal documentary writing. The priest, it must be remembered, became the secretary and lawyer of the Middle Ages, as well as the priest, and upon him devolved the preparation of most of the legal papers of thetime, such as wills, deeds, proclamations, and other formal documents. Accordingly the art of letter-writing [7] and the preparation of legaldocuments were made a part of the study of rhetoric, and some study ofboth the civil ("worldly") and canon (church) law was graduallyintroduced. 

3. DIALECTIC. Dialectic, or logic, says Maurus, is the science ofunderstanding, and hence the science of sciences (R. 74 c). By means ofits aid one was enabled to unmask falsehood, expose error, formulateargument, and draw conclusions accurately. The study was one ofpreparation for ethics and theology later on. Extracts from the works ofAristotle, prepared by Boethius, and later his complete works, constitutedthe texts used. While grammar was the great subject of the seven duringall the early Middle Ages, dialectic later came to take its place. Afterthe rise of the universities and the organization of schools of theology, with theology more of a rational science and less a matter of dogma, dialectic came to hold first place in importance as a preparation for thedisputations of the later Middle Ages. Theological questions formed thepractical exercises, and the schools doing most in dialectic attractedmany students because of this. 

These three studies, constituting the _Trivium_, based as they weredirectly on the old Roman learning and schools, contained more that waswithin the teaching knowledge of the time than did the subjects of the_Quadrivium_, and also subject-matter which was much more in demand. 

II. THE QUADRIVIUM

The _trivial_ studies, in most cases before the thirteenth century, sufficed to prepare for the study of theology, though those few whodesired to prepare thoroughly also studied the subjects of the_quadrivium_. In schools not offering instruction in this advanced groupsome of the elements of its four studies were often taught from thetextbooks in use for the _Trivium_. Particularly was this the case duringthe early Middle Ages, when the knowledge of arithmetic, geometry, andastronomy possessed by western Europe was exceedingly small. No regularorder in the study of the subjects of this group was followed. 

4. ARITHMETIC. Naturally little could be done in this subject as long asthe Roman system of notation was in use (see footnote, i, p. 64), and theArabic notation was not known in western Christian Europe until thebeginning of the thirteenth century, and was not much used for two orthree centuries later. So far as arithmetic was taught before that time, it was but little in advance of that given to novitiates in themonasteries, except that much attention was devoted to an absurd study ofthe properties of numbers, [8] and to the uses of arithmetic indetermining church days, calculating the date of Easter, and interpretingpassages in the Scriptures involving measurements (R. 74 d). The textbookby Rhabanus Maurus _On Reckoning_, issued in 820, is largely in dialogue(catechetical) form, and is devoted to describing the properties ofnumbers, "odd, even, perfect, imperfect, composite, plane, solid, cardinal, ordinal, adverbial, distributive, multiple, denunciative, etc. ";to pointing out the scriptural significance of number; [9] and to anelaborate explanation of finger reckoning, after the old Roman plan (seep. 65). Near the end of the tenth century Gerbert, [10] afterwards PopeSylvester II, devised a simple abacus-form for expressing numbers, simpleenough in itself, but regarded as wonderful in its day. This greatlysimplified calculation, and made work with large numbers possible. He alsodevised an easier form for large divisions. 

Gerbert's form for expressing numbers may be shown from the followingsimple sum in addition:

_Arabic Form_ _Roman Form_ _Gerbert's Form_ _M C X I_

 1204 MCCIV I II IV 538 DXXXVIII V III VIII 2455 MMCCCCLV II IV V V 619 DCXIX VI I IX ----- --------- ------------------- 4816 MMMMDCCCXVI IV VIII I VI

No study of arithmetic of importance was possible, however, until theintroduction of Arabic notation and the use of the zero. 

5. GEOMETRY. This study consisted almost entirely of geography andreasoning as to geometrical forms until the tenth century, when Boethius'work on _Geometry_, containing some extracts from Euclid, was discoveredby Gerbert. The geography of Europe, Asia, and Africa also was studied, astreated in the textbooks of the time, and a little about plants andanimals as well was introduced. The nature of the geographic instructionmay be inferred from Figure 46, which reproduces one of the best worldmaps of the day. The main geographical features of the known world can bemade out from this, but many of the mediaeval maps are utterlyunintelligible. 

To illustrate the reasoning as to geometrical forms which preceded thefinding of Euclid we quote from Maurus, who says that the science ofgeometry "found realization also at the building of the tabernacle and thetemple; and that the same measuring rod, circles, spheres, hemispheres, quadrangles, and other figures were employed. The knowledge of all thisbrings to him, who is occupied with it, no small gain for his spiritualculture. " (R. 74 e). After Gerbert's time some geometry proper and theelements of land surveying were introduced. The real study of geometry inEurope, however, dates from the twelfth century, when Euclid wastranslated into Latin from the Arabic. 

6. ASTRONOMY. In astronomy the chief purpose of the instruction was toexplain the seasons and the motions of the planets, to set forth thewonders of the visible creation, and to enable the priests "to fix thetime of Easter and all other festivals and holy days, and to announce tothe congregation the proper celebration of them. " (R. 74 g). 

[Illustration: FIG. 46. AN ANGLO-SAXON MAP OF THE WORLD(From a tenth-century map in the British Museum)

This is one of the better maps of the period. Note the mixture of Biblicaland classical geography (Bethlehem, Jerusalem, Pillars of Hercules), andthe animal life (lion) introduced in the upper corner. The MediterraneanSea in the center, the Greek islands, the British isles, the Italianpeninsula, the Nile, and the northern African coast are easily recognized. Western Europe, the best-known part of the world at that time, is verypoorly done. ]

Even after Ptolemy's _Mechanism of the Heavens_ (p. 49) and Aristotle's_On the Heavens_ had filtered across the Pyrenees from the Saracens, inthe eleventh century, the Ptolemaic theory of a flat earth located at thecenter of the heavenly bodies and around which they all revolved, while avery pleasing theological conception, was absolutely fatal to anyinstruction in astronomy worth while and to any astronomical advance. Allmediaeval astronomy, too, was saturated with astrology, as the selectionon the motion of the heavenly bodies reproduced from Bartholomew Anglicusshows (R. 77 b), and the supernatural was invoked to explain suchphenomena as meteors, comets, and eclipses. The Copernican theory of themotion of the heavenly bodies was not published until 1543, and all ourmodern ideas date from that time. 

Physics was often taught as a part of the instruction in astronomy, andconsisted of lessons on the properties of matter (R. 77 a) and some of thesimple principles of dynamics. Little else of what we to-day know asphysics was then known. 

7. MUSIC. Unlike the other studies of the _Quadrivium_, the instruction inmusic was quite extensive, and from early times a good course in musicaltheory was taught (R. 74 f). Boethius' _De Musica_, written at thebeginning of the sixth century, was the text used. Music entered into somany activities of the Church that much naturally was made of it. Theorgan, too, is an old instrument, going back to the second century B. C. , and the organ with a keyboard to the close of the eleventh century. Thisinstrument added much to the value of the music course, and the hymnscomposed by Christian musicians form an important part of our musicalheritage. [11] The cathedral school at Metz and the monastery at SaintGall became famous as musical centers, and of the work of one of theteachers of music at Saint Gall (Notker) it was written by his biographer:"Through different hymns, sequences, tropes, and litanies, throughdifferent songs and melodies as well as through ecclesiastical science, the pupils of this man made the church of God famous not merely inAlemannia, but everywhere from sea to sea. "

[Illustration: FIG. 47. AN EARLY CHURCH MUSICIAN(From a fourteenth-century manuscript, now in the British Museum)]

THE GREAT TEXTBOOKS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. While the textbooks mentionedunder the description of each of the Liberal Arts formed the basis of theinstruction given, most of the instruction before the twelfth century wasnot given from editions of the original works, but from abridgedcompendiums. Six of these were so famous and so widely used that eachdeserves a few words of description. 

1. _The Marriage of Mercury and Philology_, written by Martianus Capella, between 410 and 427 A. D. , was the first of the five great mediaevaltextbooks. Mercury, desiring to marry, finally settles on the learnedmaiden Philology, and the seven bridesmaids--Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric, Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Music--enter in turn at the ceremonyand tell who they are and what they represent. The speeches of the sevenmaidens summarized the ancient learning in each subject. This textbook wasmore widely used during the Middle Ages than any other book. 

2. _Boethius_ (475-524) was another important mediaeval textbook writer, having prepared textbooks on dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, music, andethics. Nearly all of what the Middle Ages knew of Aristotle's _Logic_ and_Ethics_, and of the writings of Plato, were contained in the texts hewrote. His _De Musica_ was used in the universities as a textbook untilnear the middle of the eighteenth century. 

3. _Cassiodorus_ [12] (c. 490-585), in his _On the Liberal Arts andSciences_, prepared a digest of each of the Seven Liberal Arts formonastic use, fixing the number at seven by scriptural authority. [13]

4. _Isidore_, Bishop of Seville (c. 570-636), under the title of_Etymologies_ or _Origines_, prepared an encyclopaedia of the ancientlearning for the use of the monks and clergy which was intended to be asummary of all knowledge worth knowing. While he drew his knowledge fromthe writings of the Greeks and Romans, with many of which he was familiar, contrary to the attitude of Cassiodorus he forbade the monks and clergy tomake any use of them whatever. Cassiodorus was still in part a Roman;Isidore was a full mediaeval. 

5. _Alcuin_, a learned scholar of the eighth century, whom we met in thepreceding chapter (p. 140), wrote treatises on the studies of the_Trivium_ and on astronomy which were used in many schools in Frankland. 

6. _Maurus_. In 819 the learned monk of Fulda, Rhabanus Maurus, a pupil ofAlcuin, issued his volume _On the Instruction of the Clergy_, in the thirdpart of which he describes the uses and the subject-matter of each of theArts (R. 74). He also wrote texts on grammar and astronomy, and in 844issued an encyclopaedia, _De Universo_, based largely on the work ofIsidore, but supplemented from other sources. 

These were the great textbooks for the study of the _Trivium_ and the_Quadrivium_ throughout all the early Middle Ages. Considering that theywere in manuscript form and were in one volume, [14] their extent andscope can be imagined. The teacher usually had or had access to a copy, though even a teacher's books in that day were few in number (R. 78). Pupils had no books at all. These "great" texts were composed of briefextracts, bits of miscellaneous information, and lists of names. Theirstyle was uninviting. They were at best a mere shell, compared with theGreek and Roman knowledge which had been lost. Some of these books were inquestion-and-answer (catechetical) form. Their purpose was not tostimulate thinking, but to transmit that modicum of secular knowledgeneeded for the service of the Church and as a preparation for the study ofthe theological writings. For nearly eight hundred years education wasstatic, the only purpose of instruction being to transmit to the nextgeneration what the preceding one had known. For such a period suchtextbooks answered the purpose fairly well. 

3. _Training of the nobility_

TENTH-CENTURY CONDITIONS. Following the death of Charlemagne and thebreak-up of the empire held together by him, a period of organized anarchyfollowed in western Europe. Authority broke down more completely thanbefore, and Europe, for protection, was forced to organize itself into agreat number of small defensive groups. Serfs, [15] freemen lacking land, and small landowners alike came to depend on some nobleman for protection, and this nobleman in turn upon some lord or overlord. For this protectionmilitary service was rendered in return. The lord lived in his castle, andthe peasantry worked his land and supported him, fighting his battles ifthe need arose. This condition of society was known as _feudalism_, andthe feudal relations of lord and vassal came to be the prevailinggovernmental organization of the period. Feudalism was at best anorganized anarchy, suited to rude and barbarous times, but so well was itadapted to existing conditions that it became the prevailing form ofgovernment, and continued as such until a better order of society could beevolved. With the invention of gunpowder, the rise of cities andindustries, the evolution of modern States by the consolidation of numbersof these feudal governments, and the establishment of order andcivilization, feudalism passed out with the passing of the conditionswhich gave rise to it. From the end of the ninth to the middle of thethirteenth centuries it was the dominant form of government. 

The life of the nobility under the feudal régime gave a certainpicturesqueness to what was otherwise an age of lawlessness and disorder. The chief occupation of a noble was fighting, either in his own quarrel orthat of his overlord. It is hard for us to-day to realize how muchfighting went on then. Much was said about "honor, " but quarrels wereeasily started, and oaths were poorly kept. It was a day of personal feudsand private warfare, and every noble thought it his right to wage war onhis neighbor at any time, without asking the consent of any one. [16] As apreparation for actual warfare a series of mimic encounters, known astournaments, were held, in which it often happened that knights werekilled. In these encounters mounted knights charged one another with spearand lance, performing feats similar to those of actual warfare. This wasthe great amusement of the period, compared with which the German duel, the Mexican bullfight, or the American game of football are mild sports. The other diversions of the knights and nobles were hunting, hawking, feasting, drinking, making love, minstrelsy, and chess. Intellectualability formed no part of their accomplishments, and a knowledge ofreading and writing was commonly regarded as effeminate. 

To take this carousing, fighting, pillaging, ravaging, destructive, andmurderous instinct, so strong by nature among the Germanic tribes, andrefine it and in time use it to some better purpose, and in so doing toincreasingly civilize these Germanic lords and overlords, was the problemwhich faced the Church and all interested in establishing an orderlysociety in Europe. As a means of checking this outlawry the Churchestablished and tried to enforce the "Truce of God" (R. 79), and as apartial means of educating the nobility to some better conception of apurpose in life the Church aided in the development of the education ofchivalry, the first secular form of education in western Europe since thedays of Rome, and added its sanction to it after it arose. 

THE EDUCATION OF CHIVALRY. This form of education was an evolution. Itbegan during the latter part of the ninth century and the early part ofthe tenth, reached its maximum greatness during the period of the Crusades(twelfth century), and passed out of existence by the sixteenth. Theperiod of the Crusades was the heroic age of chivalry. The system ofeducation which gradually developed for the children of the nobility maybe briefly described as follows:

1. _Page. _ Up to the age of seven or eight the youth was trained at home, by his mother. He played to develop strength, was taught the meaning ofobedience, trained in politeness and courtesy, and his religious educationwas begun. After this, usually at seven, he was sent to the court of someother noble, usually his father's superior in the feudal scale, though incase of kings and feudal lords of large importance the children remainedat home and were trained in the palace school. From seven to fourteen theboy was known as a page. He was in particular attached to some lady, whosupervised his education in religion, music, courtesy, gallantry, theetiquette of love and honor, and taught him to play chess and other games. He was usually taught to read and write the vernacular language, and wassometimes given a little instruction in reading Latin. [17] To the lord herendered much personal service such as messenger, servant at meals, andattention to guests. By the men he was trained in running, boxing, wrestling, riding, swimming, and the use of light weapons. 

2. _Squire. _ At fourteen or fifteen he became a squire. While continuingto serve his lady, with whom he was still in company, and continuing torender personal service in the castle, the squire became in particular thepersonal servant and bodyguard of the lord or knight. He was in a sense a_valet_ for him, making his bed, caring for his clothes, helping him todress, and looking after him at night and when sick. He also groomed hishorse, looked after his weapons, and attended and protected him on thefield of combat or in battle. He himself learned to hunt, to handle shieldand spear, to ride in armor, to meet his opponent, and to fight with swordand battle-axe. As he approached the age of twenty-one, he chose his lady-love, who was older than he and who might be married, to whom he sworeever to be devoted, even though he married some one else. He also learnedto rhyme, [18] to make songs, sing, dance, play the harp, and observe theceremonials of the Church. Girls were given this instruction along withthe boys, but naturally their training placed its emphasis upon householdduties, service, good manners, conversational ability, music, andreligion. 

3. _Knight. _ At twenty-one the boy was knighted, and of this the Churchmade an impressive ceremonial. After fasting, confession, a night of vigilin armor spent at the altar in holy meditation, and communion in themorning, the ceremony of dubbing the squire a knight took place in thepresence of the court. He gave his sword to the priest, who blest it uponthe altar. He then took the oath "to defend the Church, to attack thewicked, to respect the priesthood, to protect women and the poor, topreserve the country in tranquillity, and to shed his blood, even to itslast drop, in behalf of his brethren. " The priest then returned him thesword which he had blessed, charging him "to protect the widows andorphans, to restore and preserve the desolate, to revenge the wronged, andto confirm the virtuous. " He then knelt before his lord, who, drawing hisown sword and holding it over him, said: "In the name of God, of our Lady, of thy patron Saint, and of Saint Michael and Saint George, I dub theeknight; be brave (touching him with the sword on one shoulder), be bold(on the other shoulder), be loyal (on the head). "

[Illustration: FIG. 48. A SQUIRE BEING KNIGHTED (From an old manuscript)]

THE CHIVALRIC IDEALS. Such, briefly stated, was the education of chivalry. The cathedral and monastery schools not meeting the needs of the nobility, the castle school was evolved. There was little that was intellectualabout the training given--few books, and no training in Latin. Instead, the native language was emphasized, and squires in England frequentlylearned to speak French. It was essentially an education for secular ends, and prepared not only for active participation in the feuds and warfare ofthe time, but also for the Seven Perfections of the Middle Ages: (1)Riding, (2) Swimming, (3) Archery, (4) Fencing, (5) Hunting, (6) Whist orChess, and (7) Rhyming. It also represents the first type of schooling inthe Middle Ages designed to prepare for life here, rather than hereafter. For the nobility it was a discipline, just as the Seven Liberal Arts was adiscipline for the monks and clergy. Out of it later on was evolved theeducation of a gentleman as distinct from that of a scholar. 

That such training had a civilizing effect on the nobility of the timecannot be doubted. Through it the Church exercised a restraining andcivilizing influence on a rude, quarrelsome, and impetuous people, whoresented restraints and who had no use for intellectual discipline. Itdeveloped the ability to work together for common ends, personal loyalty, and a sense of honor in an age when these were much-needed traits, and theideal of a life of regulated service in place of one of lawlessgratification was set up. What monasticism had done for the religious lifein dignifying labor and service, chivalry did for secular life. The TenCommandments of chivalry, (1) to pray, (2) to avoid sin, (3) to defend theChurch, (4) to protect widows and orphans, (5) to travel, (6) to wageloyal war, (7) to fight for his Lady, (8) to defend the right, (9) to lovehis God, and (10) to listen to good and true men, while not oftenfollowed, were valuable precepts to uphold in that age and time. In thegreat Crusades movement of the twelfth century the Church consecrated themilitary prowess and restless energy of the nobility to her service, butafter this wave had passed chivalry became formal and stilted and rapidlydeclined in importance (R. 80). 

[Illustration: FIG. 49. A KNIGHT OF THE TIME OF THE FIRST CRUSADE(From a manuscript in the British Museum)]

4. _Professional study_

As the one professional study of the entire early Middle-Age period, andthe one study which absorbed the intellectual energy of the one learnedclass, the evolution of the study of Theology possesses particularinterest for us. 

THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY. During the earlier part of the period underconsideration the preparatory study necessary for service in the Churchwas small, and very elementary in character. The elements of reading, writing, reckoning, and music, as taught to _oblati_ in the monasteries, sufficed. As knowledge increased a little the study of grammar at first, and later all the studies of the _Trivium_ came to be common aspreparatory study, while those who made the best preparation added thesubjects of the _Quadrivium_. Ethics, or metaphysics, taught largely fromthe digest of Aristotle's _Ethics_ prepared in the sixth century byBoethius, was the text for this study until about 1200, when Aristotle's_Metaphysics_, _Physics_, _Psychology_, and _Ethics_ were re-introducedinto Europe from Saracen sources (R. 87). 

The theological course proper experienced a similar development. At first, as we saw in chapter V, there were but few principles of belief, and thechurch organization was exceedingly simple. In 325 A. D. The Nicene Creedwas formulated (p. 96), and the first twenty canons (rules) adopted forthe government of the clergy. With the translation of the Bible into theLatin language (_Vulgate_, fourth century), the writings of the earlyLatin Fathers, and additional canons and expressions of belief adopted atsubsequent church councils, an increasing amount relating to belief, church organization, and pastoral duties needed to be imparted to newmembers of the clergy. Still, up to the eleventh century at least, thetheological course remained quite meager. In a tenth-century account thefollowing description of the theological course of the time is given: [19]

 1. Elements of grammar and the first part of Donatus. 2. Repeated readings of the Old and New Testaments. 3. Mass prayers. 4. Rules of the Church as to time reckoning. 5. Decrees of the Church Councils. 6. Rules of penance. 7. Prescriptions for church services. 8. Worldly laws. 9. Collections of homilies (sermons). 10. Tractates on the Epistles and Gospels. 11. Lives of the Saints. 12. Church music. 

It will be seen from this tenth-century course of theological study thatit was based on reading, writing, and reckoning, and a little music aspreparatory studies; that it began with the first of the subjects of the_Trivium_, which was studied only in part; and that its purpose was toimpart needed information as to dogma, church practices, canon (church)law, and such civil (worldly) law as would be needed by the priest indischarging his functions as the notary and lawyer of the age. There is nosuggestion of the study of Theology as a science, based on evidences, logic, and ethics. Such study was not then known, and would not have beentolerated. There were no other professions to study for. 

SYSTEMATIC INSTRUCTION BEGINS. About 1145 Peter the Lombard published his_Book of Sentences_, and this worked a revolution in the teaching of thesubject. In topics, arrangement, and method of treatment the book marked agreat advance, and became the standard textbook in Theology for a longtime. It did much to change the study of Theology from dogmas to ascientific subject, and made possible schools of Theology in theuniversities now about to arise. In the thirteenth century it was made theofficial textbook at both the universities of Oxford and Paris. Thestudies of dialectic and ethics were raised to a new plane of importanceby the publication of this book. 

By the close of the twelfth century the interest of the Church in abetter-trained clergy had grown to such an extent that theologicalinstruction was ordered established wherever there was an Archbishop. In adecree issued by Pope Innocent III and the General Council it was ordered:

 In every cathedral or other church of sufficient means, a master ought to be elected by the prelate or chapter, and the income of a prebend assigned to him, and in every metropolitan church a theologian also ought to be elected. And if the church is not rich enough to provide a grammarian and a theologian, it shall provide for the theologian from the revenues of his church, and cause provision to be made for the grammarian in some church of his city or diocese. [20]

We also, in the early thirteenth century, find bishops enforcingtheological training on future priests by orders of which the following isa type:

 Hugh of Scawby, clerk, presented by Nigel Costentin to the church of (Potter) Hanworth, was admitted and canonically instituted in it as parson, on condition that he comes to the next orders to be ordained subdeacon. But on account of the insufficiency of his grammar, the lord bishop ordered him on pain of loss of his benefice to attend school. And the Dean of Wyville was ordered to induct him into corporal possession of the said church in form aforesaid, and to inform the lord bishop if he does not attend school. [21]

5. _Characteristics of mediaeval education_

FOUNDATIONS LAID FOR A NEW ORDER. The education which we have justdescribed covers the period from the time of the downfall of Rome to thetwelfth or the thirteenth century. It represents what the Church evolvedto replace that which it and the barbarians had destroyed. Meager as itstill was, after seven or eight centuries of effort, it neverthelesspresents certain clearly marked lines of development. The beginnings of anew Christian civilization among the tribes which had invaded and overrunthe old Roman Empire are evident, and, toward the latter part of theMiddle Ages, we note the development of a number of centers of learning(R. 71) and the beginnings of that specialization of knowledge (churchdoctrine, classical learning, music, logic and ethics, theology), atdifferent church and monastery schools, which promised much for the futureof learning. We also notice, and will see the same evidence in thefollowing chapter, the beginnings of a class of scholarly men, though thescholarship is very limited in scope and along lines thoroughly approvedby the Church. 

In education proper, in the sense that we understand it, the schoolsprovided were still for a very limited class, and secondary rather thanelementary in nature. They were intended to meet the needs of aninstitution rather than of a people, and to prepare those who studied inthem for service to that institution. That institution, too, hadconcentrated its efforts on preparing its members for life in anotherworld, and not for life or service in this. There were as yet noindependent schools or scholars, the monks and clergy represented the onelearned class, Theology was the one professional study, the ability toread and write was not regarded by noble or commoner as of any particularimportance, and all book knowledge was in a language which the people didnot understand when they heard it and could not read. Society was as yetcomposed of three classes--feudal warriors, who spent their time inamusements or fighting, and who had evolved a form of knightly trainingfor their children; privileged priests and monks and nuns, who controlledall book learning and opportunities for professional advancement; and thegreat mass of working peasants, engaged chiefly in agriculture, andbelonging to and helping to fight the battles of their protecting lord. 

For these peasants there was as yet no education aside from what theChurch gave through her watchful oversight and her religious services (R. 81), and but little leisure, freedom, wealth, security, or economic needto make such education possible or desirable. Moreover, the other-worldlyattitude of the Church made such education seem unnecessary. It was stillthe education of a few for institutional purposes, though here and there, by the close of the twelfth century, the Church was beginning to urge itsmembers to provide some education for their children (R. 82), and theworld was at last getting ready for the evolution of the independentscholar, and soon would be ready for the evolution of schools to meetsecular needs. 

REPRESSIVE ATTITUDE OF THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH. The great work of the Churchduring this period, as we see it to-day, was to assimilate andsufficiently civilize the barbarians to make possible a new civilization, based on knowledge and reason rather than force. To this end the Churchhad interposed her authority against barbarian force, and had slowly wonthe contest. Almost of necessity the Church had been compelled to insistupon her way, and this type of absolutism in church government had beenextended to most other matters. The Bible, or rather the interpretationsof it which church councils, popes, bishops, and theological writers hadmade, became authoritative, and disobedience or doubt became sinful in theeyes of the Church. [22] The Scriptures were made the authority foreverything, and interpretations the most fantastic were made of scripturalverses. Unquestioning belief was extended to many other matters, with theresult that tales the most wonderful were recounted and believed. Toquestion, to doubt, to disbelieve--these were among the deadly sins of theearly Middle Ages. This attitude of mind undoubtedly had its value inassimilating and civilizing the barbarians, and probably was a necessityat the time, but it was bad for the future of the Church as aninstitution, and utterly opposed to scientific inquiry and intellectualprogress. Monroe well expresses the situation which came to exist when hesays:

 The validity of any statement, the actuality of any alleged instance, came to be determined, not by any application of rationalistic principle, not by inherent plausibility, not by actual inquiry into the facts of the case, but by its agreement with religious feelings or beliefs, its effect in furthering the influence of the Church or the reputation of a saint--in general, by its relationship to matters of faith. Thus it happens that the chronicles of the monks and the lives of the saints, charming and interesting as they are in their naïveté, their simplicity, their trustful credulity, and their pictures of a life and an attitude of mind so remote from ours, are filled with incidents given as facts that test the greatest faith, strain the most vivid imagination, and shock that innate respect for reality, that it is the purpose of modern education to inculcate. [23]

This authoritative and repressive attitude of the Church expressed itselfin many ways. The teaching of the period is an excellent example of thisinfluence. The instruction in the so-called Seven Liberal Arts remainedunchanged throughout a period of half a dozen centuries--so muchaccumulated knowledge passed on as a legacy to succeeding generations. Itrepresented mere instruction; not education. As a recent writer has wellexpressed it, the whole knowledge and culture contained in the SevenLiberal Arts remained "like a substance in suspension in a mediumincapable of absorbing it; unchanged throughout the whole mediaevalperiod. " Inquiry or doubt in religious matters was not tolerated, andscientific inquiry and investigation ceased to exist. The notablescientific advances of the Greeks, their literature and philosophy, andparticularly their genius for free inquiry and investigation, no longerinfluenced a world dominated by an institution preparing its children onlyfor life in a world to come. Not until the world could shake off thismediaeval attitude toward scientific inquiry and make possible honestdoubt was any real intellectual progress possible. In a rough, general waythe turn in the tide came about the beginning of the twelfth century, andfor the next five centuries the Church was increasingly busy trying, likeKing Canute of old, to stop the waves of free inquiry and scientific doubtfrom rising higher against the bulwarks it had erected. 

THE MEDIAEVAL EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. The educational system which the Churchhad developed by 1200 continued unchanged in its essential features untilafter the great awakening known as the Revival of Learning, orRenaissance. This system we have just sketched. For instruction in theelements of learning we have the inner and outer monastery and conventschools, and, in connection with the churches, song schools, and chantryor stipendary schools. In these last we have the beginnings of the parishschool for instruction in the elements of learning and the fundamentals offaith for the children of the faithful. In the monasteries, convents, andin connection with the cathedral churches we have the secondaryinstruction fairly well organized with the _Trivium_ and the _Quadrivium_as the basis. At the close of the period under consideration in thischapter a few privately endowed grammar schools were just beginning to befounded to supplement the work of the cathedral schools (RS. 141-143). Insome of the inner monastery schools and a few of the cathedral schools wealso have the beginnings of higher instruction, with theology as the oneprofessional subject and the one learned career. 

[Illustration: FIG. 50. EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLEAGESThe relative weight of the lines indicates approximate development. Thelines along which educational evolution took place in the later MiddleAges are here clearly marked out. ]

All these schools, too, were completely under the control of the Church. There were no private schools or teachers before about 1200. Only thechivalric education was under the control of princes or kings, and eventhis the Church kept under its supervision. The Church was still theState, to a large degree, and the Church, unlike Greece or Rome, took theeducation of the young upon itself as one of its most important functions. The schools taught what the Church approved, and the instruction was forreligious and church ends. The monks who gave instruction in themonasteries were responsible to the Abbot, who was in turn responsible tothe head of the order and through him to the Pope at Rome. Similarly the_scholasticus_ in the cathedral school and the _precentor_ in the songschool were both responsible to the Bishop, and again through Archbishopand Cardinal to the Pope. 

THE FIRST TEACHER'S CERTIFICATES AND SCHOOL SUPERVISION. Toward the latterpart of the period under consideration in this chapter an interestingdevelopment in church school administration took place. As the cathedraland song schools increased assistant teachers were needed, and the_scholasticus_ and _precentor_ gradually withdrew from instruction andbecame the supervisors of instruction, or rather the principals of theirrespective schools. As song or parish schools were established in theparishes of the diocese teachers for these were needed, and the_scholasticus_ and _precentor_ extended their authority and supervisionover these, just as the Bishop had done much earlier (p. 97) over thetraining and appointment of priests. By 1150 we have, clearly evolved, thesystem of central supervision of the training of all teachers in thediocese through the issuing, for the first time in Europe, of licenses toteach (R. 83). The system was finally put into legal form by a decreeadopted by a general council of the Church at Rome, in 1179, whichrequired that the _scholasticus_ "should have authority to superintend allthe schoolmasters of the diocese and grant them licenses without whichnone should presume to teach, " and that "nothing be exacted for licensesto teach" issued by him, thus stopping the charging of fees for theirissuance. The _precentor_, in a similar manner, claimed and often securedsupervision of all elementary, and especially all song-school instruction. Teachers were also required to take an oath of fealty and obedience (R. 84b). 

As a result of centuries of evolution we thus find, by 1200, a limited butpowerful church school system, with centralized control and supervision ofinstruction, diocesan licenses to teach, and a curriculum adapted to theneeds of the institution in control of the schools. We also note thebeginnings of secular instruction in the training of the nobility forlife's service, though even this is approved and sanctioned by the Church. The centralized religious control thus established continued until thenineteenth century, and still exists to a more or less important degree inthe school systems of Italy, the old Austro-Hungarian States, Germany, England, and some other western nations. As we shall see later on, one ofthe big battles in the process of developing state school systems has comethrough the attempt of the State to substitute its own organization forthis religious monopoly of instruction. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Outline the instruction in an inner monastery school. 

2. Show how the mediaeval parish school naturally developed as an offshootof the cathedral schools, and was supplemented later by the endowedchantry schools. 

3. What effect did the development of song-school instruction have on theinstruction in the cathedral schools?

4. Why was it difficult to develop good cathedral schools during the earlyMiddle Ages?

5. About how much training would be represented to-day by the SevenLiberal Arts, (_a_) assuming the body of knowledge then known? (_b_)assuming the body of knowledge for each subject known to-day?

6. What great subject of study has been developed out of one part of thestudy of mediaeval rhetoric?

7. Why would dialectic naturally not be of much importance, so long asinstruction in theology was dogmatic and not a matter of thinking?

8. Characterize the instruction in arithmetic, geometry, and geographyduring the early Middle Ages. Would we consider such knowledge as of anyvalue? Explain the attention given to such instruction. 

9. What great modern subjects of study have been developed out of themediaeval subjects of arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy?

10. Compare the knowledge of mediaevals and moderns in (a) geography, (b)astronomy. 

11. What does the fact that the few great textbooks were in use for somany centuries indicate as to the character of educational progress duringthe Middle Ages?

12. Was the Church wise in adopting and sanctifying the education ofchivalry? Why?

13. What important contributions to world progress came out of chivalriceducation?

14. What ideals and practices from chivalry have been retained and arestill in use to-day? Does the Boy Scouts movement embody any of thechivalric ideas and training?

15. Compare the education of the body by the Greeks and under chivalry. 

16. Compare the Athenian ephebic oath with the vows of chivalry. 

17. Picture the present world transferred back to a time when theology wasthe one profession. 

18. What educational theory, conscious or unconscious, formed the basisfor mediaeval education and instruction?

19. Explain why the Church, after six or seven centuries of effort, stillprovided schools only for preparation for its own service. 

20. What does the lack of independent scholars during the Middle Agesindicate as to possible leisure?

21. Was the attitude of Anselm a perfectly natural one for the MiddleAges? Can progress be made with such an attitude dominant?

22. Contrast the deadly sins of the Middle Ages with present-dayconceptions as to education. 

23. Contrast the purposes of mediaeval education and the education of to-day. 

24. When Greece and Rome offered no precedents, how did the Church come toso fully develop and control the education which was provided?

25. Compare the supervisory work of a modern county superintendent withthat of a _scholasticus_ of a mediaeval cathedral. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 70. Leach: Song and Grammar Schools in England. 71. Mullinger: The Episcopal and Monastic Schools. 72. Statutes: The School at Salisbury Cathedral. 73. Aldwincle: Foundation Grant for a Chantry School. 74. Maurus: The Seven Liberal Arts. 75. Leach: A Mediaeval Latin Colloquy. 76. Quintilian: On the Importance of the Study of Grammar. 77. Anglicus: The Elements, and the Planets. (a) Of the Elements. (b) Of Double Moving of the Planets. 78. Cott: A Tenth Century Schoolmaster's Books. 79. Archbishop of Cologne: The Truce of God. 80. Gautier: How the Church used Chivalry. 81. Draper: Educational Influences of the Church Services. 82. Winchester Diocesan Council: How the Church urged that the Elements of Religious Education be given. 83. Lincoln Cathedral: Licenses required to teach Song. 84. English Forms: Appointment and Oath of a Grammar-School Master. (a) Northallerton: Appointment of a master of Song and Grammar. (b) Archdeacon of Ely: Oath of a Grammar-School Master to. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Distinguish between song and grammar schools (70), and state what wastaught in each. Do we have any modern analogy to the same teacher teachingboth schools, as was sometimes done?

2. Distinguish between monastic and episcopal (cathedral) schools (71). When was the great era of each? How do you explain the change in relativeimportance of the two?

3. Explain the process of evolution of a parish school out of a chantryschool. 

4. What was the nature of the cathedral school at Salisbury (72)?

5. What type of a school was provided for in the Aldwincle chantry (73)?Why was it not until after the twelfth century that the endowing ofschools (73) began to supersede the endowing of priests, churches, andmonasteries?

6. How do you explain the need for so many years to master the SevenLiberal Arts (74)?

7. Into what subjects of study have we broken up the old subject ofgrammar, as described by Quintilian (76), and how have we distributed themthroughout our school system? Is technical grammar at present taught inthe best possible place?

8. What stage in scientific knowledge do the selections from Anglicus (77a-b) indicate? What rate of scientific progress is indicated by itstranslation and length of use?

9. What scope of knowledge is represented in the library (78) of thetenth-century schoolmaster? What does the list indicate as to the state oflearning of the time?

10. Picture the manners and morals of a time which called for theproclamation of a Truce of God (79). Would the rate of progress ofcivilization and the rate of elimination of warfare up to then, and since, indicate that the Church has been very successful in imposing its will?

11. Show how Chivalry was made a great asset to the Church (80). 

12. How do you explain the much greater simplicity of the church serviceof modern Protestant churches than that of the Roman (81) or GreekCatholic churches?

13. Explain the form of mild compulsion toward learning which the diocesancouncil of Winchester (82) attempted to institute. 

14. Is the modern state teacher's certificate a natural outgrowth of themediaeval licenses (83) to teach grammar and song? Why did the Churchinsist on these when Rome had not required such?

15. Show how the modern oath of office of a teacher, and the possibilityof dismissal for insubordination, is a natural development from the oathof fealty and obedience (84 b) of the mediaeval teacher? Is this true alsofor our modern notices of appointment (84 a)?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Abelson, Paul. _The Seven Liberal Arts_. Addison, Julia de W. _Arts and Crafts in the Middle Ages_. Besant, W. _The Story of King Alfred_. * Clark, J. W. _The Care of Books_. Davidson, Thomas. "The Seven Liberal Arts"; in _Educational Review_, vol. II, pp. 467-73. (Also in his _Aristotle_. ) Mombert, J. I. _History of Charles the Great_. * Mullinger, J. B. _The Schools of Charles the Great_. Sandys, J. E. _History of Classical Scholarship_, vol. I. Scheffel, Victor. _Ekkehard_. (Historical novel of monastic life. ) Steele, Philip. _Mediaeval Lore_. (Anglicus' Cyclopaedia. )

CHAPTER VIII

INFLUENCES TENDING TOWARD A REVIVAL OF LEARNING

I. MOSLEM LEARNING FROM SPAIN

THE MOHAMMEDANS IN SPAIN. It will be recalled that in chapter V wementioned briefly the Mohammedan migrations of the seventh century, andsaid that we should meet them again a little later on as one of the minorforces in the development of our western civilization. After their defeatat Tours (732) the Mohammedans retired into Spain, mixed with the Iberian-Roman-Visigothic peoples inhabiting the peninsula, and began to develop acivilization there. Figure 33 (p. 114) shows how much of the world theMohammedans had overrun by 800 A. D. , and how much of Spain was in theirpossession. 

In Spain they developed a skillful agriculture (R. 85), as, in lands ashot and dry as Spain, all agriculture to be successful must be. Theyintroduced irrigation, gave special attention to the breeding of horsesand cattle, and developed garden and orchard fruits. To them westernEurope is indebted for the introduction of many of its orchard fruits, useful plants, and garden vegetables, as well as for a number of importantmanufacturing processes. The orange, lemon, peach, apricot, and mulberrytrees; the spinach, artichoke, and asparagus among vegetables; cotton, rice, sugar cane, and hemp among useful plants; the culture of thesilkworm, and the manufacture of silk and cotton garments; the manufactureof paper from cotton, and the making of morocco leather--these are amongour debts to these people. Though many of the above had been known toantiquity, they had been lost during the barbarian invasions and wererestored only through their re-introduction by the Moslems. 

GREAT ABSORPTIVE POWER FOR LEARNING. The original Arabians themselves werenot a well-educated people. Before the time of Mohammed we havepractically no records as to any education among them. When in theirreligious conquests they overran Syria (see Map, p. 103), they came incontact with the survivals of that wonderful Greek civilization andlearning, and this they absorbed with greatest avidity. 

It will be recalled, too, that in chapter IV (p. 94), it was stated thatthe early Christians developed very important catechetical schools inEgypt and Syria, and especially at Alexandria, Antioch, Edessa, Nisibis, Harran, and Caesarea. [1] (See Figure 27, p. 89. ) It was also stated thatthe Christian instruction imparted at these eastern schools was tincturedthrough and through with Greek learning and Greek philosophic thought. Here monasteries also were developed in numbers, and Syrian monks had forcenturies been busy translating Greek authors into Syriac. It was alsostated (p. 94) that the Eastern or Greek division of the Christian Church, of which Constantinople became the central city, was more liberal towardGreek learning than was the Western or Latin division of the Church. 

By the fifth century, though, due in part to the breakdown of government, the increasing barbarity of the age, and the greater control of allthinking by the Church, the Eastern Church lost somewhat of its earliertolerance. In 431 the Church Council of Ephesus put a ban on theHellenized form of Christian theology advocated by Nestorius, thenPatriarch of Constantinople, and drove him and his followers, known as_Nestorian Christians_, from the city. These Nestorians now fled to theold Syrian cities, which early had been so hospitable to Greek learningand thinking. [2] Being now beyond the reach of Christian intolerance andin a friendly atmosphere, they remained there, developing excellent higherschools of the old Greek type, and there the Mohammedans found them whenthey overran Syria, in 635 A. D. 

Mohammedanism now came in contact with an educated people, as it did alsoin Babylonia (637), in Assyria (640), and in Egypt (642), and the need ofa better statement of the somewhat crude faith now became evident. Thesame process now took place as had occurred earlier with Christianity. TheNestorian Christians and the Syrian monks became the scholars for theMohammedans, and the Mohammedan faith was clothed in Greek forms andreceived a thorough tincturing of Greek philosophic thought. Within acentury they had translated from Syriac into Arabic, or from the originalGreek, much of the old Greek learning in philosophy, science, andmedicine, and the cities of Syria, and in particular their capital, Damascus, became renowned for their learning. In 760 Bagdad, on theTigris, was founded, and superseded Damascus as the capital. Extendingeastward, these people were soon busy absorbing Hindu mathematicalknowledge, obtaining from them (c. 800) the so-called Arabic notation andalgebra. 

THEY DEVELOP SCHOOLS AND ADVANCE LEARNING. In 786 Haroun-al-Raschid becameCaliph at Bagdad, and he and his son made it an intellectual center offirst importance. In all the known world probably no city, not evenConstantinople, during the latter part of the eighth century and most ofthe ninth, could vie with Bagdad as a center of learning. Basra, Kufa, andother eastern cities were also noted places. Schools were opened inconnection with the mosques (churches), a university after the old Greekmodel was founded, a large library was organized, and an observatory wasbuilt. Large numbers of students thronged the city, learned Greeks andJews taught in the schools, and a number of advances on the scientificwork done by the Greeks were made. A degree of the earth's surface [3] wasmeasured on the shores of the Red Sea; the obliquity of the ecliptic wasdetermined (c. 830); astronomical tables were calculated; algebra andtrigonometry were perfected; discoveries in chemistry not known in Europeuntil toward the end of the eighteenth century, and advances in physicsfor which western Europe waited for Newton (1642-1727), were made; and inmedicine and surgery their work was not duplicated until the earlynineteenth century. Their scholars wrote dictionaries, lexicons, cyclopaedias, and pharmacopoeias of merit (R. 86). 

This eastern learning was now gradually carried to Spain by travelingMohammedan scholars, and there the energy of conquest was gradually turnedto the development of schools and learning. By 900 a good civilization andintellectual life had been developed in Spain, and before 1000 theteaching in Spain, especially along Greek philosophical lines, had becomesufficiently known to attract a few adventurous monks from ChristianEurope. Gerbert (953-1003), afterward Pope Sylvester II (p. 159), was oneof the first to study there, though for this he was accused of havingtransactions with the Devil, and when he died suddenly at fifty, fouryears after having been elevated to the Papacy, monks over Europe arerecorded as having crossed themselves and muttered that the Devil had nowclaimed his reward. A monk from Monte Cassino also studied at Bagdad, andbrought back some of the eastern learning to his monastery. 

[Illustration: FIG. 51. SHOWING CENTERS OF MOSLEM LEARNING]

MOHAMMEDAN REACTION SENDS SCHOLARS TO SPAIN. The great intellectualdevelopment at Bagdad was in part due to the patronage of a few caliphs oflarge vision, and was of relatively short duration. The religiousenthusiasts among the Mohammedans were in reality but little more zealousfor Hellenic learning than the Fathers of the Western Church had been. Finally, about 1050, they obtained the upper hand and succeeded in drivingout the Hellenic Mohammedans, just as the Eastern Christians had drivenout the Nestorians, and these scholars of the East now fled to northernAfrica and to Spain. [4] Almost at once a marked further development inthe intellectual life of Spain took place. In Cordova, Granada, Toledo, and Seville strong universities were developed, where Jews and HellenizedMohammedans taught the learning of the East, and made further advances inthe sciences and mathematics. Physics, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, physiology, medicine, and surgery were the great subjects of study. Greekphilosophy also was taught. They developed schools and large libraries, taught geography from globes, studied astronomy in observatories, countedtime by pendulum clocks, invented the compass and gunpowder, developedhospitals, and taught medicine and surgery in schools (R. 86). 

Their cities were equally noteworthy for their magnificent palaces, [5]mosques, public baths, market-places, aqueducts, and paved and lightedstreets--things unknown in Christian Europe for centuries to come (R. 85). It became fashionable for wealthy men to become patrons of learning, andto collect large libraries and place them at the disposal of scholars, thus revealing interests in marked contrast to those of the fightingnobility of Christian Europe. 

THEIR INFLUENCE ON WESTERN EUROPE. Western Europe of the tenth to thetwelfth centuries presented a dreary contrast, in almost every particular, to the brilliant life of southern Spain. Just emerging from barbarism, itwas still in an age of general disorder and of the simplest religiousfaith. [6] The age of reason and of scientific experiment as a means ofarriving at truth had not yet dawned, and would not do so for centuries tocome. Monks and clerics, representing the one learned class, regarded thisMoslem science as "black art, " and in consequence Europe, centuries later, had slowly to rediscover the scientific knowledge which might have beenhad for the taking. Only the book science of Aristotle would the Churchaccept, and even this only after some hesitation (Rs. 89, 90). 

Western Europe had, however, advanced far enough through the study of theSeven Liberal Arts to desire corrected and additional texts of the earlierclassical writers, particularly Aristotle, and also to be willing toaccept some of the mathematical knowledge of these Saracens. It was herethat the Moslem learning in Spain helped in the intellectual awakening ofthe rest of Europe. Adelhard, an English monk, studied at Cordova about1120, and took back with him some knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, andgeometry. His Euclid was in general use in the universities by 1300. Gerard of Cremona, in Lombardy (1114-1187), who studied at Toledo a littlelater, rendered a similar service for Italy. He also translated many worksfrom the Arabic, including Ptolemy's Almagest (p. 49), a book ofastronomical tables, and Alhazen's (Spanish scholar, c. 1100) book onOptics. Other monks studied in the Spanish cities during the twelfthcentury, a few of whom brought back translations of importance. FrederickII [7] employed a staff of Jewish physicians to translate Arabic worksinto Latin, but, due to his continual war against the Pope and his finaloutlawry by the Church, his work possessed less significance than itotherwise might have done. Among the books thus translated was the medicaltextbook of Avicenna (980-1037), based in turn on the Greek works by Galenand Hippocrates of Cos (p. 197). This book described ailments and theirtreatment in detail, became the standard textbook in the medical facultiesof the universities, and was used until the seventeenth century. AnotherMoslem whose translated writings had great influence on Europe wasAverroës (1126-1198) who tried to unite the philosophy of Aristotle withMohammedanism (R. 88). His influence on the thinkers of the later MiddleAges was large, he being regarded as the greatest commentator on Aristotlefrom the days of Rome to the time of the Renaissance. 

[Illustration: FIG. 52. ARISTOTLE]

What Europe obtained through Moslem sources which it prized most, though, was the commentary on Aristotle by Averroës and the works of Aristotle (R. 88). The list of the books of Aristotle in use in the mediaevaluniversities by 1300 (R. 87) reveals the great importance of the additionsmade. By the middle of the twelfth century Aristotle's _Ethics_, _Metaphysics_, _Physics_, and _Psychology_, as well as some of his minorworks, had been translated into Latin and were beginning to be madeavailable for study. The translation route through which these works hadbeen derived was a roundabout one--Greek, Syriac, Arabic, Castilian, Latin--and hence the translations could not be very accurate, but theysufficed for the needs of Europe until the original Greek versions wererecovered when the Venetians and Crusaders took and sacked Constantinople, in 1204. These were then translated directly into the Latin. WesternEurope also was ready to use the Arabic (Hindu) system of notation, theelements of algebra, Euclid's geometry, and Ptolemy's work on the motionof the heavens. These contributions western Europe was ready for; thelarger scientific knowledge of the Saracens, their pharmacopoeias, dictionaries, cyclopaedias, histories, and biographies, it was not yetready to receive. 

One other influence crept in from these peoples which was of large futureimportance--the music and light literature and love songs of Spain. Therehad been developed in this sunny land a life of light gayety, chivalrousgallantry, elegant courtesies, and poetic and musical charm, and thisgradually found its way across the Pyrenees. At first it affected Provenceand Languedoc, in southern France, then Sicily and Italy, and finally thegay contagion of lute and mandolin and love songs spread throughout allwestern Europe. A race of troubadours and minnesingers arose, singing inthe vernacular, traveling about the country, and being entertained incastle halls. 

 Lordlyng listneth to my tale Which is merryr than the nightengale

won admission at any castle gate. "Out of these genial but not orthodoxbeginnings the polite literature of modern Europe arose. "

II. THE RISE OF SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY

THE ELEVENTH CENTURY A TURNING POINT. By the end of the eleventh century adistinct turning-point had been reached in the struggle to savecivilization from perishing. From this time on it was clear that thebattle had been won, and that a new Christian civilization would in timearise in western Europe. Much still remained to be done, and centuries ofeffort would be required, but the Church, almost for the first time inmore than six hundred years, felt that it could now pause to organize andsystematize its faith. The invasions and destruction of the Northmen hadat last ceased, the Mohammedan conquests were over, almost the last of theGermanic tribes in Europe had settled down and had accepted Christianity, [8] and the fighting nobility of Europe were being held somewhat inrestraint by the might of the Church, the "Truce of God" (R. 79), and thesoftening influence of chivalric education (R. 80). There were manyevidences, too, by the end of the eleventh century, that the westernChristian world, after the long intellectual night, was soon to awaken toa new intellectual life. The twelfth century, in particular, was a periodwhen it was evident that some new leaven was at work. 

Up to about the close of the eleventh century western Europe had beenliving in an age of simple faith. The Christian world everywhere lay under"a veil of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession. " The mysteries ofChristianity and the many inconsistencies of its teachings and beliefswere accepted with childlike docility, and the Church had felt little callto organize, to systematize, or to explain. Here and there, to be sure, some questioning monk or cleric had raised questions over matters [9] offaith which his reason could not explain, and had, perhaps, for a timedisturbed the peace of orthodoxy, but a statement somewhat similar to thatmade by Anselm of Canterbury (footnote, p. 173), as to the precedence offaith over reason, had usually been sufficient to silence all inquiry. Once, in the latter part of the eleventh century, when a great discussionas to the nature of knowledge had taken place among the leaders of theChurch, a church council had been called to pass upon and give finalsettlement to the questions raised. [10]

RISE OF THE SPIRIT OF INQUIRY. As the cathedral schools grew in importanceas teaching institutions, and came to have many teachers and students, afew of them became noted as places where good instruction was imparted andgreat teachers were to be found. Canterbury in England, Paris and Chartresin France, and several of the cities in northern Italy early were notedfor the quality of their instruction. The great teachers and the keeneststudents of the time were to be found in the cathedral schools in theseplaces, and the monastic schools now lost their earlier importance asteaching institutions. By the twelfth century they had been completelysuperseded as important teaching centers by the rapidly developingcathedral schools. To these more important cathedral schools students nowcame from long distances to study under some noted teacher. Says McCabe:[11]

 The scholastic fever which was soon to influence the youth of Europe, had already set in. You could not travel far over the rough roads of France without meeting some footsore scholar, making for the nearest large monastery or cathedral town. Robbers, frequently in the service of the lord of the land, infested every province. It was safest to don the coarse frieze tunic of the pilgrim, without pockets, sling your little wax tablets and stylus at your girdle, strap a wallet of bread and herbs and salt on your back, and laugh at the nervous folk who peeped out from their coaches over a hedge of pikes and daggers. Few monasteries refused a meal or a rough bed to the wandering scholar. Rarely was any fee exacted for the lesson given. 

The cathedral school in connection with the church of Notre Dame [12]became especially famous for its teachers of the Liberal Arts(particularly Dialectic) and of Theology, and to this school, just as theeleventh century was drawing to a close, came a youth, then barely twentyyears of age, who is generally regarded as having been the keenest scholarof the twelfth century. His brilliant intellect soon enabled him to refutethe instruction of his teachers and to vanquish them in debate. His namewas Abelard. Before long he himself became a teacher of Grammar and Logicat Paris, and later of Theology, and, so widely had he read, so clearlydid he appeal to the reason of his hearers, and so incisive was histeaching, that he attracted large numbers of students to his lectures. Toassist in his teaching of Theology he prepared a little textbook, _Sic etNon_ (Yea and Nay), in which he raised for debate many questions as tochurch teachings (R. 91 b), such as "That faith is based on reason, ornot. " In the introduction to this textbook he held that "constant andfrequent questioning is the first key to wisdom" (R. 91 a). His method wasto give the authorities on both sides, but to render no decision. Hisboldness in raising such questions for debate was new, and his failure togive the students a decision was quite unusual, while his claim thatreason was antecedent to faith was startling. Even after being driven fromParis, in part because of this boldness and in part because of a mostunfortunate incident which deservedly ruined his career in the Church, students in numbers followed him to his retreat and listened to histeachings. His method of instruction was for the time so unusual and hisspirit of inquiry so searching that he stimulated many a young mind to anew type of thinking. One of his pupils was Peter the Lombard (p. 171), who completely redirected the teaching of theology with his _Book ofSentences_ (c. 1145)--This was based largely on Abelard's method, exceptthat a positive and orthodox decision was presented for each questionraised. 

[Illustration: FIG. 53. THE CATHEDRAL OF NOTRE DAME, AT PARISThe present cathedral was begun in 1163, consecrated in 1182, andcompleted in the thirteenth century. It is built on an island in theSeine, and on the site of a church built in the fourth century. The littlecommunity which grew up about the cathedral church formed the nucleusabout which the city of Paris eventually grew. This cathedral front, withits statues and beautiful carving, formed a type much followed during thegreat period of cathedral-building (thirteenth century) in Europe. Theschool in connection with this cathedral early became famous. ]

What took place at Paris also took place, though generally on a smallerscale, at many other cathedral and monastery schools of western Europe. The spirit of inquiry had at last been awakened, the Church was beingrespectfully challenged by its children to prove its faith, and thelearning of the Saracens in Spain, which now began to filter across thePyrenees, added to the strength of their challenge. Returning pilgrims andcrusaders (First Crusade, 1099) also began to ask for an explanation ofthe doubts which had come to them from the contact with Greek and Arab inthe East. A desire for a philosophy which would explain the mysteries andcontradictions of the Christian faith found expression among the scholarsof the time. In the larger cathedral schools, at least, it became commonto discuss the doctrines of the Church with much freedom. 

THE RISE OF SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY. The Church, in a very intelligent andcommendable manner, prepared to meet and use this new spirit in theorganization, systematization, and restatement of its faith and doctrine, and the great era of Scholasticism [13] now arose. During the latter partof the twelfth and in the thirteenth century Scholasticism was at itsheight; after that, its work being done, it rapidly declined as aneducational force, and the new universities inherited the spirit which hadgiven rise to its labors. 

With the new emphasis now placed on reasoning, Dialectic or Logicsuperseded Grammar as the great subject of study, and logical analysis wasnow applied to the problems of religion. The Church adopted and guided themovement, and the schools of the time turned their energy into directionsapproved by it. Aristotle also was in time adopted by the Church, afterthe translation of his principal works had been effected (Rs. 87, 90), andhis philosophy was made a bulwark for Christian doctrine throughout theremainder of the Middle Ages. For the next four centuries Aristotlethoroughly dominated all philosophic thinking. [14] The great developmentand use of logical analysis now produced many keen and subtle minds, whoworked intensively a narrow and limited field of thought. The result was athorough reorganization and restatement of the theology of the Church. 

[Illustration: PLATE 3. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS]

This was the work of Scholasticism. The movement was not characterized bythe evolution of new doctrines, but by a systematization and organizationinto good teaching form of what had grown up during the preceding thousandyears. To a large degree it was also an "accommodation" of the oldtheology to the new Aristotelian philosophy which had recently beenbrought back to western Europe, and the statement of the Christiandoctrines in good philosophic form. 

THE ORGANIZING WORK OF THE SCHOOLMEN. Peter the Lombard (1100-1160), whose_Book of Sentences_, mentioned above, had so completely changed thecharacter of the instruction in Theology, began this work of theologicalreorganization. Albert the Great (_Albertus Magnus_, 1193-1280) was thefirst of the great Schoolmen, and has been termed "the organizingintellect of the Middle Ages. " He was a German Dominican monk [15], bornin Swabia, and educated in the schools of Paris, Padua, and Bologna. Laterhe became a celebrated teacher at Paris and Cologne. He was the first tostate the philosophy of Aristotle in systematic form, and was noted as anexponent of the work of Peter the Lombard. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-1274), the greatest and most influential scholastic philosopher of the MiddleAges, studied first at Monte Cassino and Naples, and then at Paris andCologne, under Albertus Magnus. He later became a noted teacher ofPhilosophy and Theology at Rome, Bologna, Viterbo, Perugia, and Naples. Under him Scholasticism came to its highest development in his harmonizingthe new Aristotelianism with the doctrines of the Church. His classteaching was based on Aristotle, [16] the Vulgate Bible, and Peter theLombard's _Book of Sentences_. During the last three years of his life hewrote his _Summa Theologiae_, a book which has ever since been accepted asan authoritative statement of the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. 

The character of the organization made by Peter the Lombard and ThomasAquinas may be seen from an examination of their method of presentation, which was dogmatic in form and similar in the textbooks of each. The fieldof Christian Theology was divided out into parts, heads, subheads, etc. , in a way that would cover the subject, and a group of problems, eachdealing with some doctrinal point, was then presented under each. Theproblem was first stated in the text. Next the authorities and argumentsfor each solution other than that considered as orthodox were presentedand confuted, in order. The orthodox solution was next presented, thearguments and authorities for such solution quoted, and the objections tothe correct solution presented and refuted (R. 152). 

RESULTS OF THEIR WORK. The work of the Schoolmen was to organize andpresent in systematic and dogmatic form the teachings of the Church (R. 92). This they did exceedingly well, and the result was a thoroughorganization of Theology as a teaching subject. They did little to extendknowledge, and nothing at all to apply it to the problems of nature andman. Their work was abstract and philosophical instead, dealing whollywith theological questions. The purpose was to lay down principles, and tooffer a training in analysis, comparison, classification, and deductionwhich would prepare learned and subtle defenders of the faith of theChurch. So successful were the Schoolmen in their efforts that instructionin Theology was raised by their work to a new position of importance, anda new interest in theological scholarship and general learning wasawakened which helped not a little to deflect many strong spirits from alife of warfare to a life of study. They made the problems of learningseem much more worth while, and their work helped to create a moretolerant attitude toward the supporters of either side of debatablequestions by revealing so clearly that there are two sides to everyquestion. This new learning, new interest in learning, and new spirit oftolerance the rising universities inherited. 

III. LAW AND MEDICINE AS NEW STUDIES

THE OLD ROMAN CITIES. The old Roman Empire, it will be remembered, came tobe largely a collection of provincial cities. These were the centers ofRoman civilization and culture. After the downfall of the governing powerof Rome, the great highways were no longer repaired, brigandage becamecommon, trade and intercourse largely ceased, and the provincial citieswhich were not destroyed in the barbarian invasions declined in populationand number, passing under the control of their bishops who long ruled themas feudal lords. During the long period of disorder many of the old Romancities entirely disappeared (R. 49). Only in Italy, and particularly innorthern Italy, did these old cities retain anything of their earliermunicipal life, or anything worth mentioning of their former industry andcommerce. But even here they lost most of their earlier importance ascenters of culture and trade, becoming merely ecclesiastical towns. Afterthe death of Charlemagne, the break-up of his empire, and the institutionof feudal conditions, the cities and towns declined still more inimportance, and few of any size remained. 

In Italy feudalism never attained the strength it did in northern Europe. Throughout all the early Middle Ages the cities there retained somethingof their old privileges, though ruled by prince-bishops residing in them. They also retained something of the old Roman civilization, and Romanlegal usages and some knowledge of Roman law never quite died out. Inother respects they much resembled mediaeval cities elsewhere. 

REESTABLISHMENT OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. After the disintegration ofCharlemagne's empire, the portion of it now known as Germany broke up intofragments, largely independent of one another, and full of fight andpride. The result there was continual and pitiless warfare. This, coupledwith the raids of the Northmen along the northern coast and the Magyars onthe east, led to the election of a king in 919 (Henry the Fowler) whocould establish some semblance of unity and order. By 961 the Germanduchies and small principalities had been so consolidated that asucceeding king (Otto I) felt himself able to attempt to reëstablish theHoly Roman Empire by subjugating Italy and annexing it as an appendageunder German rule. 

He descended into Italy (961), subjugated the cities, overthrew thePapacy, created a pope to his liking, and reëstablished the old Empire, inname at least. For a century the German rule was nominal, but with theoutbreak of the conflict in the eleventh century between king and popeover the question of which one should invest the bishops with theirauthority (known as the _investiture conflict_, 1075-1122), Pope GregoryVII humbled the German king (Henry IV) at Canossa (1077) and won a partialsuccess. Then followed repeated invasions of Italy, and a century and ahalf of conflicts between pope and king before the dream of universalempire under a German feudal king ended in disaster, and Italy was freedfrom Teutonic rule. 

[Illustration: FIG. 54, THE CITY-STATES OF NORTHERN ITALYAll of the cities in the valley of the Po, except Turin, Pavia, andMantua, were members of the Lombard League of 1167. ]

THE ITALIAN CITIES REVIVE THE STUDY OF ROMAN LAW. As was stated above, Roman legal usages and some knowledge of Roman law had never quite diedout in these Italian cities. But, while regarded with reverence, the lawwas not much understood, little study was given to it, and important partsof it were neglected and forgotten. The struggle with the ruling bishopsin the second half of the eleventh century, and the discussions whicharose during the investiture conflict, caused new attention to be given tolegal questions, and both the study of Roman (civil) and Church (canon)law were revived. The Italian cities stood with the Papacy in thestruggles with the German kings, and, in 1167, those in the Valley of thePo formed what was known as the _Lombard League_ for defense. Under thepressure of German oppression they now began a careful study of the knownRoman law in an effort to discover some charter, edict, or grant of powerupon which they could base their claim for independent legal rights. Theresult was that the study of Roman law was given an emphasis unknown inItaly since the days of the old Empire. What had been preserved during theperiod of disorder at last came to be understood, additional books of thelaw were discovered, and men suddenly awoke to a realization that what hadbeen before considered as of little value actually contained much that wasworth studying, as well as many principles of importance that wereapplicable to the conditions and problems of the time. 

[Illustration: FIG. 55. FRAGMENT FROM THE RECOVERED "DIGEST" OF JUSTINIANCapitals and small letters are here used, but note the difficulty ofreading without spacing or punctuation. ]

The great student and teacher of law of the period was Irnerius of Bologna(c. 1070-1137), who began to lecture on the _Code_ and the _Institutes_ ofJustinian about 1110 to 1115, and soon attracted large numbers of studentsto hear his interpretations. About this same time the _Digest_, much thelargest and most important part of the old law, was discovered and madeknown. [17]

This gave clearness to the whole, as before its discovery the study ofRoman law was like the study of Aristotle when only parts of the _Organon_were known. Irnerius and his co-laborers at Bologna now collected andarranged the entire body of Roman civil law (_Corpus Juris Civilis_) (R. 93), introduced the _Digest_ to western Europe, and thus made a newcontribution of first importance to the list of possible higher studies. Law now ceased to be a part of Rhetoric (p. 157) and became a new subjectof study, with a body of material large enough to occupy a student forseveral years. This was an event of great intellectual significance. A newstudy was now evolved which offered great possibilities for intellectualactivity and the exercise of the critical faculty, while at the same timeshowing veneration for authority. Law was thus placed alongside Theologyas a professional subject, and the evolution of the professional lawyerfrom the priest was now for the first time made possible. 

CANON LAW ALSO ORGANIZED AS A SUBJECT OF STUDY. Inspired by the revival ofthe study of civil law, a monk of Bologna, Gratian by name, set himself tomake a compilation of all the Church canons which had been enacted sincethe Council of Nicaea (325) formulated the first twenty (p. 96), and ofthe rules for church government as laid down by the church authorities. This he issued in textbook form, about 1142, under the title of _DecretumGratiani_. So successful were his efforts that his compilation was "one ofthose great textbooks that take the world by storm. " It did for canon(church) law what the rediscovery of the Justinian _Code_ had done forcivil law; that is, it organized canon law as a new and important teachingsubject. 

The _Decretum_ of Gratian was published in three parts, and was organizedafter the same plan as Abelard's _Sic et Non_, except that Gratian drewconclusions from the mass of evidence he presented on each topic. Itcontained 147 "Distinctions" (questions; cases of church policy), uponeach of which were cited the church canons and the views and decisions ofimportant church authorities. [18] This volume was added to by popes lateron, [19] so that by the fifteenth century a large body of canon law hadgrown up, which was known as the _Corpus Juris Canonici_. Canon Law wasthus separated from Theology and added to Civil Law as another new subjectof study for both theological and legal students, and the two subjects ofCanon and Civil Law came to constitute the work of the law faculties inthe universities which soon arose in western Europe. 

[Illustration: FIG. 56. THE FATHER OF MEDICINE HIPPOCRATES OF COS (460-367? B. C. )]

THE BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL STUDY. The Greeks had made some progress in thebeginnings of the study of disease (p. 47). Aristotle had given someanatomical knowledge in his writings on animals, and had theorized alittle about the functions of the human body. The real founder of medicalscience, though, was Hippocrates, of the island of Cos (c. 460-367 B. C. ), a contemporary of Plato. He was the first writer on the subject whoattempted to base the practice of the healing art on careful observationand scientific principles. He substituted scientific reason for the wrathof offended deities as the causes of disease, and tried to offer properremedies in place of sacrifices and prayers to the gods for cures. Hisdescriptions of diseases were wonderfully accurate, and his treatmentsruled medical practice for ages. [20] He knew, however, little as toanatomy. Another Greek writer, Galen [21](131-201 A. D. ), wrote extensivelyon medicine and left an anatomical account of the human body which wasunsurpassed for more than a thousand years. His work was known and used bythe Saracens. Avicenna (980-1037), an eastern Mohammedan, wrote a _Canonof Medicine_ in which he summarized the work of all earlier writers, andgave a more minute description of symptoms than any preceding writer haddone. These works, together with a few minor writings by teachers in Spainand Salerno, formed the basis of all medical knowledge until Vesaliuspublished his _System of Human Anatomy_, in 1543. 

The Roman knowledge of medicine was based almost entirely on that of theGreeks, and after the rise of the Christians, with their new attitudetoward earthly life and contempt for the human body, the science fell intodisrepute and decay. Saint Augustine (354-430), in his great work on _TheCity of God_, speaks with some bitterness of "medical men who are calledanatomists, " and who "with a cruel zeal for science have dissected thebodies of the dead, and sometimes of sick persons, who have died undertheir knives, and have inhumanly pried into the secrets of the human bodyto learn the nature of disease and its exact seat, and how it might becured. " [22] During the early Middle Ages the Greek medical knowledgepractically disappeared, and in its place came the Christian theories ofsatanic influence, diabolic action, and divine punishment for sin. Correspondingly the cures were prayers at shrines and repositories ofsacred relics and images, which were found all over Europe, and to whichthe injured or fever-stricken peasants hied themselves to make offeringsand to pray, and then hope for a miracle. 

Toward the middle of the eleventh century Salerno, a small citydelightfully situated on the Italian coast (see Map, p. 194), thirty-fourmiles south of Naples, began to attain some reputation as a health resort. In part this was due to the climate and in part to its mineral springs. Southern Italy had, more than any other part of western Europe, retainedtouch with old Greek thought. The works of Hippocrates and Galen had beenpreserved there, the monks at Monte Cassino had made some translations, and sometime toward the middle of the eleventh century the study of theGreek medical books was revived here. The Mohammedan medical work byAvicenna (p. 185), also early became known here in translation. About 1065Constantine of Carthage, a converted Jew and a learned monk, who hadtraveled extensively in the East [23] and who had been forced to flee fromhis native city because of a suspicion of "black art, " began to lecture atSalerno on the Greek and Mohammedan medical works and the practice of themedical art. In 1099 Robert, Duke of Normandy, returning from the FirstCrusade, stopped here to be cured of a wound, and he and his knights laterspread the fame of Salerno all over Europe. The result was the revival ofthe study of Medicine in the West, and Salerno developed into the first ofthe medical schools of Europe. Montpellier, in southern France, alsobecame another early center for the study of Medicine, drawing much of itsmedical knowledge from Spain. Another new subject of professional studywas now made possible, and Faculties of Medicine were in time organized inmost of the universities as they arose. The instruction, though, waschiefly book instruction, Galen being the great textbook until theseventeenth century. 

IV. OTHER NEW INFLUENCES AND MOVEMENTS

THE CRUSADES. Perhaps the most romantic happenings during the Middle Ageswere that series of adventurous expeditions to the then Far East, undertaken by the kings and knights of western Europe in an attempt toreclaim the Holy Land from the infidel Turks, who in the eleventh centuryhad pushed in and were persecuting Christian pilgrims journeying toJerusalem. For centuries single pilgrims, small bands of pilgrims, andsometimes large numbers led by priest or noble, had journeyed to distantshrines, to Rome, and to the birthplace of the Saviour, [24] impelled bypure religious devotion, a desire to do penance for sin, or seeking a curefrom some disease by prayer and penance. It was the spirit of the age. Says Adams: [25]

 A pilgrimage was ... In itself a religious act securing merit and reward for the one who performed it, balancing a certain number for his sins, and making his escape from the world of torment hereafter more certain. The more distant and more difficult the pilgrimage, the more meritorious, especially if it led to such supremely holy places as those which had been sanctified by the presence of Christ himself. For the man of the world, for the man who could not, or would not, go into monasticism, the pilgrimage was the one conspicuous act by which he could satisfy the ascetic need, and gain its rewards. A crusade was a stupendous pilgrimage, under especially favorable and meritorious conditions. 

[Illustration: FIG. 57. A PILGRIM OF THE MIDDLE AGES(From an old manuscript in the British Museum)]

The Mohammedan Arabs who took possession of the Holy Land in the seventhcentury had treated the pilgrims considerately, but the Turks were of adifferent stamp. In 1071 they had defeated the Eastern Emperor, capturedall Asia Minor, and had taken possession of the fortress of Nicaea (Map, p. 183), near Constantinople. The Eastern Emperor now appealed to Rome forhelp. In 1077 the Turks captured Jerusalem, and returning pilgrims soonbegan to report having experienced great hardships. In 1095 Pope Urban, ina stirring address to the Council of Clermont (France), issued a call tothe lords, knights, and foot soldiers of western Christendom to ceasedestroying their fellow Christians in private warfare, and to turn theirstrength of arms against the infidel and rescue the Holy Land. The journeywas to take the place of penance for sin, many special privileges wereextended to those who went, and those who died on the journey or in battlewith the infidels were promised entrance into heaven. [26] nobles andpeasants, filled with a desire for adventure and a sense of personal sin, no surer way of satisfying either was to be found than the long pilgrimageto the Saviour's tomb. In France and England the call met with instantresponse. Unfortunately for the future of civilization, the call met withbut small response from the nobles of German lands. 

The First Crusade set out in 1096. A second went in 1144, and a third in1187. These were the great Crusades, though five others were undertakenduring the thirteenth century. Jerusalem was taken and lost. TheChristians quarreled with one another and with the Greeks, though with theSaracens they established somewhat friendly relations, and a mutualrespect arose. The armies which went were composed of all kinds of people--lords, knights, merchants, adventurers, peasants, outlaws--and a spiritof adventure and a desire for personal gain, as well as a spirit ofreligious devotion, actuated many who went. In 1204 the Venetians divertedthe fourth crusade to the capture of Constantinople, and established therean outpost of their great commercial empire. The history of the crusadeswe do not need to trace. The important matter for our purpose was theresults of the movement on the intellectual development of western Europe. 

RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES ON WESTERN EUROPE. In a sense the Crusades were anoutward manifestation of the great change in thinking and ideals which hadbegun sometime before in western Europe. They were at once both a sign anda cause of further change. The old isolation was at last about to end, andintercommunication and some common ideas and common feelings were beingbrought about. Both those who went and those who remained at home weredeeply stirred by the movement. Christendom as a great internationalcommunity, in which all alike were interested in a common ideal and in acommon fight against the infidel, was a new idea now dawning upon the massof the people, whereas before it had been but little understood. 

The travel to distant lands, the sight of cities of wealth and power, andthe contact with peoples decidedly superior to themselves in civilization, not only excited the imagination and led to a broadening of the minds ofthose who returned, but served as well to raise the general level ofintelligence in western Europe. Some new knowledge also was brought back, but that was not at the time of great importance. The principal gain camein the elimination forever of thousands of quarreling, fighting noblemen, [27] thus giving the kingly power a chance to consolidate holdings andbegin the evolution of modern States; in the marked change of attitudetoward the old problems; in the awakening of a new interest in the presentworld; in the creation of new interests and new desires among the commonpeople; in the awakening of a spirit of religious unity and of nationalconsciousness; and especially in the awakening of a new intellectual life, which soon found expression in the organization of universities for studyand in more extensive travel and geographical exploration than the worldhad known since the days of ancient Rome. The greatest of all the results, however, came through the revival of trade, commerce, manufacturing, andindustry in the rising cities of western Europe, with the consequentevolution of a new and important class of merchants, bankers, andcraftsmen, who formed a new city class and in time developed a new systemof training for themselves and their children. 

THE REVIVAL OF CITY LIFE. The old cities of central and northern Italy, aswas stated above, continued through the early Middle Ages as places ofsome little local importance. In the eleventh century they overthrew inlarge part the rule of their Prince-Bishops, and became little City-Republics, much after the old Greek model. Outside of Italy almost theonly cities not destroyed during the period of the barbarian invasionswere the episcopal cities, that is cities which were the residences ofbishops. 

Outside of Italy the present cities of western Europe either rose on theruins of former Roman provincial cities, or originated about somemonastery or castle, on or adjacent to land at one time owned by monks orfeudal lord. An ever-increasing company of peasants, themselves littlemore than serfs in the beginning, huddled together in such places for theprotection afforded, and a walled feudal town eventually resulted (R. 94a). This later, in one way or another, secured its freedom from monasticcontrol or feudal lord, and evolved into the free city we know to-day. Originally each little city was a self-sustaining community. The farmingand grazing lands lay outside, while the people were crowded compactlytogether within the protecting town walls. The need for walls that couldbe manned for defense, gates that could shut out the marauder, the narrow, dirty streets, and the lack of any sanitary ideas, all alike tended tokeep the towns small. [28] The insecurity of life, the constant warfare, the repeated failures or destruction of crops without and want within, andthe high death-rate from disease, all kept down the population. A town ofa thousand people in the early Middle Ages was a place of some importance, while probably no city outside of Italy, excepting Paris and London, hadten thousand inhabitants before the year 1200. In all England there werebut 2, 150, 000 people, according to the Domesday Survey (1086), while to-day the city of London alone contains nearly three times that number. 

[Illustration: FIG. 58. A TYPICAL MEDIAEVAL TOWN (PRUSSIAN)All the elements of a typical mediaeval town are seen here--the walls fordefense, the watch-towers, the churches, the tall cathedral, the castle, and the high houses huddled together. ]

After about the year 1000 a revival of something like city life begins tobe noticeable here and there in the records of the time (R. 94 a), and by1100 these signs begin to manifest themselves in many places and lands. By1200 the cities of Europe were numerous, though small, and theirimportance in the life of the times [29] was rapidly increasing (R. 94 b). 

THE RISE OF A CITY CLASS. As the mediaeval towns increased in size andimportance the inhabitants, being human, demanded rights. Between 1100 and1200 there were frequent revolts of the people of the mediaeval townsagainst their feudal overlord, and frequent demands were made for chartersgranting privileges to the towns. Sometimes these insurrections were putdown with a bloody hand. Sometimes, on the contrary, the overlord granteda charter of rights, willingly or unwillingly, and freed the people fromobligation to labor on the lands in return for a fixed money payment. Sometimes the king himself granted the inhabitants a charter by way ofcurbing the power of the local feudal lord or bishop. The towns becameexceedingly skillful in playing off lord against bishop, and the kingagainst both. In England, Flanders, France, and Germany some of the townshad become wealthy enough to purchase their freedom and a charter at sometime when their feudal overlord was particularly in need of money. Thesecharters, or birth certificates for the towns, were carefully drawn andofficially sealed documents of great value, and were highly prized asevidences of local liberty. The document created a "free town, " and gaveto the inhabitants certain specified rights as to self-government, theelection of magistrates--aldermen, mayor, burgomaster--the levying andpayment of taxes, and the military service to be rendered. Before theevolution of strong national governments these charters created hundredsof what were virtually little City-States throughout Europe (R. 95). 

In these towns a new estate or class of people was now created (R. 96), inbetween the ruling bishops and lords on the one hand and the peasantstilling the land on the other. These were the citizens--freemen, bourgeoisie, burghers. Out of this new class of city dwellers new socialorders--merchants, bankers, tradesmen, artisans, and craftsmen--in timearose, and these new orders soon demanded rights and obtained some form ofeducation for their children. The guild or apprenticeship education whichearly developed in the cities to meet the needs of artisans and craftsmen(R. 99), and the burgh or city schools of Europe, which began to developin the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, were the educational resultsof the rise of cities and the evolution of these new social classes. Thetime would soon be ripe for the mysteries of learning to be passedsomewhat farther down the educational pyramid, and new classes in societywould begin the mastery of its symbols. 

[Illustration: FIG. 59. THE EDUCATIONAL PYRAMID(From Smith, W. R. , _Educational Sociology_, p. 176)The concave pyramid suggests comparative numbers. Formal education beganat the top, and has slowly worked downward. ]

THE REVIVAL OF COMMERCE. The first city of mediaeval Europe to obtaincommercial prominence was Venice. She early sold salt and fish obtainedfrom the lagoons to the Lombards in the Valley of the Po, and sent tradingships to the Greek East. By the year 1000 Venetian ships were bringing theluxuries and riches of the Orient to Venice, and the city soon became agreat trading center. There the partially civilized Christian knight"spent splendidly, " and the Bohemian, German, and Hunnish lords came [30]to buy such of the luxuries of the East as they could afford. By 1100Venice was a free City-State, the mistress of the Adriatic, and the tradeof the East with Christian Europe passed over her wharves. From theCrusades she profited greatly, carrying knights eastward in the greatfleet she had developed, and carpets, fabrics, perfumes, spices, dyes, drugs, silks, and precious stones on the return voyage. From Tana andTrebizond her traders penetrated far into the interior. Her ships andmerchants "held the Golden East in fee. " By 1400 she was the wealthiestand most powerful city in Europe. 

[Illustration: FIG. 60. TRADE ROUTES AND COMMERCIAL CITIES]

Genoa in time became the great rival of Venice. Marseilles also developeda large trade in the Mediterranean and with the north. From these threecities trade routes ran to the cities of Flanders, England, and Germany, as is shown in the map below. By the thirteenth century, Augsburg, Nuremburg, Magdeburg, Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen, Antwerp, Ghent, Ypres, Bruges, and London were developing into great commercial cities. Despitebad roads, bad bridges, [31] bad inns, "robber knights" and bandits, thecommerce once carried on by Rome with her provinces was reviving. Greatfairs, or yearly markets, came to be held in the large interior towns, towhich merchants came from near and far to display and exchange theirwares, and, still more important, from the standpoint of advancing generaleducation, to exchange ideas and experiences. The "luxuries" displayed atthese markets by traveling merchants from the south--salt, pepper, spices, sugar, drugs, dyestuffs, glass beads, glassware, table implements, perfumes, ornaments, underwear, articles of dress, silks, velvets, carpets, rugs--dazzled and astounded the simple townspeople of westernEurope. These fairs became educational forces of a high order. 

THE REVIVAL OF INDUSTRY AND BANKING. The trading of articles at seaportsand at the interior city fairs came first, and this soon worked arevolution in industry. Instead of agriculture being almost the onlyoccupation, and the feeding of the local population the only purpose, withonly such arts and industries practiced as were needed to supply the wantsof the townsmen, it now became possible to create a surplus to barter atthe fairs for luxuries from the outside. Local industries, heretofore ofbut little importance, now developed into trades, and the manufacture ofarticles for outside sale was begun. At first manufacturing was verylimited in scope, and confined largely to local handicrafts or theimitation of imported articles, but later new and important industriesarose--the glass industry in Venice, the gold and silver industry ofFlorence, the weaving industry at Mainz and Erfurt, and the wool industryof Flanders. The craftsman and artisan, as well as the merchant andtrader, were now developed in the towns, and soon became important membersof the new social order. As serfs and villeins [32] were set free from theland [33] they came to the towns, adding more members to the newindustrial classes (R. 96). From 1200 on there was a great revival ofindustry in western Europe, and by 1500 merchants and craftsmen had wonback the place once held by merchants and craftsmen in Roman life andtrade. 

At Florence a banking class arose, and instead of barter, banks and theuse of money and credit were developed. From Florence this systemgradually extended to the other commercial cities. Gradually the mediaevalobjection to the taking of interest for the use of money, which the Churchhad forbidden in the early Middle Ages as "usury" and wicked, wasovercome, and Italian bankers and merchants led the world in theestablishment of that credit which has made modern trade and industrypossible. With money once more in general use as a measure of value, theArabic system of notation in use for commercial transactions, and creditat reasonable interest rates provided as a basis for finance, an era intrade and commerce and manufacturing set in unknown since the days ofRoman rule. Order, security, and a wider extension of educationaladvantages now were needed, and nothing contributed more to securing thesethan the growth of wealth and manufacturing industries in the towns, andthe extension of commerce and the use of money throughout the country. Nothing tends so powerfully to demand or secure these things as thepossession of wealth among a people. 

EDUCATION FOR THESE NEW SOCIAL CLASSES. With the evolution of these newsocial classes an extension of education took place through the formationof guilds. [34] The merchants of the Middle Ages traded, not asindividuals, nor as subjects of a State which protected them, for therewere as yet no such States, but as members of the guild of merchants oftheir town, or as members of a trading company. Later, towns united toform trading confederations, of which the Hanseatic League of northernGermany was a conspicuous example. These burgher merchant guilds becamewealthy and important socially; [35] they were chartered by kings andgiven trading privileges analogous to those of a modern corporation (R. 95); they elbowed their way into affairs of State, and in time took overin large part the city governments; they obtained education forthemselves, and fought with the church authorities for the creation ofindependent burgh schools; [36] they began to read books, and books in thevernacular began to be written for them; [37] they in time vied with theclergy and the nobility in their patronage of learning; they everywherestood with the kings and princes to compel feudal lords to stop warfareand plundering and to submit to law and order; [38] and they entertainedroyal personages and drew nobles, clergy, and gentry into their honorarymembership, thus serving as an important agency in breaking down thesocial-class exclusiveness of the Middle Ages. In these guilds, which wereself-governing bodies debating questions and deciding policies andactions, much elementary political training was given their members whichproved of large importance at a later time. 

In the same way the craft guilds rendered a large educational service tothe small merchant and worker, as they provided the technical and socialeducation of such during the later period of the Middle Ages and in earlymodern times, and protected their members from oppression in an age whenoppression was the rule. With the revival of trade and industry craftguilds arose all over western Europe. One of the first of these was thecandle-makers' guild, organized at Paris in 1061. Soon after we find largenumbers of guilds--masons, shoemakers, harness-makers, bakers, smiths, wool-combers, tanners, saddlers, spurriers, weavers, goldsmiths, pewterers, carpenters, leather-workers, cloth-workers, pinners, fishmongers, butchers, barbers--all organized on much the same plan. Thesewere the working-men's fraternities or labor unions of mediaeval Europe. Each trade or craft became organized as a city guild, composed of the"masters, " "journeymen" (paid workmen), and "apprentices. " The greatmediaeval document, a charter of rights guaranteeing protection, wasusually obtained. The guild for each trade laid down rules for the numberand training of apprentices, [39] the conditions under which a"journeyman" could become a "master, " [40] rules for conducting the trade, standards to be maintained in workmanship, prices to be charged, and duesand obligations of members (R. 97). They supervised work in their craft, cared for the sick, buried the dead, and looked after the widows andorphans. Often they provided one or more priests of their own to ministerto the families of their craft, and gradually the custom arose of havingthe priest also teach something of the rudiments of religion and learningto the children of the members. In time money and lands were set aside orleft for such purposes, and a form of chantry school, which later evolvedinto a regular school, often with instruction in higher studies added, wascreated for the children of members [41] of the guild (R. 98). 

APPRENTICESHIP EDUCATION. For centuries after the revival of trade andindustry all manufacturing was on a small scale, and in the home-industrystage. There was, of course, no machinery, and only the simple tools knownfrom ancient times were used. In a first-floor room at the back, master, journeymen, and apprentices working together made the articles which weresold by the master or the master's wife and daughter in the room in front. The manufacturer and merchant were one. Apprentices were bound to a masterfor a term of years (R. 99), often paying for the training and educationto be received, and the master boarded and lodged both the apprentices andthe paid workmen in the family rooms above the shop and store. 

The form of apprenticeship education and training which thus developed, from an educational point of view, forms for us the important feature ofthe history of these craft guilds. With the subdivision of labor and thedevelopment of new trades the craft-guild idea was extended to the newoccupations, and a steady stream of rural labor flowing to the towns wasabsorbed by them and taught the elements of social usages, self-government, and the mastery of a trade. Throughout all the long period upto the nineteenth century this apprenticeship education in a trade and inself-government constituted almost the entire formal education the workerwith his hands received. The sons of the barbarian invaders, as well astheir knightly brothers, at last were busy learning the great lessons ofindustry, coöperation, and personal loyalty. Here begins, for westernEurope, "the nobility of labor--the long pedigree of toil. " So well infact did this apprentice system of training and education meet the needsof the time that it persisted, as was said above, well into the nineteenthcentury (Rs. 200, 201, 242, 243), being displaced only by modern powermachinery and systematized factory methods. During the later Middle Agesand in modern times it rendered an important educational service; in thelater nineteenth century it became such an obstacle to educational andindustrial progress that it has had to be supplemented or replaced bysystematic vocational education. 

INFLUENCE OF THESE NEW MOVEMENTS. We thus see, by the end of the twelfthcentury, a number of new influences in western Europe which point to anintellectual awakening and to the rise of a new educated class, separatefrom the monks and clergy on the one hand or the nobility on the other, and to the awakening of Europe to a new attitude toward life. Saracenlearning, filtering across from Spain, had added materially to theknowledge Europe previously had, and had stimulated new intellectualinterests. Scholasticism had begun its great work of reorganizing andsystematizing theology, which was destined to free philosophy, hithertoregarded as a dangerous foe or a suspected ally, from theology and toremake entirely the teaching of the subject. Civil and canon law had beencreated as wholly new professional subjects, and the beginnings of theteaching of medicine had been made. Instead of the old Seven Liberal Artsand a very limited course of professional study for the clerical officebeing the entire curriculum, and Theology the one professional subject, wenow find, by the beginning of the thirteenth century, a number of new andimportant professional subjects of large future significance--subjectsdestined to break the monopoly of theological study and put an end tologistic hair-splitting. The next step in the history of education came inthe development of institutions where thinking and teaching could becarried on free from civil or ecclesiastical control, with the consequentrise of an independent learned class in western Europe. This came with therise of the universities, to which we next turn, and out of which in timearose the future independent scholarship of Europe, America, and the worldin general. 

We also discover a series of new movements, connected with the Crusades, the rise of cities, and the revival of trade and industry, all of whichclearly mark the close of the dark period of the Middle Ages. We note, too, the evolution of new social classes--a new Estate--destined in timeto eclipse in importance both priest and noble and to become for long theruling classes of the modern world. We also note the beginnings of animportant independent system of education for the hand-workers whichsufficed until the days of steam, machinery, and the evolution of thefactory system. The eleventh and twelfth centuries were turning-points ofgreat significance in the history of our western civilization, and withthe opening of the wonderful thirteenth century the western world is wellheaded toward a new life and modern ways of thinking. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Why is it that a strong religious control is never favorable tooriginality in thinking?

2. Show how the work of the Nestorian Christians for the Mohammedan faithwas another example of the Hellenization of the ancient world. 

3. Would it be possible for any people anywhere in the world today to makesuch advances as were made at Bagdad, in the late eighth and early ninthcenturies, without such work permanently influencing the course ofcivilization and learning everywhere? To what is the difference due?

4. What were the chief obstacles to Europe adopting at once the learningfrom Mohammedan Spain, instead of waiting centuries to discover thislearning independently? 5. Why did Aristotle's work seem of much greatervalue to the mediaeval scholar than the Moslem science? What are therelative values to-day?

6. Why should the light literature of Spain be spoken of as a gaycontagion? Did this Christian attitude toward fiction and poetry continuelong?

7. In what ways was the _Sic et Non_ of Abelard a complete break withmediaeval traditions?

8. How did the fact that Dialectic (Logic) now became the great subject ofstudy in itself denote a marked intellectual advance? What was thesignificance of the prominence of this study for the future of thinking?

9. What was the effect on inquiry and individual thinking of the method ofpresentation used by Saint Thomas Aquinas in his _Summa Theologica_?

10. How do you explain the all-absorbing interest in scholasticism duringthe greater part of a century?

11. State the significance, for the future, of the revival of the study ofRoman law: (a) intellectually; (b) in shaping future civilization. 

12. How do you explain the Christian attitude toward disease, and thescientific treatment of it? Has that attitude entirely passed away?Illustrate. 

13. Why was it such a good thing for the future of civilization in Englandand France that so many of its nobility perished in the Crusades?

14. State a number of ways in which the Crusade movements had a beneficialeffect on western Europe. 

15. Show how the revival of commerce was an educative and a civilizinginfluence of large importance. 16. Would the organization of commerce andbanking, and the establishment of the sanctity of obligations in acountry, be one important measure of the civilization to which thatcountry had attained? Illustrate. 

17. Show how the development of industry and commerce and the accumulationof wealth tend to promote order and security, and to extend educationaladvantages. 

18. Contrast a mediaeval guild and a modern labor union. A guild and amodern fraternal and benevolent society. 

19. Why did apprenticeship education continue so long with so littlechange, when it is now so rapidly being superseded?

20. Does the rise of a new Estate in society indicate a period of slow orrapid change? Why is such an evolution of importance for education andcivilization?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 85. Draper: The Moslem Civilization in Spain. 86. Draper: Learning among the Moslems in Spain. 87. Norton: Works of Aristotle known by 1300. 88. Averroës: On Aristotle's Greatness. 89. Roger Bacon: How Aristotle was received at Oxford. 90. Statutes: How Aristotle was received at Paris. (a) Decree of Church Council, 1210 A. D. (b) Statutes of Papal Legate, 1215 A. D. (c) Statutes of Pope Gregory, 1231 A. D. (d) Statutes of the Masters of Arts, 1254 A. D. 91. Cousin: Abelard's _Sic et Non_. (a) From the Introduction. (b) Types of Questions raised for Debate. 92. Rashdall: The Great Work of the Schoolmen. 93. Justinian: Preface to the Justinian Code. 94. Giry and Réville: The Early Mediaeval Town. (a) To the Eleventh Century. (b) By the Thirteenth Century. 95. Gross: An English Town Charter. 96. London: Oath of a New Freeman in a Mediaeval Town. 97. Riley: Ordinances of the White-Tawyers' Guild. 98. State Report: School of the Guild of Saint Nicholas. 99. England, 1396: A Mediaeval Indenture of Apprenticeship. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Contrast the state of civilization in Spain and the rest of Europeabout 1100 (85, 86). 

2. Considering Aristotle's great intellectual worth (88) and work (87), isit to be wondered that the mediaevals regarded him with such reverence?

3. Do we today accept Abelard's premise (91 a) as to attaining wisdom?Would his questions (91 b) excite much interest to-day?

4. How do you explain the change in attitude toward him shown by thesuccessive statutes enacted (90 a-d) for the University of Paris?

5. Would the extract from Roger Bacon (89) lead you to think him a manahead of the times in which he lived? Why?

6. Did scholasticism represent the innocent intellectual activity, fromthe Church point of view, pictured by Rashdall (92)?

7. What were the main things Justinian hoped to accomplish by thepreparation of the great Code, as set forth in the Preface (93)?

8. Characterize the mediaeval town by the eleventh century (94 a). Whatwas the nature of the progress from that time to the thirteenth century(94 b)?

9. What were the chief privileges contained in the town charter ofWalling-ford (95), and what position does it indicate was held by theguild-merchant therein?

10. What does the oath of a freeman (96) indicate as to social conditions?

11. State the chief regulations imposed on its members by the White-Tawyers' Guild (97). Compare these regulations with those of a modernlabor union, such as the plumbers. With a fraternal order, such as theMasons. 

12. What is indicated as to the educational advantages provided by theGuild of Saint Nicholas, in the city of Worcester, by the extract (98)taken from the Report of the King's Commissioner?

13. Does a comparison of Readings 99, 201, and 242 indicate a staticcondition of apprenticeship education for centuries?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. Ameer, Ali. _A Short History of the Saracens_. * Ashley, W. J. _Introduction to English Economic History_. Cutts, Edw. L. _Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages_. * Gautier, Léon. _Chivalry_. * Giry, A. , and Réville, A. _Emancipation of the Mediaeval Towns_. Hibbert, F. A. _Influence and Development of English Guilds_. * Hume, M. A. S. _The Spanish People_. * Lavisse, Ernest. _Mediaeval Commerce and Industry_. * MacCabe, Jos. _Peter Abelard_. * Munro, D. C. , and Sellery, G. E. _Mediaeval Civilization_. Poole, R. L. _Illustrations of Mediaeval Thought_. * Rashdall, H. _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, vol. I. Routledge, R. _Popular History of Science_. Sandys, J. E. _History of Classical Scholarship_, vol. I. Scott, J. F. _Historical Essays on Apprenticeship and Vocational Education_. (England. )* Sedgwick, W. J. , and Tyler, H. W. _A Short History of Science_. Taylor, H. C. _The Mediaeval Mind_. Thorndike, Lynn. _History of Mediaeval Europe_. Townsend, W. J. _The Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages_. 

CHAPTER IX

THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES

EVOLUTION OF THE _STUDIUM GENERALE_. In the preceding chapter we describedbriefly the new movement toward association which characterized theeleventh and the twelfth centuries--the municipal movement, the merchantguilds, the trade guilds, etc. These were doing for civil life whatmonasticism had earlier done for the religious life. They were collectionsof like-minded men, who united themselves into associations or guilds formutual benefit, protection, advancement, and self-government within thelimits of their city, business, trade, or occupation. This tendency towardassociation, in the days when state government was weak or in its infancy, was one of the marked features of the transition time from the earlyperiod of the Middle Ages, when the Church was virtually the State, to thelater period of the Middle Ages, when the authority of the Church insecular matters was beginning to weaken, modern nations were beginning toform, and an interest in worldly affairs was beginning to replace theprevious inordinate interest in the world to come. 

We also noted in the preceding chapters that certain cathedral andmonastery schools, but especially the cathedral schools, [1] stimulated bythe new interest in Dialectic, were developing into much more than localteaching institutions designed to afford a supply of priests of somelittle education for the parishes of the bishopric. Once York and laterCanterbury, in England, had had teachers who attracted students from otherbishoprics. Paris had for long been a famous center for the study of theLiberal Arts and of Theology. Saint Gall had become noted for its music. Theologians coming from Paris (1167-68) had given a new impetus to studyamong the monks at Oxford. A series of political events in northern Italyhad given emphasis to the study of law in many cities, and the Moslems inSpain had stimulated the schools there and in southern France to a studyof medicine and Aristotelian science. Rome was for long a noted center forstudy. Gradually these places came to be known as _studia publica_, or_studia generalia_, meaning by this a generally recognized place of study, where lectures were open to any one, to students of all countries and ofall conditions. [2] Traveling students came to these places from afar tohear some noted teacher read and comment on the famous textbooks of thetime. 

From the first both teachers and students had been considered as membersof the clergy, and hence had enjoyed the privileges and immunitiesextended to that class, but, now that the students were becoming sonumerous and were traveling so far, some additional grant of protectionwas felt to be desirable. Accordingly the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, [3] in 1158, issued a general proclamation of privileges and protection(R. 101). In this he ordered that teachers and students traveling "to theplaces in which the studies are carried on" should be protected fromunjust arrest, should be permitted to "dwell in security, " and in case ofsuit should be tried "before their professors or the bishop of the city. "This document marks the beginning of a long series of rights andprivileges granted to the teachers and students of the universities now inprocess of evolution in western Europe. 

THE UNIVERSITY EVOLUTION. The development of a university out of acathedral or some other form of school represented, in the Middle Ages, along local evolution. Universities were not founded then as they are to-day. A teacher of some reputation drew around him a constantly increasingbody of students. Other teachers of ability, finding a student bodyalready there, also "set up their chairs" and began to teach. Otherteachers and more students came. In this way a _studium_ was created. About these teachers in time collected other university servants--"bedells, librarians, lower officials, preparers of parchment, scribes, illuminators of parchment, and others who serve it, " as Count Rupertenumerated them in the Charter of Foundation granted, in 1386, toHeidelberg (R. 103). At Salerno, as we have already seen (p. 199), medicalinstruction arose around the work of Constantine of Carthage and themedicinal springs found in the vicinity. Students journeyed there frommany lands, and licenses to practice the medical art were granted there asearly as 1137. At Bologna, we have also seen (p. 195), the work ofIrnerius and Gratian early made this a great center for the study of civiland canon law, and their pupils spread the taste for these new subjectsthroughout Europe. Paris for two centuries had been a center for the studyof the Arts and of Theology, and a succession of famous teachers--Williamof Champeaux, Abelard, Peter the Lombard--had taught there. So importantwas the theological teaching there that Paris has been termed "the Sinaiof instruction" of the Middle Ages. 

By the beginning of the thirteenth century both students and teachers hadbecome so numerous, at a number of places in western Europe, that theybegan to adopt the favorite mediaeval practice and organized themselvesinto associations, or guilds, for further protection from extortion andoppression and for greater freedom from regulation by the Church. They nowsought and obtained additional privileges for themselves, and, inparticular, the great mediaeval document--a charter of rights andprivileges. [4] As both teachers and students were for long regarded as_clerici_ the charters were usually sought from the Pope, but in somecases they were obtained from the king. [5] These associations ofscholars, or teachers, or both, "born of the need of companionship whichmen who cultivate their intelligence feel, " sought to perform the samefunctions for those who studied and taught that the merchant and craftguilds were performing for their members. The ruling idea was associationfor protection, and to secure freedom for discussion and study; theobtaining of corporate rights and responsibilities; and the organizationof a system of apprenticeship, based on study and developing throughjourneyman into mastership, [6] as attested by an examination and thelicense to teach. In the rise of these teacher and student guilds [7] wehave the beginnings of the universities of western Europe, and theirorganization into chartered teaching groups (R. 100) was simply anotherphase of that great movement toward the association of like-minded men forworldly purposes which began to sweep over the rising cities in theeleventh and twelfth centuries. [8]

The term _universitas_, or _university_, which came in time to be appliedto these associations of masters and apprentices in study, was a generalRoman legal term, practically equivalent to our modern word _corporation_. At first it was applied to any association, and when used with referenceto teachers and scholars was so stated. Thus, in addressing the mastersand students at Paris, Pope Innocent, in 1205, writes: "_Universismagistris et scholaribus Parisiensibus_", that is, "to the corporation ofmasters and scholars at Paris. " Later the term _university_ becamerestricted to the meaning which we give it to-day. 

The university mothers. Though this movement for association and thedevelopment of advanced study had manifested itself in a number of placesby the close of the twelfth century, two places in particular led all theothers and became types which were followed in charters and in newcreations. These were Bologna and Paris. [9] After one or the other ofthese two nearly all the universities of western Europe were modeled. Bologna or Paris, or one of their immediate children, served as a pattern. Thus Bologna was the university mother for almost all the Italianuniversities; for Montpellier and Grenoble in southern France; for some ofthe Spanish universities; and for Glasgow, Upsala, Cracow, and for the LawFaculty at Oxford. Paris was the university mother for Oxford, and throughher Cambridge; for most of the northern French universities; for theuniversity of Toulouse, which in turn became the mother for other southernFrench and northern Spanish universities; for Lisbon and Coimbra inPortugal; for the early German universities at Prague, Vienna, Cologne, and Heidelberg; and through Cologne for Copenhagen. Through one of thecolleges at Cambridge--Emmanuel--she became, indirectly, the mother of anew Cambridge in America--Harvard--founded in 1636. Figure 61 shows thelocation of the chief universities founded before 1600. Viewed from thestandpoint of instruction, Paris was followed almost entirely in Theology, and Bologna in Law, while the three centers which most influenced thedevelopment of instruction in medicine were Salerno, Montpellier, andSalamanca. 

[Illustration: FIG. 61. SHOWING LOCATION OF THE CHIEF UNIVERSITIES FOUNDEDBEFORE 1600]

While the earlier universities gradually arose as the result of a longlocal evolution, it in time became common for others to be founded by amigration of professors from an older university to some cathedral cityhaving a developing _studium_. In the days when a university consistedchiefly of master and students, when lectures could be held in any kind ofa building or collection of buildings, and when there were no libraries, laboratories, campus, or other university property to tie down aninstitution, it was easy to migrate. Thus, in 1209, the school atCambridge was created a university by a secession of masters from Oxford, much as bees swarm from a hive. Sienna, Padua, Reggio, Vicenza, Arezzoresulted from "swarmings" from Bologna; and Vercelli from Vicenza. In1228, after a student riot at Paris which provoked reprisals from thecity, many of the masters and students went to the studium towns ofAngers, Orleans, and Rheims, and universities were established at thefirst two. Migrations from Prague helped establish many of the Germanuniversities. In this way the university organization was spread overEurope. In 1200 there were but six _studia generalia_ which can beconsidered as having evolved into universities--Salerno, Bologna, andReggio, in Italy; Paris and Montpellier, in France; and Oxford, inEngland. By 1300 eight more had evolved in Italy, three more in France, Cambridge in England, and five in Spain and Portugal. By 1400 twenty-twoadditional universities had developed, five of which were in German lands, and by 1500 thirty-five more had been founded, making a total of eighty. By 1600 the total had been raised to one hundred and eight (R. 100, forlist by countries, dates, and method of founding). Some of these(approximately thirty) afterwards died, while in the following centuriesadditional ones were created. [10]

PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES GRANTED. The grant of privileges to physiciansand teachers made by the Emperor Constantine, in 333 A. D. (R. 26), and theprivileges and immunities granted to the clergy (_clerici_) by the earlyChristian Roman Emperors (R. 38), doubtless formed a basis for the manygrants of special privileges made to the professors and students in theearly universities. The document promulgated by Frederick Barbarossa, in1158 (R. 101), began the granting of privileges to the _studia generalia_, and this was followed by numerous other grants. The grant to students offreedom from trial by the city authorities, and the obligation of everycitizen of Paris to seize any one seen striking a student, granted byPhilip Augustus, in 1200 (R. 102), is another example, widely followed, ofthe bestowal of large privileges. Count Rupert I, in founding theUniversity of Heidelberg, in 1386, granted many privileges, exempted thestudents from "any duty, levy, imposts, tolls, excises, or other exactionswhatever" while coming to, studying at, or returning home from theuniversity (R. 103). The exemption from taxation (R. 104) became a matterof form, and was afterwards followed in the chartering of Americancolleges (R. 187). Exemption from military service also was granted. 

So valuable an asset was a university to a city, and so easy was it for auniversity to move almost overnight, that cities often, and at times evennations, encouraged not only the founding of universities, but also themigration of both faculties and students. An interesting case of a citybidding for the presence of a university is that of Vercelli (R. 105), which made a binding agreement, as a part of the city charter, whereby thecity agreed with a body of masters and students "swarming" from Padua toloan the students money at lower than the regular rates, to see that therewas plenty of food in the markets at no increase in prices, and to protectthe students from injustice. An instance of bidding by a State is the caseof Cambridge, which obtained quite an addition by the coming of strikingParis masters and students in 1229, in response to the pledge of KingHenry III (R. 109), who "humbly sympathized with them for their sufferingsat Paris, " and promised them that if they would come "to our kingdom ofEngland and remain there to study" he would assign to them "cities, boroughs, towns, whatsoever you may wish to select, and in every fittingway will cause you to rejoice in a state of liberty and tranquillity. "

One of the most important privileges which the universities earlyobtained, and a rather singular one at that, was the right of _cessatio_, which meant the right to stop lectures and go on a strike as a means ofenforcing a redress of grievances against either town or church authority(R. 107). This right was for long jealously guarded by the university, andfrequently used to defend itself from the smallest encroachments on itsfreedom to teach, study, and discipline the members of its guild as it sawfit, and often the right not to discipline them at all. Often the_cessatio_ was invoked on very trivial grounds, as in the case of theOxford _cessatio_ of 1209 (R. 108), the Paris _cessatio_ of 1229 (R. 109), and the numerous other _cessationes_ which for two centuries [11]repeatedly disturbed the continuity of instruction at Paris. 

DEGREES IN THE GUILD. The most important of the university rights, however, was the right to examine and license its own teachers (R. 110), and to grant the license to teach (Rs. 111, 112). Founded as theuniversities were after the guild model, they were primarily places forthe taking of apprentices in the Arts, developing them into journeymen andmasters, and certifying to their proficiency in the teaching craft. [12]Their purpose at first was to prepare teachers, and the giving ofinstruction to students for cultural ends, or a professional training forpractical use aside from teaching the subject, was a later development. 

Accordingly it came about in time that, after a number of years of studyin the Arts under some master, a student was permitted to present himselffor a test as to his ability to define words, determine the meaning ofphrases, and read the ordinary Latin texts in Grammar, Rhetoric, and Logic(the _Trivium_), to the satisfaction of other masters than his own. InEngland this test came to be known by the term _determine_. Its passagewas equivalent to advancing from apprenticeship to the ranks of ajourneyman, and the successful candidate might now be permitted to assistthe master, or even give some elementary instruction himself whilecontinuing his studies. He now became an assistant or companion, and bythe fourteenth century was known as a _baccalaureus_, a term used in theChurch, in chivalry, and in the guilds, and which meant a _beginner_. There was at first, though, no thought of establishing an examination anda new degree for the completion of this first step in studies. Thebachelor's degree was a later development, sought at first by those notintending to teach, and eventually erected into a separate degree. 

When the student had finally heard a sufficient number of courses, asrequired by the statutes of his guild, he might present himself forexamination for the teaching license. This was a public trial, and tookthe form of a public disputation on some stated thesis, in the presence ofthe masters, and against all comers. It was the student's "masterpiece, "analogous to the masterpiece of any other guild, and he submitted it to ajury of the masters of his craft. [13] Upon his masterpiece being adjudgedsatisfactory, he also became a master in his craft, was now able to defineand dispute, was formally admitted to the highest rank in the teachingguild, might have a seal, and was variously known as master, doctor, orprofessor, all of which were once synonymous terms. [14] If he wished toprepare himself for teaching one of the professional subjects he studiedstill further, usually for a number of years, in one of the professionalfaculties, and in time he was declared to be a Doctor of Law, or Medicine, or of Theology. 

[Illustration: FIG 62. SEAL OF A DOCTOR, UNIVERSITY OF PARIS]

THE TEACHING FACULTIES. The students for a long time grouped themselvesfor better protection (and aggression) according to the nation from whichthey came, [15] and each "nation" elected a _councilor_ to look after theinterests of its members. Between the different nations there wereconstant quarrels, insults were passed back and forth, and much bad bloodengendered. [16] On the side of the masters the organization was byteaching subjects, and into what came to be known as _faculties_. [17]Thus there came to be four faculties in a fully organized mediaevaluniversity, representing the four great divisions of knowledge which hadbeen evolved--Arts, Law, Medicine, and Theology. Each faculty elected a_dean_, and the deans and councilors elected a _rector_, who was the heador president of the university. The _chancellor_, the successor of thecathedral school _scholasticus_, was usually appointed by the Pope andrepresented the Church, and a long struggle ensued between the rector andthe chancellor to see who should be the chief authority in the university. The rector was ultimately victorious, and the position of chancellorbecame largely an honorary position of no real importance. 

[Illustration: FIG. 63. NEW COLLEGE, AT OXFORDOne of the oldest of the Oxford colleges, having been founded in 1379. Thepicture shows the chapel, cloisters (consecrated in 1400), and a talltower, once forming a part of the Oxford city walls. Note the similarityof this early college to a monastery, as in Plate 1. ]

The Arts Faculty was the successor of the old cathedral-school instructionin the Seven Liberal Arts, and was found in practically all theuniversities. The Law Faculty embraced civil and canon law, as worked outat Bologna. The Medical Faculty taught the knowledge of the medical art, as worked out at Salerno and Montpellier. The Theological Faculty, themost important of the four, prepared learned men for the service of theChurch, and was for some two centuries controlled by the scholastics. TheArts Faculty was preparatory to the other three. As Latin was the languageof the classroom, and all the texts were Latin texts, a reading andspeaking knowledge of Latin was necessary before coming to the universityto study. This was obtained from a study of the first of the Seven Arts--Grammar--in some monastery, cathedral, or other type of school. Thus aknowledge of Latin formed practically the sole requirement for admissionto the mediaeval university, and continued to be the chief admissionrequirement in our universities up to the nineteenth century (R. 186 a). In Europe it is still of great importance as a preparatory subject, but inSouth American countries it is not required at all. 

Very few of the universities, in the beginning, had all four of thesefaculties. The very nature of the evolution of the earlier ones precludedthis. Thus Bologna had developed into a _studium generale_ from itsprominence in law, and was virtually constituted a university in 1158, butit did not add Medicine until 1316, or Theology until 1360. Paris begansometime before 1200 as an arts school, Theology with some instruction inCanon Law was added by 1208, a Law Faculty in 1271, and a Medical Facultyin 1274. Montpellier began as a medical school sometime in the twelfthcentury. Law followed a little later, a teacher from Bologna "setting uphis chair" there. Arts was organized by 1242. A sort of theological schoolbegan in 1263, but it was not chartered as a faculty until 1421. So it waswith many of the early universities. These four traditional faculties werewell established by the fourteenth century, and continued as the typicalform of university organization until modern times. With the greatuniversity development and the great multiplication of subjects of studywhich characterized the nineteenth century, many new faculties and schoolsand colleges have had to be created, particularly in the United States, inresponse to new modern demands. [18]

NATURE OF THE INSTRUCTION. The teaching material in each faculty was muchas we have already indicated. After the recovery of the works of Aristotlehe came to dominate the instruction in the Faculty of Arts. [19] TheStatutes of Paris, in 1254, giving the books to be read for the A. B. Andthe A. M. Degrees (R. 113), show how fully Aristotle had been adopted thereas the basis for instruction in Logic, Ethics, and Natural Philosophy bythat time. The books required for these two degrees at Leipzig, in 1410(R. 114), show a much better-balanced course of instruction, though thetime requirements given for each subject show how largely Aristotlepredominated there also. Oxford (R. 115) kept up better the traditions ofthe earlier Seven Liberal Arts in its requirements, and classified the newworks of Aristotle in three additional "philosophies"--natural, moral, andmetaphysical. From four to seven years were required to complete the artscourse, though the tendency was to reduce the length of the arts course assecondary schools below the university were evolved. [20]

In the Law Faculty, after Theology the largest and most important of allthe faculties in the mediaeval university, the _Corpus Juris Civilis_ ofJustinian (p. 195) and the _Decretum_ of Gratian (p. 196) were thetextbooks read, with perhaps a little more practical work in discussionthan in Arts or Medicine. The Oxford course of study in both Civil andCanon Law (R. 116 b-c) gives a good idea as to what was required fordegrees in one of the best of the early law faculties. 

In the Medical Faculty a variety of books--translations of Hippocrates (p. 197), Galen (p. 198), Avicenna (p. 198), and the works of certain writersat Salerno and Jewish and Moslem writers in Spain--were read and lecturedon. The list of medical books used at Montpellier, [21] in 1340, which atthat time was the foremost place for medical instruction in westernEurope, shows the book-nature and the extent of the instruction given atthe leading school of medicine of the time. It was, moreover, customary atMontpellier for the senior students to spend a summer in visiting the sickand doing practical work. We have here the merest beginnings of clinicalinstruction and hospital service, and at this stage medical instructionremained until quite modern times. The medical courses at Paris (R. 117)and Oxford (R. 116 d) were less satisfactory, only book instruction beingrequired. 

[Illustration: FIG. 64. A LECTURE ON CIVIL LAW BY GUILLAUME BENEDICTI(After a sixteenth-century wood engraving, now in the National Library, Paris, Cabinet of Designs)]

Both Law and Medicine were so dominated by the scholastic ideal andmethods that neither accomplished what might have been possible in a freeratmosphere. 

In the Theological Faculty the _Sentences_ of Peter Lombard (p. 189) andthe _Summa Theologiae_ of Thomas Aquinas (p. 191) were the textbooks used. The Bible was at first also used somewhat, but later came to be largelyovershadowed by the other books and by philosophical discussions anddebates on all kinds of hair-splitting questions, kept carefully withinthe limits prescribed by the Church. The requirements at Oxford (R. 116 a)give the course of instruction in one of the best of the theologicalfaculties of the time. The teachers were scholastics, and scholasticmethods and ideals everywhere prevailed. Roger Bacon's (1214-1294)criticism of this type of theological study (R. 118), which he calls"horse loads, not at all [in consonance] with the most holy text of God, "and "philosophical, both in substance and method, " gives an idea of thekind of instruction which came to prevail in the theological facultiesunder the dominance of the scholastic philosophers. 

Years of study were required in each of these three professionalfaculties, as is shown by the statement of requirements as given forMontpellier, Paris (R. 117), and Oxford (R. 116 a). 

[Illustration: FIG. 65. LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEYDEN, IN HOLLAND(After an engraving by J. C. Woudanus, dated 1610)This shows well the chained books, and a common type of bookcase in use inmonasteries, churches, and higher schools. Counting 35 books to the case, this shows a library of 35 volumes on mathematics; 70 volumes each onliterature, philosophy, and medicine; 140 volumes of historical books; 175volumes on civil and canon law; and 160 volumes on theology, or a total of770 volumes--a good-sized library for the time. ]

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. A very important reason why so long a period ofstudy was required in each of the professional faculties, as well as inthe Faculty of Arts, is to be found in the lack of textbooks and themethods of instruction followed. While the standard textbooks werebecoming much more common, due to much copying and the long-continued useof the same texts, they were still expensive and not owned by many. [22]

[Illustration: PLATE 4. A LECTURE ON THEOLOGY BY ALBERTUS MAGNUSAn illuminated picture in a manuscript of 1310, now in the royalcollection of copper engravings, at Berlin. The master in his chair ishere shown "reading" to his students. ]

To provide a loan collection of theological books for poor students wefind, in 1271, a gift by will to the University of Paris (R. 119) of aprivate library, containing twenty-seven books. Even if the studentspossessed books, the master "read" [23] and commented from his "gloss" atgreat length on the texts being studied. Besides the mere text eachteacher had a "gloss" or commentary for it--that is, a mass of explanatorynotes, summaries, cross-references, opinions by others, and objections tothe statements of the text. The "gloss" was a book in itself, often largerthan the text, and these standard glosses, [24] or commentaries, were usedin the university instruction for centuries. In Theology and Canon Lawthey were particularly extensive. 

All instruction, too, was in Latin. The professor read from the Latin textand gloss, repeating as necessary, and to this the student listened. Sometimes he read so slowly that the text could be copied, but in 1355this method was prohibited at Paris (R. 121), and students who tried toforce the masters to follow it "by shouting or whistling or raising a din, or by throwing stones, " were to be suspended for a year. The first step inthe instruction was a minute and subtle analysis of the text itself, inwhich each line was dissected, analyzed, and paraphrased, and the commentson the text by various authors were set forth. Next all passages capableof two interpretations were thrown into the form of a question; _pro_ and_contra_, after the manner of Abelard. The arguments on each side wereadvanced, and the lecturer's conclusion set forth and defended. The textwas thus worked over day after day in minute detail. Having as yet butlittle to teach, the masters made the most of what they had. A goodexample of the mediaeval plan of university instruction is found in theannouncement of Odofredus, a distinguished teacher of Law at Bologna, about the middle of the thirteenth century, which Rashdall thinks isequally applicable to methods in other subjects. Odofredus says:

 First, I shall give you summaries of each title before I proceed to the text; secondly, I shall give you as clear and explicit a statement as I can of the purport of each Law (included in the title); thirdly, I shall read the text with a view to correcting it; fourthly, I shall briefly repeat the contents of the Law; fifthly, I shall solve apparent contradictions, adding any general principles of Law (to be extracted from the passage), and any distinctions and subtle and useful problems arising out of the Law with their solutions, as far as the Divine Providence shall enable me. And if any Law shall seem deserving, by reason of its celebrity or difficulty, of a Repetition, I shall reserve it for an evening Repetition. 

It will be seen that both students and professors were bound to the text, as were the teachers of the Seven Liberal Arts in the cathedral schoolsbefore them. There was no appeal to the imagination, still less toobservation, experiment, or experience. Each generation taught what it hadlearned, except that from time to time some thinker made a neworganization, or some new body of knowledge was unearthed and added. 

Another method much used was the debate, or disputation, and participationin a number of these was required for degrees (R. 116). These disputationswere logical contests, not unlike a modern debate, in which the studentstook sides, cited authorities, and summarized arguments, all in Latin. Sometimes a student gave an exhibition in which he debated both sides of aquestion, and summarized the argument, after the manner of the professors. As a corrective to the memorization of lectures and texts, thesedisputations served a useful purpose in awakening intellectual vigor andlogical keenness. They were very popular until into the sixteenth century, when new subject-matter and new ways of thinking offered new opportunitiesfor the exercise of the intellect. 

[Illustration: FIG. 66. A UNIVERSITY DISPUTATION(From Fick's _Auf Deutschland's Höhen Schulen_)]

In teaching equipment there was almost nothing at first, and but littlefor centuries to come. Laboratories, workshops, _gymnasia_, good buildingsand classrooms--all alike were equally unknown. Time schedules of lectures(Rs. 122, 123) came in but slowly, in such matters each professor being afree lance. Nor were there any libraries at first, though in time thesedeveloped. For a long time books were both expensive and scarce (Rs. 78, 119, 120). After the invention of printing (first book printed in 1456), university libraries increased rapidly and soon became the chief featureof the university equipment. Figure 65 shows the library of the Universityof Leyden, in Holland, thirty-five years after its foundation, and aboutone hundred and fifty years after the beginnings of printing. It shows arather large increase in the size of book collections [25] after theintroduction of printing, and a good library organization. 

[ILLUSTRATION: FIG 67. A UNIVERSITY LECTURE AND LECTURE ROOM(From a woodcut printed at Strassburg, 1608)]

VALUE OF THE TRAINING GIVEN. Measured in terms of modern standards theinstruction was undoubtedly poor, unnecessarily drawn out, and theeducational value low. We could now teach as much information, and in abetter manner, in but a fraction of the time then required. Viewed also bythe standards of instruction in the higher schools of Greece and Rome theconditions were almost equally bad. Viewed, though, from the standpoint ofwhat had prevailed in western Europe during the dark period of the earlyMiddle Ages, it represented a marked advance in method and content--exceptin pure literature, where there was an undoubted decline due to theabsorbing interest in Dialectic--and it particularly marked a new spirit, as nearly critical as the times would allow. Despite the heterogeneous andbut partially civilized student body, youthful and but poorly prepared forstudy, the drunkenness and fighting, the lack of books and equipment, thelarge classes and the poor teaching methods, and the small amount ofknowledge which formed the grist for their mills and which they groundexceeding small, these new universities held within themselves, almost inembryo form, the largest promise for the intellectual future of westernEurope which had appeared since the days of the old universities of theHellenic world (R. 124). In these new institutions knowledge was not onlypreserved and transmitted, but was in time to be tremendously advanced andextended. They were the first organizations to break the monopoly of theChurch in learning and teaching; they were the centers to which all newknowledge gravitated; under their shadow thousands of young men foundintellectual companionship and in their classrooms intellectualstimulation; and in encouraging "laborious subtlety, heroic industry, andintense application", even though on very limited subject-matter, and intraining "men to think and work rather than to enjoy" (R. 124), they werepreparing for the time when western Europe should awaken to the riches ofGreece and Rome and to a new type of intellectual life of its own. Fromthese beginnings the university organization has persisted and grown andexpanded, and to-day stands, the Synagogue and the Catholic Church aloneexcepted, as the oldest organized institution of human society. 

The manifest tendency of the universities toward speculation, though forlong within limits approved by the Church, was ultimately to awakeninquiry, investigation, rational thinking, and to bring forth the modernspirit. The preservation and transmission of knowledge was by theuniversity organization transferred from the monastery to the school, frommonks to doctors, and from the Church to a body of logically trained men, only nominally members of the _clerici_. Their successors would in timeentirely break away from connections with either Church or State, andstand forth as the independent thinkers and scholars in the arts, sciences, professions, and even in Theology. University graduates inMedicine would in time wage a long struggle against bigotry to lay thefoundations of modern medicine. Graduates in Law would contend with kingsand feudal lords for larger privileges for the as yet lowly common man, and would help to usher in a period of greater political equality. Theuniversity schools of Theology were in time to send forth the keenestcritics of the practices of the Church. Out of the university cloisterswere to come the men--Dante, Petrarch, Wycliffe, Huss, Luther, Calvin, Copernicus, Galileo, Newton--who were to usher in the modern spirit. 

The universities as a public force. Almost from the first the universitiesavailed themselves of their privileges and proclaimed a bold independence. The freedom from arrest and trial by the civil authorities for pettyoffenses, or even for murder, and the right to go on a strike if in anyway interfered with, were but beginnings in independence in an age whensuch independence seemed important. These rights were in time given up, [26] and in their place the much more important rights of liberty to studyas truth seemed to lead, freedom in teaching as the master saw the truth, and the right to express themselves as an institution on public questionswhich seemed to concern them, were slowly but definitely taken on in placeof the earlier privileges. Virtually a new type of members of society--anew Estate--was evolved, ranking with Church, State, and nobility, andthis new Estate soon began to express itself in no uncertain tones onmatters which concerned both Church and State. The universities weredemocratic in organization and became democratic in spirit, representing aheretofore unknown and unexpressed public opinion in western Europe. Theydid not wait to be asked; they gave their opinions unsolicited. "Theauthority of the University of Paris, " writes one contemporary, "has risento such a height that it is necessary to satisfy it, no matter on whatconditions. " The university "wanted to meddle with the government of thePope, the King, and everything else, " writes another. We find Parisintervening repeatedly in both church and state affairs, [27] andrepresenting French nationality before it had come into being, as the so-called Holy Roman Empire represented the Germans, and the Papacyrepresented the Italians. In Montpellier, professors of Law wereconsidered as knights, and after twenty years of practice they becamecounts. In Bologna we find the professors of Law one of the threeassemblies of the city. Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, and the Scottishuniversities were given representation in Parliament. The Germanuniversities were from the first prominent in political affairs, and inthe reformation struggle of the early sixteenth century they were thebattle-grounds. 

In an age of oppression these university organizations stood for freedom. In an age of force they began the substitution of reason. In the centuriesfrom the end of the Dark Ages to the Reformation they were the homes offree thought. They early assumed national character and proclaimed a boldindependence. Questions of State and Church they discussed with a freedombefore unknown. They presented their grievances to both kings and popes, from both they obtained new privileges, to both they freely offered theiradvice, and sometimes both were forced to do their bidding. At timesimportant questions of State, such as the divorce of Philip of France andthat of Henry VIII of England, were submitted to them for decision. Theywere not infrequently called upon to pass upon questions of doctrine orheresy. "Kings and princes, " says Rashdall, in an excellent summary as tothe value and influence of the mediaeval university instruction (R. 124), "found their statesmen and men of business in the universities, mostoften, no doubt, among those trained in the practical science of Law. "Talleyrand is said to have asserted that "their theologians made the bestdiplomats. " For the first time since the downfall of Rome theadministration of human affairs was now placed once more in the hands ofeducated men. By the interchange of students from all lands and theirhospitality, such as it was, to the stranger, the universities tended tobreak down barriers and to prepare Europe for larger intercourse and formore of a common life. 

On the masses of the people, of course, they had little or no influence, and could not have for centuries to come. Their greatest work, as has beenthe case with universities ever since their foundation, was that ofdrawing to their classrooms the brightest minds of the times, the mostcapable and the most industrious, and out of this young raw materialtraining the leaders of the future in Church and State. Educationally, oneof their most important services was in creating a surplus of teachers inthe Arts who had to find a market for their abilities in the risingsecondary schools. These developed rapidly after 1200, and to these we owea somewhat more general diffusion of the little learning and theintellectual training of the time. In preparing future leaders for Stateand Church in law, theology, and teaching, the universities, thoughsometimes opposed and their opinions ignored, nevertheless contributedmaterially to the making and moulding of national history. The first greatresult of their work in training leaders we see in the Renaissancemovement of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, to which we next turn. In this movement for a revival of the ancient learning, and the subsequentmovements for a purer and a better religious life, the men trained by theuniversities were the leaders. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Why would the _studia publica_ tend to attract a different type ofscholar than those in the monasteries, and gradually to supersede them inimportance?

2. Show how the mediaeval university was a gradual and natural evolution, as distinct from a founded university of to-day. 

3. Show that the university charter was a first step toward independencefrom church and state control. 

4. Show the relation between the system of apprenticeship developed forstudent and teacher in a mediaeval university, and the stages of studentand teacher in a university of to-day. 

5. Show how the chartered university of the Middle Ages was an"association of like-minded men for worldly purposes. "

6. To what university mother does Harvard go back, ultimately?

7. Show how the English and the German universities are extreme evolutionsfrom the mediaeval type, and our American universities a combination ofthe two extremes. 

8. Do university professors to-day have privileges akin to those grantedprofessors in a mediaeval university?

9. What has caused the old Arts Faculty to break up into so many groups, whereas Law, Medicine, and Theology have stayed united?

10. Do universities, when founded to-day, usually start with all four ofthe mediaeval faculties represented?

11. Which of the professional faculties has changed most in the nature andcharacter of its instruction? Why has this been so?

12. Enumerate a number of different things which have enabled the modernuniversity greatly to shorten the period of instruction?

13. Aside from differences in teachers, why are some university subjectstoday taught much more compactly and economically than other subjects?

14. After admitting all the defects of the mediaeval university, why didthe university nevertheless represent so important a development for thefuture of western civilization?

15. What does the long continuance, without great changes in character, ofthe university as an institution indicate as to its usefulness to society?

16. Does the university of to-day play as important a part in the progressof society as it did in the mediaeval times? Why?

17. Is the chief university force to-day exerted directly or indirectly?Illustrate. 

18. What is probably the greatest work of any university, in any age?

19. Compare the influence of the mediaeval university, and the Greekuniversities of the ancient world. 

20. Explain the evolution of the English college system as an effort toimprove discipline, morals, and thinking. Has it been successful in this?

21. Show how the mediaeval university put books in the place of things, whereas the modern university tries to reverse this. 

22. Show how the rise of the universities gave an educated ruling class toEurope, even though the nobility may not have attended them. 

23. Show how, in an age of lawlessness, the universities symbolized thesupremacy of mind over brute force. 

24. Show how the mediaeval universities aided civilization by breakingdown, somewhat, barriers of nationality and ignorance among peoples. 

25. Show how the university stood, as the crowning effort of its time, inthe slow upward struggle to rebuild civilization on the ruins of what hadonce been. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 100. Rashdall and Minerva: University Foundations before 1600. 101. Fr. Barbarossa: Privileges for Students who travel for Study. 102. Philip Augustus: Privileges granted Students at Paris. 103. Count Rupert: Charter of the University of Heidelberg. 104. Philip IV: Exemption of Students and Masters from Taxation. 105. Vercelli: Privileges granted to the University by the City. 106. Villani: The Cost to a City of maintaining a University. 107. Pope Gregory IX: Right to suspend Lectures (_Cessatio_). 108. Roger of Wendover: a _Cessatio_ at Oxford. 109. Henry III: England invites Scholars to leave Paris. 110. Pope Gregory IX: Early Licensing of Professors to teach. 111. Pope Nicholas IV: The Right to grant Licenses to teach. 112. Rashdall: A University License to teach. 113. Paris Statutes, 1254: Books required for the Arts Degree. 114. Leipzig Statutes, 1410: Books required for the Arts Degree. 115. Oxford Statutes, 1408-31: Books required for the Arts Degree. 116. Oxford, Fourteenth Century: Requirements for the Professional Degrees. (a) In Theology. (c) In Civil Law. (b) In Canon Law. (d) In Medicine. 117. Paris Statutes, 1270-74: Requirements for the Medical Degree. 118. Roger Bacon: On the Teaching of Theology. 119. Master Stephen: Books left by Will to the University of Paris. 120. Roger Bacon: The Scarcity of Books on Morals. 121. Balaeus: Methods of Instruction in the Arts Faculty of Paris. 122. Toulouse: Time-Table of Lectures in Arts, 1309. 123. Leipzig: Time-Table of Lectures in Arts, 1519. 124. Rashdall: Value and Influence of the Mediaeval University. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. What does a glance at the page giving the university foundations before1600 (100) show as to the rate and direction of the university movement?

2. How do you account for the very large privileges granted universitystudents in the early grants (101, 102) and charters (103)? Should auniversity student to-day have any privileges not given to all citizens?Why?

3. Do universities, when founded to-day, secure a charter? If so, fromwhom, and what terms are included? Do normal schools? What form of acharter, if any, has your university or normal school?

4. Compare the freedom from taxation granted to masters and students atParis (104) with the grant to professors at Brown University (187b). Wasthe Brown University grant exceptional, or common in other Americanfoundations?

5. Do any American cities to-day maintain colleges or universities, as didthe Italian cities (105)? Normal schools? Are somewhat similar endsserved?

6. What does the _cessatio_, as exercised by the mediaeval university(107, 108), indicate as to standards of conduct on the part of teachersand students?

7. Why is the licensing of university professors to teach not followed inour American universities? What has taken the place of the license? Whatdid the mediaeval license (110, 111, 112) really signify?

8. Compare the license to teach (112) with a modern doctor's diploma. 

9. Compare the requirements for the Arts degree (113, 114, 115) with therequirements for the Baccalaureate degree at a modern university. 

10. Compare the additional length of time for professional degrees (116, 117). 

11. How do you account for the American practice of admitting students tothe professional courses without the Arts course? What is the bestAmerican practice in this matter to-day, and what tendencies areobservable?

12. Characterize the medical course at Paris (117) from a modern point ofview. 

13. Compare the instruction in medicine at Paris (117) and Toulouse (122). How do you account for the superiority shown by one? Which one?

14. What does the extract from Roger Bacon (118) indicate as to thecharacter of the teaching of Theology?

15. What was the nature and extent of the library of Master Stephen (119)?Compare such a library with that of a scholar of to-day. 

16. Show how the Paris statute as to lecturing (121) was an attempt at animprovement of the methods of instruction and individual thinking. 

17. What do the two time-tables reproduced (122, 123) reveal as to thenature of a university day, and the instruction given?

18. Show how Rashdall's statement (124) that lawyers have been acivilizing agent is true. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

 Boase, Charles William. _Oxford_ (Historic Towns Series). Clark, Andrew. _The Colleges at Oxford_. Clark, J. W. _Libraries in the Medieval and Renaissance Periods_. * Clark, J. W. _The Care of Books_. Corbin, John. _An American at Oxford_. * Compayré, G. _Abelard, and the Origin and Early History of the Universities_. * Jebb, R. C. _The Work of the Universities for the Nation_. Mullinger, J. B. _History of the University of Cambridge_. * Norton, A. 0. _Readings in the History of Education; Medieval Universities_. * Paetow, L. J. _The Arts Course at Mediaeval Universities_. (Univ. Ill. Studies, vol. In, no. 7, Jan. 1910). * Paulsen, Fr. _The German Universities_. Rait, R. S. _Life of a Mediaeval University_. * Rashdall, H. _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_. Sandys, J. E. _History of Classical Scholarship_, vol. I. Sheldon, Henry. _Student Life and Customs_. 

PART III

THE TRANSITION FROM MEDIAEVAL TO MODERN ATTITUDES

THE RECOVERY OF THE ANCIENT LEARNINGTHE REAWAKENING OF SCHOLARSHIP ANDTHE RISE OF RELIGIOUS AND SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

CHAPTER X

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING

THE PERIOD OF CHANGE. The thirteenth century has often been called thewonderful century of the mediaeval world. It was wonderful largely in thatthe forces struggling against mediaevalism to evolve the modern spirithere first find clear expression. It was a century of rapid andunmistakable progress in almost every line. By its close great changeswere under way which were destined ultimately to shake off the incubus ofmediaevalism and to transform Europe. In many respects, though, thefourteenth was a still more wonderful century. 

The evolution of the universities which we have just traced was one of themost important of these thirteenth-century manifestations. Lacking inintellectual material, but impelled by the new impulses beginning to workin the world, the scholars of the time went earnestly to work, byspeculative methods, to organize the dogmatic theology of the Church intoa system of thinking. The result was Scholasticism. From one point of viewthe result was barren; from another it was full of promise for the future. Though the workers lacked materials, were overshadowed by the mediaevalspirit of authority, and kept their efforts clearly within limits approvedby the Church, the "heroic industry" and the "in tense application"displayed in effecting the organization, and the logical subtletydeveloped in discussing the results, promised much for the future. Therise of university instruction, and the work of the Scholastics inorganizing the knowledge of the time, were both a resultant of newinfluences already at work and a prediction of larger consequences tofollow. In a later age, and with men more emancipated from church control, the same spirit was destined to burst forth in an effort to discover andreconstruct the historic past. 

During the thirteenth century, too, the new Estate, which had come intoexistence alongside of the clergy and the nobility, began to assume largeimportance. The arts-and-crafts guilds were attaining a large development, and out of this new burgher class the great general public of modern timeshas in time evolved. Trade and industry were increasing in all lands, andmerchants and successful artisans were becoming influential through theirnewly obtained wealth and rights. The erection of stately churches andtown halls, often beautifully carved and highly ornamented, was takingplace. Great cathedrals, those "symphonies in stone, " of which Notre Dame(Figure 53) is a good example, were rising or being further expanded anddecorated at many places in western Europe. Mystery and miracle plays hadbegun to be performed and to attract great attention. In the fourteenthcentury religious pageants were added. "All art was still religion, " butan art was unmistakably arising amid cathedral-building and the setting-forth of the Christian mysteries, and before long this was to flower inmodern forms of expression in painting, sculpture, and the drama. 

THE NEW SPIRIT OF NATIONALITY. The new spirit moving in western Europealso found expression in the evolution of the modern European States, based on the new national feeling. As the kingly power in these wasconsolidated, the developing States, each in its own domain, began to curbthe dominion of the universal Church, slowly to deprive it of thegovernmental functions it had assumed and exercised for so long, and toconfine the Pope and clergy more and more to their original functions asreligious agents. The Papacy as a temporal power passed the maximum periodof its greatness early in the thirteenth century; in the nineteenthcentury the last vestiges of its temporal power were taken away. 

New national languages also were coming into being, and the national epicsof the people--the Cid, the Arthurian Legends, the _Chansons_, and the_Nibelungen Lied_--were reduced to writing. With the introduction from theEast, toward the close of the thirteenth century, of the process of makingpaper for writing, and with the increase of books in the vernacular, theEnglish, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages rapidly tookshape. Their development was expressive of the new spirit in westernEurope, as also was the fact that Dante (1264-1321), "the first literarylayman since Boethius" (d. 524), wrote his great poem, _The DivineComedy_, in his native Italian instead of in the Latin which he knew sowell--an evidence of independence of large future import. New nativeliteratures were springing forth all over Europe. Beginning with the_troubadours_ in southern France (p. 186), and taken up by the _trouvères_in northern France and by the _minnesingers_ in German lands, the newpoetry of nature and love and joy of living had spread everywhere. [1] Anew race of men was beginning to "sing songs as blithesome and gay as thebirds" and to express in these songs the joys of the world here below. 

TRANSFORMATION OF THE MEDIAEVAL MAN. The fourteenth century was a periodof still more rapid change and transformation. New objects of interestwere coming to the front, and new standards of judgment were beingapplied. National spirit and a national patriotism were findingexpression. The mediaeval man, with his feeling of personalinsignificance, lack of self-confidence, "no sense of the past behind him, and no conception of the possibilities of the future before him, " [2] wasrapidly giving way to the man possessed of the modern spirit--the man ofself-confidence, conscious of his powers, enjoying life, feeling hisconnection with the historic past, and realizing the potentialities ofaccomplishment in the world here below. It was the great work of theperiod of transition, and especially of the thirteenth and fourteenthcenturies, to effect this change, "to awaken in man a consciousness of hispowers, to give him confidence in himself, to show him the beauty of theworld and the joy of life, and to make him feel his living connection withthe past and the greatness of the future he might create. " [3] As soon asmen began clearly to experience such feelings, they began to inquire, andinquiry led to the realization that there had been a great historic pastof which they knew but little, and of which they wanted to know much. Whenthis point had been reached, western Europe was ready for a revival oflearning. 

THE BEGINNINGS IN ITALY. This revival began in Italy. The Italians hadpreserved more of the old Roman culture than had any other people, and hadbeen the first to develop a new political and social order and revive therefinements of life after the deluge of barbarism which had engulfedEurope. They, too, had been the first to feel the inadequacy of mediaevallearning to satisfy the intellectual unrest of men conscious of newstandards of life. This gave them at least a century of advance over thenations of northern Europe. The old Roman life also was nearer to them, and meant more, so that a movement for a revival of interest in itattracted to it the finest young minds of central and northern Italy andinspired in them something closely akin to patriotic fervor. They feltthemselves the direct heirs of the political and intellectual eminence ofImperial Rome, and they began the work of restoring to themselves and oftrying to understand their inheritance. 

[Illustration: FIG. 68. PETRARCH (1304-74)"The Morning Star of the Renaissance"]

In Petrarch (1304-74) we have the beginnings of the movement. He has beencalled "the first modern scholar and man of letters. " Repudiating theother-worldliness ideal and the scholastic learning of his time, [4]possessed of a deep love for beauty in nature and art, a delight intravel, a desire for worldly fame, a strong historical sense, and theself-confidence to plan a great constructive work, he began the task ofunearthing the monastic treasures to ascertain what the past had been andknown and done. At twenty-nine he made his first great discovery, atLiège, in the form of two previously unknown orations of Cicero. Twelveyears later, at Verona, he found half of one of the letters of Cicerowhich had been lost for ages. All his life he collected and copiedmanuscripts. His letter to a friend telling him of his difficulty ingetting a work of Cicero copied, and his joy in doing the work himself (R. 125), is typical of his labors. He began the work of copying and comparingthe old classical manuscripts, and from them reconstructing the past. Healso wrote many sonnets, ballads, lyrics, and letters, all filled with anew modern classical spirit. He also constructed the first modern map ofItaly. 

[Illustration: FIG. 69. BOCCACCIO (1313-75)"The Father of Italian Prose"]

Through Boccaccio, whom he first met in 1350, Petrarch's work was madeknown in Florence, then the wealthiest and most artistic and literary cityin the world, [5] and there the new knowledge and method were warmlyreceived. Boccaccio equaled Petrarch in his passion for the ancientwriters, hunting for them wherever he thought they might be found. One ofhis pupils has left us a melancholy picture of the library at MonteCassino, as Boccaccio found it at the time of his visit (R. 126). He wrotea book of popular tales and romances, filled with the modern spirit, whichmade him the father of Italian prose as Dante was of Italian poetry;prepared the first dictionaries of classical geography and Greekmythology; and was the first western scholar to learn Greek. 

 "In the dim light of learning's dawn they stand, Flushed with the first glimpses of a long-lost land. "

A CENTURY OF RECOVERY AND RECONSTRUCTION. The work done by these twofriends in discovering and editing was taken up by others, and during thecentury (1333-1433) dating from the first great "find" of Petrarch theprincipal additions to Latin literature were made. The monasteries andcastles of Europe were ransacked in the hope of discovering something new, or more accurate copies of previously known books. At monasteries andchurches as widely separated as Monte Cassino, near Naples: Lodi, nearMilan; Milan, itself; and Vercelli, in Italy: Saint Gall and othermonasteries, in Switzerland: Paris; Cluny, near the present city of Macon;Langres, near the source of the Marne; and monasteries in the VosgesMountains, in France: Corvey, in Westphalia; and Hersfeld, Cologne, andMainz in Germany--important finds were made. [6] Thus widely had the oldLatin authors been scattered, copied, and forgotten. In a letter to afriend (R. 127 a) the enthusiast, Poggio Bracciolini, tells of finding(1416) the long-lost _Institutes of Oratory_ of Quintilian, at Saint Gall, and of copying it for posterity. This, and the reply of his friend (R. 127b), reveal something of the spirit and the emotions of those engaged inthe recovery of Latin literature and the reconstruction of Roman history. 

The finds, though, while important, were after all of less value than thespirit which directed the search, or the careful work which was done incollecting, comparing, questioning, inferring, criticizing, and editingcorrected texts, and reconstructing old Roman life and history. [7] Wehave in this new work a complete break with scholastic methods, and we seein it the awakening of the modern scientific spirit. [8] It was this samecritical, constructive spirit which, when applied later to Christianpractices, brought on the Reformation; when applied to the problems of theuniverse, revealed to men the wonderful world of science; and when appliedto problems of government, led to the questioning of the theory of thedivine right of kings, and to the evolution of democracy. We have here amodern spirit, a craving for truth for its own sake, an awakening of thehistorical sense, [9] and an appreciation of beauty in literature andnature which was soon to be followed by an appreciation of beauty in art. A worship of classical literature and classical ideas now set in, of whichrich and prosperous Florence became the center, with Venice and Rome, aswell as a number of the northern Italian cities, as centers of more thanminor importance. 

THE REVIVAL OF GREEK IN THE WEST. With the new interest in Latinliterature it was but natural that a revival of the study of Greek shouldfollow. While a knowledge of Greek had not absolutely died out in the Westduring the Middle Ages, there were very few scholars who knew anythingabout it, and none who could read it. [10] It was natural, too, that therevival of it should come first in Italy. Southern Italy (_Magna Graecia_)had remained under the Eastern Empire and Greek until its conquest by theNormans (1041-71), and to southern Italy a few Greek monks had from timeto time migrated. With southern Italy, though, papal Italy and the westernChristian world seem to have had little contact. In 1339, and again in1342, a Greek monk from southern Italy visited the Pope, coming as anambassador from Constantinople, and from him Petrarch learned the Greekalphabet. In 1353 another envoy brought Petrarch a copy of Homer. This hecould not read, but in time (1367) a poor translation into Latin waseffected. Boccaccio studied Greek, being the first western scholar to readHomer in the original. 

Near the end of the fourteenth century it became known in Florence thatManuel Chrysoloras (c. 1350-1415), a Byzantine of noble birth, a teacherof rhetoric and philosophy at Constantinople, and the most accomplishedGreek scholar of his age, had arrived in Venice as an envoy from theEastern Emperor. Florentine scholars visited him, and on his returnaccompanied him to Constantinople to learn Greek. In 1396 Chrysoloras wasinvited by Florence to accept an appointment, in the university there, tothe first chair of Greek letters in the West, and accepted. From 1396 to1400 he taught Greek in the rich and stately city of Florence, at thattime the intellectual and artistic center of Christendom. For a few years, beginning in 1402, he also taught Greek at the University of Pavia. He hadearlier written a _Catechism of Greek Grammar_, and at Pavia he began aliteral rendering of Plato's _Republic_ into Latin. From his visit datesthe enthusiasm for the study of Greek in the West. 

OTHER GREEK SCHOLARS ARRIVE IN ITALY. Chrysoloras returned toConstantinople for a time, in 1403, and Guarino of Verona, who had beenone of his pupils, accompanied him and spent five years there as a memberof his household. When he returned to Italy he brought with him aboutfifty manuscripts, and before his death he had translated a number of theminto Latin. He also prepared a Greek grammar which superseded that ofChrysoloras. In 1412 he was elected to the chair at Florence formerly heldby Chrysoloras, and later he established an important school at Ferrara, based largely on instruction in the Latin and Greek classics, which willbe referred to again in the next chapter. 

A rage for Greek learning and Greek books now for a time set in. Aurispa, a Sicilian, went to Constantinople, learned Greek, and returned to Italy, in 1422, with 238 Greek manuscripts. Messer Filelfo, of Padua, after sevenyears at Constantinople, returned, in 1427, with forty manuscripts andwith the grand-niece of Chrysoloras as his wife. In 1448 Theodorus Gaza(c. 1400-75), a learned Greek from the city of Thessalonica, who had fledfrom his native city just before its capture by the Turks (1430), came toFerrara as the first professor of Greek in the university there. He mademany translations, prepared a very popular Greek grammar, and in 1451became professor of philosophy at Rome. 

Another Greek of importance was Demetrius Chalcondyles of Athens (1424-1511), who reached Italy in 1447. In 1450 he became professor of Greek atPerugia, and of his lectures there one of his enthusiastic pupils [11]wrote:

 A Greek has just arrived, who has begun to teach me with great pains, and I to listen to his precepts with incredible pleasure, because he is a Greek, because he is an Athenian, and because he is Demetrius. It seems to me that in him is figured all the wisdom, the civility, and the elegance of those so famous and illustrious ancients. Merely seeing him you fancy you are looking on Plato; far more when you hear him speak. 

In 1463 Demetrius transferred to Padua as professor of Greek, and was thefirst professor of Greek in a western European university to be paid afixed salary. He also taught for a time at Milan, and from 1471 to 1491was professor of Greek at Florence. 

A number of other learned Greeks had reached Italy prior to the fall ofConstantinople (1453) before the advancing Turks, [12] and after its fallmany more sought there a new home. Many of these found, on landing, thattheir knowledge of Greek and the possession of a few Greek books were anopen sesame to the learned circles of Italy. 

[Illustration: FIG. 70. DEMETRIUS CHALCONDYLES (1424-1511)(Drawn from a picture of a fresco by Ghirlandajo, painted in 1490, on thewalls of the church of Santa Maria Novella, at Florence)]

ENTHUSIASM FOR THE NEW MOVEMENT; LIBRARIES AND ACADEMICS FOUNDED. Theenthusiasm for the recovery and restoration of ancient literature andhistory which this work awakened among the younger scholars of Italy canbe imagined. While most of the professors in the universities and most ofthe church officials at first had nothing to do with the new movement, being wedded to scholastic methods of thinking, the leaders of the newlearning drew about them many of the brightest and most energetic of theyoung men who came to those universities which were hospitable to the newmovement. [13] Greek scholars in the university towns were followed byadmiring bands of younger students, [14] who soon took up the work andsuperseded their masters. Academies, named after the one conducted byPlato in the groves near Athens, whose purpose was to promote literarystudies, were founded in all the important Italian cities (R. 129). Themembers usually Latinized their names, and celebrated the ancientfestivals. In Venice a Greek Academy was formed in which all theproceedings were in Greek, and the members were known by Greek names. The_Academia of Aldus_, at Venice, of which his celebrated press was adepartment, became a veritable university for classical learning, and toparticipate in its proceedings scholars came from many lands. It was thecurious and enthusiastic Italians who, more than the Greek scholars whotaught them the language, opened up the literature and history of Athensto the comprehension of the western world. 

The financial support of the movement came from the wealthy merchantprinces, reigning dukes, and a few church authorities, who assistedscholars and spent money most liberally in collecting manuscripts andaccumulating books. Says Symonds:

 Never was there a time in the world's history when money was spent more freely upon the collection and preservation of MSS. , and when a more complete machinery was put in motion for the sake of securing literary treasures. Prince vied with prince, and eminent burgher with burgher, in buying books. The commercial correspondents of the Medici and other great Florentine houses, whose banks and discount offices extended over Europe and the Levant, were instructed to purchase relics of antiquity without regard for cost, and to forward them to Florence. The most acceptable present that could be sent to a king was a copy of a Roman historian. The best credentials which a young Greek arriving from Byzantium could use to gain the patronage of men like Palla degli Strozzi was a fragment of some ancient; the merchandise insuring the largest profit to a speculator who had special knowledge in such matters was old parchment covered with crabbed characters. [15]

Cosimo de' Medici (1393-1464), a banker and ruler of Florence, spent greatsums in collecting and copying manuscripts. Vespasiano, a fifteenth-century bookseller of Florence, has left us an interesting picture of thework of Cosimo in founding (1444) the great Medicean library [16] atFlorence (R. 130) and of the difficulties of book collecting in the daysbefore the invention of printing. 

[Illustration: FIG. 71. BOOKCASE AND DESK IN THE MEDICEAN LIBRARY ATFLORENCE(Drawn from a photograph)This library was founded in 1444. It contains to-day about 10, 000 Greekand Latin manuscripts, many of them very rare, and of a few the onlycopies known. The building was designed by Michael Angelo, and itsconstruction was begun in 1525. The bookcases are of about this date. Itshows the early method of chaining books to the shelves, and cataloguingthe volumes on the end of each stack. ]

Under Cosimo's grandson, Lorenzo the Magnificent, who died in 1492, twoexpeditions were sent to Greece to obtain manuscripts for the Florentinelibrary. Vespasiano also describes for us the books collected (c. 1475-80)for the great ducal library at Urbino (R. 131), the greatest library inthe Christian world at the time of its completion, and the work of PopeNicholas V [17] (1447-1455) in laying the foundations (1450) for the greatVatican Library at Rome (R. 132). Nicholas was an enthusiast in the newmovement, and formed a plan for the translation of all the Greek writersinto Latin. A later Pope, Leo X (1513-1521), planned to make Rome theinternational center for Greek learning. 

THE MOVEMENT EXTENDS TO OTHER COUNTRIES. Petrarch made his first greatfind in 1333, and up to 1450 the Revival of Learning, often termed theRenaissance, was entirely an Italian movement. By that date the great workin Italy had been done, and the Italians were once more in possession ofthe literature and history of the past. With them the movement wasliterary, historical, and patriotic in purpose and spirit. With them themovement was known as _humanism_, from an old Roman word (_humanitas_)meaning culture, and this term came to be applied to the new studies inall other lands. In their work with the literatures, inscriptions, coins, and archaeological remains of the Greeks and Romans, their own literature, history, mythology, and political and social life was reconstructed. Themethods employed were the methods used in modern science, and the resultwas to develop in Italy a new type of scholar, possessed of a literary, artistic, and historical appreciation unknown since the days of ancientRome, and with the greatest enthusiasm for Latin as a living language. 

By the time the revival had culminated in Italy it began to be heard ofnorth of the Alps. France was the first country to take up the study ofGreek, a professorship being established at Paris in 1458. There was butlittle interest in the subject, however, or in any of the new studies, until two events of political importance, forty years later, broughtFrenchmen in close touch with what had been done in northern Italy. In1494 Charles VIII, of France, claiming Naples as his possession, took anarmy into Italy, and forcibly occupied Rome and Florence. Four years laterhis successor, Louis XII, claimed Milan also and seized it and Naples, maintaining a French court at Milan from 1498 to 1512. Though both theseexpeditions were unsuccessful, from a political point of view, the effectof the direct contact with humanism in its home was lasting. New ideas inarchitecture, art, and learning were carried back to France, Frenchscholars traveled to Italy, and early in the sixteenth century Parisbecame a center for the new humanistic studies. In Greek, Francecompletely superseded Italy as the interpreter of Greek life andliterature to the modern world. 

In 1473 a Spanish scholar, Mebrissensis (1444-1522), returned home aftertwenty years in Italy and introduced Greek at Seville, Salamanca, andAlcalà. 

[Illustration: FIG. 72. TWO EARLY NORTHERN HUMANISTS

RUDOLPH AGRICOLA (1443-85) Early Dutch Humanist. Lectured at Heidelberg (From a contemporary engraving)

THOMAS LINACRE (c. 1460-1524) English Professor of Medicineand Lecturer on Greek (From a portrait in the British Museum)]

About 1488 Thomas Linacre (c. 1460-1524) and William Grocyn (1446-1514), two Oxford graduates, went to Florence from England, studying Greek underDemetrius Chalcondyles, and, returning, introduced the new learning atOxford. [18] Linacre, as professor of medicine, translated much of Galen(p. 198) from the Greek, and he and Grocyn lectured on Greek at theUniversity. From Oxford the new learning was transmitted to Cambridge, and, over a century afterward, to Harvard in America. A third Oxford manto study Greek in Italy was John Colet (1467-1519), who studied inFlorence from 1493 to 1496, and returned home an enthusiastic humanist. Hewas the first Englishman to attract much attention to the new studies, andto him is chiefly due their introduction into the English secondaryschool. 

The first German of whom we have any record as having studied in Italy wasPeter Luder (c. 1415-74), who returned in 1456, and lectured on the newlearning at the Universities of Heidelberg, Erfurt, and Leipzig, butawakened no response. In 1470 Johann Wessel (1420-89) and in 1476 RodolphAgricola (1443-85), two noted Dutch scholars, studied in Italy. Onreturning, Agricola, [19] who has been called "the Petrarch of Germanlands, " did much "to spread the great inheritance of antiquity and the newcivilization to which it had given birth among his uncouth countrymen"(_barbari_, he calls them). He made Heidelberg, for a time, a center ofhumanistic appreciation. Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522), a German by birth, studied in Florence and elsewhere in Italy in 1481 to 1490, and therelearned Hebrew. Returning, he became a professor at Heidelberg and thefather of modern Hebrew studies. In 1506 he published the first Hebrewgrammar. In 1493 the University of Erfurt established a professorship ofPoetry and Eloquence, this being the first German university tocountenance the new learning. In 1523 the first chair of Greek wasestablished at Vienna. Thus slowly did the revival of learning spread tonorthern lands. 

THE REVIVAL AIDED BY THE INVENTION OF PAPER AND PRINTING. Very fortunatelyfor the spread of the new learning an important process and a greatinvention now came in at a most opportune time. The process was themanufacture of paper; the invention that of printing. 

The manufacture of paper is probably a Chinese invention, early obtainedby the Arabs. During the Mohammedan occupation of Spain paper mills wereset up there, and a small supply of their paper found its way across thePyrenees. The Christians who drove the Mohammedans out lost the process, and it now came back once more from the East. By about 1250 the Greeks hadobtained the process from Mohammedan sources, and in 1276 the first papermill was set up in Italy. In 1340 a paper factory was established atPadua, and soon thereafter other factories began to make paper atFlorence, Bologna, Milan, and Venice. In 1320 a paper factory wasestablished at Mainz, in Germany, and in 1390 another at Nuremberg. By1450 paper was in common use and the way was now open for one of theworld's greatest inventions. 

This was the invention of printing. From the difficulty experienced insecuring books for the great libraries at Florence, Urbino, and Rome, aswe have seen (Rs. 130, 131, 132), and the great cost of reproducing singlecopies of books, we can see that the work of the humanists of thefourteenth and fifteenth centuries in Italy probably would have had butlittle influence elsewhere but for the invention of printing. Todisseminate a new learning involving two great literatures by copyingbooks, one at a time by hand, would have prevented instruction in the newsubjects becoming general for centuries, and would have materiallyretarded the progress of the world. The discovery of the art of printing, coming when it did, scattered the new learning over Europe. 

[Illustration: FIG. 73. AN EARLY SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRESS"The prynters have founde a crafte to make bokis by brasen letters settein ordre by a frame. " An engraving, dated 1520. The man at the right issetting type, and the one at the lever is making an impression. A numberof four-page printed sheets are seen on the table at the right of thepress. ]

SPREAD AND WORK OF THE PRESS. The dates connected with this new inventionand its diffusion over Europe are:

 1423. Coster of Harlem made the first engraved single page. 1438. Gutenberg invented movable wooden types. 1450. Schoeffer and Faust cast first metal type. 1456. Bible printed in Latin by Gutenberg and Faust at Mainz. This the first complete book printed. [20] 1457. The Mayence Psalter, the first dated book, printed. [21] 1462. Adolph of Nassau pillaged Mainz, drove out the printers, and in consequence scattered the art over Europe. 1465. Press set up in the German monastery of Subiaco, in the Sabine Mountains, in Italy. 1467. This press moved to Rome. 1469. Presses at Paris and Vienna. 1470. Printing introduced into Switzerland. 1471. Presses set up at Florence, Milan, and Ferrara. 1473. Printing introduced into Holland and Belgium. 1474. Printing introduced into Spain. 1474-77. Printing introduced into England. Caxton set up his press in 1477. 1476. First book printed in Greek at Milan. 1490. The Aldine press established at Venice, by Aldus Manutius. 1501. First Greek book printed in Germany, at Erfurt. 1563. First newspaper established, in Venice. 

Inventions traveled but slowly in those days, yet in time the press was tobe found in every country of Europe. The professional copyists made agreat outcry against the innovation; presses were at first licensed andclosely limited in number; in France the University of Paris was given theproceeds of a tax levied on all books printed; and in England thebeginnings of the modern copyright are to be seen in the necessity ofobtaining a license from the ecclesiastical authorities to be permitted toprint a book. 

[Illustration: FIG. 74. AN EARLY SPECIMEN OF CAXTON'S PRINTING]

In cutting and casting the first type a style of heavy-faced letter, muchlike that written by the mediaeval monks--the so-called _Gothic_--wasused. Caxton, in England, used this at first, and the Germans havecontinued its use up to the present time. The Italians, however, soondevised a type with letters like those used by the old Romans--the so-called Roman type, this type which was soon accepted in all non-GermanEuropean countries. The Italians also devised a compressed type--the_Italic_--which enabled printers to get more words on a page. 

Venice, almost from the first, became the center of the book trade, andbooks literally poured from the presses there. By 1500 as many as fivethousand editions, often of as many as a thousand copies to an edition, had been printed in Italy. [22] Of this number 2835 had been printed inVenice, and most of them by the Aldine press of Aldus Manutius, and editedby the _Academia_ (p. 250) connected therewith. [23] By 1500 many bookshad also been printed in a number of northern cities, [24] and Lyons, Paris, Basel, Nuremberg, Cologne, Leipzig, and London soon became centersof the northern book trade. Caxton in England soon vied with Aldus inVenice as a printer of beautiful books. When we remember that it requiredfifty-three days (Sandys) to make by hand one copy of Quintilian's_Institutes_, and forty-five copyists twenty-two months to reproduce twohundred volumes for the Medicean Library at Florence (R. 130), theenormous importance of an invention which would print rapidly a thousandor more copies of a book, all exactly alike and free from copyist errors, can be appreciated. It tremendously cheapened books, [25] made thegeneral use of the textbook method of teaching possible, and paved the wayfor a great extension of schools and learning (R. 134). From now on thepress became a formidable rival to the pulpit and the sermon, and one ofthe greatest of instruments for human progress and individual liberty. From this time on educational progress was to be much more rapid than ithad been in the past. From an educational point of view the invention ofprinting might almost be taken as marking the close of the mediaeval andthe beginning of modern times. 

RISE OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY. The new influences awakened by the Revivalof Learning found expression in other directions. One of these wasgeographical discovery, itself an outgrowth of that series of movementsknown as the _Crusades_, with the accompanying revival of trade andcommerce. These led to travel, exploration, and discovery. By the latterpart of the thirteenth century the most extensive travel which had takenplace since the days of ancient Rome had begun, and in the next two and ahalf centuries a great expansion of the known world took place. 

[Illustration: FIG. 75. THE WORLD AS KNOWN TO CHRISTIAN EUROPE BEFORECOLUMBUS]

Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville made extended travels to the Orient, and returning (Polo returned, 1295) described to a wondering Europe thenew lands and peoples they had seen. The _Voyages_ of Polo and the_Travels_ of Mandeville were widely read. By the beginning of thefourteenth century the compass had been perfected, in Naples, and a greatera of exploration had been begun. In 1402 venturesome sailors, out beyondthe "Pillars of Hercules, " discovered the Canary Islands; in 1419 theMadeira Islands were reached; in 1460 the Cape Verde Islands were found;in 1497 Bartholomew Diaz rounded the southern tip of Africa; and in 1497Vasco da Gama discovered the long-hoped-for sea route to India. Five yearslater, sailing westward with the same end in view, Columbus discovered theAmerican continent. Finally, in 1519-22, Magellan's ships circumnavigatedthe globe, and, returning safely to Spain, proved that the world wasround. In 1507 Waldenseemüller published his _Introduction to Geography_, a book that was widely read, and one which laid the foundations of thismodern study. 

The effect of these discoveries in broadening the minds of men can beimagined. The religious theories and teachings of the Middle Ages as tothe world were in large part upset. New races and new peoples had beenfound, a round earth instead of a flat one had been proved to exist, newcontinents had been discovered, and new worlds were now ready to be openedup for scientific exploration and colonization. 

ABOUT 1500 A STIMULATING TIME. The latter part of the fifteenth centuryand the earlier part of the sixteenth was a stimulating period in theintellectual development of Christian Europe. The Turks had closed in onConstantinople (1453) and ended the Eastern Empire, and many Greekscholars had fled to the West. Though the Revival of Learning hadculminated in Italy, its influence was still strongly felt in such citiesas Florence and Venice, while in German lands and in England the reformmovement awakened by it was at its height. Greek and Hebrew were nowtaught generally in the northern universities. Everywhere the oldscholastic learning and methods were being overturned by the new humanism, and scholastic teachers were being displaced from their positions in theuniversities and schools. The new humanistic university at Wittenberg, founded in 1502, was exerting large influence among German scholars andattracting to it the brightest young minds in German lands. Erasmus wasthe greatest international scholar of the age, though ably seconded bydistinguished humanistic scholars in Italy, France, England, the LowCountries, and German lands. The court schools of Italy (R. 135) and themunicipal colleges of France (R. 136) were marking out new lines in theeducation of the select few. Colet was founding his reformed grammarschool (1510) at Saint Paul's, in London (R. 138), the first of a longline of English humanistic grammar schools. Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angelo were adding new fame to Italy, and carrying theRenaissance movement over into that art which the world has ever sincetreasured and admired. 

The Italian cities, particularly Genoa and Venice, had become rich fromtheir commerce, as had many cities in northern lands. Everywhere thecities were centers for the new life in western Christendom. England wasrapidly changing from an agricultural to a manufacturing nation. The serfwas evolving into a free man all over western Europe. Italian navigatorshad discovered new sea routes and lands, and robbed the ocean of itsterrors. Columbus had discovered a new world, soon to be peopled and tobecome the home of a new civilization. Magellan had shown that the worldwas round and poised in space, instead of flat and surrounded by acircumfluent ocean. The printing-press had been perfected and scatteredover Europe, and was rapidly multiplying books and creating a new desireto read (R. 134). The Church was more tolerant of new ideas than it hadbeen in the past, or soon was to be for centuries to come. All of thesenew influences and conditions combined to awaken thought as had nothappened before since the days of ancient Rome. The world seemed aboutready for rapid advances in many new directions, and great progress inlearning, education, government, art, commerce, and invention seemedalmost within grasp. Unfortunately the promise was not to be fulfilled, and the progress that seemed possible in 1500 was soon lost amid thebitterness and hatreds engendered by a great religious conflict, thenabout to break, and which was destined to leave, for centuries to come, alegacy of intolerance and suspicion in all lands. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. In what way was the fact that Dante wrote his _Divine Comedy_ inItalian instead of Latin an evidence of large independence?

2. Was it a good thing for peace and civilization that the modernlanguages arose, instead of all speaking and writing Latin? Why?

3. Of what value to one is a "sense of the past behind him, and aconception of the possibilities of the future before him, " by way ofgiving perspective and self-confidence? Do we have many mediaeval-typepeople to-day?

4. Show how the work of Petrarch required a man with a strong historicsense. 

5. Show the awakening of the modern scientific spirit in the critical andreconstructive work of the scholars of the Revival. 

6. Of what was the exposure of the forgery of the "Donation ofConstantine" a precursor?

7. Contrast the modern and the mediaeval spirit as related to learning. 

8. Suppose that we should unexpectedly unearth in Mexico a vast literatureof a very learned and scholarly people who once inhabited the UnitedStates, and should discover a key by which to read it. Would the interestawakened be comparable with that awakened by the revival of Greek inItaly? Why?

9. What does the fact that no copy of Quintilian's _Institutes_, a veryfamous Roman book, was known in Europe before 1416 indicate as to thedestruction of books during the early Christian period?

10. What does the fact that the Christians knew little about Greekliterature or scholarship for centuries, and that the awakening was inlarge part brought about by the pressure of the Turks on the EasternEmpire, indicate as to intercourse among Mediterranean peoples during theMiddle Ages?

11. How do you explain the fact that the recovery of the ancient learningwas very largely the work of young men, and that older professors in theuniversities frequently held aloof from any connection with the movement?

12. Compare the financial support of the Revival in Italy with the supportof universities and of scientific undertakings in America during recenttimes. 

13. Explain the long-delayed interest in the Revival in the northerncountries. 

14. Trace the larger steps in the transference of Greek literature andlearning from Athens, in the fifth century B. C. , to its arrival atHarvard, in Massachusetts, in 1636. 

15. What was the importance of the rediscovery of Hebrew?

16. Show how the invention of printing was a revolutionary force of thefirst magnitude. 

17. Why should a license from the Church have been necessary to print abook? Have we any remaining vestiges of this church control over books?

18. Do you see any special reason why Venice should have become the earlycenter of the book trade?

19. Show how the printing-press became "a formidable rival to the pulpitand the sermon, and one of the greatest instruments for human progress andliberty. "

20. One writer has characterized the Revival of Learning as the beginningsof the emergence of the individual from institutional control, and thesubstitution of the humanities for the divinities as the basis ofeducation. Is this a good characterization of a phase of the movement?

21. Counting each edition of a printed book at only three hundred copies, how many volumes had been printed before 1500 at the places listed infootnote 3, page 257?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 125. Petrarch: On copying a Work of Cicero. 126. Benvenuto: Boccaccio's Visit to the Library at Monte Cassino. 127. Symonds: Finding of Quintilian's _Institutes_ at Saint Gall. (a) Letter of Poggio Bracciolini on the "Find. " (b) Reply of Lionardo Bruni. 128. MS. : Reproducing Books before the Days of Printing. 129. Symonds: Italian Societies for studying the Classics. 130. Vespasiano: Founding of the Medicean Library at Florence. 131. Vespasiano: Founding of the Ducal Library at Urbino. 132. Vespasiano: Founding of the Vatican Library at Rome. 133. Green: The New Learning at Oxford. 134. Green: The New Taste for Books. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Is it probable that Petrarch's explanation (125) of why many of theolder Latin books were copied so infrequently, psalters being preferredinstead, is correct?

2. How do you explain the later neglect of so valuable a library as thatat Monte Cassino (126) or Saint Gall (127 a)?

3. Was Lionardo Bruni's letter to Poggio (127 b) overdrawn?

4. Was there anything unnatural about the work and customs of the Italiansocieties for studying the classics (129)? Compare with a modern literaryor scientific society, or with the National Dante Society. 

5. What does the extract from Vespasiano, telling how he got books forCosimo de' Medici (130), indicate as to the scarcity of books in Italytoward the middle of the fifteenth century?

6. The library of the Duke of Urbino (131) was the most complete collectedup to that time. List the larger classifications of the books copied, asto the lines represented in a great library of that day. 

7. What does the work of Pope Nicholas V, in establishing the VaticanLibrary (132), indicate as to his interest in the new humanistic movement?

8. Show from the selection from Green (133) that the revival movement inEngland was essentially a religious revival. 

9. Explain Green's cause-and-effect theory, as given in selection 134. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. Blades, William. _William Caxton_. Duff, E. G. _Early Printed Books_. * Field, Lilian F. _Introduction to the Study of the Renaissance_. * Howells, W. D. _Venetian Days_ (Venetian commerce). * Keane, John. _The Evolution of Geography_. La Croix, Paul. _The Arts in the Middle Ages and at the Period of the Renaissance_. * Loomis, Louise. _Mediaeval Hellenism_. Oliphant, Mrs. _Makers of Venice_. * Robinson, J. H. , and Rolfe, H. W. _Petrarch, the First Modern Scholar and Man of Letters_. Sandys, J. E. _History of Classical Scholarship_, vol. II. * Sandys, J. E. _Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning_. Scaife, W. B. _Florentine Life during the Renaissance_. Sedgwick, H. D. _Italy in the Thirteenth Century_. * Symonds, J. A. _The Renaissance in Italy_; vol. II, _The Revival of Learning_. Thorndike, Lynn. _History of Mediaeval Europe_. Whitcomb, M. _Source Book of the Italian Renaissance_. * Walsh, Jas. J. _The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries_. 

CHAPTER XI

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. It is often stated that the rootsof all our modern educational practices in secondary education lie burieddeep in the great Italian Revival of Learning. If we limit the statementto the time preceding the middle of the nineteenth century we shall bemore nearly correct, as tremendous changes in both the character and thepurpose of secondary education have taken place since that time. Theimportant and outstanding educational result of the revival of ancientlearning by Italian scholars was that it laid a basis for a new type ofeducation below that of the university, destined in time to be much morewidely opened to promising youths than the old cathedral and monasticschools had been. This new education, based on the great intellectualinheritance recovered from the ancient world by a relatively small numberof Italian scholars, dominated the secondary-school training of the middleand higher classes of society for the next four hundred years. It clearlybegan by 1450, it clearly controlled secondary education until at leastafter 1850. Out of the efforts of Italian scholars to resurrect, reconstruct, understand, and utilize in education the fruits of theirlegacy from the ancient Greek and Roman world, arose modern secondaryeducation, as contrasted with mediaeval church education. 

Mediaeval education, after all, was narrowly technical. It prepared forbut one profession, and one type of service. There was little that wasliberal, cultural, or humanitarian about it. It prepared for the world tocome, not for the world men live in here. The new education developed inItaly aimed to prepare directly for life in the world here, and for usefuland enjoyable life at that. Combining with the new humanistic (cultural)studies the best ideals and practices of the old chivalric education--physical training, manners and courtesy, reverence--the Italian pioneersdevised a scheme of education, below that of the universities, which theyclaimed prepared youths not only for an intellectual appreciation of thegreat and wonderful past of which they were descendants, but also forintelligent service in the two great non-church occupations of Italy inthe fifteenth century--public service for the City-State, and commerce anda business life. This new type of education spread to other lands, and anew type of secondary-school training, actuated by a new and a modernpurpose, thus came out of the revival of learning in Italy. 

THE MOVEMENT IN ITALY PATRIOTIC. The inspiration for the revival oflearning in Italy did not originate with the universities. Even the newchairs when established in the universities were regarded as inferior, and, in true university fashion, the occupants were tolerated by the otherprofessors rather than approved of by them. Some of the universities--Pavia and Bologna, in particular--had practically nothing to do with thenew movement. [1] Even in the rich and learned city of Florence, the headand front of the revival movement, the church scholars and many universitymen took little or no part in the restoration of the old studies. Thelearned archbishop, Saint Antoninus, who presided over the cathedral atFlorence during the brightest days of that city's history, pursued hismediaeval scholastic instruction undisturbed, and even wrote a _SummaTheologica_ of his own. 

[Illustration: FIG. 76. SAINT ANTONINUS AND HIS SCHOLARSSaint Antoninus (1380-1459) was the learned and pious Archbishop ofFlorence from 1446 until his death. The picture of him giving instructionis from the Venice (1503) edition of his _Summa Theologica_. ]

The revival movement, on the contrary, was directed in its beginnings by asmall group of patriotic Italians possessed of a modern spirit, and wasfinanced by intelligent and patriotic merchants, bankers, and princes. Surrounded on all sides by monuments and remains testifying to Romangreatness, and with Roman speech in constant use by the scholars of theChurch, the revival of Latin literature meant more to Italian scholarsthan to those of any other country. It seemed to them still possible torevive Roman life and make Roman speech once more the language of thelearned world. The revival of Latin literature, too, meant much more tothem than the revival of Greek. The chief value of the latter was to openup a still greater past, and through this to illuminate Roman life andliterature. After about 1500 the enthusiasm for Greek rapidly died out inItaly, and the further interpretation of Greek life and thought was leftto the northern nations. 

In this effort to revive the old Roman world the Italian scholars receivedthe sympathy of the great men of wealth, and of some of the popes of thetime. It was the Medici family at Florence who aided the movementliberally there, rejuvenated the university of Florence along newhumanistic lines, accumulated libraries there (R. 130) and at Venice, andaided scholars all over Italy. At Milan the Visconti family paid theexpenses of a chair of Latin and Greek, established in the universitythere in 1440. Popes Nicholas V and Leo X were prodigal in their supportof the new learning at Rome (R. 132), and the university there wasreconstructed along modern lines. At Venice the rulers gave largefinancial and other support to the leaders of the new learning. Academies(R. 129), under the patronage of the nobility, were founded in almost allthe northern Italian cities, and those in political power did much to maketheir cities notable centers for classical studies. 

NEW SCHOOLS CREATED. The "finds" began with Petrarch's discovery of twoorations of Cicero, in 1333, and by the time "the century of finds" (1333-1433) was drawing to a close the materials for a new type of secondaryeducation had been accumulated. Not only was the old literature discoveredand edited, but the finding of a complete copy of Quintilian's "Institutesof Oratory" at Saint Gall (R. 127), in 1416, gave a detailed explanationof the old Roman theory of education at its best. A number of "courtschools" now arose in the different cities, to which children from thenobility and the banking and merchant classes were sent to enjoy theadvantages they offered over the older types of religious schools. 

[Illustration: FIG. 77. TWO EARLY ITALIAN HUMANIST EDUCATORS

GUARINO DA VERONA (1374-1460)(Drawn from a photograph of a contemporary painting. School at Ferrara, 1429-1460)

VITTORINO DA FELTRE (1378-1446)(Drawn from a medallion in the British Museum. School at Mantua, 1423-46)]

Two of the most famous teachers in these court schools were Vittorino daFeltre, who conducted a famous school at Mantua from 1423 to 1446, andGuarino da Verona, who conducted another almost equally famous school atFerrara from 1429 to 1460. Taking boys at nine or ten and retaining themuntil twenty or twenty-one, their schools were much like the best privateboarding-schools of England and America to-day. Drawing to them a selectedclass of students; emphasizing physical activities, manners, and morals;employing good teaching processes; and providing the best instruction theworld had up to that time known--the influence of these court schools wasindeed large. Many of the most distinguished leaders in Church and Stateand some of the best scholars of the time were trained in them. By bettermethods they covered, in shorter time, as much or more than was providedin the Arts course of the universities, and so became rivals of them. Theultimate result was that, with the evolution of a series of secondaryschools which prepared for admission to the universities, the gradual"humanizing" of the universities, and the introduction of printedtextbooks, the Arts courses in the universities were advanced to a muchhigher plane. We have here one of the first of a number of subsequentsteps by means of which new knowledge, organized into teaching shape, hasbeen passed on down to lower schools to teach, while the universities havestepped forward into new and higher fields of endeavor. 

THE HUMANISTIC COURSE OF STUDY. The new instruction was based on the studyof Greek and Latin, combined with the courtly ideal and with some of thephysical activities of the old chivalric education. Latin was begun withthe first year in school, and the regular Roman emphasis was placed onarticulation and proper accent. After some facility in the language hadbeen gained, easy readings, selected from the greatest Roman writers, wereattempted. As progress was made in reading and writing and speaking Latinas a living language, Cicero and Quintilian among prose writers, andVergil, Lucan, Horace, Seneca, and Claudian among the poets, were read andstudied. History was introduced in these schools for the first time and asa new subject of study, though the history was the history of Greece andRome and was drawn from the authors studied. Livy and Plutarch were thechief historical writers used. Nothing that happened after the fall ofRome was deemed as of importance. Much emphasis was placed on manners, morality, and reverence, with Livy and Plutarch again as the great guidesto conduct. Throughout all this the use of Latin as a living language wasinsisted upon; declamation became a fine art; and the ability to read, speak, and compose in Latin was the test. Cicero, in particular, becauseof the exquisite quality of his Latin style, became the great prose model. Quintilian was the supreme authority on the purpose and method of teaching(R. 25). Greek also was begun later, though studied much less extensivelyand thoroughly. The Greek grammar of Theodorus Gaza (p. 248) was studied, followed by the reading of Xenophon, Isocrates, Plutarch, and some ofHomer and Hesiod. 

This thorough drill in ancient history and literature was given along withcareful attention to manners and moral training, and each pupil's healthwas watchfully supervised--an absolutely new thought in the Christianworld. Such physical sports and games as fencing, wrestling, playing ball, football, running, leaping, and dancing were also given special emphasis. Competitive games between different schools were held, much as in moderntimes. 

The result was an all-round physical, mental, and moral training, vastlysuperior to anything previously offered by the cathedral and other churchschools, and which at once established a new type which was widely copied. A number of these new teachers, called _humanists_, wrote treatises on theproper order of studies, the methods to be employed, the right educationof a prince, liberal education, and similar topics. [2] One of these, Battista Guarino, describing the education provided in the school whichhis father founded at Ferrara (R. 135), laid down a dictum which wasaccepted widely until the middle of the nineteenth century, when he wrote:

 I have said that ability to write Latin verse is one of the essential marks of an educated person. I wish now to indicate a second, which is of at least equal importance, namely, familiarity with the literature and language of Greece. The time has come when we must speak in no uncertain voice upon this vital requirement of scholarship. 

HUMANISM IN FRANCE. From Italy the new humanism was carried to France, along with the retreating armies that had occupied Naples, Florence, andMilan (p. 252), and when Francis I came to the French throne, in 1515, thenew learning found in him a willing patron. Though there had beenbeginnings before this, the new learning really found a home in France nowfor the first time. Here, too, it became associated with court and noble, and the schools created to furnish this new instruction were provided atthe instigation of some form of public authority. The greatest humanisticscholar in France at the time, Budaeus, was made royal librarian, in 1522. His study of the old Roman coinage, upon which he spent nine years, wouldpass to-day as a study representing a high grade of scholarship, and wasin marked contrast with the scholastic methods of the university. In hiswritings Budaeus set forth for France the dictum that every man, even ifhe be a king, should be devoted to letters and liberal learning, and thatthis culture can be obtained only through Greek and Latin, and of these, unlike the Italians, he held Greek to be the more important. Otherscholars now helped to transfer the center for Greek scholarship to Paris, where it remained for the next two centuries. 

[Illustration: FIG. 78. GUILLAUME BUDAEUS (1467-1540)]

A royal press was set up in Paris, in 1526, to promote the introduction ofthe new learning. Libraries were built up, as in Italy. Humanist scholarswere made secretaries and ambassadors. The _College de France_ wasestablished at Paris, by direction of the King, with chairs in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and mathematics. To Hebrew the Italians had given almost noattention, but in France, and particularly in Germany, Hebrew became animportant study. The development of schools in northern France washindered by the dissensions following the religious revolts of Luther andCalvin, but in southern France many of the cities founded municipalcolleges, much like the court schools of northern Italy in type. The workof the city of Bordeaux in reorganizing its town school along the newlines was typical of the work of other southern cities. Good teachers, liberal instruction, and a broad-minded attitude on the part of thegoverning authorities [3] made this school, known as the _Collège deGuyenne_, notable not only for humanistic instruction, but for intelligentpublic education during the second half of the sixteenth century. Thepicture of this college (school) left us by its greatest principal, ElieVinet (R. 136), gives an interesting description of its work. 

[Illustration: FIG. 79. COLLÈGE DE FRANCEFounded at Paris, in 1530, by King Francis I. For instruction in the newhumanistic learning]

HUMANISM IN GERMANY. The French language and life was closely related tothat of northern Italy, and French religious thought had always been soclosely in touch with that of Rome that something of the Italian feelingfor the old Roman culture and institutions was felt by the humanists ofFrance. In Germany and England no such feeling existed, and in thesecountries any effort to discredit the rising native languages was muchmore likely to be regarded as mere pedantry. In both these countries, though, Latin was still the language of the Church, of the universities, of all learned writing, and the means of international intercourse, andafter the new humanism had once obtained a foothold it was welcomed byscholars as a great addition to existing knowledge. Erasmus, the foremostscholar of his day, not only labored hard to introduce the new learning inthe schools, but welcomed the restored Roman tongue as an internationallanguage for scholarship, as a potent weapon for destroying barriers oflanguage, religion, law, and possibly in time governments based onnationality, and for the promise it gave of peace in internationalrelationships. In both Germany and England, in place of the patrioticfervor of the Italians, religious zeal, as we shall see later on, waskindled by the new humanistic studies. 

[Illustration: FIG. 80. JOHANN REUCHLIN (1455-1522)"Father of modern Hebrew Studies"]

Among the universities Vienna, Heidelberg, Erfurt, Tübingen, and Leipzig(see Figure 61) were foremost in the introduction of the new learning. Erfurt became the center of a group of humanistic scholars during theclosing years of the fifteenth century, and the first Greek book printedin Germany appeared there, in 1501. At both Tübingen and HeidelbergReuchlin (p. 254) taught for a time, and both institutions early becamecenters for the study of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. At Leipzig the reigningduke brought various humanistic scholars to the university to lecture, after 1507, and in 1519 entirely reformed the university by subordinatingthe mediaeval disciplines to the new studies. Four new universities--Wittenberg (1502), Marburg (1527), Königsberg (1544), and Jena (1558)--were established on the new humanistic basis, and from their beginningwere centers for the new learning. At Wittenberg, Martin Luther had beenmade Professor of Theology, in 1508, when but twenty-five years of age, and to Wittenberg the Electoral Prince, in 1518, brought the youngMelanchthon, then but twenty-one, as Professor of Greek. The universitiesof Germany were more profoundly affected by the introduction of the newlearning than were those of any other country. The monastic orders and theScholastics, who had for long controlled the German institutions, wereoverthrown by the aid of the ruling princes, and by the close of the firstquarter of the sixteenth century the new humanism was everywheretriumphant in German lands. 

GERMAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The enthusiasm of the humanists for the newlearning led them to urge the establishment of humanistic secondaryschools in the German cities. The schools of "The Brethren of the CommonLife" (Hieronymians), a teaching order founded by Gerhard Grote atDeventer, Holland, in 1384, and which had established forty-five houses bythe time the new learning came into the Netherlands from Italy, at onceadopted the new studies, soon trebled the number of its houses, and fordecades supplied teachers of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew to all thesurrounding countries. [4] Wessel, Agricola, Hegius, Reuchlin, and Sturmwere among their greatest teachers, and Erasmus their greatest pupil. Hereand there in German cities Latin schools, teaching the subjects of the_Trivium_, but principally the elements of Latin and grammar, had beenestablished in the course of the later Middle Ages, and to these scholarstrained in the new learning gradually made their way, secured employment, and thus quietly introduced a purified Latin and the intellectual part ofthe new humanistic course of study. Up to 1520 this method was followedentirely in German lands. 

As in Italy, the commercial cities were among the first to provide schoolsof the new type. In 1526 the commercial city of Nuremberg, in southernGermany, opened one of the first of the new city humanistic secondaryschools, Melanchthon being present and giving the dedicatory address. Anumber of similar schools were founded about this time in various Germancities--Ilfeld, Frankfort, Strassburg, Hamburg, Bremen, Dantzig--among thenumber. Many of these failed, as did the one at Nuremberg, to meet theneeds of the people in essentially commercial cities. Whatever might havebeen true in more cultured Italy, in German cities a rigidly classicaltraining for youth and early manhood was found but poorly suited to theneeds of the sons of wealthy burghers destined to a commercial career. Therising commerce of the world apparently was to rest on native languages, and not on elegant Latin verse and prose. The commercial classes soon fellback on burgher schools, elementary vernacular schools, writing andreckoning schools, business experience, and travel for the education oftheir sons, leaving the Latin schools of the humanists to those destinedfor the service of the Church, the law, teaching, or the higher stateservice. 

[Illustration: FIG. 81. JOHANN STURM (1507-89)(After a contemporary engraving by Stofflin)]

THE WORK OF JOHANN STURM. The most successful classical school in allGermany, and the one which formed the pattern for future classicalcreations, was the _gymnasium_ [5] at Strassburg, under the direction(1536-82) of the famous Johann Sturm, or Sturmius, as he came to callhimself. This was one of the early classical schools founded by thecommercial cities, but it had not been successful. In 1536 the authoritiesinvited Sturm, a graduate of the University of Louvain, and at that time ateacher of classics and dialectic at Paris, where he had come in contactwith the humanism brought from Italy, to become head of the school andreorganize it. This he did, and during the forty-five years he was head ofthe school it became the most famous classical school in continentalEurope. His _Plan of Organization_, published in 1538; his _Letters to theMasters_ on the course of study, in 1565; and the record of an examinationof each class in the school, conducted in 1578, all of which have beenpreserved, give us a good idea as to the nature of the organization andinstruction (R. 137). 

Sturm was a strong and masterful man, with a genius for organization. Probably adopting the plan of the French colleges (R. 136), he organizedhis school into ten classes, [6] one for each year the pupil was to spendin the school, and placed a teacher in charge of each. The aim and end ofeducation, as he stated it, was "piety, knowledge, and the art ofspeaking, " and "every effort of teachers and pupils" should bend towardacquiring "knowledge, and purity and elegance of diction. " Of the tenyears the pupil was to spend in the _gymnasium_, seven were to be spent inacquiring a thorough mastery of pure idiomatic Latin, and the threeremaining years to the acquisition of an elegant style. Cicero was thegreat model, but Vergil, Plautus, Terence, Martial, Sallust, Horace, andother authors were read and studied. Except that the Catechism was firststudied in the native German, Latin was made the language of theclassroom. Great emphasis was placed on letter-writing, declamation, andthe acting of plays. Rhetoric, too, was made a very important subject ofstudy. Greek was begun in the fifth year of school and continuedthroughout, all instruction in Greek being given through the medium of theLatin. [7] The instruction in both Latin and Greek was much like that ofthe court schools of Italy, except that in Greek the New Testament wasread in addition. The plays and games and physical training of the Italianschools, however, were omitted; much less emphasis was placed on mannersand gentlemanly conduct; and in educational purpose a narrow drill wassubstituted for the broad cultural spirit of the French and Italianschools. 

Sturm was the greatest and most successful schoolman of his day. Inclearly defined aim, thorough organization, carefully graded instruction, good teaching, and sound scholarship, his school surpassed all others. Sturm's aim was to train pious, learned, and eloquent men for service inChurch and State, using religion and the new learning as means, and inthis he was very successful. In a short time after taking charge his_gymnasium_ had six hundred pupils, and in 1578 there were "thousands ofpupils, representing eight nations, " in attendance. Sturm became widelyknown throughout northern Europe, and scholars and princes passing throughStrassburg stopped to visit his school and secure his advice. Hecorresponded with scholars in many lands, and the influence of hisinstitution was enormous. He was the author of many school textbooks, andof half a dozen works on the theory and practice of education. He fixedboth the type and the name--_gymnasium_--of the German classical secondaryschool, which to-day is not very materially changed from the form andcharacter which Sturm gave it. Sturm's work deeply influenced many laterfoundations in Germany, and also helped to mould the educational systemdevised later on by the Jesuits. 

[Illustration: FIG. 82. DESIDERIUS ERASMUS (1467-1536)A contemporary portrait by the German artist, Hans Holbein the Younger, inthe Louvre, Paris]

HUMANISM IN ENGLAND. Grocyn, Linacre, and Colet had introduced the newlearning at Oxford, as we have already seen (p. 253), in the closing yearsof the fifteenth century (R. 133), but had made but little impression. They were ably seconded by Erasmus, who taught Greek at Cambridge (1510-14), and who labored hard to substitute true classical culture for thepoor Latin and the empty scholasticism of his time. He wrote textbooks [8]to help introduce the new learning, urged the importance of history, geography, and science as serving to elucidate the classics, editededitions of the classical authors, wrote two treatises of importance oneducation, [9] and in two other books [10] ridiculed those who mistook theform for the spirit of the ancient learning. His Latin Greek edition ofthe New Testament definitely fixed the place of the New Testament in thehumanistic schools. 

In spite of the opposition of monks and scholastics in the universities ofOxford and Cambridge, and in the face of the coming religious turmoil inthe days of Henry VIII, the new learning made steady progress in theuniversities, [11] with the court, and among the scholars and statesmen ofthe time. With the coming of Elizabeth to the throne, [12] in 1558, thecourt, from the Queen down, was imbued with the spirit of the new learning(R. 139). Elizabeth appointed new chancellors for the two universities, and these institutions were soon transformed from places for the trainingof mediaeval scholars and theologians into places for the production of a"due supply of fit persons to serve God in Church and State. " As SirThomas Elyot so well expressed it, in his _The Governour_ (1544)--a bookon the education of rulers for a State, and which was permeated by the newspirit--"the new political order requires qualified instruments for itsadministration, and a trained governing class must henceforth take theplace of the privileged caste and the clerk [cleric] education under themediaeval disciplines. "

COLET AND SAINT PAUL'S SCHOOL. The first real establishment of the newlearning in England came through the secondary schools, and through therefounding of the cathedral school of Saint Paul's, in London, by thehumanist John Colet, in 1510. Colet had become Dean of Saint Paul'sChurch, and Erasmus urged him to embrace the opportunity to reconstructthe school along humanistic lines. This he did, endowing it with all hiswealth, and in a series of carefully drawn-up Statutes (R. 138), whichwere widely copied in subsequent foundations, Colet laid special emphasison the school giving training in the new learning and in Christiandiscipline. Erasmus gave much of his time for years to finding teachersand writing textbooks for the school. William Lily (1468-1522), anotherearly humanist recently returned from study in Italy, and the author of awidely known and much used textbook [13]--_Lily's Latin Grammar_ (R. 140)--was made headmaster of the school. 

[Illustration: FIG. 83. SAINT PAUL'S SCHOOL, LONDON]

The course of study was of the humanistic type already described, coupledwith careful religious instruction. In place of the monkish Latin pureLatin and Greek were to be taught, and the best classical authors took theplace of the old mediaeval disciplines. The school met with muchopposition, was denounced as a temple of idolatry and heathenism by themen of the old schools, and even the Bishop of London tried twice toconvict Colet of heresy and suppress the instruction. Notwithstanding thisthe school became famous for its work, not only in London but throughoutEngland. From its desks came a long line of capable statesmen, learnedclergy, brilliant scholars, and literary men. 

[Illustration: FIG. 84. GIGGLESWICK GRAMMAR SCHOOLOne of the chief schools of Yorkshire, England, and dating back to 1499. This building was erected in 1507-12 by a chantry priest named James Carr(Ker). Drawn from an old print. On the front of the building was a Latintablet (shown in the drawing), now in the British Museum, which, translated, read: "Kindly mother of God, defend James Ker from ill. Forpriests and young clerks this house is made, in 1512. Jesus, have mercy onus. Old men and children praise the name of the Lord. "]

INFLUENCE ON OTHER ENGLISH GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. In a preceding chapter (p. 152) we mentioned the founding of many English grammar schools after 1200. At the time Saint Paul's School was refounded there were something likethree hundred of these, of all classes, in England. They existed inconnection with the old monasteries, cathedrals, collegiate churches, guilds, and charity foundations in connection with parish churches, whilea few were due to private benevolence and had been founded independentlyof either Church or State. The Sevenoaks Grammar School, founded by thewill of William Sevenoaks, in 1432 (R. 141), and for which he stated inhis will that he desired as master "an honest man, sufficiently advancedand expert in the science of Grammar, B. A. , by no means in holy orders, "and the chantry grammar school founded by John Percyvall, in 1503 (R. 142), are examples of the parish type. The famous Winchester PublicSchool, founded by Bishop William of Wykeham, in 1382, to emphasizegrammar, religion, and manners, and to prepare seventy scholars for NewCollege, at Oxford, [14] where they were to be trained as priests; andEton College, founded by Henry VI, in 1440, to prepare students for King'sCollege, at Cambridge, are examples of the larger private foundations. Afew, such as the grammar school at Sandwich (1579), owed their origin (R. 143) to the initiative of the city authorities. Most of these grammarschools were small, but a few were large and wealthy establishments. 

These old foundations, with their mediaeval curriculum, after a time beganto feel the influence of Colet's school. Within a century, due to oneinfluence or another, practically all had been remodeled after the newclassical type set up by Colet. In the course of study given for Eton (R. 144), for 1560, we see the new learning fully established, and in thecourse of study for a small country grammar school, in 1635 (R. 145), wesee how fully the new learning, with its emphasis on Latin as a livinglanguage, had by this time extended to even the smallest of the Englishgrammar schools. The new foundations, after 1510, were almost entirelynew-learning grammar schools, with large emphasis on grammar, good Latinand Greek, games and sports, and the religious spirit. One of the mostconspicuous of these later foundations was Merchant Taylor's School, [15]founded in London in 1561, and of which Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611), theauthor of two important books on educational theory, [16] was for long theheadmaster. The first American Latin grammar school (Boston, 1635) was adirect descendant of these English influences and traditions. 

[Illustration: PLATE 5. STRATFORD-ON-AVON GRAMMAR SCHOOLEstablished by the Holy Cross Guild of Stratford-on-Avon, at the beginningof the fifteenth century. The Grammar School was built in 1426, of wood, and at a cost of £10, 5_s_. , 3-1/2_d_. The school was held on the upperfloor, the lower being used as a guild-hall. Here Shakespeare went toschool, and saw companies of strolling players in the hall below. Thelower picture shows the grammar-school room after its "restoration, " in1892. ]

THE REACTION AGAINST MEDIAEVALISM. Having traced the introduction of thenew learning by countries, it still remains to point out certainsignificant educational features of the movement which were common in alllands, and which profoundly modified subsequent educational practice. Boththe purpose and the method of education were permanently changed. 

Up to about the middle of the fourth Christian century the aim of bothGreek and Roman education had been to prepare men to become good anduseful citizens in the State. Then the Church gained control of education, and for a thousand years the chief object was to prepare for the world tocome. Success and good citizenship in this world counted for little, religious devotion took the place of the old state patriotism, thesalvation of souls took the place of the promotion of the social welfare, and the aim and end of life here was to attain everlasting bliss in theworld to come. To be able to appease the dread Judge at the Day ofJudgment, prayer, penance, and holy contemplation were the importantthings here below. It was preëminently the age of the self-abasing monk, and this mental attitude dominated all thinking and learning. 

The spirit behind the Revival of Learning was a protest against thismediaeval attitude, and the protest was vigorous and successful. TheRevival of Learning was a clear break with mediaeval traditions and withmediaeval authority. It restored to the world the ideals of earliereducation--self-culture, and preparation for usefulness and success in theworld here. In Italy, France, Germany, and England the movement, too, metwith the most thorough approval from modern men--merchants, courtofficials, and scholars who were ready to break with the mediaeval type ofthinking. The court and other types of secondary schools now establishedwere popular with the higher classes in society, and this aristocraticstamp the humanistic schools and courses have ever since retained. Theseschools restored to the world the practical education of the days ofCicero, and preparation for intelligent service in the Church, State, andthe larger business life became one of their important purposes. Supportedas they were by the ruling classes, the new schools were close to the mostprogressive forces in the national life of the different countries. Theyrepresented an unmistakable reaction against the world of the mediaevalmonk and the Scholastic, and their early success was in large part becauseof this. 

MODIFICATION OF THE MEDIAEVAL CURRICULUM. The mediaeval curriculum, as wehave seen (chap. VII), was based on instruction in the Seven Liberal Arts. Grammar at first was the great subject, but later Dialectic became themaster science. Knowledge was regarded as an organic whole, capable ofbeing stated in a brief encyclopaedia, and each man could learn it all. With the rise of university instruction some new knowledge was added, chiefly from Moslem sources, and the old knowledge was minutely re-ground. With the revival of the ancient learning there came, within a little morethan a century, an enormous increase in the world's sum of knowledge, andthe invention of printing came just in time to multiply and scatter thisnew knowledge throughout western Europe. To all the old subjects a newwealth of detail was added which made teaching encyclopaedias impossible. New purposes in education now came to prevail, and the great mediaevalteaching curriculum was changed in content and in relative importance. 

Of the subjects in the old _Trivium_, Dialectic or Logic, whichScholastics had raised to the place of first importance, was dethroned, and relegated to a minor position in university instruction. In its placeGrammar, as Quintilian knew and used the term (R. 76) and as based on andincluding Literature, was raised once more to the place of firstimportance. Out of this, Literature--at first the classical and later themodern--later came as a separate study, as did also the study of Historyand Mythology. By the latter part of the sixteenth century technicalGrammar had been separated from Literature, and made a more elementarysubject, while Rhetoric had developed into a critical study of literaryart. Of the subjects of the _Quadrivium_, Arithmetic, Geometry, andAstronomy were each greatly expanded, as a result of the introduction ofmuch new knowledge, and each was reduced to textbook form, while Algebraand Trigonometry were now organized as teaching subjects. Due to theirnewness and difficulty these subjects were taught chiefly in theuniversities. There they remained for a long time before being passed downto the secondary schools. Out of the very elemental instruction given inGeography and Astronomy were in time evolved all the biological andphysical sciences, though this development belongs to a later chapter(XVII), and these new subjects did not reach the secondary schools untilwell into the nineteenth century. The last of the quadrivial subjects, Music, experienced a different history in different countries. In theGermanic countries it continued to receive its old emphasis, while inEngland and France much less was made of it. After the setting-in ofPuritanism in England, when music was regarded with great disfavor, it inlarge part passed out of the English curriculum. As a result the Germanicand Scandinavian nations are to-day singing nations, while the English andAmerican are not. In early America, in particular, was the religiousreaction against music especially strong. 

[Illustration: FIG. 85. THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN STUDIESThe great study of each period is in CAPITALS; subjects in _italics_indicate that they also were quite important. Least important subjects inordinary type. ]

NEW TEACHING METHODS. Such important changes naturally called for aprogressively evolving series of printed textbooks, and these now camefast from the presses. The day of one textbook, which could dominate allinstruction for hundreds of years, was over forever. A few books, such asLily's or Melanchthon's Latin grammars and the textbooks of Erasmus, werestill used for a long time, but throughout the sixteenth century, beforethe schools became formalized and lost their earlier purpose, eachtextbook issued was soon superseded by a better one. The invention ofprinting, too, changed teaching from a reading-by-the-professor to atextbook method, and tremendously shortened the time necessary to giveinstruction in any subject. With the manufacture of paper the writtentheme, too, displaced the disputation, with great gains in accuracy ofthinking and refinement in the use of words. It was still the Latin themeor verse or oration, to be sure, and the object of the new instruction wasto teach Latin as a living language, but before long the time was to comewhen the same methods would be transferred to instruction in the nativetongues and for national ends. 

To make the instruction as practical as possible, and thus prepare thepupils for service as Latin scholars in public or scholarly pursuits, theancient literature was studied in part as a storehouse of adequate andelegant expression, and numerous phrase books [17] were written for use inthe schools. When we remember that Latin was still the language of alllearned literature, of the university classroom, of most diplomatic andlegal documents, and a practical necessity for travel or communicationabroad, we can realize why so much emphasis was placed on the constant useof Latin as the language of the school. [18] As Leach [19] so well putsit:

 "The learned professions required a competent knowledge of Latin far more directly then than now. A need for Latin was not confined to the Church and the priest. The diplomatist, the lawyer, the civil servant, the physician, the naturalist, the philosopher, wrote, read, and to a large extent spoke and perhaps thought in Latin. Nor was Latin only the language of the higher professions. A merchant, or a bailiff of a manor, wanted it for his accounts; every town clerk or guild clerk wanted it for his minute book. Columbus had to study for his voyages in Latin; the general had to study tactics in it. The architect, the musician, every one who was neither a mere soldier nor a mere handicraftsman, wanted, not a smattering of grammar, but a living acquaintance with the tongue, as a spoken as well as a written language. "

THE SCHOOLS BECOME FORMAL. After the new learning had obtained a firmfooting in the schools there happened what has often happened in thehistory of new educational efforts--that is, the new learning becamenarrow, formal, and fixed, and lost the liberal spirit which actuated itsearlier promoters. In the beginning the Italian humanists had aimed atlarge personal self-culture and individual development, and the northernhumanists at moral and religious reform and preparation for usefulservice, both using the classics as a means to these new ends. After about1500 in Italy, and 1600 in the northern countries, when the new-learningschools had become well established and thoroughly organized, the tendencyarose to make the means an end in itself. Instead of using the classicalliteratures to impart a liberal education, give larger vision, and preparefor useful public service, they came to be used largely for disciplinaryends. The teaching of Campion at Prague (1574) well illustrates thisdegeneracy (R. 146). This change alienated practical men from the schools. French now in turn became the language of the court and of diplomacy, andthe work of the schools tended to be confined largely to preparingstudents to enter the universities or the service of the Church. Men ofthe world hence turned to a new type of schools which now arose (chapterxvii), and which made preparation for social efficiency in a modern worldtheir aim. 

In consequence the aim of the new humanistic education came in time to bethought of in terms of languages and literatures, instead of in terms ofusefulness as a preparation for intelligent living, and educational effortwas transferred from the larger human point of view of the earlyhumanistic teachers to the narrower and much less important one ofmastering Greek and Latin, writing verses, and cultivating a good(Ciceronian) Latin style. Sturm's school at Strassburg clearly shows thebeginnings of such a transformation (R. 137). As Latin came to be less andless used by scholars in writing, passed out of use as the language ofgovernment and of international communication, was replaced by French asthe language of polite society, and was gradually superseded in theuniversity lecture room by the vernaculars, the practical motive forlearning Latin died out, except for service in the Church, and thedisciplinary and cultural value of the study of the classics aloneremained. The disciplinary, being easier to give, and better within theunderstanding of most teachers, gradually won over the cultural. As aresult, classical education gradually became narrow and formal, and drillin composition and declamation and imitation of the style of ancientauthors--particularly Cicero, whence the term "Ciceronianism" which cameto be applied to it--grew to be the ruling motives in instruction. By theend of the sixteenth century this change had taken place in both thesecondary schools and the universities, and this narrow linguisticattitude continued to dominate classical education, in German lands untilthe mid-eighteenth, and in all other western European countries and inAmerica until near the middle of the nineteenth century. It was not untilvigorously challenged by the enthusiasts for modern scientific studiesthat the teachers of the classics awoke to the need of improving theirinstruction and restoring something of the old cultural value to what theywere teaching. 

The new learning in northern and western Europe was also much changed incharacter by the violent religious dissensions, following the ProtestantRevolt, to a consideration of which we next turn. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Explain just what is meant by the statement that mediaeval educationwas narrowly technical. 

2. State the educational ideals of the new secondary schools evolved bythe Italian humanistic scholars, and show whether these ideals have beenbest embodied in the German _gymnasium_ or the English grammar school. 

3. How do you explain the merchants and bankers and princes of Italy beingmore interested in the revival-of-learning movement than the Church anduniversity scholars? Do such classes to-day show the same type of interestin aiding learning?

4. What was the particular importance of the recovery of Quintilian's_Institutes_? Of Cicero's _Orations_ and _Letters_?

5. What better methods could the Italian court schools have used to enablethem to cover the university Arts course in shorter time? How would thishave advanced the character of the instruction in Arts in the university?

6. Show how the type of education developed in the Italian court schoolswas superior to that of the best of the cathedral schools. To thatdeveloped by Sturm. 

7. Show how the new type of secondary schools was naturally associatedwith court and nobility and men of large worldly affairs, and how inconsequence the new secondary education became and for long continued tobe considered as aristocratic education. 

8. Explain how the terms _college_, _lycée_, _gymnasium_, _academy_, and_grammar school_ all came to be employed, in different countries, todesignate about the same type of secondary school. 

9. Had the purified Latin been restored, as the general internationallanguage of learning and government, would it have helped materially inbringing about the civilizing influences Erasmus saw in it?

10. Has the development of separate nationalities and different nationallanguages aided in advancing international peace and civilization? Why?

11. Why should the new humanistic studies have developed religious fervorin Germany and England, in place of the patriotic fervor of the Italianscholars?

12. Was the struggle against the introduction of the new learning into theGerman universities parallel to the late struggle against the introductionof science into American universities?

13. Contrast the aim of Sturm's school with that of the Italian courtschools, and the English grammar schools. Point out the new tendencies inhis work. 

14. Does the sentence quoted from Elyot's _Governour_ express well thechanged conditions in England at the middle of the sixteenth century? Dosuch changed conditions always demand educational reorganizations?

15. What basis, if any, did the opponents of Colet's school have fordenouncing it as a temple of idolatry and heathenism?

16. Show how it was natural that the first American school should havebeen a Latin grammar school in type. 

17. Show that the new conception as to education, as expressed by the newhumanism, found a public ready to support it. What was the nature of thispublic?

18. Show how the new schools were "close to the most progressive forces inthe national life, " and the influence of this, particularly in England andAmerica, in fixing classical training as the approved type of secondaryeducation. 

19. Explain how the written theme of to-day is the successor of themediaeval disputation. 

20. Show how the methods of instruction employed in the new Latin grammarschools have been passed over to the native-language schools. 

21. From the paragraph quoted from Leach (p. 282), explain why a knowledgeof Latin was for so long regarded as synonymous with being educated. 

22. Show how instruction in Latin, by being changed from cultural todisciplinary ends, made French the language of diplomacy and society, tended to elevate all the vernacular tongues, and marked the beginnings ofthe end of the importance of Latin as a school study except for thepurposes of the Roman Catholic Church. 

23. What was the purpose of the Latin instruction, as you received it?

24. Does it require a higher quality of teaching to impart the culturalaspect of a study than is required for the disciplinary?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 135. Guarino: On Teaching the Classical Authors. 136. Vinet: The Collège de Guyenne at Bordeaux. 137. Sturm: Course of Study at Strassburg. 138. Colet: Statutes for St. Paul's School, London. (a) Religious Observances. (b) Admission of Children. (c) The Course of Study. 139. Ascham: On Queen Elizabeth's Learning. 140. Colet: Introduction to Lily's Latin Grammar. 141. William Sevenoaks: Foundation Bequest for Sevenoaks Grammar School. 142. John Percyvall: Foundation Bequest for a Chantry Grammar School. 143. Sandwich: A City Grammar School Foundation. 144. Eton: Course of Study in 1560. 145. Martindale: Course of Study in an English Country Grammar School. 146. Simpson: Degeneracy of Classical Instruction. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Show the large scope of Grammar, as outlined by Guarino (135). 

2. How generally was his dictum that a knowledge of Latin and Greek wereessential for a well-educated gentleman (135) accepted?

3. Compare the course of study in Sturm's school (137) with that atBordeaux (136), and with that at Eton (144) a little later. 

4. From Ascham's statements (139), what do you infer as to the receptionof the new learning at the English court?

5. Show how Colet (138 a) and William Sevenoaks (141) both aimed toprovide for real teachers, specialized for the service, and not forteaching as an adjunct to priestly duties. What was the significance ofthese provisions?

6. Show that Colet (138 b) desired to train leaders, rather thanfollowers. 

7. Show that he clearly provided (138 c) for a humanistic school of thereformed type. 

8. Characterize Colet's Introduction to Lily's Grammar (140). 

9. What was the educational significance of such a bequest as that ofWilliam Sevenoaks (141)?

10. What did the founding of a chantry grammar school (142), instead of asong school, indicate as to the progress of education?

11. Would the action taken by the authorities of the City of Sandwich(143) indicate that the humanistic grammar school had taken a deep hold onEnglish thought, or not? The same with reference to the course given in asmall English country grammar school, as described by Martindale (145)?

12. Just what does the instruction described as given by Campion (146)indicate?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. Jebb, R. C. _Humanism in Education_. Laurie, S. S. _Development of Educational Opinion since the Renaissance_. Laurie, S. S. "The Renaissance and the School, 1440-1580"; in _School Review_, vol. 4, pp. 140-48, 202-14. * Lupton, J. H. _A Life of John Colet_. Palgrave, F. T. "The Oxford Movement in the Fifteenth Century"; in _Nineteenth Century_, vol. 28, pp. 812-30. (Nov. 1890. ) Seebohm, F. _The Oxford Reformers of 1498; Colet, Erasmus, More_. * Stowe, A. M. _English Grammar Schools in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth_. * Thurber, C. H. "Vittorino da Feltre"; in School _Review_, vol. 7, pp. 295-300. Watson, Foster. _English Grammar Schools to 1660_. * Woodward, W. H. _Vittorino da Feltre, and other Humanistic Educators_. * Woodward, W. H. _Education during the Renaissance_. Woodward, W. H. _Desiderius Erasmus, Concerning the Method and Aim of Education_. 

CHAPTER XII

THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY

THE NEW QUESTIONING ATTITUDE. The student can hardly have followed thehistory of educational development thus far without realizing that aserious questioning of the practices and of the dogmatic and repressiveattitude of the omnipresent mediaeval Church was certain to come, sooneror later, unless the Church itself realized that the mediaeval conditionswhich once demanded such an attitude were rapidly passing away, and thatthe new life in Christendom now called for a progressive stand inreligious matters as in other affairs. The new life resulting from theCrusades, the rise of commerce and industry, the organization of citygovernments, the rise of lawyer and merchant classes, the formation of newnational States, the rise of a new "Estate" of tradesmen and workers, thenew knowledge, the evolution of the university organizations, and thediscovery of the art of printing--all these forces had united to develop anew attitude toward the old problems and to prepare western Europe for arapid evolution out of the mediaeval conditions which had for so longdominated all action and thinking. This the Church should have realized, and it should have assumed toward the progressive tendencies of the timethe same intelligent attitude assumed earlier toward the rise ofscholastic inquiry. But it did not, and by the fifteenth century thesituation had been further aggravated by a marked decline in morality onthe part of both monks and clergy, which awakened deep and generalcriticism in all lands, but particularly among the northern peoples. 

The Revival of Learning was the first clear break with mediaevalism. Inthe critical and constructive attitude developed by the scholars of themovement, their renunciation of the old forms of thinking, the new cravingfor truth for its own sake which they everywhere awakened, and theircontinual appeal to the original sources of knowledge for guidance, wehave the definite beginnings of a modern scientific spirit which wasdestined ultimately to question all things, and in time to usher in modernconceptions and modern ways of thinking. The authority of the mediaevalChurch would be questioned, and out of this questioning would come in timea religious freedom and a religious tolerance unknown in the mediaevalworld. The great world of scientific truth would be inquired into and thefacts of modern science established, regardless of what preconceivedideas, popular or religious, might be upset thereby. The divine right ofkings to rule, and to dispose of the fortunes and happiness of theirpeoples as they saw fit, was also destined to be questioned, and anothernew "Estate" would in time arise and substitute, instead, in allprogressive lands, the divine right of the common people. Religiousfreedom and toleration, scientific inquiry and scholarship, and theultimate rise of democracy were all involved in the critical, questioning, and constructive attitude of the humanistic scholars of the Renaissance. These came historically in the order just stated, and in this order weshall consider them. 

HUMANISM BECAME A RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENT IN THE NORTH. In Italy theRevival of Learning was classical and scientific in its methods andresults, and awakened little or no tendency toward religious and moralreform. Instead it resulted in something of a paganization of religion, with the result that the Papacy and the Italian Church probably reachedtheir lowest religious levels at about the time the great religiousagitation took place in northern lands. In the latter, on the contrary, the introduction of humanism awakened a new religious zeal, and religiousreform and classical learning there came to be associated almost as onemovement. In England, Germany, the Low Countries, and in large parts ofnorthern France, the new learning was at once directed to religious andmoral ends. The patriotic emotions roused in the Italians by thehumanistic movement were in the northern countries superseded by religiousand moral emotions, and the constant appeal to sources turned the northernleaders almost at once back to the Church Fathers and the original Greekand Hebrew Testaments for authority in religious matters. 

Colet, from England, who had spent the years 1493-96 in Florence (p. 254), during the period when Savonarola (1452-98) was preaching moral reformthere, returned home, not only a humanist, but a religious reformer aswell, and began to lecture at Oxford on the Epistles of Saint Paul in theGreek. Linacre, Grocyn, Colet, Erasmus, and Sir Thomas More (author of_Utopia_), among others, formed a little group of humanists all of whomwere also deeply interested in a reform of the practices of the Church. Erasmus, in particular, labored hard by his writings to remove religiousabuses. His _Colloquies_ (1519), a widely used Latin reading book, wasbanned from the classrooms of the University of Paris (1528), andforbidden to be used in Catholic lands by the Church Council of Trent(1564), because of the way in which it held up to ridicule the abuses inthe Church, the superstitions of the age, and the immoralities in thelives of the monks and clergy. His work as Professor of Divinity atCambridge, his numerous editions of the writings of the Church Fathers, and his Latin-Greek edition (1516), of the New Testament [1] all aliketended to turn theological scholars back to the original sources insteadof to the scholastics for the foundations of their religious faith. InGermany such men as Hegius (p, 271), Reuchlin (p. 254), and Melanchthon(p. 270) began, by similar methods, to go back to Greek and Hebrew sourcesand to the Church Fathers for new interpretations as to religiousdoctrines. In so doing they discovered that many practices and demands ofthe Church, all of which had grown up during the long mediaeval period, were not in harmony with the earlier teachings of Christ, the Apostles, orthe early Fathers. In France, Jacques Lefèvre (c. 1455-1536), a humanistand a pioneer Protestant, contended for the rule of the Scriptures and forjustification by faith, and translated the Bible into the French (NewTestament, 1523; complete, 1530) that the people might read it. 

EVOLUTION OR REVOLUTION. The reaction against the mediaeval dogmas of theChurch and the demand by the humanists of the North for a return to thesimpler religion of Christ gradually grew, and in time became more andmore insistent. This demand was not something which broke out all at onceand with Luther, as many seem to think. Had this been so he would soonhave been suppressed, and little more would have been heard of him. Instead, the literature of the time clearly reveals that there had been, for two centuries, an increasing criticism of the Church, and a number oflocal and unsuccessful efforts at reform had been attempted. The demandfor reform was general, and of long standing, outside of Italy andsouthern France. Had it been heeded probably much subsequent history mighthave been different. A few of the more important attempts at reform may bementioned here, as a background for our study. 

The first organized revolt against the Church occurred in southern France, in the early thirteenth century, and the revolters (_Albigenses_) were sofearfully punished by fire and sword that it was not attempted thereagain. 

[Illustration: FIG. 86. JOHN WYCLIFFE (1320?-84)A popular English preacher (Drawn from an old print)]

In 1378 there was a disputed papal election, and for nearly forty yearsthere were two Popes, one at Rome, and one at Avignon in southern France, each attempting to control the Church and each denouncing the other asAntichrist. The discussions which accompanied this "Great Schism" did muchto weaken the authority of the Church in all Christian lands. In England apopular preacher and Oxford divinity graduate by the name of John Wycliffewas led, by the sad condition of the Church there, to a careful study ofthe Bible. He came to the conclusion that many of the claims of the Popesand many practices of the Church were wrong (R. 147) and he refused toaccept teachings of the Church for which he could not find sanction in theBible. His revolt was as direct and vigorous as that of Luther, in Germanlands, a century and a half later (R. 148). So great was his zeal forreform that he and his scholars attempted a translation of the Bible [2]into English (see Figure 93), that the people might read it, and he andhis followers (called _Lollards_) went about the country teaching whatthey believed to be the true Christianity. What had before in England beena widespread but undefined feeling of disaffection for the rich andcareless clergy and monks, the work of Wycliffe organized into a politicaland social force. 

Due to the then close connection of the English and Bohemian courts, through royal marriages, Wycliffe's teachings were carried to Bohemia, where a popular preacher and university theologian by the name of JohnHuss (1373-1415) expounded them. He denounced the evil conduct of theclergy, and he and his followers tried to introduce several new customsinto the Church. For this Huss was first excommunicated, and then burnedat the stake as a dangerous heretic. [3] After a series of terriblemassacres his followers were forced, in large part, to accept once morethe old system. 

[Illustration: FIG. 87. RELIGIOUS WARFARE IN BOHEMIASacking a village in true German style (From a picture in the GermanicMuseum at Nuremberg)]

In 1414 a Council of the Church was called at Constance, in Switzerland, to heal the papal schism, and this Council made a serious attempt atchurch reform. After reuniting the Church under one Pope, it drew up alist of abuses which it ordered remedied (R. 149). It also attempted toestablish a democratic form of organization for the government of theChurch, with Church Councils meeting from time to time to advise with thePope and formulate church policy, much like the government of a modernparliament and king. Had this succeeded, much future history might havebeen different [4] and the civilization of the world to-day much advanced. But the attempt failed, and the absolutism of the reunited Papacy becamestronger than ever before. Protests of princes, actions of legislativeassemblies, [5] protests sometimes of bishops, [6] the failing allegianceof men of affairs, the increasing condemnation and ridicule from laymenand scholars--all signs of a strong undercurrent of public opinion--seemedto have no effect on those responsible for the policy of the Church. 

That the different rebellions and refusals of reform helped directly tothe ultimate break of Luther is not probable, as Luther seems to haveworked out his position by himself. Each of these earlier defiances ofauthority and the later defiance of Luther were alike, though, in tworespects. Each demanded a return to the usages and beliefs and practicesof the earlier Christian Church, as derived from a study of the Bible andof the writings of the early Christian Fathers; and each insisted thatChristians should be permitted to study the Bible for themselves, andreach their own conclusions as to Christian duty. In this demand to beallowed to go back to the original sources for authority, and theassertion of the right to personal investigation and conclusions, we seethe new intellectual standards established by the Revival of Learning infull force. After 1500 the rising demands for moral reform and therecognition of individual judgment could not be put aside much longer. Unless there could be evolution there would be revolution. Evolution wasrefused, [7] and revolution was the result. 

DISCONTENT IN GERMAN LANDS. It happened that the first revolt to besuccessful in a large way broke out in Germany, and about the person of anAugustinian monk and Professor of Theology in the University of Wittenbergby the name of Martin Luther (1483-1546). Had it not centered about Lutherthe revolt would have come about some one else; had it not come in Germanyit would have come in some other land. It was the modern scientific spiritof inquiry and reason in conflict with the mediaeval spirit of dogmaticauthority, and two such forces are sooner or later destined to clash. Whether we be Catholic or Protestant, and whether we approve or disapproveof what Luther did or of his methods, makes little difference in thisstudy. Over a question involving so much religious partisanship we do notneed to take sides. All that we need concern ourselves with is that acertain Martin Luther lived, did certain things, made certain stands forwhat he believed to be right, and what he did, whether right or wrong, whether beneficial to progress and civilization or not, stands as a greathistorical fact with which the student of the history of education musttake account. That the same or even better results might have been arrivedat in time by other methods may be true, but what we are concerned with isthe course which history actually took. [8]

There were special reasons why the trouble, when once it broke, made suchrapid entry in German lands. The Germans had a long-standing grudgeagainst the Italian papal court, chiefly because it had for long beendraining Germany of money to support the Italian Church. Germany'sgreatest minnesinger, Walther von der Vogelweide (1170-1228), threecenturies before Luther had sung to the German people how the Pope mademerry over the stupid Germans. 

 "All their goods will be mine, Their silver is flowing into my far-away chest; Their priests are living on poultry and wine, And leaving the silly layman to fast. "

Many positions in the German Church had been filled by the Pope withItalians, who not infrequently drew the perquisites, but did not reside inGermany. The princely and feudal Archbishops of Mayence, Treves, Cologne, and Salzburg, with their fortified castles and lands and troops and largegovernmental powers, frequently proved to be serious sources ofirritation. The most widespread discontent, though, arose over the heavychurch taxation, which drained the money of the people to Italy. The wholeGerman people, from the princes down to the peasants, felt themselvesunjustly treated, that the German money which flowed to Rome should bekept at home, and that the immoral and inefficient clergy should bereplaced by upright, earnest men who would attend better to theirreligious duties (R. 150). It was these conditions which prepared theGermans for revolt, and enabled Luther to rally so many of the princes andpeople to his side when once he had defied authority. 

THE GERMAN REVOLT. The crisis came over the sale of indulgences for sinsby the papal agent, Tetzel, who began the practice in the neighborhood ofWittenberg, where Luther was a Professor of Theology, in 1516. There islittle doubt but that Tetzel, in his zeal to raise money for therebuilding of the church of Saint Peter's at Rome, a great undertakingthen under way, exceeded his instructions and made claims as to the natureand efficacy of indulgences which were not warranted by church doctrines. Such would be only human. The sale, however, irritated Luther, and heappealed to the Archbishop of Magdeburg to prohibit it. Failing to obtainany satisfaction, he followed the old university custom, made out ninety-five theses, or reasons, why he did not believe the practice justifiable, detailed the abuses, set forth what he conceived to be the true Christiandoctrine in the matter, and challenged all comers to a debate on thetheses (R. 151). Following true university custom, also, these theses weremade out in Latin, and in October, 1517, Luther followed still anotheruniversity custom and nailed them to the church door in Wittenberg. Lutherwas probably as much surprised as any one to find that these were at oncetranslated into German, printed, and in two weeks had been scattered allover Germany. Within a month they were known in all the important centersof the Western Christian world. They had been carried everywhere on thecurrents of discontent. Luther at first intended no revolt from theChurch, but only a protest against its practices. From one step toanother, though, he was gradually led into open rebellion, and finally, in1520, was excommunicated from the Church. He then expressed his defianceby publicly burning the bull of excommunication, together with a volume ofthe canon law. This was open rebellion, and such heresy (R. 152) mustneeds be stamped out. Luther took his stand on the authority of theScriptures, and the battle was now joined between the forces representingthe authority of the Church _versus_ the authority of the Bible, andsalvation through the Church _versus_ salvation through personal faith andworks. [9] Luther also forced the issue for freedom of thought inreligious matters. It was, to be sure, some three centuries before freedomin religious thinking and worship became clearly recognized, but what theearly university masters and scholars had stood for in intellectualmatters, Luther now asserted in religious affairs as well. 

[Illustration: FIG. 88. SHOWING THE RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS]

We do not need to follow the details of the conflict. Suffice it to knowthat great portions of northern and western Germany followed Luther, as isshown in Figure 88, and that the Western Church, which had remained onefor so many centuries and been the one great unifying force in westernEurope, was permanently split by the Protestant Revolt. The large successof Luther is easily explained by the new life which now permeated westernEurope. The world was rapidly becoming modern, while the Church, with aperversity almost unexplainable, insisted upon remaining mediaeval andtried to force others to remain mediaeval with it. Adams expresses thesituation well when he says: [10]

 A revolution had been wrought in the intellectual world in the century between Huss and Luther. At the death of Huss the world had only just begun the study of Greek. Since that date, the great body of classical literature had been recovered, and the sciences of philology and historical criticism thoroughly established. As a result Luther had at his command a well-developed method ... Impossible to any earlier reformer.... The world also had become familiar with independent investigation, and with the proclamation of new views and the upsetting of old ones. By no means the least of the great services of Erasmus to civilization had been to hold up before all the world so conspicuous an example of the scholar following, as his inalienable right, the truth as he found it and wherever it appeared to lead him, and honest in his public utterances as to the results of his studies.... His was the crowning work of a century which had produced in the general public a greatly changed attitude of mind toward intellectual independence since the days of Huss. The printing press was of itself almost enough to account for Luther's success as compared with his predecessors. Wycliffe made almost as direct and vigorous an appeal to the public at large, and with "an amazing industry he issued tract after tract in the tongue of the people, " but Luther had the advantage in the rapid multiplication of copies and in their cheapness, and he covered Europe with the issues of his press.... Luther spoke to a very different public from that which Wycliffe or Huss had addressed, --a public European in extent, and one not merely familiar with the assertion of new ideas, but tolerant, in a certain way, of the innovator, and expectant of great things in the future. 

A revolution it undoubtedly was, but a revolution in thinking much morethan a political revolution. It was but a further manifestation of theinquiring and questioning tendency awakened by the Revival of Learning. Itmight in a sense be dated from Wycliffe and Huss, as well as from Erasmusand Luther. Luther did not create the Reformation. He rather popularizedthe work of preceding protesters, giving the impress of his powerfulpersonality to the movement, and directing and moulding its form. 

[Illustration: FIG. 89. HULDREICH ZWINGLI (1487-1531)]

REVOLTS IN OTHER LANDS. The outbreak in Germany soon spread to otherlands. Lutheranism made rapid headway in Denmark, where the Germangrievances against Italian rule were equally familiar, and in 1537 theDanish Diet severed all connection with Rome and established Lutheranismas the religion of the country. Norway, being then a part of Denmark, wascarried for Lutheranism also. In Sweden the Church was shorn of some ofits powers and property in 1527, and in 1592 Lutheranism was definitelyadopted as the religion for the nation. This included Finland, then a partof Sweden. An independent reform movement, closely akin to Lutheranism inits aims, made considerable headway in German Switzerlandcontemporaneously with the reform work of Luther in Germany. This wasunder the leadership of a popular humanist preacher in Zurich by the nameof Huldreich Zwingli. In 1519 he began a series of sermons on realreligion, as he had learned it from a study of the New Testament writings. Zwingli, being supported by the people, made many changes in churchpractices and worship, eventually even abolishing the mass. Many othertowns took up this reform movement, and civil war was the result. Zwingliwas killed in battle between Swiss partisans of the old regime andreformers, in 1531, but his work though checked persisted, and GermanSwitzerland became mixed Catholic and Protestant. [11]

In England the struggle came nominally over the divorce (1533) of HenryVIII from Catherine of Aragon, though the independence of the EnglishChurch had been asserted from time to time for two centuries, and a freeNational Church had for long been a growing ideal with English statesmen. In 1534 Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy (R. 153) which severedEngland from Rome. By it the King was made head of the English NationalChurch. The change was in no sense a profound one, such as had taken placein Lutheran Germany. The priests who took the new oath of allegiance tothe King instead of the Pope as the head of the Church, as most of themdid, continued in the churches, the service was changed to English, somereforms were instituted, but the people did not experience any greatchange in religious feeling or ideas. This new National Church becameknown as the English or Anglican Church. 

So far as the early history of America is concerned, the most importantreform movement was neither Lutheranism nor Anglicanism, but Calvinism. In1537 John Calvin, a French Protestant who had fled to Switzerland, [12]was invited to submit a plan for the educational and religiousreorganization of the city of Geneva, and in 1541 he was entrusted withthe task of organizing there a little religious City-Republic. For this heestablished a combined church and city government, in which religiousaffairs and the civil government were as closely connected as they hadever been in any Catholic country. During the twenty-three years thatCalvin dominated Geneva it became the Rome of Protestantism. Calvin's _TheInstitutes of Christianity_, published in Latin in 1536, and in French in1541, was the first orderly presentation of the principles of Christianfaith from the Protestant standpoint, [13] while his French _Catechism_(1537) was extensively used [14] in Calvinistic lands as a basis forelementary religious instruction. 

[Illustration: FIG. 90. JOHN CALVIN (1509-1564)(Drawn from a contemporary painting)]

From Geneva a reformed Calvinistic religion spread over northern France, [15] where its followers became known as _Huguenots_; to Scotland (1560), where they were known as _Scotch Presbyterians_; to the Netherlands(1572), where originated the Dutch Reformed Church; and to portions ofcentral England, where those who embraced it became known as _Puritans_. Through the Puritans who settled New England, and later through theHuguenots in the Carolinas, the Scotch Presbyterians in the centralcolonies, and the Dutch in New York, Calvinism was carried to America, wasfor long the dominant religious belief, and profoundly colored all earlyAmerican education. Lutheranism also came in through the Swedes along theDelaware and the Germans in Pennsylvania, while the Anglican Church, knownin America as the _Episcopalian_, came in through the landed aristocracyin Virginia and the later settlers in New York. The early settlement ofAmerica was thus a Protestant settlement, while the migration to Americaof large numbers of peoples from Catholic lands is a relatively recentmovement. 

RELIGIOUS FREEDOM AND RELIGIOUS WARFARE. Of course the revolt against theauthority of the Church, once inaugurated, could not be stopped. The sameright to freedom in religious belief which Luther claimed for himself andhis followers had of course to be extended to others. This the Protestantswere not much more willing to grant than had been the Catholics beforethem. The world was not as yet ready for such rapid advances, andreligious toleration, [16] though established in principle by the revolt, was an idea to which the world has required a long time to becomeaccustomed. It took two centuries of intermittent religious warfare, during which Catholic and Protestant waged war on one another, plunderedand pillaged lands, and murdered one another for the salvation of theirrespective souls, before the people of western Europe were willing to stopfighting and begin to recognize for others that which they were fightingfor for themselves. When religious tolerance finally became established bylaw, civilization had made a tremendous advance. 

The religious wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were wagedwith greatest intensity in Spain, France, and the German States, though noland wholly escaped. The result of this religious strife was to check theprogress of the higher civilization of the people for nearly threecenturies, and to delay greatly the coming of the great blessing offreedom in matters of religious belief, while the poverty and miseryresulting from the devastation of these religious wars left neither theenergy for nor the interest in educational or political progress. 

The struggle to suppress Lutheranism in Germany was postponed for twenty-five years--due to outside pressure, chiefly that of the Turks insoutheastern Europe--from the time that the Diet of Worms decided againstLuther (1521). Finally, in 1546, the German-Spanish Emperor Charles V feltat last free to proceed against the Lutheran heresy, and from thebreaking-out in that year of the struggle between Charles and the Germanprinces who sided with Luther, to the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, represents a century of almost continual religious warfare in the GermanStates. The worst of the period was the last thirty years, when religiousferocity and hatred reached its climax in the period known as the _ThirtyYears' War_ (1618-48). Though fought on German soil, France, Spain, andSweden were deeply involved in the struggle. It left Germany a ruin. Fromthe most prosperous State in Europe, in 1550, Germany was so reduced thatit was not until the second third of the nineteenth century that centraland southern Germany had fully recovered. More than half the populationand two thirds of the movable property were swept away. The people were soreduced by starvation that cannibalism was openly practiced. But one tenthof the inhabitants of the Duchy of Würtemberg were left alive. Land tilledfor centuries became a wilderness, thousands of towns were destroyed, whole trades were swept away, and the generation which survived the warcame to manhood without knowing education, religion, law and order, ororganized industry. Not until the end of the eighteenth century wasGermany again able to make any significant contribution to education orcivilization, and not until the middle of the nineteenth century did partsof Germany come to have as many people or cattle as before thisdevastating religious war broke out. 

[Illustration: FIG. 91. A FRENCH PROTESTANT (c. 1600)A restoration, Musée d'Artillerie, Paris]

From 1560 to 1629 in France, also, a period of carnage and devastationprevailed, due to an attempt to exterminate the Calvinistic Huguenots. Inthe massacre of Saint Bartholomew's eve, in 1572, ten thousand Protestantsare said to have perished in Paris alone, and forty-five thousandadditional outside the city. Though the Edict of Nantes (1598) had grantedreligious toleration, this never was fully accomplished, and in 1685 theEdict was revoked. The Huguenots were now given fifteen days to becomeCatholics or leave France. The demands were enforced with great severity, and the sect, which embraced one tenth of the population of France, wasstamped out and France became once more a Catholic country. In a shorttime four hundred thousand thrifty and highly intelligent Huguenots hadleft France for other lands. In Southern German lands, Holland, England, and America many found a new home. 

CHANGED ATTITUDE TOWARD THE OLD PROBLEMS. The Peace of Westphalia (1648), which ended the bloody Thirty Years' War, itself the culmination of acentury of bitter and vindictive religious strife, has often been regardedas both an end and a beginning. Though the persecution of minorities for atime continued, especially in France, this treaty marked the end of theattempt of the Church and the Catholic States to stamp out Protestantismon the continent of Europe. The religious independence of the ProtestantStates was now acknowledged, and the beginnings of religious freedom wereestablished by treaty. This new freedom of conscience, once definitelybegun for the ruling princes, was certain in time to be extended further. Ultimately the day must come, though it might be centuries away, whenindividual as well as national freedom in religious matters must begranted as a right, and one of the greatest blessings of mankind finallybe firmly established by law. [17]

The end of the period of bitter religious warfare, too, was followed by areaction against religious intolerance which contained within itself thegerms of much future liberty and human progress. Paulsen has wellexpressed the change, in the following words: [18]

 The long and terrible wars to which the ecclesiastical schism had everywhere given rise--the wars of the Huguenots in France, the Thirty Years War, and the Civil War in England--had, in the end, created a feeling of indifference toward religious and theological problems. Did it really pay, people asked themselves, to kill each other and devastate each other's countries for the sake of such questions? Could these problems ever be decided at all? If not, was it not much more reasonable to let everyone believe what he could, and, instead of wasting breath and arguments, convincing to nobody, on transubstantiation, predestination, and real presence, to cultivate sciences which really placed lasting and verifiable truths within the reach of the understanding, such as mathematics and natural philosophy, geography and astronomy? Here were sciences which offered knowledge to the mind that could be turned to account in this earthly life, whereas those transcendental speculations were of no use at all.... Toward the end of the seventeenth century this spirit of indifference and scepticism toward theology, and sometimes even toward religion in general and the future world, formed a most important factor in the changing intellectual attitude of the times. [19]

Physically exhausted, and recognizing at last the futility of fire andsword as means for stamping out opposing religious convictions, but stillthoroughly convinced as to the correctness of their respective points ofview, both sides now settled down to another century and more of religioushatred, suspicion, and intolerance, and to a close supervision of bothpreaching and teaching as safeguards to orthodoxy. During the centuryfollowing the Peace of Westphalia greater reliance than ever before wasplaced on the school as a means for protecting the faith, and the pulpitand the school now took the place of the sword and the torch as convertingand holding agents. 

RELIGIOUS REFORM. The effect of the Protestant Revolts on the Church wasgood. For the first time in history Catholic churchmen learned that theycould not rely on the general acceptance of any teachings theypromulgated, or any practices they saw fit to approve. The spirit ofinquiry which had been aroused by the methods of the humanists would inthe future force them to explain and to defend. If they were to makeheadway against this great rebellion they must reform abuses, purifychurch practices, and see that monks and clergy led upright Christianlives. Unless the mass of the people could be made loyal to the Church byreverence for it, further revolts and the ultimate break-up of theinstitution were in prospect. The Council of Trent (1545-63) at lastundertook the reform which should have come at least a century before. Better men were selected for the church offices, and bishops and clergywere ordered to reside in their proper places and to preach regularly. Newreligious orders arose, whose purpose was to prepare priests better forthe service of the Church and for ministry to the needs of the people. Irritating practices were abandoned. The laws and doctrines of the Churchwere restated, in new and better form. Moral reforms were instituted. Inmost particulars the reforms forced by the work of Luther were thoroughand complete, and since the middle of the sixteenth century the CatholicChurch, in morals and government, has been a reformed Church. Above all, attention was turned to education rather than force as a means of winningand holding territory. A rigid quarantine was, however, established inCatholic lands against the further spread of heretical text books andliterature. Especially was the reading of the Bible, which had been thecause of all the trouble, for a time rigidly prohibited. [20]

Such, in brief, are the historical facts connected with the variousrevolts against authority which split the Roman Catholic Church in thesixteenth century. These have been stated, as briefly and as impartiallyas possible, because so much of future educational history arose out ofthe conditions resulting from these revolts. The early educational historyof America is hardly understandable without some knowledge of thereligious forces awakened by the work of the Protestants. To theeducational significance and consequences of these revolts we next turn. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. How do you explain the difference in the effect, on the scholars of thetime, of the Revival of Learning in Italy and in northern lands?

2. How do you explain the serious church opposition to the differentattempts of northern scholars to try to turn the Church back to thesimpler religious ideals and practices of early Christianity?

3. Explain how opposition to the practices of the Church could beorganized into a political force. 

4. Explain the analogy of a heretic in the fifteenth century and ananarchist of to-day. 

5. Assuming that the Church had encouraged progressive evolution as apolicy, and thus warded off revolution and disruption, in what ways mighthistory have been different?

6. How can the bitter opposition to the reading and study of the Bible beexplained?

7. Show the analogy between the freedom of thinking demanded by Luther, and that obtained three centuries earlier by the scholars in the risinguniversities. Why were the universities not opposed?

8. Enumerate the changes which had taken place in western Europe betweenthe days of Wycliffe and Huss and the time of Luther, which enabled him tosucceed where they had failed. 

9. Explain in what ways the Protestant Revolt was essentially a revolutionin thinking, and that, once started, certain other consequences mustinevitably follow in time. 

10. Was it perfectly natural that the reformers should refuse to theirfollowers the same right to revolt, and separate off into smaller andstill different sects, which they had contended for for themselves? Why?

11. On what basis could Catholic and Protestant wage war on one another totry to enforce their own particular belief?

12. Compare the individualism of the Greek Sophists with that of theProtestant reformers. Did Greece attempt to deal with them in the sameway?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 147. Wycliffe: On the Enemies of Christ. 148. Wycliffites: Attack the Pope and the Practice of Indulgences. 149. Council of Constance: List of Church Abuses demanding Reform. 150. Geiler: A German Priest's View as to Coming Reform. 151. Luther: Illustrations from his Ninety-Five Theses. 152. Saint Thomas Aquinas: On the Treatment of Heresy. 153. Henry VIII: The English Act of Supremacy. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Was Wycliffe's attack (147) as direct and fierce as Luther's (151)?

2. Explain the difference in the results attained by the two attacks?

3. Was the challenge of Wycliffe's followers on indulgences (148) any lessdirect than that of Luther (151)?

4. Does the list of items drawn up by the Church Council of Constance(149) indicate a general recognition of the need for extensive Churchreform?

5. Try to state the possible change in the progress of human history andcivilization, had the demands of the Council of Constance (149) beencarried out in good faith. 

6. Considering the nature of heresy at the time, does the extract fromThomas Aquinas (152) indicate a narrow or a liberal attitude?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. Beard, Charles. _Martin Luther and the Reformation_. Beard, Charles. _The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge_. (Hibbert Lectures, 1883. ) Fisher, George P. _History of the Reformation_. Gasquet, F. A. _Eve of the Reformation_. Johnson, A. H. _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_. Perry, George G. _History of the Reformation in England_. 

CHAPTER XIII

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS

I. AMONG LUTHERANS AND ANGLICANS

ULTIMATE CONSEQUENCES OF THE BREAK WITH AUTHORITY. That the ProtestantRevolts in the different lands produced large immediate and permanentchanges in the character of the education provided in the revolting Statesis no longer accepted as being the case. In every phase of educationalhistory growth has proceeded by evolution rather than by revolution, andthis applies to the Protestant Revolts as well as to other revolutions. Many changes naturally resulted at once, some of which were good and someof which were not, while others which were enthusiastically attemptedfailed of results because they involved too great advances for the time. Much, too, of the progress that was inaugurated was lost in the more thana century of religious strife which followed, and the additional centuryand more of suspicion, hatred, religious formalism, and strict religiousconformity which followed the period of religious strife. The educationalsignificance of the reformation movement, though, lies in the far-reachingnature of its larger results and ultimate consequences rather than in itsimmediate accomplishments, and because of this the importance of theimmediate changes effected have been overestimated by Protestants andunderestimated by Catholics. 

The dominant idea underlying Luther's break with authority, and for thatmatter the revolts of Wycliffe, Huss, Zwingli, and Calvin as well, wasthat of substituting the authority of the Bible in religious matters forthe authority of the Church; of substituting individual judgment in theinterpretation of the Scriptures and in formulating decisions as toChristian duty for the collective judgment of the Church; and ofsubstituting individual responsibility for salvation, in Luther'sconception of justification through personal faith and prayer, for thecollective responsibility for salvation of the Church. [1] Whether onebelieves that the Protestant position was sound or not depends almostentirely upon one's religious training and beliefs, and need not concernus here, as it makes no difference with the course of history. We canbelieve either way, and the course that history took remains the same. Theeducational consequences of the position taken by the Protestants, though, are important. 

Under the older theory of collective judgment and collectiveresponsibility for salvation--that is, the judgment of the Church ratherthan that of individuals--it was not important that more than a few beeducated. Under the new theory of individual judgment and individualresponsibility promulgated by the Protestants it became very important, intheory at least, that every one should be able to read the word of God, participate intelligently in the church services, and shape his life as heunderstood was in accordance with the commandments of the Heavenly Father. This undoubtedly called for the education of all. Still more, fromindividual participation in the services of the Church, with freedom ofjudgment and personal responsibility in religious matters, to individualparticipation in and responsibility for the conduct of government was nota long step, and the rise of democratic governments and the provision ofuniversal education were the natural and ultimate corollaries, though notimmediately attained of the Protestant position regarding theinterpretation of the Scriptures and the place and authority of theChurch. This was soon seen and acted upon. The great struggle of thesixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in consequence, became one forreligious freedom and toleration; the great struggle of the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries has been for political freedom and political rights;to supply universal education has been left to the nineteenth and thetwentieth centuries. 

SCHOOLS AND LEARNING BEFORE THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. After the rise of theuniversities, as we have seen, many Latin secondary schools were foundedin western Europe, and a more extensive development of the cathedral andother larger church schools took place. Rashdall (R. 154) thinks that by1400 the opportunity to attend a Latin grammar school was rather common, an opinion in which Leach and Nohle concur. After the humanistic learninghad spread to northern lands these opportunities were increased andimproved. In England, for example, some two hundred and fifty Latingrammar schools are known to have been in existence by 1500. In Germany, as we have seen (chapter xi), many such schools were founded before thetime of Luther. These offered a form of advanced education, in thelanguage of the educated classes of the time, for those intending to go tothe universities to prepare for service in either Church or State, and forteaching. The Church had also for long maintained or exercised controlover a number of types of more elementary schools--parish, song, chantry, hospital (chapter VII)--the chief purpose of which was to prepare forcertain phases of the church service, or to enter the secondary schools. These schools, too, were taught partly or wholly in Latin. In consequence, while Latin schools came to be rather widely diffused, schools in thevernacular hardly existed outside of a few of the larger commercial citiesof the north. Even the burgh and guild schools (p. 205), established inthe fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, were essentially Latin schools. 

[Illustration: PLATE 6. EDUCATIONAL LEADERS IN PROTESTANT GERMANY(From a painting dated 1543, by Lucas Cranach, a German contemporary ofboth men, and now in the Uffizi Gallery, at Florence)

MARTIN LUTHER (1483-1546)Professor of Theology at Wittenberg

PHILIPP MELANCHTHON (1497-1560)Professor of Greek at Wittenberg]

In the commercial cities of the North, however, though often only afterquite a struggle with the local church authorities, which throughout theMiddle Ages had maintained a monopoly of all instruction as a protectionto orthodoxy, different types of elementary vernacular schools had beendeveloped to meet local commercial needs, such as writing-schools to trainwriters, [2] and reckoning-schools to train young men to handle accounts. [3] Reading, manners, and religion were also taught in these schools. Other city schools, largely Latin in type, but containing some vernacularinstruction to meet local business needs not met by the cathedral orparish schools of the city, were also developed. Up to the time of theProtestant Revolts, however, there was almost no instruction in thevernacular outside of the commercial cities, nor was there any particulardemand for such instruction elsewhere. If one wished to be a scholar, astatesman, a diplomat, a teacher, a churchman, or to join a religiousbrotherhood, he needed to study the learned language of the time, --Latin. With this he could be at home with people of his kind anywhere in westernEurope. The vernacular he could leave to tradesmen, craftsmen, soldiers, laborers, and the servant classes. 

[Illustration: FIG. 92. TWO EARLY VERNACULAR SCHOOLSGERMAN (From a woodcut, printed at Nuremberg, 1505)FRENCH (After a drawing by Soquand, 1528)]

These people, on the other hand, had practically no need for a writtenlanguage, aside from a very small amount for business needs. Even here thesign of the cross would do. There were but few books written in thevernacular tongues, and these had to be copied by hand and, inconsequence, were scarce and expensive. There were no newspapers (firstnewspaper, Venice, 1563) or magazines. Spectacles for reading were notknown until the end of the thirteenth century, and were not common for twocenturies after that. There was little knowledge that could not pass frommouth to mouth. Such little vernacular literature as did exist wastransmitted orally, and no great issue which appealed to the imaginationof the masses had as yet come to the front to create any strong desire forthe ability to read. As a result, the education of the masses was in handlabor, the trades, and religion, and not in books, and the need for bookeducation was scarcely felt. 

A NEW DEMAND FOR VERNACULAR SCHOOLS. The invention of printing and theProtestant Revolts were in a sense two revolutionary forces, which incombination soon produced vast and far-reaching changes. The discovery ofthe process of making paper and the invention of the printing presschanged the whole situation as to books. These could now be reproducedrapidly and in large numbers, and could be sold at but a small fraction oftheir former cost. The printing of the Bible in the common tongue did farmore to stimulate a desire to be able to read than did the Revival ofLearning (Rs. 155, 170). Then came the religious discussions of theReformation period, which stirred intellectually the masses of the peoplein northern lands as nothing before in history had ever done. In an effortto reach the people the reformers originated small and cheap pamphlets, written in the vernacular, and these, sold for a penny or two, werepeddled in the market-places and from house to house. While there had beenimperfect translations of the Bible in German before Luther's, histranslation (New Testament, 1522) was direct from the original Greek andso carefully done that it virtually fixed the character of the Germanlanguage. [4] Calvin's _Institutes of Christianity_ (French edition, 1541)in a similar manner fixed the character of the French language, [5] andTyndale's translation of the New Testament (1526) was into such simple andhomely language [6] that it fixed the character of the English tongue, andwas made the basis for the later Authorized translation. 

[Illustration: FIG. 93. THE FIRST PAGE OF WYCLIFFE'S BIBLETranslated between 1382 and 1384. Facsimile of the first verses ofGenesis]

The leaders of the Protestant Revolts, too, in asserting that each personshould be able to read and study the Scriptures as a means to personalsalvation, created an entirely new demand, in Protestant lands, forelementary schools in the vernacular. Heretofore the demand had been forschools only for those who expected to become scholars or leaders inChurch or State, while the masses of the people had little or no interestin learning. Now a new class became desirous of learning to read, notLatin, but the language which they had already learned to speak. Wycliffe, Huss, Zwingli, Luther, Calvin, and Knox alike insisted on the importanceof the study of the Bible as a primary necessity in the religious life. Inan effort to bring the Bible within reach of the people Wycliffe'sfollowers had attempted the laborious and impossible task of multiplyingby hand (p. 290) copies of his translation. Zwingli had written a pamphleton _The Manner of Instruction and Bringing up Boys in a Christian Way_(1524), in which he urged the importance of religious education. Luther, besides translating the Bible, had prepared two general Catechisms, onefor adults and one for children, had written hymns [7] and issued numerousletters and sermons in behalf of religious education. All these wereprinted in the vernacular and scattered broadcast. Luther thought that"every human being, by the time he has reached his tenth year, should befamiliar with the Holy Gospels, in which the very core and marrow of hislife is bound. " In his sermons and addresses he urged a study of the Bibleand the duty of sending children to school. Calvin's Catechism similarlywas extensively used in Protestant lands. 

1. _Lutheran School Organization_

EDUCATIONAL IDEAS OF LUTHER. Luther enunciated the most progressive ideason education of all the German Protestant reformers. In his _Letter to theMayors and Aldermen of all the Cities of Germany in behalf of ChristianSchools_ (1524) (R. 156), and in his _Sermon on the Duty of SendingChildren to School_ (1530), we find these set forth. That his ideas couldbe but partially carried out is not surprising. There were but few amonghis followers who could understand such progressive proposals, they wereentirely too advanced for the time, there was no body of vernacularteachers [8] or means to prepare them, the importance of such training wasnot understood, and the religious wars which followed made sucheducational advantages impossible, for a long time to come. The sadcondition of the schools, which he said were "deteriorating throughoutGermany, " awakened his deep regret, and he begged of those in authority"not to think of the subject lightly, for the instruction of youth is amatter in which Christ and all the world are concerned. " All towns had tospend money for roads, defense, bridges, and the like, and why not somefor schools? This they now could easily afford, "since Divine Grace hasreleased them from the exaction and robbery of the Roman Church. " Parentscontinually neglected their educational duty, yet there must be civilgovernment. "Were there neither soul, heaven, nor hell, " he declared, "itwould still be necessary to have schools for the sake of affairs herebelow.... The world has need of educated men and women to the end that menmay govern the country properly and women may properly bring up theirchildren, care for their domestics, and direct the affairs of theirhouseholds. " "The welfare of the State depends upon the intelligence andvirtue of its citizens, " he said, "and it is therefore the duty of mayorsand aldermen in all cities to see that Christian schools are founded andmaintained" (R. 156). 

[Illustration: FIG. 94. LUTHER GIVING INSTRUCTIONAn ideal drawing, though representative of early Protestant popularinstruction]

The parents of children he held responsible for their Christian and civiceducation. This must be free, and equally open to all--boys and girls, high and low, rich and poor. It was the inherent right of each child to beeducated, and the State must not only see that the means are provided, butalso require attendance at the schools (R. 158). At the basis of alleducation lay Christian education. The importance of the services of theteacher was beyond ordinary comprehension (R. 157). Teachers should betrained for their work, and clergymen should have had experience asteachers. A school system for German people should be a state system, divided into:

 1. _Vernacular Primary Schools. _ Schools for the common people, to be taught in the vernacular, to be open to both sexes, to include reading, writing, physical training, singing, and religion, and to give practical instruction in a trade or in household duties. Upon this attendance should be compulsory. "It is my opinion, " he said, "that we should send boys to school for one or two hours a day, and have them learn a trade at home the rest of the time. It is desirable that these two occupations march side by side. "

 2. _Latin Secondary Schools. _ Upon these he placed great emphasis (R. 156) as preparatory schools by means of which a learned clergy was to be perpetuated for the instruction of the people. In these he would teach Latin, Greek, Hebrew, rhetoric, dialectic, history, science, mathematics, music, and gymnastics. 

 3. _The Universities. _ For training for the higher service in Church and State. 

[Illustration: FIG. 95. JOHANNES BUGENHAGEN (1485-1558)Father of the Lutheran _Volksschule_ in northern Germany]

THE ORGANIZING WORK OF BUGENHAGEN. Luther assisted in reorganizing thechurches at Wittenberg (1523), Leipzig (1523), and Magdeburg (1524), inconnection with all of which he provided for Lutheran-type schools. [9]Luther, though, was not essentially an organizer. The organizing genius ofthe Reformation, in central and southern Germany, was Luther's colleague, Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560), Professor of Greek at the University ofWittenberg. In northern Germany it was Johannes Bugenhagen (1485-1558), another of Luther's colleagues at Wittenberg. More than any other Germansthese two directed the necessary reorganization of religion and educationin those parts of Germany which changed from Roman Catholicism to GermanLutheranism. The churches, of course, had to be reorganized as Lutheranchurches, and the schools connected with them refounded as Lutheranschools. For the reorganization of each of these a more or less detailed_Ordnung_ had to be written out (Rs. 159, 160). In this change cathedraland other large church schools became Latin secondary schools, while thesong, chantry, and other types of parish elementary schools weretransformed into Lutheran vernacular parish schools. 

Bugenhagen was sent to reorganize the churches of northern Germany. Beingin close sympathy with Luther's ideas, he made good provision for Lutheranparish schools in connection with each of the churches he reorganized. AtBrunswick (1528), Hamburg (1529) (R. 159), Lübeck (1530), for his nativeState of Pomerania (1534), for Schleswig-Holstein (1537), and elsewhere innorthern Germany, he drew up church and school plans (_Kirchen und Schule-Ordnungen_) which formed models (Rs. 159, 160) for many northern Germancities and towns. Besides providing for a Latin school for the city, heorganized elementary vernacular schools in each parish, for both boys andgirls, in which instruction in reading, writing, and religion was to begiven in the German tongue. He has been called the father of the German_Volksschule_, though probably much of what he did was merely theredirection of existing schools. In 1537 he was called to Denmark, by theDanish King, to reorganize the University of Copenhagen and the DanishChurch and schools as Lutheran institutions. 

Efforts were also made to create Protestant schools in the Scandinaviancountries. In Denmark writing-schools for both boys and girls wereorganized, and the sexton of each parish was ordered to gather thechildren together once a week for instruction in the Catechism. In Swedenlittle was done before 1686, when Charles XI ordained that the sacristanof each parish should instruct the children in reading, while thereligious instruction should be conducted by the clergy, and carried on bymeans of sermons, the Catechism, and a yearly public examination. Theability to read and a knowledge of the Catechism was made necessary forcommunion. A Swedish law of this same time also ordered that, "No oneshould enter the married state without knowing the lesser Catechism ofLuther by heart and having received the sacrament. " This latter regulationdrove the peasants to request the erection of children's schools in theparishes, to be supported by the State, though it was not for more than acentury that this was generally brought about. The general result of thislegislation was that the Scandinavian countries, then including Finland, early became literate nations. 

THE REORGANIZING WORK OF MELANCHTHON. Melanchthon, unlike Bugenhagen, wasessentially a humanistic scholar, and his interest lay chiefly In theLatin secondary schools. He prepared plans for schools in many cities andsmaller States of central and southern Germany, among which were Luther'snative town, Eisleben (1525), and for Nuremberg (1526), Herzeberg (1538), Cologne (1543), and Wittenberg (1545) among cities; and Saxony (1528), Mecklenberg (1552), and the Palatinate (1556) among States. The schools heprovided for Saxony may be described as typical of his work. 

In 1527 he was asked by the Elector of Saxony to head a commission ofthree to travel over the kingdom and report on its needs as to schools. Inhis _Report, or Book of Visitation_, which was probably the first schoolsurvey report in history, he outlined in detail plans for schoolorganization for the State (R. 161), of which the following is anabstract:

 Each school was to consist of three classes. In the first class there was to be taught the beginnings of reading and writing, in both the vernacular and in Latin, Latin grammar (Donatus), the Creed, the Lord's prayer, and the prayers and hymns of the church service. In the second class Latin became the language of instruction, and Latin grammar was thoroughly learned. Latin authors were read, and religious instruction was continued. In the third class more advanced work in reading Latin (Livy, Sallust, Vergil, Horace, and Cicero) was given, and rhetoric and dialectic were studied. 

These were essentially humanistic schools with but a little preparatorywork in the vernacular, and their purpose was to prepare those likely tobecome the future leaders of the State for entrance to the universities. How different was Melanchthon's conception as to the needs for educationfrom the conceptions of Luther and Bugenhagen may easily be seen. Yet, sogreat were his services in organizing and advising, and so well did suchschools meet the great demand of the time for educational leaders that hehas, very properly, been called "the Preceptor of Germany. " His work wascopied by other leaders, and the result was the organization of a largenumber of humanistic _gymnasia_ throughout northern Germany, in which thenew learning and the Protestant faith were combined. Sturm's school atStrassburg (p. 272) was one of the more important and better organized ofthis type, many of which have had a continuous existence up to thepresent. By 1540 the process was begun of endowing such schools from theproceeds of old monasteries, confiscated by the State, and many German_gymnasia_ of to-day trace their origin back to some old monasticfoundation, altered by state authority to meet modern needs and purposes. 

EARLY GERMAN STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. Melanchthon's Saxony plan was put intopartial operation as a Lutheran Church school system, but the first GermanState to organize a complete system of schools was Würtemberg (R. 162), insouthwestern Germany, in 1559. This marks the real beginning of the Germanstate school systems. Three classes of schools were provided for:

 (1) Elementary schools, for both sexes, in which were to be taught reading, writing, reckoning, singing, and religion, all in the vernacular. These were to be provided in every village in the Duchy. 

 (2) Latin schools (_Particularschulen_), with five or six classes, in which the ability to read, write, and speak Latin, together with the elements of mathematics and Greek in the last year, were to be taught. 

 (3) The universities or colleges of the State, of which the University of Tübingen (f. 1476) and the higher school at Stuttgart were declared to be constituent parts. 

Acting through the church authorities, these schools were to be under thesupervision of the State. 

The example of Würtemberg was followed by a number of the smaller GermanStates. Ten years later Brunswick followed the same plan, and in 1580Saxony revised its school organization after the state-system plan thusestablished. In 1619 the Duchy of Weimar added compulsory education in thevernacular for all children from six to twelve years of age. In 1642, thesame date as the first Massachusetts school law (chapter XV), Duke Ernestthe Pious of little Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg established the first schoolsystem of a modern type in German lands. An intelligent and ardentProtestant, he attempted to elevate his miserable peasants, after theravages of the Thirty Years' War, by a wise economic administration anduniversal education. With the help of a disciple of the greatesteducational thinker of the period, John Amos Comenius (chapter XVII), heworked out a School Code (_Schulmethode_, 1642) which was the pedagogicmasterpiece of the seventeenth century (R. 163). In it he provided forcompulsory school attendance, and regulated the details of method, grading, and courses of study. Teachers were paid salaries which for thetime were large, pensions for their widows and children were provided, andtextbooks were prepared and supplied free. So successful were his effortsthat Gotha became one of the most prosperous little spots in Europe, andit was said that "Duke Ernest's peasants were better educated thannoblemen anywhere else. "

By the middle of the seventeenth century most of the German States hadfollowed the Würtemberg plan of organization. Even Duke Albrecht V ofBavaria, which was a Catholic State, ordered the establishment of "Germanschools" throughout his realm, with instruction in reading, writing, andthe Catholic creed, the schools to be responsible through the Church tothe State. 

PROTESTANT STATE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. We see here in German lands a new, and, for the future, a very important tendency. Throughout all the longMiddle Ages the Church had absolutely controlled all education. From thesuppression of the pagan schools, in 529 A. D. , to the time of theReformation there had been no one to dispute with the Church its completemonopoly of education. Even Charlemagne's attempt at the stimulation ofeducational activity had been clearly within the lines of church control. Until the beginnings of the modern States, following the Crusades, theChurch had been the State as well, and for long humbled any ruler whodared dispute its power. In the later Middle Ages nobles and risingparliaments had at times sided with the king against the Church--warningsof a changing Europe that the Church should have heeded--but there hadbeen no serious trouble with the rising nationalities before the sixteenthcentury. Now, in Protestant lands, all was changed. The authority of theChurch was overthrown. By the Peace of Augsburg (1555) each German princeand town and knight were to be permitted to make choice between theCatholic and Lutheran faith, and all subjects were to accept the faith oftheir ruler or emigrate. 

This established freedom of conscience for the rulers, but for no oneelse. It also gave them control of both religious and secular affairs, thus uniting in the person of the ruler, large or small, control of bothChurch and State. This was as much progress toward religious freedom asthe world was then ready for, as Church and State had been united for somany centuries that a complete separation of the two was almostinconceivable. It was left for the United States (1787) to completelydivorce Church and State, and to reduce the churches to the control ofpurely spiritual affairs. 

The German rulers, however, were now free to develop schools as they sawfit, and, through their headship of the Church in their principality orduchy or city, to control education therein. We have here the beginningsof the transfer of educational control from the Church to the State, theultimate fruition of which came first in German lands, and which was to bethe great work of the nineteenth century. It was through the kingly orducal headship of the Church, and through it of the educational system ofthe kingdom or duchy, that the great educational development inWürtemberg, Saxony, and Gotha was brought about by their rulers, and itwas through the ruling princes that the German Universities were reformed[10] and the new Protestant universities established. [11] Even inCatholic States, as Bavaria, the German state-control idea took rootearly. Many of the important features of the modern German school systemsare to be seen in their beginnings in these Lutheran state-church schools. 

[Illustration: FIG. 96. EVOLUTION OF GERMAN STATE SCHOOL CONTROL]

2. _Anglican foundations_

THE REFORMATION AND EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. The Reformation in England tooka very different direction from what it did in Germany, and itseducational results in consequence were very different. In England thereform movement was much more political in character than in German lands. Henry VIII was no Protestant, in the sense that Luther or Calvin orZwingli or Knox was. He distrusted their teachings, and was always anxiousto explain objections to the old faith. The people of England as a body, too, had been much less antagonized by the exactions of the Roman Churchand the immoral lives of the monks and Roman clergy; the new learning hadawakened there somewhat less of a spirit of moral and religious reform;and the reformation movement of Luther, after a decade and a half, hadroused no general interest. The change from the Roman Catholic faith to anindependent English Church, when made, was in consequence much morenominal than had been the case in German lands. As a result the severancefrom Rome was largely carried out by the ruling classes, and the masses ofthe people were in no way deeply interested in it. The English NationalChurch merely took over most of the functions formerly exercised by theRoman Church, in general the same priests remained in charge of the parishchurches, and the church doctrines and church practices were not greatlyaltered by the change in allegiance. The changing of the service fromLatin to English was perhaps the most important change. The EnglishChurch, in spirit and service, has in consequence retained the greatestresemblance to the Roman Catholic Church of any Protestant denomination. In particular, the Lutheran idea of personal responsibility for salvation, and hence the need of all being taught to read, made scarcely anyimpression in England. 

By the time of Elizabeth (1558-1603) it had become a settled convictionwith the English as a people that the provision of education was a matterfor the Church, and was no business of the State, and this attitudecontinued until well into the nineteenth century. The English Churchmerely succeeded the Roman Church in the control of education, and nowlicensed the teachers (R. 168), took their oath of allegiance (R. 167), supervised prayers (R. 169) and the instruction, and became very strict asto conformity to the new faith (Rs. 164-166), while the schools, asidefrom the private tuition and endowed schools, continued to be maintainedchiefly from religious sources, charitable funds, and tuition fees. Private tuition schools in time flourished, and the tutor in the homebecame the rule with families of means. The poorer people largely didwithout schooling, as they had done for centuries before. As aconsequence, the educational results of the change in the headship of theChurch relate almost entirely to grammar schools and to the universities, and not to elementary education. The development of anything approaching asystem of elementary schools for England was consequently left for theeducational awakening of the latter half of the nineteenth century. Whenthis finally came the development was due to political and economic, andnot to religious causes. 

The English Act of Supremacy (R. 153), which severed England from Rome, had been passed by parliament in 1534. In 1536 an English Bible was issuedto the churches, [12] the services were ordered conducted in English, andin 1549 the English Prayer Book, Psalter, and Catechism were put into use. In 1538 the English Bible was ordered chained in the churches, [13] thatthe people might read it (R. 170), and the people were ordered instructedin English in the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and the Ten Commandments. Thechange of the service to English was perhaps the largest educational gainthe masses of the people obtained as the result of the Reformation inEngland. [14]

[Illustration: FIG. 97. A CHAINED BIBLE(Redrawn from an old print showing a chained Bible in a church in York, England)]

SUPPRESSION OF THE MONASTERIES AND THE FOUNDING OF GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. Between 1536 and 1539 the most striking result of the Reformation inEngland took place, --the dissolution of the monasteries. Their doubtfulreputation enabled Henry and Parliament to confiscate their property, and"the dead hand of monasticism was removed from a third of the lands ofEngland. " There were precedents for this in pre-Reformation times, thechurch authorities themselves having converted several monasticfoundations into grammar schools. At one blow Parliament now suppressedthe monasteries of all England, some eight thousand monks and nuns weredriven out, many of the monasteries, nunneries, and abbey churches weredestroyed, and the monastic lands were forfeited to the Crown. It was aruthless proceeding, though in the long course of history beneficial tothe nation. Much of the land was given to influential followers of theking in return for their support, and a large part of the proceeds fromsales was spent on coast defenses and a navy, though more than wasformerly thought to be the case was used in refounding grammar schools. Anumber of the monasteries were converted into collegiate churches, withschools attached. Some of the alms-houses and hospitals confiscated at thesame time were similarly used, and the cathedral churches in nine Englishcities were taken from the monks (R. 171), who had driven out the regularclergy during the tenth to the twelfth centuries, and were refounded ascathedral church schools. The cathedral church school at Canterbury, whichHenry refounded in 1541 as a humanistic grammar school, with a song schoolattached, and for the government of which he made detailed provisions (R. 172), is typical of a school which had fallen into bad repute (R. 171), and was later refounded as a result of the confiscation of the monasticproperty. The College of Christ Church at Oxford, and Trinity College atCambridge, were also richly endowed from the monastic proceeds. 

In 1546 another Act of Parliament vested the title of all chantryfoundations, some two hundred in number, in the Crown that they might be"altered, changed, and amended to convert them to good and godly uses asin the erecting of grammar schools, " but so pressing became the royal needfor money that, after their sale, the intended endowments were never made. As the song schools had been established originally to train a few boys"to help a priest sing mass, " and as the service was now to be read ratherthan sung, the need for choristers largely disappeared. Being regarded asnurseries of superstition, they were abandoned without regret. 

[Illustration: PLATE 7. THE FREE SCHOOL AT HARROWOne of the "Great Public" Grammar Schools of England. Founded in 1571, inthe reign of Elizabeth; building finished in 1593. The names of famous"old boys" are seen lettered on the wall at the back. Pupils are seenseated in "forms, " reciting to the masters. (From a picture published byAckermann, in his illustrated _History of the Colleges of Winchester, Eton, Westminster_, etc. London, 1816. )]

RESULT OF THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. The result of the change inreligious allegiance in England was a material decrease in the number ofplaces offering grammar-school advantages, though with a materialimprovement in the quality of the instruction provided, and a consequentdecrease in the number of boys given free education in the refoundedgrammar schools. As for elementary education, the abolition of the song, chantry, and hospital schools took away most of the elementary schoolswhich had once existed. The clerk of the parish usually replaced them byteaching a certain number of boys "to read English intelligently insteadof Latin unintelligently, " many new parish elementary schools werecreated, especially during the reign of Elizabeth, and in time the dameschool, the charity school, the writing school, and apprenticeshiptraining arose (chapter XVIII) and became regular English institutions. These types of schooling constituted almost all the elementary-schooladvantages provided in England until well into the eighteenth century. 

The post-Reformation educational energy of England was given to thefounding of grammar schools, and during the century and a half before theoutbreak of the struggle with James II (1688) to put an end in England forall time to the late-mediaeval theory of the divine right of kings, atotal of 558 grammar schools were founded or refounded. [15]

The grammar schools thus founded were, one and all, grammar schools of thereformed humanistic type. What was to be taught in them was seldommentioned in the foundation articles, as it was assumed that every oneknew what a grammar school was, so well by this time had the humanistictype become established. They were one and all modeled after theinstruction first provided in Saint Paul's School (p. 275) in London, andsuch modifications as had been sanctioned with time, and this continued tobe the type of English secondary school instruction until well into thenineteenth century. 

THE DOMINATING RELIGIOUS PURPOSE. The religious conflicts following thereformation movement everywhere intensified religious prejudices andstimulated religious bigotry. This was soon reflected in the schools ofall lands. In England, after the restoration under Catholic Mary (1553-58)and the final reëstablishment of the English Church under Elizabeth(1558), all school instruction became narrowly religious and EnglishProtestant in type. By the middle of the seventeenth century the grammarschools had become nurseries of the faith, as well as very formal anddisciplinary in character. In England, perhaps more than in any otherProtestant country, Christianity came to be identified with a strictconformity to the teachings and practices of the Established Church, andto teach that particular faith became one of the particular missions ofall types of schools. Bishops were instructed to hunt out schoolmasterswho were unsound in the faith (R. 164 a), and teachers were deprived oftheir positions for nonconformity (R. 164 b). More effectively to handlethe problem a series of laws were enacted, the result of which was toinstitute such an inquisitorial policy that the position of schoolmasterbecame almost intolerable. In 1580 a law (R. 165) imposed a fine of £10 onany one employing a schoolmaster of unsound faith, with disability andimprisonment for the schoolmaster so offending; in 1603 another lawrequired a license from the bishop on the part of all schoolmasters as acondition precedent to teaching; in 1662 the obnoxious Act of Uniformity(R. 166) required every schoolmaster in any type of school, and allprivate tutors, to subscribe to a declaration that they would conform tothe liturgy of the Church, as established by law, with fine andimprisonment for breaking the law; in 1665 the so-called "Five-Mile Act"forbade Dissenters to teach in any school, under penalty of a fine of £40;and in that same year bishops were instructed to see that

 the said schoolmasters, ushers, schoolmistresses, and instructors, or teachers of youth, publicly or privately, do themselves frequent the public prayers of the Church, and cause their scholars to do the same; and whether they appear well affected to the Government of his Majesty, and the doctrine and discipline of the Church of England. 

This attitude also extended upward to the universities as well, wherenonconformists were prohibited by law (1558) from receiving degrees, acondition not remedied until 1871 (R. 305). The great purpose ofinstruction came to be to support the authority and the rule of theEstablished Church, and the almost complete purpose of elementaryinstruction came to be to train pupils to read the Catechism, the PrayerBook, and the Bible. This intense religious attitude in England wasreflected in early colonial America, as we shall see in a followingchapter. 

THE POOR-LAW LEGISLATION, AND ITS EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE. After thethirteenth century, due in part to the rise of the wool industry inFlanders, England began to change from a farming to a sheep-raisingcountry. Accompanying this decline in the importance of farming there hadbeen a slow but gradual growth of trade and manufacturing in the cities, and to the cities the surplus of rural peasantry began to drift. The costof living also increased rapidly after the fifteenth century. As a resultthere was a marked shifting of occupations, much unemployment, and aconstantly increasing number of persons in need of poor-relief. In thetime of Elizabeth (1558-1603) it has been estimated that one half thepopulation of England did not have an income sufficient for sustenance, and great numbers of children were running about without proper food orcare, and growing up in idleness and vice. 

The situation, which had been growing worse for two centuries, culminatedat the time of the Reformation when the religious houses, which hadpreviously provided alms, were confiscated as a result of the reformationactivities. The groundwork of the old system of religious charity was thusswept away, and the relation which had for so long existed between prayerand penance and almsgiving and charity was altered. The nation was thusforced to deal with the problem of poor-relief, and with the care of thechildren of the poor. In the place of the old system the people wereforced, by circumstances, to develop a new conception of the State as acommunity of peoples bound together by community interest, good feeling, charity, and service. 

As this new conception dawned on the English people, a series of laws wereenacted which attempted to provide for the situation which had beencreated. These were progressive in character, and ranged over much of thesixteenth century. First the poor were restricted from begging, outside ofcertain specified limits. Next church collections and parish support forthe poor were ordered (1553), and the people were to be urged to give. Then workhouses for the poor and their children, and materials with whichto work, were ordered provided, and those persons of means who would notgive freely were to be cited before the bishop first (R. 173), and thejustices later, and if necessary forcibly assessed (1563). The next stepwas to permit the local authorities to raise needed funds by strictlylocal taxation (1572). In 1601 the last step was taken, when thecompulsory taxation of all persons of property was ordered to provide thenecessary poor-relief, and the excessive burdens of one parish were to beshared by neighboring parishes. Thus, after a long period of slowlyevolving legislation (R. 173), the English Poor-Law of 1601 (R. 174)finally gave expression to the following principles:

 1. The compulsory care of the poor, as an obligation of the State. 

 2. The compulsory apprenticeship of the children of the poor, male and female, to learn a useful trade. 

 3. The obligation of the master to train his apprentices in a trade. 

 4. The obligation of the overseers of the poor to supply, where necessary, the opportunity and the materials for such training of the children of the poor. 

 5. The compulsory taxation of all persons of property to provide the necessary funds for such a purpose, and without reference to any benefits derived from the taxation. 

 6. The excessive burdens of any one parish to be pooled throughout the hundred or county. 

In this compulsory apprenticeship of the children of the poor, with theobligation imposed that such children must be trained in a trade and inproper living, with general taxation of those of property to provideworkhouses and materials for such a purpose, we have the germ, amongEnglish-speaking peoples, of the idea of the general taxation of allpersons by the State to provide schools for the children of the State. Theapprenticing of the children of the poor to labor and the requirement thatthey be taught the elements of religion soon became a fixed Englishpractice (R. 217), and in the seventeenth century this idea was carried tothe American colonies and firmly established there. It was on thefoundations of the English Poor-Law of 1601, above stated, that the firstMassachusetts law relating to the schooling of all children (1642) wasframed (R. 190), but with the significant Calvinistic addition that:

 7. "In euery towne ye chosen men" shall see that parents and masters not only train their children in learning and labor, but also "to read & understand the principles of religion & the capitall lawes of this country, " with power to impose fines on such as refuse to render accounts concerning their children. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Why is progress that is substantial nearly always a product of slowrather than rapid evolution?

2. Show why the evolution of many Protestant sects was a naturalconsequence of the position assumed by Luther. What is the ultimateoutcome of the process?

3. Why was it not important that more than a few be educated under theolder theory of salvation?

4. Show how modern democratic government was a natural consequence of theProtestant position. 

5. Why was universal education involved as a later but ultimateconsequence of the position taken by the Protestants?

6. Explain why the local Church authorities, before 1520, tried so hard toprevent the establishment of vernacular schools. 

7. Explain why the religious discussions of the Reformation should have sostrongly stimulated a desire to read. 

8. Explain the fixing in character of the German, French, and Englishlanguages by a single book. What had fixed the Italian?

9. Was Luther probably right when he wrote, in 1524, that the schools"were deteriorating throughout Germany"? Why?

10. Give reasons why Luther's appeals for schools were not more fruitful. 

11. What was the significance of the position of Luther for the futureeducation of girls?

12. Was Luther's idea that a clergyman should have had some experience asa teacher a good one, or not? Why?

13. How do you explain Luther's ideas as to coupling up elementary andtrade education in his primary schools?

14. Point out the similarity of Luther's scheme for a school system withthe German school system as finally evolved (Figure 96). 

15. Show how Melanchthon's Saxony Plan differed from Luther's ideas. Forthe times was it a more practical plan? Why?

16. Explain why the Lutheran idea of personal responsibility for salvationmade so little headway in England, and show that the natural educationalconsequences of this resulted. 

17. Show what different conditions were likely to follow, in latercenturies, from the different stands taken as to the relation of the Stateand Church to education by the German people by the middle of thesixteenth century, and by the English at the time of Elizabeth. 

18. Compare the origin of the vernacular elementary-school teacher inGermany and England. 

19. Leach estimates that, in 1546, there were approximately three hundredgrammar schools in England for a total population of approximately two andone half millions. About what opportunities for grammar-school educationdid this afford?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections arereproduced:

 154. Rashdall: Diffusion of Education in Mediaeval Times. 155. Times: The Vernacular Style of the Translation of the Bible. 156. Luther: To the Mayors and Magistrates of Germany. 157. Luther: Dignity and Importance of the Teacher's Work. 158. Luther: On the Duty of Compelling School Attendance. 159. Hamburg: An Example of a Lutheran _Kirchenordnung_. 160. Brieg: An Example of a Lutheran _Schuleordnung_. 161. Melanchthon: The Saxony School Plan. 162. Raumer: The School System Established in Würtemberg. 163. Duke Ernest: The _Schulemethodus_ for Gotha. 164. Strype: The Supervision of a Teacher's Acts and Religious Beliefs in England. (a) Letter of Queen's Council on. (b) Dismissal of a Teacher for non-conformity. 165. Elizabeth: Penalties on Non-conforming Schoolmasters. 166. Statutes: English Act of Uniformity of 1662. 167. Carlisle: Oath of a Grammar School Master. 168. Strype: An English Elementary-School Teacher's License. 169. Cowper: Grammar School Statutes regarding Prayers. 170. Green: Effect of the Translation of the Bible into English. 171. Old MS. : Ignorance of the Monks at Canterbury and Messenden. 172. Parker: Refounding of the Cathedral School at Canterbury. 173. Nicholls: Origin of the English Poor-Law of 1601. 174. Statutes: The English Poor Law of 1601. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. From the selection from Rashdall (154), what do you infer as to theeffect of the Reformation on the schools? What kind of schools doesRashdall describe as existing?

2. Contrast the vernacular style of the Bible (155) with the Ciceronian. 

3. Characterize the three extracts (156-58) from Luther. 

4. How advanced was the ground taken by Luther (158)? Would we accept thelogic of his argument to-day?

5. Just what do the Hamburg (159) and Brieg (160) _Ordnungen_ indicate?

6. Compare Melanchthon's Saxony Plan (161) with Sturm's (137) and theFrench Collège de Guyenne (136), and grade the three in order ofimportance. 

7. Show the close similarity of the Würtemberg plan of 1559-65 (162) and amodern German state school system. 

8. How advanced for the time was the work of Duke Ernest of Gotha (163)?

9. What kind of a school attitude is indicated by the close supervision ofEnglish teachers, as described in 164 and 165?

10. What would be the natural effect on the teaching occupation of suchlegislation as the Act of Uniformity (166)?

11. Compare the form of license of an elementary teacher (168) with amodern form. What have we added and omitted?

12. What do the statutes regarding prayers (169) indicate as to the natureof the grammar schools of the time?

13. Characterize the educational importance of the translations of theBible into the native tongues (170). 

14. What are the marked features of the refounding act (172) forCanterbury cathedral school? What improvements are indicated?

15. State the steps in the development (173) of the English Poor-Law of1601, just what the law provided for (174), and just what elementsnecessary to the creation of a state school system were incorporated intoit. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_ Barnard, Henry. _German Teachers and Educators_. Francke, Kuno. _Social Forces in German Literature_. * Good, Harry E. "The Position of Luther upon Education, " in _School and Society_, vol. 6, pp. 511-18 (Nov. 3, 1917). * Montmorency, J. E. G. De. _State Intervention in English Education_. * Montmorency, J. E. G. De. _The Progress of Education in England_. Painter, F. V. N. _Luther on Education_. Paulsen, Fr. _German Education_. Richard, J. W. _Philipp Melanchthon, the Protestant Preceptor of Germany_. Woodward, W. H. _Education during the Renaissance_. 

CHAPTER XIV

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS

II. AMONG CALVINISTS AND CATHOLICS

3. _Educational work of the Calvinisms_

THE ORGANIZING WORK OF CALVIN. From the point of view of Americaneducational history the most important developments in connection with theReformation were those arising from Calvinism. While the Calvinistic faithwas rather grim and forbidding, viewed from the modern standpoint, theCalvinists everywhere had a program for political, economic, and socialprogress which has left a deep impress on the history of mankind. Thisprogram demanded the education of all, and in the countries whereCalvinism became dominant the leaders included general education in theirscheme of religious, political, and social reform. [1] In the governmentalprogram which Calvin drew up (1537) for the religious republic at Geneva(p. 298), he held that learning was "a public necessity to secure goodpolitical administration, sustain the Church unharmed, and maintainhumanity among men. "

In his plan for the schools of Geneva, published in 1538, he outlined asystem of elementary education in the vernacular for all, which involvedinstruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, religion, careful grammaticaldrill, and training for civil as well as for ecclesiastical leadership. Inhis plan of 1541 he upholds the principle, as had Luther, that "theliberal arts and good training are aids to a full knowledge of the Word. "This involved the organization of secondary schools, or _colleges_ as hecalled them, following the French nomenclature, to prepare leaders for theministry and the civil government through "instruction in the languagesand humane science. " In the colleges (secondary schools) which heorganized at Geneva and in neighboring places to give such training, andwhich became models of their kind which were widely copied, the usualhumanistic curriculum was combined with intensive religious instruction. These colleges became famous as institutions from which learned men cameforth. The course of study in the seven classes of one of the Genevacolleges, which has been preserved for us, reveals the nature of theinstruction (R. 175). The lowest class began with the letters, reading wastaught from a French-Latin Catechism, and the usual Latin authors wereread. Greek was begun in the fourth class, and, in addition to the usualGreek authors, the New Testament was read in Greek. In the higher classes, as was common also in German _gymnasia_, logic and rhetoric were taught toprepare pupils to analyze, argue, and defend the faith. Elocution was alsogiven much importance in the upper classes as preparation for theministry, two original orations being required each month. Psalms weresung, prayers offered, sermons preached and questioned on, and the Biblecarefully studied. The men who went forth from the colleges of Geneva toteach and to preach the Calvinistic gospel were numbered by the hundreds. [2]

Calvin's great educational work at Geneva has been well summarized by arecent writer, [3] as follows:

 The strenuous moral training of the Genevese was an essential part of Calvin's work as an educator. All were trained to respect and obey laws, based upon Scripture, but enacted and enforced by representatives of the people, and without respect of persons. How fully the training of children, not merely in sound learning and doctrine, but also in manners, "good morals, " and common sense was carried out is pictured in the delightful human _Colloquies_ of Calvin's old teacher, Corderius (once a teacher at the College of Guyenne, p. 269), whom he twice established at Geneva.... 

 Calvin's memorials to the Genevan magistrates, his drafts for civil law and municipal administration, his correspondence with reformers and statesmen, his epoch-making defense of interest taking, his growing tendency toward civil, religious, and economic liberty, his development of primary and university education, his intimate knowledge of the dialect and ways of thought of the common people of Geneva, and his broad understanding of European princes, diplomats, and politics mark him out as a great political, economic, and educational as well as a religious reformer, a constructive social genius capable of reorganizing and moulding the whole life of a people. 

The world owes much to the constructive, statesman-like genius of Calvinand those who followed him, and we in America probably most of all. Genevabecame a refuge for the persecuted Protestants from other lands, andthrough such influences the ideas of Calvin spread to the Huguenots inFrance, the Walloons of the Dutch and Belgian Netherlands, the Germans inthe Palatinate, the Presbyterians of Scotland, the Puritans in England, and later to the American colonies. 

[Illustration: FIG. 98. A FRENCH SCHOOL OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY(From an old woodcut by Abraham Bosse, 1611-78)]

CALVINISM IN THE OTHER LANDS. The great educational work done by theCalvinists in France, in the face of heavy persecution, deserves to beranked with that of the Lutherans in Germany in its importance. Had theCalvinists had the same opportunity for free development the Lutheranshad, and especially their state support, there can be little doubt thattheir work would have greatly exceeded the Lutherans in importance andinfluence on the future history of mankind. Beginning with one church in1538, they had 2150 churches by 1561, when the severe persecutions andreligious wars began. 

True to the Calvinistic teaching of putting principles into practice, theyorganized an extensive system of schools, extending from elementaryeducation for all, through secondary schools or colleges, up to eightHuguenot universities. As a people they were thrifty and capable of makinggreat sacrifices to carry out their educational ideals. The education theyprovided was not only religious but civil; not only intellectual butmoral, social, and economic. Education was for all, rich and poor alike. Their synods made liberal appropriations for the universities, whilemunicipalities provided for colleges and elementary education. Theyemphasized, in the lower schools, the study of the vernacular andarithmetic, and in the colleges Greek and the New Testament. The long listof famous teachers found in their universities reveals the character oftheir instruction. Foster has well summarized the distinguishingcharacteristics of Huguenot education in France, before they were drivenfrom the land, as follows: [4]

 The significant characteristics of Huguenot education were: an emphasis on the education of the laity; training for "the republic" and "society" as well as for the Church; insistence upon virtue as well as knowledge; the wide-spread demand for education, and a view of it as essential to liberty of conscience; a comprehensive working system of elementary, collegiate, and university training for all, poor as well as rich; an astonishing familiarity with Scripture, even among the lowest classes; utilization of representative church organization for founding, supporting, and unifying education; readiness to sacrifice for education, a spirit of carrying a thing through at any cost; business-like supervision of money, and systematic supervision of both professors and students; a notable emphasis on vernacular, arithmetic, Greek, use of full texts, and libraries; and finally a progressive spirit of inquiry and investigation. 

In the Palatinate (see map, Figure 88) some progress in founding churchesand schools was made, especially about Strassburg, and the universities ofHeidelberg and Marburg became the centers of Huguenot teaching. In theDutch Netherlands, and in that part of the Belgian Netherlands inhabitedby the Walloons, Calvinist ideas as to education dominated. Theuniversities of Leyden (f. 1575), Groningen (f. 1614), Amsterdam (f. 1630), and Utrecht (f. 1636) were Calvinistic, and closely in touch withthe Calvinists and Huguenots of German lands and France. Popular educationwas looked after among these people as it was in Calvinistic France andGeneva. The Church Synod of The Hague (1586) ordered the establishment ofschools in the cities, and in 1618 the Great Synod held at Dort (R. 176)ordered that:

Schools in which the young shall be properly instructed in piety andfundamentals of Christian doctrine shall be instituted not only in cities, but also in towns and country places where heretofore none have existed. The Christian magistracy shall be requested that honorable stipends beprovided for teachers, and that well-qualified persons may be employed andenabled to devote themselves to that function; and especially that thechildren of the poor may be gratuitously instructed by them and not beexcluded from the benefits of schools. 

[Illustration: FIG. 99. A DUTCH VILLAGE SCHOOL(After a painting by Adrian Ostade, dated 1662, now in the Louvre, atParis)]

Further provisions were made as to the certificating of schoolmasters, andthe pastors were made superintendents of the schools, to visit, examine, encourage, advise, and report (R. 176). Provision for the free educationof the poor became common, and elementary education was made accessible toall. The careful provision for education made by the province of Utrecht(1590, 1612) (R. 178) was typical of Dutch activity. The province ofDrenthe ordered (1630) a school tax paid for all children over seven, whether attending school or not. The province of Overyssel levied (1666) aschool tax for all children from eight to twelve years of age. Theprovince of Groningen constituted the pastors the attendance officers tosee that the children got to school. Amsterdam and many other Dutch citiesdemanded an examination of all teachers before being licensed to teach. Bythe middle of the seventeenth century a good system of schools seems tohave been provided generally [5] by the Dutch and the Belgian Walloons (R. 178). That the teaching of religion was the main function of the Dutchelementary schools, as of all other vernacular schools of the time, isseen from the official lists of the textbooks used (R. 178). 

John Knox, the leader of the Scottish Reformation (1560), who had spentsome time at Geneva and who was deeply impressed by the Calvinisticreligious-state found there, introduced the Calvinistic religious andeducational ideas into Scotland. His _Book of Discipline for the ScottishChurch_ (1560), framed closely on the Genevan model, contained a chapterdevoted to education in which he proposed:

 That everie severall churche have a school-maister appointed, such a one as is able at least to teach Grammar and the Latin tung, yf the Town be of any reputation. Yf it be upaland ... Then must either the Reider or the Minister take cayre over the children ... To instruct them in their first rudementie and especially in the catechisme. 

[Illustration: FIG. 100. JOHN KNOX (1505?-72)]

The educational plan proposed by Knox would have called for a largeexpenditure of money, and this the thrifty Scotch were not ready for. Knoxand his followers then proposed to endow the new schools from the oldchurch and monastic foundations, but the Scottish nobles hoped to share inthese, as had the English nobility under Henry VIII, and Knox's plan wasnot approved. This delayed the establishment of a real national system ofeducation for Scotland until the nineteenth century. The new Church, however, took over the superintendence of education in Scotland, and whenparish schools were finally established by decree of the Privy Council, in1616, and by the legislation of 1633 and 1646 (R. 179), the Church wasgiven an important share in their organization and management. Theseschools, while not always sufficient in number to meet the educationalneeds, were well taught, and have deeply influenced the nationalcharacter. 

4. _The Counter-Reformation of the Catholics_

THE JESUIT ORDER. The Protestant Revolt made but little headway in Italy, Spain, Portugal, much of France, or southern Belgium (see map, p. 296). Italy was scarcely disturbed at all, while in France, where of all thesecountries the reform ideas had made greatest progress, nine tenths of thepeople remained loyal to Rome. In a general way it may be stated thatthose parts of western Europe which had once formed an integral part ofthe old Roman Empire remained loyal to the Roman Church, while those whichhad been the homes of the Germanic tribes revolted. Now it naturallyhappened that the countries which remained loyal to the old Churchexperienced none of the feelings of the necessity for education as a meansto personal salvation which the Lutherans and Calvinists felt. There, too, the church system of education which had developed during the long MiddleAges remained undisturbed and largely unchanged. The Church as aninstitution, though, learned from the Protestants the value of educationas a means to larger ends, and soon set about using it. [6]

After the Church Council of Trent (1545-63), where definite church reformmeasures were carried through (p. 303), the Catholics inaugurated what hassince been called a counter-reformation, in an effort to hold lands whichwere still loyal and to win back lands which had been lost. Besidesreforming the practices and outward lives of the churchmen, and reformingsome church practices and methods, the Church inaugurated a campaign ofeducational propaganda. In this last the chief reliance was upon a new anda very useful organization officially known as the "Society of Jesus, " butmore commonly called the "Jesuit Order. " This had been founded, in 1534, by a Spanish knight, pilgrim, man of large ideas, and scholar by the nameof Ignatius Loyola, and had been sanctioned as an Order of the Church byPope Paul III, in 1540. It was organized along strictly military lines, all members being responsible to its General, and he in turn alone to thePope. The quiet life of the cloister was abandoned for a life of openwarfare under a military discipline. The Jesuit was to live in the world, and all peculiarities of dress or rule which might prove an obstacle toworldly success were suppressed. The purposes of the Order were to combatheresy, to advance the interests of the Church, and to strengthen theauthority of the Papacy. Its motto was _Omnia ad Majorem Dei Gloriam_(that is, All for the greater glory of God), and the means to be employedby it to accomplish these ends were the pulpit, the confessional, themission, and the school. Of these the school was given the place of firstimportance. Realizing clearly that the real cause of the Reformation hadbeen the ignorance, neglect, and vicious lives of so many monks andpriests and the extortion and neglect practiced by the Church, and thatthe chief difficulty was in the higher places of authority, it became theprime principle of the Order to live upright and industrious livesthemselves, and to try to reach and train those likely to be the futureleaders in Church and State. With the education of the masses of thepeople the Order was not concerned. [7] Our interest lies only with theeducational work of this Order, a work in which it was remarkablysuccessful and through which it exercised a very large influence. 

[Illustration: FIG. 101. IGNATIUS DE LOYOLA (1491-1556)]

GREAT SUCCESS OF THE ORDER. The service of the Order to the Church incombating Protestant heresies was very marked. Beginning in a small way, the Order, by 1600, had established two hundred colleges (Latin secondaryschools), universities, and training seminaries; by 1640, 372; by 1706(150 years after the death of its founder), 769; and by 1756, 728. In1773, when the Order was for a time abolished, [8] after it had beendriven out of a number of European countries because of the unscrupulousmethods it adopted and the continual application of its doctrine that theend justifies the means, the Order had 22, 589 members, about half of whomwere teachers. Its colleges (secondary schools) and universities were mostnumerous and its work most energetically carried on in northern France, Belgium, Holland, the German States, Austria, Poland, and Hungary. Herewas the great battle line, and here the Jesuits deeply entrenchedthemselves. In these portions of Europe alone there were, in 1750, 217colleges, 55 seminaries, 24 houses for novitiates, and 160 missions. InFrance alone there were 92 colleges. They did much, single-handed, to rollback the tide of Protestantism which had advanced over half of westernEurope, and to hold other countries true to the ancient faith. 

The colleges were usually large and well-supported institutions, withdormitories, classrooms, dining-halls; and play-grounds. The usual numberof scholars in each was about 300, though some had an attendance of 600 to800, and a few as high as 2000. At their period of maximum influence thecolleges and universities of the Order probably enrolled a total of200, 000 students. Their graduates were prominent in every scholarly andgovernmental activity of the time. As far as possible the pupils were aselected class to whom the Order offered free instruction. The children ofthe nobility and gentry, and the brightest and most promising youths ofthe different lands were drawn into their schools. The children of manyProtestants, also, were attracted by the high quality of the instructionoffered. There they were given the best secondary-school education of thetime, and received, at an impressionable age, the peculiar Jesuit stamp. [9] Bacon gave his opinion as to the success of their instruction in thefollowing sentence: "As for the pedagogical part, the shortest rule wouldbe, Consult the schools of the Jesuits; for nothing better has been put inpractice. " (_De Augmentis_, VI, 4. ) [10]

SUCCESS OF THE JESUIT SCHOOLS. Displaying a genius for organization worthyof Rome, Loyola and his followers absorbed the best educational ideas ofthe time as to school organization and management and curriculum, andincorporated these into their educational plan. Too practical to make manychanges, but with a keen eye for what was best, they accepted the best andused it much as others had worked it out. From the municipal college ofGuyenne, the colleges of Calvin, and Sturm's organization at Strassburg, they adopted the plan of class organization, with a teacher for eachclass. From the Calvinists they obtained the idea of the carefulsupervision of instruction, which was worked out in the Prefect of Studiesfor their colleges. In their course of study they incorporated theCiceronian ideal of the humanistic learning, and as careful religiousinstruction as was provided by any of the reformers. From the Italiancourt schools they took the idea of physical training. The method ofinstruction and classroom management which they worked out was detailed, practical, and for their purposes excellent. The reasons for theireducational work gave them a clearly defined aim and purpose. The militarybrotherhood type of organization, the lifetime of celibate service, andthe opportunity to sort the carefully selected members according to theirability for service in the different lines of the Order gave them thebest-selected teaching force in Europe, and these men they trained for theteaching service with a thoroughness unknown before and seldom equaledsince. Knowing why they were at work and what ends they should achieve, intolerant of opposition, intensely practical in all their work, andpossessed of an indefatigable zeal in the accomplishment of their purpose, they gave Europe in general and northern continental Europe in particulara system of secondary schools and universities possessed of a high degreeof effectiveness, which, combined with religious warfare and persecution, in time drove out or dwarfed all competing institutions in the countriesthey were able to control. 

That their educational system, viewed from a modern liberal-educationstandpoint, equaled in effectiveness for liberal-education ends suchinstitutions as the court schools of Vittorino da Feltre, Battista daGuarino, or other Italian humanistic educators of the Renaissance (p. 267); the French and Swiss colleges of Calvin (p. 331); Colet's school atSaint Paul's (p. 275), and the better English grammar schools; or theschools of the Brethren of the Common Life in the Netherlands (p. 271);would hardly be contended for to-day. Such, though, was not their purpose. To proselyte for the Church rather than to liberalize--from their point ofview there had been too much liberalizing already--was their ultimate aim, and their educational work was organized to suppress rather than to awakenmore Protestant heresy. The work of this Order was so successful, and fortwo centuries so dominated secondary and higher education in Europe, thatit will pay us to examine a little more closely their educationalorganization to see more fully the reasons for their large success. In sodoing we will examine three points--their school organization, theirmethods of instruction, and the training of their teachers. 

JESUIT SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. Each college was presided over by a _Rector_, who was in effect the president of the institution, and a _Prefect ofStudies_, who was the superintendent of instruction. Below these were the_Professors_ or teachers, the _House Prefect_, the official disciplinarianof the institution, known as the _Corrector_, the monitors, and thestudents. There were two classes of students, interns and externs. Theirschools were divided into two courses. The _studia inferiora_, or lowerschool, which covered the six years from ten to twelve years of age up tosixteen to eighteen; and the _studia superiora_, which followed, andincluded the higher college and university courses, with philosophy andtheology as the important subjects. For the whole, there was a verycarefully worked-out manual of instruction (R. 180) known as the _RatioStudiorum_. [11]

The boy entering a Jesuit college was supposed to have previously learnedhow to read Latin. The first three years were given to learning Latingrammar and a little Greek. In the fourth year Latin and Greek authorswere begun, and in the fifth and sixth years a rhetorical study of theLatin authors was made. Latin was the language of the classroom and theplayground as well, the mother tongue being used only by permission. Greekwas studied through the medium of the Latin. The retention of Latin as thelanguage of all scholarly and political intercourse, and the cultivationof the style and speech of Cicero as the standard of purity and elegance, were the ends aimed at. Careful attention was given to the health andsports of the pupils, and special regard was paid to moral and religioustraining. 

Following this lower school of six years came the so-called philosophicalcourse of three years (sometimes two). The study of the Latin classics andrhetoric was continued, and dialectics (logic) and some metaphysics wereadded. The nine years together covered about the same scope as Sturm'sschool (R. 137) at Strassburg (p. 273), but was more formal in characterand partook more of the nature of the later formalized humanistic schools. Slight variations were allowed in places, to meet particular local needs, but this course of study remained practically unchanged until 1832, whensome history, geography, and elementary mathematics and science were addedto the lower schools, and advanced mathematics and science to thephilosophical course. In 1906 each Province of the Order was permitted tochange the _Ratio_ further, if necessary to adjust it better to localneeds. Above the philosophical course a course of four or six years inphilosophy and theology prepared for the higher work of the Order, thefour-year course for preaching and the six-year course for teaching. 

JESUIT SCHOOL METHODS. The characteristic method of the schools was oral, with a consequent closeness of contact of teacher and pupils. Thiscloseness of contact and sympathy was further retained by the systemwhereby all punishment was given by the official Corrector of theinstitution. Their method, like that of the modern German _Volkschule_, was distinctly a teaching and not a questioning method. The teacherplanned and gave the instruction; the pupils received it. In the upperclasses the teacher explained the general meaning of the entire passage;then the construction of each part; then gave the historical, geographical, and archaeological information needed further to explain thepassage; then called attention to the rhetorical and poetical forms andrules; then compared the style with that of other writers; and finallydrew the moral lesson. The memory was drilled; but little training of thejudgment or understanding was given. Thoroughness, memory drills, and thedisciplinary value of studies were foundation stones in the Jesuit'seducational theory. Repetition, they said, was the mother of memory. Eachday the work of the previous day was reviewed, and there were furtherreviews at the end of each week, month, and year. 

To retain the interest of the pupils amid such a load of memorizingvarious school devices were resorted to, chief among which were prizes, ranks, emulations, rivals, and public disputations. The system of rivals, whereby each boy had an opponent constantly after him, as shown in Figure102, was one of the peculiar features of their schools. While the schoolswere said to have been made pleasant and attractive, the idea of theabsolute authority of the Church which they represented pervaded them andrepressed the development of that individuality which the court schools ofthe Italian Renaissance, the schools of the northern humanists, and theCalvinistic colleges had tried particularly to foster. This, however, is acriticism made from a modern point of view. That the school representedwell the spirit of the times is indicated by their marked success asteaching institutions. 

[Illustration: FIG. 102. PLAN OF A JESUIT SCHOOLROOMThe pupils were arranged in equal numbers in opposite rows, known as_decuriae_, and designated by the numbers. Each boy in each row had a"rival" in the similarly numbered opposite row (one pair is designated bydots), who rose whenever he was called on to recite, and who tried tocorrect him in some error. A monitor for each group sat at _C_, and theregular teacher at _B. A, D, E, i, o_, and _x_ represent various studentofficials. ]

TRAINING OF THE JESUIT TEACHER. The newest and the most distinguishingfeature of the Jesuit educational scheme, as well as the most important, was the care with which they selected and the thoroughness with which theytrained their teachers. To begin with, every Jesuit was a picked man, andof those who entered the Order only the best were selected for teaching. Each entered the Order for life, was vowed to celibacy, poverty, chastity, uprightness of life, and absolute obedience to the commands of the Order. The six-year inferior course had to be completed, which required that theboy be sixteen to eighteen years of age before he could take thepreliminary steps toward joining the Order. Then a two-year novitiate, away from the world, followed. This was a trial of his real character, hisweak points were noted, and his will and determination tested. Many weredismissed before the end of the novitiate. If retained and accepted, hetook the preliminary vows and entered the philosophical course of study. On completing this he was from twenty-one to twenty-three years of age. Hewas now assigned to teach boys in the inferior classes of some college, and might remain there. If destined for higher work he taught in theinferior classes for two or three years, and then entered the theologicalcourse at some Jesuit university. This required four years for thoseheaded for the ministry, and six for those who were being trained forprofessorships in the colleges. On completing this course the final vowswere taken, at an age of from twenty-nine to thirty-two. The training to-day is still longer. To become a teacher in the inferior classes requiredtraining until twenty-one at least, and for college (secondary) classestraining until at least twenty-nine. The training was in scholarship, religion, theology, and an apprenticeship in teaching, and was superior tothat required for a teaching license in any Protestant country of Europe, or in the Catholic Church itself outside of the Jesuit Order. 

With such carefully selected and well-educated teachers, themselves modelsof upright life in an age when priests and monks had been careless, it isnot surprising that they wielded an influence wholly out of proportion totheir numbers, and supplied Europe with its best secondary schools duringthe seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. In the loyal Catholiccountries they were virtually the first secondary schools outside of themonasteries and churches, and the real introduction of humanism intoSpain, Portugal, and parts of France came with the establishment of theJesuit humanistic colleges. For their schools they wrote new school books--the Protestant books, the most celebrated of which were those ofErasmus, Melanchthon, Sturm, and Lily, were not possible of use--and fora time they put new life into the humanistic type of education. Before theeighteenth century, however, their secondary schools had become as formalas had those in Protestant lands (R. 146), and their universities far morenarrow and intolerant. 

The elements of strength and weakness in the Jesuit system of educationhas been well summarized by Dabney, [12] in the following words:

 The order of the Jesuits was anti-democratic, and was founded to uphold authority, and to antagonize the right of private judgment. With masterly skill they ruled the Catholic world for about two centuries; and, in the beginning of their activity, performed services of great value to mankind. For, although they aimed, in their system of education, to fit pupils merely for so-called practical avocations, and to avoid all subjects likely to stimulate them to independent thought, it was nevertheless the best system which had then appeared. In dropping the old scholastic methods, and teaching new and fresher subjects, although with the intention of perverting them to their own ends, they sowed, in fact, the germs of their own decay. In spite of their wonderful organization, and their indefatigable industry as courtiers in royal palaces, as professors in the universities, as teachers in the schools, as preachers, as confessors, and as missionaries, they were utterly unable to crush the spirit of doubt and inquiry. During the first half century of their existence they were intellectually in advance of their age; but after that they gradually dropped behind it, and, instead of diffusing knowledge, saw that the only hope of retaining their dominion was to oppose it with all their might. 

THE CHURCH AND ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. As was stated on a preceding page, the countries which remained loyal to the Church experienced none of theProtestant feeling as to the necessity for universal education forindividual salvation. In such lands the church system of education whichhad grown up during the Middle Ages remained undisturbed, and was expandedbut slowly with the passage of time. The Church, never having made generalprovision for education, was not prepared for such work. Teachers werescarce, there was no theory of education except the religious theory, andfew knew what to do or how to do it. Many churchmen, too, did not see theneed for doing anything. Nevertheless the Church, spurred on by the newdemands of a world fast becoming modern, and by the exhortations of theofficial representatives of the people, [13] now began to make extraefforts, in the large cathedral cities, to remedy the deficiency of morethan a thousand years. In Paris, for example, which was typical of otherFrench cities, the Church organized a regular system of elementaryschools, with teachers licensed by the Precentor of the cathedral of NotreDame and nominally under his supervision, in which instruction was offeredto children of the artisan and laboring classes, of both sexes, "inreading, writing, reckoning, the rudiments of Latin Grammar, Catechism, and singing. " By 1675 these "Little Schools" in Paris came to contain"upwards of 5000 pupils, taught by some 330 masters and mistresses. " Allsuch schools, of course, remained under the immediate control of theChurch, and modern state systems of education in the Catholic States arelate nineteenth-century productions. In Spain, Portugal, Poland, and theBalkan States, general state systems of education have not even as yetbeen evolved. 

The general effect of the Reformation, though, was to stimulate the Churchto greater activity in elementary, as well as in secondary and highereducation. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries we find a largenumber of decrees by church councils and exhortations by bishops urgingthe extension of the existing church system of education, so as to supplyat least religious training to all the children of the faithful. As aresult a number of teaching orders were organized, the aim of which was toassist the Church in providing elementary and religious education for thechildren of the laboring and artisan classes in the cities. 

TEACHING ORDERS ESTABLISHED. The teaching orders for elementary education, founded before the eighteenth century, with the dates of their foundation, were:

 * 1535-The Order of Ursulines. (U. S. , 1729. ) 1592--The Congregation of Christian Doctrine. * 1598--The Sisters of Notre Dame. (U. S. , 1847. ) * 1610--The Visitation Nuns. (U. S. , 1799. ) 1621--Patres piarum scholarum (Piarists). First school opened in 1597; authorized by the Pope, 1662. 1627--The Daughters of the Presentation. * 1633--The Sisters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul. (U. S. , 1809. ) 1637--The Port Royalists (Jansenists). (Suppressed in 1661. ) 1643--The Sisters of Providence. * 1650--The Sisters of Saint Joseph. Rule based on Jesuits. (U. S. , 19th C. ) 1652--The Sisters of Mary of Saint Charles Borromeo. 1684--The Sisters of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin. * 1684--The Brothers of the Christian Schools. (U. S. , 1845. )

 * Have communities in the United States, the date being that of the first one established. See _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. V, p. 528. 

All of these, except the Ursulines and the Piarists, were founded inFrance, many of them originating in Paris. The first has long beenprominent in Italy, and is now found in all lands. The second was foundedby Father César de Bus, at Cavaillon, Avignon, in southern France, and itspurpose was to teach the Catechism to the young. The catechetical schoolsof this Order were prominent in southern France up to the time of theFrench Revolution. The third was founded by the Blessed Peter Fourier(1565-1640), in 1598, and played an important part in the education ofgirls in France, particularly in Lorraine, where Calvinism had made muchheadway. This noted Order offered free instruction to tradesmen'sdaughters, not only in religion but in "that which concerns this presentlife and its maintenance" as well. The girls were taught "reading, writing, arithmetic, sewing, and divers manual arts, honorable andpeculiarly suitable for girls" of their station of life. At a time whenhandwork had not been thought of for boys, the beginnings of such workwere here introduced for girls. In 1640 Fourier gave the sisterhood aconstitution and a rule, which were revised and perfected in 1694. In thishe laid down rules for the organization and management of schools, methodsof teaching the different branches, and provided for a rudimentary form ofclass organization. The following extract from the Rule illustrates theapproach to class organization which he devised:

[Illustration: FIG. 103. AN URSULINEOrder founded, 1535]

The inspectress, or mistress of the class, shall endeavor, as far as itpossibly can be carried out, that all the pupils of the same mistress haveeach the same book, in order to learn and read therein the same lesson; sothat, whilst one is reading hers in an audible and intelligible voicebefore the mistress, all the others, following her and following thislesson, in their books at the same time, may learn it sooner, morereadily, and more perfectly. [14] The Piarists were established in Italy, the first school being opened in Rome, in 1597, by a Spanish priest whohad studied at Lerida, Valencia, and Alcalá. Being struck by the lack ofeducational opportunities for the poor, he opened a free school for theirinstruction. By 1606 he had 900 pupils in his schools, and by 1613 he had1200. In 1621 Pope Gregory XV gave his work definite recognition byestablishing it a teaching Order for elementary (reading, writing, counting, religion) education, modeled on that of the Jesuits. The Orderdid some work in Italy and Spain, but its chief services were in borderCatholic lands. In 1631 it began work in Moravia, in 1640 in Bohemia, in1642 in Poland, and after 1648 in Austria and Hungary. The members wore ahabit much like that of the Jesuits, had a scheme of studies similar totheir _Ratio_, and were organized by provinces and were under disciplineas were the members of the older Order. 

The Jansenists, founded by Saint Cyran, at Port Royal, conducted a veryinteresting and progressive educational experiment, and their schools havebecome known to history as the "Little Schools of Port Royal. " Thecongregation was a reaction against the work and methods of the Jesuits. It included both elementary and secondary education, but never extendeditself, and probably never had more than sixty pupils and teachers. Afterseventeen years of work it was suppressed through the opposition of theJesuits, and its members fled to the Netherlands. There they wrote thosebooks which have explained to succeeding generations what they attempted, [15] and which have revealed what a modern type of educational experimentthey conducted. The progressive and modern nature of their teaching, in anage of suspicion and intolerance, condemned them to extinction. Yetdespite the progressive nature of their instruction, the intense religiousatmosphere which they threw about all their work (R. 181) reveals thedominant characteristic of most education for church ends at the time. 

THE BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. The largest and most influential ofthe teaching orders established for elementary education was the"Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, " founded by Father LaSalle at Rouen, in 1684, and sanctioned by the King and Pope in 1724. Asearly as 1679 La Salle had begun a school at Rheims, and in 1684 heorganized his disciples, prescribed a costume to be worn, and outlined thework of the brotherhood (_R. 182_). The object was to provide freeelementary and religious instruction in the vernacular for the children ofthe working classes, and to do for elementary education what the Jesuitshad done for secondary education La Salle's _Conduct of Schools_, firstpublished in 1720, was the _ratio studiorum_ of his order. His work marksthe real beginning of free primary instruction in the vernacular inFrance. In addition to elementary schools, a few of what we should callpart-time continuation schools were organized for children engaged incommerce and industry. Realizing better than the Jesuits the need forwell-trained rather than highly educated teachers for little children, andunable to supply members to meet the outside calls for schools, La Salleorganized at Rheims, in 1685, what was probably the second normal schoolfor training teachers in the world. [16] Another was organized later atParis. In addition to a good education of the type of the time andthorough grounding in religion, the student teachers learned to teach inpractice schools, under the direction of experienced teachers. 

The pupils in La Salle's schools were graded into classes, and the classmethod of instruction was introduced. [17] The curriculum was unusuallyrich for a time when teaching methods and textbooks were but poorlydeveloped, the needs for literary education small, and when children couldnot as yet be spared from work longer than the age of nine or ten. Children learned first to read, write, and spell French, and to do simplecomposition work in the vernacular. Those who mastered this easily weretaught the Latin Psalter in addition. Much prominence was given towriting, the instruction being applied to the writing of bills, notes, receipts, and the like. Much free questioning was allowed in arithmeticand the Catechism, to insure perfect understanding of what was taught. Religious training was made the most prominent feature of the school, aswas natural. A half-hour daily was given to the Catechism, mass was saiddaily, the crucifix was always on the wall, and two or three pupils werealways to be found kneeling, telling their beads. The discipline, incontradistinction to the customary practice of the time, was mild, thoughall punishments were carefully prescribed by rule. [18] The rule ofsilence in the school was rigidly enjoined, all speech was to be in a lowtone of voice, and a code of signals replaced speech for many things. 

[Illustration: FIG. 104. A SCHOOL OF LA SALLE AT PARIS, 1688A visit of James II and the Archbishop of Paris to the School (From a bas-relief on the statue of La Salle, at Rouen)]

Though the Order met with much opposition from both church and civilauthorities, it made slow but steady headway. At the time of the death ofLa Salle, in 1719, thirty-five years after its foundation, the Order hadone general normal school, four normal schools for training teachers, three practice schools, thirty-three primary schools, and one continuationschool. The Order remained largely French, and at the time of itssuppression, in 1792, had schools in 121 communities in France and 6elsewhere, about 1000 brothers, and approximately 30, 000 children in itsschools. This was approximately 1 child in every 175 of school age of thepopulation of France at that time. While relatively small in numbers, their schools represented the best attempt to provide elementary educationin any Catholic country before well into the nineteenth century. Thedistribution of their schools throughout France, by 1792, is shown on themap above. In 1803 the Order was reëstablished, by 1838 it had schools in282 communities, and in 1887, when La Salle was declared a Saint of theChurch, it had 1898 communities on four continents, 109 of which were inthe United States, and was teaching a total of approximately 300, 000primary children. 

[Illustration: FIG. 105. THE BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS BY 1792Map, showing the locations of their communities]

5. _General Results of the Reformation on Education_

DESTRUCTION AND CREATION OF SCHOOLS. Any such general overturning of theestablished institutions and traditions of a thousand years as occurred atthe time of the Protestant Revolts, with the accompanying bitter hatredsand religious strife, could not help but result in extensive destructionof established institutions. Monasteries, churches, and schools alikesuffered, and it required time to replace them. Even though they had beenneglectful of their functions, inadequate in number, and unsuited to theneeds of a world fast becoming modern, they had nevertheless answeredpartially the need of the times. In all the countries where revolts tookplace these institutions suffered more or less, but in England probablymost of all. The old schools which were not destroyed were transformedinto Protestant schools, the grammar schools to train scholars andleaders, and the parish schools into Protestant elementary schools toteach reading and the Catechism, but the number of the latter, in allProtestant lands, was very far short of the number needed to carry out theProtestant religious theory. This, as we have seen, proposed to extend theelements of an education to large and entirely new classes of people whonever before in the history of the world had had such advantages. Out ofthe Protestant religious conception that all should be educated thepopular elementary school of modern times has been evolved. The evolution, though, was slow, and long periods of time have been required for itsaccomplishment. 

In place of the schools destroyed, or the teachers driven out if nodestruction took place, the reformers made an earnest effort to create newschools and supply teachers. This, though, required time, especially asthere was as yet in the world no body of vernacular teachers, noinstitutions in which such could be trained, no theory as to educationexcept the religious, no supply of educated men or women from which todraw, no theory of state support and control, and no source of taxationfrom which to derive a steady flow of funds. Throughout the long MiddleAges the Church had supplied gratuitous or nearly gratuitous instruction. This it could do, to the limited number whom it taught, from the proceedsof its age-old endowments and educational foundations. In the process oftransformation from a Catholic to a Protestant State, and especiallyduring the more than a century of turmoil and religious strife whichfollowed the rupture of the old relations, many of the old endowments werelost or were diverted from their original purposes. As the Protestantreformers were supported generally by the ruling princes, many of thesetried to remedy the deficiency by ordering schools established. The landednobility though, unused to providing education for their villein tenantsand serfs, were averse to supplying the deficiency by any form of generaltaxation. Nor were the rising merchant classes in the cities any moreanxious to pay taxes to provide for artisans and servants what had forages been a gratuity or not furnished at all. 

NO REAL DEMAND OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. The creation of a largely new typeof schools, and in sufficient numbers to meet the needs of large classesof people who before had never shared in the advantages of education, inconsequence proved to be a work of centuries. The century of warfare whichfollowed the reformation movement more or less exhausted all Europe, whilethe Thirty Years' War which formed its culmination left the German States, where the largest early educational progress had been made, a ruin. Inconsequence there was for long little money for school support, andreligious interest and church tithes had to be depended on almost entirelyfor the establishment and support of schools. Out of the parish sextons orclerks a supply of vernacular teachers had to be evolved, a system ofschool organization and supervision worked out and added to the duties ofthe minister, and the feeling of need for education awakened sufficientlyto make people willing to support schools. In consequence what Luther andCalvin declared at the beginning of the sixteenth century to be anecessity for the State and the common right of all, it took until wellinto the nineteenth century actually to create and make a reality. 

The great demand of the time, too, was not so much for the education ofthe masses, however desirable or even necessary this might be from thestandpoint of Protestant religious theory, but for the training of leadersfor the new religious and social order which the Revival of Learning, therise of modern nationalities, and the Reformation movements had broughtinto being. For this secondary schools for boys, largely Latin in type, were demanded rather than elementary vernacular schools for both sexes. Weaccordingly find the great creations of the period were secondary schools. 

[Illustration: FIG. 106. TENDENCIES IN EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EUROPE, 1500 to 1700]

LINES OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT ESTABLISHED. Still more, certain lines offuture development now became clearly established. The drawing given herewill help to make this evident. It will be seen from this that not onlywas the secondary school still the dominant type, though elementaryschools began for the first time to be considered as important also, butthat the secondary schools were wholly independent of the elementaryschools which now began to be created. The elementary schools were in thevernacular and for the masses; the secondary schools were in the Latintongue and for the training of the scholarly leaders. Between these twoschools, so different in type and in clientèle, there was little incommon. This difference was further emphasized with time. The elementaryschools later on added subjects of use to the common people, while thesecondary schools added subjects of use for scholarly preparation or foruniversity entrance. The secondary schools also frequently providedpreparatory schools for their particular classes of children. As a result, all through Europe two school systems--an elementary-school system for themasses, and a secondary-school system for the classes--exist to-day sideby side. We in America did not develop such a class school system, thoughwe started that way. This was because the conception of education wefinally developed was a product of a new democratic spirit, as will beexplained later on. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Compare the attention to careful religious instruction in the secondaryschools provided by the Lutherans, Calvinists, and English. What analogousinstruction do we provide in the American high schools? Is it as thoroughor as well done?

2. Compare the scope and ideals of the educational system provided by theCalvinists with the same for the Lutherans and Anglicans. 

3. Compare the characteristics of Calvinistic (Huguenot) education, assummarized by Foster, with present-day state educational purposes. 

4. Just what kind of a school system did Knox propose (1560) for Scotland?

5. Show how the educational program of the Jesuits reveals Ignatius Loyolaas a man of vision. 

6. Viewed from the purposes the Order had in mind, was it warranted inneglecting the education of the masses?

7. Does the success of the Order show the importance to society of findingand educating the future leader? Can all men be trained for leadership?

8. What does the statement that the Jesuits were "too practical to makemany changes, " but had "a keen eye for what was best" in the work ofothers, indicate as to the nature of school administration and educationalprogress?

9. Indicate the advantages which the Jesuits had in their teachers andteaching-aim over us of to-day. How could we develop an aim as clearlydefined and potent as theirs? Could we select teachers with such care?How?

10. Compare the religious and educational propaganda of the Jesuits withthe recent political propaganda of the Germans. 

11. What is meant by the statement that the Jesuit teaching method, likethat of the modern German _Volksschule_, was a teaching and not aquestioning method?

12. Compare present American standards for teacher-training for elementaryand secondary teaching with those required by the Jesuits:--(_a_) as tolength of preparation; (_b_) as to nature and scope of preparation. 

13. How do you explain the introduction of sewing into the elementaryvernacular Catholic schools for girls, so long before handiwork for boyswas thought of?

14. In schools so formally organized as those of La Salle, how do youexplain the great freedom allowed in questioning on arithmetic and theCatechism?

15. Why should La Salle's work have been so opposed by both Church andcivil authorities? Do you consider that his Order ever made what would becalled rapid progress?

16. Why must the education of leaders always precede the education of themasses?

17. Explain how European countries came naturally to have two largelyindependent school systems--a secondary school for leaders and anelementary school for the masses--whereas we have only one continuoussystem. 

18. Explain why modern state systems of education developed first in theGerman States, and why England and the Catholic nations of Europe were solong in developing state school systems. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 175. Woodward: Course of Study at the College of Geneva. 176. Synod of Dort: Scheme of Christian Education adopted. 177. Kilpatrick: Work of the Dutch in developing Schools. 178. Kilpatrick: Character of the Dutch Schools of 1650. 179. Statutes: The Scotch School Law of 1646. 180. Pachtler: The _Ratio Studiorum_ of the Jesuits. 181. Gérard: The Dominant Religious Purpose in the Education of French Girls. 182. La Salle: Rules for the "Brothers of the Christian Schools. "

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Was the College at Geneva (175) a true humanistic-revival school?

2. Just what did the Synod of Dort provide for (176) in the matter ofschools, school supervision, and ministerial duties?

3. Compare the work of the Dutch (177) and the Lutherans (159-163) increating schools. 

4. Just what type of school is indicated by selection 178?

5. Just what did the Scotch law of 1646 provide for (179)?

6. Characterize the schools provided for by La Salle (182). 

7. Compare the religious care at Port Royal (181) with that suggested bySaint Jerome (R. 45). 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

 Baird, C. W. _History of the Rise of the Huguenots of France_. Baird, C. W. _Huguenot Emigration to America_. Grant, Jas. _History of the Burgh Schools of Scotland_. Hughes, Thos. _Loyola, and the Educational System of the Jesuits_. Kilpatrick, Wm. H. _The Dutch Schools of New Netherlands and Colonial New York_. Laurie, S. S. _History of Educational Opinion since the Renaissance_. Ravelet, A. _Blessed J. B. De la Salle_. Schwickerath, R. _Jesuit Education; its History and Principles in the Light of Modern Educational Problems_. Woodward, W. H. _Education during the Renaissance_. 

CHAPTER XV

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS

III. THE REFORMATION AND AMERICAN EDUCATION

THE PROTESTANT SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. Columbus had discovered the newworld just twenty-five years before Luther nailed his theses to the churchdoor at Wittenberg, and by the time the northern continent had beenroughly explored and was ready for settlement, Europe was in the midst ofa century of warfare in a vain attempt to extirpate the Protestant heresy. By the time that the futility of fire and sword as means for religiousconversion had finally dawned upon Christian Europe and found expressionin the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which closed the terrible Thirty Years'War (p. 301), the first permanent settlements in a number of the Americancolonies had been made. These settlements, and the beginnings of educationin America, are so closely tied up with the Protestant Revolts in Europethat a chapter on the beginnings of American education belongs here asstill another phase of the educational results of the Protestant Revolts. 

Practically all the early settlers in America came from among the peoplesand from those lands which had embraced some form of the Protestant faith, and many of them came to America to found new homes and establish theirchurches in the wilderness, because here they could enjoy a religiousfreedom impossible in their old home-lands. This was especially true ofthe French Huguenots, many of whom, after the revocation of the Edict ofNantes [1] (1685), fled to America and settled along the coast of theCarolinas; the Calvinistic Dutch and Walloons, who settled in and aboutNew Amsterdam; the Scotch and Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, who settled inNew Jersey, and later extended along the Allegheny Mountain ridges intoall the southern colonies; the English Quakers about Philadelphia, whocame under the leadership of William Penn, and a few English Baptists andMethodists in eastern Pennsylvania; the Swedish Lutherans, along theDelaware; the German Lutherans, Moravians, Mennonites, Dunkers, andReformed-Church Germans, who settled in large numbers in the mountainvalleys of Pennsylvania; and the Calvinistic dissenters from the EnglishNational Church, known as Puritans, who settled the New England colonies, and who, more than any others, gave direction to the future development ofeducation in the American States. Very many of these early religiousgroups came to America in little congregations, bringing their ministerswith them. Each set up, in the colony in which it settled, what werevirtually little religious republics, that through them they might thebetter perpetuate the religious principles for which they had left theland of their birth. Education of the young for membership in the Church, and the perpetuation of a learned ministry for the congregations, from thefirst elicited the serious attention of these pioneer settlers. 

Englishmen who were adherents of the English national faith (Anglicans)also settled in Virginia and the other southern colonies, and later in NewYork and New Jersey, while Maryland was founded as the only Catholiccolony, in what is now the United States, by a group of persecuted EnglishCatholics who obtained a charter from Charles I, in 1632. Thesesettlements are shown on the map on the following page. As a result ofthese settlements there was laid, during the early colonial period ofAmerican history, the foundation of those type attitudes toward educationwhich subsequently so materially shaped the educational development of thedifferent American States during the early part of our national history. 

THE PURITANS IN NEW ENGLAND. Of all those who came to America during thisearly period, the Calvinistic Puritans who settled the New Englandcolonies contributed most that was valuable to the future educationaldevelopment of America, and because of this will be considered first. 

[Illustration: FIG. 107. MAP SHOWING THE RELIGIOUS SETTLEMENTS IN AMERICA]

The original reformation in England, as was stated in chapters XII andXIII, had been much more nominal than real. The English Bible and theEnglish Prayer-Book had been issued to the churches (R. 170), and the Kinginstead of the Pope had been declared by the Act of Supremacy (R. 153) tobe the head of the English National Church. The same priests, though, hadcontinued in the churches under the new régime, and the church service hadnot greatly changed aside from its transformation from Latin into English. Neither the Church as an organization nor its members experienced anygreat religious reformation. Not all Englishmen, though, took the changein allegiance so lightly (R. 183), and in consequence there came to be agradually increasing number who desired a more fundamental reform of theEnglish Church. By 1600 the demand for Church reform had become veryinsistent, and the question of Church purification (whence the name"Puritans") had become a burning question in England. 

[Illustration: FIG. 108. HOMES OF THE PILGRIMS, AND THEIR ROUTE TOAMERICA]

The English Puritans, moreover, were of two classes. One was a moderatebut influential "low-church" group within the "high" State Church, possessed of no desire to separate Church and State, but earnestlyinsistent on a simplification of the Church ceremonial, the elimination ofa number of the vestiges of the old Romish-Church ritual, and particularlythe introduction of more preaching into the service. The other classconstituted a much more radical group, and had become deeply imbued withCalvinistic thinking. This group gradually came into open opposition toany State Church, stood for the local independence of the differentchurches or congregations, and desired the complete elimination of allvestiges of the Romish faith from the church services. [2] They becameknown as Independents, or Separatists, and formed the germs of the laterCongregational groups of early New England. Both Elizabeth (1558-1603) andJames I (1603-25) savagely persecuted this more radical group, and many oftheir congregations were forced to flee from England to obtain personalsafety and to enjoy religious liberty (R. 184). One of these fugitivecongregations, from Scrooby, in north-central England, after living forseveral years at Leyden, in Holland, finally set sail for America, landedon Plymouth Rock, in 1620, and began the settlement of that "bleak andstormy coast. " Other congregations soon followed, it having been estimatedthat twenty thousand English Puritans migrated [3] to the New Englandwilderness before 1640. These represented a fairly well-to-do type ofmiddle-class Englishmen, practically all of whom had had good educationaladvantages at home. 

Settling along the coast in little groups or congregations, they at onceset up a combined civil and religious form of government, modeled in a wayafter Calvin's City-State at Geneva, and which became known as a NewEngland town. [4] In time the southern portion of the coast of New Englandwas dotted with little self-governing settlements of those who had come toAmerica to obtain for themselves that religious freedom which had beendenied them at home. These settlements were loosely bound together in acolony federation, in which each town was represented in a General Court, or legislature. The extent of these settlements by 1660 is shown on themap on the opposite page. 

BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOLS IN NEW ENGLAND. Having come to America to securereligious freedom, it was but natural that the perpetuation of theirparticular faith by means of education should have been one of the firstmatters to engage their attention, after the building of their homes andthe setting up of the civil government (R. 185). Being deeply imbued withCalvinistic ideas as to government and religion, they desired to foundhere a religious commonwealth, somewhat after the model of Geneva (p. 298), or Scotland (p. 335), or the Dutch provinces (p. 334), the corner-stones of which should be religion and education. 

[Illustration: FIG. 109. NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS, 1660]

At first, English precedents were followed. Home instruction, which wasquite common in England among the Puritans, was naturally much employed toteach the children to read the Bible and to train them to participate inboth the family and the congregational worship. After 1647, townelementary schools under a master, and later the English "dame schools"(chapter XVIII), were established to provide this rudimentary instruction. The English apprentice system was also established (R. 201), and themasters of apprentices gave similar instruction to boys entrusted to theircare. The town religious governments, under which all the littlecongregations organized themselves, much as the little religious parisheshad been organized in old England, also began the voluntary establishmentof town grammar schools, as a few towns in England had done (R. 143)before the Puritans migrated. The "Latin School" at Boston dates from1635, and has had a continuous existence since that time. The grammarschool at Charlestown dates from 1636, that at Ipswich from the same year, and the school at Salem from 1637. In 1639 Dorchester voted:

 that there shall be a rent of 20 lb a year for ever imposed upon Tomsons Island ... Toward the mayntenance of a schoole in Dorchester. This rent of 20 lb yearly to bee payd to such a schoole-master as shall vndertake to teach english, latine, and other tongues, and also writing. The said schoole-master to bee chosen from tyme to tyme p'r the freemen. 

Newbury, in 1639, voted "foure akers of upland" and "sixe akers of saltmarsh" to Anthony Somerby "for his encouragement to keepe schoole for oneyeare, " and later levied a town rate of £24 for a "schoole to be kepte atthe meeting house. " Cambridge also early established a Latin grammarschool "for the training up of Young Schollars, and fitting them [5] for_Academicall Learning_" (R. 185). 

The support for the town schools thus founded was derived from varioussources, such as the levying of tuition fees, the income from town landsor fisheries set aside for the purpose, [6] voluntary contributions fromthe people of the town, [7] a town tax, or a combination of two or more ofthese methods. The founding of the "free (grammar) school" at Roxburie, in1645, is representative (R. 188) of the early methods. There was nouniform plan as yet, in either old or New England. 

FOUNDING OF HARVARD COLLEGE. In addition to establishing Latin grammarschools, a college was founded, in 1636, by the General Court(legislature) of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, to perpetuate learning andinsure an educated ministry (R. 185) to the churches after "our presentministers shall lie in the dust. " This new college, located at Newtowne, was modeled after Emmanuel College at Cambridge, an English Puritancollege in which many of the early New England colonists had studied, [8]and in loving memory of which they rechristened Newtowne as Cambridge. In1639 the college was christened Harvard College, after a graduate ofEmmanuel College, Cambridge, by the name of John Harvard, who died inCharlestown, a year after his arrival in the colony, and who left thecollege his library of two hundred and sixty volumes and half hisproperty, about £850. 

The instruction in the new college was a combination of the arts andtheological instruction given in a mediaeval university, though at Harvardthe President, Master Dunster (R. 185), did all the teaching. For thefirst fifty years at Harvard this continued to be true, the attendanceduring that time seldom exceeding twenty. The entrance requirements forthe college (R. 186 a) call for the completion of a typical English Latingrammar-school education; the rules and precepts for the government of thecollege (R. 186 b) reveal the deep religious motive; and the schedule ofstudies (R. 186 c) and the requirements for degrees (R. 186 d) both showthat the instruction was true to the European type. In the charter for thecollege, granted by the colonial legislature in 1650 (R. 187 a), we findexemptions and conditions which remind one strongly of the older Europeanfoundations. A century later Brown College, in Rhode Island, was grantedeven more extensive exemptions (R. 187 b). 

THE FIRST COLONIAL LEGISLATION: THE LAW OF 1642. We thus see manifestedearly in New England the deep Puritan-Calvinistic zeal for learning as abulwark of Church and State. We also see the establishment in thewilderness of New England of a typical English educational system--thatis, private instruction in reading and religion by the parents in the homeand by the masters of apprentices, and later by a town schoolmaster; theLatin grammar school in the larger towns, to prepare boys for the collegeof the colony; and an English-type college to prepare them for theministry. As in England, too, all was clearly subordinate to the Church. Still further, as in England also, the system was voluntary, the deepreligious interest which had brought the congregations to America beingdepended upon to insure for all the necessary education and religioustraining. 

It early became evident, though, that these voluntary efforts on the partof the people and the towns would not be sufficient to insure that generaleducation which was required by the Puritan religious theory. Under thehard pioneer conditions, and the suffering which ensued, many parents andmasters of apprentices evidently proved neglectful of their educationalduties. Accordingly the Church appealed to its servant, the State, asrepresented in the colonial legislature (General Court) to assist it incompelling parents and masters to observe their religious obligations. Theresult was the famous Massachusetts Law of 1642 (R. 190), which directed"the chosen men" (Selectmen; Councilmen) of each town to ascertain, fromtime to time, if the parents and masters were attending to theireducational duties; if the children were being trained "in learning andlabor and other employments ... Profitable to the Commonwealth"; and ifchildren were being taught "to read and understand the principles ofreligion and the capital laws of the country, " and empowered them toimpose fines on "those who refuse to render such accounts to them whenrequired. " In 1645 the General Court further ordered that all youthbetween ten and sixteen years of age should also receive instruction "inye exercise of arms, as small guns, halfe pikes, bowes & arrows, &c. "

[Illustration: PLATE 9. Two TABLETS ON THE WEST GATEWAY AT HARVARDUNIVERSITYReproducing colonial records relating to the founding of Harvard College. ]

The Law of 1642 is remarkable in that, for the first time in the English-speaking world, a legislative body representing the State ordered that allchildren should be taught to read. The law shows clearly not only theinfluence of the Reformation theory as to personal salvation and theCalvinistic conception of the connection between learning and religion, but also the influence of the English Poor-Law legislation which haddeveloped rapidly during the half-century immediately preceding the comingof the Puritans to America (R. 173). On the foundations of the EnglishPoor Law of 1601 (R. 174) our New England settlers moulded the firstAmerican law relating to education, adding to the principles thereestablished (p. 326) a distinct Calvinistic contribution to our new-worldlife that, the authorities of the civil town should see that all childrenwere taught "to read and understand the principles of religion and thecapital laws of the country. " This law the Selectmen, or the courts ifthey failed to do so, were ordered to enforce, and the courts usuallylooked after their duties in the matter (R. 192). 

_The Law of 1647. _ The Law of 1642, while ordering "the chosen men" ofeach town to see that the education and training of children was notneglected, and providing for fines on parents and masters who failed torender accounts when required, did not, however, establish schools, ordirect the employment of schoolmasters. The provision of education, afterthe English fashion, was still left with the homes. After a trial of fiveyears, the results of which were not satisfactory, the General Courtenacted another law by means of which it has been asserted that "thePuritan government of Massachusetts rendered probably its greatest serviceto the future. "

After recounting in a preamble (R. 191) that it had in the past been "onecheife proiect of y't ould deluder, Satan, to keepe men from the knowledgeof y'e Scriptures, ... By keeping y'm in an unknowne tongue, " so now "bypswading from y'e use of tongues, " and "obscuring y'e true sence & meaningof y'e originall" by "false glosses of saint-seeming deceivers, " learningwas in danger of being "buried in y'e grave of o'r fath'rs in y'e churchand comonwealth"; the Court ordered:

 1. That every town having fifty householders should at once appoint a teacher of reading and writing, and provide for his wages in such manner as the town might determine; and

 2. That every town having one hundred householders must provide a grammar school to fit youths for the university, under a penalty of £5 (afterwards increased to £20) for failure to do so. 

This law represents a distinct step in advance over the Law of 1642, andfor this there are no English precedents. It was not until the latter partof the nineteenth century that England took such a step. The precedentsfor the compulsory establishment of schools lie rather in the practices ofthe different German States (p. 318), the actions of the Dutch synods (R. 176) and provinces (p. 335), the Acts of the Scottish parliament of 1633and 1646 (p. 334; R. 179), and the general Calvinistic principle thateducation was an important function of a religious State. 

PRINCIPLES ESTABLISHED. The State here, acting again as the servant of theChurch, enacted a law and fixed a tradition which prevailed and grew instrength and effectiveness after State and Church had parted company. Notonly was a school system ordered established--elementary for all towns andchildren, and secondary for youths in the larger towns--but, for the firsttime among English-speaking people, there was an assertion of the right ofthe State to require communities to establish and maintain schools, underpenalty if they refused to do so. It can be safely asserted, in the lightof later developments, that the two laws of 1642 and 1647 represent thefoundations upon which our American state public-school systems have beenbuilt. Mr. Martin, the historian of the Massachusetts public-schoolsystem, states the fundamental principles which underlay this legislation, as follows: [9]

 1. The universal education of youth is essential to the well-being of the State. 

 2. The obligation to furnish this education rests primarily upon the parent. 

 3. The State has a right to enforce this obligation. 

 4. The State may fix a standard which shall determine the kind of education, and the minimum amount. 

 5. Public money, raised by general tax, may be used to provide such education as the State requires. The tax may be general, though the school attendance is not. 

 6. Education higher than the rudiments may be supplied by the State. Opportunity must be provided, at public expense, for youths who wish to be fitted for the university. 

"It is important to note here, " adds Mr. Martin, "that the idea underlyingall this legislation is neither paternalistic nor socialistic. The childis to be educated, not to advance his personal interests, but because theState will suffer if he is not educated. The State does not provideschools to relieve the parent, nor because it can educate better than theparent can, but because it can thereby better enforce the obligation whichit imposes. " To prevent a return to the former state of religiousignorance it was important that education be provided. To assure this thecolonial legislature enacted a law requiring the maintenance and supportof schools by the towns. This law became the corner-stone of our Americanstate school systems. 

Influence on other New England colonies. Connecticut Colony, in its Law of1650 establishing a school system, combined the spirit of theMassachusetts Law of 1642, though stated in different words (R. 193), andthe Law of 1647, stated word for word. New Haven Colony, in 1655, orderedthat children and apprentices should be taught to read, as had been donein Massachusetts, in 1642, but on the union of New Haven and ConnecticutColonies, in 1665, the Connecticut Code became the law for the unitedcolonies. In 1702 a college was founded (Yale) and finally located at NewHaven, to offer preparation for the ministry in the Connecticut colony, ashad been done earlier in Massachusetts, and Latin grammar schools werefounded in the Connecticut towns to prepare for the new college, as alsohad been done earlier in Massachusetts. The rules and regulations for thegrammar school at New Haven (R. 189) reveal the purpose and describe theinstruction provided in one of the earliest and best of these. 

[Illustration: FIG. 111. WHERE YALE COLLEGE WAS FOUNDED]

Plymouth Colony, in 1658 and again in 1663, proposed to the towns thatthey "sett vp" a schoolmaster "to traine vp children to reading andwriting" (R. 194 a). In 1672 the towns were asked to aid Harvard Collegeby gifts (R. 194 b). In 1673-74 the income from the Cape Cod fisheries wasset aside for the support of a (grammar) school (R. 194 c). Finally, in1677, all towns having over fifty families and maintaining a grammarschool were ordered aided from the fishery proceeds (R. 194 d). 

The Massachusetts laws also applied to Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, as these were then a part of Massachusetts Colony. After New Hampshireseparated, in 1680, the Massachusetts Law of 1647 was virtually readoptedin 1719-21. In Maine and Vermont there were so few settlers, until nearthe beginning of our national life, that the influence of theMassachusetts legislation on these States was negligible until a laterperiod. 

Only in Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, of all the New Englandcolonies, did the Massachusetts legislation fail to exert a deepinfluence. Settled as these two had been by refugees from New England, andorganized on a basis of hospitality to all who suffered from religiousoppression elsewhere, the religious stimulus to the founding of schoolsnaturally was lacking. As the religious basis for education was as yet theonly basis, the first development of schools in Rhode Island awaited thehumanitarian and economic influences which did not become operative untilearly in the nineteenth century. 

Outside of the New England colonies, the appeal to the State as theservant of the Church was seldom made during the early colonial period, the churches handling the educational problem in their own way. As aresult the beginnings of State oversight and control were left to NewEngland. In the central colonies a series of parochial-school systems cameto prevail, while in Episcopalian Virginia and the other colonies to thesouth the no-business-of-the-State attitude assumed toward education bythe mother country was copied. 

THE CHURCH SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK. New Netherland, as New York Colony wascalled before the English occupation, was settled by the Dutch West IndiaCompany, and some dozen villages about New York and up the Hudson had beenfounded by the time it passed to the control of the English, in 1664. Inthese the Dutch established typical home-land public parochial schools, under the control of the Reformed Dutch Church. The schoolmaster wasusually the reader and precentor in the church as well (R. 195), and oftenacted, as in Holland, as sexton besides. Girls attended on equal termswith boys, but sat apart and recited in separate classes. The instructionconsisted of reading and writing Dutch, sometimes a little arithmetic, theDutch Catechism, the reading of a few religious books, and certainprayers. The rules (1661) for a schoolmaster in New Amsterdam (R. 196), and the contract with a Dutch schoolmaster in Flatbush (R. 195), datingfrom 1682, reveal the type of schools and school conditions provided. Allexcept the children of the poor paid fees to the schoolmaster. [10] He waslicensed by the Dutch church authorities. As the Dutch had not come toAmerica because of persecution, and were in no way out of sympathy withreligious conditions in the home-land, the schools they developed herewere typical of the Dutch European parochial schools of the time (R. 178). A _trivial_ (Latin) school was also established in New York, in 1652. 

After the English occupation the English principle of private and churchcontrol of education, with schooling on a tuition or a charitable basis, came to prevail, and this continued up to the beginning of our nationalperiod. [11] Of the English colonial schools of New York Draper haswritten: [12]

 All the English schools in the province from 1700 down to the time of the Declaration of Independence were maintained by a great religious society organized under the auspices of the Church of England--and, of course, with the favor of the government--called "The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. " The law governing this Society provided that no teacher should be employed until he had proved "his affection for the present government" and his "conformity to the doctrine and discipline of the Church of England. " Schools maintained under such auspices were in no sense free schools. Indeed, humiliating as it is, no student of history can fail to discern the fact that the government of Great Britain, during its supremacy in this territory, did nothing to facilitate the extension or promote the efficiency of free elementary schools among the people. 

THE PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS OF PENNSYLVANIA. Pennsylvania was settled byQuakers, Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, German Lutherans, Moravians, Mennonites, and members of the German Reformed Church, all of whom came toAmerica to secure greater religious liberty and had been attracted to thiscolony by the freedom of religious worship which Penn had provided forthere. All these were Protestant sects, all believed in the necessity oflearning to read the Bible as a means to personal salvation, and all madeefforts looking toward the establishment of schools as a part of theirchurch organization. Unlike New England, though, no sect was in amajority; church control for each denomination was considered as mostsatisfactory; and no appeal was made to the State to have it assist thechurches in the enforcement of their religious purposes. The clergymenwere usually the teachers in the parochial schools established, [13] whileprivate pay schools were opened in the villages and towns. These weretaught in English, German, or the Moravian tongue (Czech), according tothe original language of the different immigrants. The Quakers seem tohave taken particular interest in schools (R. 199), a Quaker school inPhiladelphia (R. 198) having been established the year the city wasfounded. Girls were educated as well as boys, and the emphasis was placedon reading, writing, counting, and religion, rather than upon any higherform of training. 

[Illustration: FIG. 112. AN OLD QUAKER MEETING-HOUSE AND SCHOOL ATLAMPETER, PENNSYLVANIA(From an old drawing)]

The result was the development in this colony of a policy of depending onchurch and private effort, and the provision of education, aside fromcertain rudimentary and religious instruction, was left largely for thosewho could afford to pay for the privilege. Charitable education wasextended to but a few, for a short time, while, under the freedom allowed, many communities made but indifferent provisions or suffered their schoolsto lapse. Under the primitive conditions of the time the interest even inreligious education often declined almost to the vanishing point. So laxin the matter of providing schooling had many communities become that thesecond Provincial Assembly, sitting in Philadelphia, in 1683, passed anordinance requiring (R. 197) that all persons having children must causethem to be taught to read and write, so that they might be able to readthe Scriptures by the time they were twelve years old, and also that allchildren be taught some useful trade. A fine of £5 was to be assessed forfailure to comply with the law. So much in advance of English ideas as towhat was fitting and proper was this compulsory law that it was vetoed byWilliam and Mary, when submitted to their majesties for approval. Tenyears later it was reënacted by the Governor and Assembly of the colony, but proved so difficult of enforcement that it was soon dropped, and thechance of starting education in Pennsylvania somewhat after the NewEngland model was lost. The colony now settled down to a policy of nonstate action, and this in time became so firmly established that the do-as-you-please idea persisted in this State up to the establishment of thefirst free state school system, in 1834. 

MIXED CONDITIONS IN NEW JERSEY. In New Jersey, situated as it was near thecenter of the different colonies, the early development of education therewas the product of a number of different influences. The Dutch crossedfrom New Amsterdam, the English came from Connecticut and later from NewYork, Scotch and Scotch-Irish Presbyterians came from the mother country, Swedish Lutherans settled along the Delaware, and Quakers and GermanLutherans came over from Pennsylvania. The educational practice of thecolony or land from which each group of settlers came was reproduced inthe colony. After the English succeeded the Dutch in New Amsterdam (1664), English methods and practice in education gradually came into controlthroughout most of New Jersey, and as a result here, as in New York, butlittle was accomplished in providing schools for other than a select fewuntil well after the beginning of the nineteenth century. Neither NewJersey, New York, nor Pennsylvania may be said to have developed anycolonial educational policy aside from that of allowing private andparochial effort to provide such schools as seemed desirable. 

VIRGINIA AND THE SOUTHERN TYPE. Almost all the conditions attending thesettlement of Virginia were in contrast to those of the New Englandcolonies. The early settlers were from the same class of English yeomenand country squires, but with the important difference that whereas theNew England settlers were Dissenters from the Church of England and hadcome to America to obtain freedom in religious worship, the settlers inVirginia were adherents of the National Church and had come to America forgain. The marked differences in climate and possible crops led to thelarge plantation type of settlement, instead of the compact little NewEngland town; the introduction of large numbers of "indentured whiteservants, " and later negro slaves, led to the development of classes insociety instead of to the New England type of democracy; and the lack of astrong religious motive for education naturally led to the adoption of thecustomary English practices instead of to the development of colonialschools. The tutor in the home, education in small private pay schools, oreducation in the mother country were the prevailing methods adopted amongthe well-to-do planters, while the poorer classes were left with only suchadvantages as apprenticeship training or charity schools might provide. Throughout the entire colonial period Virginia remained most like themother country in spirit and practice, and stands among the colonies asthe clearest example of the English attitude toward school support andcontrol. As in the mother country, education was considered to be nobusiness of the State. Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, andthe Carolinas followed the English attitude, much after the fashion ofVirginia. 

Practically all the Virginia colonial legislation relating to educationrefers either to William and Mary College (founded in 1693), or to theeducation of orphans and the children of the poor. Both these interests, as we have previously seen, were typically English. All the seventeenth-century legislation relating to education is based on the English Poor-Lawlegislation, [14] previously described (p. 325), and included thecompulsory apprenticeship of the children of the poor, training in atrade, the requirement that the public authorities must provideopportunities for this type of education, and the use of both local andcolony funds for the purpose (R. 200 a), all, as the Statutes state, "according to the aforesaid laudable custom in the Kingdom of England. " Itwas not until 1705 that Virginia reached the point, reached byMassachusetts in 1642, of requiring that "the master of the [apprenticed]orphan shall be obliged to teach him to read and write. " In all theAnglican colonies the apprenticing of the children of the poor (see R. 200b for some interesting North Carolina records) was a characteristicfeature. During the entire colonial period the indifference of the mothercountry to general education was steadily reflected in Virginia and in thecolonies which were essentially Anglican in religion, and followed theEnglish example. 

TYPE PLANS REPRESENTED BY 1750. The seventeenth century thus witnessed thetransplanting of European ideas as to government, religion, and educationto the new American colonies, and by the eighteenth century we find threeclearly marked types of educational practice or conception as toeducational responsibility established on American soil. 

The first was the strong Calvinistic conception of a religious State, supporting a system of common vernacular schools, higher Latin schools, and a college, for both religious and civic ends. This type dominated NewEngland, and is best represented by Massachusetts. From New England thisattitude was carried westward by the migrations of New England people, anddeeply influenced the educational development of all States to which theNew Englander went in any large numbers. This was the educationalcontribution of Calvinism to America. [15] Out of it our state schoolsystems of to-day, by the separation of Church and State, have beenevolved. 

The second was the parochial-school conception of the Dutch, Moravians, Mennonites, German Lutherans, German Reformed Church, Quakers, Presbyterians, Baptists, and Catholics. This type is best represented byProtestant Pennsylvania and Catholic Maryland. It stood for church controlof all educational efforts, resented state interference, was dominatedonly by church purposes, and in time came to be a serious obstacle in theway of rational state school organization and control. 

The third type, into which the second type tended to fuse, conceived ofpublic education, aside from collegiate education, as intended chiefly fororphans and the children of the poor, and as a charity which the State wasunder little or no obligation to assist in supporting. All children of theupper and middle classes in society attended private or church schools, orwere taught by tutors in their homes, and for such instruction paid aproper tuition fee. Paupers and orphans, in limited numbers and for alimited time, might be provided with some form of useful education at theexpense of either Church or State. This type is best represented byAnglican Virginia, which typified well the _laissez-faire_ policy whichdominated England from the time of the Protestant Reformation until thelatter half of the nineteenth century. 

These three types of attitude toward the provision of education becamefixed American types, and each deeply influenced subsequent Americaneducational development, as we shall point out in a later chapter. 

DOMINANCE OF THE RELIGIOUS MOTIVE. The seventeenth century was essentiallya period of the transplanting, almost unchanged in form, of thecharacteristic European institutions, manners, religious attitudes, andforms of government to American shores. Each sect or nationality onarriving set up in the new land the characteristic forms of church andschool and social observances known in the old home-land. Dutch, Germans, English, Scotch, Calvinists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterians--reproduced in the American colonies the main type of schools existing atthe time of their migration in the mother land from which they came. Theywere also dominated by the same deep religious purpose. 

The dominance of this religious purpose in all instruction is wellillustrated by the great beginning-school book of the time, _The NewEngland Primer_. A digest of the contents of this, with a few pagesreproduced, is given in R. 202. This book, from which all children learnedto read, was used by Dissenters and Lutherans alike in the Americancolonies. This book Ford well characterizes in the following words:

As one glances over what may truly be called "The Little Bible of NewEngland, " and reads its stern lessons, the Puritan mood is caught withabsolute faithfulness. Here was no easy road to knowledge and salvation;but with prose as bare of beauty as the whitewash of their churches, withpoetry as rough and stern as their storm-torn coast, with pictures ascrude and unfinished as their own glacial-smoothed boulders, between stiffoak covers which symbolized the contents, the children were tutored, until, from being unregenerate, and as Jonathan Edwards said, "youngvipers, and infinitely more hateful than vipers" to God, they attainedthat happy state when, as expressed by Judge Sewell's child, they wereafraid that they "should goe to hell, " and were "stirred up dreadfully toseek God. " God was made sterner and more cruel than any living judge, thatall might be brought to realize how slight a chance even the least erringhad of escaping eternal damnation. 

One learned to read chiefly that one might be able to read the Catechismand the Bible, and to know the will of the Heavenly Father. There wasscarcely any other purpose in the maintenance of elementary schools. Inthe grammar schools and the colleges students were "instructed to considerwell the main end of life and studies. " These institutions existed mainlyto insure a supply of learned ministers for service in Church and State. Such studies as history, geography, science, music, drawing, secularliterature, and organized play were unknown. Children were constantlysurrounded, week days and Sundays, by the somber Calvinistic religiousatmosphere in New England, [16] and by the careful religious oversight ofthe pastors and elders in the colonies where the parochial-school systemwas the ruling plan for education. Schoolmasters were required to"catechise their scholars in the principles of the Christian religion, "and it was made "a chief part of the schoolmaster's religious care tocommend his scholars and his labors amongst them unto God by prayermorning and evening, taking care that his scholars do reverently attendduring the same. " Religious matter constituted the only reading matter, outside the instruction in Latin in the grammar schools. The Catechism wastaught, and the Bible was read and expounded. Church attendance wasrequired, and grammar-school pupils were obliged to report each week onthe Sunday sermon. This insistence on the religious element was moreprominent in Calvinistic New England than in the colonies to the south, but everywhere the religious purpose was dominant. The church parochialand charity schools were essentially schools for instilling the churchpractices and beliefs of the church maintaining them. This state ofaffairs continued until well toward the beginning of the nineteenthcentury. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Compare the conservative and radical groups in the English purificationmovement with the conservative and radical groups, as typified by Erasmusand Luther, at the time of the Reformation. 

2. Show how, for each group, the schools established were merely homelandforeign-type religious schools, with nothing distinctively American aboutthem. 

3. Show why such copying of home-land types, even to the Latin grammarschool, was perfectly natural. 

4. The provision of the Law of 1642 requiring instruction in "the capitallaws of the country" was new. How do you explain this addition to mother-land practices?

5. Show why the Law of 1642 was Calvinistic rather than Anglican in itsorigin. 

6. Explain the meaning of the preamble to the Law of 1647. 

7. Show how the Law of 1647 must go back for precedents to German, Dutch, and Scotch sources. 

8. Apply the six principles stated by Mr. Martin, as embodied in thelegislation of 1647, to modern state school practice, and show how we haveadopted each in our laws. 

9. Show also that the Law of 1647, as well as modern state school laws, isneither paternalistic nor socialistic in essential purpose. 

10. Show that, though the mixture of religious sects in Pennsylvania madecolonial legislation difficult, still it would have been possible to haveenforced the Massachusetts Law of 1642, or the Pennsylvania laws of 1683or 1693, in the colony. How do you explain the opposition and failure todo so?

11. Show how the charity schools for the poor, and church missionary-society schools, were the natural outcome of the English attitude towardelementary education. 

12. Which of the three type plans in the American colonies by 1750 mostinfluenced educational development in your State?

13. State the important contribution of Calvinism to our new-world life. 

14. Explain the indifference of the Anglican Church to general educationduring the whole of our colonial period. 

15. Explain what is meant by "The Puritan Church applied to its servant, the State, " etc. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 183. Nichols: The Puritan Attitude. 184. Gov. Bradford: The Puritans leave England. 185. First Fruits: The Founding of Harvard College. 186. First Fruits: The First Rules for Harvard College. (a) Entrance Requirements. (b) Rules and Precepts. (c) Time and Order of Studies. (d) Requirements for Degrees. 187. College Charters: Extracts from, showing Privileges. (a) Harvard College, 1650. (b) Brown College, 1764. 188. Dillaway: Founding of the Free School at Roxburie. 189. Baird: Rules and Regulations for Hopkins Grammar School. 190. Statutes: The Massachusetts Law of 1642. 191. Statutes: The Massachusetts Law of 1647. 192. Court Records: Presentment of Topsfield for Violating the Law of 1642. 193. Statutes: The Connecticut Law of 1650. 194. Statutes: Plymouth Colony Legislation. 195. Flatbush: Contract with a Dutch Schoolmaster. 196. New Amsterdam: Rules for a Schoolmaster in. 197. Statutes: The Pennsylvania. Law of 1683. 198. Minutes of Council: The First School in Philadelphia. 199. Murray: Early Quaker Injunctions regarding Schools. 200. Statutes: Apprenticeship Laws in the Southern Colonies. (a) Virginia Statutes. (b) North Carolina Court Records. 201. Stiles: A New England Indenture of Apprenticeship. 202. The New England Primer: Description and Digest. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. What does the selection on The Puritan Attitude (183) reveal as to theextent and depth of the Reformation in England?

2. Characterize the feelings and emotions and desires of the Puritans, asexpressed in the extract (184) from Governor Bradford's narrative. 

3. Characterize the spirit behind the founding of Harvard College, asexpressed in the extract from New England's First Fruits (185). 

4. What was the nature and purpose of the Harvard College instruction asshown by the selection 186 a-d?

5. Point out the similarity between the exemptions granted to HarvardCollege by the Legislature of the colony (187 a) and those granted tomediaeval universities (103-105). Compare the privileges granted Brown(187 b) and those contained in 104. 

6. Compare the founding of the Free School at Roxbury (188) with thefounding of an English Grammar School (141-43). 

7. What does the distribution of scholars at Roxbury (188) show as to thecharacter of the school?

8. State the essentials of the Massachusetts Law of 1642 (190). 

9. Compare the Massachusetts Law of 1642 and the English Poor-Law of 1601(190 with 174) as to fundamental principles involved in each. 

10. What does the court citation of Topsfield (192) show?

11. What new principle is added (191) by the Law of 1647, and what doesthis new law indicate as to needs in the colony for classical learning?

12. Show how the Connecticut Law of 1650 (193) was based on theMassachusetts Law (190) of 1642. 

13. What does the Plymouth Colony appeal for Harvard College (194 b)indicate as to community of ideas in early New England?

14. What type of school was it intended to endow from the Cape Codfisheries (194 c)?

15. What is the difference between the Plymouth requirement as to grammarschools (194 d) and the Massachusetts requirement (191)?

16. Compare the rules for the New Haven Grammar School (189) with thosefor Colet's London School (138 a-c). 

17. Characterize the early Dutch schools as shown by the rules for theschoolmaster (196) and the Flatbush contract (195). 

18. Just what type of education did the Quakers mean to provide for, asshown in the extract from their Rules of Discipline (199)?

19. What kind of a school was the first one established in Philadelphia(198)?

20. Compare the proposed Pennsylvania Law of 1683 (197) and theMassachusetts Law of 1642 (190). 

21. What conception of education is revealed by the Virginiaapprenticeship laws (200 a, 1-3) and the North Carolina court records (200b, 1-3)?

22. Characterize the New England Indenture of Apprenticeship given in 201. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

 Boone, R. G. _Education in the United States_. Brown, S. W. _The Secularization of American Education_. Cheyney, Edw. P. _European Background of American Education_. Dexter, E. G. _A History of Education in the United States_. * Eggleston, Edw. _The Transit of Civilization_. Fisk, C. R. "The English Parish and Education at the Beginning of American Civilization"; in _School Review_, vol. 23, pp. 433-49. (September, 1915. )* Ford, P. L. _The New England Primer_. * Heatwole, C. J. _A History of Education in Virginia_. Jackson, G. L. _The Development of School Support in Colonial Massachusetts_. * Kilpatrick, Wm. H. _The Dutch Schools of New Netherlands and Colonial New York_. * Knight, E. W. _Public School Education in North Carolina_. * Martin, Geo. H. _Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System_. Seybolt, R. F. _Apprenticeship and Apprentice Education in Colonial New York and New England_. * Small, W. H. "The New England Grammar School"; in _School Review_, vol. 10, pp. 513-31. (September, 1902. ) Small, W. H. _Early New England Schools_. 

CHAPTER XVI

THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

NEW ATTITUDES AFTER THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. From the beginning of thetwelfth century onward, as we have already noted, there had been a slowbut gradual change in the character of human thinking, and a slow butcertain disintegration of the Mediaeval System, with its repressiveattitude toward all independent thinking. Many different influences andmovements had contributed to this change--the Moslem learning andcivilization in Spain, the recovery of the old legal and medicalknowledge, the revival of city life, the beginnings anew of commerce andindustry, the evolution of the universities, the rise of a small scholarlyclass, the new consciousness of nationality, the evolution of the modernlanguages, the beginnings of a small but important vernacular literature, and the beginnings of travel and exploration following the Crusades--allof which had tended to transform the mediaeval man and change his ways ofthinking. New objects of interest slowly came to the front, and newstandards of judgment gradually were applied. In consequence the mediaevalman, with his feeling of personal insignificance and lack of self-confidence, came to be replaced by a small but increasing number of menwho were conscious of their powers, possessed a new self-confidence, andrealized new possibilities of intellectual accomplishment. 

The Revival of Learning, first in Italy and then elsewhere in westernEurope, was the natural consequence of this awakening of the modernspirit, and in the careful work done by the humanistic scholars of theItalian Renaissance in collecting, comparing, questioning, inferring, criticizing, and editing the texts, and in reconstructing the ancient lifeand history, we see the beginnings of the modern scientific spirit. It wasthis same critical, questioning spirit which, when applied later togeographical knowledge, led to the discovery of America and thecircumnavigation of the globe; which, when applied to matters of Christianfaith, brought on the Protestant Revolts; which, when applied to theproblems of the universe, revealed the many wonderful fields of modernscience; and which, when applied to government, led to a questioning ofthe divine right of kings and the rise of constitutional government. Theawakening of scientific inquiry and the scientific spirit, and the attemptof a few thinkers to apply the new method to education, to which we nowturn, may be regarded as only another phase of the awakening of the moderninquisitive spirit which found expression earlier in the rise of theuniversities, the recovery and reconstruction of the ancient learning, theawakening of geographical discovery and exploration, and the questioningof the doctrines and practices of the Mediaeval Church. 

INSUFFICIENCY OF ANCIENT SCIENCE. From the point of view of scientificinquiry, all ancient learning possessed certain marked fundamentaldefects. The Greeks had--their time and age in world-civilizationconsidered--made many notable scientific observations and speculations, and had prepared the way for future advances. Thales (636?-546? B. C. ), Xenophanes (628?-520? B. C. ), Anaximenes (557-504 B. C. ), Pythagoras (570-500 B. C. ), Heraclitus (c. 500 B. C. ), Empedocles (460?-361? B. C. ), andAristotle (384-322 B. C. ) had all made interesting speculations as to thenature of matter, [1] Aristotle finally settling the question by namingthe world-elements as earth, water, air, fire, and ether. Hippocrates(460-367? B. C. ), as we have seen (p. 197), had observed the sick and hadrecorded and organized his observations in such a manner [2] as to formthe foundations upon which the science of medicine could be established. The Greek physician, Galen (130-200 A. D. ) added to these observations, andtheir combined work formed the basis upon which modern medical science hasslowly been built up. 

On the other hand, some of what each wrote was mere speculation and error, [3] and modern physicians were compelled to begin all over and along newlines before any real progress in medicine could be made. Aristotle haddone a notable work in organizing and codifying Greek scientificknowledge, as the list of his many scientific treatises in use in Europeby 1300 (R. 87) will show, but his writings were the result of a mixtureof keen observation and brilliant speculation, contained manyinaccuracies, and in time, due to the reverence accorded him as anauthority by the mediaeval scholars and the church authorities, provedserious obstacles to real scientific progress. 

At Alexandria the most notable Greek scientific work had been done. Euclid(323-283 B. C. ) in geometry; Aristarchus (third century B. C. ), whoexplained the motion of the earth; Eratosthenes (270-196 B. C. ), whomeasured the size of the earth; Archimedes (270?-212 B. C. ), a pupil ofEuclid's, who applied science in many ways and laid the foundations ofdynamics; Hipparchus (160-125 B. C. ), the father of astronomy, who studiedthe heavens and catalogued the stars, were among the more famous Greekswho studied and taught there in the days when Alexandria had succeededAthens as the intellectual capital of the Greek world. Some remarkableadvances also were made in the study of human anatomy and medicine by twoGreeks, Herophilus (335-280 B. C. ) and Erasistratus (d. 280 B. C. ), whoapparently did much dissecting. 

But even at Alexandria the promise of Greek science was unfulfilled. Despite many notable speculations and scientific advances, the hopefulbeginnings did not come to any large fruitage, and the great contributionmade by the Greeks to world civilization was less along scientific linesthan along the lines of literature and philosophy. Their great strengthlay in the direction of philosophic speculation, and this tendency tospeculate, rather than to observe and test and measure and record, was thefundamental weakness of all Greek science. The Greeks never advanced inscientific work to the invention and perfection of instruments for thestandardization of their observations. As a result they passed on to themediaeval world an extensive "book science" and not a little keenobservation, of which the works of Aristotle and the Alexandrianmathematicians and astronomers form the most conspicuous examples, butlittle scientific knowledge of which the modern world has been able tomake much use. The "book science" of the Greeks, and especially that ofAristotle, was highly prized for centuries, but in time, due to the manyinaccuracies, had to be discarded and done anew by modern scholars. 

The Romans, as we have seen (chapter III), were essentially a practicalpeople, good at getting the work of the world done, but not much given totheoretical discussion or scientific speculation. They were organizers, governors, engineers, executives, and literary workers rather thanscientists. They executed many important undertakings of a practicalcharacter, such as the building of roads, bridges, aqueducts, and publicbuildings; organized government and commerce on a large scale; and haveleft us a literature and a legal system of importance, but theycontributed little to the realm of pure science. The three great names inscience in all their history are Strabo the geographer (63 B. C. -24 A. D. );Pliny the Elder (23-79 A. D. ), who did notable work as an observer innatural history; and Galen (a Roman-Greek), in medicine. They, like theGreeks, were pervaded by the same fear that their science might proveuseful, whereas they cultivated it largely as a mental exercise (R. 203). 

THE CHRISTIAN REACTION AGAINST INQUIRY. The Christian attitude towardinquiry was from the first inhospitable, and in time became exceedinglyintolerant. The tendency of the Western Church, it will be remembered (p. 94), was from the first to reject all Hellenic learning, and to dependupon emotional faith and the enforcement of a moral life. By the close ofthe third century the hostility to pagan schools and Hellenic learning hadbecome so pronounced that the _Apostolic Constitutions_ (R. 41) orderedChristians to abstain from all heathen books, which could contain nothingof value and only served "to subvert the faith of the unstable. " In 401A. D. The Council of Carthage forbade the clergy to read any heathenauthor, and Greek learning now rapidly died out in the West. For a time itwas almost entirely lost. In consequence Greek science, then bestrepresented by Alexandrian learning, and which contained much that was ofgreat importance, was rejected along with other pagan learning. The, verymeager scientific knowledge that persisted into the Middle Ages in thegreat mediaeval textbooks (p. 162), as we have seen in the study of theSeven Liberal Arts (chapter VII), came to be regarded as useful only inexplaining passages of Scripture or in illustrating the ways of God towardman. The one and only science worthy of study was Theology, to which allother learning tended (see Figure 44, p. 154). 

The history of Christianity throughout all the Dark Ages is a history ofthe distrust of inquiry and reason, and the emphasis of blind emotionalfaith. Mysticism, good and evil spirits, and the interpretation of naturalphenomena as manifestations of the Divine will from the first receivedlarge emphasis. The worship of saints and relics, and the greatdevelopment of the sensuous and symbolic, changed the earlier religioninto a crude polytheism. During the long period of the Middle Ages themiraculous flourished. The most extreme superstition pervaded all ranks ofsociety. Magic and prayers were employed to heal the sick, restore thecrippled, foretell the future, and punish the wicked. Sacred pools, theroyal touch, wonder-working images, and miracles through prayer stood inthe way of the development of medicine (R. 204). Disease was attributed tosatanic influence, and a regular schedule of prayers for cures was in use. Sanitation was unknown. Plagues and pestilences were manifestations ofDivine wrath, and hysteria and insanity were possession by the devil to becast out by whipping and torture. One's future was determined by theposition of the heavenly bodies at the time of birth. Eclipses, meteors, and comets were fearful portents of Divine displeasure:

 Eight things there be a Comet brings, When it on high doth horrid rage; Wind, Famine, Plague, and Death to Kings, War, Earthquakes, Floods, and Direful Change. [4]

The literature on magic was extensive. The most miraculous happenings wererecorded and believed. Trial by ordeal, following careful religiousformulae, was common before 1200, though prohibited shortly afterward bypapal decrees (1215, 1222). The insistence of the Church on "the willful, devilish character of heresy, " and the extension of heresy to cover almostany form of honest doubt or independent inquiry, caused an intellectualstagnation along lines of scientific investigation which was not relievedfor more than a thousand years. The many notable advances in physics, chemistry, astronomy, and medicine made by Moslem scholars (chapter VIII)were lost on Christian Europe, and had to be worked out again centurieslater by the scholars of the western world. Out of the astronomy of theArabs the Christians got only astrology; out of their chemistry they gotonly alchemy. Both in time stood seriously in the way of real scientificthinking and discovery. 

GROWING TOLERANCE CHANGED BY THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS. After the rise of theuniversities, the expansion of the minds of men which followed theCrusades and the revival of trade and industry, the awakening which camewith the revival of the old learning and the rise of geographicaldiscovery, the church authorities assumed a broader and a more tolerantattitude toward inquiry and reason than had been the case for hundreds ofyears. It would have been surprising, with the large number of university-trained men entering the service of the Church, had this not been thecase. By the middle of the fifteenth century it looked as though theRenaissance spirit might extend into many new directions, and by 1500 theworld seemed on the eve of important progress in almost every line ofendeavor. As was pointed out earlier (p. 259), the Church was moretolerant than it had been for centuries, and about the year 1500 was themost stimulating time in the history of our civilization since the days ofAlexandria and ancient Rome. 

In 1517 Luther nailed his theses to the church door in Wittenberg. TheChurch took alarm and attempted to crush him, and soon the greatestcontest since the conflict between paganism and Christianity was on. Within half a century all northern lands had been lost to the ancientChurch (see map, p. 296); the first successful challenge of its authorityduring its long history. 

The effect of these religious revolts on the attitude of the Church towardintellectual liberty was natural and marked. The tolerance of inquiryrecently extended was withdrawn, and an era of steadily increasingintolerance set in which was not broken for more than a century. In aneffort to stop the further spread of the heresy, the Church Council ofTrent (1545-63) adopted stringent regulations against heretical teachings(p. 303), while the sword and torch and imprisonment were resorted to tostamp out opposition and win back the revolting lands. A century ofmerciless warfare ensued, and the hatreds engendered by the long andbitter struggle over religious differences put both Catholic andProtestant Europe in no tolerant frame of mind toward inquiry or newideas. The Inquisition, a sort of universal mediaeval grand jury for thedetection and punishment of heretics, was revived, and the Jesuits, founded in 1534-40, were vigorous in defense of the Church and bitter intheir opposition to all forms of independent inquiry and Protestantheresy. 

It was into this post-Reformation atmosphere of suspicion and distrust andhatred that the new critical, inquiring, questioning spirit of science, asapplied to the forces of the universe, was born. A century earlier thefirst scientists might have obtained a respectful hearing, and might havebeen permitted to press their claims; after the Protestant Revolts hadtorn Christian Europe asunder this could hardly be. As a result the earlyscientists found themselves in no enviable position. Their theories werebitterly assailed as savoring of heresy; their methods and purposes werealike suspected; and any challenge of an old long-accepted idea was likelyto bring a punishment that was swift and sure. From the middle of thesixteenth to the middle of the seventeenth century was not a time when newideas were at a premium anywhere in western Europe. It was essentially aperiod of reaction, and periods of reaction are not favorable tointellectual progress. It was into this century of reaction that modernscientific inquiry and reasoning, itself another form of expression of theintellectual attitudes awakened by the work of the humanistic scholars ofthe Italian Renaissance, made its first claim for a hearing. 

THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN SCIENTIFIC METHOD. One of the great problemswhich has always deeply interested thinking men in all lands is the natureand constitution of the material universe, and to this problem people inall stages of civilization have worked out for themselves some kind of ananswer. It was one of the great speculations of the Greeks, and it was atAlexandria, in the period of its decadence, that the Egyptian geographerPtolemy (138 A. D. ) had offered an explanation which was accepted byChristian Europe and which dominated all thinking on the subject duringthe Middle Ages. He had concluded that the earth was located at the centerof the visible universe, immovable, and that the heavenly bodies movedaround the earth, in circular motion, fixed in crystalline spheres. [5]This explanation accorded perfectly with Christian ideas as to creation, as well as with Christian conceptions as to the position and place of manand his relation to the heavens above and to a hell beneath. This theorywas obviously simple and satisfactory, and became sanctified with time. Aswe see it now the wonder is that such an explanation could have beenaccepted for so long. Only among an uninquisitive people could soimperfect a theory have endured for over fourteen centuries. 

[Illustration: FIG. 113. NICHOLAS KOPERNIK (Copernicus), (1473-1543)]

In 1543 a Bohemian church canon and physician by the name of NicholasCopernicus published his _De Revolutionibus Orbium Celestium_, in which heset forth the explanation of the universe which we now know. He piouslydedicated the work to Pope Paul III, and wisely refrained from publishingit until the year of his death. [6] Anything so completely upsetting theChristian conception as to the place and position of man in the universecould hardly be expected to be accepted, particularly at the time of itspublication, without long and bitter opposition. 

In the dedicatory letter (R. 205), Copernicus explains how, after feelingthat the Ptolemaic explanation was wrong, he came to arrive at theconclusions he did. The steps he set forth form an excellent example of amethod of thinking now common, but then almost unknown. They were:

 1. Dissatisfaction with the old Ptolemaic explanation. 

 2. A study of all known literature, to see if any better explanation had been offered. 

 3. Careful thought on the subject, until his thinking took form in a definite theory. 

 4. Long observation and testing out, to see if the observed facts would support his theory. 

 5. The theory held to be correct, because it reduced all known facts to a systematic order and harmony. 

This is as clear a case of inductive reasoning as was L. Valla's exposureof the forgery of the so-called "Donation of Constantine, " an example ofdeductive reasoning. Both used a new method--the method of modernscholarship. In both cases the results were revolutionary. As Petrarchstands forth in history as the first modern classical scholar, soCopernicus stands forth as the first modern scientific thinker. Thebeginnings of all modern scientific investigation date from 1543. Of hiswork a recent writer (E. C. J. Morton) has said:

 Copernicus cannot be said to have flooded with light the dark places of nature--in the way that one stupendous mind subsequently did-- but still, as we look back through the long vista of the history of science, the dim Titanic figure of the old monk seems to rear itself out of the dull flats around it, pierces with its head the mists that overshadow them, and catches the first gleam of the rising sun, ... 

 Like some iron peak, by the Creator Fired with the red glow of the rushing morn. 

[Illustration: FIG. 114. TYCHO BRAHE (1546-1601)]

THE NEW METHOD OF INQUIRY APPLIED BY OTHERS. At first Copernicus' workattracted but little attention. An Italian Dominican by the name ofGiordano Bruno (1548-1600), deeply impressed by the new theory, set forthin Latin and Italian the far-reaching and majestic implications of such atheory of creation, and was burned at the stake at Rome for his pains. ADane, Tycho Brahe, after twenty-one years of careful observation of theheavens, during which time he collected "a magnificent series ofobservations, far transcending in accuracy [7] and extent anything thathad been accomplished by his predecessors, " showed Aristotle to be wrongin many particulars. His observations of the comet of 1577 led him toconclude that the theory of crystalline spheres was impossible, and thatthe common view of the time as to their nature [8] was absurd. In 1609 aGerman by the name of Johann Kepler (1571-1630), using the records ofobservations which Tycho Brahe had accumulated and applying them to theplanet Mars, proved the truth of the Copernican theory and framed hisfamous three laws for planetary motion. 

[Illustration: FIG. 115. GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642)]

Finally an Italian, Galileo Galilei, a professor at the University ofPisa, developing a telescope that would magnify to eight diameters, discovered Jupiter's satellites and Saturn's rings. The story of hisdiscovery of the satellites of Jupiter is another interesting illustrationof the careful scientific reasoning of these early workers (R. 206). Galileo also made a number of discoveries in physics, through the use ofnew scientific methods, which completely upset the teachings of theAristotelians, and made the most notable advances in mechanics since thedays of Archimedes. For his pronounced advocacy of the Copernican theoryhe was called to Rome (1615) by the Cardinals of the Inquisition, theCopernican theory was condemned as "absurd in philosophy" and as"expressly contrary to Holy Scripture, " and Galileo was compelled torecant (1616) his error. [9] For daring later (1632) to assume that hemight, under a new Pope, defend the Copernican theory, even in an indirectmanner, he was again called before the inquisitorial body, compelled torecant and abjure his errors (R. 207) to escape the stake, and was thenvirtually made a prisoner of the Inquisition for the remainder of hislife. So strongly had the forces of medievalism reasserted themselvesafter the Protestant Revolts!

[Illustration: FIG. 116. SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727)]

Finally the English scholar Newton (1642-1728), in his _Principia_ (1687), settled permanently all discussions as to the Copernican theory by hiswonderful mathematical studies. He demonstrated mathematically the motionsof the planets and comets, proved Kepler's laws to be true, explainedgravitation and the tides, made clear the nature of light, and reduceddynamics to a science. Of his work a recent writer, Karl Pearson, hassaid:

The Newtonian laws of motion form the starting point of most moderntreatises on dynamics, and it seems to me that physical science, thusstarted, resembles the mighty genius of an Arabian tale emerging amidmetaphysical exhalations from the bottle in which for long centuries ithad been corked down. 

So far-reaching in its importance was the scientific work of Newton thatPope's couplet seems exceedingly applicable:

 Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night; God said, "Let Newton be, " and all was light. 

THE NEW METHOD APPLIED IN OTHER FIELDS. The new method of study was soonapplied to other fields by scholars of the new type, here and there, andalways with fruitful results. The Englishman, William Gilbert (1540-1603)published, in 1600, his _De Arte Magnetica_, and laid the foundations ofthe modern study of electricity and magnetism. A German-Swiss by the nameof Hohenheim, but who Latinized his name to Paracelsus (1493-1541), andwho became a professor in the medical faculty at the University of Basle, in 1526 broke with mediaeval traditions by being one of the firstuniversity scholars to refuse to lecture in Latin. He ridiculed themedical theories of Hippocrates (p. 197) and Galen (p. 198), and, regarding the human body as a chemical compound, began to treat diseasesby the administration of chemicals. A Saxon by the name of Landmann, whoalso Latinized his name to Agricola (1494-1555), applied chemistry tomining and metallurgy, and a French potter named Bernard Palissy (c. 1500-88) applied chemistry to pottery and the arts. To Paracelsus, Agricola, and Palissy we are indebted for having laid, in the sixteenth century, thefoundations of the study of modern chemistry. 

[Illustration: FIG. 117. WILLIAM HARVEY (1578-1657)]

A Belgian by the name of Vesalius (1514-64) was the first modern todissect the human body, and for so doing was sentenced by the Inquisitionto perform a penitential journey to Jerusalem. One of his disciplesdiscovered the valves in the veins and was the teacher of the Englishman, William Harvey, who discovered the circulation of the blood and later(1628) dared to publish the fact to the world. These men established themodern studies of anatomy and physiology. Another early worker was a Swissby the name of Conrad Gessner (1516-65), who observed and wroteextensively on plants and animals, and who stands as the first naturalistof modern times. 

The sixteenth century thus marks the rise of modern scientific inquiry, and the beginnings of the study of modern science. The number of scholarsengaged in the study was still painfully small, and the religiousprejudice against which they worked was strong and powerful, but in thework of these few men we have not only the beginnings of the study ofmodern astronomy, physics, chemistry, metallurgy, medicine, anatomy, physiology, and natural history, but also the beginnings of a group ofmen, destined in time to increase greatly in number, who could seestraight, and who sought facts regardless of where they might lead andwhat preconceived ideas they might upset. How deeply the future ofcivilization is indebted to such men, men who braved social ostracism andoften the wrath of the Church as well, for the, to them, preciousprivilege of seeing things as they are, we are not likely to over-estimate. In time their work was destined to reach the schools, and tomaterially modify the character of all education. 

[Illustration: FIG. 118. FRANCIS BACON (1561-1626)]

HUMAN REASON IN THE INVESTIGATION OF NATURE. To the English statesman andphilosopher, Francis Bacon, more than to any one else, are we indebted forthe proper formulation and statement of this new scientific method. Thoughnot a scientist himself, he has often been termed "the father of modernscience. " Seeing clearly the importance of the new knowledge, he brokeentirely with the old scholastic deductive logic as expressed in the_Organon_, of Aristotle, and formulated and expressed the methods ofinductive reasoning in his _Novum Organum_, published in 1620. In this heshowed the insufficiency of the method of argumentation; analyzed andformulated the inductive method of reasoning, of which his study as to thenature of heat [10] is a good example; and pointed out that knowledge is aprocess, and not an end in itself; and indicated the immense and fruitfulfield of science to which the method might be applied. By showing how tolearn from nature herself he turned the Renaissance energy into a newdirection, and made a revolutionary break with the disputations anddeductive logic of the Aristotelian scholastics which had for so longdominated university instruction. 

In formulating the new method he first pointed out the defects of thelearning of his time, which he classified under the head of "distempers, "three in number, and as follows:

 1. _Fantastic learning_: Alchemy, magic, miracles, old-wives, tales, credulities, superstitions, pseudo-science, and impostures of all sorts inherited from an ignorant past, and now conserved as treasures of knowledge. 

 2. _Contentious learning_: The endless disputations of the Scholastics about questions which had lost their significance, deductive in character, not based on any observation, not aimed primarily to arrive at truth, "fruitful of controversy, and barren of effect. "

 3. _Delicate learning_: The new learning of the humanistic Renaissance, verbal and not real, stylish and polished but not socially important, and leading to nothing except a mastery of itself. 

As an escape from these three types of distempers, which wellcharacterized the three great stages in human progress from the sixth tothe fifteenth centuries, Bacon offered the inductive method, by means ofwhich men would be able to distinguish true from false, learn to seestraight, create useful knowledge, and fill in the great gaps in thelearning of the time by actually working out new knowledge from theunknown. The collecting, organizing, comparing, questioning, and inferringspirit of the humanistic revival he now turned in a new direction byorganizing and formulating for the work a new _Organum_ to take the placeof the old _Organon_ of Aristotle. In Book 1 he sets forth some of thedifficulties (R. 208) with which those who try new experiments or work outnew methods of study have to contend from partisans of old ideas. 

The _Novum Organum_ showed the means of escape from the errors of twothousand years by means of a new method of thinking and work. Bacon didnot invent the new method--it had been used since man first began toreason about phenomena, and was the method by means of which Wycliffe, Luther, Magellan, Copernicus, Brahe, and Gilbert had worked--but he wasthe first to formulate it clearly and to point out the vast field of newand useful knowledge that might be opened up by applying human reason, along inductive lines, to the investigation of the phenomena of nature. His true service to science lay in the completeness of his analysis of theinductive process, and his declaration that those who wish to arrive atuseful discoveries must travel by that road. As Macaulay well says, in hisessay on Bacon:

 He was not the maker of that road; he was not the discoverer of that road; he was not the person who first surveyed and mapped that road. But he was the person who first called the public attention to an inexhaustible mine of wealth which had been utterly neglected, and which was accessible by that road alone. 

To stimulate men to the discovery of useful truth, to turn the energies ofmankind--even slowly--from assumption and disputation to patientexperimentation, [11. ] and to give an impress to human thinking which ithas retained for centuries, is, as Macaulay well says, "the rareprerogative of a few imperial spirits. " Macaulay's excellent summary ofthe importance of Bacon's work (R. 209) is well worth reading at thispoint. 

THE NEW METHOD IN THE HANDS OF SUBSEQUENT WORKERS. By the middle of theseventeenth century many important advances had been made in manydifferent lines of scientific work. In the two centuries between 1450 and1650, the foundations of modern mathematics and mechanics had been laid. At the beginning of the period Arabic notation and the early books ofEuclid were about all that were taught; at its end the western world hadworked out decimals, symbolic algebra, much of plane and sphericaltrigonometry, mechanics, logarithms (1614) and conic sections (1637), andwas soon to add the calculus (1667-87). Mercator had published the map ofthe world (1569) which has ever since born his name, and the Gregoriancalendar had been introduced (1572). The barometer, thermometer, air-pump, pendulum clock, and the telescope had come into use in the period. Alchemyhad passed over into modern chemistry; and the astrologer was finding lessand less to do as the astronomer took his place. The English Hippocrates, Thomas Sydenham (1624-89), during this period laid the foundations ofmodern medical study, and the microscope was applied to the study oforganic forms. Modern ideas as to light and optics and gases, and thetheory of gravitation, were about to be set forth. All these advances hadbeen made during the century following the epoch-making labors ofCopernicus, the first modern scientific man to make an impression on thethinking of mankind. 

[Illustration: FIG. 119. THE LOSS AND RECOVERY OF THE SCIENCES Each shorthorizontal line indicates the life-span of a very distinguished scholar inthe science. Mohammedan scientists have not been included. The relativeneglect or ignorance of a science has been indicated by the depth of theshading. The great loss to civilization caused by the barbarian inroadsand the hostile attitude of the early Church is evident. ]

Accompanying this new scientific work there arose, among a few men in eachof the western European countries, an interest in scientific studies suchas the world had not witnessed since the days of the Alexandrian Greek. This interest found expression in the organization of scientificsocieties, wholly outside the universities of the time, for the reportingof methods and results, and for the mingling together in sympatheticcompanionship of these seekers after new truth. The most important datesconnected with the rise of these societies are:

 1603. The Lyncean Society at Rome. 1619. Jungius founded the Natural Science Association at Rostock. 1645. The Royal Society of London began to meet; constituted in 1660; chartered in 1662. 1657. The Academia del Cimento at Florence. 1662. The Imperial Academy of Germany. 1666. The Academy of Sciences in France. 1675. The National Observatory at Greenwich established. 

After 1650 the advance of science was rapid. The spirit of modern inquiry, which in the sixteenth century had animated but a few minds, by the middleof the seventeenth had extended to all the principal countries of Europe. The striking results obtained during the seventeenth century revealed thevast field waiting to be explored, and filled many independent modern-typescholars with an enthusiasm for research in the new domain of science. Bythe close of the eighteenth century the main outlines of most of themodern sciences had been established. 

LEADING THINKERS OUTSIDE THE UNIVERSITIES. During the seventeenth century, and largely during the eighteenth as well, the extreme conservatism of theuniversities, their continued control by their theological faculties, andtheir continued devotion to theological controversy and the teachings ofstate orthodoxy rather than the advancement of knowledge, served to makeof them such inhospitable places for the new scientific method thatpractically all the leading workers with it were found outside theuniversities. This was less true of England than other lands, but was inpart true of English universities as well. As civil servants, courtattachés, pensioners of royalty, or as private citizens of means theyfound, as independent scholars reporting to the recently formed scientificsocieties, a freedom for investigation and a tolerance of ideas thenscarcely possible anywhere in the university world. 

[Illustration: FIG. 120. RENÉ DESCARTES (1596-1650)]

Tycho Brahe and Kepler were pensioners of the Emperor at Prague. LordBacon was a lawyer and political leader, and became a peer of England. Descartes, the mathematician and founder of modern philosophy, to whom weare indebted for conic sections; Napier, inventor of logarithms; and Rayand Willoughby, who did the first important work in botany and zoology inEngland, were all independent scholars. The air-pump was invented by theBurgomaster of Madgeburg. Huygens, the astronomer and inventor of theclock was a pensioner of the King of France. Cassini, who explained themotion of Jupiter's satellites, was Astronomer Royal at Paris. Halley, whodemonstrated the motions of the moon and who first predicted the return ofa comet, held a similar position at Greenwich. Van Helmont and Boyle, whotogether laid the foundations of our chemical knowledge, were both men ofnoble lineage who preferred the study of the new sciences to a life ofease at court. Harvey was a physician and demonstrator of anatomy inLondon. Sydenham, the English Hippocrates, was a pensioner of Cromwell anda physician in Westminster. The German mathematical scholar, Leibnitz, whojointly with Newton discovered the calculus, scorned a universityprofessorship and remained an attaché of a German court. Newton, thoughfor a time a professor at Cambridge, during most of his mature life heldthe royal office of Warden of the Mint. These are a few notableillustrations of scientific scholars of the first rank who remainedoutside the universities to obtain advantages and freedom not then to befound within their walls. Much these same conditions continued throughoutmost of the eighteenth century, during which many remarkable advances inall lines of pure science were made. By the close of this century theuniversities had been sufficiently modernized that scientific workersbegan to find in them an atmosphere conducive to scientific teaching andresearch; during the nineteenth century they became the homes ofscientific progress and instruction; to-day they are deeply interested inthe promotion of scientific research. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Show that the rise of scientific inquiry was but another manifestationof the same inquiring spirit which had led to the recovery of the ancientliteratures and history. 

2. What do you understand to be meant by the failure of the Greeks tostandardize their observations by instruments?

3. Show that it would be possible largely to determine the character of acivilization, if one knew only the prevailing ideas and conceptions as toscientific and religious matters. 

4. Show the two different types of reasoning involved in the deduction ofL. Valla (p. 246) and the induction of Copernicus. 

5. Of which type was the reasoning of Galileo as to Jupiter's satellites?

6. Show that the three "distempers" described by Bacon characterize thethree great stages in human progress from the sixth to the fifteenthcenturies. 

7. How do you explain the long rejection of the new sciences by theuniversities?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 203. Macaulay: Attitude of the Ancients toward Scientific Inquiry. 204. Franck: The Credulity of Mediaeval People. 205. Copernicus: How he arrived at the theory he set forth. 206. Brewster: Galileo's Discovery of the Satellites of Jupiter. 207. Inquisition: The Abjuration of Galileo. 208. Bacon: On Scientific Progress. 209. Macaulay: The Importance of Bacon's Work. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. How do you explain the attitude of the ancients toward scientificinquiry?

2. State the ancient purpose in pursuing scientific studies. 

3. Contrast Bacon and Plato as to aims. 

4. Show that the thinking of Copernicus as to the motions of the heavenlybodies was an excellent example of deductive thinking. 

5. Show that the discovery and reasoning of Galileo was an example of thecommon method of reasoning of to-day. 

6. Were the difficulties that surrounded scientific inquiry and progress, as described by Bacon, easily removed?

7. Explain the readiness with which the clergy have so commonly opposedscientific inquiry for fear that the results might upset preconceivedtheological ideas. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

 Ball, W. R. R. _History of Mathematics at Cambridge_. * Libby, Walter. _An Introduction to the History of Science_. Ornstein, Martha. _Role of the Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century_. * Routledge, Robert. _A Popular History of Science_. * Sedgwick, W. T. And Tyler, H. W. _A Short History of Science_. * White, A. D. _History of the Warfare of Science with Theology_, 2 vols. Wordsworth Christopher. _Scholae Academicae; Studies at the English Universities in the Eighteenth Century_. 

CHAPTER XVII

THE NEW SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS

THE RISE OF REALISM IN EDUCATION. As will be remembered from our study ofthe educational results of the Revival of Learning (chapter XI), the newschools established in the reaction against medievalism, to teach pureLatin and Greek, in time became formal and lifeless (p. 283), and theiraim came to be almost entirely that of imparting a mastery of theCiceronian style, both in writing and in speech. This idea, first clearlyinaugurated by Sturm at Strassburg (R. 137), had now become fixed, and inits extreme is illustrated by the teachings of the Jesuit Campion atPrague (R. 146). As a reaction against this extreme position of thehumanistic scholars there arose, during the sixteenth century, and as afurther expression of the new critical spirit awakened by the Revival ofLearning, a demand for a type of education which would make truth ratherthan beauty, and the realities of the life of the time rather than thebeauties of a life of Roman days, the aim and purpose of education. Thisnew spirit became known as Realism, was contemporaneous with the rise ofscientific inquiry, and was an expression of a similar dissatisfactionwith the learning of the time. As applied to education this new spirit maybe said to have manifested itself in three different stages, as follows:

 1. Humanistic realism. 2. Social realism. 3. Sense realism. 

We will explain each of these, briefly, in order. 

1. HUMANISTIC REALISM

A NEW AIM IN INSTRUCTION. Humanistic realism represents the beginning ofthe reaction against form and style and in favor of ideas and content. Thehumanistic realists were in agreement with the classical humanists thatthe old classical literatures and the Bible contained all that wasimportant in the education of youth. The ancient literatures, they held, presented "not only the widest product of human intelligence, butpractically all that was worthy of man's attention. " The two groupsdiffered, however, in that the classical humanists conceived the aim ofeducation to be the mastery of the vocabulary and style of Cicero, and theproduction of a new race of Roman youths for a revived Latin scholarlyworld, while the new humanistic realists wanted to use the old literaturesas a means to a new end--that of teaching knowledge that would be usefulin the world in which they lived. Monroe has so well expressed thehumanistic-realist attitude that a passage from his History is worthquoting here. He says:

 Not only did ancient philosophy contain the true philosophy of this life, but languages were the key to the real understanding of the Christian religion. Not only did mastery of these languages give power of speech, and hence influence over one's fellows; but, if military science was to be studied, it could in no place be better searched for than in Caesar and in Xenophon; was agriculture to be practiced, no better guide was to be found than Virgil or Columella; was architecture to be mastered, no better way existed than through Vitruvius; was geography to be considered, it must be through Mela or Solinus; was medicine to be understood, no better means than Celsus existed; was natural history to be appreciated, there was no more adequate source of information than Pliny and Seneca. Aristotle furnished the basis of all the sciences, Plato of all philosophy, Cicero of all institutional life, and the Church Fathers and the Scriptures of all religion. 

EXPONENTS OF HUMANISTIC REALISM. The Dutch international scholar Erasmus(1467?-1536) (p. 274), the Frenchman Rabelais (1483-1553), and the Englishpoet Milton (1608-74) stand as the clearest representatives of this newhumanistic realism. 

Erasmus had clearly distinguished between the education of words and theeducation of things, had pointed out the ease with which real truth islearned and retained, and had urged the study of the content rather thanthe form of the ancient authors. In his _System of Studies_ he said:

 From these very authors (Latin and Greek), whom we read for the sake of improving our language, incidentally, in no small degree is a knowledge of things gathered. 

In his _Ciceronian_ he had ridiculed those who mistook the form for thespirit of the ancients. 

The French non-conforming monk, curé, physician, and university scholar, François Rabelais, in his satirical _Life of Gargantua_ (1535) and _TheHeroic Deeds of Pantagruel_ (1533) had set forth, even more clearly, theidea of obtaining from a study of the ancient authors (R. 210) knowledgethat would be useful. Writing largely in the character of a clown and afool, because such was a safer method, he protested against the formal, shallow, and insincere life of his age. He made as vigorous a protestagainst medievalism and formalism as he dared, for he lived in a time whennew ideas were dangerous commodities for one to carry about or to try toexpress. He ridiculed the old scholastic learning, set forth the idea ofusing the old classics for realistic as well as humanistic ends, and alsoadvocated physical, moral, social, and religious education in the spiritof the best writers and teachers of the Italian Renaissance. His book wasextensively read and had some influence in shaping thinking, thoughRabelais's importance in the history of education lies rather in hisinfluence on later educational thinkers than on the life of his time. 

[Illustration: FIG. 121. FRANÇOIS RABELAIS (1483-1553)]

Perhaps the clearest example of humanistic realism is found in thewritings of the English poet and humanitarian, John Milton. His _Tractateon Education_ (1644) was extensively read, and was influential in shapingeducational practice in the non-conformist secondary academies which arosea little later in England. Still later his ideas indirectly somewhatinfluenced American development. 

Milton first gives us an excellent statement of the new religious-civicaim of post-Reformation education (R. 211), and then points out thedefects of the existing education, whereby boys "spend seven or eightyears merely in scraping together so much miserable Latine and Greek, asmight be learnt otherwise easily and delightfully in one year. " He thenpresents his plan for "a compleat and generous Education" for "noble andgentle youths, " and tells "how all this may be done between twelve and oneand twenty, less time than is now bestowed in pure trifling at Grammar andSophistry. " The course of study he outlines (R. 212) is enormous. Thefirst year, that is beginning at twelve, the boy is to learn Latingrammar, arithmetic, and geometry, and to read simple Latin and Greek. During the next three or four years the pupil is to master Greek, and tostudy agriculture, geography, natural philosophy, physiology, mathematics, fortification, engineering, architecture, and natural history, all byreading the chief writings of the ancients, in prose and poetry, on thesesubjects. During the remaining years to twenty-one the pupil, similarly, is to obtain ethical instruction from the Greeks and the Bible; learnHebrew, Greek, Roman, and Saxon law; learn Italian and Hebrew; and studyeconomics, politics, history, logic, rhetoric, and poetry by readingselected ancient authors. What Rabelais suggested in jest for his giant, Milton adopted as a program for the school. In addition, in thoroughlycharacteristic modern English fashion, he makes careful provision fordaily exercise and play. Aside, though, from its impossibility ofaccomplishment except by a superior few, Milton's plan is thoroughlyrepresentative of the new humanistic-realistic point of view-that is, thateducation should impart useful information, though the information asMilton conceived it was to be drawn almost entirely from the books of theancients. 

[Illustration: FIG. 122. JOHN MILTON (1608-74)]

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF HUMANISTIC REALISM. The importance of humanisticrealism in the history of education lies largely in that it was the firstof a series of reactions that led later to sense-realism--that is, to thestudy of science and the application of scientific method in the schools. 

In England it possesses still larger importance. Milton had called hisinstitution an "Academy. " [1] After the restoration of the Stuarts(Charles II, 1660), some two thousand non-conforming clergymen were"dispossessed" by the Act of Conformity (1662; R. 166), and soon afterthis the children of Non-Conformists were excluded from the grammarschools and universities. Many of these clergymen now turned to teachingas a means of earning a livelihood and serving their people, and the ideasof the non-conformist Milton were influential in turning the schools thusestablished even further toward the study of useful subjects. Many of thenew schools offered instruction in the modern languages, logic, rhetoric, ethics, geography, astronomy, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, surveying, navigation, history, oratory, economics, and natural and moral philosophy, as well as the old classical subjects. All teaching, too, was done inEnglish, and the study of English language and literature was emphasized. This made these non-conformist academies in many respects superior to theolder Latin grammar schools. After the enactment of the Toleration Act, in1689, these schools were allowed to incorporate and were graduallyabsorbed into the existing Latin grammar-school system of England, butunfortunately without producing much change in the character of theseolder institutions. 

The idea of offering instruction in these new studies was in time carriedto America, where better results were obtained. At first a few of thesubjects, such as the mathematical studies, surveying, navigation, andEnglish, were introduced into the existing Latin grammar or other schoolsof secondary grade. Especially was this true in the colonies south of NewEngland. After 1751, and especially after about 1780, distinct Academiesarose in the United States (chapter XVIII), whose purpose was to offerinstruction in all these new subjects of study. From these our modern highschools have been derived. 

II. SOCIAL REALISM

[Illustration: FIG. 123. MICHEL DE MONTAIGNE (1533-92)]

MONTAIGNE AND LOCKE. Social realism represents a still further reactionaway from the humanistic schools. It was the natural reaction of practicalmen of the new world against a type of education that tended to perpetuatethe pedantry of an earlier age, by devoting its energies to the productionof the scholar and professional man to the neglect of the man of affairs. The social realists were small in number, but powerful because of theirimportant social connections and wealth, and they were very determined tohave an education suited to their needs, even if they had to create itthemselves (R. 213). The French nobleman, scholar, author, and civicofficer, M. De Montaigne (1533-92), and the English philosopher, JohnLocke (1632-1704), were the clearest exponents of this new point of view, though it found expression in the writings of many others. Each declaredfor a practical, useful type of education for the young boy who was tolive the life of a gentleman in the world of affairs. 

Neither had any sympathy with the colleges and grammar schools of the time(R. 214), and both rejected the school for the private tutor. This tutormust be selected with great care, and first of all must be a well-bredgentleman--a man, as Montaigne says, "who has rather a well-made than awell-filled head" (R. 215). Locke cautions that "one fit to educate andform the Mind of a young Gentleman is not every where to be found, " and ofthe common type of teacher he asks, "When such an one has empty'd out intohis Pupil all the Latin and Logick he has brought from the University, will that Furniture make him a fine Gentleman?" (R. 216). 

Both condemn the school training of their time, and both urge that thetutor train the judgment and the understanding rather than the memory. Toimpart good manners rather than mere information, and to train for life inthe world rather than for the life of a scholar, seem to both offundamental importance in the education of a boy. "The great world, " saysMontaigne, "is the mirror wherein we are to behold ourselves. In short, Iwould have this to be the book my young gentleman should study with themost attention. " "Latin and Learning, " says Locke, "make all the Noise;and the main Stress is laid upon Proficiency in Things a great Partwhereof belong not to a Gentleman's Calling; which is to have theKnowledge of a Man of Business, a Carriage suitable to his Rank, and to beeminent and useful to his Country, according to his Station" (R. 216). Both emphasized the importance of travel abroad as an important factor inthe education of a gentleman. 

THEIR PLACE IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. Both Montaigne and Locke wereconcerned alone with the education of the sons of gentlemen, individualsnow coming rapidly into prominence to dispute place in the world ofaffairs with the higher nobility on the one hand and the clergy on theother. With the education of any other class Montaigne never concernedhimself. As for Locke, he was later appointed a King's Commissioner, withcertain oversight of the poor, and for the education of the children ofsuch he drew up a careful report which, in true English fashion, providedfor their training in workhouses and their apprenticeship to a trade (R. 217). He wrote nothing with regard to the education of the children ofmiddle-class workers and tradesmen. Both authors also deal entirely withthe work of a tutor, and not with the work of a teacher in a school. Neither deals specifically with elementary education, but rather withwhat, in Europe, would be called the secondary-school period in theeducation of a boy. Locke was extensively read by the gentry of England, as expressive of the best current practice of their class, and his ideasas to education were also of some influence in shaping the instruction ofthe non-conformist teachers in the academies there. His place in thehistory of education is also of some importance, as we shall point outlater, for the disciplinary theory of education which he set forth. Stillmore, Locke later exerted a deep influence on the writings of Rousseau(chapter XXI), and hence helped materially to shape modern educationaltheory. 

[Illustration: FIG. 124. JOHN LOCKE (1631-1704)]

THE NEW SCHOOLS FOR THE SONS OF THE GENTRY. Both Montaigne and Locke, intheir emphasis on the importance of a practical education for the socialand political demands of a gentleman concerned with the affairs of themodern world, represent a still further reaction against the humanisticschools of the time than did the humanistic realists whom we have justconsidered. Still more, both are expressive of the attitude of thenobility and gentry of the time, who had almost deserted the schools aspedantic institutions of little value. France was then the great countryof Europe, and French language, French political ideas, French manners, and French tutors found their way into all neighboring lands. A new socialand political ideal was erected--that of the polished man of the world, who could speak French, had traveled, knew history and politics, law andgeography, heraldry and genealogy, some mathematics and physics with theirapplications, could use the sword and ride, was adept in games anddancing, and was skilled in the practical affairs of life. 

[Illustration: FIG. 125. AN ACADEMIE DES ARMESFrom an early eighteenth-century Parisian poster, advertising an Academy. ]

To give such training the French created numerous Academies in theircities. A writer of 1649 states that there were twelve such institutionsat that time in Paris alone. Not infrequently some nobleman was at thehead. Boys were first educated at home by tutors, and then sent to theAcademy to be trained in riding, the military arts, fortification, mathematics, the modern languages, and the many graces of a gentleman. TheEnglishman, John Evelyn, who was in France in 1644, thus describes theFrench Academies:

 At the Palais Cardinal in Paris I frequently went to see them ride and exercise the Greate Horse, especially at the Academy of Monsieur du Plessis, and de Veau, whose scholes of that art are frequented by the Nobility; and here also young gentlemen are taught to fence, daunce, play on musiq, and something in fortifications and mathematics. 

 At Richelieu, near Tours, belongs an Academy where besides the exercise of the horse, armes, dauncing, etc. , all the sciences are taught in the vulgar French by Professors stipendiated by the great Cardinal. The Academy of Juilly included some study of physical science, mathematics, geography, heraldry, French history, Italian, and Spanish, besides the riding and gentlemanly arts. 

In England the tutor in the home became the type form for the education ofthe sons of a gentleman, the boys frequently being sent abroad to completetheir education. In German lands, which in the seventeenth century were inclose sympathy with French life and thought, Heidelberg being a center forthe dissemination of French ideas, the French academy idea was copied, andwhat were called _Ritterakademieen_ (knightly academies) were founded inthe numerous court cities [2] for the education, along such lines, of thesons of the many grades of the German nobility. Between 1620 and 1780, before the rise of the German nationalistic movement which sought toreplace French ideas by native German culture, was the great period ofthese German court schools, and during this period they bestowed on thesons of the German nobility the courtly and military education of theFrench academies. The education of the nobility was in consequencesegregated from the intellectual life of other classes. "Gallants" and"pedants" were the respective outputs of the two types of schools. 

III. SENSE REALISM

THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AIMS OF THIS GROUP. This represented a still furtherand more important step in advance than either of the preceding. In a verydirect way sense realism in education was an outgrowth of the organizingwork of Francis Bacon. Its aim was:

 (1) To apply the same inductive method formulated by Bacon for the sciences to the work of education, with a view to organizing a general method which would greatly simplify the instructional process, reduce educational work to an organized system, and in consequence effect a great saving of time; and

 (2) To replace the instruction in Latin by instruction in the vernacular, [3] and to substitute new scientific and social studies, deemed of greater value for a modern world, for the excessive devotion to linguistic studies. 

The sixteenth century had been essentially a period of criticism ineducation, and the leading thinkers on education, as in other lines ofintellectual activity, were not in the schools. In the seventeenth centurywe come to a new group of men who attempted to think out and work out inpractice the ideas advanced by the critics of the preceding period. In theseventeenth century we have, in consequence, the first serious attempt toformulate an educational method since the days of the Athenian Greeks andthe treatise of Quintilian. 

The possibility of formulating an educational method that would simplifythe educational process and save time in instruction, appealed to a numberof thinkers, in different lands. This group of thinkers, due to their newmethods of attack and thought, the German historian of education, Karl vonRaumer, has called _Innovators_. The chief pedagogical ideas of theInnovators were:

 1. That education should proceed from the simple to the complex, and the concrete to the abstract. 

 2. That things should come before rules. 

 3. That students should be taught to analyze, rather than to construct. 

 4. That each student should be taught to investigate for himself, rather than to accept or depend upon authority. 

 5. That only that should be memorized which is clearly understood and of real value. 

 6. That restraint and coercion should be replaced by interest in the studies taught. 

 7. That the vernacular should be used as the medium for all instruction. 

 8. That the study of real things should precede the study of words about things. 

 9. That the order and course of Nature be discovered, and that a method of teaching based on this then be worked out. 

 10. That physical education should be introduced for the sake of health, and not merely to teach gentlemanly sports. 

 11. That all should be provided with the opportunity for an education in the elements of knowledge. This to be in the vernacular. 

 12. That Latin and Greek be taught only to those likely to complete an education, and then through the medium of the mother tongue. 

 13. That a uniform and scientific method of instruction could be worked out, which would reduce education to a science and serve as a guide for teachers everywhere. 

The Englishman, Francis Bacon, whom we have previously considered; theGerman, Wolfgang Ratichius (or Ratke); and the Moravian bishop andteacher, Johann Amos Comenius, stand as perhaps the clearest examples ofthis organizing tendency in education. Ratke and Comenius will beconsidered here as types. 

WOLFGANG RATKE. Bacon had believed that the new scientific knowledgeshould be incorporated into the instruction of the schools, and hadsuggested, in his _Advancement of Learning_ (1603-05), a broader courseof study for them, and better facilities for scientific investigation andteaching. While Bacon was not a teacher and did not write specifically onschool instruction, his writings nevertheless deeply influenced many ofthose who followed his thinking. 

The first writer to apply Bacon's ideas to education and to attempt toevolve a new method and a new course of instruction was a German, by thename of Wolfgang Ratke (1571-1635). While studying in England he had readBacon's _Advancement of Learning_, and from Bacon's suggestions Ratketried to work out a new method of instruction. This he offered, and withmuch secrecy, unsuccessfully for sale at various German courts. Finally heissued an "Address" to the princes of Germany, assembled at an ElectoralDiet at Frankfurt-am-Main, in 1612. In this he told them of his newmethod, which followed Nature, and declared that it was "fraught withmomentous consequences" for mankind. He claimed that he could:

 1. By using the German language in the earlier years: (a) Bring about the use of one common language among the German people, and thus lay the basis for unity in government and religion; (b) Impart to children a knowledge of the useful arts and sciences. 

 2. Teach Latin. Greek, and Hebrew better, and in far less time, than had previously been required for one language only. 

This method he offered to sell to the princes, and he would impart it onlyon the promise that it be not revealed to others. Two professors wereappointed to examine Ratke, and they reported very favorably on his plan. 

In 1617 Ratke published, in Leipzig, his _Methodus Nova_, which was thepioneer work on school method, and is Ratke's chief claim to mention here. In this he laid down the fundamental rules for teaching, as he had thoughtthem out. They were as follows:

 1. The order of Nature was to be sought and followed. 

 2. One thing at a time, and that mastered thoroughly. 

 3. Much repetition to insure retention. 

 4. Use of the mother tongue for all instruction, and the languages to be taught through it. 

 5. Everything to be taught without constraint. The teacher to teach, and the scholars to keep order and discipline. 

 6. No learning by heart. Much questioning and understanding. 

 7. Uniformity in books and methods a necessity. 

 8. Knowledge of things to precede words about things. 

 9. Individual experience and contact and inquiry to replace authority. 

We see here the essentials of the Baconian ideas, as well as theforeshadowings of many other subsequent reforms in teaching method. 

During the next half-dozen years Ratke was a much-interviewed person, asthe idea of a more general education of the people, advanced by theProtestant reformers, had appealed strongly to the imagination of many ofthe German princes. Finally the necessary money was raised to establish anexperimental school, [4] printing-presses were set up to print thenecessary books, the people of the village of Köthen, in Anhalt, wereordered to send their children for instruction, and the school opened withRatke in charge and amid great expectations and enthusiasm. A year and ahalf later the school had failed, through the bad management of Ratke andhis inability to realize the extravagant hopes he had aroused, and hehimself had been thrown into prison as an impostor by the princes. Thisended Ratke's work. He is important chiefly for his pioneer work as theforerunner of the greatest educator of the seventeenth century. 

JOHANN AMOS COMENIUS. We now reach not only the greatest representative ofsense realism, both in theory and practice, before the latter part of theeighteenth century, but also one of the commanding figures in the historyof education. Comenius was born at Nivnitz, in Moravia, in 1592. As amember, pastor, and later bishop of the Moravian church, and as a followerof John Huss, he suffered greatly in the Catholic-Protestant warfare whichraged over his native land during the period of the Thirty Years' War. Hishome twice plundered, his books and manuscripts twice burned, his wife andchildren murdered, and himself at times a fugitive and later an exile, Comenius gave his long life to the advancement of the interests of mankindthrough religion and learning. Driven from his home and country, he becamea scholar of the world. 

While a student at the University of Nassau, at the age of twenty, he readand was deeply impressed by the "Address" of Ratke. Bacon's _NovumOrganum_, which appeared when he was twenty-eight, made a still deeperimpression upon him. He seems to have been familiar also with the writingsof the educational reformers of his time in all European lands. Hetraveled extensively, and maintained a large correspondence with thescholars of his time. He was master of a Latin school in Moravia from theage of twenty-two to twenty-four, when he was ordained as a pastor of theMoravian Church. Eight years later, in 1632, he was banished, with allProtestant ministers, from his native land, and while an exile for a timetook charge of a school at Lissa, in Poland. Here he worked out, inpractice, the great work on method which he later published. In 1638 hewas invited to reform the schools of Sweden; in 1641 he visited England, in connection with a plan for the organization of all knowledge; he spentthe next eight years working at school reform in Sweden; from 1650 to 1654he was in charge of a school at Saros-Patak, in Hungary, where he workedout his famous textbooks for teaching language; he was consulted withreference to the presidency of Harvard College, in 1654; the same year hereturned to Lissa, and once more lost his books and manuscripts and wasmade a homeless exile; and finally he found a patron and asylum inAmsterdam, where he died in 1671, at the age of seventy-nine. The versebeneath his portrait seems an especially appropriate commentary on hislife. 

COMENIUS AND EDUCATIONAL METHOD. While teaching at Lissa, in Poland, Comenius had formulated for himself the principles underlying schoolinstruction, as he saw it, in a lengthy book which he called _The GreatDidactic_. [5] The title page (R. 218) and the table of contents (R. 219)will give an idea as to its scope. In this work Comenius formulated andexplained his two fundamental ideas, namely, that all instruction must becarefully graded and arranged to follow the order of nature, and that, inimparting knowledge to children, the teacher must make constant appealthrough sense-perception to the understanding of the child. We have herethe fundamental ideas of Bacon applied to the school, and Comenius standsas the clearest exponent of sense realism in teaching up to his time, andfor more than a century afterward. 

Deeply religious by nature and training, Comenius held the Holy Scripturesto contain the beginning and end of all learning; to know God aright heheld to be the highest aim; and with true Protestant fervor he contendedthat the education of every human being was a necessity if mankind was toenter into its religious inheritance, and piety, virtue, and learning wereto be brought to their fruition. Unlike those who were enthusiasts forreligious education only, Comenius saw further, and held an ideal ofservice to the State and Church here below for which proper training wasneeded. Still more, he believed in the education of human beings simplybecause they were human beings, and not merely for salvation, as Lutherhad held. 

Comenius was the first to formulate a practicable school method, workingalong the new lines marked out by Bacon. He had no psychology to guidehim, and worked largely by analogies from nature. A great idea with himwas that we should study and follow nature, and this led him to theconclusions that education should proceed from the easy to the difficult, the near to the remote, the general to the special, and the known to theunknown, and that the great business of the teacher was imparting andguiding, and not storing the memory. These conclusions seem commonplacesto us of to-day, but what is commonplace today was genius three hundredyears ago. To select the subject-matter of instruction carefully and onthe basis of utility, to eliminate needless materials, not to attempt toomuch at a time, to use concrete examples, to have frequent repetitions tofix ideas, to advance by carefully graded steps, to tie new knowledge toold, to learn by observing and doing, and to learn by use rather than byprecept--were still other of the present-day commonplaces which Comeniusworked out and formulated in his _Didactica Magna_. [6] His plea for amild and gentle discipline in place of the brutality of his time, hisemphasis of the vernacular and the realities of life, his conception as tothe importance of early education, his careful gradation of the school, and his ability to see the usefulness of Latin without over-emphasizingits importance--all stamp him as a capable and practical schoolmaster whosaw deeply into the nature of the educational process. 

[Illustration: PLATE 10. JOHN AMOS COMENIUS (1592-1671)The Moravian Bishop at the age of fifty. (After an engraving by Glover, printed as a frontispiece to Hartlib's _A Reformation of Schooles_. London, 1642. )

 Loe, here an Exile, who to serve his God, Hath sharply tasted of proud Pashurs Rod Whose learning, Piety, & true worth, being knowne To all the world, makes all the world his owne. F. Q. ]

COMENIUS' IDEAS AS TO THE ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS. In his _DidacticaMagna_ Comenius divided the school life of a child into four greatdivisions. The first concerned the period from infancy to the age of six, which he called The Mother School. For this period he wrote _The School ofInfancy_ (1628), a book intended primarily for parents, and one of suchdeep insight and fundamental importance that parents and teachers maystill read it with interest and profit. In it he anticipated many of theideas of the kindergarten of to-day. The next division was The VernacularSchool, which covered the period from the ages of six to twelve. For thisperiod six classes were to be provided, and the emphasis was to be on themother tongue. This school was to be for all, of both sexes, and in it thebasis of an education for life was to be given. It was to teach its pupilsto read and write the mother tongue; enough arithmetic for the ordinarybusiness of life, and the commonly used measures; to sing, and to knowcertain songs by rote; to know about the real things of life; theCatechism and the Bible; a general knowledge of history, and especiallythe creation, fall, and redemption of man; the elements of geography andastronomy; and a knowledge of the trades and occupations of life; all ofwhich, says Comenius, can be taught better through the mother tongue thanthrough the medium of the Latin and Greek. In scope this schoolcorresponds with the vernacular school of modern Europe. 

The next school was The Latin School, covering the years from twelve toeighteen, and in this German, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew were to be taught, by improved methods, and with physics and mathematics added. This schoolhe divided into six classes, named from the principal study in each, asfollows: (1) Grammar, (2) Physics, (3) Mathematics, (4) Ethics, (5)Dialectics, (6) Rhetoric. He also later outlined a plan for a six-class_Gymnasium_ for Saros-Patak (R. 220), culminating in a seventh year forpreparation for the ministry, which was an improvement on the Latin Schooland very modern in character. Had such a school become common, secondaryeducation in Europe might have been a century in advance of where thenineteenth century found it. The Latin school was to be attended only bythose of ability who were likely to enter the service of Church or State, or who intended to pass on to the University. This last was to cover theperiod from eighteen to twenty-four. Unlike all educational practice ofhis time and later, Comenius here provides for an educational ladder ofthe present-day American type, wholly unlike the European two-class schoolsystem which (p. 353) later evolved. 

COMENIUS' WORK IN REFORMING LANGUAGE TEACHING. At the time Comenius livedand wrote, the languages constituted almost the only subject of study, andLatin grammar was the great introductory subject. The mediaeval grammars(Donatus; Alexander de Villa Dei; pp. 156, 155) had been so poor that theinstruction was difficult and, in consequence, long drawn out. Lily'sLatin Grammar (p. 276), published in 1513, and Melanchthon's LatinGrammar, published in 1525, had represented marked advances. Still thesubject remained difficult, even when taught from these new types ofgrammars. Comenius early became convinced, as a result of his teaching andstudies in educational method, that the ancient classical authors were notonly too difficult for boys beginning the study of Latin, but that theyalso did not contain the type of real knowledge he felt should be taughtin the schools. He accordingly set to work to construct a series ofintroductory Latin readers which would form a graded introduction to thestudy of Latin, and which would also introduce the pupil to the type ofworld knowledge and scientific information he felt should be taught. 

His plan eventually embraced a graded series of five books, as follows:

 1. The _Orbis Sensualium Pictus_, or the World of Sense Objects Pictured. This was an illustrated primer and first reader, which appeared in 1658, and was the first illustrated book ever written for children (R. 221). 

 2. The _Vestibulum_ (Vestibule, or gate). An easy first reader, consisting of but a few hundred of the most commonly used Latin words and sentences, with a translation into the vernacular in parallel columns. This book required about a half-year for its completion. 

 3. The _Janua Linguarum Reserata_, or Gate of Languages Unlocked. This was the first of the series printed (1631), the _Vestibulum_ being an easy introduction to it, and the _Orbis Pictus_ being the _Janua_ simplified and illustrated. The _Janua_ contained some eight thousand Latin words, arranged in simple sentences, with the vernacular equivalent in parallel columns; included information on a variety of subjects; [7] and was a regular Noah's Ark for vocabulary purposes. It embraced sufficient reading material and grammar for a year. 

 4. The _Atrium_. This was an expansion of the _Janua_, and treated the same topics more in detail. It was intended to be an advanced reader, based, as was the _Janua_, on studies about the real things of life. The vocabulary now was Latin-Latin, instead of Latin-vernacular. 

 5. The _Thesaurus_, which was never completed, but was planned to be a collection of graded extracts from easy Latin authors--Cornelius Nepos, Caesar, Cicero, Sallust, Vergil, Horace, Pliny--to furnish the needed reading material for the three upper years of the Latin School. 

THE TEXTBOOKS ILLUSTRATED. Beginning in the _Janua_, and afterwards in the_Vestibulum_ and _Orbis Pictus_ as well, Comenius not only simplified theteaching of Latin by producing the best textbooks for instruction in thesubject the world had ever known, but he also shifted the whole emphasisin instruction from words to things, and made the teaching of scientificknowledge and useful world information the keynote of his work. Thehundred different chapters of the _Janua_, and the hundred and fifty-onechapters of the _Orbis Pictus_, were devoted to imparting information asto all kinds of useful subjects. The following selections from the chaptertitles of the _Orbis Pictus_ illustrate how large a place the newscientific studies occupied in his conception of the school:

 The World Birds Weaving Philosophy The Heavens Cattle Tailor Prudence Fire Fish Barber Diligence Wind Parts of Man Schoolmaster Temperance Water Flesh and Bowels Shoemaker Fortitude Clouds Chanels and Bones Carpenter Humanity Earth Senses Potter Justice Fruits Deformities Printing Consanguinity Metals Husbandry Geometry A City Trees Bees and Honey The Planets Merchandizing Herbs Butchery Eclipses A Burial Flowers Cookery Europe Religious Forms

The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 126, 127) reveal the nature of thetext-books he prepared. (See also R. 221 for four additional pages ofillustrations from the _Orbis Pictus_. )

[Illustration: FIG. 126. A SAMPLE PAGE FROM THE "ORBIS PICTUS"The illustration and Latin text is from the first edition of 1658; theEnglish translation from the English edition of 1727. ]

The success of these textbooks was immediate and very great. Within ashort time after the publication of the _Janua_ it had been translatedinto Flemish, Bohemian, English, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Latin, Polish, Spanish, and Swedish, as well as into Arabic, Mongolian, Russian, and Turkish. The _Orbis Pictus_ was an even greatersuccess. [8] It went through many editions, in many languages; stoodwithout a competitor in Europe for a hundred and fifteen years; and wasused as an introductory textbook for nearly two hundred years. An Americanedition was brought out in New York City, as late as 1810. 

[Illustration: FIG. 127. PART OF A PAGE FROM A LATIN-ENGLISH EDITION OFTHE "VESTIBULUM"]

Thousands of parents, who knew nothing of Comenius and cared nothing forhis educational ideas, bought the book for their children because theyfound that they liked the pictures and learned the language easily fromit. [9]

PLACE AND INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS. Comenius stands in the history ofeducation in a position of commanding importance. He introduces the wholemodern conception of the educational process, and outlines many of themodern movements for the improvement of educational procedure. WhatPetrarch was to the revival of learning, what Wycliffe was to religiousthought, what Copernicus was to modern science, and what Bacon andDescartes were to modern philosophy, Comenius was to educational practiceand thinking (R. 222). The germ of almost all eighteenth- and nineteenth-century educational theory is to be found in his work, and he, more thanany one before him and for at least two centuries after him, made anearnest effort to introduce the new science studies into the school. Farmore liberal than his Lutheran or Calvinistic or Anglican or Catholiccontemporaries, he planned his school for the education of youth inreligion and learning and to fit them for the needs of a modern world. Unlike the textbooks of his time, and for more than a century afterward, his were free from either sectarian bigotry or the intense and gloomyatmosphere of the age. 

Yet Comenius lived at an unfortunate period in the history of humanprogress. The early part of the seventeenth century was not a time when anenthusiastic and aggressive and liberal-minded reformer could expect muchof a hearing anywhere in western Europe. The shock of the contest intowhich western Christendom had been plunged by the challenge of Luther hadbeen felt in every corner of Europe, and the culmination of a century ofwarfare was then raging, with all the bitterness and brutality that areligious motive develops. Christian Europe was too filled with anatmosphere of suspicion and distrust and hatred to be in any mood toconsider reforms for the improvement of the education of mankind. As aresult the far-reaching changes in method formulated by Comenius made butslight impression on his contemporaries; his attempt to introducescientific studies awakened suspicion, rather than interest; and the newmethod which he formulated in his _Great Didactic_ was ignored and thebook itself was forgotten for centuries. His great influence oneducational progress was through the reform his textbooks worked in theteaching of Latin, and the slow infiltration into the schools of thescientific ideas they contained. As a result, many of the fundamentallysound reforms for which he stood had to be worked out anew in thenineteenth century. It is sad to contemplate how far our western worldmight have been advanced in its educational organization and scientificprogress, by the close of the eighteenth century, had it been in a mood toreceive and utilize the reforms in aims and methods, and to accept the newscientific subject-matter, proposed and worked out by this far-sightedMoravian teacher. Religious bigotry has, in all lands and ages, proveditself one of the most serious of all obstacles in the path of humanprogress. 

IV. REALISM AND THE SCHOOLS

THE VERNACULAR SCHOOLS. The ideas for which the realists just describedhad stood were adopted in the people's schools but slowly, and came onlyafter long waiting. The final incorporation of science instruction intoelementary education did not come until the nineteenth century, and thenwas an outgrowth of the reform work of Pestalozzi on the one hand, and thenew social, political, economic, and industrial forces of a modern worldon the other. 

The Peace of Westphalia (1648), which closed a century of bitter andvindictive religious warfare, was followed by another century of hatred, suspicion, and narrow religious intolerance and reaction. All parties nowadopted an extremely conservative attitude in matters of religion andeducation, and the protection of orthodoxy became the chief purpose of theschool. Reading, religion, a little counting and writing, and, in Teutoniclands, music, came to constitute the curriculum of such elementaryvernacular schools as had come to exist, and the religious Primer and theBible became the great school textbooks. The people were poor, much ofEurope was impoverished and depopulated as a result of long-continuedreligious strife, the common people still occupied a very low socialposition, there were as yet no qualified teachers, and no need for generaleducation aside from religion. Still more, during more than a thousandyears the Church had established the tradition of providing freeeducation, and when the governing authorities of the States which turnedto Protestantism had taken from the Church both the opportunity tocontinue the schools and the wealth with which to maintain them, they wereseldom willing to tax themselves to set up institutions to continue thework formerly done gratis by the Church. In consequence, regardless ofProtestant educational theory as to the need for general education, butlittle progress in providing vernacular schools was made during the wholeof the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 

Here and there in Teutonic lands, however, the new studies found anoccasional patron. In 1619 schools were organized for the little Duchy ofWeimar (p. 317) by a pupil of Ratke, and sense realism was given a placein them. The schoolmaster, Andreas Reyher, who in 1642 drew up the _SchuleMethodus_ "the actual title of that book was 'Schulmethodus" for DukeErnest of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg, was familiar with the work of bothRatke and Comenius, and made provision for instruction in "the natural anduseful sciences" (R. 163) for Duke Ernest's children. Here and there a fewother attempts to provide schools and add instruction in the new _Realien_were made. The number of such attempts was not large, but their work wasinfluential, and as a result vernacular schools and science instructionfinally became established among German-speaking peoples before they didin any other land. 

THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The influence of Milton's _Tractate_ on the non-conformist Academies of England has been traced, and the transfer of theidea of instruction in the new mathematical, scientific, literary, historical, and political subjects to the new American Academies has beenmentioned. That these new studies also entered into the education of agentleman in England and France, under the private-tutor and the courtly-academy system, and were copied from the French and constituted a largepart of the instruction organized for the _Ritterakademieen_ of thenumerous court cities in German lands, has also been mentioned. In bothEngland and France such private instruction exerted but little influenceon the existing Latin grammar schools, and in consequence the schools ofboth countries remained largely unchanged in direction and purpose untilthe second half of the nineteenth century. In German lands the_Ritterakademieen_ idea experienced a further development, which proved tobe of large importance for the future of German education. 

FRANCKE'S "INSTITUTIONS. " With the introduction of French ideas andtraining into the German courts, French skepticism in matters of religiondeveloped in the court circles. Under the influence of a pious Lutheranclergyman, Philip Spener (1635-1705), who tried to emphasize religion asan affair of the heart rather than the head; and especially as a result ofthe work of his spiritual successor, Augustus Hermann Francke, a movementarose in German lands, during the closing years of the seventeenthcentury, which became known as _Pietism_. [10] Disgusted with the lifelessand insincere religion of the time, these two strove to substitute areligion of both head and heart. In 1695, moved by pity for the poor, Francke established at Halle the first of his famous "Institutions, "--aschool for poor children. A pay school for the well-to-do was soon added, and soon another school for the children of nobility. An orphan schoolalso was in time provided. The school for the poor developed into avernacular or _Burgher_ (_volks_; peoples) school; the school for the paypupils into a Latin School, or _Gymnasium_; and the school for nobles intoa higher scientific school, or _Pädagogium_ as it was called. At firstFrancke encountered some theological opposition, but the "Institutions"prospered, and at the time of his death contained over 2200 pupils, andover 300 teachers, workers, and attendants. 

[Illustration: FIG. 128. AUGUSTUS HERMANN FRANCKE (1663-1727)]

The interesting thing about Francke's work was the courses of instructionhe provided for his schools. [11] In the Burgher School he gave thechildren instruction in history, geography, and animal life, in additionto the reading, writing, counting, music, and religion of the usual Germanvernacular school. Into the _Gymnasium_ he introduced instruction inhistory, geography, music, science, and mathematics, in addition to theusual Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. He also changed the purpose of thelanguage instruction. Greek was studied to be able to read the NewTestament in the original, and Hebrew better to understand the Old. The_Pädagogium_ was provided with a botanical garden, a cabinet of naturalhistory, physical apparatus, a laboratory for the study of chemistry andanatomy, and a workshop for turning and glass-cutting. Independent of thework of Comenius, but as an outgrowth of the new movement for the study ofscience now beginning to influence educational thought, we have here themost important attempt at the introduction into the school of senserealism, or _Realien_, as the Germans say, that the modern world had sofar witnessed. In 1697 Francke added a _Seminarium Praeceptorium_, totrain teachers in his new ideas. This was the first teachers' training-school in German lands, and the teachers he trained served to scatter hiseducational ideas over the German States. [12]

THE FIRST REALSCHULE. Associated with Francke as a teacher was oneChristopher Semler (1669-1740), who became deeply interested in the newstudies of the secondary school. In 1706 Semler had submitted a plan tothe government of Magdeburg for the teaching of the practical studies. This was referred to the Berlin Society of Sciences, which approved theplan, and later elected Semler to membership in the Society. For yearsSemler continued as a teacher at Halle, but without carrying the idea farenough to create a new type of school. In 1739 Semler published a paper"Upon the Mathematical, Mechanical, and Agricultural Real School in theCity of Halle, " in which he described the instruction given there. Thiswas probably the first use of the term "real school" (Realschule). Theimportant subjects described as taught, aside from religion, were "theuseful and in daily life wholly indispensable sciences, " such asmathematics, drawing, geography, history, natural history, agriculture, and economics, with much emphasis on observation by the pupils. 

The work at Halle soon stimulated complaints as to the existing Latinschools, where children, destined for business or the service of theState, were kept trying to learn Latin, "to the neglect of more practicaland more useful studies. " The usefulness of the new real studies now beganto be more correctly estimated, and the conviction gradually grew thatthose boys who were destined for trade--now a rapidly increasing number--should not be obliged to follow the same course as those destined to bescholars. In 1720 Rector Gesner, of the gymnasium at Rotenburg, wrote, rather sarcastically:

 The one class, who will not study, but will become tradesmen, merchants, or soldiers, must be instructed in writing, arithmetic, writing letters, geography, description of the world, and history. The other class may be trained for studying. 

In 1742 the Rector at Dresden, Schöttgen, issued a "Humble proposal forthe special class in public city schools" to provide for those children"who are to remain without (that is, cannot learn) Latin. " Instead offorcing them to attempt to learn Donatus, which he said was useless forthem, he urged that a special class (school) be organized to train them tobecome useful merchants, artists, and mechanics. In 1751 Rector Henzky, ofPrenzlau, issued a treatise to show "That Real schools can and must becomecommon. " In 1756 Gesner, professor at the new University of Göttingen, ina pamphlet "On the organization of a gymnasium" (R. 223), urged that therewere three classes of youths for whom schools should be provided, one ofwhich needed the _Realschule_. 

In 1747 a clergyman by the name of Julius Hecker (1707-1768), who had beena pupil in, and later had taught in Francke's "'Institutions, " went toBerlin and opened there the first distinct German _Realschule_. In thisschool Hecker provided instruction in religion, ethics, German, French, Latin, mathematics, drawing, history, geography, mechanics, architecture, and a knowledge of nature and of the human body. Classes were organized inarchitecture, agriculture, bookkeeping, manufacturing, and mining. Theschool prospered from the first, and in time became the "Royal_Realschule_" of Berlin. In answer to a growing demand for advancededucation for that constantly increasing number of youths destined for thetrades or a mercantile career, the _realschule_ idea was copied in anumber of the important cities of Germany. Thus early--a century inadvance of other nations, and a century and a quarter ahead of the UnitedStates--did Prussia lay the foundations of that scientific and technicaleducation which, later on, did so much toward creating modern industrialGermany. 

THE UNIVERSITIES AND THE NEW SCIENTIFIC LEARNING. Though the theologicalpersecution of scientific workers largely died out after about the middleof the seventeenth century, and was never much of a factor in lands whichhad embraced some form of Protestantism, the new sciences neverthelessmade but little headway in the universities until after the beginning ofthe eighteenth century. Up to the close of the seventeenth century theuniversities in all lands continued to be dominated by their theologicalfaculties, and instruction still remained largely encompassed bymediaevalism. England represents perhaps the most notable exception tothis statement, scientific studies having been received with greatertolerance by the universities there than in other lands. In both Catholicand Protestant lands the need was felt for orthodox training, through fearof further heresy, and many petty restrictions were thrown about study andteaching which were stifling to free thinking and investigation. Eachlittle Kingdom or State now took over the supervision of some olduniversity within its borders, or established a new one, that it mightmore completely control orthodoxy and prepare its own civil servants. Ofthe seventeenth century, Paulsen [13] well says:

 It was essentially the period of the territorial-confessional university, and is characterized by a preponderance of theological- confessional interest.... Many new foundations, both Catholic and Protestant, now appeared. The chief impetus leading to these numerous foundations was the accentuation of the principle of territorial sovereignty, from the ecclesiastical as well as the political point of view. The consequence was that the universities began to be _instrumentia denominationis_ of the government as professional schools for its ecclesiastical and secular officials. Each individual government endeavored to secure its own university in order--(1) to make sure of wholesome instruction, which meant, of course, instruction in harmony with the confessional standards of its established church; (2) to retain training of its secular officials in its own hands; and finally (3) render attendance at foreign universities unnecessary on the part of its subjects, and thus keep the money in the country. 

Large amounts of money were not needed to establish a new university. Afew thousand guilders or thalers sufficed for the salaries of ten orfifteen professors, a couple of preachers and physicians would undertakethe theological and medical lectures, and some old monastery would supplythe needed buildings. 

After the Reformation the law faculty increased to the place of firstimportance in Protestant lands, because the Reformation had created a newdemand for judges and higher court officials to replace the rule of theclergy. The medical faculty continued to be, as in the mediaevaluniversities, the smallest of all the faculties and amounted to littlebefore the nineteenth century. [14] The arts faculty, or philosophical asit came to be termed in German lands, offered lectures in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and a general course in philosophy, but the Aristotelian textsand to some extent mediaeval methods in instruction continued to be useduntil the beginning of the eighteenth century. 

Here and there some professor "read" on mathematics, and in Protestantlands on the new astronomy, and the study of botany began as the study ofherbs in the medical faculty, [15] but during the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries few professors or students were interested in thescientific subjects. By 1675 Bacon's _Novum Organum_ had begun to betaught at both Oxford and Cambridge, and by 1700 the Newtonian physics hadbegun to displace Aristotle at Oxford. By 1740 it was well establishedthere. At first instruction in the new subjects was offered as an extraand for a fee by men not having professional rank (R. 224), and later theinstruction was given full recognition by the university. By 1700Cambridge had become a center for mathematical study (R. 225), and withthe growth in popularity of the Newtonian philosophy, mathematical studiesthere took the place held by logic in the mediaeval university. Cambridgehas ever since remained a center for mathematical and, since the beginningof the nineteenth century, for scientific studies as well. Between 1680and 1700 the University of Paris was reformed, and the mathematical andphilosophical studies of Descartes (p. 394) began to be taught there. Theuniversities of the Netherlands began to teach the new mathematical andscientific studies even earlier. 

Aside from the above described _Realschule_ development, the newscientific movement for a time largely passed over German lands, and inconsequence the German universities remained unreformed until theeighteenth century. During the seventeenth century they sank to theirlowest intellectual level. In 1694, largely in protest against thenarrowness of the old universities, the new University of Halle wasfounded. It received into its faculty certain forward-looking men who hadbeen driven from the old universities, [16] and is generally considered asthe first modern university. The new scientific and mathematical subjectsand a reformed philosophy were introduced; the instruction in Greek andLatin was reformed; German was made the medium of classroom instruction;and a scientific magazine in German was begun. In 1737 the University ofGöttingen became a second center of modern influence, and from these twoinstitutions the new scientific spirit gradually spread to all theProtestant universities of German lands. A century later they were theleading universities of the world. 

THE TRANSITION NOW PRACTICALLY COMPLETE. From the time Petrarch made hisfirst "find" at Liège (1333), in the form of two previously unknownorations of Cicero (p. 244), to the publication of the _Principia_ (p. 388) of Newton (1687), is a period of approximately three and a halfcenturies. During these three and a half centuries a completetransformation of world-life had been effected, and the mediaeval man, with his eyes on the past, had given place to the modern man with his eyeson the future. During these three and a half centuries revolutionaryforces had been at work in the world of ideas, and the transition frommediaeval to modern attitudes had been accomplished. From 1333 to 1433 wasthe century of "literary finds, " and during this period the monastictreasures were brought to light and edited and the classical literature ofRome restored. Greek also was restored to the western world, and areformed Latin, Greek, and Hebrew were given the place of first importancein the new humanistic school. The invention of printing took place in1423; 1456 witnessed the appearance of the first printed book, and theperfection of the new means for the multiplication of books and thedissemination of ideas. Before 1500 the great era of geographicaldiscovery had been inaugurated; a sea-route to India was found in 1487;and a new continent in 1492. In 1519-22 Magellan's ships rounded theworld. 

In 1517 Luther issued the challenge, the shock of which was felt in everycorner of Christian Europe, and within a half-century much of northern andwestern Europe had been lost to the original Roman Church. Soonindependence in thinking had been extended to the problem of theorganization of the universe, and in 1543 Copernicus issued the book thatclearly marks the beginning of modern scientific thinking and inquiry. Bacon had done his organizing work by 1620, and Newton's _Principia_(1687) finally established modern scientific thought and work. Comeniusdied in 1671, his great organizing work done, and his textbooks, withtheir many new educational ideas, in use all over Europe. The mediaevalattitude still continued in religion and government, but the world as awhole had left mediaeval attitudes behind it, and was facing the future ofmodern world organization and life. To the educational organization ofthis modern world we now turn, though before doing so we shall try topresent a cross-section, as it were, of the development in educationaltheory and practice which had been attained by about the middle of theeighteenth century. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Explain why the scholars of the time were so intent on producing a newrace of Roman youths for a revived Latin scholarly world. 

2. Show that a reaction against humanism was certain to arise, and why. 

3. How do you explain the very small influence exerted on the Latingrammar schools of England by the non-conformist Academies, after they hadbeen absorbed into the existing English non-state system of higherschools?

4. Compare Milton and Montaigne. 

5. What would be the most probable effect on education of the erection ofthe polished-man-of-the-world ideal?

6. Enumerate the forces favoring and opposing the change of the languageof instruction from Latin to the vernacular. 

7. How many of the thirteen principles of the Innovators do we still holdto be valid?

8. Just what was new in the nine fundamental rules laid down by Ratke, inhis _Methodus Nova_?

9. What is your estimate of the vernacular schools as outlined byComenius? Of the plans for a gymnasium at Saros-Patak?

10. Compare Comenius' Latin school with the College of Calvin. 

11. State the new ideas in instruction embodied in the textbooks ofComenius. 

12. Show that Comenius dominates modern educational ideas, even though hiswork was largely lost, in the same way that Petrarch or Wyclifle orCopernicus do modern work in their fields. 

13. Explain the very slow development of vernacular schools after theProtestant Revolts. 

14. Why would the introduction of real studies into them be especiallyslow?

15. What explanation can you offer for the much earlier beginnings inscientific instruction in German lands than in England or America, whenmuch more of the important early scientific work was done by Englishmenthan by Germans? and the failure of science for a time to find a home inthe German universities?

16. Explain the continued dominance of the theological faculty in theuniversities of the seventeenth century. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following illustrativeselections are reproduced:

 210. Rabelais: On the Nature of Education. 211. Milton: The Aim and Purpose of Education. 212. Milton: His Program for Study. 213. Adamson: Discontent of the Nobility with the Schools. 214. Montaigne: Ridicule of the Humanistic Pedants. 215. Montaigne: His Conception of Education. 216. Locke: Extracts from his Thoughts on Education. 217. Locke: Plan for Working Schools for Poor Children. 218. Comenius: Title-Page of the _Great Didactic_. 219. Comenius: Contents of the _Great Didactic_. 220. Comenius: Plan for the Gymnasium at Saros-Patak. 221. Comenius: Sample pages from the _Orbis Pictus_. (a) A page from a Latin-German edition of 1740. (b) Two pages from a Latin-English edition of 1727. (c) A page from the New York edition of 1810. 222. Butler: Place of Comenius in the History of Education. 223. Gesner: Need for _Realschulen_ for the New Classes to be Educated. 224. Handbill: How the Scientific Studies began at Cambridge. 225. Green: Cambridge Scheme of Study of 1707. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Show that Rabelais was in close sympathy with the best of the newhumanists of his age. 

2. Would Milton's definition of the purpose of education be true, still?

3. Show from Milton's program of studies that he represents a transitiontype, and also that his program contains the nucleus of the more modernstudies of the secondary school. 

4. Explain the discontent of the nobility with the existing Churchschools. 

5. Assuming Montaigne's description of the education of his time to betrue, explain why this might naturally be the case. 

6. Just what kind of an education does Montaigne outline, and how great areaction was this from existing conditions?

7. In how far would Locke's ideas still apply to the education of a boy ofthe leisure class?

8. Show that Locke's plan for work-house schools was in thorough accordwith English post-Reformation ideas as to the duty of the State in mattersof education, and also that it contained the beginnings of the pauper-school idea of education which we later had to combat. 

9. From the title-page and the table of contents (219) of Comenius' _GreatDidactic_, point out the originality and novelty of his ideas. 

10. Compare Comenius' plan for the Saros-Patak _Gymnasium_ with suchschools as Sturm's, the college of Guyenne, the college of Calvin, and theJesuits. 

11. Compare Comenius' plan (220) with the instruction in an American highschool of seventy-five years ago. 

12. Compare the Alphabet page of Comenius' _Orbis Pictus_ with the samepage in the New England Primer. 

13. When so many educational reforms were inaugurated so early byComenius, explain their neglect, and our having to work them out anew inthe nineteenth century. 

14. What does the need for _Realschulen_ indicate as to the evolution ofGerman society and the recuperation from the ravages of war?

15. Compare the beginnings of scientific study at Cambridge withbeginnings of new subjects to-day in our schools. 

16. Just what does the Cambridge Scheme of Study indicate as being taughtthere?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Adamson, J. W. _Pioneers of Modern Education, 1600-1700_. Barnard, Henry. _German Teachers and Educators_. * Butler, N. M. "The Place of Comenius in the History of Education": in _Proc. N. E. A. _, 1892, pp. 723-28. Browning, Oscar, Editor. _Milton's Tractate on Education_. * Comenius, J. A. _Orbis Pictus_ (Bardeen; Syracuse). Hanus, Paul H. "The Permanent Influence of Comenius"; in _Educational Review_, vol. 3, pp. 226-36 (March, 1892). Laurie, S. S. _History of Educational Opinion since the Renaissance_. * Laurie, S. S. _John Amos Comenius_. Quick, R. H. , Editor. _Locke's Thoughts on Education_. * Quick, R. H. _Essays on Educational Reformers_. * Vostrovsky, Clara. "A European School of the Time of Comenius (Prague, 1609)"; in _Education_, vol. 17, pp. 356-60 (February, 1897. ) Wordsworth, Christopher. _Scholae Academicae; Studies at the English Universities in the Eighteenth Century_. 

CHAPTER XVIII

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY THE MIDDLE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

We have now reached, in our history of the transition age which began withthe Revival of Learning--the great events of which were the recovery ofthe ancient learning, the rediscovery of the historic past, thereawakening of scholarship, and the rise of religious and scientificinquiry--the end of the transition period, and we are now ready to pass toa study of the development and progress of education in modern times. Before doing so, however, we desire to gather up and state the progress inboth educational theory and practice which had been attained by the end ofthis transition period, and to present, as it were, a cross-section ofeducation at about the middle of the eighteenth century. To do this, then, before passing to a consideration of educational development in moderntimes, will be the purpose of this chapter. We shall first review theprogress made in evolving a theory as to the educational purpose, and thenpresent a cross-section view of the schools of the time underconsideration. 

I. PRE-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL THEORIES

THE STATE PURPOSE OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. As we saw, early in our studyof the rise and progress of the education of peoples, the City-States ofGreece were the first consciously to evolve a systematic plan of schoolingand a prolonged course of training for those who were to guide and directthe State. In Sparta the training was almost wholly for militaryefficiency and tribal safety, but in Athens we found a people using awell-worked-out system of training to develop individual initiative, advance civilization, and promote the welfare of the State. The educationprovided was for but a class, to be sure, and a small ruling class atthat, but it was the first evidence of the new western, individualistic, and democratic spirit expressing itself in the education of the young. There also we found, for the first time, the thinkers of the State deeplyconcerned with the education of the youth of the State, and viewingeducation as a necessity to make life worth living and to secure the Statefrom dangers, both without and within. The training there given producedwonderful results, and for two centuries the men educated by it ablyguided the destinies of Athens. 

The essentials of this Greek training were later embodied in the private-adventure school system that arose in Rome, which was adapted toconditions and needs there, and which was used for the training of a fewRoman youths of the wealthier families for a political career. Schoolingat Rome, though, never attained the importance or rendered the servicethat characterized education at Athens, and never became an instrument ofthe State used consciously for State ends. One Roman writer, Quintilian, as we have seen (R. 25), worked out a careful statement of the wholeprocess of educating a youth for a public career, and this, the firstpractical treatise on education, was for long highly prized as the best-written statement of the educational art. 

THE FUTURE-LIFE CONCEPTION OF THE CHRISTIANS. With the decline of Romanpower and influence, and the victory of Christianity throughout the Romanworld, the State conception of education was entirely lost to westernEurope, and more than a thousand years elapsed before it again arose inthe western world. The Church now became the State, and the need for anyeducation for secular life almost entirely passed away. For centuries theaim was almost entirely a preparation for life in the world to come. Throughout all the early Middle Ages this attitude continued, supplementedonly by the meager education of a few to carry on the work of the Churchhere below. 

After the tenth century we noted the rise of some more or less independentstudy in some of the monastery and cathedral schools, and after thetwelfth century the rise of _studia generalia_ marked the congregationinto groups of the few interested in a studious life. These in turn gaverise to the university foundations, and to the beginning of independentand secular study once more in the western world. The Revival of Learning, the recovery of the ancient manuscripts, the revival of the study of Greekin the West, the founding of libraries, the invention of paper andprinting, and the revival of trade and commerce--all were new forcestending to give a new direction to scholarly study, and as a result a newrace of scholars, more or less independent of the Church, now arose inwestern Europe. They were, however, a class, and a very small class atthat, and though the result of their work was the creation of a newhumanistic secondary school, this still ministered to the needs of but afew. This few was intended either for the service of the Church, for thegovernmental service of the towns which had by this time attained theirindependence, or for the governments of the rising principalities orstates. 

For the great mass of the people, whose purpose in life was to work andbelieve and obey, agriculture, warfare, the rising trades with theirguilds (p. 209), and the services of the Church constituted almost all inthe way of education which they ever received. To be useful to hisoverlord and master here and to be saved hereafter were the chief life-purposes of the common man. The former he must himself undertake in orderto be able to live at all; the latter the Church undertook to supply tothose who followed her teachings. 

THE RISE OF THE VERNACULAR RELIGIOUS SCHOOL. For the first time inhistory, if we except the schools of the early Christian period, theProtestant Revolts created a demand for some form of an elementaryreligious school for all. The Protestant theory as to personal _versus_collective salvation involved as a consequence the idea of the educationof all in the essentials of the Christian faith and doctrine. The aim wasthe same as before--personal salvation--but the method was now changedfrom that of the Church as intermediary to personal knowledge and faithand effort. To be saved, one must know something of the Word of God, andthis necessitated instruction. To this end, in theory at least, schoolshad to be established to educate the young for membership in the new typeof Church relationship. Reading the vernacular, a little counting andwriting, in Teutonic countries a little music, and careful instruction ina religious Primer (R. 202), the Catechism, and the Bible, now came toconstitute the subject matter of a new vernacular school for the childrenof Protestants, and to a certain extent in time for the children ofCatholics as well. As we pointed out earlier (p. 353), between this newtype of school for religious ends and the older Latin grammar school forscholarly purposes there was almost no relationship, and the two developedwholly independently of one another. In the Latin grammar schools onestudied to become a scholar and a leader in the political orecclesiastical world; in the vernacular religious school one learned toread that he might be able to read the Catechism and the Bible, and toknow the will of the Heavenly Father. There was scarcely any other purposeto the maintenance of the elementary vernacular schools. This conditioncontinued until well into the eighteenth century. 

[Illustration: FIG. 129. A FRENCH SCHOOL BEFORE THE REVOLUTION(After an etching by Boisseau, 1730-1809)]

EARLY UNSUCCESSFUL EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. Back in the seventeenth century, as we have pointed out in the preceding chapter, a very earnest effort wasmade by Ratke and Comenius to introduce a larger conception of theeducational process into the elementary vernacular school, to eliminatethe gloomy religious material from the textbooks, to substitute a human-welfare purpose for the exclusively life-beyond view, and to transform theschool into an institution for imparting both learning and religion. Comenius in particular hoped to make of the new elementary religiousschool a potent instrument for human progress by introducing new subject-matter, and by formulating laws and developing methods for its work whichwould be in harmony with the new scientific procedure so well stated byFrancis Bacon. Comenius stands as the commanding figure in seventeenth-century pedagogical thought. He reasoned out and introduced us to thewhole modern conception of the educational process and purpose, and gaveto the school of the people a solid theoretical and practical basis. Living, though, at an unfortunate period in human history, he was able toawaken little interest either in rational teaching-method or in reformslooking to the advancement of the welfare of mankind. Instead he rousedsuspicion and distrust by the innovations and progressive reforms heproposed; his now-celebrated book on teaching method (Rs. 218, 219) wasnot at the time understood and was for long forgotten, while thefundamentally sound ideas and pedagogical reforms which he proposed andintroduced were lost amid the hatreds of his time, and had to be workedout again and reëstablished in a later and a more tolerant age. 

Another unsuccessful reformer of some importance, and one whose workantedated that of both Ratke and Comenius, was the London schoolmaster, Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611), for twenty-five years headmaster of thefamous Merchant Taylors' School, and later Master of Saint Paul's School. In 1581 he issued his _Positions_, a pedagogical work so far in advance ofhis time, and written in such a heavy and affected style, that it passedalmost unnoticed in England, and did not become known at all in otherlands. Yet the things he stood for became the fundamental ideas ofnineteenth-century educational thought. These were:

 1. That the end and aim of education is to develop the body and the faculties of the mind, and to help nature to perfection. 

 2. That all teaching processes should be adapted to the pupil taught. 

 3. That the first stage in learning is of large importance, and requires high skill on the part of the teacher. 

 4. That the thing to be learned is of less importance than the pupil learning. 

 5. That proper brain development demands that pressure and one-sided education alike be avoided. 

 6. That the mother tongue should be taught first and well, and should be the language of the school from six to twelve. 

 7. That music and drawing should be taught. 

 8. That reading and writing at least should be the common right of all, and that girls should be given equal opportunity with boys. 

 9. That training colleges for teachers should be established and maintained. 

The modern nature of many of Mulcaster's proposals may be seen from thetable of contents of his volume (R. 226). Mulcaster, like Comenius, thought far in advance of his age, and in consequence his book was soonand for long forgotten. Yet what Quick [1] says of him is very true:

 It would have been a vast gain to all Europe if Mulcaster had been followed instead of Sturm. He was one of the earliest advocates of the use of the vernacular instead of Latin, and good reading and writing in English were to be secured before Latin was begun. His elementary course included five things: English reading, English writing, drawing, singing, playing a musical instrument. If this were made to occupy the school time up to twelve, Mulcaster held that more would be done between twelve and sixteen than between seven and seventeen in the ordinary (Latin grammar school) way. There would be a further gain in that the children would not be set against learning. 

John Locke, and the disciplinary theory of education. Another commandingfigure in seventeenth-century pedagogical thought was the English scholar, philosopher, teacher, physician, and political writer, John Locke (1632-1704). In the preceding chapter we pointed out the place of Locke as awriter on the education of the sons of the English gentry, and illustratedby an extract from his _Thoughts_ (R. 216) the importance he placed onsuch a practical type of education as would prepare a gentleman's son forthe social and political demands of a world fast becoming modern. Locke'splace in the history of education, though, is of much more importance thanwas there (p. 402) indicated. Locke was essentially the founder of modernpsychology, based on the application of the methods of modern scientificinvestigation to a study of the mind, [2] and he is also of importance inthe history of educational thought as having set forth, at some length andwith much detail, the disciplinary conception of the educational process. 

Locke had served as a tutor in an English nobleman's family, had workedout his educational theories in practice and thought them through as mindprocesses, and had become thoroughly convinced that it was the process oflearning that was important, rather than the thing learned. Education tohim was a process of disciplining the body, fixing good habits, trainingthe youth in moral situations, and training the mind through work withstudies selected because of their disciplinary value. This conception ofeducation he sets forth well in the following paragraph, taken from his_Thoughts:_

 The great Work of the Governor is to fashion the Carriage and form the Mind; to settle in his Pupils good Habits and the Principles of Virtue and Wisdom; to give him by little and little a View of Mankind, and work him into a Love and Imitation of what is excellent and praiseworthy; and in the Prosecution of it, to give him Vigor, Activity, and Industry. The Studies which he sets him upon, are but as it were the Exercise of his Faculties, and Employment of his Time, to keep him from Sauntering and Idleness, to teach him Application, and accustom him to take Pains, and to give him some little Taste of what his own Industry must perfect (§94). 

In his _Thoughts_ Locke first sets forth at length the necessity fordisciplining the body by means of diet, exercise, and the hardeningprocess. "A sound mind in a sound body" he conceives to be "a short butfull description of a happy state in this world, " and a fundamental basisfor morality and learning. The formation of good habits and mannersthrough proper training, and the proper adjustment of punishments andrewards next occupies his attention, and he then explains his theory as tomaking all punishments the natural consequences of acts. Similarly themind, as the body, must be disciplined to virtue by training the child todeny, subordinate desires, and apply reason to acts. The formation of goodhabits and the disciplining of the desires Locke regards as thefoundations of virtue. On this point he says:

 As the Strength of the Body lies chiefly in being able to endure Hardship, so also does that of the Mind. And the great Principle and Foundation of all Virtue and Worth is plac'd in this:--That a Man is able to _deny himself_ his own Desires, cross his own Inclinations, and purely follow what Reason directs as best, tho' the Appetite lean the other Way (§ 33). 

Similarly, in intellectual education, good thinking and the employment ofreason is the aim, and these, too, must be attained through the properdiscipline of the mind. Good intellectual education does not consistmerely in studying and learning, he contends, as was the common practicein the grammar schools of his time, but must be achieved by a properdrilling of the powers of the mind through the use of selected studies. The purpose of education, he holds, is above all else to make man areasoning creature. Nothing, in his judgment, trains to reason closely sowell as the study of mathematics, though Locke would have his boy "lookinto all sorts of knowledge, " and train his understanding with a widevariety of exercises. In the education given in the grammar schools of histime he found much that seemed to him wasteful of time and thoroughly badin principle, and he used much space to point out defects and describebetter methods of teaching and management, giving in some detail reasonstherefor. His ideas as to needed reforms in the teaching of Latin (R. 227)are illustrative. 

LOCKE ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. For the beginnings of education, and forelementary education in general, Locke sticks close to the prevailingreligious conception of his time. As for the education of the commonpeople, he writes:

 The knowledge of the Bible and the business of his own calling is enough for the ordinary man; a Gentleman ought to go further. 

Continuing regarding the beginnings of education and the studies andtextbooks of his day, he says:

 The Lord's Prayer, the Creeds, and the Ten Commandments, 't is necessary he should learn perfectly by heart.... What other Books there are in _English_ of the Kind of those above-mentioned (besides the Primer) fit to engage the Liking of Children, and tempt them to _read_, I do not know;... And nothing that I know has been considered of this Kind out of the ordinary Road of the Horn Book, Primer, Psalter, Testament, and Bible (§ 157). 

Locke does, however, give some very sensible suggestions as to the readingof the Bible (R. 228), the imparting of religious ideas to children, andthe desirability of transforming instruction so as to make it pleasant andagreeable, with plenty of natural playful activity. [3] On this point hewrites:

 He that has found a Way how to keep up a Child's Spirit easy, active, and free, and yet at the same time to restrain him from many Things he has a Mind to, and to draw him to Things that are uneasy to him; he, I say, that knows how to reconcile these seeming Contradictions, has, in my Opinion, got the true Secret of Education (§ 46). 

INFLUENCE OF LOCKE'S _THOUGHTS_. The volume by Locke contains much that issensible in the matter of educating a boy. The emphasis on habitformation, reasoning, physical activities and play, the individuality ofchildren, and a reformed method in teaching are its strong points. Thethoroughly modern character of the book, in most respects, is one of itsmarked characteristics. The volume seems to have been much read by middleand upper-class Englishmen, and copies of it have been found in so manyold colonial collections that it was probably well known among earlyeighteenth-century American colonists. That the book had an importantinfluence on the attitude of the higher social classes of England towardthe education of their sons and, consciously or unconsciously, in timehelped to redirect the teaching in that most characteristic of Englisheducational institutions, the English Public (Latin Grammar) School, seemsto be fairly clear. On elementary religious and charity-school educationit had practically no influence. 

Locke's great influence on educational thought did not come, though, fornearly three quarters of a century afterward, and it came then through thepopularization of his best ideas by Rousseau. Karl Schmidt [4] well saysof his work:

Locke is a thorough Englishman, and the principle underlying his educationis the principle according to which the English people have developed. Hence his theory of education has in the history of pedagogy the samevalue that the English nation has in the history of the world. He stood instrong opposition to the scholastic and formalized education current inhis time, a living protest against the prevailing pedantry; in theuniversal development of pedagogy he gives impulse to the movement whichgrounds education upon sound psychological principles, and lays stressupon breeding and the formation of character. 

Restating and expanding the leading ideas of Locke in his _Emile_ (chapterXXI), and putting them into far more attractive literary form, Rousseauscattered Locke's ideas as to educational reform over Europe. Inparticular Rousseau popularized Locke's ideas as to the replacement ofauthority by reason and investigation, his emphasis on physical activityand health, his contention that the education of children should be alonglines that were natural and normal for children, and above all Locke'splea for education through the senses rather than the memory. In sopopularizing Locke's ideas, and at a time when all the politicaltendencies of the period were in the direction of the rejection ofauthority and the emphasis of the individual, those educational reformerswho were inspired by the writings of Rousseau created and applied, largelyon the foundations laid down by John Locke, a new theory as to educationalaims and procedure which dominated all early nineteenth-centuryinstruction. This we shall trace further in a subsequent chapter (chapterXXI). 

It was at this point that the educational problem stood, in so far as atheory as to educational aims and the educational process was concerned, when Rousseau took it up (1762). Before passing to a consideration of hiswork, though, and the work of those inspired by him and by the Frenchrevolutionary writers and statesmen, let us close this third part of ourhistory by a brief survey of the development so far attained, the purpose, character, aims, and nature of instruction in the schools, and their meansof support and control at about the middle of the century in whichRousseau wrote, and before the philosophical and political revolutions ofthe latter half of the eighteenth century had begun to influenceeducational aims and procedure and control. 

II. MID-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS

THE PURPOSE. The purpose of maintaining the elementary vernacular school, in all European lands, remained at the middle of the eighteenth centurymuch as it was a century before, though in the German States and in theAmerican Colonies there was a noticeable shifting of emphasis from theolder exclusively religious purpose toward a newer conception of educationas preparation for life in the world here. Still, one learned to readchiefly "to learn some orthodox Catechism, " "to read fluently in the NewTestament, " and to know the will of God, or, as stated in the law of theConnecticut Colony (R. 193), "in some competent measure to understand themain grounds and principles of Christian religion necessary to salvation. "The teacher was still carefully looked after as to his "soundness in thefaith" (R. 238 a); he was required "to catechise his scholars in theprinciples of the Christian religion, " and "to commend his labors amongstthem unto God by prayer morning and evening, [5] taking care that hisscholars do reverently attend during the same. " The minister inpractically all lands examined the children as to their knowledge of theCatechism and the Bible, and on his visits quizzed them as to the Sundaysermon. In Boston (1710) the ministers were required, on their schoolvisits, to pray with the pupils, and "to entertain them with someinstructions of piety adapted to their age. " In Church-of-England schools"the End and Chief Design" of the schools established continued to beinstruction in "the Knowledge and Practice of the Christian Religion asProfessed and Taught in the Church of England" (R. 238 b). In German landsthe elementary vernacular school was still regarded as "the portico of theTemple, " "Christianity its principal work, " and not as "mereestablishments preparatory to public life, but be pervaded by thereligious spirit. " [6] The uniform system of public schools orderedestablished for Prussia by Frederick the Great, in 1763, were after alllittle more than religious schools (R. 274), conducted for purposes ofboth Church and State. As Frederick expressed it, "we find it necessaryand wholesome to have a good foundation laid in the schools by a rationaland a Christian education of the young for the fear of God, and otheruseful ends. " In the schools of La Salle's organization, which was mostprominent in elementary vernacular education in Catholic France, the aimcontinued to be (R. 182) "to teach them to live honestly and uprightly, byinstructing them in the principles of our holy religion and by teachingthem Christian precepts. "

WEAKENING OF THE OLD RELIGIOUS THEORY. By the middle of the eighteenthcentury, however, there is a noticeable weakening of the hold of the oldreligious theory on the schools in most Protestant lands. In England therewas a marked relaxation of the old religious intolerance in educationalmatters as the century proceeded, and new textbooks, embodying but littleof the old gloomy religious material, appeared and began to be used. By aseries of decisions, between 1670 and 1701 (chapter XXIV), the Englishcourts broke the hold of the bishops in the matter of the licensing ofelementary schoolmasters, and by the Acts of 1713 and 1714 the Dissenterswere once more allowed to conduct schools of their own. Coincident withthis growth of religious tolerance among the English we find the Church ofEngland redoubling its efforts to hold the children of its adherents, bythe organization of parish schools and the creation of a vast system ofcharitable religious schools. In German lands, too, a marked shifting ofemphasis away from solely religious ends and toward the needs of thegovernment began, toward the end of the eighteenth century, to be evident. In Würtemberg, which was somewhat typical of late eighteenth-centuryaction by other German States, a Circular of the General Synod, ofNovember 1787, declares the German schools to be "those nurseries in whichshould be taught the true and genuine idea of the duties of men--createdwith a reasoning soul toward God, government, their fellow-men, andthemselves, and also at least the first rudiments of useful andindispensable knowledge. "

It was in the American Colonies, though, that the waning of the oldreligious interest was most notable. Due to rude frontier conditions, thedecline in force of the old religious-town governments, the diversity ofsects, the rise of new trade and civil interests, and the breakdown ofold-home connections, the hold on the people of the old religiousdoctrines was weakened there earlier than in the old world. By 1750 thechange in religious thinking in America had become quite marked. As aconsequence many of the earlier parochial schools had died out, while inthe New England Colonies the colonial governments had been forced toexercise an increasing state oversight of the elementary school to keep itfrom dying out there as well. 

STUDIES AND TEXTBOOKS. The studies of the elementary vernacular schoolremained, throughout the whole of the eighteenth century, much as before, namely, reading, a little writing and ciphering, some spelling, religion, and in Teutonic countries a little music. La Salle (R. 182) hadprescribed, for the Catholic vernacular schools of France, instruction inFrench, some. Latin, "orthography, arithmetic, the matins and vespers, lePater, l'Ave Maria, le Credo et le Confiteor, the Commandments, responses, Catechism, duties of a Christian, and maxims and precepts drawn from theTestament. " The Catechism was to be taught one half-hour daily. Theschoolbooks in England in Locke's day, as he tells us (p. 435), were "theHorn Book, Primer, Psalter, Testament, and Bible. " These indicate merely areligious vernacular school. The purpose stated for the English Churchcharity-schools (R. 238 b), schools that attained to large importance inEngland and the American Colonies during the eighteenth century, showsthem to have been, similarly, religious vernacular schools. The _SchoolRegulations_ which Frederick the Great promulgated for Prussia (1763), fixed the textbooks to be used (R. 274, § 20), and indicate that theinstruction in Prussia was still restricted to reading, writing, religion, singing, and a little arithmetic. In colonial America, Noah Webster'sdescription (R. 230) of the schools he attended in Connecticut, about1764-70, shows that the studies and textbooks were "chiefly or whollyDilworth's Spelling Books, the Psalter, Testament, and Bible, " with alittle writing and ciphering. A few words of description of these olderbooks may prove useful here. 

[Illustration: FIG. 130. A HORN BOOK]

THE HORN BOOK. The Horn Book goes back to the close of the fifteenthcentury, [7] and by the end of the sixteenth century was in common usethroughout England. Somewhat similar alphabet boards, lacking the handle, were also used in Holland, France, and in German lands. This, a thin oakboard on which was pasted a printed slip, covered by translucent horn, wasthe book from which children learned their letters and began to read, themastery of which usually required some time. Cowper thus describes thislittle book:

 Neatly secured from being soiled or torn Beneath a pane of thin translucent horn, A book (to please us at a tender age 'T is called a book, though but a single page) Presents the prayer the Savior designed to teach, Which children use, and parsons--when they preach. 

The Horn Book was much used well into the eighteenth century, but itsreading matter was in time incorporated into the school Primer, nowevolved out of an earlier elementary religious manual. 

THE PRIMER. Originally the child next passed to the Catechism and theBible, but about the middle of the seventeenth century the Primer began tobe used. The Primer in its original form was a simple manual of devotionfor the laity, compiled without any thought of its use in the schools. Itcontained the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and a few ofthe more commonly used prayers and psalms. [8] The Catechism soon wasadded, and with the prefixing of the alphabet and a few syllables andwords it was transformed, as schools arose, into the first reading bookfor children. There was at first no attempt at grading, illustration, orthe introduction of easy reading material. About the close of theseventeenth century the illustrated Primer, with some attempt at gradingand some additional subject-matter, made its appearance, both in Englandand America, and at once leaped into great popularity. 

The idea possibly goes back to the _Orbis Pictus_ (1654) of Comenius (p. 413: R. 221), the first illustrated schoolbook ever written. The firstEnglish Primer adapted to school use was _The Protestant Tutor_, a ratherrabid anti-Catholic work which appeared in London, about 1685. A lateredition of this contained the alphabet, some syllables and words, thefigures and letters, the list of the books of the Bible, an alphabet oflessons, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Ten Commandments, and a poem, long famous, on the death of the martyr, John Rogers. [9] It was anabridgement of this book which the same publisher brought out in Boston, about 1690, under the name of _The New England Primer_ (R. 202). This atonce leaped into great popularity, and became the accepted reading book inall the schools of the American Colonies except those under the Church ofEngland. For the next century and a quarter it was the chief school andreading book in use among the Dissenters and Lutherans in America. Schoolmasters drilled the children on the reading matter and the Catechismit contained, and the people recited from it yearly in the churches. Itwas also used for such spelling as was given. It was the first greatAmerican textbook success, and was still in use in the Boston dame schoolsas late as 1806. It was reprinted in England, and enjoyed a great saleamong Dissenters there. Its sales in America alone have been estimated atleast three million copies. The sale in Europe was also large. It wasfollowed in England by other Primers and other introductory reading books, of which _The History of Genesis_ (1708), a series of simple storiesretold from the first book of the Bible, and _The Child's Weeks-Work_(1712), containing proverbs, fables, conundrums, lessons on behavior, anda short catechism, are types. Frederick the Great, in his list of requiredtextbooks for Prussian schools (R. 274, § 20), does not mention a Primer. 

[Illustration: THE WESTMINSTER CATECHISM. (A page from _The New England Primer_, natural size)]

THE CATECHISM. In all Protestant German lands the Shorter Catechismprepared by Luther, or the later Heidelberg Catechism; in Calvinisticlands the Catechism of Calvin; and in England and the American Coloniesthe Westminster Catechism, [10] formed the backbone of the religiousinstruction. Teachers drilled their pupils in these as thoroughly as onany other subject, writing masters set as copies sentences from the book, children were required to memorize the answers, and the doctrinescontained were emphasized by teacher and preacher so that the childrenwere saturated with the religious ideas set forth. No book except theBible did so much to form the character, and none so much to fix thereligious bias of the children. Almost equal importance was given to theCatechism in Catholic lands (R. 182, §§ 21-22), though there supplementedby more religious influences derived from the ceremonial of the Church. 

[Illustration: FIG. 132. THOMAS DILWORTH (?-1780)The most celebrated English textbook writer of his day. (From the Frontispiece of his _Schoolmaster's Assistant_, 1740)]

SPELLERS. The next step forward, in the transition from the religiousPrimer to secular reading matter for school children, came in the use ofthe so-called Spellers. Probably the first of these was _The EnglishSchool-Master_ of Edmund Coote (R. 229), first issued in 1596. This gavethirty-two pages to the alphabet and spelling; eighteen to a shorterCatechism, prayers, and psalms; five to chronology; two to writing copies;two to arithmetic; and twenty to a list of hard words, alphabeticallyarranged and explained. As will be seen from this analysis of contents, this was a schoolmaster's general manual and guide. After about 1740 suchbooks became very popular, due to the publication that year of ThomasDilworth's _A New Guide to the English Tongue_. This book contained, asthe title-page (R. 229) declared, selected lists of words with rules fortheir pronunciation, a short treatise on grammar, a collection of fableswith illustrations for reading, some moral selections, and forms of prayerfor children. It became very popular in New as well as in old England, andwas followed by a long line of imitators, culminating in America in thepublication of Noah Webster's famous blue-backed _American Spelling Book_, in 1783. This was after the plan of the English Dilworth, but was put inbetter teaching form. It contained numerous graded lists of words, someillustrations, a series of graded reading lessons, and was largely secularin character. It at once superseded the expiring _New England Primer_ inmost of the American cities, and continued popular in the United Statesfor more than a hundred years. [11] It was the second great Americantextbook success, and was followed by a long list of popular Spellers andReaders, leading up to the excellent secular Readers of the present day. 

[Illustration: FIG. 133. FRONTISPIECE TO NOAH WEBSTER'S "AMERICAN SPELLINGBOOK"This is from the 1827 edition, reduced one third in size. ]

ARITHMETIC AND WRITING. The first English Arithmetic, published about 1540to 1542, has been entirely lost, and was probably read by few. The firstto attain any popularity was _Cocker's Arithmetic_ (1677), this "Being aPlain and Familiar Method suitable to the meanest Capacity, for theunderstanding of that incomparable. Art. " A still more popular book was_Arithmetick: or that Necessary Art Made Most Easie_, by J. Hodder, Writing Master, a reprint of which appeared in Boston, in 1719. The firstbook written by an American author was Isaac Greenwood's _Arithmetick, Vulgar and Decimal_, which appeared in Boston, in 1729. In 1743 appearedDilworth's _The Schoolmaster's Assistant_, a book which retained itspopularity in both England and America until after the beginning of thenineteenth century. 

No text in Arithmetic is mentioned in the School Regulations of Frederickthe Great (R. 274, §20), or in scarcely any of the descriptions left us ofeighteenth-century schools. The study itself was common, but notuniversal, and was one that many teachers were not competent to teach. Topossess a reputation as an "arithmeticker" was an important recommendationfor a teacher, while for a pupil to be able to do sums in arithmetic wasunusual, and a matter of much pride to parents. The subject was frequentlytaught by the writing master, in a separate school, [12] while the readingteacher confined himself to reading, spelling, and religion. Thus, forexample, following earlier English practice, the Town Meeting of Boston, in 1789, ordered "three reading schools and three writing schoolsestablished in the town" for the instruction of children between the agesof seven and fourteen, the subjects to be taught in each being:

 The writing schools: Writing, Arithmetic

 The reading schools: Spelling, Accentuation, Reading of prose and verse, English grammar and composition

The teacher might or might not possess an arithmetic of his own, but theinstruction to the pupil was practically always dictated and copiedinstruction. Each pupil made up his own book of rules and solved problems, and few pupils ever saw a printed arithmetic. Many of the earlyarithmetics were prepared after the catechism plan. There was almost noattempt to use the subject for drill in reasoning or to give a concretetype of instruction, before about the middle of the eighteenth century, [13] and but little along such reform lines was accomplished until afterthe beginning of the nineteenth century. 

[Illustration: FIG. 134. TITLE-PAGE OF HODDER'S ARITHMETICAn early reprint of this famous book appeared in Boston in 1719. ]

Writing, similarly, was taught by dictation and practice, and the art ofthe "scrivener, " as the writing master was called, was one thought to bedifficult to learn. The lack of practical value of the art, the high costof paper, and the necessity usually for special lessons, all alike tendedto make writing a much less commonly known art than reading. Fees alsowere frequently charged for instruction in writing and arithmetic;reading, spelling, and religion being the only free subjects. Thescrivener and the arithmetic teacher also frequently moved about, asbusiness warranted, and was not fixed as was the teacher of the readingschool. 

THE TEACHERS. The development of the vernacular school was retarded notonly by the dominance of the religious purpose of the school, but by thepoor quality of teachers found everywhere in the schools. The evolution ofthe elementary-school teacher of to-day out of the church sexton, bell-ringer, or grave-digger, [14] or out of the artisan, cripple, or old damewho added school teaching to other employment in order to live, forms oneof the interesting as well as one of the yet-to-be-written chapters in thehistory of the evolution of the elementary school. 

Teachers in elementary schools everywhere in the eighteenth century werefew in number, poor in quality, and occupied but a lowly position in thesocial scale. School dames in England (R. 235) and later in the AmericanColonies, and on the continent of Europe teachers who were more sextons, choristers, beadles, bell-ringers, grave-diggers, shoemakers, tailors, barbers, pensioners, and invalids than teachers, too often formed theteaching body for the elementary vernacular school (Rs. 231, 232, 233). InSwitzerland, the Netherlands, and some of the American Colonies, whereschools had become or were becoming local semi-civic affairs, thestandards which might be imposed for teaching also were low. The grant ofthe tailoring monopoly to the elementary teachers of Prussia, [15] in1738, and Krüsi's recollections of how he became a schoolmaster inSwitzerland, in 1793 (R. 234), were quite typical of the time. In CatholicFrance, and in some German Catholic lands as well, teaching congregations(p. 345), some of whose members had some rudimentary training for theirwork, were in charge of the existing parish schools. These provided asomewhat better type of teaching body than that frequently found inProtestant lands, though by the latter part of the eighteenth century thebeginnings of teacher-training are to be seen in some of the GermanStates. The Church of England, too, had by this time organized strongSocieties [16] for the preparation of teachers for Church-of-Englandschools, both at home and abroad. In Dutch, German, and Scandinavianlands, and in colonies founded by these people in America, the parishschool, closely tied up with and dependent upon the parish church, was theprevailing type of vernacular school, and in this the teacher was regardedas essentially an assistant to the pastor (R. 236) and the school as adependency of the Church. 

[FIG. 135. A "CHRISTIAN BROTHERS" SCHOOLLa Salle teaching at Grenoble. Note the adult type of dress of the boys. ]

In England, in addition to regular parish schools and endowed elementaryschools, three peculiar institutions, known as the Dame School, thereligious charity-school, and the private-adventure or "hedge school" hadgrown up, and the first two of these had reached a marked development bythe middle of the eighteenth century. Because these were so characteristicof early English educational effort, and also played such an importantpart in the American Colonies as well, they merit a few words ofdescription at this point. 

THE DAME SCHOOL. The Dame School arose in England after the Reformation. By means of it the increasing desire for a rudimentary knowledge of theart of reading could be satisfied, and at the same time certain womencould earn a pittance. This type of school was carried early to theAmerican Colonies, and out of it was in time evolved, in New England, theAmerican elementary school. The Dame School was a very elementary school, kept in a kitchen or living-room by some woman who, in her youth, hadobtained the rudiments of an education, and who now desired to earn asmall stipend for herself by imparting to the children of her neighborhoodher small store of learning. For a few pennies a week the dame took thechildren into her home and explained to them the mysteries connected withlearning the beginnings of reading and spelling. Occasionally a littlewriting and counting also were taught, though not often in England. In theAmerican Colonies the practical situations of a new country forced theemployment as teachers of women who could teach all three subjects, thusearly creating the American school of the so-called "3 Rs"--"Reading, Riting, Rithmetic. " The Dame School appears so frequently in Englishliterature, both poetry and prose, that it must have played a veryimportant part in the beginnings of elementary education in England. Ofthis school Shenstone (1714-63) writes (R. 235):

 In every village marked with little spire, Embowered in trees, and hardly known to fame, There dwells, in lowly shed and mean attire, A matron old, whom we schoolmistress name, Who boasts unruly brats with birch to tame. 

[Illustration: FIG. 136. AN ENGLISH DAME SCHOOL(From a drawing of a school in the heart of London, after Barclay)]

The Reverend George Crabbe (1754-1832), another poet of homely life, writes (R. 235) of a deaf, poor, patient widow who sits

 And awes some thirty infants as she knits; Infants of humble, busy wives who pay, Some trifling price for freedom through the day. 

This school flourished greatly in America during the eighteenth century, but with the coming of Infant Schools, early in the nineteenth, was mergedinto these to form the American Primary School. 

[Illustration: FIG. 137. GRAVEL LANE CHARITY-SCHOOL, SOUTHWARKFounded in 1687, and one of the earliest of the Non-Conformist Englishcharity-schools. Still carrying on its work in the original schoolroom atthe time this picture appeared, in _Londina Illustrata_ in 1819. ]

THE RELIGIOUS CHARITY-SCHOOL. Another thoroughly characteristic Englishinstitution was the church charity-school. The first of these was foundedin Whitechapel, London, in 1680. In 1699, when the School of Saint Anne, Soho (R. 237), was founded by "Five Earnest Laymen for the Poore Boys ofthe Parish, " it was the sixth of its kind in England. In 1699 the "Societyfor the Promotion of Christian Knowledge" (S. P. C. K. ) was founded for thepurpose, among other things, of establishing catechetical schools for theeducation of the children of the poor in the principles of the EstablishedChurch (R. 238 b). In 1701 the "Society for the Propagation of the Gospelin Foreign Parts" (S. P. G. ) was also founded to extend the work of theAnglican Church abroad, supply schoolmasters and ministers, and establishschools, to train children to read, write, know and understand theCatechism, and fit into the teachings and worship of the Church. Todevelop piety and help the poor to lead industrious, upright, self-respecting lives, "to make them loyal Church members, and to fit them forwork in that station of life in which it had pleased their Heavenly Fatherto place them, " were the principal objects of the Society. 

All were taught reading, spelling, and the Catechism, and instruction inwriting and arithmetic might be added. The training might also be coupledwith that of the "schools of industry" (workhouse schools, as described byLocke [R. 217]) to augment the economic efficiency of the boy. Girls seemto have been provided for almost equally with boys, and, in addition tobeing taught to read and spell, were taught "to knit their Stockings andGloves, to Mark, Sew, and make and mend their Cloathes. " Both boys andgirls were usually provided with books and clothing, [17] a regularuniform being worn by the boys and girls of each school. 

[Illustration: FIG. 138. A CHARITY-SCHOOL GIRL IN UNIFORMSaint Anne's, Soho, England]

The chief motive in the establishment of these schools, though, was todecrease the "Prophaness and Debauchery ... Owing to a gross Ignorance ofthe Christian Religion" (R. 237) and to educate "Poor Children in theRules and Principles of the Christian Religion as professed and taught inthe Church of England. " Writing, in 1742, Reverend Griffith Jones, anorganizer for the S. P. C. K. In Wales, said:

 It is but a cheap education that we would desire for them [the poor], only the moral and religious branches of it, which indeed is the most necessary and indispensable part. The sole design of this charity is to inculcate upon such ... As can be prevailed upon to learn, the knowledge and practice, the principles and duties of the Christian religion; and to make them good people, useful members of society, faithful servants of God, and men and heirs of eternal life. 

These schools multiplied rapidly and soon became regular institutions, asthe following table, showing the growth of the S. P. C. K. Schools in Londonalone, shows:

 Year Schools Boys Girls Total 1699 0 0 0 0 1704 54 1386 745 2131 1709 88 2181 1221 3402 1714 117 3077 1741 4818

In England and Ireland combined the Society had, by 1714, a total of 1073schools, with 19, 453 pupils enrolled, and by 1729 the number had increasedto 1658, with approximately 34, 000 pupils. From England the charity-schoolidea was early carried to the Anglican Colonies in America and became afixed institution in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, andsomewhat in the Colonies farther south. In the Pennsylvania constitutionof 1790 we find the following directions for the establishment of a statecharity-school system to supplement the parish schools of the churches:

 Sec. I. The legislature shall, as soon as conveniently may be, provide, by law, for the establishment of schools throughout the State, in such manner that the poor may be taught _gratis_. 

[Illustration: FIG. 130. A CHARITY-SCHOOL BOY IN UNIFORMSaint Anne's, Soho, England]

The first Pennsylvania school law of 1802 carried this direction intoeffect by providing for pauper schools in the counties, a condition thatwas not done away with until 1834. In New Jersey the system lasted until1838. 

THE PRIVATE-ADVENTURE, OR "HEDGE, " SCHOOL. This was a school analogous tothe Dame School, but was kept by a man instead of a woman, and usually athis home or shop. Plate 15, showing a shoe cobbler teaching, representsone type of such schools. The term "hedge schools" arose in Ireland, whereteaching was forbidden the Catholics, and secret schools arose in whichpriests and others taught what was possible. Of these McCarthy writes:[18]

 On the highways and on the hillsides, in ditches and behind hedges, in the precarious shelter of the ruined walls of some ancient abbey, or under the roof of a peasant's cabin, the priests set up schools and taught the children of their race. 

The term soon came to be applied to any kind of a poor school, taught inan irregular manner or place. Similar irregular schools, under equivalentnames, also were found in German lands, [19] the Netherlands, and inFrance, while in the American Colonies "indentured white servants" werefrequently let out as schoolmasters. The following advertisement of ateacher for sale is typical of private-adventure elementary school-keepingduring the colonial period. 

[Illustration: FIG. 140. ADVERTISEMENT FOR A TEACHER TO LET(From the _American Weekly Mercury_ of Philadephia, 1735)]

These schools were taught by itinerant school-keepers, artisans, andtutors of the poorer type, but offered the beginnings of elementaryeducation to many a child who otherwise would never have been able tolearn to read. In the early eighteenth century these schools attained aremarkable development in England. 

A new influence of tremendous future importance--general reading--was nowcoming in; the vernacular was fast supplanting Latin; newspapers werebeing started; little books or pamphlets (tracts) containing generalinformation were being sold; books for children and beginners were beingwritten; the popular novel and story had appeared; [20] and all theseeducative forces were creating a new and a somewhat general desire for aknowledge of the art of reading. This in turn caused a new demand forschools to teach the long-locked-up art, and this demand was capitalizedto the profit of many types of people. 

THE APPRENTICING OF ORPHANS AND CHILDREN OF THE POOR. The compulsoryapprenticing of the children of the poor, as we have seen (p. 326), was anold English institution, and workhouse training, or the so-called "schoolsof industry" became, by the eighteenth century, a prominent feature of theEnglish care of the poor. These represented the only form of educationsupported by taxation, and the only form of education to which Parliamentgave any attention during the whole of the eighteenth century. This typeof institution also was carried to the Anglican Colonies in America, as wehave seen in the documents for Virginia (R. 200 a), and became anestablished institution in America as well. 

The apprenticing of boys to a trade, a still older institution, was alsomuch used as a means for training youths for a life in the trades, notonly in England and the American Colonies, but throughout all Europeanlands as well. The conditions surrounding the apprenticing of a boy had bythe eighteenth century become quite fixed. The "Indenture ofApprenticeship" was drawn up by a lawyer, and by it the master wascarefully bound to clothe and feed the boy, train him properly in histrade, look after his morals, and start him in life at the end of hisapprenticeship. This is well shown in the many records which have beenpreserved, both in England (R. 242) and the American Colonies (R. 201). For many boys this type of education was the best possible at the time, and worthily started the possessor in the work of his trade. 

In the eighteenth century different English church parishes began to setup workhouse schools of various types, and to maintain these out of parish"rates. " The one established in Bishopsgate Street, London, in 1701, istypical. This cared for about 375 children and in it, by 1720, there hadbeen educated and placed forth 1420 children, and in addition 123 haddied. Of this school it is recorded that poor children

 "being taken into the said Workhouse are there taught to Read and Write, and kept to Work until they are qualified to be put out to be Apprentices, and for the Sea Service, or otherwise disposed; ... The Habit of the Children is all the same, being made of Russit Cloth, and a round Badge worn upon their Breast, representing a poor Boy, and a Sheep; the Motto: '_God's Providence is our Inheritance_. '" ... In this workhouse children were "taught to spin Wool and Flax, to Sow and Knit, to make their own Cloaths, Shoes, and Stockings, and the like Employments; to inure them betimes to labour. They are also taught to read, and such as are capable, to write and cast Accounts; and also the Catechism, to ground them in Principles of Religion and Honesty. " [21]

The school established by Saint John's parish, Southwark, London, in 1735, and designed to train and "put out" girls for domestic service (R. 241), and which cared for, clothed, and trained forty girls, is also typical ofthese parish schools "for the children of the industrious poor. "

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. Throughout the eighteenth century the method ofinstruction commonly employed in the vernacular schools was what was knownas the individual method. This was wasteful of both time and effort, andunpedagogical to a high degree (R. 244). Everywhere the teacher wasengaged chiefly in hearing recitations, testing memory, and keeping order. The pupils came to the master's desk, one by one (see Figures 98, 99), andrecited what they had memorized. Aside from imposing discipline, teachingwas an easy task. The pupils learned the assigned lessons and recited whatthey had learned. Such a thing as methodology--technique of instruction--was unknown. The dominance of the religious motive, too, precluded anyliberal attitude in school instruction, the individual method was time-consuming, school buildings often were lacking, and in general there wasan almost complete lack of any teaching equipment, books, or supplies. Viewed from any modern standpoint the schools of the eighteenth centuryattained to but a low degree of efficiency (R. 244). The school hours werelong, the schoolmaster's residence or place of work or business wascommonly used as a schoolroom, and such regular schoolrooms as did existwere dirty and noisy and but poorly suited to school purposes. Schoolseverywhere, too, were ungraded, the school of one teacher being like thatof any other teacher of that class. 

So wasteful of time and effort was the individual method of instructionthat children might attend school for years and get only a mere start inreading and writing. Paulsen, [22] writing of schools in German lands atan even later date, says that even in the better type of vernacularschools

 many children never achieved anything beyond a little reading and knowing a few things by heart.... The instruction in reading was never anything else but a torture, protracted through years, from saying the alphabet and formation of syllables to the deciphering of complete words, without any real success in the end, while writing was nothing but a wearisome tracing of the letters, the net result of all the toil being the gabbling of the Catechism and a few Bible texts and hymns, learned over and over again. 

The imparting of information by the teacher to a class, or a classdiscussion of a topic, were almost unknown. Hearing lessons, assigning newtasks, setting copies, making quill pens, dictating sums, and imposingorder completely absorbed the time and the attention of the teacher. 

SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. The discipline everywhere was severe. "A boy has aback; when you hit it he understands, " was a favorite pedagogical maxim ofthe time. Whipping-posts were sometimes set up in the schoolroom, andpractically all pictures of the schoolmasters of the time show a bundle ofswitches near at hand. Boys in the Latin grammar schools were flogged forpetty offenses (R. 245). The ability to impose order on a poorly taughtand, in consequence, an unruly school was always an important requisite ofthe schoolmaster. A Swabian schoolmaster, Häuberle by name, withcharacteristic Teutonic attention to details, has left on record [23]that, in the course of his fifty-one years and seven months as a teacherhe had, by a moderate computation, given 911, 527 blows with a cane, 124, 010 blows with a rod, 20, 989 blows and raps with a ruler, 136, 715blows with the hand, 10, 235 blows over the mouth, 7, 905 boxes on the ear, 1, 115, 800 raps on the head, and 22, 763 _notabenes_ with the Bible, Catechism, singing book, and grammar. He had 777 times made boys kneel onpeas, 613 times on a triangular piece of wood, had made 3001 wear thejackass, and 1707 hold the rod up, not to mention various more unusualpunishments he had contrived on the spur of the occasion. Of the blowswith the cane, 800, 000 were for Latin words; of the rod 76, 000 were fortexts from the Bible or verses from the singing book. He also had about3000 expressions to scold with, two thirds of which were native to theGerman tongue and the remainder his invention. 

[Illustration: FIG. 141. A SCHOOL WHIPPING-POSTDrawn from a picture of a five-foot whipping-post which once stood in thefloor of a school-house at Sunderland, Massachusetts. Now in the DeerfieldMuseum. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 142. AN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY GERMAN SCHOOLReproduction of an engraving by J. Mettenleiter, now in theKupferstichkabinet, Munich, and printed in Joh. Ferd. Schlez's. _Dorfschulen zu Langenhausen_. Nuremberg, 1795. ]

Another illustration of German school discipline, of many that might becited, was the reform work of Johann Ernest Christian Haun, who wasappointed, in 1783, as inspector of schools in the once famous Gotha (p. 317). Due to warfare and neglect the schools there had fallen intodisrepute. Haun drove the incapable teachers from the work, and for a timerestored the schools to something of their earlier importance. Among otherreforms it is recorded that he forbade teachers to put irons around theboys' necks, to cover them with mud, to make them kneel on peas, or tobrutally beat them. Diesterweg (R. 244) describes similar punishments ascharacteristic of eighteenth-century German schools. The eighteenth-century German schoolmaster shown in Fig. 142 was probably a good sampleof his class. 

Pedagogical writers of the time uniformly complain of the severediscipline of the schools, and the literature of the period abounds inallusions to the prevailing harshness of the school discipline. A fewwriters condemn, but most approve heartily of the use of the rod. "Sparethe rod and spoil the child" had for long been a well-grounded pedagogicaldoctrine. Among many literary extracts that might be cited illustratingthis belief, the following poem by the English poet Crabbe (1754-1832) isinteresting. He puts the following words into the mouth of his earlyschoolmaster:

 Students like horses on the road, Must be well lashed before they take the load; They may be willing for a time to run, But you must whip them ere the work be done; To tell a boy, that if he will improve, His friends will praise him, and his parents love, Is doing nothing--he has not a doubt But they will love him, nay, applaud without; Let no fond sire a boy's ambition trust, To make him study, let him learn he must. 

CONDITIONS SURROUNDING CHILDHOOD. It is difficult for us of today to re-create in imagination the pitiful life-conditions which surroundedchildren a century and a half ago. Often the lot of the children of thepoor, who then constituted the great bulk of all children, was little lessthan slavery. Wretchedly poor, dirty, unkempt, hard-worked, beaten about, knowing strong drink early, illiterate, often vicious--their lot was a sadone. For the children of the poor there were few, if any, educationalopportunities. Writing on the subject David Salmon says: [24]

 The imagination of the twentieth century cannot fathom the poverty of the eighteenth. The great development of mines and manufactures, which has brought ease and independence within the reach of industrious labour everywhere, had hardly begun; employment was so scarce and intermittent, and wages were so low, that the working classes lived in hovels, dressed in rags, and were familiar with the pangs of hunger; while those who were forced to look to the rates for hovels, rags, and food sufficient to maintain a miserable life numbered a sixth of the whole population. 

In the towns children were apprenticed out early in life, and for longhours of daily labor. Child welfare was almost entirely neglected, children were cuffed about and beaten at their work, juvenile delinquencywas a common condition, child mortality was heavy, and ignorance was therule. Schools generally were pay institutions or a charity, and not abirthright, and usually existed only for the middle and lower-middleclasses in the population who were attendants at the churches and couldafford to pay a little for the schooling given. Reading and religion wereusually the only free subjects. Only in the New England Colonies, wherethe beginnings of town and colony school systems were evident, and in afew of the German States where state control was beginning to beexercised, was a better condition to be found. 

[Illustration: FIG. 143. CHILDREN AS MINIATURE ADULTSChildren leaving school, from an eighteenth-century drawing by SaintAubin. ]

Among the middle and upper social classes, particularly on the continentof Europe, a stiff artificiality everywhere prevailed. Children weredressed and treated as miniature adults, the normal activities ofchildhood were suppressed, and the natural interests and emotions ofchildren found little opportunity for expression. Wearing powdered andbraided hair, long gold-braided coats, embroidered waistcoats, cockadedhats, and swords, boys were treated more as adults than as children. Girls, too, with their long dresses, hoops, powdered hair, rouged faces, and demure manner, were trained in a, for children, most unnatural manner. [25]

The dancing master for their manners and graces, and the religiousinstructor to develop in them the ability to read and to go through alargely meaningless ceremonial, were the chief guides for the period oftheir childhood. 

SCHOOL SUPPORT. No uniform plan, in any country, had as yet been evolvedfor even the meager support which the schools of the time received. TheLatin grammar schools were in nearly all cases supported by the incomefrom old "foundations" and from students' fees, with here and there somestate aid. The new elementary vernacular schools, though, had had assignedto them few old foundations upon which to draw for maintenance, and inconsequence support for elementary schools had to be built up from newsources, and this required time. 

In England the Act of Conformity of 1662 (R. 166), it will be remembered(p. 324), had laid a heavy hand on the schools by driving all Dissentersfrom positions in them, and the Five Mile Act of 1665 had borne even moreseverely on the teachers in the schools of the Dissenters. Fortunately forelementary education in England, however, the English courts, in 1670, haddecided in a test case that the teacher in an elementary school could notbe deprived of his position by failure of the bishop to license him, if hewere a nominee of the founder or the lay patron of the school. The resultof this decision was that, between 1660 and 1730, 905 endowed elementaryschools were founded in England, and 72 others previously founded hadtheir endowments increased. The number continued to increase throughoutthe eighteenth century, and by 1842 had reached a total of 2194. These newfoundations probably gave the best schooling of the time, and tended tostir the Established Church to action. Accordingly we find that during theeighteenth century the vestries of the different church parishes began thecreation of parish elementary schools for the children of the poor of theparish, supporting a teacher for them out of the parish rates, and withoutspecific legal authorization to do so. These new parish schools alsocontributed somewhat to the provision of elementary education, and markthe beginning of the church "voluntary schools" which were such acharacteristic feature of nineteenth-century English education. We thushave, in England, endowed elementary schools, parish schools, dameschools, private-adventure schools of many types, and charity-schools, allexisting side by side, and drawing such support as they could fromendowment funds, parish rates, church tithes, subscriptions, and tuitionfees. The support of schools by subscription lists (R. 240) was a verycommon proceeding. Education in England, more than in any other Protestantland, early came to be regarded as a benevolence which the State was underno obligation to support. Only workhouse schools were provided for by thegeneral taxation of all property. 

In the Netherlands and in German lands church funds, town funds, andtuition fees were the chief means of support, though here and there someprince had provided for something approaching state support for theschools of his little principality. Frederick the Great had orderedschools established generally (1763) and had decreed the compulsoryattendance of children (R. 274), but he had depended largely on churchfunds and tuition fees (§7) for maintenance, with a proviso that thetuition of poor and orphaned children should be paid from "any funds ofthe church or town, that the schoolmaster may get his income" (§8). InScotland the church parish school was the prevailing type. In France thereligious societies (p. 345) provided nearly all the elementary vernacularreligious education that was obtainable. 

In the Dutch Provinces, in the New England Colonies, and in some of theminor German States, we find the clearest examples of the beginnings ofstate control and maintenance of elementary schools--something destined togrow rapidly and in the nineteenth century take over the school from theChurch and maintain it as a function of the State. The Prussian kingsearly made grants of land and money for endowment funds and support, andstate aid was ordered granted by Maria Theresa for Austria (R. 274 a), in1774. In the New England Colonies the separation of the school from theChurch, and the beginnings of state support and control of education, found perhaps their earliest and clearest exemplification. In the otherColonies the lottery was much used (R. 246) to raise funds for schools, while church tithes, subscription lists, and school societies after theEnglish pattern also helped in many places to start and support a schoolor schools. 

Only by some such means was it possible in the eighteenth century that thechildren of the poor could ever enjoy any opportunities for education. Theparents of the poor children, themselves uneducated, could hardly beexpected to provide what they had never come to appreciate themselves. Onthe other hand, few of the well-to-do classes felt under any obligation toprovide education for children not their own. There was as yet norealization that the diffusion of education contributed to the welfare ofthe State, or that the ignorance of the masses might be in any way apublic peril. This attitude is well shown for England by the fact that nota single law relating to the education of the people, aside from workhouseschools, was enacted by Parliament during the whole of the eighteenthcentury. The same was true of France until the coming of the Revolution. It is to a few of the German States and to the American Colonies that wemust turn for the beginnings of legislation directing school support. Thiswe shall describe more in detail in later chapters. 

THE LATIN SECONDARY SCHOOL. The great progress made in education duringthe eighteenth century, nevertheless, was in elementary education. Concerning the secondary schools and the universities there is little toadd to what has previously been said. During this century the secondaryschool, outside of German lands, remained largely stationary. Havingbecome formal and lifeless in its teaching (p. 283), and in England andFrance crushed by religious-uniformity legislation, the Latin grammarschool of England and the surviving colleges in France practically ceasedto exert any influence on the national life. The Jesuit schools, whichonce had afforded the best secondary education in Europe, had so declinedin usefulness everywhere that they were about to be driven from all lands. The Act of Conformity of 1662 (R. 166) had dealt the grammar schools ofEngland a heavy blow, and the eighteenth century found them in a mostwretched condition, with few scholars, and their endowments shamefullyabused. The Law of 1662, says Montmorency, "involved such a peering intothe lives of schoolmasters, such a course of inquisitorial folly, that theposition became intolerable. Men would not become schoolmasters.... Education had no meaning when none but political and religious hypocriteswere allowed to teach.... National education was destroyed. " and thegrammar schools of England were "practically withdrawn during more thantwo centuries (1662-1870) from the national life. " [26]

In German lands the old Latin schools continued largely unchanged untilnear the middle of the eighteenth century, with Latin, taught as it hadbeen for a century or more, as the chief subject of study. Shortly afterthe coming of Frederick the Great to the throne (1740) the Latin schoolsof Prussia, and after them the Latin schools in other German States, werereorganized and given a new life. The influence of Francke's school atHalle (p. 418), and the new types of teaching developed there and by hisfollowers elsewhere, began to be felt. German, French, and mathematicswere given recognition, and some science work was here and thereintroduced. Above all, though, Greek now attained to the place of firstimportance in the reorganized Latin schools. 

It was not until after 1740 that the German people awakened to thepossibility of an independent national life. Then, under the new impulsetoward nationality, French influence and manners were thrown off, Germanliterature attained its Golden Age, the _Ritterakademieen_ (p. 405) werediscarded, and a number of the German Principalities and States revisedtheir school regulations and erected, out of the old Latin schools, aseries of humanistic _gymnasia_ in which the study of Greek life andculture occupied the foremost place. New methods in classical study werethought out and applied, and a new pedagogical purpose--culture anddiscipline--was given to the regenerated Latin schools. A new Renaissance, in a way, took place in German lands, [27] and a knowledge of Greek wasproclaimed by German university and gymnasial teachers as indispensable toa liberal education with an earnestness of conviction not exceeded byBattista Guarino (p. 268) four centuries before. To know Greek and to havesome familiarity with Greek literature and history now came to be regardedas necessary to the highest culture, [28] and a pedagogical theory forsuch study was erected, based on the discipline of the mind, [29] whichdominated the German classical school throughout the entire nineteenthcentury. It was in the eighteenth century also that the German Statesbegan the development of the scientific secondary school (_Realschule_), see p. 420, as described in a preceding chapter. 

[Illustration: FIG. 144. A PENNSYLVANIA ACADEMYYork Academy, York, Pennsylvania, founded by the Protestant EpiscopalChurch, in 1787. ]

RISE OF THE ACADEMY IN AMERICA. As we have seen (p. 361), the EnglishLatin grammar school was early (1635) carried to New England, and set upthere and elsewhere in the Colonies, but after the close of theseventeenth century its continued maintenance was something of a struggle. Particularly in the central and southern colonies, where commercialdemands early made themselves felt, the tendency was to teach morepractical subjects. This tendency led to the evolution, about the middleof the eighteenth century, of the distinctively American Academy, with amore practical curriculum, and by the close of the century it was rapidlysuperseding the older Latin grammar school. Franklin's Academy atPhiladelphia, which began instruction in 1751, and which later evolvedinto the University of Pennsylvania, was probably the first AmericanAcademy. The first in Massachusetts was founded in 1761, and by 1800 therewere seventeen in Massachusetts alone. The great period of academydevelopment was the first half of the nineteenth century. The PhillipsAcademy, at Andover, Massachusetts, founded in 1788, reveals clearly thenewer purpose of these American secondary schools. The foundation grant ofthis school gives the purpose to be:

 to lay the foundation of a public free school or ACADEMY for the purposes of instructing Youth, not only in English and Latin Grammar, Writing, Arithmetic, and those Sciences wherein they are commonly taught; but more especially to learn them the GREAT END AND REAL BUSINESS OF LIVING ... It is again declared that the _first_ and _principle_ object of this Institution is the promotion of TRUE PIETY and VIRTUE; the _second_, instruction in the English, Latin, and Greek Languages, together with Writing, Arithmetic, Music, and the Art of Speaking; the _third_, practical Geometry, Logic, and Geography; and the _fourth_, such other liberal Arts and Sciences or Languages, as opportunity and ability may hereafter admit, and as the TRUSTEES shall direct. 

Though still deeply religious, these new schools usually were free fromdenominationalism. Though retaining the study of Latin, they made most ofnew subjects of more practical value. A study of real things rather thanwords about things, and a new emphasis on native English and on sciencewere prominent features of their work. They were also usually open togirls, as well as boys, --an innovation in secondary education beforealmost wholly unknown. Many were organized later for girls only. Theseinstitutions were the precursors of the American public high school, itself a type of the most democratic institution for secondary educationthe world has ever known. 

THE UNIVERSITIES. The condition of the universities by the middle of theeighteenth century we traced in the preceding chapter. They had lost theirearlier importance as institutions of learning, but in a few places thesciences were slowly gaining a foothold, and in German lands we noted theappearance of the first two modern universities--institutions destineddeeply to influence subsequent university development, as we shall pointout in a later chapter. 

END OF THE TRANSITION PERIOD. We have now reached, in our study of thehistory of educational progress, the end of the transition period whichmarked the change in thinking from mediaeval to modern attitudes. Theperiod was ushered in with the beginnings of the Revival of Learning inItaly in the fourteenth century, and it may fittingly close about themiddle of the eighteenth. 

We now stand on the threshold of a new era in world history. The samequestioning spirit that animated the scholars of the Revival of Learning, now full-grown and become bold and self-confident, is about to be appliedto affairs of politics and government, and we are soon to see absolutismand mediaeval attitudes in both Church and State questioned andoverthrown. New political theories are to be advanced, and the divineright of the people is to be asserted and established in England, theAmerican Colonies, and in France, and ultimately, early in the twentiethcentury, we are to witness the final overthrow of the divine-right-of-kings idea and a world-wide sweep of the democratic spirit. A new humanand political theory as to education is to be evolved; the school is to betaken over from the Church, vastly expanded in scope, and made aconstructive instrument of the State; and the wonderful nineteenth centuryis to witness a degree of human, scientific, political, and educationalprogress not seen before in all the days from the time of the Crusades tothe opening of the nineteenth century. It is to this wonderful new era inworld history that we now turn. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Contrast a religious elementary school, with the Catechism as its chieftextbook, with a modern public elementary school. 

2. Contrast the elementary schools of Mulcaster and Comenius. 

3. To what extent did the religious teachings of the time support Locke'sideas as to the disciplinary conception of education?

4. Do we to-day place as much emphasis on habit formation as did Locke? Oncharacter? On good breeding?

5. State some of the reasons for the noticeable weakening of the hold ofthe old religious theory as to education, in Protestant lands, by themiddle of the eighteenth century. 

6. How do you explain the slow evolution of the elementary teacher into aposition of some importance? Is the evolution still in process?Illustrate. 

7. What were the motives behind the organization of the religious charity-schools?

8. Show how tax-supported workhouse schools represented, for England, thefirst step in public-school maintenance. 

9. Show that teaching under the individual method of instruction wasschool keeping, rather than school teaching. 

10. How do you explain the general prevalence of harsh discipline wellinto the nineteenth century?

11. Did any other country have, in the eighteenth century, so mixed a typeof elementary education as did England? Why was it so badly mixed there?

12. Show how the English Act of Conformity, of 1662, stifled the EnglishLatin grammar schools. 

13. What reasons were there for the development of the more practicalAcademy in America, rather than in England?

14. Compare the American Academy with the German _Realschule_. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections, illustrative of the contents of this chapter, are reproduced:

 226. Mulcaster: Table of Contents of his _Positions_. 227. Locke: On the Teaching of Latin. 228. Locke: On the Bible as a Reading Book. 229. Coote-Dilworth: Two early "Spelling Books. " 230. Webster: Description of Pre-Revolutionary Schools. 231. Raumer: Teachers in Gotha in 1741. 232. Raumer: An 18th Century Swedish People's School. 233. Raumer: Schools of Frankfurt-am-Main during the Eighteenth Century. 234. Krüsi: A Swiss Teacher's Examination in 1793. 235. Crabbe; White; Shenstone: The English Dame School described. 236. Newburgh: A Parochial-School Teacher's Agreement. 237. Saint Anne: Beginnings of an English Charity School. 238. Regulations: Charity-School Organization and Instruction. (a) Qualifications for the Master. (b) Purpose and Instruction. 239. Allen and McClure: Textbooks used in English Charity-Schools. 240. England: A Charity-School Subscription Form. 241. Southwark: The Charity-School of Saint John's Parish. 242. Gorsham: An Eighteenth-Century Indenture of Apprenticeship. 243. Indenture: Learning the Trade of a Schoolmaster. 244. Diesterweg: The Schools of Germany before Pestalozzi. 245. England: Free School Rules, 1734. 246. Murray: A New Jersey School Lottery. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. State the main points in Mulcaster's scheme (226) for education. 

2. Characterize Locke's criticism (227) on the teaching of Latin. 

3. State Locke's ideas as to the use of the Bible (228). 

4. Characterize the nature and contents of the so-called "Spellers" byCoote and Dilworth (229). 

5. Compare the Connecticut common school, as described by Webster (230), with an English charity-school (238 b), or a Swedish popular school (232)of the time. 

6. Just what state of vernacular education in Teutonic lands is indicatedby the three selections (231, 232, 233)?

7. Compare the proprietary right of the teachers at Frankfort (233) withthe right of control claimed over song schools by the Precentor of amediaeval cathedral (83). 

8. Do such conditions as Krüsi describes (234) exist anywhere to day?

9. Characterize the Dame School of England, as to instruction and control, from the descriptions given in the selections (235) reproduced. 

10. State the relationship of teacher and minister at Newburgh (236), andindicate the nature and probable extent of his income. 

11. State the purpose of the founders of Saint Anne of Soho (237), andcharacterize the type of school they created. 

12. What does the qualification for a charity-school teacher (238 a)indicate as to the nature of the teacher's calling in such schools?Outline the instruction (238 b) in such a school. 

13. What instruction did the textbooks as printed (239) provide for?

14. Show the voluntary and benevolent character of the charity-school bycomparing the subscription form (240) with some voluntary subscriptionform used to day. 

15. How did the school in Saint John's parish (241) differ fromapprenticeship training?

16. What changes do you note between the mediaeval Indenture ofApprenticeship (99) and the eighteenth-century English form (242)?

17. Compare Readings 201 and 242 on apprenticeship. 

18. Compare conditions described in 244 with 231-233. 

19. What do the Free School Rules of 1734 (245) indicate as to duties anddiscipline?

20. What does the use of the lottery for school support (246) indicate asto the conception and scope of education at the time?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

 Allen, W. O. B. , and McClure, E. _Two Hundred Years; History of the S. P. C. K. , 1698-1808_. Barnard, Henry. _English Pedagogy_, Part II, The Teacher in English Literature. * Birchenough, C. _History of Elementary Education in England and Wales_. Brown, E. E. _The Making of our Middle Schools_. Cardwell, J. F. _The Story of a Charity School_. Davidson, Thos. _Rousseau_. * Earle, Alice M. _Child Life in Colonial Days_. Field, Mrs. E. M. _The Child and his Book_. Ford, Paul L. _The New England Primer_. Godfrey, Elizabeth. _English Children in the Olden Time_. * Johnson, Clifton. _Old Time Schools and School Books_. * Kemp, W. W. _The Support of Schools in Colonial New York by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts_. Kilpatrick, Wm. H. _Dutch Schools of New Netherlands and Colonial New York_. Locke, John. _Some Thoughts Concerning Education_ (1693). * Montmorency, J. E. G. De. _Progress of Education in England_. Montmorency, J. E. G. De. _State Intervention in English Education_. Mulcaster, Richard. _Positions_. (London, 1581. )* Paulsen, Friedrich. _German Education, Past and Present_. * Salmon, David. "The Education of the Poor in the Eighteenth Century"; reprinted from the _Educational Record_. (London, 1908. )* Scott, J. F. _Historic Essays on Apprenticeship and Vocational Education_. (Ann Arbor, 1914. )

PART IV

MODERN TIMES

THE ABOLITION OF PRIVILEGETHE RISE OF DEMOCRACYA NEW THEORY FOR EDUCATION EVOLVEDTHE STATE TAKES OVER THE SCHOOL

CHAPTER XIX

THE EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY A TURNING-POINT. The eighteenth century, in humanthinking and progress, marks for most western nations the end ofmediaevalism and the ushering-in of modern forms of intellectual liberty. The indifference to the old religious problems, which was clearly manifestin all countries at the beginning of the century, steadily grew andculminated in a revolt against ecclesiastical control over human affairs. This change in attitude toward the old problems permitted the rise of newtypes of intellectual inquiry, a rapid development of scientific thinkingand discovery, the growth of a consciousness of national problems andnational welfare, and the bringing to the front of secular interests to adegree practically unknown since the days of ancient Rome. In a sense thegeneral rise of these new interests in the eighteenth century was but aculmination of a long series of movements looking toward greaterintellectual freedom and needed human progress which had been under waysince the days when _studia generalia_ and guilds first arose in westernEurope. The rise of the universities in the thirteenth and fourteenthcenturies, the Revival of Learning in the fourteenth and fifteenthcenturies, the Protestant Revolts in the sixteenth, the rise of modernscientific inquiry in the sixteenth and seventeenth, and Puritanism inEngland and Pietism in Germany in the seventeenth, had all been in thenature of protests against the mediaeval tendency to confine and limit andenslave the intellect. In the eighteenth century the culmination of thisrising tide of protest came in a general and determined revolt againstdespotism in either Church or State, which, at the close of the century, swept away ancient privileges, abuses, and barriers, and prepared the wayfor the marked intellectual and human and political progress whichcharacterized the nineteenth century. 

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CHANGE IN ATTITUDE. The new spirit and interests andattitudes which came to characterize the eighteenth century in the moreprogressive western nations meant the ultimate overthrow of the tyranny ofmediaeval supernatural theology, the evolution of a new theory as to moralaction which should be independent of theology, the freeing of the newscientific spirit from the fetters of church control, the substituting ofnew philosophical and scientific and economic interests for the oldtheological problems which had for so long dominated human thinking, thesubstitution of natural political organization for the olderecclesiastical foundations of the State, the destruction of what remainedof the old feudal political system, the freeing of the serf and theevolution of the citizen, and the rise of a modern society interested inproblems of national welfare--government in the interest of the governed, commerce, industry, science, economics, education, and social welfare. Theevolution of such modern-type governments inevitably meant the creation ofentirely new demands for the education of the people and for far-reachingpolitical and social reforms. 

This new eighteenth-century spirit, which so characterized the mid-eighteenth century that it is often spoken of as the "Period of theEnlightenment, " [1] expressed itself in many new directions, a few of themore important of which will be considered here as of fundamental concernfor the student of the history of educational progress. In a very realsense the development of state educational systems, in both European andAmerican States, has been an outgrowth of the great liberalizing forceswhich first made themselves felt in a really determined way during thisimportant transition century. In this chapter we shall consider brieflyfive important phases of this new eighteenth-century liberalism, asfollows:

 1. The work of the benevolent despots of continental Europe in trying to shape their governments to harmonize them with the new spirit of the century. 

 2. The unsatisfied demand for reform in France. 

 3. The rise of democratic government and liberalism in England. 

 4. The institution of constitutional government and religious freedom in America. 

 5. The sweeping away of mediaeval abuses in the great Revolution in France. 

I. WORK OF THE BENEVOLENT DESPOTS OF CONTINENTAL EUROPE

THE NEW NATIONALISM LEADS TO INTERESTED GOVERNMENT. In England, as weshall trace a little further on, a democratic form of government had forlong been developing, but this democratic life had made but little headwayon the continent of Europe. There, instead, the democratic tendencieswhich showed some slight signs of development during the sixteenth centuryhad been stamped out in the period of warfare and the ensuing hatreds ofthe seventeenth, and in the eighteenth century we find autocraticgovernment at its height. National governments to succeed the earliergovernment of the Church had developed and grown strong, the kingly powerhad everywhere been consolidated, Church and State were in close workingalliance, and the new spirit of nationality--in government, foreignpolicy, languages, literature, and culture--was being energeticallydeveloped by those responsible for the welfare of the States. Everywhere, almost, on the continent of Europe, the theory of the divine right ofkings to rule and the divine duty of subjects to obey seemed to havebecome fixed, and this theory of government the Church now mostassiduously supported. Unlike in England and the American Colonies, thepeople of the larger countries of continental Europe had not as yetadvanced far enough in personal liberty or political thinking to make anydemand of consequence for the right to govern themselves. The new spiritof nationality abroad in Europe, though, as well as the new humanitarianideas beginning to stir thinking men, alike tended to awaken a newinterest on the part of many rulers in the welfare of the people theygoverned. In consequence, during the eighteenth century, we find a numberof nations in which the rulers, putting themselves in harmony with the newspirit of the time, made earnest attempts to improve the condition oftheir peoples as a means of advancing the national welfare. We shall heremention the four nations in which the most conspicuous reform work wasattempted. 

THE RULERS OF PRUSSIA. Three kings, to whom the nineteenth-centurygreatness of Prussia was largely due, ruled the country during nearly thewhole of the eighteenth century. They were fully as despotic as the kingsof France, but, unlike the French kings, they were keenly alive to theneeds of the people, anxious to advance the welfare of the State, tolerantin religion, and in sympathy with the new scientific studies. The first, Frederick William I (1713-40), labored earnestly to develop the resourcesof the country, trained a large army, ordered elementary education madecompulsory, and made the beginnings in the royal provinces of thetransformation of the schools from the control of the Church to thecontrol of the State. His son, known to history as Frederick the Great, ruled from 1740 to 1786. During his long reign he labored continually tocurtail ancient privileges, abolish old abuses, and improve the conditionof his people. During the first week of his reign he abolished torture intrials, made the administration of law more equitable, instituted alimited freedom for the press, [2] and extended religious toleration. [3]He also partially abolished serfdom on the royal domains, and tried touplift the peasantry and citizen classes, but in this he met with bitteropposition from the nobles of his realm. He built roads, canals, andbridges, encouraged skilled artisans to settle in his dominions, developedagriculture and industry, encouraged scientific workers, extended anasylum to thousands of Huguenots fleeing from religious persecution inFrance, [4] and did more than any previous ruler to provide common schoolsthroughout his kingdom. By the general regulation of education in hiskingdom (chapter xxii) he laid the foundations upon which the nineteenth-century Prussian school system was later built. 

[Illustration: Fig 145 FREDERICK THE GREAT]

His rule, though, was thoroughly autocratic. "Every thing for the people, but nothing by the people", was the keynote of his policies. He had noconfidence in the ability of the people to rule, and gave them noopportunity to learn the art. He employed the strong army his father builtup to wage wars of conquest, seize territory that did not belong to him, and in consequence made himself a great German hero. [5] He may be said tohave laid the foundations of modern militarized, socialized, obedientlyeducated, and subject Germany, and also to have begun the "grand-larceny"and "scrap-of-paper" policy which has characterized Prussian internationalrelationships ever since. Frederick William II, who reigned from 1786 to1797, continued in large measure the enlightened policies of his uncle, reformed the tax system, lightened the burdens of his people, encouragedtrade, emphasized the German tongue, quickened the national spirit, actively encouraged schools and universities, and began thatcentralization of authority over the developing educational system whichresulted in the creation in Prussia of the first modern state schoolsystem in Europe. The educational work of these three Prussian kings wasindeed important, and we shall study it more in detail in a later chapter(Chapter XXII). 

THE AUSTRIAN REFORMERS. Two notably benevolent rulers occupied theAustrian throne for half a century, and did much to improve the conditionof the Austrian people. A very remarkable woman, Maria Theresa, came tothe throne in 1740, and was followed by her son, Joseph II, in 1780. Heruled until 1790. To Maria Theresa the Austria of the nineteenth centuryowed most of its development and power. She worked with seemingly tirelessenergy for the advancement of the welfare of her subjects, and toward theclose of her reign laid, as we shall see in a later chapter, thebeginnings of Austrian school reform. 

Joseph II carried still further his mother's benevolent work, and stroveto introduce "enlightenment and reason" into the administration of hisrealm. A student of the writings of the eighteenth-century reformphilosophers, and deeply imbued with the reform spirit of his time, heattempted to abolish ancient privileges, establish a uniform code ofjustice, encourage education, free the serfs, abolish feudal tenure, grantreligious toleration, curb the power of the Pope and the Church, break thepower of the local Diets, centralize the State, and "introduce a uniformlevel of democratic simplicity under his own absolute sway. " He attemptedto alter the organization of the Church, abolished six hundredmonasteries, [6] and reduced the number of monastic persons in hisdominion from 63, 000 to 27, 000. Attempting too much, he brought down uponhis head the wrath of both priest and noble and died a disappointed man. The abolition of feudal tenure and serfdom on the distinctively Austrianlands, of all his attempted reforms, alone was permanent. His work standsas an interesting commentary on the temporary character of the resultswhich follow attempts rapidly to improve the conditions surrounding thelives of people, without at the same time educating the people to improvethemselves. 

THE SPANISH REFORMERS. A very similar result attended the reform effortsof a succession of benevolent rulers thrust upon Spain, during theeighteenth century, by the complications of foreign politics. Over aperiod of nearly ninety years, extending from the accession of Philip V(1700) to the death of Charles III (1788), remarkable political progresswas imposed by a succession of able ministers and with the consent of thekings. [7] The power of the Church, always the crying evil of Spain, wasrestricted in many ways; the Inquisition was curbed; the Jesuits weredriven from the kingdom; the burning of heretics was stopped; prosecutionfor heresy was reduced and discouraged; the monastic orders were taught tofear the law and curb their passions; evils in public administration wereremoved; national grievances were redressed; the civil service wasimproved; science and literature were encouraged, in place of barrentheological speculations; and an earnest effort was made to regenerate thenational life and improve the lot of the common people. 

All these reforms, though, were imposed from above, and no attempt wasmade to introduce schools or to educate the people in the arts of self-government. The result was that the reforms never went beneath thesurface, and the national life of the people remained largely untouched. Within five years of the death of Charles III all had been lost. Under anative Spanish king, thoroughly orthodox, devout, and lacking in any broadnational outlook, the Church easily restored itself to power, the priestsresumed their earlier importance, the nobles again began to exact theirfull toll, free discussion was forbidden, scientific studies wereabandoned, the universities were ordered to discontinue the study of moralphilosophy, and the political and social reforms which had required threegenerations to build up were lost in half a decade. Not meeting any well-expressed need of the people, and with no schools provided to show to thepeople the desirable nature of the reforms introduced, it was easy tosweep them aside. In this relapse to mediaevalism, the chance for Spain--a country rich in possibilities and natural resources--to evolve earlyinto a progressive modern nation was lost. So Spain has remained eversince, and only in the last quarter of a century has reform from withinbegun to be evident in this until recently priest-ridden and benightedland. 

THE INTELLIGENT DESPOTS OF RUSSIA. The greatest of these were Peter theGreat, who ruled from 1689 to 1725, and Catherine II, who ruled from 1762to 1796. Catching something of the new eighteenth-century western spirit, these rulers tried to introduce some western enlightenment into their asyet almost barbarous land. Each tried earnestly to lift their people to ahigher level of living, and to start them on the road toward civilizationand learning. By a series of edicts, despotically enforced, Peter tried tointroduce the civilization of the western world into his country. Hebrought in numbers of skilled artisans, doctors, merchants, teachers, printers, and soldiers; introduced many western skills and trades; andmade the beginnings of western secondary education for the governingclasses by the establishment in the cities of a number of German-type_gymnasia_. [8] Later Catherine II had the French philosopher Diderot (p. 482) draw up a plan for her for the organization of a state system ofhigher schools, but the plan was never put into effect. The beginnings ofRussian higher civilization really date from this eighteenth-century work. The power of the formidable Greek or Eastern Church remained, however, untouched, and this continued, until after the Russian revolution of 1917, as one of the most serious obstacles to Russian intellectual andeducational progress. The serfs, too, remained serfs--tied to the land, ignorant, superstitious, and obedient. 

By the close of the eighteenth century Russia, largely under Prussiantraining, had become a very formidable military power, and by the close ofthe nineteenth century was beginning to make some progress of importancein the arts of peace. Just at present Russia is going through a stage ofnational evolution quite comparable to that which took place in France acentury and a quarter ago, and the educational importance of this greatpeople, as we shall point out further on, lies in their future evolutionrather than in any contribution they have as yet made to westerndevelopment. 

II. THE UNSATISFIED DEMAND FOR REFORM IN FRANCE

THE SETTING OF EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRANCE. Eighteenth-century France, onthe contrary, developed no benevolent despot to mitigate abuses, reformthe laws, abolish privileges, temper the rule of the Church, [9] (R. 247), curb the monastic orders, develop the natural resources, begin theestablishment of schools, and alleviate the hard lot of the serf and thepeasant. There, instead, absolute monarchy in Europe reached its mostcomplete triumph during the long reigns of Louis XIV (1643-1715) and LouisXV (1715-74), and the splendor of the court life of France captivated allEurope and served to hide the misery which made the splendor possible. There the power of the nobles had been completely broken, and the power ofthe parliaments completely destroyed. "I am the State, " exclaimed LouisXIV, and the almost unlimited despotism of the King and his ministers andfavorites fully supported the statement. Local liberties had beensuppressed, and the lot of the common people--ignorant, hard-working, downtrodden, but intensely patriotic--was wretched in the extreme. Approximately 140, 000 nobles [10] and 130, 000 monks, nuns, and clergyowned two fifths of the landed property of France, and controlled thedestinies of a nation of approximately 25, 000, 000 people. Agriculture wasthe great industry of the time, but this was so taxed by the agents ofKing and Church that over one half of the net profits from farming weretaken for taxation. 

CHURCH AND STATE WERE IN CLOSE WORKING ALLIANCE. The higher offices of theChurch were commonly held by appointed noblemen, who drew large incomes[11] led worldly lives, and neglected their priestly functions much as theItalian appointees in German lands had done before the Reformation. Between the nobles and upper clergy on the one hand and the peasant-bornlower clergy and the masses of the people on the other a great gulfexisted. The real brains of France were to be found among a smallbourgeois class of bankers, merchants, shopkeepers, minor officials, lawyers, and skilled artisans, who lived in the cities and who, ambitiousand discontented, did much to stimulate the increasing unrest and demandfor reform which in time pervaded the whole nation. A king, constantly inneed of increasing sums of money; an idle, selfish, corrupt, anddiscredited nobility and upper clergy, incapable of aiding the king, manyof whom, too, had been influenced by the new philosophic and scientificthinking and were willing to help destroy their own orders; an aggressive, discontented, and patriotic bourgeoisie, full of new political and socialideas, and patriotically anxious to reform France; and a vast unorganizedpeasantry and city rabble, suffering much and resisting little, butcapable of a terrible fury and senseless destruction, once they werearoused and their suppressed rage let loose;--these were the main elementsin the setting of eighteenth-century France. 

THE FRENCH REFORM PHILOSOPHERS. During the middle decades of theeighteenth century a small but very influential group of reformphilosophers in France attacked with their pens the ancient abuses inChurch and State, and did much to pave the way for genuine political andreligious reform. In a series of widely read articles and books, characterized for the most part by clear reasoning and telling arguments, these political philosophers attacked the power of the absolute monarchyon the one hand, and the existing privileges of the nobles and clergy onthe other, as both unjust and inimical to the welfare of society (R. 248). The leaders in the reform movement were Montesquieu (1689-1755), Turgot(1727-81), Voltaire (1694-1778), Diderot (1713-84), and Rousseau (1712-78). 

[Illustration: FIG. 147. MONTESQUIEU(1689-1755)]

_Montesquieu_. In 1748 appeared Montesquieu's famous book, the _Spirit ofLaws_. In this he pointed out the many excellent features of theconstitutional government which the English had developed, and comparedEnglish conditions with the many abuses to which the French people weresubject. He argued that laws should be expressive of the wishes and needsof the people governed, and that the education of a people "ought to berelative to the principles of good government. " Montesquieu also stands, with Turgot as the founder of the sciences of comparative politics [12]and the philosophy of history--new studies which helped to shape thepolitical thinking of eighteenth-century France. 

_Turgot_. Two years after the publication of Montesquieu's book, Turgotdelivered (1750) a series of lectures at the Sorbonne, in Paris, in whichhe virtually created the science of history. Looking at human historycomprehensively, seeing clearly that there had been a hithertounrecognized regularity of march amid the confusion of the past, and thatit was possible to grasp the history of the progress of man as a whole, hesaw and stated the possibility of society to improve itself throughintelligent government, and the need for wise laws and general educationto enable it to do so. [13]

[Illustration: FIG. 148. TURGOT (1727-81)]

[Illustration: FIG. 149. VOLTAIRE (1694-1778)]

In 1774 Turgot was appointed Minister of Finance by the new King, LouisXVI, and during the two years before he was removed from office heattempted to carry out many needed political and social reforms. Duruy[14] has summarized his suggested reforms as follows:

 1. Gradual introduction of a complete system of local self-government. 

 2. Imposition of a land tax on nobility and clergy. 

 3. Suppression of the greater part of the monasteries. 

 4. Amelioration of the condition of the minor clergy. 

 5. Equalization of the burdens of taxation. 

 6. Liberty of conscience, and the recall of the Protestants to France. 

 7. A uniform system of weights and measures. 

 8. Freedom for commerce and industry. 

 9. A single and uniform code of laws. 

 10. A vast plan for the organization of a system of public instruction throughout France. 

This list is indicative of the reform philosophy in the light of which heworked. Arousing the natural hostility of the nobility and higher clergy, he was soon dismissed, and the reforms he had proposed were abandoned bythe King. 

_Voltaire. _ The keenest and most unsparing critic of the old order wasVoltaire. In clear and forceful French he exposed existing conditions insociety and government, and particularly the control of affairs exercisedby the most ancient and most powerful organization of his day--the Church. For this he was execrated and hated by the clergy, and in return he madeit the chief task of his life to destroy the reign of the priest. Havinglived for a time in England, he appreciated the vast difference betweenthe English and French forms of government. With a keen and unsparing penhe exposed the scholasticism, despotism, dogmatism, superstition, hypocrisy, servility, and deep injustice of his age, and poured out thevials of his scorn upon the grubbing pedantry of the Academicians whodoted upon the past because ignorant of the present. In particular hestood for the abolition of that relic of feudalism--serfdom--which stillseriously oppressed the peasantry of France; for liberty in thought andaction for the individual; for curbing the powers and privileges of bothState and Church; for an equalization of the burdens of taxation betweenthe different classes in French society; and for the organization of asystem of public education throughout the nation. He died before theoutbreak of the Revolution he had done so much to bring about, but by thetime he died the "Ancient Régime" of privilege and corruption andoppression was already tottering to its fall. His conception of therelations that should exist between Church and State are well set forth ina short article from his pen on the subject (R. 248) reprinted from the_Encyclopaedia_ of Diderot. 

[Illustration: FIG. 150. DIDEROT (1713-84)]

_Diderot. _ Another able thinker and writer was Diderot. Besides otherworks of importance, he gave twenty years of his life (1751-72) to theediting (with D'Alembert) of an _Encyclopaedia_ of seventeen volumes oftext and eleven of plates. Many of the articles were written by himself, and were expressive of his ideas as to reform. Many were frankly criticalof existing privileges, abuses, and pretensions. Many interpreted to theFrench the science of Newton and the discoveries of the age, and awakeneda new interest in scientific study. Because of its reform ideas thepublication was suppressed, in 1759, after the publication of the seventhvolume, and had to be carried on surreptitiously thereafter. ViscountMorley, writing recently on Diderot, summarizes the nature and influenceof the _Encyclopaedia_ in the following words:

 The ecclesiastical party detested the _Encyclopaedia_, in which they saw a rising stronghold for their philosophical enemies. To any one who turns over the pages of these redoubtable volumes now, it seems surprising that their doctrine should have stirred such portentous alarm. There is no atheism, no overt attack on any of the cardinal mysteries of the faith, no direct denunciation even of the notorious abuses of the Church. Yet we feel that the atmosphere of the book may well have been displeasing to authorities who had not yet learnt to encounter the modern spirit on equal terms. The _Encyclopaedia_ takes for granted the justice of religious toleration and speculative freedom. It asserts in distinct tones the democratic doctrine that it is the common people in a nation whose lot ought to be the chief concern of the nation's government. From beginning to end it is one unbroken process of exaltation of scientific knowledge on the one hand, and pacific industry on the other. All these things were odious to the old governing classes of France. [15]

_Rousseau. _ The fifth reform writer mentioned as exercising a largeinfluence was Rousseau. In 1749 the Academy at Dijon offered a prize forthe best essay on the subject: _Has the progress of the sciences and artscontributed to corrupt or to purify morals?_ Rousseau took the negativeside and won the prize. His essay attracted widespread attention. In 1753he competed for a second prize on _The Origin of Inequality among Men_, inwhich he took the same negative attitude. In 1762 appeared both his_Social Contract_ and _Émile_. In the former he contended that early menhad given to selected leaders the right to conduct their government forthem, and that these had in time become autocratic and had virtuallyenslaved the people (R. 249 a). He held that men were not bound to submitto government against their wills, and to remedy existing abuses headvocated the overthrow of the usurping government and the establishmentof a republic, with universal suffrage based on "liberty, fraternity, andequality. " The ideal State lay in a society controlled by the people, where artificiality and aristocracy and the tyranny of society over mandid not exist. Nor could Rousseau distinguish between political andecclesiastical tyranny, holding that the former inevitably followed fromthe latter (R. 249 b). 

Crude as were his theories, and impractical as were many of his ideas, toan age tired of absurdities and pretensions and injustice, and sufferingdeeply from the abuses of both Church and State, his attractively writtenbook seemed almost inspired. The _Social Contract_ virtually became theBible of the French Revolutionists. In the _Émile_, a book which will bereferred to more at length in chapter XXI, Rousseau held that we shouldrevert, in education, to a state of nature to secure the needededucational reforms, and that education to prepare for life in theexisting society was both wrong and useless. 

A REVOLUTION IN FRENCH THINKING. These five men--Montesquieu, Turgot, Voltaire, Diderot, and Rousseau--and many other less influentialfollowers, portrayed the abuses of the time in Church and State andpointed out the lines of political and ecclesiastical reform. Those whoread their writings understood better why the existing privileges of thenobility and clergy were no longer right, and the need for reform inmatters of taxation and government. Their writings added to the spirit ofunrest of the century, and were deeply influential, not only in France, but in the American Colonies as well. Though the attack was at firstagainst the evils in Church and State, the new critical philosophy soonled to intellectual developments of importance in many other directions. 

At the death of Louis XIV (1715) France was intellectually prostrate. Great as was his long reign from the point of view of the splendor of hiscourt, and large as was the quantity of literature produced, his age wasnevertheless an age of misery, religious intolerance, politicaloppression, and intellectual decline. It was a reign of centralized andhighly personal government. Men no longer dared to think for themselves, or to discuss with any freedom questions either of politics or religion. "There was no popular liberty; there were no great men; there was noscience; there was no literature; there were no arts. The largestintellects lost their energy; the national spirit died away. " Between thedeath of Louis XIV and the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789) anintellectual revolution took place in France, and for this revolutionEnglish political progress and political and scientific thinking werelargely responsible. 

GREAT ENGLISH INFLUENCE ON FRANCE. In 1715 the English language was almostunspoken in France, English science and political progress were unknownthere, and the English were looked down upon and hated. Half a centurylater English was spoken everywhere by the scholars of the time; theEnglish were looked upon as the political and scientific leaders ofEurope; and the scholars of France visited England to study Englishpolitical, economic, and scientific progress. Locke, an uncompromisingadvocate of political and religious liberty; Hobbes, the speculative moralphilosopher; and the great scientist Newton were the teachers of Voltaire. More than any other single man, Voltaire moulded and redirectedeighteenth-century thought in France. [16] Numerous French writers ofimportance--Helvetius, Diderot, Morellet, Voltaire, Rousseau, to mentionbut a few--drew their inspiration from English writers. In the eighteenthcentury England became the school for political liberty for France. [17]

The effect of the work of Isaac Newton (p. 388), as popularized by thewritings of Voltaire, was revolutionary on a people who had been sotyrannized over by the clergy as had the French during the reign of LouisXIV. An interest in scientific studies before unknown in France now flamedup, and a new generation of French scientists arose. Physics, chemistry, zoölogy, and anatomy received a great new impetus, while botany, geology, and mineralogy were raised to the rank of sciences. Popular scientificlectures became very common. The classics were almost abandoned for thenew studies. 

Economic questions now also began to be discussed, such as questions ofmoney, food, finance, and government expenditure. In 1776 the Englishman, Adam Smith, laid the foundations of the new science of political economyby the publication of his _Wealth of Nations_, and this was at oncetranslated into French and eagerly read. In 1781 a French banker by thename of Necker published his _Compte Rendu_, a statistical report on thefinances of France. So feverishly eager were men to study problems ofgovernment that six thousand copies were sold the day it was published, and eighty thousand had to be printed before the demand for it wassatisfied. A half-century earlier it would have been read scarcely at all. 

In the meantime taxes piled up, reforms were refused, the power andarrogance of the clergy and nobility showed no signs of diminution, thenation was burdened with debt, commerce and agriculture declined, the lotof the common people became ever more hard to bear, and the masses grewincreasingly resentful and rebellious. As national affairs continued todrift from bad to worse in France, a series of important happenings on theAmerican continent helped to bring matters more rapidly to a crisis. Before describing these events, however, we wish to sketch briefly therise of government by the people and the extension of liberalism inEngland--the first great democratic nation of the western world. 

III. ENGLAND THE FIRST DEMOCRATIC NATION

EARLY BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH LIBERTY. The first western nation created fromthe wreck of the Roman Empire to achieve a measurement of self-governmentwas England. Better civilized than most of the other wandering tribes, atthe time of their coming to English shores, the invading Angles, Saxons, and Jutes early accepted Christianity (p. 120) and settled down to anagricultural life. On English shores they soon built up a for-the-timesubstantial civilization. This was later largely destroyed by thepillaging Danes, but with characteristic energy the English set to work toassimilate the newcomers and build up civilization anew. The work ofAlfred (p. 146) in reëstablishing law and order, at a time when law andorder scarcely existed anywhere in western Europe, will long remainfamous. Later on, and at a time when German and Hun and Slav had onlyrecently accepted Christianity in name and had begun to settle down intorude tribal governments, and when the Prussians in their original homealong the eastern Baltic were still offering human sacrifices to theirheathen gods (p. 120), the English barons were extorting _Magna Charta_from King John and laying the firm foundations of English constitutionalliberty. In the meadow at Runnymede, on that justly celebrated June day, in 1215, government under law and based on the consent of the governedbegan to shape itself once more in the western world. Of the sixty-threearticles of this Charter of Liberties, three possess imperishable value. These provided:

 1. That no free man shall be imprisoned or proceeded against except by his peers, or the law of the land, which secured trial by jury. 

 2. That justice should neither be sold, denied, nor delayed. 

 3. That dues from the people to the king could be imposed only with the consent of the National Council (after 1246 known as Parliament). 

So important was this charter to such a liberty-loving people as theEnglish have always been, and so bitterly did kings resent its hamperingprovisions, that within the next two centuries kings had been forced toconfirm it no less than thirty-seven times. 

By 1295 the first complete Parliament, representative of the three ordersof society--Lords, Clergy, and Commons--assembled, and in 1333 the Commonsgained the right to sit by itself. From that time to the present theCommons, representing the people, has gradually broadened its powers, working, as Tennyson has said, [18] "from precedent to precedent, " untilto-day it rules the English nation. In 1376 the Commons gained the rightto impeach the King's ministers, and in 1407 the exclusive right to makegrants of money for any governmental purpose. Centuries ahead of othernations, this insured an almost continual meeting of the national assemblyand a close scrutiny of the acts of both kings and ministers. 

In 1604 King James I, imitating continental European precedents, proclaimed his theory as to the "divine right of kings" to rule, [19] anda struggle at once set in which carried the English into Civil War (1642-49); led to the beheading of Charles I (1649); the overthrow andbanishment of James II (1688); and the ultimate firm establishment, instead, of the "divine right of the common people. " [20] In an age whenthe autocratic power and the divine right of kings to rule was almostunquestioned elsewhere in Europe, the English people compelled their kingto recognize that he could rule over them only when he ruled in theirinterests and as they wished him to do. Though there was a period ofstruggle later on with the German Georges (I, II, and III), and especiallywith the honest but stupid George III, England has, since 1688, been agovernment of and by the people. [21] France did not rid itself of the"divine-right" conception until the French Revolution (1789), and Germany, Austria, and Russia not until 1918. 

GROWTH OF TOLERANCE AMONG THE ENGLISH. The results of the long struggle ofthe English for liberty under law showed itself in many ways in the growthof tolerance among the people of the English nation. At a time when othernations were bound down in blind obedience to king and priest, and whendissenting minorities were driven from the land, the English people hadbecome accustomed to the idea of individual liberty, regulated by law, andto the toleration of opinions with which they did not agree. Thesecharacteristically English conceptions of liberty under law and of thetoleration of minorities have found expression in many important ways inthe life and government of the people (R. 250), and have been elements ofgreat strength in England's colonial policy. One of the important ways inwhich this growth of tolerance among the English showed itself was in theextension of a larger freedom to those unable to subscribe to the statereligion. 

Though the Reformation movement had stirred up bitter hatreds in England, as on the Continent, the English were among the first of European peoplesto show tolerance of opposition in religious matters. The high EnglishState Church, which had succeeded the Roman, had made but small appeal tomany Englishmen. The Puritans had early struggled to secure asimplification of the church service and the introduction of morepreaching (p. 359), and in the seventeenth century the organization ofthree additional dissenting sects, which became known as Unitarians, Baptists, and Quakers, took place. These sects divided off rather quietly, and their separation resulted only in the enactment of new laws regardingconformity, prayers, and teaching. 

During the latter half of the seventeenth century, after the execution ofCharles I (1649), the Puritans had temporarily risen to power, and duringtheir control of affairs had imposed their strict Calvinistic standards asto Sabbath observance and piety on the nation. This was very distastefulto many, and from such strict observances the people in time rebelled. Thestandards of the English in personal morality, temperance, amusements, andmanners at the beginning of the eighteenth century were not especiallyhigh, and in the reaction from Puritan control and strict religiousobservances the great mass of the people degenerated into positiveirreligion and gross immorality. Drunkenness, rowdyism, robbery, blasphemy, brutality, lewdness, and prostitution became very common. Thismoral decline of the people the Church of England seemed powerless toarrest. 

[Illustration: FIG. 151. JOHN WESLEY (1707-82)Founder of Methodism. ]

About 1730 a reform movement was begun under the able leadership of ayoung Oxford student by the name of John Wesley, ably seconded by GeorgeWhitefield (1714-70), with a view to reaching the classes so completelyuntouched by the high State Church. By traveling over the country andpreaching a gospel of repentance, personal faith, and better living, thesetwo young men made a deep emotional appeal, and soon gained a strong holdon the poorer and more ignorant classes of the people. Forbidden to preachin Anglican churches, and at times threatened with personal violence, these two men were in time forced into open rebellion against theEstablished Church. Finally they founded a new Church, which became knownas the Methodist. [22] This new organization bore the same relation to theChurch of England that the Anglican Church two hundred years before hadborne to the Church of Rome. Thus was accomplished a second spiritualreformation in England, and one destined in time to spread to the coloniesand deeply affect the lives of a large portion of the English people. [23]That such a well-organized sect could arise, such a moral reformation bepreached, and the power of the Established Church be challenged so openlyand without serious persecution, speaks much for the growth of religioustolerance among the English people since the days of the great Elizabeth. In 1778 the Roman Catholic Relief Act was adopted, and in 1779 dissentingministers and schoolmasters were relieved from the disabilities underwhich they had so long remained. These acts indicate a further markedgrowth in religious tolerance on the part of the English nation. [24]

NEW EMANCIPATING AND EDUCATIVE INFLUENCES. In 1662 the first regularnewspaper outside of Italy was established in England, and in 1702 thefirst daily paper. Small in size, printed on but one side of the sheet, and dealing wholly with local matters, these nevertheless marked thebeginnings of that daily expression of popular opinion with which we arenow so familiar. [25] After about 1705 the cheap political pamphlet madeits appearance, and after 1710, instead of merely communicating news, thepapers began the discussion of political questions. 

By 1735 a revolution had been effected in England, and papers and pressesbegan to be established in the chief cities and towns outside of London;the freedom of the press was in a large way completed, and newspapers, forthe first time in the history of the world, were made the exponents ofpublic opinion. The press in England in consequence became an educativeforce of great intellectual and political importance, and did much tocompensate for the lack of a general system of schools for the people. In1772 the right to publish the debates in Parliament was finally won, overthe strenuous objections [26] of George III. In 1780 the first Sundaynewspaper appeared, "on the only day the lower orders had time to read apaper at all, " and, despite the efforts of religious bodies to suppressit, the Sunday paper has continued to the present and has contributed itsquota to the education and enlightenment of mankind. In 1785 the famousLondon _Times_ began to appear. In the middle of the eighteenth centurydebating societies for the consideration of public questions arose, and in1769 "the first public meeting ever assembled in England, in which it wasattempted to enlighten Englishmen respecting their political rights" washeld, and such meetings soon became of almost daily occurrence. All theseinfluences stimulated political thinking to a high degree, and contributednot only to a desire for still larger political freedom but for the moregeneral diffusion of the ability to read as well (R. 250). 

Still other important new influences arose during the early part of theeighteenth century, each of which tended to awaken new desires for schoolsand learning. In 1678 the first modern printed story to appeal to themasses, Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_, appeared from the press. Written, as it had been, by a man of the people, its simple narrative form, itspassionate religious feeling, its picture of the journey of a pilgrimthrough a world of sin and temptation and trial, and its Biblical languagewith which the common people had now become familiar--all these elementscombined to make it a book that appealed strongly to all who read or heardit read, and stimulated among the masses a desire to read comparable tothat awakened by the chaining of the English Bible in the churches acentury before (R. 170). In 1719 the first great English novel, Defoe's_Robinson Crusoe_, and in 1726 _Gulliver's Travels_, added new stimulus tothe desires awakened by Bunyan's book. All three were books of the commonpeople, whereas the dramas, plays, essays, and scholarly works previouslyproduced had appealed only to a small educated class. In 1751 what wasprobably the first circulating library of modern times was opened atBirmingham, and soon thereafter similar institutions were established inother English cities. 

SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING; THE NEW ERA. England, too, from the first, showed an interest in and a tolerance toward the new scientific thinkingscarcely found in any other land. This in itself is indicative of thegreat intellectual progress which the English people had by this timemade. [27] At a time when Galileo, in Italy, was fighting, almost alone, for the right to think along the lines of the new scientific method andbeing imprisoned for his pains, Englishmen were reading with deep interestthe epoch-making scientific writings of Lord Francis Bacon, Earlier thanin other lands, too, the Newtonian philosophy found a place in theinstruction of the national universities, and English scholars began toemploy the new scientific method in their search for new truths. TheBritish Royal (Scientific) Society [28] had begun to meet as early as1645, and ever since has published in its proceedings the best of Englishscientific thinking. By the reign of George I (1714-27) scientific workbegan to be popularized, and the first little booklets on scientificsubjects began to appear. These popular presentations of what had beenworked out were sold at the book stalls and by peddlers and were eagerlyread; by the beginning of the reign of George III (1760) they had becomevery common. In 1704-10 the first "Dictionary of Arts and Sciences" wasprinted, and in 1768-71 the first edition (three volumes) of the nowfamous _Encyclopedia Britannica_ appeared. In 1755 the famous BritishMuseum was founded. 

As early as 1698 a rude form of steam engine had been patented in England, and by 1712 this had been perfected sufficiently to be used in pumpingwater from the coal mines. In 1765 James Watt made the real beginning ofthe application of steam to industry by patenting his steam engine; in1760 Wedgwood established the pottery industry in England; in 1767Hargreaves devised the spinning-jenny, which banished the spindle anddistaff and the old spinning-wheel; in 1769 Arkwright evolved hisspinning-frame; and in 1785 Cartwright completed the process by inventingthe power loom for weaving. In 1784 a great improvement in the smelting ofiron ores (puddling) was worked out. These inventions, all English, wererevolutionary in their effect on manufacturing. They meant thedisplacement of hand power by machine labor, the breakdown of homeindustry through the concentration of labor in factories, the rise ofgreat manufacturing cities, [29] and the ultimate collapse of the age-oldapprenticeship system of training, where the master workman with a fewapprentices in his shop prepared goods for sale. They also meant theultimate transformation of England from an agricultural into a greatmanufacturing and exporting nation, whose manufactured products would besold in every corner of the globe. 

By 1750 a change in attitude toward all the old intellectual problems hadbecome marked in England, and by 1775 attention before unknown was beinggiven there to social, political, economic, and educational questions. Religious intolerance was dying out, the harsh laws of earlier days hadbegun to be modified, new social and political interests [30] wereeverywhere attracting attention, and the great commercial expansion ofEngland was rapidly taking shape. With England and France leading in thenew scientific studies; England in the van in the development ofmanufacturing and the French to the fore in social influences and politeliterature; England and the new American Colonies setting new standards ingovernment by the people; the French theorists and economists giving theworld new ideas as to the function of the State; enlightened despots onthe thrones of Prussia, Austria, Spain, and Russia; and the hatreds of thehundred years of religious warfare dying out; the world seemed to many, about 1775, as on the verge of some great and far-reaching change inmethods of living and in government, and about ready to enter a new eraand make rapid advances in nearly all lines of human activity. The changecame, but not in quite the manner expected. 

IV. INSTITUTION OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT AND RELIGIOUS FREEDOM INAMERICA

[Illustration: FIG. 152. NATIONALITY OF THE WHITE POPULATION, AS SHOWN BYTHE FAMILY NAMES IN THE CENSUS OF 1790. ]

ENGLISHMEN IN AMERICA ESTABLISH A REPUBLIC. Though the early settlement ofAmerica, as was pointed out in chapter xv, was made from among thosepeople and from those lands which had embraced some form of the Protestantfaith, and represented a number of nationalities and several religioussects, the thirteen colonies, nevertheless, were essentially English inorigin, speech, habits, observances, and political and religiousconceptions. This is well shown for the white population by the results ofthe first Federal census, taken in 1790, as given in the adjoining figure. This shows that of all the people in the thirteen original States, 83. 5per cent possessed names indicating pure English origin, and that 91. 8 percent had names which pointed to their having come from the British Isles. The largest non-British name nationality was the German, with 5. 6 per centof the whole, and these were found chiefly in Pennsylvania where theyconstituted 26. 1 per cent of the State's population. Next were thosehaving Dutch names, who constituted but 2 per cent of the totalpopulation, and but 16. 1 per cent of the population of New York. No othername-nationality constituted over one half of one per cent of the total. The New England States were almost as English as England itself, 93 to 96per cent of the names being pure English, and 98. 5 to 99. 8 per cent beingfrom the British Isles. 

We thus see that it was from England, the nation which had done most inthe development of individual and religious liberty, that the great bulkof the early settlers of America came, and in the New World the Englishtraditions as to constitutional government and liberty under law wereearly and firmly established. The centuries of struggle for representativegovernment in England at once bore fruit here. Colony charters, chartersof rights and liberties, public discussion, legislative assemblies, andliberty under law were from the first made the foundation stones uponwhich self-government in America was built up. 

From an early date the American Colonies showed an independence to whicheven Englishmen were scarcely accustomed, and when the home governmentattempted to make the colonists pay some of the expenses of the SevenYears' War, and a larger share of the expenses of colonial administration, there was determined opposition. Having no representation in Parliamentand no voice in levying the tax, the colonists declared that taxationwithout representation was tyranny, and refused to pay the taxes assessed. Standing squarely on their rights as Englishmen, the colonists weregradually forced into open rebellion. In 1765, and again in 1774, Declarations of Rights were drawn up and adopted by representatives fromthe Colonies, and were forwarded to the King. In 1774 the firstContinental Congress met and formed a union of the Colonies; in 1776 theColonies declared their independence. This was confirmed, in 1783, by theTreaty of Paris; in 1787, the Constitution of the United States wasdrafted; and in 1789, the American government began. In the preamble tothe twenty-seven charges of tyranny and oppression made against the Kingin the Declaration of Independence, we find a statement of politicalphilosophy [31] which is a combination of the results of the long Englishstruggle for liberty and the French eighteenth-century reform philosophyand revolutionary demands. [32] This preamble declared:

 We hold these truths to be self-evident--that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. 

AMERICAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO WORLD HISTORY. The American Revolution and itsresults were fraught with great importance for the future political andeducational progress of mankind. Before the close of the eighteenthcentury the new American government had made at least four importantcontributions to world liberty and progress which were certain to be oflarge political and educational value for the future. 

In the first place, the people of the Colonies had erected independentgovernments and had shown the possibility of the self-government ofpeoples on a large scale, and not merely in little city-states orcommunities, as had previously been the case where self-government hadbeen tried. Democratic government was here worked out and applied to largeareas, and to peoples of diverse nationalities and embracing differentreligious faiths. The possibility of States selecting their rulers andsuccessfully governing themselves was demonstrated. 

In the second place, the new American government which was formed didsomething new in world history when it united thirteen independent andautonomous States into a single federated Nation, and without destroyingthe independence of the States. What was formed was not a league, orconfederacy, as had existed at different times among differing groups ofthe Greek City-States, and from time to time in the case of later Swissand temporary European national groupings, but the union into asubstantial and permanent Federal State of a number of separate Stateswhich still retained their independence, and with provision for theexpansion of this national Union by the addition of new States. Thisfederal principle in government is probably the greatest politicalcontribution of the American Union to world development. In the twentieth-century conception of a League of Nations it has borne still furtherfruit. 

In the third place, the different American States changed their oldColonial Charters into definite written Constitutions, each of whichcontained a Preamble or Bill of Rights which affirmed the fundamentalprinciples of democratic liberty (R. 251). These now became thefundamental law for each of the separate States, and the same idea waslater worked out in the Constitution of the United States. These were thefirst written constitutions of history, and have since served as a typefor the creation of constitutional government throughout the world. Insuch documents to-day free peoples everywhere define the rights and dutiesand obligations which they regard as necessary to their safety andhappiness and welfare. 

Finally, the Federal Constitution provided for the inestimable boon ofreligious liberty, and in a way that was both revolutionary and wholesome. At the beginning of the War for Independence the Anglican (Episcopal)faith had been declared "the established religion" in seven of theColonies, and the Congregational was the established religion in three ofthe New England Colonies, while but three Colonies had declared forreligious freedom and refused to give a preference to any special creed. This religious problem had to be met by the Constitutional Convention, andthis body handled it in the only way it could have been intelligentlyhandled in a nation composed of so many different religious sects as wasours. It simply incorporated into the Federal Constitution provisionswhich guaranteed the free exercise of their religious faith to all, andforbade the establishment by Congress of any state religion, or therequirement of any religious test as a prerequisite to holding any officeunder the control of the Federal Government. The American people thus tooka stand for religious liberty at a time when the hatreds of theReformation still burned fiercely, and when tolerance in religious matterswas as yet but little known. 

IMPORTANCE OF THE RELIGIOUS-LIBERTY CONTRIBUTION. The solution of thereligious question arrived at was only second in importance for us to theestablishment of the Federal Union, and the far-reaching significance toour future national life of the sane and for-the-time extraordinaryprovisions incorporated into our National Constitution can hardly beoverestimated. This action led to the early abandonment of statereligions, religious tests, and public taxation for religion in the oldStates, and to the prohibition of these in the new. The importance of thissolution of the religious question for the future of popular education inthe United States was great, for it laid the foundations upon which oursystems of free, common, public, tax-supported, non-sectarian schools havesince been built up. How we could have erected a common public-schoolsystem on a religious basis, with the many religious sects among us, it isimpossible to conceive. Instead, we should have had a series of feeble, jealous, antagonistic, and utterly inefficient church-school systems, chiefly confined to elementary education, and each largely intent onteaching its peculiar church doctrines and struggling for an increasingshare of public funds. 

How much the American people owe to the Fathers of the Republic for thismost enlightened and intelligent provision, few who have not thoughtcarefully on the matter can appreciate. To it we must trace not only thegreat blessing of religious liberty, which we have so long enjoyed, butalso the final establishment of our common, free, public-school systems. The beginning of the new state motive for education, which was soon tosupersede the religious motive, dates from the establishment with us ofrepublican governments; and the beginning of the emancipation of educationfrom church domination goes back to this wise provision inserted in ourNational Constitution. 

This national attitude was later copied in the state constitutions, and asa preamble to practically all we find a Bill of Rights, which in almostevery case included a provision for freedom of religious worship (Rs. 251, 260). After the middle of the nineteenth century a further provisionprohibiting sectarian teaching or state aid to sectarian schools waseverywhere added. 

V. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION SWEEPS AWAY ANCIENT ABUSES

NEW DEMANDS FOR REFORM THAT COULD NOT BE RESISTED. More than in any othercontinental European country France had, by 1783, become a united nation, conscious of a modern national feeling. Yet in France mediaeval abuses inboth State and Church had survived, as we have seen, to as great an extentalmost as in any European nation. So determined were the clergy andnobility to retain their old powers, not only in France but throughout thecontinent of Europe as well, that progressive reform seemed well-nighimpossible. The work of the benevolent despots had, after all, beensuperficial. By the last quarter of the eighteenth, though, a progressivechange was under way which was certain to produce either evolution orrevolution. The influence of the American experiment in nation-buildingnow became pronounced. In 1779 Franklin took a copy of the newPennsylvania Constitution with him to Paris, and in 1780 John Adams didthe same with the Massachusetts Constitution. Frenchmen instantlyrecognized here, in concrete form, the ideas with which their own headswere filled. In 1783 Franklin published in France a French translation ofall the American Constitutions, and the National Constitution of 1787 wasas eagerly read and discussed in Paris as in New York or Philadelphia orBoston. America appeared to the French of that stormy period as an idealland; where the dreams of Rousseau about the social contract had beentransformed into realities. Two years later the _cahiers_ of the ThirdEstate demanded a written constitution for France. The French, too, hadaided the American Colonies in their struggle for liberty, and Frenchsoldiers returning home carried back new political ideas drawn from theremarkable political progress of the new American Nation. By 1788 thedemand for reform in France had become so insistent, and the condition ofthe treasury of the State was so bad, that it was finally felt necessaryto summon a meeting of the States-General--a sort of national parliamentconsisting of representatives of the three great Estates: clergy, nobility, and commons--which had not met in France since 1614. 

[Illustration: FIG. 153. THE STATES-GENERAL IN SESSION AT VERSAILLES(After a contemporary drawing by Monnet)]

Besides electing its representatives, each locality and order was allowedto draw up a series of instructions, or _cahiers_ (+R. 252+), for theguidance of its delegates. These _cahiers_ are a mine of information as tothe demands and hopes and interests of the French people, [33] and it isinteresting to know that the _cahiers_ of nobility, clergy, and commonsalike included, among their demands, the organization of a comprehensiveplan of education for France. [34]

FRANCE ESTABLISHES CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT. The States-General met May5, 1789, and soon (June 20) resolved itself into the National orConstituent Assembly. Terrified by the uprisings and burnings of châteauxthroughout France, on the night of August fourth, in a few hours, itadopted a series of decrees which virtually abolished the _Ancien Régime_of privileges for France. The nobility gave up most of their old rights, the serfs [35] were freed, and the special privileges of towns weresurrendered. Later the Assembly adopted a "Declaration of Rights of Manand of the Citizen" (R. 253), much like the American Declaration ofIndependence. This declared, among other things, that all men were bornfree and have equal rights, that taxes should be proportional to wealth, that all citizens were equal before the law and have a right to help makethe laws, and that the people of the nation were sovereign. Theseprinciples struck at the very foundations of the old system. 

Soon a Constitution for France, the first ever promulgated in modernEurope, was prepared and adopted (1791). This abolished the ancientprivileges and reorganized France as a self-governing nation, much afterthe American plan. Local government was created, and the absolute monarchywas changed to a limited constitutional one. Next the property of theChurch was taken over by the State, the monasteries were suppressed, andthe priests and bishops were made state officials and paid a fixed statesalary. The Jesuits had been expelled from France in 1764; and in 1792 theBrothers of the Christian Schools were not allowed longer to teach. Amongother important matters, the Constitution of 1791 declared that:

 There shall be created and organized a system of public instruction common to all citizens, and gratuitous, with respect to those branches of instruction which are indispensable for all men. 

Up to this point the Revolution in France had proceeded relativelypeacefully, considering the nature of the long-standing abuses which wereto be remedied. In August, 1792, the King was imprisoned, and in January, 1793, he was executed and a Republic proclaimed. [36] Then followed areign of terror, which we do not need to follow, and which ended only whenNapoleon became master of France. 

BENEFICENT RESULTS OF THE REVOLUTION. The French Revolution was not anaccident or a product of chance, but rather the inevitable result of anattempt to dam up the stream of human progress and prevent its orderlyonward flow. The Protestant Revolts were the first great revolutionarywave, the Puritan revolution in England was another, the formation of theAmerican Republic and the institution of constitutional government andreligious freedom another, while the French Revolution brought the risingmovement to a head and swept away, in a deluge of blood, the veryfoundations of the mediaeval system. Along with much that was disastrous, the French Revolution accomplished after all much that was of greatestimportance for human progress. The world at times seems to be in need ofsuch a great catharsis. Progress was made in a decade that could hardlyhave been made in a century by peaceful evolution. The old order ofprivilege came to an end, mediaevalism was swept away, and the serf wasevolved into the free farmer and citizen. One fifth of the soil of Francewas restored to the use of the people from the monasteries, and anadditional one third from the Church and nobility. The new principles ofcitizenship--Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity--were for Francerevolutionary in the extreme, while the assertion that the sovereignty ofa nation rests with the people rather than with the king, heresuccessfully promulgated, ended for all time the "divine-right-of-kings"idea for France. After political theory had for a time run mad, theorganizing genius of Napoleon consolidated the gains, gave France a stronggovernment, a uniform code of laws, [37] and began that organization ofschools for the nation which ultimately meant the taking over of educationfrom the Church and its provision at the expense of and in the interestsof the nation. 

THE NATIONAL IDEA EXTENDS TO OTHER LANDS. The reform work in France, together with the examples of English and American liberty, soon began tohave their influence in other lands as well. People everywhere began tosee that the old régime of privilege and misgovernment ought to bereplaced. Other countries abolished serfdom, introduced better laws, andmade reforms in the abuses of both Church and State. French armies andrulers carried the best of French ideas to other lands, and, where theFrench rule continued long enough, these ideas became fixed. In particularwas the _Code Napoléon_ copied in the Netherlands, the Italian States, andthe States of southern and western Germany. The national spirit of Italywas awakened, and the Italian liberals began to look forward to the daywhen the small Italian States might be reunited into an Italian Nation, with Rome as its capital. This became the work of nineteenth-centuryItalian statesmen. For the first time in Spanish history, too, the peoplebecame conscious, under French occupation, of a feeling of national unity, and similarly the national spirit of German lands was stirred by theconquests of Napoleon. 

A constitution was obtained in Spain, in 1812, and between 1815 and 1821all of Spain's South American colonies--Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela--revolted, became independent, and set up republics with constitutional governments, some of the larger ones based on the federal principle, as in the UnitedStates. Brazil similarly freed itself from Portugal and set up aconstitutional and federated monarchy, in 1822. The Kingdom of Naplesobtained constitutional government in 1820, and Sardinia in 1821. In 1823, when Spain with Austria's aid prepared to reconquer the Spanish SouthAmerican Republics, President Monroe transmitted to the American Congresshis message in which he declared that any attempt on the part of Europeannations to suppress republicanism on the American continent would beconsidered by the United States as an unfriendly act. This has since beenknown as the _Monroe Doctrine_. In 1829 Greece obtained her independencefrom Turkey, and in 1843 a constitutional form of government was obtained. 

IMPORTANT CONSEQUENCES OF THE DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT. Since the closingdecades of the eighteenth century, when democratic government and writtenconstitutions began, the sweep of democratic government has become almostworld wide. Nation after nation has changed to democratic andconstitutional forms of government, the latest additions being Portugal(1911), China (1912), Russia (1917), and Germany (1918). New Englishcolonies, too, have carried English self-government into almost everycontinent. The World War of 1914-18 gave a new emphasis to democracy, andthere is good reason to believe that government of and by and for thepeople is ultimately destined to prevail among all the intelligent nationsand races of the earth. 

With the development of democratic government there has everywhere been asoftening of old laws, the growth of humanitarianism, the wider and widerextension of the suffrage, important legislation as to labor, a previouslyunknown attention to the poor and the dependents of society, a vastextension of educational advantages, and the taking over of education fromthe Church by the State and the erection of the school into an importantinstitution for the preservation and advancement of the national welfare. These consequences of the onward sweep of new-world ideas we shall tracemore in detail in the chapters which follow. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Show the importance, for human progress, of each of the meanings of thenew eighteenth-century liberalism, as enumerated on pages 471-72. 

2. How do you explain the lack of any permanent influence on Spanish lifeof the work of the benevolent despots in Spain?

3. Show the liberalizing influence of the rise of scientific investigationand economic studies, for a nation still oppressed by mediaevalism and badgovernment. 

4. Enumerate the new sciences which arose in the eighteenth century. 

5. Indicate the importance of the freedom of the press in the developmentof English political liberty. 

6. Explain how the religious-freedom attitude of the American nationalconstitution conferred an inestimable boon on the States in the matter ofpublic education. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following illustrativeselections are reproduced:

 247. Dabney: Ecclesiastical Tyranny in France. 248. Voltaire: On the Relation of Church and State. 249. Rousseau: Extract from the Social Contract. 250. Buckle: Changes in English Thinking in the Eighteenth Century, 251. Pennsylvania Constitution: Bill of Rights in. 252. Clergy of Blois: _Cahier_ of 1779. 253. France: Declaration of the Rights of Man. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Explain why ecclesiastical tyranny should have awakened such a spiritof rebellion in France (247), and not in Spain or in Italian lands. 

2. Just what attitude toward religion is shown in the extract fromVoltaire (248)?

3. Bolshevists in Russia and in America talk to-day as did Rousseau in theSocial Contract (249). Compare the justification of each with theeighteenth-century France of Rousseau. 

4. What do all the changes enumerated by Buckle (250) indicate as to thespread of general education, irrespective of schools, among the Englishpeople?

5. Compare the Pennsylvania Bill of Rights of 1776 (251) with that of yourown present-day state constitution, 6. Just what type of educational provisions, and what administrativeorganization, did the recommendations of the Clergy of Blois (252)contemplate? Indicate its shortcomings for eighteenth-century France. 

7. Compare the main ideas of 251 and 253. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

 Dabney, R. H. _The Causes of the French Revolution_. Taine, H. A. _The Ancient Regime_. 

CHAPTER XX

THE BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION

I. NEW CONCEPTIONS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE

THE STATE AS SERVANT OF THE CHURCH. With the rise of the Protestant sectswe noted, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and for the first timesince Christianity became supreme in the western world, the beginnings ofa state connection with the education of the young. The Protestantreformers, obtaining the support of the Protestant princes and kings, hadsuccessfully used this support to assist them in the organization ofchurch schools as an aid to the reformed faith. Luther, it will berecalled (p. 312), had made a strong appeal to the mayors and magistratesof all German lands to establish schools as a part of their civic duties(R. 156), and had contended that a solemn obligation rested upon them todo so. The Dutch Provinces had worked closely with the Dutch Protestantsynods (p. 334) in ordering schools established and in providing for theirfinancing; Calvin had organized a religious City-State at Geneva (p. 330), of which religion and learning had been the corner-stones; the ScottishParliament, by the laws of 1633 and 1646 (p. 335), had ordered schools forScottish children in connection with the churches; and in the Scandinaviancountries and in Finland the beginnings of a connection with the State hadalso been made (p. 315). Finally, in the new Massachusetts Colony the lawsof 1642 and 1647 (p. 366) had, for the first time in the English-speakingworld, ordered that children be taught "to read and understand theprinciples of religion and the capital laws of the country" (p. 364), andthat schools be established by the towns, under penalty if they refused todo so. In all Protestant lands we saw that the reformers appealed, fromtime to time, to what were then the servants of the churches--the risingcivil governments and principalities and States--to use their civilauthority to force the people to meet their new religious obligations inthe matter of schooling. 

The purpose of the schooling ordered established, however, was almostwholly religious. Massachusetts, in ordering instruction in the "capitallaws of the country, " as well as reading and religion, had formed a markedexception. In nearly all lands the rising state governments merely helpedthe Protestant churches to create the elementary vernacular religiousschool, and to make of it an auxiliary for the protection of orthodoxy andthe advancement of the faith. Even in the new state school systems of theGerman States--Saxony, Würtemberg (p. 317), Brunswick, Weimar, Gotha--theelementary schools established were for religious rather than for stateends. This condition continued until well toward the middle of theeighteenth century. 

THE NEW STATE THEORY OF EDUCATION. After about the middle of theeighteenth century a new theory as to the purpose of education, and onedestined to make rapid headway, began to be advanced. This theory hadalready made marked progress, as we shall see, in the New EnglandColonies, and had also found expression, as we shall also see in a laterchapter, in the organizing work of Frederick the Great in Prussia. It wasfrom the French political philosophers of the eighteenth century, though, that its clearest definition came. They now advanced the idea that schoolswere essentially civil affairs, the purpose of which should be to promotethe everyday interests of society and the welfare of the State, ratherthan the welfare of the Church, and to prepare for a life here rather thana life hereafter. 

After about 1750 a critical and reformatory pedagogy rapidly began to takeshape in France, and the second half of the eighteenth century became aperiod of criticism and discontent and reconstruction in education, aswell as in politics and religion. 

This criticism and discontent in France was greatly stimulated by thedecline in character and influence of the Jesuit schools. Unwilling tochange their instruction to meet the needs of a changing society, theirschools had become formal in character (R. 146), and were now engagedchiefly in stilling thinking rather than in promoting it. In consequencethe schools had fallen into disrepute throughout all France. The Society, too, in the eighteenth century, came to be a powerful politicalorganization which strove to dominate the State. So bad had the situationbecome by 1762, that the different parliaments in the provinces and inParis had formulated complaints against the Jesuits and their schools, [1]and, in 1764, the king was induced to suppress the Order. [2] This declinein influence and final suppression of the Society gave rise to some ratherremarkable pedagogical literature, which looked to the creation of asystem of state secondary schools in France to replace those of theJesuits. 

The outcome was the rise of a new national and individual conception ofthe educational purpose. This was destined in time to spread to otherlands and to lead to the rise of complete state school systems, financedand managed by the State and conducted for state ends, and to the ultimatedivorce of Church and State, in all progressive lands, in the matter ofthe education of the young. Teachers trained and certificated by the Statewere in time to supplant the nuns and brothers of the religiouscongregations in Catholic lands, as well as teachers who served asassistants to the pastors in Protestant lands and whose chief purpose wasto uphold the teachings and advance the interests of the sect; citizenswere to supplant the ecclesiastic in the supervision of instruction; andthe courses of instruction were to be changed in direction and vastlybroadened in scope to make them minister to the needs of the State ratherthan the Church, and to prepare pupils for useful life here rather thanfor life in another world. 

II. THE NEW STATE THEORY IN FRANCE

[Illustration: FIG. 154. ROUSSEAU (1712-78)]

THE FRENCH POLITICAL THEORISTS. The leading French political theorists ofthe two decades between 1760 and 1780 now began to discuss education as intheory a civil affair, intimately connected with the promotion of thewelfare of the State. The more important of these, and their chief ideaswere:

1. _Rousseau. _ The first of the critical and reformatory pedagogicalwriters to awaken any large interest and obtain a general hearing wasJean-Jacques Rousseau. The same year (1762) that his _Social Contract_appeared and attacked the foundations of the old political system (p. 483), his _Émile_ also appeared and attacked with equal vigor thereligious and social theory as to education then prevailing throughoutwestern Europe. For the stiff and unnatural methods in education, underwhich children were dressed and made to behave as adults, [3] the harshdiscipline of the time, and the excessive emphasis on religiousinstruction and book education, he preached the substitution of life amidnature, childish ways and sports, parental love, and an education thatconsidered the instincts and natural development of children. 

Gathering up the political and social ideas of his age as toecclesiastical and political despotism; the nature of the social contract;that the "state of nature" was the ideal one, and the one in which men hadbeen intended to live; that human duty called for a return to the "stateof nature, " whatever that might be; and that the artificiality andhypocrisy of his age in manners, dress, religion, and education were allwrong--Rousseau restated his political philosophy in terms of theeducation of the boy, Émile. Despite its many exaggerations, much faultyreasoning, and many imperfections, the book had a tremendous influenceupon Europe in laying bare the limitations and defects and abuses of theformal and ecclesiastical education of the time. [4] He may be regarded asthe first important writer to sap the foundations of the old system ofreligious education, and to lay a basis for a new type of child training(R. 254). Though Rousseau's enthusiasm took the form of theory run mad, and the educational plan he proposed was largely impossible, henevertheless popularized education, not only in France, but among thereading public of the progressive European States as well. After he hadwritten, the old limited and narrow religious education was on thedefensive, and, though time was required, the transition to a more seculartype of education was inevitable as fast as nations and peoples couldshake off the dominance of the Church in state affairs. 

[Illustration: FIG. 155 LA CHALOTAIS (1701-83)]

2. _La Chalotais. _ The year following the publication of Rousseau's_Émile_ appeared La Chalotais's _Essai d'éducation nationale_ (1763). Renéde la Chalotais, a Solicitor-General for the Parliament of Bretagne, wasone of the notable French parliamentarians of the middle of the eighteenthcentury. Unlike Rousseau's highly imaginary, exaggerated, sentimental, andparadoxical volume, La Chalotais produced a practical and philosophicaldiscussion of the problem of the education of a people. Declaring firmlythat education was essentially a civil affair; that it was the function ofgovernment to make citizens contented by educating them for their spherein society; that citizen and secular teachers should not be excluded forcelibates; [5] that the real purpose of education should be to preparecitizens for France; that the poor were deserving of education; and that"the most enlightened people will always have the advantage" in thestruggles of a modern world, La Chalotais produced a work which was warmlyapproved by such political philosophers as Voltaire, Diderot, and Turgot, and which was translated into several European languages (R. 255). Thoughfar less widely read than Rousseau's _Émile_, it was far more influentialin shaping subsequent political theory and action regarding the relationsof education to the State. Nearly every proposal for educationallegislation during the days of the Revolution went back in idea to thisphilosophic discussion of the question by La Chalotais and to thepractical proposals of Rolland and Turgot. 

[Illustration: FIG. 156. ROLLAND (1734-93)]

3. _Rolland. _ In 1768 Rolland, president of the Parliament of Paris, presented to his colleagues a report in which he outlined a nationalsystem of education to replace both the schools of the Jesuits and thoseof the Brothers of the Christian Schools. La Chalotais had proposed a moremodern system of state schools chiefly to replace those of the Jesuits, but Rolland went further and proposed the extension of education to all, and the supervision of all schools by a central council of the Government. By means of a centralized control, a central university to which the otheruniversities of France were to be subordinate, a higher normal school totrain teachers for the colleges (secondary schools), and universaleducation, [6] Rolland hoped to develop for France a national spirit, anational character, and a national government and code of laws, and tobring the youth of the provinces into harmony with the best of all Frenchideas. 

4. _Turgot. _ In 1774 Turgot was appointed Minister of Finance (p. 481), and in 1775 he made a series of recommendations to the King in which heset forth ideas analogous to those of Rolland, and presented an eloquentplea for the formation of a national council of public instruction and theestablishment of a system of civil and national education for the whole ofFrance. In closing he wrote:

 Your kingdom, Sir, is of this world. Without opposing any obstacle to the instructions whose object is higher, and which already have their rules and their expounders, I think I can propose to you nothing of more advantage to your people than to cause to be given to all your subjects an instruction which shows them the obligations they owe to society and to your power to protect them, and the interest they have in fulfilling those duties for the public good and their own. This moral and social instruction requires books expressly prepared, by competition, and with great care, and a schoolmaster in each parish to teach them to children, along with the art of writing, reading, counting, measuring, and the principles of mechanics. The study of the duty of citizenship ought to be the foundation of all the other studies.... There are methods and establishments for training geometricians, physicists, and painters, but there are none for training citizens. 

5. _Diderot. _ In 1776 Diderot, editor with D'Alembert of the_Encyclopaedia_ (1751-72), prepared, at the request of Catherine II (p. 477), under the title of _Plan of a University_, a complete scheme for theorganization of a state system of public instruction for Russia. Thoughthe plan was never carried out, it was printed and much discussed inFrance, and is important as coming from one of the most influentialFrenchmen of his time. He commends as an example to be followed the workof the German States in the organization of popular instruction. ForRussia he outlines first a system of people's schools, which shall be freeand obligatory for all, and in which instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, morals, civics, and religion shall be taught. "From the PrimeMinister to the lowest peasant, " he says, "it is good for every one toknow how to read, write, and count. " For the series of secondary schoolsto be established, he condemns the usual practice of devoting so much ofthe instruction to the humanities and a mediaeval type of logic andethics, and urges instead the introduction of instruction in mathematics, in the modern sciences, literature, and the work of governments. Classicalstudies he would confine to the last years of the course. Science, history, drawing, and music find a place in his scheme. 

All this instruction Diderot would place under the supervisory control ofan administrative bureau to be known as the _University of Russia_, at thehead of which should be a statesman, who should exercise control of allthe work of public instruction beneath. Though never carried out inRussia, the University of France of 1808 is largely an embodiment of theideas he proposed in 1776. 

LEGISLATIVE PROPOSALS TO EMBODY THESE IDEAS. During the quarter of acentury between the publication of Rousseau's _Émile_ and the summoning ofthe States-General to reform France (1762-88), the educational as well asthe political ideas of the French reformers had taken deep root with thethinking classes of the nation. The _cahiers_ of 1789, of all Orders (p. 500), gave evidence of this in their somewhat general demand for thecreation of some form of an educational system for France (R. 252). Fromthe first days of the Revolution pedagogical literature became plentiful, and the successive National Assemblies found time, amid the internalreorganization of France, constitution-making, the troubles with and trialof the King, and the darkening cloud of foreign intervention, to listen toreports and addresses on education and to enact a bill for theorganization of a national school system. The more important of theseeducational efforts were:

1. _The Constituent Assembly_ (June 17, 1789, to September 30, 1791). Inthe Constituent Assembly, into which the States-General resolved itself, June 17, 1789, and which continued until after it had framed theconstitution of 1791, two notable addresses and one notable report on theorganization of education were made. The Count de Mirabeau, a noblemanturned against his class and elected to the States-General as arepresentative of the Third Estate, made addresses on the "Organization ofa Teaching Body" and on the "Organization of a National _Lycée_. " In thefirst he advocated the establishment of primary schools throughout France. In the second he proposed the establishment of colleges of literature ineach department, with a National _Lycée_ at Paris for higher (university)education, and to contain the essentials of a national normal school orteachers' college as well. 

[Illustration: FIG. 157 COUNT DE MIRABEAU (1749-91)]

[Illustration: FIG. 158. TALLEYRAND (1758-1838)]

Mirabeau's proposals represent rather a transition in thinking from theold to the new, but the Report of Talleyrand (1791), former Bishop ofAutun, now turned revolutionist, embodies the full culmination ofrevolutionary educational thought. Public instruction he termed "a powerwhich embraces everything, from the games of infancy to the most imposingfêtes of the Nation. " He definitely proposed the organization of acomplete state system of public instruction for France, to consist of aprimary school in every canton (community, district), open to the childrenof peasants and workmen--classes heretofore unprovided with education; asecondary school in every department (county); a series of special schoolsin the chief French cities, to prepare for the professions; and a NationalInstitute, or University, to be located at Paris. Inspired byMontesquieu's principle that "the laws of education ought to be relativeto the principles of government, " Talleyrand proposed a bill designed togive effect to the provisions of the Constitution of 1791 relating toeducation (p. 501), and to provide an education for the people of Francewho were now to exercise, through elected representatives, the legislativepower for France. Instruction he held to be the necessary counterpoise ofliberty, and every citizen was to be taught to know, obey, love, andprotect the new constitution. Political, social, and personal moralitywere to take the place of religion in the cantonal schools, which were tobe free and equally open to all. As the Constituent Assembly was succeededby the newly elected Legislative Assembly within three weeks afterTalleyrand submitted his Report, no action was taken on his bill. 

[Illustration: FIG. 159. CONDORCET (1743-94)]

2. _The Legislative Assembly_ (October 1, 1791, to September 21, 1792). This new legislative body was far more radical in character than itspredecessor, and far more radical than was the sentiment of France at thetime. Among other acts it abolished (1792) the old universities andconfiscated (1793) their property to the State. To it was submitted (April20-21, 1792) by the mathematician, philosopher, and revolutionist, Marquisde Condorcet, [7] on behalf of the Committee on Public Instruction and asa measure of reconstruction, a Report and draft of a Law for theorganization of a complete democratic system of public instruction forFrance (R. 256). It provided for the organizing of a primary school forevery four hundred inhabitants, in which each individual was "to be taughtto direct his own conduct and to enjoy the plenitude of his own rights, "and where principles would be taught, calculated to "insure theperpetuation of liberty and equality. " The bill also provided, for thefirst time, for the organization of higher primary schools in theprincipal towns; colleges (secondary schools) in the chief cities (one forevery four thousand inhabitants); a higher school for each "department";_Lycées_, or institutions of still higher learning, at nine places inFrance; and a National Society of Sciences and Arts to crown theeducational system at Paris. The national system of education he proposedwas to be equally open to women, as well as men, and to be gratuitousthroughout. Teachers for each grade of school were to be prepared in theschool next above. Sunday lectures for workingmen and peasants were to begiven by teachers everywhere. Public morality, political intelligence, human progress, and the preservation of liberty and equality were the aimsof the instruction. The necessity for education in a constitutionalgovernment he saw clearly. "A free constitution, " he writes, "which shouldnot be correspondent to the universal instruction of citizens, would cometo destruction after a few conflicts, and would degenerate into one ofthose forms of government which cannot preserve the peace among anignorant and corrupt people. " Anarchy or despotism he held to be thefuture for peoples who become free without being enlightened. He held itto be a fundamental principle that:

 The order of nature includes no distinctions in society beyond those of education and wealth. To establish among citizens an equality in fact, and to realize the equality confirmed by law, ought to be the primary object of national instruction. 

The bill proposed by Condorcet, while too ambitious for the France of hisday, was thoroughly sound as a democratic theory of education, and anaccurate prediction of what the nineteenth century brought generally intoexistence. Condorcet's Report was discussed, but not acted upon. 

[Illustration: FIG. 160. THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCEFounded by Article 298 of the Constitution of Year III (1793)]

3. _The National Convention_ (September 21, 1792, to October 26, 1795). The Convention was also a radical body, deeply interested in the creationof a system of state schools for the people of France. To higher educationthere was for a time marked opposition, though later in its history theConvention erected a number of important higher technical institutions andschools, among the most important of which was the Institute of France. There was also in the Convention marked opposition to all forms ofclerical control of schools. The schools of the Brothers of the ChristianSchools were suppressed by it, in 1792, and all secular and endowedschools and colleges were abolished and their property confiscated, in1793. The complete supremacy of the State in all educational matters wasnow asserted. Great enthusiasm was manifested for the organization ofstate primary schools, which were ordered established in 1793 (R. 258 a), and in these:

 Children of all classes were to receive that first education, physical, moral, and intellectual, the best adapted to develop in them republican manners, patriotism, and the love of labor, and to render them worthy of liberty and equality. 

 The course of instruction was to include: "to speak, read, and write correctly the French language; the geography of France; the rights and duties of men and citizens; [8] the first notions of natural and familiar objects; the use of numbers, the compass, the level, the system of weights and measures, the mechanical powers, and the measurement of time. They are to be taken into the fields and the workshops where they may see agricultural and mechanical operations going on, and take part in the same so far as their age will allow. "

What a change from the course of instruction in the religious schools justpreceding this period!

[Illustration: FIG. 161. LAKANAL (1762-1845)]

A multiplicity of reports, bills, and decrees, often more or lesscontradictory but still embodying ideas advanced by Condorcet andTalleyrand, now appeared. Whereas the preceding legislative bodies hadconsidered the subject carefully, but without taking action, theConvention now acted. The nation, though, was so engrossed by the internalchaos and foreign aggression that there was neither time nor funds tocarry the decrees into effect. 

The most extreme proposal of the period was the bill of Lepelletier leSaint-Fargeau to create a national system of education modeled closelyafter that of ancient Sparta. The best of the proposals probably was theLakanal Law, of November 17, 1794, which ordered a school for every onethousand inhabitants, with special divisions for boys and girls, and whichprovided for instruction in:

 1. Reading and writing the French language. 2. The Declaration of the Rights of Man, and the Constitution. 3. Lessons on republican morals. 4. The rules of simple calculation and surveying. 5. Lessons in geography and the phenomena of nature. 6. Lessons on heroic actions, and songs of triumph. 

Lakanal also carefully prescribed the method of instruction, and advocatedthe founding of a national normal school (Latin _norma_; a rule), whichidea the Convention adopted in 1794, the school opening [9] in January, 1795. Supplementing this was the law of February 25, 1795, orderingcentral or higher schools established to replace the former colleges, [10]one for every three hundred thousand of the population, which were tooffer instruction from twelve to eighteen. The course was to include:

 12 to 14--Drawing, natural history, ancient and living languages. 14 to 16--Mathematics, natural philosophy, experimental chemistry. 16 to 18--Grammar, literature, history, legislation. 

Organized on a soviet principle, each professor declared the equal ofevery other, and lacking any effective administration or discipline, theseinstitutions soon fell into disrepute and were displaced when Napoleonreorganized secondary education in France. 

The law of October 25, 1795, closed the work of the Convention. This madeless important provisions for primary education (R. 258 b) than hadpreceding bills, but was the only permanent contribution of this period tothe organization of primary schools. It placed greater emphasis than hadthe legislative Assembly on the creation of secondary and higherinstitutions (R. 258 a), of more value to the bourgeois class. This billof 1795 represents a reaction from the extreme republican ideas of a fewyears earlier, and the triumph of the conservative middle-class elementsin the nation over the radical republican elements previously in control. 

The Convention also, in the latter part of its history, created a numberof higher technical institutions of importance, which were expressivealike of the French interest in scientific subjects which arose during thelatter part of the eighteenth century, and of the new French militaryneeds. Many of these institutions have persisted to the present, so wellhave they answered the scientific interests and needs of the nation. Amere list of the institutions created is all that need be given. Thesewere:

 Museum or Conservatory of Arts (Jan. 16, 1794). Conservatory of Arts and Trades (Oct. 10, 1794). New medical schools (_Schools of Health_) ordered (Dec. 4, 1794). Museum of Natural History (Dec. 11, 1794). Central Schools to succeed the former Colleges (secondary schools) (Feb. 25, 1795). School of Living Oriental Languages (March 30, 1795). Veterinary Schools (April 21, 1795). Course in Archaeology, National Library (June 8, 1795). Bureau of Longitude (June 29, 1795). Conservatory of Music (Aug. 3, 1795). The National Library (Oct. 17, 1795). Museum of Archaeological Monuments (Oct. 20, 1795). Polytechnic Schools (R. 257); School of Civil Engineering; School of Hydrographic Engineers; and School of Mining (Oct. 22, 1795). 

The Convention also adopted the metric system of weights and measures;enacted laws under which the peasants could acquire title to the landsthey had tilled for so long; and began the unification of the laws of thedifferent parts of the country into a single set, which later culminatedin the _Code Napoléon_. 

4. _The Directory_ (1795-99) _and the Consulate_ (1799-1804). TheRevolution had by this time largely spent itself, the Directory followed, and in 1799 Napoleon became First Consul and for the next sixteen yearswas master of France. The Law of 1795 for primary schools (R. 258 b) wasbut feebly administered under the Directory, as foreign wars absorbed theenergies and resources of the Government. Napoleon's chief educationalinterest, too, was in opening up opportunities for talent to rise, inencouraging scientific work and higher specialized institutions, and indeveloping schools of a type that would support the kind of government hehad imposed upon France. The secondary and higher schools he establishedand promoted cost him money at a time when money was badly needed fornational defense, and primary education was accordingly neglected duringthe time he directed the destinies of the nation. His educationalorganizations and work we shall refer to again in a later chapter. 

The Revolutionary enthusiasts had stated clearly their theory ofrepublican education, but had failed to establish a permanent state schoolsystem according to their plans. This now became the work of thenineteenth century. In the meantime, in the new United States of Americathe same ideas were taking shape and finding expression, and to thedevelopments there we next turn. 

III. THE NEW STATE THEORY IN AMERICA

WANING OF THE OLD RELIGIOUS INTEREST. As early as 1647 Rhode Island Colonyhad enacted the first law providing for freedom of religious worship everenacted by an English-speaking people, and two years later Marylandenacted a similar law. Though the Maryland law was later repealed, and arigid Church-of-England rule established there, these laws were indicativeof the new spirit arising in the New World. By the beginning of theeighteenth century a change in attitude toward the old problem of personalsalvation had become evident. Frontier conditions; the gradual rise of acivil as opposed to a religious form of town government; the risinginterests in trade and shipping; the beginnings of the breakdown of theold aristocratic traditions and customs transplanted from Europe; therising individualism in both Europe and America--these all helped toweaken the hold on the people of the old religious doctrines. 

By 1750 the change in religious thinking in the American Colonies hadbecome quite marked. [11] Especially was this change evidenced in thedying-out of the old religious fervor and intolerance, and the breaking-upof the old religious solidarity. While most of the Colonies continued tomaintain an "established Church, " other sects had to be admitted to theColony and given freedom of worship. The Puritan monopoly in New Englandwas broken, as was also that of the Anglican faith in the centralColonies. The day of the monopoly of any sect in a Colony was over. Newsecular interests began to take the place of religion as the chief topicof thought and conversation, and secular books began to dispute theearlier predominance of the Bible. A few colonial newspapers had begun(seven by 1750), and these became expressive of the new colony interests. 

CHANGING CHARACTER OF THE SCHOOLS. These changes in attitude toward theold religious problems materially affected both the support and thecharacter of the education provided in the Colonies. The Law of 1647, requiring the maintenance of the Latin grammar schools, had been found tobe increasingly difficult of enforcement, not only in Massachusetts, butin all the other New England Colonies which had followed the Massachusettsexample. With the changing attitude of the people, which had becomeclearly manifest by 1750, the demand for relief from the maintenance ofthis school in favor of a more practical and less aristocratic type ofhigher school, if higher school were needed at all, became marked. By theclose of the colonial period the new American Academy (p. 463), with itsmore practical studies, had begun to supersede the old Latin grammarschool. 

The elementary school experienced something of the same difficulties. Manyof the parochial schools died out, while others declined in character andimportance. In Church-of-England Colonies all elementary education wasleft to private initiative and philanthropic and religious effort (p. 373). In the southern Colonies the classes in society and the character ofthe plantation life made common schools impossible, and the feeling of anyneed for elementary schools almost entirely died out. In New England theeighteenth century was a continual struggle on the one hand to prevent theoriginal religious town school from disappearing, and on the other toestablish in its place a series of scattered and inferior districtschools, while either church or town support and tuition fees became everharder to obtain. Among other changes of importance the reading school andthe writing school now became definitely united, in all the smaller placesand in the rural districts, as a measure of economy, to form the Americanschool of the "3 Rs. " New textbooks, too, containing less of the gloomilyreligious than the _New England Primer_, and secular rather than religiousin character (p. 443), appeared after 1750 and began to be used in theschools. After 1750, too, it was increasingly evident that the oldreligious enthusiasm for schools had largely died out; that Europeantraditions and ways and types of schools no longer completely satisfied;and that the period of the transplanting of European educational ideas andschools and types of instruction was coming to an end. Instead, theevolution of a public or state school out of the original religiousschool, and the beginnings of the evolution of distinctly American typesof schools, better adapted to American needs, became increasingly evidentin the Colonies as the eighteenth century progressed. 

RISE OF THE CIVIL OF STATE SCHOOL. As has been stated earlier, the schooleverywhere in America arose as a child of the Church. In the MiddleColonies, where the parochial-school conception of education was theprevailing type, the school remained under church control until after thefoundation of our national government. In New England, though--and the NewEngland evolution in time became the prevailing American practice--theschool passed through a very interesting development during colonialtimes. 

As we have seen (p. 360), each little New England town was originallyestablished as a little religious republic, with the Church in completecontrol. The governing authorities for church and civil affairs were muchthe same. When acting as church officers they were known as Elders andDeacons; when acting as civil or town officers they were known asSelectmen. The State, as represented in the colony legislature or the townmeeting, was clearly the servant of the Church, and existed in large partfor religious ends. It was the State acting as the servant of the Churchwhich enacted the Massachusetts laws of 1642 and 1647 (Rs. 190, 19l), requiring the towns to maintain schools for religious ends. Now, so closewas the connection between the religious town, which controlled churchaffairs, and the civil town, which looked after roads, fences, taxes, anddefense--the constituency of both being one and the same, and the meetingsof both being held at first in the meeting-house--that when the schoolswere established the colony legislature placed them under the civil--asinvolving taxes, and being a public service--rather than under thereligious town. The interests of one were the interests of both, and, being the same in constituency and territorial boundaries, there seemed nooccasion for friction or fear. From this religious beginning the civilschool and the civil school-town and school-township, with all theirelaborate school administrative machinery, were later evolved. 

The erection of a town hall, separate from the meeting-house, was a firststep in the process. School affairs now were discussed at the town hall, instead of in the church. The town authorities now appointed committees tolocate and build schoolhouses, select and certificate the teachers, andvisit and examine the school. Next a regular town school committee wasprovided for. To this was given the management of the town school, andtown taxes, instead of church taxes, were voted for buildings andmaintenance. The minister continued to certificate the grammar-schoolmaster until the close of the colonial period, but the power tocertificate the elementary-school teachers passed to the town authoritiesearly in the eighteenth century. By the close of the century all that theminister--as the only surviving representative of church control--had leftto him was the right to accompany the town authorities in the visitationof schools. Thus gradually but certainly did the earlier religious schoolin America pass out from under the control of the Church and come underthe control of the State. When our national government and the differentstate governments were established, the States were ready to accept, inprinciple at least, the theory gradually worked out in New England thatschools are state institutions, and should be under the control of theState. 

THE EARLY STATE CONSTITUTIONS AND LAWS. In framing the FederalConstitution, in 1787, education, then being regarded largely as a localmatter, was left to the States to handle as they saw fit; so we turn tothe early state constitutions and laws to see how far the new AmericanStates had, by the close of the eighteenth century, advanced toward theconception of education as an affair of the State. 

During the period from the Declaration of Independence to the close of theeighteenth century (1776-1800), all the States, except Rhode Island andConnecticut, which considered their colonial charters as satisfactory, formulated and adopted new state constitutions. Three new States--Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee--were admitted to the Union before 1800, and theseframed constitutions also. Of the sixteen States forming the Union by1800, seven had incorporated into their constitutions a clause settingforth the State's duty in the matter of education (R. 259). As in theearlier period of American education, it was Calvinistic New England whichincorporated into the constitutions the best provisions regardinglearning. In the parochial-school central Colonies the mention was muchless emphatic, while the old Anglican-Church Colonies and the new Statesof Kentucky and Tennessee remained silent on the subject. Massachusetts, Vermont, and New Hampshire, in particular, incorporated strong sectionsdirecting the encouragement of learning and virtue, the protection andfostering of school societies, and the establishment of schools. TheMassachusetts provision, afterwards copied by New Hampshire, is soexplicit in the matter of state duty that it is worth quoting in full. 

 Chap. V, Sec. 2. Wisdom and knowledge, as well as virtue, diffused generally among the body of the people, being necessary for the preservation of their rights and liberties; and as these depend on spreading the opportunities and advantages of education in the various parts of the country, and among the different orders of the people, it shall be the duty of the legislatures and magistrates, in all future periods of this Commonwealth, to cherish the interests of literature and the sciences, and all seminaries of them; especially the university at Cambridge, public schools, and grammar schools in the towns; to encourage private societies and public institutions, by rewards and immunities, for the promotion of agriculture, arts, sciences, commerce, trades, manufactures, and a natural history of the country; to countenance and inculcate the principles of humanity and general benevolence, public and private charity, industry and frugality, honesty and punctuality in their dealings; sincerity, good humor, and all social affections and generous sentiments among the people. 

Though the Federal Constitution made no provision for education or aid toschools, when the Congress of the Confederation, in 1787, adopted theOrdinance for the organization and government of the Northwest Territory, out of which the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, andWisconsin were later carved, it prefixed to this Ordinance the followingsignificant provision:

 Art. 3. Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged [in the States to be formed from this Territory]. 

By the time the first State formed from this western territory was readyto be admitted to the Union (Ohio, 1802), the theory that education is afunction of the State had come to be so thoroughly accepted, in principleat least, by the new American people that Congress now began a policy, ever since continued, of aiding each new State to establish and maintain astate system of schools. To this end Congress gave the new State for thispurpose a generous endowment of national land, and in addition threetownships of land to endow a state university. We also find that theconstitutions of the first States created from this new NorthwestTerritory (Ohio, 1802; Indiana, 1816 [12]) contain for the time goodprovisions relating to public education. The Ohio provisions (R. 260) arenoteworthy for the strong stand for religious freedom and against anydiscrimination in the schools between rich and poor, while the Indianaprovisions (R. 261) are marked for their broad and generous conception ofthe scope and purpose of a state system of public instruction. 

Many of the older States enacted general state school laws early in theirhistory (R. 262). Connecticut continued the general school laws of 1700, 1712, and 1714 unchanged, and in 1795 added $1, 200, 000, derived from landsales, to a permanent state school endowment fund, created as early as1750. Vermont enacted a general school law in 1782. Massachusetts and NewHampshire enacted new general school laws, in 1789, which restated andlegalized the school development of the preceding hundred and fifty years. All these required the maintenance of schools by the towns for a definiteterm each year, ordered taxation, and fixed the school studies required bythe State. New York, in 1784, created an administrative organization, known as the University of the State of New York, to supervise secondaryand higher education throughout the State--an institution clearly modeledafter the centralizing ideas of Condorcet, Rolland, and Diderot (p. 477), and very similar to the ideas proposed by Talleyrand and Condorcet andlater (1808) embodied in the University of France by Napoleon. In 1795 NewYork also provided for a state system of elementary education. Georgiacreated a state system of academies, as early as 1783. Delaware created astate school fund, in 1796, and Virginia enacted an optional school lawthe same year. North Carolina created a state university, as early as1795. 

THE NEW POLITICAL MOTIVE FOR SCHOOLS. We thus see, in the new UnitedStates, the theories of the French revolutionary thinkers and statesmenactually being realized in practice. The constitutional provisions, andeven the legislation, often were in advance of what the States, impoverished as they were by the War of Independence, could at once carryout, but they mark the evolution in America of a clearly defined statetheory as to education, and the recognition of a need for generaleducation in a government whose actions were so largely influenced by theforce of public opinion. The Federal Constitution had extended the rightto vote for national officers to all, and the older States soon began toremove their earlier property qualifications for voting and to extendgeneral manhood suffrage to all citizens. 

This new development in government by the people, which meant the passingof the rule of a propertied and educated class and the establishment of areal democracy, caused the leading American statesmen to turn early togeneral education as a necessity for republican safety. In his FarewellAddress to the American people, written in 1796, Washington said:

 Promote, then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened. 

Jefferson spent the years 1784 to 1789 in Paris, and became a greatpropagandist in America for French political ideas. Writing to JamesMadison from France, as early as 1787, he said:

 Above all things, I hope the education of the common people will be attended to; convinced that on this good sense we may rely with the most security for the preservation of a due sense of liberty. 

[Illustration: FIG. 162. THOMAS JEFFERSON (1743-1826)]

In 1779, then, as a member of the Virginia legislature, Jefferson triedunsuccessfully to secure the passage of a comprehensive bill, after theplan of the French Revolutionary proposals, for the organization of acomplete system of public education for Virginia. The essential featuresof the proposed bill (R. 263) were that every county should be laid offinto school districts, five to six miles square, to be known as"hundreds, " and in each of these an elementary school was to beestablished to which any citizen could send his children free of chargefor three years, and as much longer as he was willing to pay tuition; thatthe leading pupil in each school was to be selected annually and sent toone of twenty grammar (secondary) schools to be established and maintainedat various points in the State; after two years the leaders in each ofthese schools were to be selected and further educated free for six years, the less promising being sent home; and at the completion of the grammar-school course, the upper half of the pupils were to be given three yearsmore of free education at the State College of William and Mary, and theother half were to be employed as teachers for the schools of the State. [13]

Though the scheme failed of approval, Jefferson never lost interest in theeducation of the people for intelligent participation in the functions ofgovernment. Writing from Monticello to Colonel Yancey, in 1816, after hisretirement from the presidency, he wrote:

 If a nation expects to be ignorant and free in a state of civilization it expects what never was and never will be.... There is no safe deposit (for the functions of government) but with the people themselves; nor can they be safe with them without information. 

In 1819 the founding of the University of Virginia crowned Jefferson'sefforts for education by the State. This institution, the Declaration ofIndependence, and the statute for religious freedom in Virginia stand to-day as the three enduring monuments to his memory. [14]

Other of the early American statesmen expressed similar views as to theimportance of general education by the State. John Jay, first ChiefJustice of the United States, in a letter to his friend, Dr. BenjaminRush, wrote:

 I consider knowledge to be the soul of a Republic, and as the weak and the wicked are generally in alliance, as much care should be taken to diminish the number of the former as of the latter. Education is the way to do this, and nothing should be left undone to afford all ranks of people the means of obtaining a proper degree of it at a cheap and easy rate. 

James Madison, fourth President of the United States, wrote:

 A satisfactory plan for primary education is certainly a vital desideratum in our republics. 

 A popular government without popular information or the means of acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce or a tragedy, or, perhaps, both. Knowledge will forever govern ignorance; and a people who mean to be their own governors must arm themselves with the power which knowledge gives. 

John Adams, with true New England thoroughness, expressed the new motivefor education still more forcibly when he wrote:

 The instruction of the people in every kind of knowledge that can be of use to them in the practice of their moral duties as men, citizens, and Christians, and of their political and civil duties as members of society and freemen, ought to be the care of the public, and of all who have any share in the conduct of its affairs, in a manner that never yet has been practiced in any age or nation. The education here intended is not merely that of the children of the rich and noble, but of every rank and class of people, down to the lowest and poorest. It is not too much to say that schools for the education of all should be placed at convenient distances and maintained at the public expense. The revenues of the State would be applied infinitely better, more charitably, wisely, usefully, and therefore politically in this way than even in maintaining the poor. This would be the best way of preventing the existence of the poor.... 

 Laws for the liberal education of youth, especially of the lower classes of people, are so extremely wise and useful that, to a humane and generous mind, no expense for this purpose would be thought extravagant. 

Having founded, as Lincoln so well said later at Gettysburg, "on thiscontinent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to theproposition that all men are created equal, " and having built aconstitutional form of government based on that equality, it in timebecame evident to those who thought at all on the question that thatliberty and political equality could not be preserved without the generaleducation of all. A new motive for education was thus created andgradually formulated in the United States, as well as in revolutionaryFrance, and the nature of the school instruction of the youth of the Statecame in time to be colored through and through by this new politicalmotive. The necessary schools, though, did not come at once. On thecontrary, the struggle to establish these necessary schools it will be ourpurpose to trace in subsequent chapters, but before doing so we wish firstto point out how the rise of a political theory for education led to thedevelopment of a theory as to the nature of the educational process whichexercised a far-reaching influence on all subsequent evolution of schoolsand teaching. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What do the proposals of La Chalotais, Rolland, and Turgot indicate asto the degree of unification of France attained by the time they wrote?

2. What new subjects did Diderot add to the religious elementary school ofhis time?

3. Show how the decline in efficiency of the Jesuits was a stimulatingforce for the evolution of a system of public instruction in France. 

4. Show the statesman-like character of the proposals made in thelegislative assemblies of France for the organization of nationaleducation. 

5. Assuming that there had been enough funds to carry out the law (1793)of the Convention for primary instruction, what other difficulties wouldhave been met that would have been hard to surmount?

6. Compare the Lakanal school with an American elementary school of ahalf-century ago. 

7. Show that many of the important educational reforms of Napoleon wereforeshadowed in the National Convention. 

8. Was Napoleon right in his attitude toward education and schools?

9. Explain the lack of success of the revolutionary theorists in theestablishment of a state system of education. 

10. Explain why the breakdown of the old religious intolerance cameearlier in the American Colonies than in the Old World. 

11. Show the great value of the Laws of 1642 and 1647 in holding NewEngland true to the maintenance of schools during the period of decline. 

12. What might have been the result in America had the New EnglandColonies established the school as a parish institution, as did thecentral Colonies?

13. Analyze the Massachusetts constitutional provision for education, andshow what it provided for. 

14. Show the similarity of the University of the State of New York to theproposals for governmental control in France. 

15. Explain why the French revolutionary ideas as to education wererealized so easily in the new United States, whereas France did notrealize them until well into the nineteenth century. 

16. Compare Jefferson's proposed law with the proposals of Talleyrand forFrance. 

17. Just what type of educational institutions did Washington have in mindin the quotation from his Farewell Address? John Jay? John Adams?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections arereproduced:

 254. Dabney: The Far-Reaching Influence of Rousseau's Writings. 255. La Chalotais: Essay on National Education. 256. Condorcet: Outline of a Plan for Organizing Public Instruction in France. 257. Report: Founding of the Polytechnic School at Paris. 258. Barnard: Work of the National Convention in France. (a) Various legislative proposals. (b) The Law of 1795 organizing Primary Instruction. 259. American States: Early Constitutional Provisions relating to Education. 260. Ohio: Educational Provisions of First Constitution. 261. Indiana: Educational Provisions of First Constitution. 262. American States: Early School Legislation in. 263. Jefferson: Plan for Organizing Education in Virginia. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Explain the conditions of society under which the emotional writings ofa man of the type of Rousseau could have made such a deep impression (254)on the nation. 

2. In how far do nations to-day accept the theories of La Chalotais (255)?

3. What type of administrative organization was proposed by Condorcet(256)?

4. What does the founding of the Polytechnic School (257) indicate as tothe French interest in science?

5. What real progress was made by the National Convention (258 a), and towhat degree did it fail? 6. Explain the type of school system proposed andthe conception of education lying behind the early constitutionalprovisions (259) for education in each of the American States. 

7. In what respects were the educational provisions of the first Ohioconstitution (260) remarkable?

8. In what respects were the educational provisions of the first Indianaconstitution (261) remarkable?

9. Characterize the early school legislation reproduced (262). 

10. Just what type of educational system did Jefferson propose to organizein Virginia (263)?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

 Barnard, Henry. _American Journal of Education_, vol. 22, pp. 651-64. Compayré, G. _History of Pedagogy_, chapters 15, 16, 17. Cubberley, E. P. _Public Education in the United States_, chapter 3. 

CHAPTER XXI

A NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER FOR THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

In chapters XVII and XVIII we traced the development of educational theoryup to the point where John Locke left it after outlining his social anddisciplinary theory for the educational process, and in the chapterpreceding this one we traced the evolution of a new state theory as to thepurpose of education to replace the old religious theory. The new theoryas to state control, and the erection of a citizenship purpose foreducation, made it both possible and desirable that the instruction in theschool, and particularly in the vernacular school, should be recast, bothin method and content, to bring the school into harmony with the newsecular purpose. In consequence, an important reorganization of thevernacular school now took place, and to this transformation of theelementary school we next turn. 

I. THE NEW THEORY STATED

ICONOCLASTIC NATURE OF THE WORK OF ROUSSEAU. The inspirer of the newtheory as to the purpose of education was none other than the French-Swissiconoclast and political writer, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose work as apolitical theorist we have previously described. Happening to take up theeducational problem as a phase of his activity against the political andsocial and ecclesiastical conditions of his age, drawing freely on Locke's_Thoughts_ for ideas, and inspired by a feeling that so corrupt anddebased was his age that if he rejected everything accepted by it andadopted the opposite he would reach the truth, Rousseau restated hispolitical theories as to the control of man by society and his ideas as toa life according to "nature" in a book in which he described theeducation, from birth to manhood, of an imaginary boy, Émile, and hisfuture wife, Sophie. In the first sentence of the book Rousseau sets forthhis fundamental thesis:

 All is good as it comes from the hand of the Creator; all degenerates under the hands of man. He forces one country to produce the fruits of another, one tree to bear that of another. He confounds climates, elements, and seasons; he mutilates his dog, his horse, his slave; turns everything topsy-turvy, disfigures everything. He will have nothing as nature made it, not even man himself; he must be trained like a managed horse, trimmed like a tree in a garden. 

His book, published in 1762, in no sense outlined a workable system ofeducation. Instead, in charming literary style, with much sophistry, manyparadoxes, numerous irrelevant digressions upon topics having no relationto education, and in no systematic order, Rousseau presented his ideas asto the nature and purpose of education. Emphasizing the importance of thenatural development of the child (R. 264 a), he contended that the threegreat teachers of man were nature, man, and experience, and that thesecond and third tended to destroy the value of the first (R. 264 b); thatthe child should be handled in a new way, and that the most important itemin his training up to twelve years of age was to do nothing (R. 264 c, d)so that nature might develop his character properly (R. 264 e); and thatfrom twelve to fifteen his education should be largely from things andnature, and not from books (R. 264 f). As the outcome of such an educationRousseau produced a boy who, from his point of view, would at eighteenstill be natural (R. 264 g) and unspoiled by the social life about him, which, after all, he felt was soon to pass away (R. 264 i). The oldreligious instruction he would completely supersede (R. 264 h). 

[Illustration: FIG. 163. THE ROUSSEAU MONUMENT AT GENEVA]

So depraved was the age, and so wretched were the educational practices ofhis time, that, in spite of the malevolent impulse which was his drivingforce, what he wrote actually contained many excellent ideas, pointed theway to better practices, and became an inspiration for others who, unlikeRousseau, were deeply interested in problems of education and childwelfare. One cannot study Rousseau's writings as a whole, see him in hiseighteenth-century setting, know of his personal life, and not feel thatthe far-reaching reforms produced by his _Émile_ are among the strangestfacts in history. 

THE VALUABLE ELEMENTS IN ROUSSEAU'S WORK. Amid his glittering generalitiesand striking paradoxes Rousseau did, however, set forth certain importantideas as to the proper education of children. Popularizing the best ideasof the Englishman, Locke (p. 433), Rousseau may be said to have givencurrency to certain conceptions as to the education of children which, inthe hands of others, brought about great educational changes. Brieflystated, these were:

 1. The replacement of authority by reason and investigation. 

 2. That education should be adapted to the gradually unfolding capacities of the child. 

 3. That each age in the life of a child has activities which are normal to that age, and that education should seek for and follow these. 

 4. That physical activity and health are of first importance. 

 5. That education, and especially elementary education, should take place through the senses, rather than through the memory. 

 6. That the emphasis placed on the memory in education is fundamentally wrong, dwarfing the judgment and reason of the child. 

 7. That catechetical and Jesuitical types of education should be abandoned. 

 8. That the study of theological subtleties is unsuited to child needs or child capacity. 

 9. That the natural interests, curiosity, and activities of children should be utilized in their education. 

 10. That the normal activities of children call for expression, and that the best means of utilizing these activities are conversation, writing, drawing, music, and play. 

 11. That education should no longer be exclusively literary and linguistic, but should be based on sense perception, expression, and reasoning. 

 12. That such education calls for instruction in the book of nature, with home geography and the investigation of elementary problems in science occupying a prominent place. 

 13. That the child be taught rather than the subject-matter; life here rather than hereafter; and the development of reason rather than the loading of the memory, were the proper objects of education. 

 14. That a many-sided education is necessary to reveal child possibilities; to correct the narrowing effect of specialized class education; and to prepare one for possible changes in fortune. 

A new educational ideal presented. Rousseau's _Émile_ presented a newideal in education. According to his conception it was debasing that manshould be educated to behave correctly in an artificial society, to followblindly the doctrines of a faith, or to be an obedient subject of a king. Instead he conceived the function of education to be to evolve the naturalpowers, cultivate the human side, unfold the inborn capacities of everyhuman being, and to develop a reasoning individual, capable ofintelligently directing his life under diverse conditions and in any formof society. A book setting forth such ideas naturally was revolutionary[1] in matters of education. It deeply influenced thinkers along theselines during the remaining years of the eighteenth century, and became theinspiring source of nineteenth-century reforms. As Rousseau's _SocialContract_ became the political handbook of the French Revolutionists, sohis _Émile_ became the inspiration of a new theory as to the education ofchildren. 

Coming, as it did, at a time when political and ecclesiastical despotismswere fast breaking down in France, when new forces were striving forexpression throughout Europe, and when new theories as to the functions ofgovernment were being set forth in the American Colonies and in France, itgave the needed inspiration for the evolution of a new theory of non-religious, universal, and democratic education which would preparecitizens for intelligent participation in the functions of a democraticState, and for a reorganization of the subject-matter of education itself. A new theory as to the educational purpose was soon to arise, and thewhole nature of the educational process, in the hands of others, was soonto be transformed as a result of the fortunate conjunction of theiconoclastic and impractical discussion of education by Rousseau and themore practical work of English, French, and American political theoristsand statesmen. Out of the fusing of these, modern educational theoryarose. 

II. GERMAN ATTEMPTS TO WORK OUT A NEW THEORY

INFLUENCE OF THE _ÉMILE_ IN GERMAN LANDS. The _Émile_ was widely read, notonly in France, but throughout the continent of Europe as well. In Germanlands its publication coincided with the rising tide of nationalism--the"Period of Enlightenment"--and the book was warmly welcomed by such (thenyoung) men as Goethe, Schiller, Herder, Richter, Fichte, and Kant. Itpresented a new ideal of education and a new ideal for humanity, and itsideas harmonized well with those of the newly created aristocracy of worthwhich the young German enthusiasts were busily engaged in proclaiming fortheir native land. The ideal of the perfected individual, strong in theconsciousness of his powers, now found expression in the new "classics ofindividualism" which marked the outburst of the best that Germanliterature has ever produced. As Paulsen [2] well says:

 Rousseau exercised an immense influence on his times, and Germany was stirred perhaps even more deeply than France. In France Voltaire continued to be regarded as the great man of his time, whereas, in Germany, his place in the esteem of the younger generation had been taken by the enthusiast of Geneva. Kant, Herder, Goethe, Schiller, Fichte, all of them were roused by Rousseau to the inmost depths of their natures. He gave utterance to the passionate longing of their souls: to do away with the imitation of French courtly culture, by which Nature was suppressed and perverted in every way, to do away with the established political and social order, based on court society and class distinctions, which was felt to be lowering to man in his quality as a reasonable being, and to return to Nature, to simple and unsophisticated habits of life, or rather to find a way through Nature to a better civilisation, which would restore the natural values of life to their rightful place and would be compatible with truth and virtue, sincerity and probity of character. 

The great German philosopher, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), was so deeplystirred by the _Émile_ that the regularity of his daily walks and theclearness of his thinking were disturbed by it. Goethe called the book"the teacher's Gospel. " Schiller praised Rousseau as "a new Socrates, whoof Christians wished to make men. " Herder acclaimed Rousseau as a German, and his "divine work" as his guide. Jean-Paul Richter confessed himselfindebted to Rousseau for the best ideas in his _Levana_. Lavater declaredhimself ready for a Reformation in education along the lines laid down byRousseau. 

[Illustration: FIG. 64. BASEDOW (1723-90)]

BASEDOW AND HIS WORK. Perhaps the most important practical influenceexerted by the _Émile_ in German lands came in the work of Johann BernardBasedow and his followers. Basedow was a North German who had beeneducated in the _Gymnasium_ at Hamburg, had studied in the theologicalfaculty at Leipzig, had been a tutor in a nobleman's family, and had beena teacher in a _Ritterakademie_ in Denmark and the _Gymnasium_ at Altona. Deeply imbued with the new scientific spirit, in thorough revolt againstthe dominance of the Church in human lives, and incited to new efforts byhis reading of the _Émile_, Basedow thought out a plan for a reform schoolwhich should put many of Rousseau's ideas into practice. In 1768 he issuedhis _Address to Philanthropists and Men of Property on Schools and Studiesand their Influence on the Public Weal_, in which he appealed for funds toenable him to open a school to try out his ideas, and to enable him toprepare a new type of textbooks for the use of schools. He proposed inthis appeal to organize a school which should be non-sectarian, and alsoadvocated the creation of a National Council of Education to have chargeof all public instruction. These were essentially the ideas of the Frenchpolitical reformers of the time. The appeal was widely scattered, awakenedmuch enthusiasm, and subscriptions to assist him poured in from manysources. [3]

In 1774 Basedow published two works of more than ordinary importance. Thefirst, a _Book of Method for Fathers and Mothers of Families and ofNations_, was a book for adults, and outlined a plan of education for bothboys and girls. The keynotes were "following nature, " "impartial religiousinstruction, " children to be dealt with as children, learning through thesenses, language instruction by a natural method, and much study ofnatural objects. The ideas were a combination of those of Bacon, Comenius, and Rousseau. The second book, in four volumes, and containing one hundredcopper-plate illustrations, was the famous _Elementary Work_(_Elementarwerk mit Kupfern_) (R. 266), the first illustrated schooltextbook since the _Orbis Pictus_ (1654) of Comenius. This work ofBasedow's became, in German lands, the _Orbis Pictus_ of the eighteenthcentury. By means of its "natural methods" (R. 265) children were to betaught to read, both the vernacular and Latin, more easily and in lesstime than had been done before, and in addition were to be given aknowledge of morals, commerce, scientific subjects, and social usages by"an incomparable method, " founded on experience in teaching children. Thebook enjoyed a wide circulation among the middle and upper classes inGerman lands. 

BASEDOW'S _PHILANTHROPINUM_. In 1774 Prince Leopold, of Dessau, a town inthe duchy of Anhalt, in northern Germany, gave Basedow the use of twobuildings and a garden, and twelve thousand thalers in money, with whichto establish his long-heralded _Philanthropinum_, which was to be aneducational institution of a new type. Great expectations were aroused, and a widespread interest in the new school awakened. Education accordingto nature, with a reformed, time-saving, natural method for the teachingof languages, were to be its central ideas. Children were to be treated aschildren, and not as adults. Powdered hair, gilded coats, swords, rouge, and hoops were to be discarded for short hair, clean faces, sailorjackets, and caps, while the natural plays of children and directedphysical training were to be made a feature of the instruction. Thelanguages were to be taught by conversational methods. Each child was tobe taught a handicraft--turning, planing, and carpentering were provided--for both social and educational reasons. Instruction in real things--science, nature--was to take the place of instruction in words, and thevernacular was to be the language of instruction. The institution was tohave the atmosphere of religion, but was not to be Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, or Jewish, and was to be free from "theologizing distinctions. "Latin, German, French, mathematics, a knowledge of nature (geography, physics, natural history), music, dancing, drawing, and physical trainingwere the principal subjects of instruction. The children were divided intofour classes, and the instruction for each, with the textbooks to be used, was outlined (R. 265). 

The school opened with Basedow and three assistants as teachers, and twoof Basedow's children and twelve others as pupils. Later the school cameto have many boarding pupils, drawn from as far-distant points as Riga andSpain. In 1776 a public examination was held, to which many distinguishedmen were invited, and the work which Basedow's methods could produce wasexhibited. These methods seem to have been successful, judging from therather full accounts which have been left us. [4] The school represented anew type of educational effort, and was frankly experimental in purpose. It was an attempt to apply, in practice, the main ideas of Rousseau's_Émile_. Basedow tried the plan of education outlined by Rousseau with hisown daughter, whom he named Émilie. 

[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 165 IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804)]

As a promising experiment the school awakened widespread interest, andBasedow was supported by such thinkers of the time as Goethe and Kant. Theyear following the "Examination" Kant, then professor of philosophy at theUniversity of Königsberg, contributed an article to the _KönigsbergGazette_ explaining the importance of the experiment Basedow was making. Still later, in his university lectures _On Pedagogy_, he further statedthe importance of such a new experiment, in the following words:

 It was imagined that experiments in education were not necessary; and that, whether any thing in it was good or bad, could be judged of by the reason. But this was a great mistake; experience shows very often that results are produced precisely the opposite to those which had been expected. We also see from experiment that one generation cannot work out a complete plan of education. The only experimental school which has made a beginning toward breaking the path was the Dessau institution. This praise must be given to it, in spite of the many faults which may be charged against it; faults which belong to all conclusions based upon such undertakings; and which make new experiments always necessary. It was the only school in which the teachers had the liberty to work after their own methods and plans, and where they stood in connection, not only with each other, but with men of learning throughout all Germany. 

BASEDOW'S INFLUENCE, AND FOLLOWERS. Basedow, though, was an impracticaltheorist, boastful and quarrelsome, vulgar and coarse, given todrunkenness and intemperate speech, and fond of making claims for his workwhich the results did not justify. In a few years he had been displaced asdirector, and in 1793 the _Philanthropinum_ closed its doors. The school, nevertheless, was a very important educational experiment, and Basedow'swork for a time exerted a profound influence on German pedagogicalthought. He may be said to have raised instruction in the _Realien_ inGerman lands to a place of distinct importance, and to have given a turnto such instruction which it has ever since retained. [5] The methods ofinstruction, too, worked out in arithmetic, geography, geometry, naturalhistory, physics, and history were in many ways as revolutionary as thoseevolved by Pestalozzi later on in Switzerland. In his emphasis onscientific subject-matter Basedow surpassed Pestalozzi, but Pestalozzipossessed a clearer, intuitive insight into the nature and purpose of theeducational process. The work of the two men furnishes an interestingbasis for comparison (R. 271), and the work of each gave added importanceto that of the other. 

From Dessau an interest in pedagogical ideas and experiments spread overEurope, and particularly over German lands. Other institutions, modeledafter the _Philanthropinum_, were founded in many places, and some ofBasedow's followers [6] did as important work along certain lines as didBasedow himself. His followers were numerous, and of all degrees of worth. They urged acceptance of the new ideas of Rousseau as worked out andpromulgated by Basedow; vigorously attacked the old schools, makingconverts here and there; and in a way helped to prepare northern Germanlands for the incoming, later, of the better-organized ideas of theGerman-Swiss reformer Pestalozzi, to whose work we next turn. 

III. THE WORK AND INFLUENCE OF PESTALOZZI

THE INSPIRATION OF PESTALOZZI. Among those most deeply influenced byRousseau's _Émile_ was a young German-Swiss by the name of Johann HeinrichPestalozzi, who was born (1746) and brought up in the ancient city ofZurich. Inspired by Rousseau's writings he spent the early part of hislife in trying to render service to the poor, and the latter part inworking out for himself a theory and a method of instruction based on thenatural development of the child. To Pestalozzi, more than to any oneelse, we owe the foundations of the modern secular vernacular elementaryschool, and in consequence his work is of commanding importance in thehistory of the development of educational practice. 

Trying to educate his own child according to Rousseau's plan, he not onlydiscovered its impracticability but also that the only way to improve onit was to study the children themselves. Accordingly he opened a schooland home on his farm at Neuhof, in 1774. Here he took in fifty abandonedchildren, to whom he taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, gave themmoral discourses, and trained them in gardening, farming, and cheese-making. It was an attempt to regenerate beggars by means of education, which Pestalozzi firmly believed could be done. At the end of two years hehad spent all the money he and his wife possessed, and the school closedin failure--a blessing in disguise--though with Pestalozzi's faith in thepower of education unshaken. Of this experiment he wrote: "For years Ihave lived in the midst of fifty little beggars, sharing in my poverty mybread with them, living like a beggar myself in order to teach beggars tolive like men. "

Turning next to writing, while continuing to farm, Pestalozzi now tried toexpress his faith in education in printed form. His _Leonard and Gertrude_(1781) was a wonderfully beautiful story of Swiss peasant life, and of thegenius and sympathy and love of a woman amid degrading surroundings. Froma wretched place the village of Bonnal, under Pestalozzi's pen, wastransformed by the power of education. [7] The book was a great successfrom the first, and for it Pestalozzi was made a "citizen" of the FrenchRepublic, along with Washington, Madison, Kosciusko, Wilberforce, and TomPaine. He continued to farm and to think, though nearly starving, until1798, when the opportunity for which he was really fitted came. 

PESTALOZZI'S EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENTS. In 1798 "The Helvetic Republic" wasproclaimed, an event which divided Pestalozzi's life into two parts. Up tothis time he had been interested wholly in the philanthropic aspect ofeducation, believing that the poor could be regenerated through educationand labor. From this time on he interested himself in the teaching aspectof the problem, in the working-out and formulation of a teaching methodbased on the natural development of the child, and in training others toteach. Much to the disgust of the authorities of the new Swiss Government, citizen Pestalozzi applied for service as a schoolteacher. The opportunityto render such service soon came. 

That autumn the French troops invaded Switzerland, and, in putting downthe stubborn resistance of the three German cantons, shot down a largenumber of the people. Orphans to the number of 169 were left in the littletown of Stanz, and citizen Pestalozzi was given charge of them. For sixmonths he was father, mother, teacher, and nurse. Then, worn out himself, the orphanage was changed into a hospital. A little later he became aschoolmaster in Burgdorf; was dismissed; became a teacher in anotherschool; and finally, in 1800, opened a school himself in an old castlethere. He now drew about him other teachers interested in improvinginstruction, and in consequence could specialize the work. He providedseparate teachers for drawing and singing, geography and history, languageand arithmetic, and gymnastics. The year following the school was enlargedinto a teachers' training-school, the government extending him aid inreturn for giving Swiss teachers one month of training as teachers in hisschool. Here he wrote and published _How Gertrude teaches her Children_, which explained his methods and forms his most important pedagogical work(R. 267); a _Guide for teaching Spelling and Reading_; and a _Book forMothers_, devoted to a description of "object teaching. " In 1803, thecastle being needed by the government, Pestalozzi moved first toMunchenbuchsee, near Hofwyl, opening his Institute temporarily in an oldconvent there. For a few months, in 1804, he was associated with Emanuelvon Fellenberg, at Hofwyl (p. 546), but in October, 1804, he moved toYverdon, where he reëstablished the Institute, and where the next twentyyears of his life were spent and his greatest success achieved. 

[Illustration: FIG. 166. THE SCENE OF PESTALOZZI'S LABORS]

THE CONTRIBUTION OF PESTALOZZI. The great contribution of Pestalozzi layin that, following the lead of Rousseau, he rejected the religious aim andthe teaching of mere words and facts, which had characterized allelementary education up to near the close of the eighteenth century, andtried instead to reduce the educational process to a well-organizedroutine, based on the natural and orderly development of the instincts, capacities, and powers of the growing child. Taking Rousseau's idea of areturn to nature, he tried to apply it to the education of children. Thisled to his rejection of what he called the "empty chattering of merewords" and "outward show" in the instruction in reading and the catechism, and the introduction in their place of real studies, based on observation, experimentation, and reasoning. "Sense impression" became his watchword. [8] As he expressed it, he "tried to organize and psychologize theeducational process" by harmonizing it with the natural development of thechild (R. 267). To this end he carefully studied children, and developedhis methods experimentally as a result of his observation. To this end, both at Burgdorf and Yverdon, all results of preceding teachers andwriters on education were rejected, for fear that error might creep in. Read nothing, discover everything, and prove all things, came to be theworking guides of himself and his teachers. 

The development of man he believed to be organic, and to proceed accordingto law. It was the work of the teacher to discover these laws ofdevelopment and to assist nature in securing "a natural, symmetrical, andharmonious development" of all the "faculties" of the child. Realeducation must develop the child as a whole--mentally, physically, morally--and called for the training of the head and the hand and theheart. The only proper means for developing the powers of the child wasuse, and hence education must guide and stimulate self-activity, be basedon intuition and exercise, and the sense impressions must be organized anddirected. Education, too, if it is to follow the organic development ofthe child, must observe the proper progress of child development and begraded, so that each step of the process shall grow out of the precedingand grow into the following stage. To accomplish these ends the trainingmust be all-round and harmonious; much liberty must be allowed the childin learning; education must proceed largely by doing instead of by words, the method of learning must be largely analytical; real objects and ideasmust precede symbols and words; and, finally, the organization andcorrelation of what is learned must be looked after by the teacher. 

[Illustration: PLATE II. JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI. ]

Still more, Pestalozzi possessed a deep and abiding faith, new at thetime, in the power of education as a means of regenerating society. He hadbegun his work by trying to "teach beggars to live like men, " and hisbelief in the potency of education in working this transformation, sotouchingly expressed in his _Leonard and Gertrude_, never left him. Hebelieved that each human being could be raised through the influence ofeducation to the level of an intellectually free and morally independentlife, and that every human being was entitled to the right to attain suchfreedom and independence. The way to this lay through the full use of hisdeveloping powers, under the guidance of a teacher, and not through aprocess of repeating words and learning by heart. Not only theintellectual qualities of perception, judgment, and reasoning needexercise, but the moral powers as well. To provide such exercise anddirection was the work of the school. 

Pestalozzi also resented the brutal discipline which for ages hadcharacterized all school instruction, believed it by its very natureimmoral, and tried to substitute for this a strict but loving discipline--a "thinking love, " he calls it--and to make the school as nearly aspossible like a gentle and refined home. To a Swiss father, who onvisiting his school exclaimed, "Why, this is not a school, but a family, "Pestalozzi answered that such a statement was the greatest praise he couldhave given him. 

THE CONSEQUENCES OF THESE IDEAS. The educational consequences of these newideas were very large. They in time gave aim and purpose to the elementaryschool of the nineteenth century, transforming it from an instrument ofthe Church for church ends, to an instrument of society to be used for itsown regeneration and the advancement of the welfare of all. [9] Theintroduction of the study of natural objects in place of words, and muchtalking about what was seen and studied instead of parrot-likereproductions of the words of a book, revolutionized both the methods andthe subject-matter of instruction in the developing elementary school. Observation and investigation tended to supersede mere memorizing; classdiscussion and thinking to supersede the reciting of the words of thebook; thinking about what was being done to supersede routine learning;and class instruction to supersede the wasteful individual teaching whichhad for so long characterized all school work. It meant the reorganizationof the work of the vernacular school on a modern basis, with classorganization and group instruction, and a modern-world purpose (R. 269). 

The work of Pestalozzi also meant the introduction of new subject-matterfor instruction, the organization of new teaching subjects for theelementary school, and the redirection of the elementary education ofchildren. Observation led to the development of elementary-science study, and the study of home geography; talking about what was observed led tothe study of language usage, as distinct from the older study of grammar;and counting and measuring led to the study of number, and hence to a newtype of primary arithmetic. The reading of the school also changed both incharacter and purpose. In other words, in place of an elementary educationbased on reading, a little writing and spelling, and the catechism, all ofa memoriter type and with religious ends in view, a new primary school, essentially secular in character, was created by the work of Pestalozzi. This new school was based on the study of real objects, learning throughsense impressions, the individual expression of ideas, child activity, andthe development of the child's powers in an orderly way. In fact, "thedevelopment of the faculties" of the child became a by-word withPestalozzi and his followers. 

Pestalozzi's deep abiding faith in the power of education to regeneratesociety was highly influential in Switzerland, throughout western Europe, and later in America in showing how to deal with orphans, vagrants, andthose suffering from physical defects or in need of reformation, byproviding for such a combination of intellectual and industrial training. 

THE SPREAD AND INFLUENCE OF PESTALOZZI'S WORK. So famous did the work ofPestalozzi become that his schools at Burgdorf and Yverdon came to be"show places, " even in a land filled with natural wonders. Observers andstudents came from America (R. 268) and from all over Europe to see and toteach in his school, and draw inspiration from seeing his work (R. 270)and talking with him. [10] In particular the educators of Prussia wereattracted by his work, and, earlier than other nations, saw the far-reaching significance of his discoveries. Herbart visited his school asearly as 1799, when but a young man of twenty-three, and wrote a verysympathetic description of his new methods. Froebel spent the years 1808to 1810 as a teacher at Yverdon, when he was a young man of twenty-six toeight. "It soon became evident to me, " wrote Froebel, "that 'Pestalozzi'was to be the watchword of my life. " The philosopher Fichte, whoseAddresses (1807-08) on the condition of the German people (page 568), after their humiliating defeat by Napoleon, did much to reveal to Prussiathe possibilities of national regeneration by means of education, hadtaught in Zurich, knew Pestalozzi, and afterward exploited his work andhis ideas in Berlin. [11] As early as 1803 an envoy, sent by the PrussianKing, [12] reported favorably on Pestalozzi's work, and in 1804Pestalozzian methods were authorized for the primary schools of Prussia. In 1808 seventeen teachers were sent to Switzerland, at the expense of thePrussian Government, to spend three years in studying Pestalozzi's ideasand methods. On their return, these and others spread Pestalozzian ideasthroughout Prussia. A pastor and teacher from Würtemberg, Karl AugustZeller (1774-1847), came to Burgdorf in 1803 to study. In 1806 he opened atraining-school for teachers in Zurich, and there worked out a plan ofstudies based on the work of Pestalozzi. This was printed and attractedmuch attention. In 1808 the King of Würtemberg listened to five lectureson Pestalozzian methods by Zeller, and invited him to a position as schoolinspector in his State. Before he had done but a few months' work he wascalled to Prussia, to organize a normal school and begin the introductionof Pestalozzian ideas there. From Prussia the ideas and methods ofPestalozzi gradually spread to the other German States. 

Many Swiss teachers were trained by Pestalozzi, and these also helped toextend his work and ideas over Switzerland. Particularly in GermanSwitzerland did his ideas take root and reorganize education. As a resultmodern systems of education made an early start in these cantons. One ofPestalozzi's earliest and most faithful teachers, Hermann Krüsi, becameprincipal of the Swiss normal school at Gais, and trained teachers therein Pestalozzian methods. Zeller's pupils, too, did much to spread hisinfluence among the Swiss. Pestalozzi's ideas were also carried toEngland, but in no such satisfactory manner as to the German States. WhereGerman lands received both the method and the spirit, the English obtainedlargely the form. Later Pestalozzian ideas came to the United States, atfirst largely through English sources, and, after about 1860, resulted ina thoroughgoing reorganization of American elementary education. 

After Pestalozzi's institution had become celebrated, and visitors andcommissions from many countries had visited him and it, and aftergovernments had vied with one another in introducing Pestalozzian methodsand reforms, the vogue of the Pestalozzian ideas became very extended. Many excellent private schools were founded on the Pestalozzian model, while on the other hand self-styled Pestalozzian reformers sprang up onall sides. All this imitation was both natural and helpful; thefoolishness and charlatanism in time disappeared, leaving a real advancein the educational conception. 

THE MANUAL-LABOR SCHOOL OF FELLENBERG. Of the Swiss associates andfollowers of Pestalozzi one of the most influential was Phillip Emanuelvon Fellenberg (1771-1844). The son of a Swiss official of high politicaland social position, possessed of wealth, having traveled extensively, Fellenberg, having become convinced that correct early education was theonly means whereby the State might be elevated and the lot of man madebetter, resolved (1805) to devote his life and his fortune to the working-out of his ideas. For a short time associated with Pestalozzi, he soonwithdrew and established, on his own estate, an Institution which later(1829) came to comprise the following:

 1. A farm of about six hundred acres. 

 2. Workshops for manufacturing clothing and tools. 

 3. A printing and lithographing establishment. 

 4. A literary institution for the education of the well-to-do. 

 5. A lower or _real_ school, which trained for handicrafts and middle-class occupations. 

 6. An agricultural school for the education of the poor as farm laborers, and as teachers for the rural schools. 

[Illustration: PLATE 12: FELLENBERG'S INSTITUTE AT HOFWYL. The first Agricultural and Mechanical College. This school contained thegerm-idea of all our agricultural education. ]

By 1810 the Institution had begun to attract attention, and soon pupilsand visitors came from distant lands to study in and to examine theschools. The agricultural school in particular aroused interest. More thanone hundred Reports (R. 272) were published, in Europe and America, onthis very successful experiment in a combined intellectual and manual-labor type of education. Fellenberg died in 1844, and his familydiscontinued the school in 1848. 

Fellenberg's work was a continuation of the social-regeneration conceptionof education held by Pestalozzi, and contained the germ-idea of all ouragricultural and industrial education. His plan was widely copied inSwitzerland, Germany, England, and the United States. It was well suitedto the United States because of the very democratic conditions thenprevailing among an agricultural people possessed of but little wealth. The plan of combining farming and schooling made for a time a strongappeal to Americans, and such schools were founded in many parts of thecountry. The idea at first was to unite training in agriculture withschooling, but it was soon extended to the rapidly rising mechanicalpursuits as well. The plan, however, was rather short-lived in the UnitedStates, due to the rise of manufacturing and the opening of rich and cheapfarms to the westward, and lasted with us scarcely two decades. Ageneration later it reappeared in the Central West in the form of a newdemand for colleges to teach agricultural and mechanical arts, but withthe manual-labor idea omitted. This we shall refer to again, later on(chapter xxix). 

[Illustration: FIG. 167. FELLENBERG (1771-1844)]

IV. REDIRECTION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS WORK. Though some form of parish school for theelements of religious instruction had existed in many places during thelater Middle Ages, and foundations providing for some type of elementaryinstruction had appeared here and there in almost all lands, theelementary vernacular school, as we have previously pointed out, wasnevertheless clearly the outcome of the Protestant movement in thesixteenth century, and in its origin was essentially a child of theChurch. A child of the Church, too, for more than two centuries theelementary vernacular school remained. During these two centuries theelementary school made slow but rather unsatisfactory progress, duelargely to there being no other motive for its maintenance or expansionthan the original religious purpose. Only in the New England Colonies inNorth America, in some of the provinces of the Netherlands, and in a fewof the German States had any real progress been made in evolving anydifferent type of school out of this early religious creation, and even inthese places the change was in form of control rather than in subject-matter or purpose. The school remained religious in purpose, even thoughits control was beginning to pass from the Church to the State. 

Now, within half a century, beginning with the work of Rousseau (1762), and by means of the labors of the political philosophers of France, theRevolutionary leaders in the American Colonies, the legislative Assembliesand Conventions in France, and the experimental work of Basedow and hisfollowers in German lands and of Pestalozzi and his disciples inSwitzerland, the whole purpose and nature of the elementary vernacularschool was changed. The American and French political revolutions and themore peaceful changes in England had ushered in new conceptions as to thenature and purpose and duties of government. As a consequence of these newideas, education had come to be regarded in a new light, and to assume anew importance in the eyes of statesmen. In place of schools to servereligious and sectarian ends, and maintained as an adjunct of the parishesor of a State Church, the elementary vernacular school now came to beconceived of as an instrument of the State, the chief purpose of which wasto serve state ends. Some time would, of course, be required to developthe state support necessary to effect the complete transformation incontrol, and the forces of reaction would naturally delay the process asmuch as possible, but the theory of state purpose had at last been soeffectively proclaimed, and the forces of a modern world were pushing theidea so steadily forward, that it was only a question of time until thechange would be effected. 

A NEW IMPETUS FOR CHANGE IN CONTROL. Basedow and Pestalozzi, too, hadgiven the movement for a transfer of control a new impetus by working outnew methods in instruction and in organizing new subject-matter for theschool, and methods and subject-matter which harmonized with the spiritand principles of the new democracy that had been proclaimed. Pestalozziin particular had sought, guided by a clearer insight into the educationalproblem than Basedow possessed (R. 271), to create a school in whichchildren might, under the wise guidance of the teacher, develop andstrengthen their own "faculties" and thus evolve into reasoning, self-directing human beings, fitted for usefulness and service in a modernworld. To make intelligent and reasoning individuals of all citizens, todevelop moral and civic character, to train for life in organized society, and to serve as an instrument by means of which an ignorant, drunken, immoral, and shiftless working-class and peasantry might be elevated intomen and women of character, intelligence, and directive power, was inPestalozzi's conception the underlying meaning of the school. AfterPestalozzi, the earlier conception as to the religious purpose of theelementary vernacular schools, by means of which children were to betrained almost exclusively "in the principles of our holy religion" and tobecome "loyal church members, " and to "fit them for that station in lifein which it hath pleased their Heavenly Father to place them, " was doomed. In its stead there was certain to arise a newer conception of the schoolas an instrument of that form of organized society known as the State, andmaintained by the State to train its future citizens for intelligentparticipation in the duties and obligations of citizenship, and forsocial, moral, and economic efficiency. 

THE WAY NOW BECOMING CLEAR. After two hundred and fifty years of confusionand political failure, the way was now at last becoming clear for thecreation of national instead of church systems of elementary education, and for the firm establishment of the elementary vernacular school as animportant obligation to its future citizens of every progressive modernState and the common birthright of all. This became distinctively the workof the nineteenth century. It also became the work of the nineteenthcentury to gather up the old secondary-school and university foundations, accumulated through the ages, and remould them to meet modern needs, fusethem into the national school systems created, and connect them in somemanner with the people's schools. To see how this was done we next turn tothe beginnings of the organization of national school systems in theGerman States, France, Italy, England, and the United States. These may betaken as types. As Prussia was the first modern State to grasp thesignificance of national education, and to organize state schools, weshall begin our study by first tracing the steps by which thistransformation was effected there. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Compare the statement of the valuable elements in the theories ofRousseau (p. 530) with the main ideas of Basedow (p. 535); Ratke (p. 607);Comenius (p. 409). 

2. Do we accept all the fourteen points of Rousseau's theory to-day?

3. Might a Rousseau have done work of similar importance in Russia, earlyin the twentieth century? Why?

4. Explain the educational significance of "self-activity, " "senseimpressions, " and "harmonious development. "

5. What were the strong points in the experimental work of Basedow?

6. Explain the great enthusiasm which his rather visionary statements andplans awakened. 

7. Show the importance of such work as that of Basedow in preparing theway for better-organized reform work. 

8. How far was Pestalozzi right as to the power of education to give menintellectual and moral freedom?

9. What do you understand Pestalozzi to have meant by "the development ofthe faculties"?

10. State the importance of the work of Pestalozzi from the point of viewof showing the world how to deal with orphans and defectives. 

11. Show how the germs of agricultural and technical education lay in thework of Fellenberg. 

12. Explain the greater popularity of the _Émile_ in German lands. 

13. State the change in subject-matter and aims from the vernacular churchschool to the school as thought out by Pestalozzi. 

14. Show that it was a fortunate conjunction that brought the work ofPestalozzi alongside of that of the political reformers of France. 

15. What differences might there have been had Comenius lived and done hiswork in the time of Pestalozzi?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections, illustrative of the contents of this chapter, are reproduced:

 264. Rousseau: Illustrative Selections from the _Émile_. 265. Basedow: Instruction in the _Philanthropinum_. 266. Basedow: A Page from the _Elementarwerk_. 267. Pestalozzi: Explanation of his Work. 268. Griscom: A Visit to Pestalozzi at Yverdon. 269. Woodbridge: An Estimate of Pestalozzi's Work. 270. Dr. Mayo: On Pestalozzi. 271. Woodbridge: Work of Pestalozzi and Basedow compared. 272. Griscom: Hofwyl as seen by an American. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Show the fallacy of Rousseau's reasoning (264 d) as to society being adenominator which prevents man from realizing himself. 

2. What are the elements of truth and falsity in Rousseau's idling-to-the-twelfth-year (264 d) idea?

3. Would such a training up to twelve (264 e) be possible, or desirable?

4. What type of education is presupposed in 264 f?

5. Show the similarity in the conceptions of the _Orbis Pictus_ (221) andthe _Elementarwerk_ (266). 

6. What types of schools and conceptions of education were combined in thePhilanthropinum (265)?

7. Just what did Pestalozzi attempt (267) to accomplish?

8. Compare the accounts as to purpose and instruction given by Pestalozzi(267) and Griscom (268). 

9. What do the tributes of Woodbridge (269) and Mayo (270) reveal as tothe character of Pestalozzi and his influence?

10. Analyze the courses of instruction (272) at Hofwyl. 

11. State the points of similarity and difference between the work ofBasedow and Pestalozzi (271), and the points of superiority in the work ofPestalozzi. 

SELECTED REFERENCES

* Anderson, L. F. "The Manual-Labor-School Movement"; in _Educational Review_, vol. 46, pp. 369-88. (November, 1913. ) Barnard, Henry. _Pestalozzi and his Educational System_. * Compayré, G. _Jean-Jacques Rousseau_. * Compayré, G. _Pestalozzi and Elementary Education_. * Guimps, Roger de. _Pestalozzi: his Aim and Work_. * Krüsi, Hermann, Jr. _Life and Work of Pestalozzi_. * Parker S. C. _History of Modern Education, chaps. 8, 9, 13-16_. * Pestalozzi, J. H. _Leonard and Gertrude_. Pestalozzi, J. H. _How Gertrude teaches her Children_. Pinloche, A. _Pestalozzi and the Foundations of the Modern Elementary School_. 

CHAPTER XXII

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA

I. THE BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL ORGANIZATION

EARLY GERMAN PROGRESS IN SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. The first modern nation totake over the school from the Church, and to make of it an instrument forpromoting the interests of the State was Prussia, and the example ofPrussia was soon followed by the other German States. The reasons for thisearly action by the German States will be clear if we remember the markedprogress made in establishing state control of the churches (p. 318) whichfollowed the Protestant Revolts in German lands. Figure 96, page 319, reëxamined now, will make the reason for the earlier evolution of stateeducation in Germany plain. Würtemberg, as early as 1559, had organizedthe first German state-church school system, and had made attendance atthe religious instruction, compulsory on the parents of all children. Theexample of Würtemberg was followed by Brunswick (1569), Saxony (1580), Weimar (1619), and Gotha (1642). In Weimar and Gotha the compulsory-attendance idea had even been adopted for elementary-school instruction toall children up to the age of twelve. 

By the middle of the seventeenth century most of the German States, evenincluding Catholic Bavaria, had followed the example of Würtemberg, andhad created a state-church school system which involved at leastelementary and secondary schools and the beginnings of compulsory schoolattendance. Notwithstanding the ravages of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), the state-church schools of German lands contained, more definitelythan had been worked out elsewhere, the germs of a separate state schoolorganization. Only in the American Colonies (p. 364) had an equaldevelopment in state-church organization and control been made. As state-church schools, with the religious purpose dominant, the German schoolsremained until near the middle of the eighteenth century. Then a newmovement for state control began, and within fifty years thereafter theyhad been transformed into institutions of the State, with the statepurpose their most essential characteristic. How this transformation waseffected in Prussia, the leader among the German States, and the forceswhich brought about the transformation, it will be the purpose of thischapter to relate. 

THE NEW UNIVERSITY OF HALLE. The turning-point in the history of Germaneducational progress was the founding of the University of Halle, in 1694. This institution, due to its entirely new methods of work, has usuallybeen designated as the first modern university. A few forward-looking men, men who had been expelled from Leipzig because of their critical attitudeand modern ways of thinking, were made professors here. Its creation wasdue to the sympathy for these men felt by the Elector Friedrich III ofBrandenburg, later the first King of Prussia. The King clearly intendedthat the new institution should be representative of modern tendencies ineducation. To this end he installed as professors men who could and wouldreform the instruction in theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. 

In consequence Aristotle was displaced for the new scientific philosophyof Descartes and Bacon, and Latin in the classrooms for the German speech. The sincere pietistic faith of Francke (p. 418) was substituted for theLutheran dogmatism which had supplanted the earlier Catholic. Theinstruction in law was reformed to accord with the modern needs and theoryof the State. Medical instruction, based on observation, experimentation, and deduction, superseded instruction based on the reading of Hippocratesand Galen. The new sciences, especially mathematics and physics, found acongenial home in the philosophical or arts faculty. Free scientificinvestigation and research, without interference from the theologicalfaculty, were soon established as features of the institution, and inplace of the fixed scientific knowledge taught for so long from the textsof Aristotle (Rs. 113-15) and other ancients, a new and changing science, that must prove its laws and axioms, and which might at any time bechanged by the investigation of any teacher or student, here now found ahome. Under the leadership of Christian Wolff, who was Professor ofPhilosophy from 1707 to 1723, when he was banished by a new King at theinstigation of the Pietists for his too great liberalism in religion, andagain from 1740 to 1754, after his recall by Frederick the Great, [1]philosophy was "made to speak German" and the Aristotelian philosophy waspermanently displaced. "No thing without sufficient cause" was the rulingprinciple of Wolff's teaching. 

CHANGES WROUGHT IN OLD ESTABLISHED PROCEDURE. The introduction of the newscientific and mathematical and philosophical studies soon changed thearts or philosophy faculty from a preparatory faculty for the faculties oflaw, medicine, and theology, as it had been for centuries, to the equal ofthese three professional faculties in importance, while the elementaryinstruction in Latin and Greek was now relegated to the _Gymnasia_ below. These were now in turn changed into preparatory schools for all fourfaculties of the university. The university instruction in the ancientlanguages was now placed on a much higher plane, and a new humanisticrenaissance took place (p. 462) which deeply influenced both universityand gymnasial training. New standards of taste and judgment were drawnfrom the ancient literatures and applied to modern life, and students weretrained to read and enjoy the ancient classics. This reawakening of thebest spirit of the Italian Renaissance marked the first outburst of anational feeling of a people as yet possessed of no national literature ofimportance, but unwilling longer to depend on foreign (French) influencesfor the cultural elements in their intellectual life. 

It was at Halle, too, that Gundling, in 1711, discussed "the office of auniversity" and laid down the modern university theory of _Lehrfreiheitund Lernfreiheit_--that is, freedom from outside interference in teachingand studying, both teachers and students to be free to follow the truthwherever the truth might lead, and without reference to what preconceivedtheories might be upset thereby. This was a revolution in universityprocedure, [2] and the importance of the establishment of this newconception of university work can scarcely be overestimated. It was acontribution to intellectual progress of large future value. It meant theend of the old-type university, ruled by a narrow theological dogmatismand maintained to give support to a particular religious faith, and theultimate transformation of the old university foundations intoinstitutions actuated by the methods and purposes of a modern world. 

In 1734 another new university was founded at Göttingen, and in thisJohann Matthias Gesner (1691-1761) raised the new humanistic learning tothe place of first importance. This new university became a nursery forthe new literary humanism, ably supplementing the work done at Halle. Fromthese two universities teachers of a new type went out, filled with thespirit of "The Enlightenment, " as this eighteenth-century Germanrenaissance was called, and they in time regenerated all the Germanuniversities. Still more, they regenerated the secondary schools of Germanlands as well, and gave Greek literature and life that place of firstimportance in their instruction which was retained until the latter partof the nineteenth century. Gesner at Göttingen, and later Ernesti atLeipzig, did much to formulate the new pedagogical purpose [3] ofinstruction in the ancient languages and literatures for the higherschools of German lands. 

THE EARLIEST SCHOOL LAWS FOR PRUSSIA. In 1713 there came to the kingshipof Prussia an organizing genius in the person of Frederic William I (1713-40). Under his direction Prussia was given, for the first time, acentralized and uniform financial administration, and the beginnings ofstate school organization were made. He freed the State from debt, provided it with a good income, developed a strong army, and began avigorous colonization and commercial policy. Though he cared nothing anddid nothing for the universities, the religious reform movement ofFrancke, as well as his educational undertakings (p. 419), found in thenew King a warm supporter. Largely in consequence of this the King becamedeeply interested in attempts to improve and advance the education of themasses of his people. 

The first year of his reign he issued a Regulatory Code for the ReformedEvangelical and Latin schools of Prussia, and in 1717 he issued the so-called "Advisory Order, " relating to the people's schools. In this latterparents were urged, under penalty of "vigorous punishment, " to send theirchildren to school to learn religion, reading, writing, to calculate, and"all that could serve to promote their happiness and welfare. " The tuitionfees of poor children he ordered paid out of the community poor-box (R. 273). The following year he directed the authorities of Lithuania torelieve the existing ignorance there, and sent commissioners to providethe villages with schoolmasters. From time to time he renewed hisdirections. To insure a better class of teachers for the towns and ruralschools, he, in 1722, directed that no one be admitted to the office ofsacristan-schoolmaster [4] except tailors, weavers, smiths, wheelwrights, and carpenters, and in 1738 he further restricted the position of teacherin the town and rural schools to tailors. 

[Illustration: FIG. 168. THE SCHOOL OF A HANDWORKERConducted in his home. A gentleman visiting the school. After a drawing in the German School Museum in Berlin. ]

Becoming especially interested in providing schools for the previouslyneglected province of East Prussia, he gave the sum of fifty thousandthalers as an endowment fund, the interest to be used in assistingcommunities to build schoolhouses and maintain schools, and he also setaside large tracts of land for school uses. Within a few years over athousand elementary schools had been established, and some eighteenhundred new schools in Prussia owed their origin to the interest of thisKing. He also took a similar interest in the establishment of schools inPomerania (R. 273), a part of which had but recently been wrested fromSweden. 

In 1737 the King issued his celebrated _Principia Regulative_, whichhenceforth became the fundamental School Law for the province of EastPrussia. This prescribed conditions for the building of schoolhouses, thesupport of the schoolmaster, tuition fees, and government aid. Thefollowing digest of the section of the _Principia_ relating to thesematters gives a good idea as to the nature of the school regulations theKing sought to enforce:

 1. The parishes forming school societies were obliged to build school- houses and to keep them in repair. 

 2. The State was to furnish the necessary timber and firewood. 

 3. The expenses for doors, windows, and stoves to be obtained from collections. 

 4. Every church to pay four thalers a year toward the support of the schoolmaster. 

 5. Tuition fees for each child, from four to twelve years of age, to be four groschen per year. 

 6. Government to pay the fee when a peasant sends more than one child to school. 

 7. The peasants to furnish the teacher with certain provisions. 

 8. The teacher to have the right of free pasture for his small stock and some fees from every child confirmed. 

 9. Government to give the teacher one acre of land, which villagers were to till for him. 

In 1738 the King further regulated the private schools and teachers in andabout Berlin, in particular dealing with their qualifications and fees. The King showed, for the time, an interest in and solicitude for theeducation of his people heretofore almost unknown. That his decrees werein advance of the possibilities of the people in the matter of schoolsupport is not to be wondered at. Still, they rendered useful service inpreparing the way for further organizing work by his successors, and inparticular in accustoming the people to the ideas of state oversight andlocal school support. Under his successor and son, Frederick the Great, the preparatory work of the father bore important fruit. 

THE ORGANIZING WORK OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. In 1740 Frederick II, surnamedthe Great, succeeded his father, and in turn guided the destinies ofPrussia for forty-six years. His benevolently despotic rule has beendescribed on a preceding page (p. 474). Here we will consider only hiswork for education. In 1740, 1741, and again in 1743 he issued"regulations concerning the support of schools in the villages ofPrussia, " in which he directed that new schools should be established, teachers provided for them, and that "the existing school regulations andthe arrangements made in pursuance thereto should be permanent, and thatno change should be made under any pretext whatever. "

In 1750 he effected a centralization of all the provincial churchconsistories, except that of Catholic Silesia, under the BerlinConsistory. This was a centralizing measure of large future importance, asit centralized the administration of the schools, as well as that of thechurches, and transformed the Berlin Consistory into an importantadministrative agent of the central government. To this new centralizedadministrative organization the King issued instructions to pay specialattention to schools, in order that they might be furnished with ableschoolmasters and the young be well educated. One of the results of thiscentralization was the gradual evolution of the modern German _Gymnasien_, with uniform standards and improved instruction, out of the old andweakened Latin schools of various types within the kingdom. 

From 1756 to 1763 Frederick was engaged in a struggle for existence, knownas the Seven Years' War, but as soon as peace was at hand the King issuednew regulations "concerning the maintenance of schools, " and beganemploying competent schoolmasters for his royal estates. In April, 1763, he issued instructions to have a series of general school regulationsprepared for all Prussia. These were drawn up by Julius Hecker, a formerpupil and teacher in Francke's Institution (p. 418) and now a pastor inBerlin and counselor for the Berlin Consistory. After approval by theKing, these were issued, September 23, 1763, under the title of _GeneralLand-Schule Reglement_ (general school regulations for the rural andvillage schools) of all Prussia (R. 274). These new regulationsconstituted the first general School Code for the whole kingdom, and markthe real foundation of the Prussian elementary-school system. Two yearslater (1765) a similar but stronger set of regulations or Code was drawnup and promulgated for the government of the Catholic elementary schoolsin the province of Silesia (R. 275). This was a new province whichFrederick had wrested by force a few years previously (1748) from MariaTheresa of Austria, and the addition of a large number of Catholics toPrussia caused Frederick to issue specific regulations for schools amongthem. 

[Illustration: FIG. 169. THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 1740-86]

These two School Codes did not so much bring already existing schools intoa state system, but rather set up standards and obligations for anelementary-school system in part to be created in the future. The schoolswere still left under the supervision and direction of the Church, but theState now undertook to tell the Church what it must do. To enforce theobligation the State Inspectors of Prussia were directed to make an annualinspection (R. 274, § 26) of all schools, and to forward a report on theirinspection to the Berlin Consistory, and for Catholic Silesia thefollowing significant injunction was placed in the Code:

 § 51. In order to render as permanent as possible this reform of schools, which lies near our heart, we cannot be satisfied with committing the care of the schools to the clergy alone. We find it necessary that our bureau of War and Domain, the bureau of the Episcopal Vicariate, and the dioceses in our Silesian and Glatz districts, as well as our special school inspectors, give all due attention to this subject, so important to the State. 

THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOL CODES OF 1763 AND 1765. The regulations of 1763 wereissued, so the introduction reads (R. 274), because "the instruction ofyouth" in the country had "come to be greatly neglected" and "the youngpeople were growing up in stupidity and ignorance. " The King, therefore, issued the new regulations "to the end that ignorance, so injurious andunbecoming to Christianity, may be prevented and lessened, and the comingtime may train and educate in the schools more enlightened and virtuoussubjects. "

To this end the King ordered compulsory education for the children of allsubjects from the ages of five to thirteen or fourteen, all apprentices tobe taught, and leaving certificates to be issued on completion of thecourse (R. 274, §§ 1-4). The school hours were fixed, Sunday and summerinstruction regulated, tuition fees standardized, and the fees of thechildren of the poor were ordered paid (R. 274, §§ 5-8). A school census, and fines on parents not sending their children to school were providedfor (R. 274, §§ 10-11). The requirements for a teacher, his habits, hisqualifications and examination, the license to teach, and the extent towhich he might ply his trade or business, were all laid down in somedetail (R. 274 §§ 12-17). The organization, instruction, textbooks, orderof exercises, and discipline for all schools were prescribed at somelength (R. 274, §§ 19-21). The Code closed with a series of regulationscovering the relations of the schoolmaster and clergyman, and thesupervision of the instruction by the clergyman and clericalsuperintendents (R. 274, §§ 25-26). Incapable teachers were orderedsuspended or deposed. A a final injunction relative to school attendancethe Code closed with the following sentence:

 In general we here confirm and renew all wholesome laws, published in former times, especially, that no clergyman shall admit to confirmation and the sacrament, any children not of his parish, nor those unable to read, or who are ignorant of the fundamental principles of evangelical religion. 

The Code of 1765 for the Catholic schools of Silesia followed much thesame line as the Code of 1763, though in it the King placed specialemphasis on the training of schoolmasters, a subject in which he hadbecome much interested (R. 275 a); the regulation of the conditions underwhich teachers lived and worked (R. 275 b); and the supervision ofinstruction by the clergyman of the parish (R. 275 e). These directionsthrow much light on the conditions surrounding teaching near the middle ofthe eighteenth century. The nature of instruction in the Catholic schools, and the compulsion to attend, were also definitely stated (R. 275 c-d). 

These new Codes met with resistance everywhere. The money for theexecution of such a comprehensive project was not as yet generallyavailable; parents and churches objected to taxation and to the loss oftheir children from work; the wealthy landlords objected to the financialburden; the standards for teachers later on (1779) had to be lowered, andveterans from Frederick's wars installed; and the examinations of teachershad to be made easy [5] to secure teachers at all for the schools. Whilethere continued for some decades to be a vast difference between theactual conditions in the schools and the requirements of these Codes, andwhile the real establishment of a state school system awaited the firstdecade of the nineteenth century for its accomplishment, much valuableprogress in organization nevertheless was made. In principle, at least, Frederick the Great, by the Codes of 1763 and 1765, effected forelementary education a transition from the church school of the ProtestantReformation, and for Catholic Silesia from the parish school of theChurch, to the state school of the nineteenth century. It remained onlyfor his successors to realize in practice what he had made substantialbeginnings of in law. Nowhere else in Europe that early had such progressin educational organization been made. 

THE PRUSSIAN EXAMPLE FOLLOWED IN OTHER GERMAN STATES. The example ofPrussia was in time followed by the other larger German States. Würtembergissued a new School Code in 1792, which remained the ruling law for thechurch schools throughout the eighteenth century. The Saxon King, Augustusthe Just, inspired by the example of Frederick, issued a mandate, in 1766, reminding parents as to their duty to send children to school, and in 1773issued a new Regulation, filled with "generous enthusiasm for the cause. "A teachers' training-school was founded at Dresden, in 1788, and fourothers before the close of the century. In 1805 a comprehensive Code wasissued. This required that every child must be able to read, write, count, and know the truths of religion to receive the sacrament; clergymen wereordered to supervise the schools; school attendance was required from sixto fourteen; the pay of teachers and the government appropriations forschools were increased; and a series of fines were imposed for violationsof the Code. Bavaria issued new school Codes in 1770 and 1778, andadditional schoolhouses were built and new textbooks written. After thesuppression of the Jesuits (1773) a new progressive spirit animated theCatholic States, and Austria in particular, under the leadership of MariaTheresa and Joseph II (p. 475), made marked progress in schoolorganization and educational reform. 

In 1770 Maria Theresa appointed a School Commission to have charge ofeducation in Lower Austria; in 1771 established the first Austrian normalschool in Vienna; and in 1774 promulgated a General School Code (R. 276), drawn up by the Abbot Felbiger, who had been most prominent in schoolorganization in Silesia. This Code provided for School Commissions in allprovinces [6] ordered the establishment of an elementary school in allvillages and parishes, a "principal" or higher elementary school in theprincipal city of every canton, and a normal school in every province;laid down the course of study for each; and gave details as to teachers, instruction, compulsory attendance, support, and inspection similar toFrederick's Silesian Code (R. 275). Continuation instruction up to twentyyears of age also was ordered. That such demands were much in advance ofwhat was possible is evident, and it is not surprising that, in thereaction under Francis I, following the outburst of the French Revolution, we find a decree (1805) that the elementary school shall be curtailed to"absolutely necessary limits, " and that the common people shall get inelementary school only such ideas as will not trouble them in their work, and which will not make them "discontented with their condition; theirintelligence shall be directed toward the fulfillment of their moralduties, and prudent and diligent fulfillment of their domestic andcommunal obligations. "

THE BEGINNINGS OF TEACHER-TRAINING. The beginning of teacher-training inGerman lands was the _Seminarium Praceptorum_ of Francke, established atHalle (p. 419), in 1697. In 1738 Johann Julius Hecker (1707-68), one ofFrancke's former students and teachers, and the author of the PrussianCode of 1763, established the first regular seminary for teachers inPrussia, to train intending theological students for the temporary orparallel occupation of teaching in the Latin schools. In 1747 heestablished a private _Lehrerseminar_ in Berlin, in connection with hiscelebrated Realschule (p. 420), and there demonstrated the possibilitiesof teacher-training. Frederick the Great was so pleased with the resultthat, in 1753, he gave the school a subsidy and changed it into a royalinstitution, and on every fitting occasion recommended school authoritiesto it for teachers. Similar institutions were opened in Hanover, in 1751;Wolfenbüttel, in 1753; in the county of Glatz in Silesia, in 1764 (R. 275); in Breslau, in 1765 and 1767; and in Carlsruhe, in 1768. In theSilesian Code of 1765 Frederick specified (R. 275 a, § 2) six institutionswhich he had designated as teacher-training schools. 

These early Prussian institutions laid the foundations upon which thenormal-school system of the nineteenth century has been built. In Prussiafirst, but soon thereafter in other German States (Austria, at Vienna, 1771; Saxe-Weimar, at Eisenach, in 1783; and Saxony, at Dresden, 1788) theTeachers' Seminary was erected into an important institution of the State, and the idea has since been copied by almost all modern nations. Thisearly development in Prussia was influential in both France and the UnitedStates, as we shall point out further on. 

Despite these many important educational efforts, though, the type and thework of teachers remained low throughout the whole of the eighteenthcentury. In the rural and village schools the teachers continued to bedeficient in number and lacking in preparation. Often the pastors hadfirst to give to invalids, cripples, shoemakers, tailors, watchmen, andherdsmen the rudimentary knowledge they in turn imparted to the children. In the towns of fair size the conditions were not much better than in thevillages. The elementary school of the middle-sized towns generally hadbut one class, common for boys and girls, and the magistrates did littleto improve the condition of the schools or the teachers. In the largercities, and even in Berlin, the number of elementary schools wasinsufficient, the schools were crowded, and many children had noopportunity to attend schools. [7] In Leipzig there was no public schooluntil 1792, in which year the city free school was established. EvenSunday schools, supported by subscription, had been resorted to by Berlin, after 1798, to provide journeymen and apprentices with some of therudiments of an education. The creation of a state school system out ofthe insufficient and inefficient religious schools proved a task of largedimensions, in Prussia as in other lands. Even as late as 1819 Dinterfound discouraging conditions (R. 279) among the teachers of East Prussia. 

[Illustration: FIG. 170. A GERMAN LATE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY SCHOOL(After a picture in the German School Museum in Berlin)]

FURTHER LATE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PROGRESS. Frederick the Great died in1786. In the reign of his successors his work bore fruit in a completetransfer of all schools from church to state control, and in theorganization of the strongest system of state schools the world had everknown. The year following the death of Frederick the Great (1787), andlargely as an outgrowth of the preceding centralizing work with referenceto elementary education, the Superior School (_Oberschulcollegium_) Boardwas established to exercise a similar centralized control over the oldersecondary and higher schools of Prussia. Secondary and higher educationwere now severed from church control, in principle at least, as elementaryeducation had been by the "Regulations" of 1763 and 1765. The yearfollowing (1788) "Leaving Examinations" (_Maturitätsprüfung_) wereinstituted to determine the completion of the gymnasial course. These, fora time, were largely ineffective, due to clerical opposition, but thecentralizing work of this Superior School Board for the supervision ofhigher education, and the state examinations for testing the instructionof the secondary schools, were from the first important contributinginfluences. 

In 1794 came the culmination of all the preceding work in the publicationof the General Civil Code (_Allgemeine Landrecht_) for the State, inwhich, in the section relating to schools, the following importantdeclaration was made:

 Schools and universities are state institutions, charged with the instruction of youth in useful information and scientific knowledge. Such institutions may be founded only with the knowledge and consent of the State. All public schools and educational institutions are under the supervision of the State, and are at all times subject to its examination and inspection. 

The secular authority and the clergy were still to share jointly in thecontrol of the schools, but both according to rules laid down by theState. In all cases of conflict or dispute, the secular authority was todecide. This important document forms the _Magna Charta_ for seculareducation in Prussia. 

During the decade which followed the promulgation of this declaration ofstate control but little additional progress of importance wasaccomplished, though the Minister of Justice, to whom (1798) theadministration of Lutheran church and school affairs had been given, maintained a correspondence for some years with the King regarding"provisions for a better education and instruction of the children ofcitizens and peasants, " and stated to the King that "the object of reformis national education, and its field of operation, therefore, allprovinces of the monarchy. " The King, though, a weak, deeply religious, and unimaginative man (Frederick William III, 1797-1840), who lacked theenergy and foresight of his predecessors, did little or nothing. UnderFrederick William III the State lacked vigor and drifted; the Churchregained something of its former power; and the army and the civil servicebecame corrupt. In 1806 a blow fell which brought matters to an immediatecrisis and forced important action. 

II. A STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM AT LAST CREATED

THE HUMILIATION OF PRUSSIA. At the close of 1804 France, by vote, changedfrom the Republic to an Empire, with Napoleon Bonaparte as first Emperorof the French, and for some years he took pains that Frenchmen shouldforget "Liberty and Equality" amid the surfeit of "Glory" he heaped uponFrance. The great nations outside France, fearful of Napoleon's ambitionand power, did not take his accession to the throne of France socomplacently, and, in 1805, England, Sweden, Austria, and Russia formedthe "Third Coalition" against Napoleon in an effort to restore the balanceof power in Europe. Of the great powers of Europe only Prussia held aloof, refused to take sides, and in consequence enjoyed a temporary prosperityand freedom from invasion. For this, though, she was soon to pay aterrible price. Having humiliated the Austrians and vanquished theRussians, Napoleon now goaded the Prussians into attacking him, and thenutterly humiliated them in turn. At the battle of Jena (October 14, 1806)the Prussian army was utterly routed, and forced back almost to theRussian frontier. Officered by old generals and political favorites whowere no longer efficient, and backed by a state service honeycombed withinefficiency and corruption, the Prussian army that had won such victoriesunder Frederick the Great was all but annihilated by the new and efficientfighting machine created by the Corsican who now controlled the destiniesof France. By the Treaty of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) Prussia lost all herlands west of the Elbe and nearly all her stealings from Poland--in allabout one half her territory and population--and was almost stricken fromthe list of important powers in Europe. In all its history Prussia hadexperienced no such humiliation as this. In a few months the constructivework of a century had been undone. 

THE REGENERATION OF PRUSSIA. The new national German feeling, which hadbeen slowly rising for half a century, now burst forth and soon worked aregeneration of the State. In the school of adversity the King and thepeople learned much, and the task of national reorganization was entrustedto a series of able ministers whom the King and his capable Queen, Louise, now called into service. His chief minister, Stein, created a free peopleby abolishing serfdom and feudal land tenure (1807); eliminated feudaldistinctions in business; granted local government to the cities; andbroke the hold of the clergy on the educational system. His successor, Hardenburg, extended the rights of citizenship, and laid the foundationsof government by legislative assemblies. Another minister, Scharnhorst, reorganized the Prussian army (1807-13) by dismissing nearly all the oldgenerals, and introducing the principle of compulsory military service. Inall branches of the government service there were reorganizations, the onethought of the leaders being to so reorganize and revitalize the State asto enable it in time to overthrow the rule of Napoleon and regain itsnational independence. 

Though the abolition of serfdom, the reform of the civil service, and thebeginnings of local and representative government were important gains, nothing was of secondary importance to the complete reorganization ofeducation which now took place. The education of the people was turned toin earnest for the regeneration of the national spirit, and education was, in a decade, made the great constructive agent of the State. Said theKing:

 Though we have lost many square miles of land, though the country has been robbed of its external power and splendor, yet we shall and will gain in intrinsic power and splendor, and therefore it is my earnest wish that the greatest attention be paid to public instruction.... The State must regain in mental force what it has lost in physical force. 

His minister Stein said:

 We proceed from the fundamental principle, to elevate the moral, religious, and patriotic spirit in the nation, to instil into it again courage, self-reliance, and readiness to sacrifice everything for national honor and for independence from the foreigner.... To attain this end, we must mainly rely on the education and instruction of the young. If by a method founded on the true nature of man, every faculty of the mind can be developed, every noble principle of life be animated and nourished, all one-sided education avoided, and those tendencies on which the power and dignity of men rest, hitherto neglected with the greatest indifference, carefully fostered--then we may hope to see grow up a generation, physically and morally vigorous, and the beginnings of a better time. 

FICHTE APPEALS TO THE LEADERS. Still more did the philosopher Fichte(1762-1814), in a series of "Addresses to the German Nation, " delivered inBerlin during the winter [8] of 1807-08, appeal to the leaders to turn toeducation to rescue the State from the miseries which had overwhelmed it. Unable forcibly to resist, and with every phase of the governmentdetermined by a foreign conqueror, only education had been overlooked, hesaid, and to this the leaders should turn for national redemption (R. 277). He held that it rested with them to determine

 whether you will be the end and last of a race ... Or the beginnings and germ of a new time, glorious beyond all your imaginings, and those from whom posterity will reckon the years of their welfare.... A nation that is capable, if it were only in its highest representation and leaders, of fixing its eyes firmly on the vision from the spiritual world, Independence, and being possessed with a love of it, will surely prevail over a nation that is only used as a tool of foreign aggressiveness and for the subjugation of independent nations. 

With a fervor of emotion that was characteristic of a romantic age, impelled by a conviction that the distinctive character of the Germanpeople was indispensable to the world, and holding that what was necessaryalso was possible, Fichte made the German leaders feel, with him, that

 to reshape reality by means of ideas is the business of man, his proper earthly task; and nothing can be impossible to a will confident of itself and of its aim. [9]

[Illustration: PLATE 13. TWO LEADERS IN THE REGENERATION OF PRUSSIA

JOHANN GOTTLEIB FICHTE (1762-1814)Philosopher, university teacher

WILHELM VON HUMBOLDT (1767-1835)Philosopher, scholar, statesman]

Fichte's Addresses stirred the thinkers among the German people as theyhad not been stirred since the days of the Reformation, [10] and anational reorganization of education, with national ends in view, now tookplace. As Duke Ernest remade Gotha, after the ravages of the Thirty Years'War, by means of education (p. 317), so the leaders of Prussia now createda new national spirit by taking over the school from the Church andforging it into one of the greatest constructive instruments of the State. The result showed itself in the "Uprising of Prussia, " in the winter of1812-13; the "War of Liberation, " of 1813-15; the utter defeat of Napoleonat the battle of Leipzig by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, in 1813; andagain at the battle of Waterloo by England and Prussia, [11] in 1815. Still more clearly was the result shown in the humiliating defeat ofFrance, in 1870, when it was commonly remarked that the schoolmaster ofPrussia had at last triumphed. The regeneration of Prussia in the earlypart of the nineteenth century, as well as its more recent humiliation, stand as eloquent testimonials to the tremendous influence of education onnational destiny, when rightly and when wrongly directed. 

THE REORGINATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. The first step in the process ofeducational reorganization was the abolition (1807) of the_Oberschulcollegium_ Board, established (p. 564) in 1787 to supervisesecondary and higher education, in order to get rid of clerical influenceand control. The next step was the creation instead (1808) of a Departmentof Public Instruction, organized as a branch of the Interior Department ofthe State. 

One of the first steps of the acting head of the new department was tosend seventeen Prussian teachers (1808) to Switzerland to spend threeyears, at the expense of the Government, in studying Pestalozzi's ideasand methods, and they were particularly enjoined that they were not sentprimarily to get the mechanical side of the method, but to

 "warm yourselves at the sacred fire which burns in the heart of this man, so full of strength and love, whose work has remained so far below what he originally desired, below the essential ideas of his life, of which the method is only a feeble product. 

 "You will have reached perfection when you have clearly seen that education is an art, and the most sublime and holy of all, and in what connection it is with the great art of the education of nations. "

In 1809 Carl August Zeller (1774-1847), a pupil of Pestalozzi, who hadestablished two Pestalozzian training-colleges in Switzerland and had justbegun to hold Pestalozzian institutes in Würtemberg (p. 545), was calledto Prussia to organize a Teachers' Seminary (normal school) to trainteachers in the Pestalozzian methods. The seventeen Prussian teachers, ontheir return from study with Pestalozzi, were also made directors oftraining institutions, or provincial superintendents of instruction. Inthis way Pestalozzian ideas were soon in use in the elementary schoolrooms of Prussia, and so effective was this work, and so readily did thePrussian teachers catch the spirit of Pestalozzi's endeavors, that at theBerlin celebration of the centennial of his birth, in 1846, the Germaneducator Diesterweg [12] said:

 By these men and these means, men trained in the Institution at Yverdon under Pestalozzi, the study of his publications, and the applications of his methods in the model and normal schools of Prussia, after 1808, was the present Prussian, or rather Prussian- Pestalozzian school system established, for he is entitled to at least one half the fame of the German popular schools. 

[Illustration: FIG. 171. DINTER (1760-1831)Director of Teachers' Seminaries in Saxony; Superintendent of Education inEast Prussia. ]

Similarly Gustavus Friedrich Dinter, who early distinguished himself asprincipal of a Teachers' Seminary in Saxony, was called to Prussia andmade School Counselor (Superintendent) for the province of East Prussia. Wherever Prussia could find men, in other States, who knew Pestalozzianmethods and possessed the new conception of education, they were called toPrussia and put to work, and the statement of Dinter was characteristic ofthe spirit which animated their work. He said: [13]

 I promised God, that I would look upon every Prussian peasant child as a being who could complain of me before God, if I did not provide him with the best education, as a man and a Christian, which it was possible for me to provide. 

WORK OF THE TEACHERS SEMINARIES. Napoleon had imposed heavy financialindemnities on Prussia, as well as loss of territory, and the materialmeans with which to establish schools were scanty indeed. With a keenconception of the practical difficulties, the leaders saw that the key tothe problem lay in the creation of a new type of teaching force, and tothis end they began from the first to establish Teachers' Seminaries. Those who desired to enter these institutions were carefully selected, andout of them a steady stream of what Horace Mann described (R. 278) as a"beneficent order of men" were sent to the schools, "moulding thecharacter of the people, and carrying them forward in a career ofcivilization more rapidly than any other people in the world are nowadvancing. " Mann described, with marked approval, both the teacher and thetraining he received. 

So successful were these institutions that within a decade, under the glowof the new national spirit animating the people, the elementary schoolswere largely transformed in spirit and purpose, and the position of theelementary-school teacher was elevated from the rank of a trade (R. 279)to that of a profession (R. 278). By 1840, when the earlier fervor haddied out and a reaction had clearly set in, there were in Prussia alonethirty-eight Teachers' Seminaries for elementary teachers, approximatelythirty thousand elementary schools, and every sixth person in Prussia wasin school. In the other German States, and in Holland, Sweden, and France, analogous but less extensive progress in providing normal schools andelementary schools had been made; but in Austria, which did not for longfollow the Prussian example, the schools remained largely stationary formore than half a century to come. 

[Illustration: FIG. 172. DIESTERWEG (1790-1866)Director of Teachers' Seminaries at Maurs (1820-33) and Berlin (1833-49). "Der deutsche Pestalozzi". ]

NATIONALIZING THE ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. That the system of elementaryvernacular or people's schools (the term _Volksschule_ now began to beapplied) now created should be permeated by a strong nationalistic tonewas, the times and circumstances considered, only natural. Though thePestalozzian theories as to the development of the mental faculties, training through the senses, and the power of education to regeneratesociety were accepted, along with the new Pestalozzian subject-matter andmethods in instruction (p. 543, ) all that could be rendered useful to thePrussian State in its extremity naturally was given special emphasis. Thusall that related to the home country--geography, history, and the Germanspeech--was taught as much from the patriotic as from the pedagogicalpoint of view. Music was given special emphasis as preparatory forparticipation in the patriotic singing-societies and festivals, which wereorganized at the time of the "Uprising of Prussia" (1813). Drawing andarithmetic were emphasized for their practical values. Physical exerciseswere given an emphasis before unknown, because of their hygienic andmilitary values. Finally religion was given an importance beyond that ofPestalozzi's school, but with the emphasis now placed on moralearnestness, humility, self-sacrifice, and obedience to authority, ratherthan the earlier stress on the Catechism and church doctrine. 

Clearly perceiving, decades ahead of other nations, the power of suchtraining to nationalize a people and thus strengthen the State, thePrussian leaders, in the first two decades of the nineteenth century, laidthe foundations of that training of the masses, and of teachers for themasses (R. 280), which, more than any other single item, paved the way forthe development of a national German spirit, the unification of Germanlands into an Imperial German Empire, and that blind trust in andobedience to authority which has recently led to a second nationalhumiliation. 

THE REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION. Alongside this elementary-school system for the masses of the people, the older secondary and higherschool system for a directing class (p. 553) also was largely reorganizedand redirected. The first step in this direction was the appointment, in1809, of Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835), "a philosopher, scholar, philologist, and statesman" of the first rank, to the headship of the newPrussian Department of Public Instruction. During the two and a half yearshe remained in charge important work in the reorganization of secondaryand higher education was accomplished. In 1817 the Department of PublicInstruction was changed from a bureau to an independent Ministry forSpiritual and Instructional Affairs. By 1825, when governing school boardswere ordered established in each province, and made responsible to theMinistry for Education at Berlin, the organization of the state schoolsystem was virtually complete. For the next half-century the changes madewere in the nature of the perfection of bureaucratic organization, ratherthan any fundamental organizing change. During the early yearsimprovements of great future importance for secondary education wereeffected in the creation of a well-educated, professional teaching body, and in the standardization of courses and of work. 

In 1810 the examination of all secondary-school teachers, according to auniform state plan, was ordered. The examinations were to be conducted forthe State by the university authorities; to be based on universitytraining in the gymnasial subjects, with an opportunity to reveal specialpreparation in any subject or subjects; and no one in the future couldeven be nominated for a position as a gymnasial teacher who had not passedthis examination. This meant the erection of the work of teaching in thesecondary schools into a distinct profession; the elimination from theschools of the theological student who taught for a time as a stepping-stone to a church living; and the end of easy local examination andapproval by town authorities or the patrons of a school. To insure stillbetter preparation of candidates, Pedagogical Seminars were begun in theuniversities [14] for imparting to future gymnasial teachers somepedagogical knowledge and insight, while Philological Seminars alsoappeared, about the same time, [15] to give additional training inunderstanding the spirit of instruction in the chief subjects of thegymnasial course--the classics. In 1826 a year of trial teaching beforeappointment (_Probejahr_) was added for all candidates, and in 1831 newand more stringent regulations for the examination of teachers wereordered. [16] At least two generations ahead of other nations, Prussiathus developed a body of professional teachers for its secondary schools. 

UNIFICATION OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS. In 1812 the Leaving Examinations(_Maturitätsprüfung_), instituted in 1788, but ineffective throughclerical opposition, were revived and strictly enforced. In 1834 thepassing of such an examination was made necessary to entering nearly allbranches of the state civil service, thus securing an educated body ofminor public officials. This same year the universities gave up theirentrance examinations, and have since depended entirely on the LeavingExaminations of the State. 

The immediate effect of the reinstitution of the Leaving Examinations wasto unify the work of all the different surviving types of classicalsecondary schools--_Gymnasium, Lyceum, Pädagogium, Collegium, LateinischeSchule, Akademie_--all standard nine-year schools henceforth taking thename of _Gymnasien_. Those institutions which could not meet the standardsof a nine-year classical school were either permitted to do the first sixyears of the work, being known as _Pro-Gymnasien_, or the modern languageswere substituted for the ancient, and they became middle-classinstitutions under the name of _Bürgerschulen_. A few _Realschulen_ alsowere in existence, and these were permitted to continue, as middle-classinstitutions, but without any state recognition. Thus, without thedestruction of institutions, the accumulated foundations of the centurieswere transformed into a series of organized state schools to serve theneeds of the State. 

The next step was the promulgation of a uniform course of instruction forall _Gymnasien_ and _Pro-Gymnasien_. This was done in 1816. The studieswere Latin, Greek, German, mathematics, history, geography, religion, andscience, the amount of time to be devoted to each ranging, in the orderlisted, from a maximum for Latin to a minimum for science. Up to 1824Greek was not absolutely required; from 1824 to 1837 it was required, unless the substitution of a modern language was permitted; but after1837, when the type of German secondary school had become fairly wellfixed, and the devotion to humanistic studies had reached a climax, Greekbecame a fixed and unvarying requirement. [17]

FOUNDING OF THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN. One result of the Treaty of Tilsit(p. 566) was that Prussia had lost all her universities, except threealong the Baltic coast. Both Halle and Göttingen were lost, and the lossof Halle was a severe blow. In 1807 Fichte, who had been a professor atJena, drew up a plan and submitted it to the King for the organization ofa new university at Berlin. When Humboldt came to the head of theDepartment of Public Instruction the idea at once won his enthusiasticapproval. In May, 1809, he reported favorably on the project to the King, and three months later a Cabinet Order was issued creating the newuniversity, giving it an annual money grant, and assigning a royal palaceto it for a home. The spirit with which the new institution was foundedmay be inferred from the following extract from a memorial, published byHumboldt, in 1810. In this he said:

The State should not treat the universities as if they were higherclassical schools or schools of special sciences. On the whole the Stateshould not look to them at all for anything that directly concerns its owninterests, but should rather cherish a conviction that, in fulfillingtheir real destination, they will not only serve its own purposes, butserve them on an infinitely higher plane, commanding a much wider field ofoperation, and affording room to set in motion much more efficient springsand forces than are at the disposal of the State itself. 

This university was indeed a new creation, and of far more significancefor the future of university work than even the founding of Halle hadbeen. To the selection of its first faculty Humboldt devoted almost allhis energies during the period he remained in office. From the first, highattainment in some branch of knowledge, and the ability to advance thatknowledge, was placed ahead of mere teaching skill. The most eminentscholars in all lines were invited to the new "chairs, " and when it opened(1810) its first faculty represented the highest attainment of scholarshipin German lands. From the first the instruction divested itself of almostall that characterized the school. The lecture replaced the classroomrecitation, and the seminar, in which small groups of advanced studentsinvestigate a problem under the direction of a professor, was given aplace of large importance in the institution. Original research andcontributions to knowledge marked the work of both students andprofessors, the object being, not to train teachers for the schools, butto produce scholars capable of advancing knowledge by personal research. Even more than at Halle, the institution was a place where professors andstudents worked to discover truth, uninfluenced by any preconceivednotions and unmindful of what older ideas might be upset in the process. The value of such pioneer work for university scholars everywhere is notlikely to be overestimated. 

SPECIALIZATION IN UNIVERSITY INSTRUCTION EMPHASIZED. Specialization insome field of knowledge soon came to be the ruling idea, and this provedexceedingly fruitful in the years which followed. There Bopp developed thestudy of comparative grammar on the basis of the Sanskrit. There Dietzfounded Romance philology. Ritschl turned his students to the study ofLatin inscriptions to reconstruct the past. Lepsius began the study ofEgyptology with a spade. Niebuhr's _Roman History_ (1811) was theinstitution's first fruit, and his successor, Ranke, showed his studentshow to study history from the sources. Hegel, Schopenhauer, and Lotze madeover philosophy. Fechner and Wundt began there the study of experimentalpsychology. Stahl and von Savigny created new standards in the study oflaw. Müller introduced the microscope into the study of pathologicalanatomy. Schultze systematized zoölogy. Liebig, who had opened at Giessen(1824) what was probably the first chemical laboratory in the world opento students, was drawn to Berlin and created there a new chemistry. Stilllater, Helmholtz created there a new physics. 

The effect of all this on the expansion of the work of the philosophicalfaculty was marked. The new philological and historical sciences, thebiological sciences, and the mathematical sciences, were all greatlyexpanded in scope, and the new philosophical faculty, evolved out of theold arts faculty (p. 554), now attained to the place of first importancein the university--a position it has ever since retained. Law and medicinewere also given a new direction and emphasis, and even the teaching oftheology was greatly improved under the specialization in instruction andthe freedom in teaching which now became the rule. 

The effect on the other German universities was marked. Some of the olderinstitutions (Erfurt, Wittenberg, Cologne, Mainz) died out, while newfoundations (Breslau, 1811; Bonn, 1818; Munich, 1826) after the new model, took their place. Those that continued were changed in character, [18] anda new unity was established throughout the German university world. By1850 exact scientific research, in both libraries and laboratories, and asober search for truth, had become the watchword of all the Germanuniversities. In consequence they naturally assumed a world leadership, and were frequented by students from many lands. Especially has the UnitedStates been influenced in its university development by the large numberof university teachers who received their specialized training in theGerman universities [19] during the latter half of the nineteenth century. The lecture, the seminar, laboratory investigation, research, thedoctorate, and academic freedom in study and teaching are distinctivecontributions to our university development drawn from German lands, andsuperimposed on our earlier English-type college. The founding of JohnsHopkins University, at Baltimore, in 1876, on the German model, marked theerection of the first distinctively research university in America. 

A TWO-CLASS STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM CREATED. We thus see that Prussia by 1815, clearly by 1825, had taken over education from the Church and made of itan instrument of the State to serve State ends. For the masses there wasthe _Volksschule_, superseding the old religious vernacular school andclearly designed to create an intelligent but obedient and patrioticcitizenship for the Fatherland, and in this school the great majority ofthe children of the State received their education for citizenship and forlife. This was for both sexes, and was entirely a German school. Attendance upon this school was made compulsory, and beyond this somecontinuation education early began to be provided (Rs. 274, Section 6; 275d; 276, Section 15). Within the past half-century continuation education, especially along vocational lines, as we shall point out in a subsequentchapter, has received in German lands a very remarkable development. Toinsure that this school should serve the State in the way desired, Teachers' Seminaries, for the training of _Volksschule_, teachers, werefrom the first made a feature of the new state system. 

[Illustration: FIG. 173. THE PRUSSIAN STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM CREATEDCompare with Fig. 269 and note the difference between a European two-classsystem and the American democratic educational ladder. ]

For those who were to form the official and directing class of Society--aclosely limited, almost entirely male, intellectual aristocracy--educationin separate classical schools, with university or professional trainingsuperimposed, was provided, and this type of training offered a verythorough preparation for a small and a carefully selected class. Out ofthis class the leaders of Germany for a century have been drawn. [20] Forthis classical school also the universities were early directed to preparea well-educated body of teachers. The Prussian plan was followed in allits essentials in the other German States, so that the drawing given (Fig. 173) was true for Germany as a whole, as well as for Prussia, up at leastto 1914. 

NEW NINETEENTH-CENTURY TENDENCIES MANIFESTED. In this early evolution ofthe Prussian state school systems we find two prominent nineteenth-centuryideas expressing themselves. The first is the new conception of the Stateas not merely a government organized to secure national safety andprotection from invasion, but rather an organization of the people topromote public welfare and realize a moral and political ideal. To thisend state control of the whole range of education, to enable the State topromote intellectual and moral and social progress along lines useful tothe State, became a necessity, and some form of this education, in theinterests of the public welfare, must now be extended to all. ThoughFrance and the new American nation gave earlier political expression tothis new conception of the State, it was in Prussia that the idea attainedits earliest concrete and for long its most complete realization. Seeingfurther and more clearly than other nations the possibilities ofeducation, the practical workers of Prussia, and after them the otherGerman States, took over education as a function of the State for thepropagation of the national ideas and the promotion of the nationalculture. Of this development Paulsen says:

 In the nineteenth century Germany took the lead in the educational movement among the nations of Europe. The German universities have become acknowledged centers of scientific research for the whole world.... In the domain of primary and technical education Germany has also become the universal teacher of Europe. 

 But it must not be forgotten, in this connection, that the German people had been the pupils of their neighbors during a greater length of time and with greater assiduity than any other European nation. Thus, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Germany imported the culture of Humanism from Italy. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries she introduced the modern courtly culture and language of the French people, besides giving admission, since the middle of the eighteenth century, to the philosophy, science, and literature of English middle-class society. Lastly, since the end of the eighteenth century, the Germans have yielded themselves to the influence of the Hellenic spirit with greater fervor than any other nation. 

The second nineteenth-century idea which early found expression in thePrussian State, and one which became a dominant factor during the latterhalf of the century, was the idea of utilizing the schools, as stateinstitutions, to promote national ends--to unify and nationalize peoples. National self-consciousness here first found concrete expression, and withwonderful practical results. From a geographical expression, consisting ofnearly four hundred petty self-governing cities, principalities, andstates, and some fourteen hundred independent noblemen and prelates, before the Napoleonic wars, their close found the German people free fromserfdom, united in spirit, and organized politically into thirty-eightmodern-type States. In 1870, largely as a result of the nationalizingefforts of government and education, working hand in hand, an ImperialEmpire of twenty-two States and three Free Cities was formed. The strugglefor national realization, begun by Prussia after 1807, and with educationas the important constructive tool of the State, has since been copied bynation after nation and has become the dominant force of modern history. To awaken a national self-consciousness, to acquire national unity, and toinfuse into all a common culture has supplanted the humanisticcosmopolitanism of the eighteenth century and become the dominantcharacteristic of nineteenth-century political history. In this Prussialed the way. 

THE PERIOD OF REACTION. Through the period preceding the Wars ofLiberation (1813-15), and afterward for a few years, an educational zealanimated the Government. The schools during this period were free on theone hand from politics and on the other from minute official regulation. As one writer well stated: [21]

 It was difficult to decide whether the schools derived their importance from the life which surged around them, or whether their importance was due to their intrinsic power, very carefully fostered by the state authorities.... There was spirit and life in Prussia; there was much activity and liberty in contriving, with little outward parade. Any foreigner, visiting Prussia, might observe that the vitalizing breath of government, like the spirit of God, was acting upon the whole people. 

Napoleon was finally vanquished at Waterloo (1815) and sent to SaintHelena, and the Congress of Vienna (1815) remade the map of Europe. Indoing so it forgot that the people wanted constitutional government, instead of a return to absolute rulers. It restored old thrones, rights, and territories, and inaugurated a policy of political reaction whichincreased in intensity with time and dominated the governments ofcontinental Europe until after the middle of the century. Under the leadof the Austrian minister, Metternich, and by "third-degree" methods, theso-called Holy Alliance [22] of continental Europe suppressed free speech, democratic movements, political liberties, university freedom, andliberalism in government and religion. The governments in this Allianceredirected and restricted the people's schools, as much as could be done, to make them conform in purpose to their reactionary ideas. Inconsequence, the development of popular education in Germany, as well asin France and other continental lands, was for a time checked. The greatstart obtained by Prussia and the German States before 1820, though, wassuch that what had been done there could not be wholly undone. In France, Spain, the Italian Kingdoms, the Austrian States, and Russia, on the otherhand, what had not been developed to any extent could be prevented fromdeveloping, and in these lands popular education was given back to theChurch to control and direct. In England, also, though for other reasonsthere, the Church retained its control over elementary education for halfa century longer. 

CHANGE IN THE SPIRIT OF THE SCHOOLS. The King of Prussia, FrederickWilliam III (1797-1840), though he had given full adherence to themovement for general education during the dark period of Prussian history, was after all never fully in sympathy with the liberal aspect of themovement. After Austria, by the settlement at Vienna, became the leader ofthe German States, and Metternich the dominating political personality ofEurope, the King came more and more to favor a restriction of libertiesand the holding of education to certain rather limited lines, fearful thattoo much education of the people might prove harmful to the Government. Accordingly, under the influence of the King and against the desires ofthe liberal leaders, Prussia now changed direction and embarked on apolicy of reaction which checked normal educational progress; led to theunsuccessful revolution of 1848 and the subsequent almost fanaticalgovernmental opposition to reforms; and was in large part responsible forthe disaster of 1918. It is an interesting speculation as to how differentthe future German and world history might have been had Prussia and theGerman States held to the liberal ideas of the earlier period, and drawntheir political conceptions from England and the new American nation, rather than from Austria and Russia. 

Accordingly, in November, 1817, the Department of Public Instruction wasreplaced by a Ministry for Spiritual, Educational, and Medical Affairs, and Karl, Baron von Altenstein, was made Minister. He continued in officeuntil his death, [23] in 1840, and his administration was marked by anincreasing state centralization and limitation of the earlier plans. In1819 he codified all previous practices into a general school law for thekingdom. While the King never really approved and issued it, itnevertheless became a basis for future work and is the law soenthusiastically described by Cousin, in 1830 (R. 280). Under hisadministration the earlier creative enthusiasm and the energy for theexecution of great ideas disappeared, and the earlier "stimulating andencouraging attitude on the part of the authorities was now replaced bythe timid policy of the drag and the brake. " The earlier preparatory workin the development of Teachers' Seminaries and the establishment ofelementary schools was allowed to continue; Pestalozzian ideas were for atime not seriously restricted; compulsory attendance was more definitelyordered enforced, in 1825; the abolition of tuition fees for _Volksschule_education was begun in 1833, but not completed until 1888; and a morecareful supervision of schools was instituted, in 1834. The great changewas rather in the spirit and direction of the instruction. The earlytendency to emphasize nationalism and religious instruction (p. 571) wasnow stressed, and the liberal aspects of Pestalozzianism were increasinglysubordinated to the more formal instruction and to nationalistic ends. Thesoldier and the priest joined hands in diverting the schools to thecreation of intelligent, devout, patriotic, and, above all else, obedientGermans, while the universal military idea, brought in by the successfulwork of Scharnhorst (p. 567), and retained after the War of Liberation asa survival of the old dynastic and predatory conception of the State, wasmore and more emphasized in the work of the schools and the life of thecitizen. When Horace Mann reported on his visit to the schools of theGerman States, in 1843, he called attention to this element of weakness(R. 281), as well as to their many elements of strength. 

FURTHER INTOLERANCE AND REACTION. The reactionary tendencies which set inafter the settlement of Vienna had, by 1840, produced stagnation in thelife of the Governments of Europe, and the revolutions of 1848, whichbroke out in France, Italy, Switzerland, and the different German andAustrian States, were revolts against the reactionary governmental ruleand an expression of disappointment at the failure to secureconstitutional government. The revolutions were both successful andunsuccessful--successful in that the greater liberty they sought camelater on, but unsuccessful at the time. In consequence, immediatelyfollowing 1848, an even more reactionary educational policy wasinstituted. University freedom was markedly restricted; the institutionslost their earlier vigor; and the number of students suffered a markeddecline in consequence. The secondary schools also felt the newinfluences. Latin and Greek were made compulsory; uniform programs forwork were insisted upon; and Latin in particular was reduced to agrammatical drill that destroyed the spirit of the earlier instruction andput gymnasial teaching back almost to the type made so popular by Sturm. The few _Realschulen_, which had continued to exist and were toleratedbefore, were now treated with positive dislike. In 1859 they were able toforce their first official recognition, but only when changed frompractical schools for the middle classes to secondary schools, on the samebasis as the _Gymnasien_, and for parallel ends. 

It was upon the elementary schools (_Volksschulen_) and the Teachers'Seminaries that the most severe official displeasure now fell. A number of_Volksschule_ teachers had been connected with the revolutions of 1848, and "over-education" was regarded as responsible. The Teachers' Seminaryat Preslau, which had for long given a high grade of training, was closed, and the head of the Seminary at Berlin, Diesterweg, was dismissed becauseof his strong advocacy of Pestalozzian ideas. Anything savoring ofindividualism was especially under the ban. Bitter reproaches were heapedupon the elementary-school teachers, and the new King, Frederick WilliamIV (1840-61) considered their work as the very root of the political evilsof the State. To a conference of Seminary teachers, held in 1849 inBerlin, he said: [24]

 You and you alone are to blame for all the misery which the last year has brought upon Prussia! The irreligious pseudo-education of the masses is to be blamed for it, which you have been spreading under the name of true wisdom, and by which you have eradicated religious belief and loyalty from the hearts of my subjects and alienated their affections from my person. This sham education, strutting about like a peacock, has always been odious to me. I hated it already from the bottom of my soul before I came to the throne, and, since my accession, I have done everything I could to suppress it. I mean to proceed on this path, without taking heed of any one, and, indeed, no power on earth shall divert me from it. 

Thus easily did an autocratic Hohenzollern cast upon the shoulders ofothers the burden of his own failure to grasp the evolution in politicalthinking [25] which had taken place in Europe, since 1789. Unfortunatelyfor the future of the German people he was able to force his will uponthem. 

 PROGRESS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION AS SHOWN BY THE DECREASE IN ILLITERACY IN PRUSSIA, BY PROVINCES (From _Rep. U. S. Com. Educ. _, 1890-1900, I, p. 781)

 _Provinces_ 1841 1864-65 1881 1894-95

 _Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. _ East Prussia \ / 7. 05 . 99 15. 33 16. 54 West Prussia / \ 8. 79 1. 23 Brandenburg 2. 47 . 96 . 32 . 06 Pomerania 1. 23 1. 47 . 43 . 12 Posen 41. 00 16. 90 9. 97 . 98 Silesia 9. 22 3. 78 2. 33 . 43 Saxony 1. 19 . 49 . 28 . 09 Westphalia 2. 14 1. 03 . 60 . 02 Rhenish Prussia 7. 06 1. 13 . 23 . 05 Hohenzollern . 00 . 00 . 00 . 00 ===== ===== ===== ===== The State 9. 30 5. 52 2. 38 . 33

In 1854 new "Regulations" were issued which put the course of instructionfor elementary schools back to the days of Frederick the Great. The one-class rural elementary school was made the standard. Everything beyondreading, writing, a little arithmetic, and religious instruction in strictaccordance with the creeds of the Church, was considered as superfluous, and was to be allowed only by special permit. The elimination ofilliteracy, the creation of obedient citizens, and the nationalizing ofnew elements became the aim of the schools. 

The instruction in the Teachers' Seminaries was reduced to the merestnecessities, and they were given clearly to understand that they were totrain teachers, and not to prepare educated men. All theory of education, all didactics, all psychology were eliminated. A return was made to thesubject-matter theory of education, and a limited subject-matter at that, and it once more became the business of the teacher to see that this wascarefully learned. Religious instruction naturally once more came to holda place of first importance. Similar reactionary movements took place inother German States, all being sensitive to the reactionary spirit of thetime and the leadership of Austria and Prussia. 

THE MODERN GERMAN EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE. After about 1860, largely inresponse to modern scientific and industrial forces among a people turningfrom agriculture toward industrialism, a slight relaxation of thereactionary legislation began to be evident. This expressed itself chieflyin a diminution of the time given to memoriter work in religion, and theintroduction in its place of work in German history and geography, withsome work in natural science. In the Teachers' Seminaries instruction inGerman literature, formerly rigidly excluded, was now added. It was not, however, until after the unification of Germany, following the Franco-Prussian War, and the creation of Imperial Germany under the directiveguidance of Bismarck, that any real change took place. Then the changeswere due to new political, religious, social, industrial, and economicforces which belong to the later period of German history. 

In 1872 a new law gave to the Prussian elementary schools a new course ofstudy; reasserted the authority of the State in education; extended thecontrol of the public authorities; and made the State instead of theChurch the authority even for their religious instruction. [26] Theschools were now to be used as of old to build up and strengthen thenation, but particularly to support the new Prussian idea as to the workand function of the State. _Realien_ were given a new prominence, becauseof new industrial needs, and the instruction in religion was revamped. Theold memoriter work was greatly reduced, and in its place an emotional andpolitical emphasis was given to the religious instruction. To make theschool of the people an instrument for fighting the growth of socialdemocracy, and a support for the throne and government, instruction inreligion was "placed in the center of the teacher's work, " and teacherswere given to understand that they were "members of an educational armyand expected loyally to follow the flag. " The secondary schools also wereredirected. A new emphasis on scientific subjects and modern languagesreplaced the earlier emphasis on Greek. The Emperor interfered (R. 368) toforce a revision of the gymnasial programs better to adapt them to modernneeds. In particular were the universities of all the States unified andnationalized, and great technical universities created. Science, commerce, technical work, modern languages, and government were stressed in theinstruction of the leaders. 

Deciding clearly where the nation was to go and the route it was tofollow, and that education for national ends was one of the importantmeans to be employed, the different parts of the educational systems inthe States--elementary schools, secondary schools, universities, normalschools, professional schools, technical schools, continuation schools--were carefully integrated into a unified state system, thoroughly nationalin spirit, and given a definite function to perform in the work which theNation set itself to carry through. Nowhere have teachers been so welltrained to play their part in a national plan, and nowhere have teachersacquitted themselves more worthily, from the point of view of theGovernment. As Alexander [27] has well said:

 During the nineteenth century the leaders of Germany decided that Germany should assume leadership in the world in every line of endeavor, particularly in commerce and world power. They set this as the very definite goal of their national ambition. The next question was how that aim could be accomplished. It was to be done through education. Accordingly school systems were organized with this aim in view. In a State such as the Germans proposed building there were be leaders and followers. The followers were to be trained for a docile, efficient German citizenship; that is, the lower classes were to be made into God-fearing, patriotic, economically-independent Germans. This was the task of the _Volksschule_, and it has been wonderfully well accomplished. This type of German is created to do the manual labor of the State. 

 The leaders were to be trained in middle and higher schools and in the universities. There were to be different grades of leaders; leaders in the lower walks of life, leaders in the middle walks of life, and leaders of the nation. The higher schools and the universities were employed to produce these types of leaders.... The leaders think and do; the followers merely do. The schools were organized for the express purpose of producing just these types. 

So well was this system and plan working that, had the Imperial Governmentnot been so impatient of that slower but surer progress by peaceful means, and staked all on a gambler's throw, in another half-century the Germannation might have held the world largely in fee. As it is, the resultswhich the Germans attained by reason of definite aims and definite methodsare both an encouragement and a warning to other nations. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Point out the extent of the educational reorganization which resultedfrom the reform work begun at Halle. 

2. How do you explain the very early German interest in compulsory schoolattendance, when such was unknown elsewhere in Europe?

3. Compare the Prussian Regulations of 1737 with what was common at thattime in practice in the parishes of the American Colonies. 

4. Show the wisdom of the early Prussian kings in working at school reformthrough the Church. Could they well have worked otherwise? Why?

5. How do you explain such a slow development of a professional teachingbody in Prussia, when all the state influences had for so long beenfavorable to educational development?

6. Show that the Oberschulcollegium Board marked the beginnings of a StateMinistry for Education for Prussia. 

7. Show that the spirit of the Prussian leaders, after 1806, was a furtherexpansion of the German national feeling which arose in the Period ofEnlightenment. 

8. Show that the reorganization of elementary education, and the creationof the University of Berlin, were almost equally important events for thefuture of German lands. 

9. Show that the work of Prussia, in using the schools for national ends, was: (a) in keeping with the work of the French Revolutionary leaders, and (b) only a further extension of the organizing work done byFrederick the Great. 

10. Show how the universities of Germany early took the lead of theuniversities of the world, and the influence of this fact on nationalprogress. 

11. Enumerate the new nineteenth-century tendencies observable in theearly educational organization in Prussia. 

12. Explain the marked mid-nineteenth-century reaction to educationaldevelopment which set in. 

13. Explain the early and marked welcome accorded science-study in Germanlands. 

14. Explain in what ways Prussia attained an educational leadership, aheadof other nations. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections, illustrative of the contents of this chapter, are reproduced:

 273. Barnard: The Organizing Work of Frederick William I. 274. Prussia: The School Code of 1763. 275. Prussia: The Silesian School Code of 1765. 276. Austria: The School Code of 1774. 277. Fichte: Addresses to the German Nation. 278. Mann: The Prussian Elementary Teacher and his Training. 279. Dinter: Prussian Schools and Teachers as he found them. 280. Cousin: Report on Education in Prussia. 281. Mann: The Military Aspect of Prussian Education. , QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Explain the interest of Frederick William I (273) in elementaryeducation. 

2. Characterize, from the Codes of 1763 (274) and 1765 (275), and citeparagraph to show: (a) The type of instruction ordered provided; (b) thetype of teacher expected; (c) the character of the attendance required;and (d) the character of the continuation training ordered. 

3. Show the similarity in their main lines of the Prussian (274) andAustrian (276) Codes. 

4. Would the reasoning of Fichte (277) apply to any crushed nation?Illustrate. 

5. Do we select teachers for training as carefully in the United Statestoday as they did in Prussia eighty years ago (278)? Could we?

6. Did such conditions as Dinter describes (279) exist, even later, withus?

7. Was the Prussian school system, as described by Cousin (280), acentralized or a decentralized system?

8. Show that Mann's reasoning as to the strength of the Prussian schoolsystem (281) was thoroughly sound. 

SELECTED REFERENCES

* Alexander, Thomas. _The Prussian Elementary Schools_. * Barnard, Henry. "Public Instruction in Prussia"; in _American Journal of Education_, vol. XX, pp. 333-434. Barnard, Henry. _German Teachers and Educators_. * Cassell, Henry. "Adolph Diesterweg"; in _Educational Review_, vol. I, pp. 345-56. (April, 1891. ) Friedel, V. H. _The German School as a War Nursery_. Lexis, W. _A General View of the History and Organization of Public Education in the German Empire_. * Nohle, E. "History of the German School System"; in _Report U. S. Commissioner of Education_, 1897-98, vol. I, pp. 3-82. Translated from Rein's _Encyclopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik_. * Paulsen, Fr. _German Education, Past and Present_. * Paulsen, Fr. _The German Universities_. * Russell, James. _German Higher Schools_. Seeley, J. R. _Life and Times of Stein_, vol. I. 

CHAPTER XXIII

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE AND ITALY

I. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE

LINES OF DEVELOPMENT MARKED OUT BY THE REVOLUTION. The Revolution provedvery disastrous to the old forms of education in France. The oldeducational foundations, accumulated through the ages, were swept away, and the teaching congregations, which had provided the people withwhatever education they had enjoyed, were driven from the soil. The ruinof educational and religious institutions in Russia under the recent ruleof the Bolshevists is perhaps comparable to what happened in France. Manyplans were proposed by the Revolutionary philosophers and enthusiasts, aswe have seen (chapter xx), to replace what had once been and to providebetter than had once been done for the educational needs of the masses ofthe people, but with results that were small in comparison with theexpectations of the legislative assemblies which considered or approvedthem. Nevertheless, the directions of future progress in educationalorganization were clearly marked out before Napoleon came to power, andthe work which he did was largely an extension, and a reduction to workingorder, of what had been proposed or established by the enthusiasts of thepre-revolutionary and revolutionary periods. At the time of the Revolutionthe State definitely took over the control of education from the Church, and the work of Napoleon and those who came after him was to organizepublic instruction into a practical state-controlled system. 

In effecting this organization, the preceding discussions of education asa function of the State and the desirable forms of organization to followall bore important fruit, and the forms finally adopted embodied not onlythe ideas contained in the legislation of the revolutionary assemblies, but the earlier theoretical discussion of the subject by Rolland (p. 510), Diderot (p. 511), and Talleyrand (p. 513) as well. They embodied also thepeculiar administrative genius of France--that desire for uniformity inorganization and administration--and hence stand in contrast to the stateeducational organizations worked out about the same time in German lands. The German States, as we have seen, had for long been working toward statecontrol of education, but when this was finally attained they stillpermitted a large degree of local initiative and control. The French, onthe contrary, made the transition in a few years, and the system of statecontrol which they established provided for uniformity, and forcentralized supervision and inspection in the hands of the State. Theforms for state control and education adopted in the two countries werealso expressive of age-long tendencies in each. For three centuries Germanpolitical organization, as we have seen, had been extremely decentralizedon the one hand, and had been slowly evolving a system of education underthe joint control of the small States and the Church on the other. InFrance, on the contrary, centralization of authority and subordination toa central government had been the tendency for an even longer period. Whenthe time arrived for the State to take over education from the Church, itwas but natural that France should tend toward a much more highlycentralized control than did the German States, and the differingpolitical situations of the two countries, at the opening of thenineteenth century, gave added emphasis to these differing tendencies. 

[Illustration: FIG. 174. AN OLD FOUNDATION TRANSFORMEDThis was an ancient château in France. In 1604 Henry IV gave it to theJesuits for a school. In 1791 it became national property, and wastransformed into a Military College. ]

In consequence, Prussia and the other German States early achieved a formof state educational organization which emphasized local interest and thespirit of the instruction, whereas France created an administrativeorganization which emphasized central control and, for the time, the formrather than the spirit of instruction. This was well pointed out by VictorCousin (R. 280), in contrasting conditions in Prussia with those existingin France. 

NAPOLEON BEGINS THE ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION. In 1799 Napoleon becameFirst Consul and master of France, and in 1804 France, by vote, changedfrom a Republic to an Empire, with Napoleon as first Emperor. Until hisbanishment to Saint Helena (1815) he was master of France. A man of largeexecutive capacity and an organizing genius of great ability, whether heturned to army organization, governmental organization, the codificationof the laws, or the organization of education, Napoleon's practical andconstructive mind quickly reduced parts to their proper places in a well-regulated scheme. Shortly after he became Consul he took up, among otherthings, the matter of educational organization. 

His first effort was in 1800, when he transformed the old humanisticCollege Louis le Grand (founded 1567) and created four military collegesfrom its endowment. One of these colleges he later, in characteristicfashion, transformed into a School of Arts and Trades (R. 282). In 1802 hesigned the famous Concordat with the Pope. This restored the priests tothe churches, with state aid for their stipends, and virtually turned overprimary education again to the Church for care and control. The "Brothersof the Christian Schools" (p. 515) were recalled the next year andespecially favored, and soon established themselves more firmly thanbefore the Revolution. 

[Illustration: FIG. 175. COUNT DE FOURCROY (1755-1809)]

In 1802 Napoleon first turned his attention to a general organization ofpublic instruction by directing Count de Fourcroy, a distinguished chemistwho had been a teacher in the Polytechnic School, and whom he appointedDirector of Public Instruction, to draw up, according to his ideas, anorganizing law on the subject. This became the Law of 1802. It was dividedinto nine chapters, as follows:

 I. Degrees of Instruction. II. Primary Schools. III. Secondary Schools. IV. Lycées. V. Special Schools. VI. The Military School. VII. The National Pupils. VIII. The _nationales pensions_ IX. General regulations. 

1. PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The chapter on primary schools virtually reënacted theLaw of 1795 (R. 258 b). Each commune [1] was required to furnish aschoolhouse and a home for the teacher. The teacher was to be responsibleto local authorities, while the supervision of the school was placed underthe prefect of the Department. The instruction was to be limited toreading, writing, and arithmetic, and the legal authorities were enjoined"to watch that the teachers did not carry their instructions beyond theselimits. " The teacher was to be paid entirely from tuition fees, though onefifth of the pupils were to be provided with free schooling. The Stategave nothing toward the support of the primary schools. 

The interest of Napoleon was not in primary or general education, butrather in training pupils for scientific and technical efficiency, andyouths of superior ability for the professions and for executive work inthe kind of government he had imposed upon France. To this end secondaryand special education were made particular functions of the State, whileprimary education was left to the communes to provide as they saw fit. They could provide schools and the parents could pay for the teacher, ornot, as they might decide. There was no compulsion to enforce therequirement of a primary school, and no state aid to stimulate localeffort to create one. In consequence not many state primary schools wereestablished, and primary education remained, for another generation, inthe hands of private teachers and the Church. 

2. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Chapters III and IV of the Law of 1802 made fullprovision for two types of secondary schools--the Communal Colleges andthe Lycées [2]--to replace the Central Higher Schools established in 1795(p. 518). These latter had lacked sadly in internal organization. Theywere merely day schools, lacking the dormitory and boarding arrangementswhich for over three centuries had characterized the French _collèges_. Asa result they had not prospered. The Law of 1802 now replaced them withtwo types of residential secondary schools, in which the youth of thecountry, under careful supervision and discipline, might prepare forentrance to the higher special schools. These fixed the lines of futureFrench development in secondary schools. 

The standard secondary school now became known as the _Lycée_. Theseinstitutions corresponded to the Colleges under the old régime, of whichthe College of Guyenne (R. 136) was a type. The instruction was to includethe ancient languages, rhetoric, logic, ethics, belles-lettres, mathematics, and physical science, with some provision for additionalinstruction in modern languages and drawing. Each was to have at leasteight "professors, " an administrative head, a supervisor of studies, and asteward to manage the business affairs of the institution. The Stateusually provided the building, often using some former church school whichhad been suppressed, and the cities in which the Lycées were located wererequired to provide them with furniture and teaching equipment. The fundsfor maintenance came from tuition fees, boarding and rooming income, andstate scholarships, of which six thousand four hundred were provided. 

Besides the Lycées, every school established by a municipality, or kept byan individual, which gave instruction in Latin, French, geography, history, and mathematics was designated as a secondary school, or CommunalCollege. These institutions usually offered but a partial Lycée course, and were tuition schools, being patronized by many parents whose tastesforbade the sending of their children to the lower-class primary schools. A license from the Government to operate was necessary before masterscould be employed. They were to be maintained by the municipality, withoutany state encouragement beyond some grants for capable teachers andscholarships in the Lycées for meritorious pupils. 

Within two years after the enactment of the Law of 1802 there had beencreated in France 46 Lycées, 378 secondary schools of various degrees ofcompleteness, and 361 private schools of secondary grade had been opened. A number of these disappeared later, in the reorganization of 1808. Forthe supervision of all these institutions the Director General of PublicInstruction appointed three Superintendents of Secondary Studies; and forthe work of the schools he outlined the courses of instruction in detail, laid down the rules of administration, prepared and selected thetextbooks, and appointed the "professors. "

SPECIAL OR HIGHER SCHOOLS. The chapter of the Law of 1802 on SpecialSchools made provision for the creation of the following special"faculties" or schools for higher education for France:

 3 medical schools, to replace the _Schools of Health_ of 1794 (p. 518). 10 law schools; increased to 12 in 1804 (Date of _Code Napoléon_, p. 518). 4 schools of natural history, natural philosophy, and chemistry. 2 schools of mechanical and chemical arts, 1 mathematical school, 1 school of geography, history, and political economy. A fourth school of art and design. Professors of astronomy for the observatories. 

In 1803 the School of Arts and Trades was added (R. 282), and in 1804, after Napoleon had signed the Concordat with the Pope, thus restoring theCatholic religion (abolished 1791), schools of theology were added to theabove list. 

We have here, clearly outlined, the main paths along which French stateeducational organization had been tending and was in future to follow. TheState had definitely dispossessed the Church as the controlling agency ineducation, and had definitely taken over the school as an instrument forits own ends. Though primary education had been temporarily left to thecommunes, and was soon to be turned over in large part to be handled bythe Church for a generation longer, the supervision was to remain with theState. The middle-class elements were well provided for in the newsecondary schools, and these were now subject to complete supervision bythe State. For higher education groups of Special Schools, or TeachingFaculties, replaced the older universities, which were not re-createduntil after the coming of the Third Republic (1871). The dominantcharacteristics of the state educational system thus created, aside fromits emphasis on secondary and higher education, were its uniformity andcentralized control. These characteristics were further stressed in thereorganization of 1808, and have remained prominent in French educationalorganization ever since. 

CREATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FRANCE. By 1806 Napoleon was ready for afurther and more complete organization of the public instruction of theState, and to this end the following law was now enacted (May 10, 1806):

 Sec. 1. There will be formed, under the name of Imperial University, a body exclusively commissioned with teaching and public education throughout the Empire. 

 Sec. 2. The members of this corporation can contract civil, special, and temporary obligations. 

 Sec. 3. The organization of this corps will be given in the form of a law to the legislative body in the session of 1810. 

In 1808, without the formality of further legislation, Napoleon issued anImperial Decree creating the University of France. This was not onlyNapoleon's most remarkable educational creation, but it was anadministrative and governing organization for education so in harmony withFrench spirit and French governmental ideas that it has persisted eversince, though changed somewhat in form with time. 

The Decree began by declaring that "public instruction, in the wholeEmpire, is confined exclusively to the University, " and that "no school, nor establishment for instruction, can be formed independent of theImperial University, and without the authority of its chief. " Unlike theUniversity of Berlin (p. 574), created a year later, this was not ateaching university at all, but instead a governing, examining, anddisbursing corporation, [3] presided over by a Grand Master and a Councilof twenty-six members, all appointed by the Emperor. This Council decidedall matters of importance, and exercised supervision and control overeducation of all kinds, from the lowest to the highest, throughout France. [4] To assist the Council, general inspectors for medicine, law, theology, letters, and science were provided for, to visit and "examine thecondition of instruction and discipline in the faculties, _lycées_, andcolleges; to inform themselves in regard to the fidelity and ability ofprofessors, regents, and ushers; to examine the students; and to make acomplete survey of those institutions, in their whole administration. "Beneath the Grand Master and Council the State was divided into twenty-seven "Academies" (administrative districts), each of which had a Rector, a Council of ten, and Inspectors, all appointed by the Grand Master. Theseexercised jurisdiction over teachers and pupils in all schools, anddecided all local matters, subject to appeal to the Grand Master andCouncil. 

Under this new administrative organization but little change was made inthe schools from that provided for in the law of 1802. Primary educationremained as before, private schools and Church schools supplying most ofthe need. All were under the supervision of the University, and all wereinstructed to make as a basis of their instruction: (1) the precepts ofthe Catholic religion; (2) fidelity to the Emperor, to the imperialmonarchy, the depository of the happiness of the people, and to theNapoleonic dynasty, the conservator of the unity of France, and of all theideas proclaimed by the Constitution. 

The _Lycées_ and Communal Colleges continued, much as before, [5] andduring the half-century which followed, experienced a steady andsubstantial growth. 

 DEVELOPMENT OF THE LYCÉES

 Year 1809 1811 1813 1829 1847 1866 Lycées 35 36 36 36 54 74 Pupils 9, 068 10, 926 14, 492 15, 087 23, 207 34, 442 Free pupils 4, 199 4, 008 3, 500 1, 600

 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMUNAL COLLEGES

 Year 1809 1815 1830 1849 1855 1866 Colleges 273 323 332 306 244 251 Pupils 18, 507 19, 320 27, 308 31, 706 32, 500 33, 038

The Special Higher Schools were also continued, and to the list given (p. 593) Napoleon added (1808) a Superior Normal School (R. 283) to traingraduates of the _Lycées_ for teaching. This opened in 1810, with thirty-seven students and a two-year course of instruction, and in 1815 a thirdyear of method and practice work was added. With some varying fortunes, this institution has continued to the present. 

THE NEW INTEREST IN PRIMARY EDUCATION. The period from 1815 to 1830 inFrance is known as the Restoration. Louis XVIII was made King and ruleduntil his death in 1824, and his brother Charles X who followed untildeposed by the Revolution of 1830. Though a representative of the oldrégime was recalled on the abdication of Napoleon, the great social gainsof the Revolution were retained. There was no odious restoration ofprivilege and absolute monarchy. Frenchmen continued to be equal beforethe law; a form of constitutional government was provided; the right ofpetition was recognized; and the system of public instruction as Napoleonhad organized it continued almost unchanged. For a decade at least therewas less political reaction in France than in other continental States. 

In matters of education, what had been provided was retained, and thereseems (R. 285) to have been an increasing demand for additions andimprovements, particularly in the matter of primary and middle-classschools, and a willingness on the part of the communes to provide suchadvantages. Some small progress had been made in meeting these demands, before 1830. 

In 1816 a small treasury grant (50, 000 francs) was made for school books, model schools, and deserving teachers in the primary schools, and in 1829this sum was increased to 300, 000 francs. In 1818 the "Brothers of theChristian Schools" were permitted to be certificated for teaching onmerely presenting their Letter of Obedience from the head of their Order, and in 1824 the cantonal school committees were remodeled so as to givethe bishops and clergy entire control of all Catholic primary schools. Monitorial instruction was introduced from England by private teachers, inan effort to supply the beginnings of education at small expense, and fora time this had some vogue, but never proved very successful. In 1815 the_Lycées_ were renamed Royal Colleges, but in 1848 the old name wasrestored, and has since been retained. In 1817 there were thirty-six_Lycées_, receiving an annual state subsidy of 812, 000 francs; thirtyyears later the fifty-four in existence were receiving 1, 500, 000 francs. From 1822 to 1829 the Higher Normal School was suppressed, and twelveelementary normal schools were created in its stead. 

EARLY WORK UNDER THE MONARCHY OF 1830. In July, 1830, Charles X attemptedto suppress constitutional liberty, and the people rose in revolt anddeposed him, and gave the crown to a new King, Louis-Philippe. He ruleduntil deposed by the creation of the Second Republic, in 1848. The"Monarchy of 1830" was supported by the leading thinkers of the time, prominent among whom were Thiers and Guizot, and one of the first affairsof State to which they turned their attention was the extension downwardof the system of public instruction. The first steps were an increase ofthe state grant for primary schools (1830) to a million francs a year; theoverthrow of the control by the priests of the cantonal school committees(1830): the abolition (1831) of the exemption of the religious orders fromthe examinations for teaching certificates; and the creation (1830-31) ofthirty new normal schools. 

[Illustration: FIG. 176 VICTOR COUSIN (1792-1867)]

The next step was to send (1831) M. Victor Cousin--Director of therestored Higher Normal School of France--on a mission to the GermanStates, and in particular to Prussia, to study and report on the system ofelementary education, teacher training, and educational organization andadministration which had done so much for its regeneration. So convincingwas Cousin's _Report_ [6] that, despite bitter national antipathies, itcarried conviction throughout France. "It demonstrated to the governmentand the people the immense superiority of all the German States, even themost insignificant duchy, over any and every Department of France, in allthat concerned institutions of primary and secondary education. " Cousinpronounced the school law of Prussia (R. 280) "the most comprehensive andperfect legislative measure regarding primary education" with which he wasacquainted, and declared his conviction that "in the present state ofthings, a law concerning primary education is indispensable in France. "The chief question, he continued, was "how to procure a good one in acountry where there is a total absence of all precedents and experience inso grave a matter. " Cousin then pointed out the bases, derived fromPrussian experience and French historical development, on which asatisfactory law could be framed (R. 284 a-c); the desirability of localcontrol and liberty in instruction (R. 284 f-g); and strongly recommendedthe organization of higher primary schools (a new creation; firstrecommended (1792) by Condorcet, p. 514) as well as primary schools (R. 284 e) to meet the educational needs of the middle classes of thepopulation of France. 

THE LAW OF 1833. On the basis of Cousin's _Report_ a bill, making themaintenance of primary schools obligatory on every commune; providing forhigher primary schools in the towns and cities; additional normal schoolsto train teachers for these schools; a corps of primary-school inspectors, to represent the State; and normal training and state certificationrequired to teach in any primary school, was prepared. In an address tothe Chamber of Deputies, in introducing the bill (1832), M. Guizot [7], the newly appointed Minister for Public Instruction, set forth the historyof primary instruction in France up to 1832 (R. 285 a); described the twogrades of primary instruction to be created (R. 285 b); and, emphasizingCousin's maxim that "the schoolmaster makes the school, " dwelt on thenecessity for normal training and state certification for all primaryteachers (R. 285 c). In preparing the bill it was decided not to followthe revolutionary ideas of free instruction, by lay and state teachers, orto enforce compulsion to attend, and for these omissions M. Guizot, in his_Mémoires_ (R. 286), gives some very interesting reasons. 

[Illustration: FIG. 177. OUTLINE OF THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE FRENCH STATESCHOOL SYSTEM]

The bill became a law the following year, and is known officially as theLaw of 1833. This Law forms the foundations upon which the French systemof national elementary education has been developed, as the Napoleonic Lawof 1802 and the Decree of 1808 have formed the basis for secondaryeducation and French state administrative organization. A primary schoolwas to be established in every commune, which was to provide the building, pay a fixed minimum salary to the teacher, and where able maintain theschool. The state reserved the right to fix the pay of the teacher, andeven to approve his appointment. A tuition fee was to be paid forattendance, but those who could not pay were to be provided with freeplaces. The primary schools were to give instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, the weights and measures, the French language, and morals andreligion. The higher primary schools were to build on these subjects, andto offer instruction in geometry and its applications, linear drawing, surveying, physical science, natural history, history, geography, andmusic, and were to emphasize instruction in "the history and geography ofFrance, and in the elements of science, as they apply it every day in theoffice, the workshop, and the field. " [8] These latter were the_Bürgerschulen_, recommended by Cousin (R. 284 e) on the basis of hisstudy of Prussian education. [9]

[Illustration: PLATE 14. FRANÇOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME GUIZOT (1787-1874)Creator of the French primary school system]

The primary schools were to follow a uniform plan, and as a guide a_Manual of Primary Instruction_ was issued, giving detailed directions asto what was to be done. In sending out a copy of the Law to the primaryteachers of France, M. Guizot enclosed a personal letter to each, informing him as to what the government expected of him in the new work(R. 287). During the four years that M. Guizot remained Minister of PublicInstruction he rendered a remarkable service, well described by MatthewArnold (R. 288), in awakening his countrymen to the new problem of populareducation then before them. 

The results under the Law of 1833 were large [10] and the subsequentlegislation under the monarchy of 1830 was important. For the first timein French history an earnest effort was made to provide education suitedto the needs of the great mass of the people, and the marked developmentof schools which ensued showed how eagerly they embraced the opportunitiesoffered their children, though the schooling was neither compulsory norgratuitous. In 1837 Infant Schools, for still younger children, wereauthorized, and in 1840 state aid for these was begun. In 1836 classes foradults, first begun in Paris in 1820, were authorized generally, but itwas not until 1867 that these were formally incorporated into the stateschool system. In 1845 state aid for the Communal Colleges, as well as forthe _Lycées_, was begun. 

 DEVELOPMENT OF INFANT SCHOOLS

 Year...... 1827 1837 1840 1843 1846 1850 1863 1886 1897 Schools... 1 251 555 1489 1861 1735 3308 6696 5683

REACTION AFTER 1848. In France, as in Europe generally, the people weresteadily becoming more liberal, as they became better educated, while therulers were becoming more autocratic. The result was the series ofrevolutions of 1848, which broke out first in France, and finally extendedto most of the countries of continental Europe. In France the King, Louis-Philippe, was forced to abdicate; a Republic, based on universal manhoodsuffrage, was proclaimed; and Louis Napoleon, a nephew of Napoleon I, waselected President. In 1851 Napoleon established himself as Dictator;prepared a new constitution providing for an Empire; and, in 1852, dissolved the Second Republic and assumed the title of Emperor NapoleonIII. This Second Empire lasted until 1870, when France was humiliated bythe Prussians as the latter had been by Napoleon I in 1806. The Emperorand his armies were taken prisoners (1870) and, in 1871, the Prussiansoccupied Paris and crowned the new Emperor of united and Imperial Germanyin the palace of the French Kings at Versailles. A Third Republic nowsucceeded, and this has lasted to the present time. 

The period from 1848 to 1870 in France was a period of middle-class rule, and reaction in education as in government. In 1848 a Sub-Commission onPrimary Education reported in opposition to the state primary schools. Thetroubles of 1848 had brought to view the political restlessness which hadtaken possession of the teachers, as well as other classes in society. Thenew schools were naturally suspected of being the source of the populardiscontent. Many teachers had sympathized with, and some had taken part inthe disturbances, and teachers generally were now placed under closesurveillance. Some of the leaders were forced into exile until after 1870. Religious schools, regarded as more favorable to monarchical needs andpurposes, were now encouraged, and the number of religious schoolsincreased from 6464 in 1850, to 11, 391 by 1864. Private schools, too, weregiven full freedom to compete with the state schools, and the pay of theprimary teachers was reduced. The course in the normal schools wascondemned as too ambitious, and, in 1851, was cut down. The course ofinstruction in the primary schools, on the other hand, was, unlike inPrussia, broadened instead of restricted, and in particular emphasis wasplaced, in keeping with nearly a century of French tradition, onscientific and practical subjects. [11] The law of 1850 stated therequirements for primary schools as follows:

 Art. 23. Primary instruction comprises moral and religious instruction, reading, writing, the elements of the French language, computation, and the legal system of weights and measures. It may comprise, in addition, arithmetic applied to practical operations, the elements of history (a required subject after 1867) and geography, notions of the physical sciences and of natural history applicable to the ordinary purposes of life, elementary instruction in agriculture, trade, and hygiene; and surveying, leveling, linear drawing, singing, and gymnastics. 

Religious instruction prospered under the Second Empire, and the stateprimary schools lost in importance. The _Lycées_ continued largely asclassical institutions, though after 1865 the crowding of the risingsciences began to dispute the supremacy of classical studies. There were, however, many voices of discontent, particularly from exiled teachers (R. 289), and the way was rapidly being prepared for the creation of astronger and better state school system as soon as political conditionswere propitious. 

REVOLUTIONARY IDEALS AT LAST REALIZED. With the creation of the ThirdRepublic, in 1870, a change from the old conditions and old attitudes tookplace. Up to about 1879 the new government was in control of those whowere at heart sympathetic with the old conditions, but were forced toaccept the new; from 1879 to 1890 was a transition period; and since 1890the Republic has grown steadily in strength and regained its positionamong the great powers of the world. The first few years of the newRepublic were devoted to paying the Prussian indemnity and clearing thesoil of France of German armies, but, after about 1875, education became agreat national interest among leaders of France. [12] France saw, somewhatas did Prussia after 1806, the necessity for creating a strong statesystem of primary, secondary, and higher schools to train the youth of theland in the principles of the Republic, strengthen the national spirit, advance the welfare of the State, and protect it from dangers both withinand without. 

 PROGRESS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN FRANCE, DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, AS SHOWN BY THE REDUCTION IN THE PERCENTAGE OF ILLITERACY AMONG ARMY CONSCRIPTS, AND AMONG PERSONS SIGNING THE MARRIAGE RECORDS

 Years Army Marriage records conscripts Men Women 1790 53. 0% 73. 0% 1827 58. 0% 1833 47. 8 1840 42. 8 1845 37. 8 1850 35. 7 1855 33. 7 32. 0 47. 0 1860 30. 0 30. 4 44. 8 1865 24. 4 27. 5 41. 0 1870 19. 7 26. 8 39. 4 1875 16. 0 20. 0 31. 0 1880 14. 7 16. 1 24. 5 1885 11. 5 13. 0 20. 2 1890 7. 8 8. 7 12. 8 1896 5. 1 5. 8 7. 8 1901 4. 4 4. 4 6. 3

Millions were put into the building of schoolhouses (1878-88); new normalschools were established; a normal school for women was created in each ofthe eighty-seven departments of France; the academic and superior councilsof public instruction were reorganized to eliminate clerical influences(1881); religious instruction was replaced by moral and civic instruction(R. 290); and clerical "Letters of Obedience" were no longer accepted, andall teachers were required to be certificated by the State. The Law of1881, eliminating instruction in religion from the elementary schools, wasfollowed, in 1886, by a law providing for the gradual replacement ofclerical by lay teachers. In 1904, the teaching congregations of Francewere suppressed. All elementary education now became public, free, compulsory, and secular, [13] and teachers were required to be neutral inreligious matters. [14]

Since 1871, also, technical and scientific education has been emphasized;the primary and superior-primary schools have been made free (1881) andcompulsory (1882); classes for adults have been begun generally; the stateaid for schools has been very greatly increased; _lycées_ and colleges forwomen have been created (1880); the _lycées_ modernized in theirinstruction [15] and the reorganization and reëstablishment of a series offifteen state universities of a modern type, begun in 1885, was completedin 1896. The reorganization and expansion of education in France since1875 is a wonderful example of republican interest and energy, and isalong entirely different lines from those followed, since the same date, in German lands. 

After the lapse of nearly a century we now see the French Revolutionaryideas of gratuity, obligation, and secularization finally put into effect, and the state system of public instruction outlined by Condorcet (p. 514), in 1792, at last an accomplished fact. 

II. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ITALY

IMPORTANCE OF THE WORK OF NAPOLEON. So much has been written about thedeluge of blood that took place in Paris in the days of the Commune andthe time of the National Conventions, and of the military victories andautocratic rule of Napoleon Bonaparte, that it is difficult to appraisethe importance of either, from the point of view of the progress ofcivilization and of the organization of modern political institutions, atits true worth. The faults of both are prominent and outstanding, but itnevertheless was the merit of the Revolution that it enabled France, andalong with France a good portion of western Europe, to rid itself of theworst survivals of the Middle Ages, while to Napoleon much of westernEurope is indebted for the foundation of its civil institutions, unifiedlegal procedure, beginnings of state educational organization, and moderngovernmental forms. Writing on this subject, Matthew Arnold [16] wellsaid:

 With all his faults, his [Napoleon's] reason was so clear and strong that he saw, in its general outlines at least, the just and rational type of civil organization which modern society needs, and wherever his armies went he instituted it. 

[Illustration: FIG. 178. EUROPE IN 1810Showing the control of France when Napoleon was at the height of hispower. ]

That the French Revolution's merit and service was a real one is shown byall the world, as it improves, getting rid more and more of the MiddleAges. That Napoleon's merit and service was a real one is shown by the badgovernments which succeeded him having always got rid, when they could, ofhis work, and by the progress of improvement, when these governmentsbecame intolerable, and are themselves got rid of, always bringing itback. Where governments were not wholly bad, and did not get rid ofNapoleon's good work, this work turns out to have the future on its side, and to be more likely to assimilate the institutions round it to itspattern than to be itself assimilated by them. 

In the Italian States, the Netherlands, some of the French cantons ofSwitzerland, the Rhine countries, and the Danish peninsula, in particular, the rule of Napoleon, imposed by his armies, carried out by rulers of hisselection, and maintained for a long enough period that the legalorganization, civil order, unified government, and taste of educationalopportunities of a new type which his rule brought became attractive tothe people, in time proved deeply influential in their politicaldevelopment. [17] All these nations still show traces of the Frenchinfluence in their state educational organization. We shall take theItalian States as a type, and examine briefly the influence on thedevelopment of state educational organization there which resulted fromcontact with the forward-looking rule of "The Great Emperor. "

DECLINE IN IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION IN ITALY. In a preceding chapter (p. 503), we mentioned that the rule of Napoleon in northern Italy awakenedthe national spirit from its long lethargy, and caused Italian liberals tolook forward, for the first time since the days of the Revival ofLearning, to the time when the Italian States might be united into oneItalian nation, with Rome as its capital. This became the work of the mid-nineteenth century (see dates, Fig. 179), though not fully completed untilthe World War of 1914-18. Italy stands to-day a great united nation, witha large future ahead of it, but as such it is entirely a nineteenth-century creation. From the time of its intellectual decline following theRenaissance, to the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy remained "ageographical expression" and split up into a number of little independentStates; up to the time of Napoleon it was a part of the German-ruled "HolyRoman Empire. "

After the great patriotic effort of the period of the Revival of Learning(p. 264) in Italy, and the rather feeble and unsuccessful attempts at areform of religion which followed, the intellectual development of Italywas checked and turned aside for centuries by the triumph of anunprogressive and anti-intellectual attitude on the part of the dominantChurch. The persecution of Galileo (p. 388) was but a phase of thereaction in religion which had by that time set in. Education was turnedover to the religious orders, such as the Jesuits and the Barnabites, andinstruction was turned aside from liberal culture and the promotion oflearning to the support of a religion and the stamping out of heresy. Though a number of educational foundations were made, and some importantundertakings begun after the days when her universities were crowded andFlorence and Venice vied with one another for the intellectual supremacyof the western world, the spirit nevertheless was gone, and both educationand government settled down to a tenacious preservation of the existingorder. Scholars ceased to frequent the schools of Italy; the universitieschanged from seats of learning to degree-conferring institutions; [18] theintellectual capitals came to be found north of the Alps; and the historyof educational progress ceased to be traced in this ancient land. In theearly part of the eighteenth century the schools there reached perhapstheir lowest intellectual level. 

THE BEGINNINGS OF REFORM IN SAVOY. The first and almost the only attemptto change this condition, before Napoleon's armies went crashing throughthe valley of the Po, was made in the seventeenth century by two Dukes ofSavoy. By decrees of 1729 and 1772 they took the control of the secondary(Latin) schools in their little duchy from the religious orders, andestablished a Council of Public Instruction to reform the universityexaminations, see that teachers were prepared for the Latin schools, andtake over in the name of the authorities of the duchy the control ofeducation. Though inspired by a political interest, the two dukes broughtinto their little kingdom the much-needed ideas of honest work, effectiveadministration, and public spirit, and laid the foundations for thecontrol of education by the public authorities later on. The only otherattempt to improve conditions came in Lombardy, in 1774, which then was apart of the Austrian dominions and felt the short-lived reforms of MariaTheresa (p. 562; R. 276). Elsewhere in Italy conditions remained unchangeduntil the time of Napoleon. 

NAPOLEON REVIVES THE NATIONAL SPIRIT. In 1796 Napoleon's armies invadedSardinia, Lombardy, and the valley of the Po, and he soon extended hiscontrol to almost all the Italian peninsula. For nearly two decadesthereafter this collection of little States felt the unifying, regenerating influence of the organizing French. Monasteries and conventsand religious schools were transformed into modern teaching institutions, brigandage was put down, and efficient and honest government wasestablished. The ideas of the French Law of 1802 as to education wereapplied. Every town was ordered to establish a school for boys, to teachthe reading and writing of Italian and the elements of French and Latin;the secondary schools were modernized; and the universities werecompletely reorganized. Some of the universities were reduced to _licei_(_lycées_; secondary schools), while others were strengthened and theirrevenues turned to better purposes. The universities at Naples and Turinin particular were transformed into strong institutions, with a decidedemphasis on scientific studies. A normal school was founded at Pisa, onthe model of the one at Paris. New standards in education were set up, thestudy of the sciences was introduced into the secondary schools, and thestudy of medicine and law was regenerated. 

With the fall of Napoleon his work was largely undone. The firm, just, andintelligent government which he had given Italy--something the land hadnot known for ages--came to an end. The little States were "handed back tothe reactionary dynasts whose rule was neither benevolent nor intelligent, while the ever-ready Austrian army crushed out any local movement forliberal institutions. " The laws regarding education were repealed, and theschools the French had established were closed as revolutionary anddangerous. The normal school at Pisa ceased to exist; the university atNaples was dismantled; the one at Turin was closed; and the Jesuits wereallowed to return and reorganize instruction. The result was that a commondiscontent with ensuing conditions made Italians conscious of their racialand historical unity, and this finally expressed itself in the revolutionsof 1848. These failed at the time, and the heel of the Austrian oppressorcame down harder than before. Liberty of the press practically ceased. Thenational leaders went into exile for safety. The prisons were filled withpolitical offenders. The schools were closed or ceased to influence. ThePope, fearing the end of his earthly kingship approaching, united firmlywith the Austrians to resist liberal movements. Finally, under theleadership of the enlightened King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel (1849-78)and his Prime Minister, Count of Cavour, the Austrians were driven out(1859-66) and all Italy was united (1870) under the rule of one kinginterested in promoting the welfare of his people. 

[Illustration: FIG. 179. THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY, SINCE 1848]

SARDINIA LEADS TO NATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL. The movement to freeItaly was essentially a liberal movement. Many hoped to create a republic, but chose a liberal constitutional monarchy under Victor Emmanuel as themost feasible plan. Cavour understood the importance of publicinstruction, and from the first began to build up schools [19] and putthem under state control. In 1844, a normal school was opened in Turin. In1847, a Minister of Public Instruction was appointed and a Council ofPublic Instruction created, after the plan of France, In 1848, a GeneralSchool Law was enacted, and the organization and improvement of schoolswas begun with a will. In 1850, a commission was sent to study the schoolsystems of Europe, and in particular those of France and of the GermanStates. A Supreme Council of Public Instruction was now formed forSardinia, and the process of creating primary schools, higher-primaryschools, classical and technical secondary schools, colleges, and thereorganization of the universities was begun. In 1859, when the growth ofItalian unity was rapidly extending the rule of Victor Emmanuel, [20] anew law, providing a still better state organization of publicinstruction, was enacted. A Minister of Public Instruction appointed bythe King, a Supreme Council of Public Instruction, and a Department ofPublic Instruction as a branch of the government, were all provided for, after the French plan. 

[Illustration: FIG. 180 COUNT OF CAVOUR (1810-61)]

This Law of 1859 was later extended to cover all Italy, and has formed thebasis for all subsequent legislation. It clearly established a statesystem of education, though the religious schools were allowed to remain. It also established control after the French plan, with a high degree ofcentralization and uniformity. The schools established, too, were muchafter the French type, though much less extensive in scope. The primaryand superior primary at first were but two years each, though sinceextended in all the larger communities to a six-year combined course. Thetwo-class school system was established, as in France and German lands. The secondary-school system consisted of a five-year _ginnasio_, established in many places (218 in Italy by 1865; 458 by 1916) with athree-year _liceo_ following, but found in a smaller number of places. Parallel with this a seven-year non-classical scientific and technicalsecondary school was also created, and these institutions have made markedheadway (461 by 1916) in central and northern Italy. Pupils may pass toeither of these on the completion of the ordinary four-year primarycourse, at the age of ten. Above the secondary schools are numerousuniversities. The normal-school system created prepared for teaching inthe primary schools, while the university system followed the completionof the _liceo_ course. [Illustration: FIG. 181. OUTLINE OF THE MAINFEATURES OF THE ITALIAN STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM]

The influence of French ideas in Italian educational organization isclearly evident. Before the French armies brought French governmentalideas and organization to Italy almost nothing had been done. Then, duringthe first six decades of the nineteenth century, the transition from thechurch-school idea to the conception of education as an important functionof the State was made, and the resulting system is largely French inorganization and form. 

SUBSEQUENT PROGRESS. From this point on educational progress has beenchiefly a problem of increased finances and the slow but gradual extensionof educational opportunities to more and more of the children of thepeople. The church schools have been allowed to continue side by side withthe state schools, and the problem of securing satisfactory workingrelations has not always been easy of solution. 

In 1877 primary education was ordered made compulsory, [21] and religiousinstruction was dropped from the state schools, but the slow progress ofthe nation in extending literacy indicates that but little had beenaccomplished in enforcing the compulsion previous to the new compulsorylaw of 1904. This made more stringent provisions regarding schooling, andprovided for three thousand evening and Sunday schools for illiterateadults. In 1906, an earnest effort was begun to extend educationaladvantages in the southern provinces, where illiteracy has always beenhighest. In 1911, the state aid for elementary education was materiallyincreased. In 1912, a new and more modern plan of studies for thesecondary schools was promulgated. Since 1912 many important advances havebeen inaugurated, such as elementary schools of agriculture, vocationalschools, continuation schools, the middle-class industrial and commercialschools. The World War directed new attention to the educational needs ofthe nation. Italy, at last thoroughly awakened, seems destined to be agreat world power politically and commercially, and we may look forward toseeing education used by the Italian State as a great constructive forcefor the advancement of its national interests. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Show how the Revolution marked out the lines of future educationalevolution for France. 

2. Explain why France and Italy evolved a school system so much morecentralized than did other European nations. 

3. Explain Napoleon's lack of interest in primary education, in view ofthe needs of France in his day. 

4. Show that Napoleon was right, time and circumstances considered, inplacing the state emphasis on the types of education he favored. 

5. Explain why middle-class education should have received such specialattention in Cousin's Report, and in the Law of 1833. 

6. Was the course of instruction provided for the primary schools in 1833, times and needs considered, a liberal one, or otherwise? Why?

7. Compare the 1833 and the 1850 courses. 

8. Explain why all forms of education in France should have experiencedsuch a marked expansion and development after 1875. 

9. Explain why great military disasters, for the past 150 years, havenearly always resulted in national educational reorganization. 

10. Appraise the work and the permanent influence of Napoleon. 

11. Explain Napoleon's interest in establishing schools and universities, when the Austrian and Church authorities were so interested in abolishingwhat he had created. 

12. What did the dropping of religious instruction from the primaryschools of both France and Italy, both strong Catholic countries, indicateas to national development?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections arereproduced:

 282. Le Brun: Founding of the School of Arts and Trades. 283. Jourdain: Refounding of the Superior Normal School. 284. Cousin: Recommendations for Education in France. 285. Guizot: Address on the Law of 1833. 286. Guizot: Principles underlying the Law of 1833. 287. Guizot: Letter to the Primary Teachers of France. 288. Arnold: Guizot's Work as Minister of Public Instruction. 289. Quinet: A Lay School for a Lay Society. 290. Ferry: Moral and Civic Instruction replaces the Religious. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Just what attitude toward education did the action of Napoleon inchanging the character of the school at Compiègne (282) express?

2. What type of school (283) was the re-created Superior Normal?

3. Just what did Victor Cousin recommend (284) as to (_a_) schools to becreated; (_b_) control and administration; (_c_) compulsory attendance;(_d_) schools for the middle classes; and (_e_) education and control ofteachers?

4. Was Guizot's Law of 1833 (285) in harmony with the recommendations ofCousin (284)?

5. Why have public opinion and legislative action, in France andelsewhere, so completely reversed the positions taken by Guizot and hisadvisers (286) in framing the Law of 1833? 6. From Guizot's letter to theteachers of France (287), and Arnold's description of his work (288), justwhat do you infer to have been the nature of his interest in advancingprimary education in France?

7. Contrast the reasoning of Guizot (286) and Quinet (289) on layinstruction. Of the reasoning of the two men, which is now accepted inFrance and the United States?

8. Contrast the letters of Guizot (287) and Ferry (290) to the primaryteachers of France. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

 Arnold, Matthew. _Popular Education in France_. * Arnold, Matthew. _Schools and Universities on the Continent_. * Barnard, Henry. _National Education in Europe_. Barnard, Henry. _American Journal of Education_, vol. XX. Compayré, G. _History of Pedagogy_, chapter XXI. * Farrington, Fr. E. _The Public Primary School System of France_. * Farrington, Fr. E. _French Secondary Schools_. Guizot, F. P. G. _Mémoires_, Extracts from, covering work as Minister of Public Instruction, 1832-37, in Barnard's _American Journal of Education_, vol. XI, pp. 254-81, 357-99. 

CHAPTER XXIV

THE STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND

I. THE CHARITABLE VOLUNTARY BEGINNINGS

ENGLISH PROGRESS A SLOW BUT PEACEFUL EVOLUTION. The beginnings of nationaleducational organization in England were neither so simple nor so easy asin the other lands we have described. So far this was in part due to thelong-established idea, on the part of the small ruling class, thateducation was no business of the State; in part to the deeply ingrainedconception as to the religious purpose of all instruction; in part to thefact that the controlling upper classes had for long been in possession ofan educational system which rendered satisfactory service in preparingleaders for both Church and State; and in part--probably in large part--tothe fact that national evolution in England, since the time of the CivilWar (1642-49) has been a slow and peaceful growth, though accompanied bymuch hard thinking and vigorous parliamentary fighting. Since theReformation (1534-39) and the Puritan uprising led by Cromwell (1642-49), no civil strife has convulsed the land, destroyed old institutions, andforced rapid changes in old established practices. Neither has the countrybeen in danger from foreign invasion since that memorable week in July, 1588, when Drake destroyed the Spanish Armada and made the future ofEngland as a world power secure. 

English educational evolution has in consequence been slow, and changesand progress have come only in response to much pressure, and usually as areluctant concession to avoid more serious trouble. A strong Englishcharacteristic has been the ability to argue rather than fight outquestions of national policy; to exhibit marked tolerance of the opinionsof others during the discussion; and finally to recognize enough of theproponents' point of view to be willing to make concessions sufficient toarrive at an agreement. This has resulted in a slow but a peacefulevolution, and this slow and peaceful evolution has for long been thedominant characteristic of the political, social, and educational progressof the English people. The whole history of the two centuries of evolutiontoward a national system of education is a splendid illustration of thisessentially English characteristic. 

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS. England, it will be remembered(chapter XIX, Section III), had early made marked progress in bothpolitical and religious liberty. Ahead of any other people we find therethe beginnings of democratic liberty, popular enlightenment, freedom ofthe press, religious toleration, [1] social reform, and scientific andindustrial progress. All these influences awakened in England, earlierthan in any other European nation, a rather general desire to be able toread (R. 170), and by the opening of the eighteenth century we find thebeginnings of a charitable and philanthropic movement on the part of thechurches and the upper classes to extend a knowledge of the elements oflearning to the poorer classes of the population. 

As a result, as we have seen (chapter XVIII), the eighteenth century inEngland, educationally, was characterized by a new attitude toward theeducational problem and a marked extension of educational opportunity. Even before the beginning of the century the courts had taken a newattitude toward church control of teaching, [2] and in 1700 had freed theteacher of the elementary school from control by the bishops throughlicense. [3] In 1714 an Act of Parliament (13 Anne, c. 7) exemptedelementary schools from the penalties of conformity legislation, and theywere thereafter free to multiply and their teachers to teach. [4] The dameschool (R. 235) now became an established English institution (p. 447). Private-adventure schools of a number of types arose (p. 451). Thechurches here and there began to provide elementary parish-schools for thechildren of their poorer members (p. 449), or training-schools for otherchildren who were to go out to service (R. 241). Workhouse schools and"schools of industry" also were used to provide for orphans and thechildren of paupers (p. 453). 

THE CHARITY-SCHOOL SYSTEM. Most important of all was the organization, bygroups of individuals (R. 237) and by Societies (S. P. C. K. ; p. 449) formedfor the purpose, and maintained by subscription (R. 240), collections (R. 291), and foundation incomes, of an extensive and well-organized system ofCharity-Schools (p. 449). The "Society for the Promotion of ChristianKnowledge" dates from the year 1699, and the "Society for the Propagationof the Gospel in Foreign Parts" from 1701. The first worked at home, andthe second in the overseas colonies. [5] Both did much to provide schoolsfor poor boys and girls, furnishing them with clothing and instruction (R. 292), and training them in reading, writing, spelling, counting, cleanliness, proper behavior, sewing and knitting (girls), and in "theRules and Principles of the Christian Religion as professed and taught inthe Church of England" (R. 238 b). The Charity-School idea was in a sensean application of the joint-stock-company principle to the organizationand maintenance of an extensive system of schools for the education of thechildren of the poor, the stock being subscribed for by humanitarian-minded people. The upper classes had for long been well provided, throughtutors in the home and grammar schools and colleges, with those means foreducation which have for centuries produced an able succession ofgentlemen, statesmen, governors, and scholars for England, and many of thecommercial middle-class had, by the eighteenth century, become able topurchase similar advantages for their sons. These now united to provide, as part of a great organized charity and under carefully selected teachers(R. 238 a), for the more promising children of their poorer neighbors, theelements of that education which they themselves had enjoyed. 

The movement spread rapidly over England (p. 451), and soon developed intoa great national effort to raise the level of intelligence of the massesof the English people. Thousands of persons gave their services asdirectors, organizers, and teachers. Traveling superintendents wereemployed. A rudimentary form of teacher-training was begun. The preachingof a Charity Sermon each year [6] with a special collection, became ageneral English practice. 

THE VOLUNTARY SYSTEM. The rise of the Methodist movement, [7] after 1730(p. 489); the earthquake shocks of 1750; the rise of the popular novel andnewspaper; the printing of political news, and cheap scientific pamphlets(p. 492); and the growing tendency to debate questions and to apply reasonto their solution--all tended to give emphasis in England to theseeighteenth-century charitable means for extending education to thechildren of those who could not afford to pay for it. Unlike the GermanStates, where the State and the Church and the school had all workedtogether from the days of the Reformation on, the English had never knownsuch a conception. The efforts, though, of the educated few, in theeighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, to extend the elements oflearning, order, piety, cleanliness, and proper behavior to the childrenof the masses, formed an important substitute for the action by theChurch-State which was so characteristic a feature of Teutonic lands. 

We see in these eighteenth-century efforts the origin of what became knownin England as "the voluntary system" and upon this voluntary support ofeducation--private, parochial, charitable--the English people for longrelied. Of action by the State there was none during the eighteenthcentury, aside from an Act of 1767 (7 Geo. III, c. 39) relating to theeducation of pauper children. This established the important principle--unfortunately not followed up--of providing that poor parish children ofLondon might be maintained and educated "at the cost of the rates. "

THE SUNDAY-SCHOOL MOVEMENT. One other voluntary eighteenth-centurymovement of importance in the history of English educational developmentshould be mentioned here, as it formed the connecting link between theparochial-charity-school movement of the eighteenth century and thephilanthropic period of the educational reformers of the early nineteenth. This was the Sunday-School movement, first tried by John Wesley inSavannah, in 1737, but not introduced into England until 1763. The ideaamounted to little, though, until practically worked out anew (1780) byRobert Raikes, a printer of Gloucester, and described by him (1783) in his_Gloucester Journal_ (R. 293), after he had experimented with it for threeyears. [8] His printed description of the Sunday-School idea gave anational impulse to the movement, and Sunday Schools were soon establishedall over England to take children off the streets on Sunday and providethem with some form of secular and religious instruction. [9]

The movement coincided with new religious, social, and economic forceswhich were at work, and which awakened an interest not only in theeducation of the children of the poorer working-classes, but caused theupper and middle classes in society to feel a new sense of responsibilityfor social and educational reform. The cold and unemotional religion ofthe English Church in the early eighteenth century had created anindifference to the simple truths and duties of the Gospels. The greatreligious revival under Wesley and Whitefield had challenged such anattitude, and had done much to infuse a new spirit into religion andawaken a new sense of responsibility for social welfare. The rapid growthof population in the towns, following the beginnings of factory life (p. 493), had created new social and economic problems, and the neglect ofchildren in the manufacturing towns had shocked many thinking persons. Theway in which parents and children, freed from hard labor in the factorieson Sundays, abandoned themselves to vice, drunkenness, and profanitycaused many, among them Raikes himself (R. 293), to inquire if "somethingcould not be done" to turn into respectable men and women "the littleheathen of the neighborhood. " The Sunday School was his answer, and theanswer of many all over England. [10]

In 1785 "The Society for the Support and Encouragement of Sunday Schoolsin the different Counties of England" was formed with a view toestablishing a Sunday School in every parish in the kingdom, and the Queenheaded a subscription list, following a general appeal for funds. By 1787it was estimated that 234, 000 children in England and Wales were attendinga Sunday School, and by 1792 the number had increased to half a million. The Parliamentary return for 1818 showed 5463 Sunday Schools in existence, and 477, 225 scholars; in 1835 the returns showed 1, 548, 890 scholars, halfof whom attended no other school, and approximately 160, 000 voluntaryteachers. [11] In Manchester, then a city scourged with almost universalchild-labor, the schools (1834) were in session five and a half hours onSunday and two evenings a week. The moral and religious influence of theseschools was important, and the instruction in reading and writing, meageras it was, filled a real need of the time. 

OTHER VOLUNTARY SCHOOLS; "RAGGED SCHOOLS. " The Charity Schools and theSunday Schools were the two most conspicuous of the voluntary-organizationtype of undertakings for providing the poor children of England with theelements of secular and religious education. Many other organizations ofan educational and charitable nature, aided also by many individualefforts, too numerous to mention, were formed with the same charitable andhumanitarian end in view. Others, similar in type, charged a small fee, and hence were of the private-adventure type. Sunday Schools, day schools, evening schools, children's churches, bands of hope, clothing clubs, messenger brigades, shoeblack brigades, orphans' schools, reformatoryschools, industrial schools, ragged schools--these were some of the typesthat arose. Only one of these--"Ragged Schools"--will be described. 

[Illustration: FIG. 182. A RAGGED SCHOOL PUPIL(From a photograph of a boy on entering the school; later changed into arespectable tradesman. From Guthrie)]

[Illustration: PLATE 15. JOHN POUNDS'S RAGGED SCHOOL AT PORTSMOUTH]

[Illustration: PLATE 16. AN ENGLISH VILLAGE VOLUNTARY SCHOOL(Reproduced from an early nineteenth-century engraving, through thecourtesy of William G. Bruce)]

The originator of the "Ragged Schools"--schools for the education ofdestitute children, waifs and strays not reached by other agencies--was alarge-hearted cobbler of Portsmouth, by the name of John Pounds (1766-1839), who divided his time between cobbling and rescue work among thepoorest and most degraded children of his neighborhood. His school isshown in the picture facing this page. (Plate 15. ) In his shoeshop hetaught such children, free of charge, to read, write, count, cook theirfood, and mend their shoes. He was a schoolmaster, doctor, nurse, andplayfellow to them all in one. His workshop was a room of only six byeighteen feet, yet in it he often had forty children under hisinstruction. His work set an example, and "Ragged Schools, " or "Schoolsfor the Destitute, " began to be formed in many places by humanitarians. These took the form of day schools, night schools, Sunday Schools, and theso-called industrial schools (R. 294). The instruction in most of them wasentirely free, [12] but some charged a small fee, in a few cases as highas a shilling a month. It was one of these schools that Crabbe describedwhen he wrote: [13]

 Poor Reuben Dixon has the noisiest school Of ragged lads, who ever bowed to rule; Low in his price--the men who heave our coals, And clean our causeways, send him boys in shoals. To see poor Reuben, with his fry beside- Their half-check'd rudeness and his half-scorned pride- Their room, the sty in which th' assembly meet, In the close lane behind the Northgate street; T' observe his vain attempts to keep the peace, Till tolls the bell, and strife and trouble cease, Calls for our praise; his labours praise deserves, But not our pity; Reuben has no nerves. 'Mid noise and dirt, and stench, and play, and prate, He calmly cuts the pen or views the slate. 

In 1844 "The Ragged School Union" was formed in London, and maintainedthere many of the types of schools mentioned above. The "Constitution andRules of the Association for the Establishment of Ragged IndustrialSchools for Destitute Children in Edinburgh" (R. 294) gives a good idea asto the nature, support, and instruction in such schools. As late as 1870, when national education was first begun in England, there were about twohundred of these Ragged Schools in London alone, with about 23, 000children in them. Upon many such forms of irregular schools Englanddepended before the days of national organization. 

OTHER EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY INFLUENCES. During the latter half of theeighteenth century French Revolutionary thought [14] and Americanpolitical action began to exert some influence on public opinion inEngland. The small upper ruling class, alarmed at the developments inFrance, became confirmed in its opposition to any general populareducation aside from a little reading, writing, counting, and carefulreligious training, while on the other hand men of more liberal outlookfelt that popular enlightenment was a necessity to prevent the masses frombecoming stirred by inflammatory writings and speeches. The increasingdistress in the agricultural regions, due to the rapid change of Englandfrom an agricultural to a manufacturing nation; the crowding of greatnumbers of working people into the manufacturing towns; and the socialmisery and political unrest following the Napoleonic wars all alikecontributed to a feeling of need for any form of philanthropic effort thatgave promise of alleviating the ills of society. There now grew up a smallbut influential body of thinkers who favored the maintenance of a systemof general and compulsory education by the State, and the separation ofthe school from the Church. The most notable proponents of this new theorywere Adam Smith, the Reverend T. R. Malthus, and the Anglo-American ThomasPaine. The first approached the question from an economic point of view, the second from an economic and biologic, and the third from thepolitical. In 1776 Adam Smith's _Wealth of Nations_ appeared. This wasone of the great books of all time. Among other matters he dealt with thequestion of education. He pointed out that English society was nowbecoming highly organized; that the new manufacturing life had completelychanged the simple conditions of an earlier agricultural society; that inthe narrow round of manufacturing duties and town life people tended tolose their inventiveness and to stagnate; and that the individualdegeneracy which set in in a more highly organized type of society becamea social danger of large magnitude. Hence, he argued (R. 295), it was amatter of state interest that "the inferior ranks of the people" beinstructed to make them socially useful and to render them "less apt to bemisled into any wanton or unnecessary opposition to measures ofgovernment. " Accordingly, he held, the State had every right, not only totake over elementary education as a state function and a public charge, but also to make it free and compulsory. 

[Illustration: FIG. 183. ADAM SMITH (1723-90)]

In 1798 the Reverend T. R. Malthus's _Essay on Population_ appeared. Thiswas a precursor of the work of Darwin, and another of the great books ofall time. He pointed out that population everywhere tended to outrun themeans of subsistence, and that it was only prevented from doing so bypreventive checks which involved much misery and vice and pauperism. Toprevent pauperism each individual must exercise moral restraint andforesight, and to enable all to do this a widespread system of publicinstruction was a necessity (R. 296). The money England had spent in poor-relief he regarded as largely wasted, because it afforded no cure. In thegeneral education of a people the real solution lay. He said:

 We have lavished immense sums on the poor, which we have every reason to think have constantly tended to aggravate their misery, ... It is surely a great national disgrace that the education of the lowest classes in England should be left to a few Sunday Schools, supported by a subscription from individuals, who can give to the course of instruction in them any kind of bias which they may please. (R 296. )

[Illustration: FIG. 184 REV. T. R. MALTHUS (1766-1834)]

Agreeing thoroughly with Adam Smith that a general diffusion of knowledgewas a safeguard to society, he urged the teaching of the elements ofpolitical economy in the common schools to enable people to live better inthe new type of competitive society. [15]

In 1791-92 Thomas Paine published his widely read _Rights of Man_. Heexpressed the French Revolutionary political theory, holding thatgovernment, while capable of great good were its powers only properlyexercised, was, as organized, an evil. In a well-governed nation nonewould be permitted to go uninstructed, he held, and he would cut off poor-relief and make a state grant of £4 a year for every child under fourteenfor its education, and would compel parents to send all children to schoolto learn reading, writing, and arithmetic. 

Each of these three books had a long and a slowly cumulative influence, and a small number of young and powerful champions of the idea of populareducation as a public charge began, early in the nineteenth century, tourge action and to influence public opinion. 

II. THE PERIOD OF PHILANTHROPIC EFFORT (1800-33)

CONDITIONS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. This second periodin the history of the organization of English education begins with thepublication, in 1797, of Dr. Andrew Bell's _An Experiment in Education_, describing his work in educating large numbers of children by means of theso-called mutual system, at the Male Asylum at Madras, India. The periodproperly ends with the first Parliamentary grant for education, in 1833. In its main characteristics it belongs to the eighteenth rather than tothe nineteenth century, as the prominent educational movements of theeighteenth (charity-schools, Sunday Schools, schools of industry) continuestrong throughout the period, and many new undertakings of a similarcharitable nature ("Ragged Schools"; associations for the improvement ofthe condition of the poor, etc. ) were begun. 

The period--during and after the Napoleonic wars--was one of marked socialand political unrest, and of corresponding emphasis on social andphilanthropic service. The masses were discontented with their lot, andwere beginning to be with their lack of political privileges. Numerousplans to quiet the unrest and improve conditions were proposed, of whichschemes to increase employment (industrial schools; evening schools), toencourage thrift (savings banks; children's brigades), and to spread anelementary and religious education (mutual schools; infant schools) thatwould train the poor in self-help were the most prominent. "The Societyfor Bettering the Condition and Increasing the Comforts of the Poor. "founded in 1796, became a very important early-nineteenth-centuryinstitution. Branches were established all over England. Soup-kitchens, clothing-stations, savings banks, and schools were among the chief linesof activity. In particular it extended and improved Sunday Schools, encouraged the formation of charity-schools and schools of industry, andlater gave much aid in establishing the new monitorial schools. Educational interest steadily strengthened during the period, though asyet along lines that were deemed relatively harmless, were inexpensive, and were largely religious in character. 

The eighteenth-century conception of education as a charity, designedwhere given to train the poor to "an honest, upright, grateful, andindustrious poverty, " still prevailed; there was as yet little thought ofeducation as designed to train the poor to think for and help themselves. The eighteenth-century conception of the educational process, too, whichregarded education as something external and determined by adult standardsand needs, and to be imposed on the child from without, also continued. The purpose of the school was to manufacture the standard man, and thebusiness of the teacher was to so organize and methodize instruction thatthe necessary knowledge could be acquired as economically, from afinancial point of view, as possible. The Pestalozzian conception ofeducation as a development of the individual, according to the law of hisown nature, found but slow acceptance in England. Mental development, scientific instruction, the habit of thinking, the exercise of judgment, and free and enlightened opinion were ideas that found little favor there, and hence had to be handled carefully by those who had caught the newconception of the educational process. 

In the political reaction following the end of Napoleon's rule the upperand ruling classes of England, in common with those of continental lands, became exceedingly suspicious of much education for the masses. To securecontributions for schools it became necessary "to avow and plead howlittle it was that the schools pretended or presumed to teach. " [16]England now experienced a great development of manufacturing and commerce, a great material prosperity ensued, and the growing demand for educationwas met by a counter-demand that the education provided should besystematized, economical, and should not teach too much. Such a system oftraining was now discovered and applied, in the form of mutual ormonitorial instruction, and was hailed as "a new expedient, parallel andrival to the modern inventions in the mechanical departments. "

[Illustration: FIG. 185. THE CREATORS OF THE MONITORIAL SYSTEMREV. ANDREW BELL (1753-1832)JOSEPH LANCASTER (1778-1838)]

ORIGIN OF MUTUAL OR MONITORIAL INSTRUCTION. In 1797 Dr. Andrew Bell, aclergyman in the Established Church, published the results of hisexperiment in the use of monitors in India. [17] The idea attractedattention, and the plan was successfully introduced into a number ofcharity-schools. About the same time (1798) a young Quaker schoolmaster, Joseph Lancaster by name, was led independently to a similar discovery ofthe advantages of using monitors, by reason of his needing assistance inhis school and being too poor to pay for additional teachers. In 1803 hepublished an account of his plan. [18] The two plans were quite similar, attracted attention from the first, and schools formed after one or theother of the plans were soon organized all over England. 

Increased attention was attracted to the new plans by a bitter churchquarrel which broke out as to who was the real originator of the idea, [19] Bell being upheld by Church-of-England supporters, and Lancaster bythe Dissenters. In 1808 "The Royal Lancastrian Institution" was formed, which in 1814 became "The British and Foreign School Society, " to promoteLancastrian schools. This society had the close support of King GeorgeIII, the Whigs, and the _Edinburgh Review_, while such liberals asBrougham, Whitbread, and James Mill were on its board of directors. ThisSociety sent out Lancaster to expound his "truly British" system, and by1810 as many as ninety-five Lancastrian schools had been established inEngland. His model school in Borough Road, Southwark, which became atraining-school for teachers, is shown on the following page. Lancasterwas a poor manager; became involved in financial difficulties; and in 1818left for the United States, where he spent the remainder of his life inorganizing such schools and expounding his system. For a time thisattracted wide attention, as we shall point out in the following chapter. 

Lancaster's work stimulated the Church of England into activity, and in1811 "The National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in thePrinciples of the Established Church throughout England and Wales" wasformed by prominent S. P. C. K. (p. 449) members and Churchmen, with theArchbishop of Canterbury as president. This Society was supported by theTories, the Established Church, and the _Quarterly Review_, and was formedto promote the Bell system, [20] "which made religious instruction anessential and necessary part of the plan. " Within a month £15, 000 had beensubscribed to establish schools. Among many other contributions were £500each from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. A training-school forteachers was organized; district societies were formed over England toestablish schools; and a system of organized aid was extended for bothbuildings and maintenance. By 1831 there were 900, 412 children receivinginstruction in the monitorial schools of the National Society alone. 

[Illustration: Fig. 186. THE LANCASTRIAN MODEL SCHOOL IN BOROUGH ROAD, SOUTHWARK, LONDONThis shows 365 pupils, seated for writing. The room was 40 x 90 feet insize and contained 20 desks, each 25 feet long. The boys of each row weredivided into two "drafts" of from eight to ten, each in charge of amonitor. Around the wall were 31 "stations, " indicated by the semicircleson the floor. ]

The mutual-instruction idea spread to other lands--France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark--and seems to have been tried even in German lands. InFrance and Belgium it was experimented with for a time because of itscheapness, but was soon discarded because of its defects. In Teutoniclands, where the much better Pestalozzian ideas had become established, the monitorial system made practically no headway. It was in the UnitedStates, of all countries outside of England, that the idea met with mostready acceptance. 

[Illustration: FIG. 187. MONITORS TEACHING READING AT "STATIONS"Three "drafts" of ten each, with their toes to the semicircles painted onthe floor, are being taught by monitors from lessons suspended on thewall. ]

THE SYSTEM OF MUTUAL OR MONITORIAL INSTRUCTION. The great merit, asidefrom being cheap, of the mutual or monitorial system of instruction lay inthat it represented a marked advance in school organization over the olderindividual method of instruction, with its accompanying waste of time andschoolroom disorder. Under the individual method only a small number ofpupils could be placed under the control of one teacher, and the expensefor such instruction made general education almost prohibitive. Pestalozzi, to be sure, had worked out in Switzerland the modern class-system of instruction, and following developmental lines in teaching, butof this the English were not only ignorant, but it called for a degree ofpedagogical skill which their teachers did not then possess. Bell andLancaster now evolved a plan whereby one teacher, assisted by a number ofthe brighter pupils whom they designated as monitors, could teach from twohundred to a thousand pupils in one school (R. 297). The picture ofLancaster's London school (Figure 186) shows 365 pupils seated. [21] Thepupils were sorted into rows, and to each row was assigned a clever boy(monitor) to act as an assistant teacher. A common number for each monitorto look after was ten. The teacher first taught these monitors a lessonfrom a printed card, and then each monitor took his row to a "station"about the wall and proceeded to teach the other boys what he had justlearned. At first used only for teaching reading and the Catechism, theplan was soon extended to the teaching of writing, arithmetic, andspelling, and later on to instruction in higher branches. The system wasvery popular from about 1810 to 1830, but by 1840 its popularity hadwaned. 

[Illustration: FIG. 188. PROPER MONITORIAL-SCHOOL POSITIONS(From an engraved plate of 30 positions, in a Manual of the British andForeign School Society, London, 1831)]

Such schools were naturally highly organized, the organization beinglargely mechanical (R. 298). Lancaster, in particular, was an organizinggenius. The _Manuals of Instruction_ gave complete directions for theorganization and management of monitorial schools, the details ofrecitation work, use of apparatus, order, position of pupils at theirwork, and classification being minutely laid down. By carefully studyingand following these directions any reasonably intelligent person couldsoon learn to become a successful teacher in a monitorial school. 

The schools, mechanical as they now seem, marked a great improvement overthe individual method upon which schoolmasters for centuries had wasted somuch of their own and their pupils' time. In place of earlier idleness, inattention, and disorder, Bell and Lancaster introduced activity, emulation, order, and a kind of military discipline which was of muchvalue to the type of children attending these schools. Lancaster'sbiographer, Salmon, has written of the system that so thoroughly was theinstruction worked out that the teacher had only to organize, oversee, reward, punish, and inspire:

When a child was admitted a monitor assigned him his class; while heremained, a monitor taught him (with nine other pupils); when he wasabsent, one monitor ascertained the fact, and another found out thereason; a monitor examined him periodically, and, when he made progress, amonitor promoted him; a monitor ruled the writing paper; a monitor hadcharge of slates and books; and a monitor-general looked after all theother monitors. Every monitor wore a leather ticket, gilded and lettered, "Monitor of the First Class, " "Reading Monitor of the Second Class, " etc. 

VALUE OF THE SYSTEM IN AWAKENING INTEREST. The monitorial system ofinstruction, coming at the time it did, exerted a very important influencein awakening interest in and a sentiment for schools. It increased thenumber of people who possessed the elements of an education; made schoolsmuch more talked about; and aroused thought and provoked discussion on thequestion of education. It did much toward making people see the advantagesof a certain amount of schooling, and be willing to contribute to itssupport. Under the plans previously in use education had been a slow andan expensive process, because it had to be carried on by the individualmethod of instruction, and in quite small groups. Under this new plan itwas now possible for one teacher to instruct 300, 400, 500, or more pupilsin a single room, and to do it with much better results in both learningand discipline than the old type of schoolmaster had achieved. 

All at once, comparatively, a new system had been introduced which notonly improved and popularized, but tremendously cheapened education. [22]Lancaster, in his _Improvements in Education_, gave the annual cost ofschooling under his system as only seven shillings sixpence ($1. 80) perpupil, and this was later decreased to four shillings fivepence ($1. 06) asthe school was increased to accommodate a thousand pupils. Under the Bellsystem the yearly cost per pupil, in a school of five hundred, was onlyfour shillings twopence ($1. 00), in 1814. In the United States, Lancastrian schools cost from $1. 22 per pupil in New York, in 1822, up to$3. 00 and $4. 00 later on. At first begun as free schools, [23] theexpansion of effort was more rapid than the income from contributions, anda small tuition fee was in time charged. Pupils were admitted at about theage of seven, and might remain until thirteen or fourteen, though anattendance of two years was considered "abundantly sufficient for anyboy. " To prepare skilled masters and mistresses for the schools, girlswere provided for in many places--training or model schools were organizedby both the national societies, and these represent the beginnings ofnormal-school training in England. 

INFANT SCHOOLS. Another type of school which became of much importance inEngland, and spread to other lands, was the Infant School. This owed itsorigin to Robert Owen, proprietor of the cotton mills at New Lanark, Scotland. Being of a philanthropic turn of mind, and believing that manwas entirely the product of circumstance and environment, he held that itwas not possible to begin too early in implanting right habits and formingcharacter. Poverty and crime, he believed, were results of errors in thevarious systems of education and government. So plastic was child nature, that society would be able to mould itself "into the very image ofrational wishes and desires. " That "the infants of any one class in theworld may be readily formed into men of any other class, " was afundamental belief of his. 

[Illustration: FIG. 189 ROBERT OWEN (1771-1858)]

When he took charge of the mills at New Lanark (1799) he found the usualwretched social conditions of the time. Children of five, six, and sevenyears were bound out to the factory as apprentices (R. 242) for a periodof nine years. They worked as apprentices and helpers in the factoriestwelve to thirteen hours a day, and at early manhood were turned free tojoin the ignorant mass of the population. Owen sought to remedy thiscondition. He accordingly opened schools which children might enter atthree years of age, receiving them into the schools almost as soon as theywere able to walk, and caring for them while their parents were at work. Children under ten he forbade to work in the mills, and for these heprovided schools. The instruction for the children younger than six was tobe "whatever might be supposed useful that they could understand, " andmuch was made of singing, dancing, and play. Moral instruction was made aprominent feature. By 1814 his work and his schools had become famous. In1817 he published a plan for the organization of such industrialcommunities as he conducted. In 1818 he visited Switzerland, and sawPestalozzi and Fellenberg. 

In 1818 a number of Liberals--Brougham, James Mill, and others--combinedto establish an Infant School in London, importing a teacher from NewLanark. The idea took root, was popularized, and the Infant School wassoon adopted as an integral part of their schools by both the British andForeign School Society (Lancastrians) and the National Society (Bell). In1836 the "Home and Colonial Infant School Society" was formed to trainteachers for and to establish Infant Schools. One of the organizers ofthis society was Charles Mayo who had worked with Pestalozzi at Yverdon(R. 270), and through his influence much of the bookishness which hadcrept in was removed and the better Pestalozzian procedure put in itsplace. 

Unlike the monitorial schools, the Infant Schools were based on the ideaof small-group work, and were usually conducted in harmony with the newpsychological conceptions of instruction which had been worked out byPestalozzi, and had by that time begun to be introduced into England. TheInfant-School idea came at an opportune time, as the defects of themechanical Lancastrian instruction were becoming evident and itspopularity was waning. It gave a new and a somewhat deeper philosophicalinterpretation of the educational process, created a stronger demand thanhad before been known for trained teachers, established a preference forwomen teachers for primary work, and tended to give a new dignity toteaching and school work by revealing something of a psychological basisfor the instruction of little children. It also contributed its sharetoward awakening a sentiment for national action. 

WORK OF THE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES. The work of the voluntary andphilanthropic educational societies in establishing schools and providingteachers and instruction before the days of national schools was enormous. [24] Though the State did nothing before 1833, and little before 1870, thework of the educational societies was large and important. What was doneby the church societies alone may be seen from the following table:

 STATISTICS AS TO 10, 595 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS FOUNDED BY THE RELIGIOUS SOCIETIES (BRITISH CENSUS RETURNS, 1851)

 The National Society, or British Church and For- Indepen- Other Total num- of eign dents, or Wesleyan Roman rel- ber of England Schools Congrega- Method-Cathol- Bapt- giousDate schools schools Society tionalists ists ics ists bodies

Before 1801 766 709 16 8 7 10 1801-1811 410 350 28 9 4 10 1811-1821 879 756 77 12 17 14 1821-1831 1, 021 897 45 21 17 28 1831-1841 2, 417 2, 002 191 95 62 69 1841-1851 4, 604 3, 448 449 269 239 166 Not stated 498 409 46 17 17 14 131 331 Totals 10, 595 8, 571 852 431 363 311 131 331

After about 1820-25 the rising interest in elementary education expresseditself in the formation of a number of additional societies, the moreimportant of which were:

 1824. "London Infant School Society" founded by Brougham. 1826. "Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge" founded by Brougham. The _Journal of Education_ begun. 1836. "Central Society of Education" founded. 1836. "Home and Colonial Infant Society" founded. Beginning of a Pestalozzian Training College. 1837. "Educational Committee of the Wesleyan Conference" established. 1843. "Congregational Board of Education" formed. 1844. "Ragged School Union" founded. 1845. "Catholic Institute. " 1847. The "Catholic Poor-School Committee. " 1847. "Lancashire Public School Association" formed. 1850. The "National Public School Association. " 1867. "Birmingham Education Aid Society. " 1868. The Manchester Conference. 1869. Formation of "The League. "

Some of these were formed to found and support schools, and some engagedprimarily in the work of propaganda in an effort to secure some nationalaction. 

III. THE STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL EDUCATION

THE PARLIAMENTARY STRUGGLE. During the whole of the eighteenth centuryParliament had enacted no legislation relating to elementary education, aside from the one Act of 1767 for the education of pauper children inLondon, and the freeing of elementary schools, Dissenters, and Catholics, from inhibitions as to teaching. In the nineteenth century this attitudewas to be changed, though slowly, and after three quarters of a century ofstruggle the beginnings of national education were finally to be made forEngland, as they had by then for every other great nation. In 1870 the"no-business-of-the-State" attitude toward the education of the people, which had persisted from the days of the great Elizabeth, was finally andpermanently changed. The legislative battle began with the first FactoryAct [25] of 1802, Whitbread's Parochial Schools Bill [26] of 1807, andBrougham's first Parliamentary Committee of Inquiry of 1816 (R. 291); itfinally culminated with the reform of the old endowed Grammar Schools bythe Act of 1869, the enactment of the Elementary Education Act of 1870 (R. 304), and the Act of 1871 freeing instruction in the universities fromreligious restrictions (R. 305). The first of these enactments declaredclearly the right of the State to inquire into, reorganize, and redirectthe age-old educational foundations for secondary education; the secondmade the definite though tardy beginnings of a national system ofelementary education for England; and the third opened up a universitycareer to the whole nation. The agitation and conflict of ideas was longdrawn out, and need not be traced in detail. The following tabulatedsummary will give the main outlines of the struggle, and the selection on"The Educational Traditions of England" (R. 306) gives a good briefhistory of the long conflict. 

 THE PARLIAMENTARY STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL EDUCATION IN ENGLAND

 Dates Proposals, Reports, etc. , and Results

 1802 First Factory Act for regulating employment of children. Adopted. 1807 Whitbread's Parochial Schools' Bill introduced. Rejected by the House of Lords 1816 Brougham secured a Parliamentary Committee to enquire into the state of education of the lower classes in London, Westminster, and Southwark. Report--130, 000 children without school accommodations [1818]. (R. 291. ) 1818 Brougham secured a Committee of Inquiry on Educational Charities. No report until 1837. 1820 Bill introduced proposing a tax for schools and the granting of Government aid in building schoolhouses. Opposed by Dissenters and Catholics. Withdrawn. Brougham's first Educational Bill. 1833 Government aid for building schoolhouses re-proposed. £20, 000 a year granted. (R. 299. ) Distributed through the two great Educational Societies 1834 Committee of Inquiry appointed. No result beyond statistics. 1835 | Brougham introduced bills to organize a system of elementary 1837 | education. Bills failed of passage. Educational Inquiry Committee appointed [1837]. 1838 Committee report: the deplorable conditions existing Bill of 1839. Education Department created. 1839 Bill to increase the government grant to £30, 000 and to allow all Societies to share. Inspectors to be appointed. Committee of Privy Council on Education established. Bitter opposition. Carried. Much discussion as to "undenominational education. " 1841 Annual grant to establish schools of design in manufacturing districts. Voted. 1843 Sir Jas. Graham's Factory Bill. Opposed by the Dissenters and defeated. 1843 Address to the Crown on condition of the working classes. No parliamentary action. 1846 Yearly grant extended to the maintenance of schools. Gradual increase in the yearly grants. 1846 Minute and Regulations on annual grants and pupil teachers. Foundations of a system laid. Pupil-teacher system definitely established. Certificates to teach. Annual grant extended to maintenance. 1847 Government proposals for nationalizing education. Carried despite violent religious opposition. 1850 Fox's Bill to make education free and compulsory. Defeated. 1853 The Government proposed a small local rate in aid of schools. Bill dropped after the first reading. 1853 Department of Science and Art created, and National Art Training Schools established. Promotion of elementary education in art and science, particularly after 1859. 1855 Three educational Bills introduced. Local rate proposed. Failure to agree. All withdrawn. 1856 Commons asked to declare in favor of rate aid and local Boards. Two Educational Bills introduced. First bill tabled. Second bill withdrawn. Education Department formed. 1858 A Royal Commission to inquire into the state of popular education in England asked for. The Duke of Newcastle's Commission created. Its Report published in 1861. (R. 303. ) 1861 No acceptable scheme reported. Code of 1861 proposed. No advance. "Payment by results" began [1862]. Code adopted. 1864 Schools Inquiry Commission appointed on endowed schools. Report of the Schools Inquiry Commission in 1867. 1866 Report of a Select Committee of the House of Commons on Education. 1867 The Government introduced proposals as to education. Voted down. 1868 Government Bill proposing changes in distribution and larger grants. Parliament adjourned without action. 1869 Endowed Schools' Act passed. 1869 Two Educational Bills introduced. Withdrawn at the request of the Government. 1870 The Elementary Education Act of 1870 introduced. Much amended and passed. (R. 304. ) Beginning of a National system of education. 1871 Religious Tests at universities withdrawn (R. 305). 

THE LEADERS IN THE CONFLICT. The main leader in the parliamentary struggleto establish national education, from the death of Whitbread, in 1815, toabout 1835, was Henry, afterwards Lord Brougham. He was aided by such menas Blackstone, and Bentham and his followers, and, after about 1837, bysuch men as Dickens, Carlyle, Macaulay, and John Stuart Mill. Dickens, byhis descriptions, helped materially to create a sentiment favorable toeducation, as a right of the people rather than a charity. He stoodstrongly for a compulsory and non-sectarian state system of education thatwould transform the children of his day into generous, self-respecting, and intelligent men and women. Carlyle saw in education a cure for socialevils, and held that one of the first functions of government was toimpart the gift of thinking to its future citizens. Writing, in 1840, hesaid:

 Who would suppose that education were a thing which had to be advocated on the ground of local expediency, or any ground? As if it stood not on the basis of everlasting duty as a prime necessity of man. 

Brougham was untiring in his efforts for popular education, and some ideaas to the interest he awakened may be inferred from the fact that his_Observations on the Education of the People_, published in 1825, wentthrough twenty editions the first year. He introduced bills, securedcommittees of inquiry, made addresses, [27] and used his pen in behalf ofthe education of the people. His belief in the power of education toimprove a people was very large. Warning the "Lawgivers of England" totake heed, he once said:

 Let the soldier be abroad, if he will; he can do nothing in this age. There is another personage abroad, a person less imposing--in the eye of some insignificant. The Schoolmaster is abroad, and I trust him, armed with his primer, against the soldier in full uniform array. 

 The conqueror stalks onward with the "pride, pomp, and circumstance of war, " banners flying, shouts rending the air, guns thundering, and martial music pealing, to drown the shrieks of the wounded and the lamentations for the slain. Not thus the schoolmaster in his peaceful vocation. He meditates and prepares in secret the plans which are to bless mankind; he slowly gathers around him those who are to further their execution; he quietly, though firmly, advances in his humble path laboring steadily, but calmly, till he has opened to the light all the recesses of ignorance, and torn up by the roots the weeds of vice. His is a progress not to be compared with anything like a march; but it leads to a far more brilliant triumph, and to laurels more imperishable than the destroyer of his species, the scourge of the world, ever won. 

[Illustration: FIG. 190 LORD BROUGHAM (1778-1868)]

[Illustration: FIG. 191. AN ENGLISH VILLAGE SCHOOL IN 1840(After a drawing by Hablôt K. Browne, and printed in Charles Dickens's"Master Humphrey's Clock")]

Parallel with the agitation for some state action for education was anagitation for social and political reform. The basis for the election ofmembers to the House of Commons was still mediaeval. Boroughs no longerinhabited still returned members, and sparsely settled regions returnedmembers out of all proportion to the newly created city populations. Few, too, could vote. Only about 160, 000 persons in a population of 10, 000, 000had, early in the century, the right of the franchise. The citypopulations were practically disfranchised in favor of rural landlords, the nobility, and the clergy. In 1828 Protestant Non-Conformists wererelieved of their political disability, and in 1829 a similarenfranchisement was extended to Catholics. In 1832 came the first realvoting reform in the passage of the so-called _Third Reform Bill_ [28]after a most bitter parliamentary struggle. This reapportioned themembership of the House on a more equitable basis, and enfranchised thosewho owned or leased lands or buildings of a value of £10 a year. Theresult of this was to enfranchise the middle class of the population;increase the number of voters (1836) from about 175, 000 to about 839, 500out of 6, 023, 000 adult males; and effectively break the power of the Houseof Lords to elect the House of Commons. Progressive legislation now becamemuch easier to secure, and in 1833 a Bill making a grant of £20, 000 a yearto aid in building schoolhouses for elementary schools--the firstgovernment aid for elementary education ever voted in England--became alaw (R. 299). During the few years following the passage of the ReformBill many progressive measures were enacted, among which should bementioned the abolition of slavery in the colonies; the beginnings oflegislation looking to a scientific treatment of poverty and non-employment; the Municipal Reform Act (1835); the institution of the pennypost (1839); and the abolition of the Corn Laws (1846); while after 1837education began to take a prominent place in the programs of the newworking-class movement. 

PROGRESS AFTER 1833. The Law of 1833, though, made but the merestbeginnings, and up to 1840 the money granted was given to the two greatnational school societies, and without regulation. Beginning in 1840, andcontinuing up to the beginnings of national education, in 1870, the grantswere state-controlled and distributed through the different educationalsocieties. The total of these grants, by years, and the proportional shareof the different educational societies are well shown in the chart (Fig. 192. ) In 1846 the grants were extended to maintenance as well, and in 1847Catholic and Wesleyan societies were admitted to share in the grants. Soonthereafter we note a sharp upward turn of the curve, though the Church-of-England schools obtained the greater proportion of the increased funds. Proposals to add local taxation, in 1853 and 1856, were dropped almost assoon as made. The commercial and manufacturing interests, though, securedseparate aid for art and science instruction (1841, 1853), and thecreation of national art training-schools (1853). Training-schools forteachers also were begun, and aided by grants. In 1845 the English "pupil-teacher" system [29] also was begun in an effort to supply teachers ofsome little training. A State Department of Education was created, in1856, though without much power, and the various "Minutes" which were nowadopted were organized into a system and presented to Parliament as a_School Code_, in 1861, and finally approved. 

New Educational Commissions were created to inquire into educationalconditions and needs in 1858 and 1864, and these reported in 1861 and1867, but without important results. The most notable of these was theDuke of Newcastle's Commission, appointed in 1858 to review conditions, progress, and needs, and to make recommendations for the future. ThisCommission reported in 1861. It stated that one in every eight of thepopulation was then in some kind of school; gave statistics as toconditions (R. 303 a); and held that the plan of leaving popular educationto the voluntary initiative of communities had been justified by theresults. The report presented no plan for national organization, butrecommended a number of minor changes in conditions. In particular itrecommended the introduction of the system of "payment by results"--thatis, of making money grants to schools on the basis of the number of pupilspassing set examinations in reading, writing, and arithmetic (R. 303 b). This plan was begun in 1862, and the consequent drop in money grants for afew years thereafter is shown in the curves of the chart. The otherCommission, appointed, known as the Taunton Schools Inquiry Commission(1864-67), dealt with the old endowed schools, and in particular calledattention to the lack of secondary-school facilities, especially in thecities, and recommended an extension of secondary-school facilities and ademocratization of the whole system of secondary education. The importantlegislation of this period was the freeing of the old universities fromChurch-of-England control (R. 305) and making them national in spirit. 

[Illustration: FIG. 192. EXPENDITURE FROM THE EDUCATION GRANTS, 1839-70Between 1833 and 1839 no Government regulation of grants. The abovefigures do not include administration expenses, or grants made to Scotland(about the same in amount as the Br. & F. S. Soc. ) or to the ParochialSchools Union (very small). The drop in the curve between 1862 and 1867was due to the introduction of the "payment by results" plan. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 193 LORD MACAULAY (1800-59)]

DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED. In the meantime liberal leaders, Schools InquiryCommissions, official reports, and educational propagandists continued topile up evidence as to the inadequacy of the old voluntary system. A fewexamples, out of hundreds that might be cited, will be mentioned here. Lord Macaulay, in an address made in Parliament, in 1847 (R. 300), defending a "Minute" of the "Committee of Privy Council on Education"(created in 1839) proposing the nationalization of education, held it tobe "the right and duty of the State to provide for the education of thecommon people, " as an exercise of self-protection, and warned the Commonsof dangers to come if the progressive tendencies of the time were notlistened to. The Census Returns of 1851, as well as the abundance of datapublished by the Schools Inquiry Commissions, were effectively used toreveal the inadequate provisions for the education of the masses. TheReports of the school inspectors, too, revealed conditions in need ofbeing remedied in all phases of educational effort. The Report on theApprenticing of Pauper Children (R. 301) is selected as typical of manysimilar reports. 

 FACTS REVEALED BY THE CENSUS OF 1851

 Items 1833 1851

(1) Population of England and Wales 14, 400, 000 17, 927, 609(2) Middle and upper classes population 2, 000, 000 2, 489, 945(3) Laboring class populations 12, 400, 000 15, 437, 664(4) Population 3-12 years of age of (2) 420, 000 522, 888(5) Population 3-12 years of age of (3) 2, 604, 000 3, 241, 919(6) Number of schools for children of (2) 14, 807 16, 324(7) Number of schools for children of (3) 24, 074 29, 718(8) Pupils of class (2) in schools 481, 728 546, 396(9) Pupils of class (3) in schools 705, 219 1, 597, 982(10) Percentage of children of class (2) at school 114. 6 104. 4(11) Percentage of children of class (3) at school 30. 5 49. 2

So deeply ingrained, though, was the English conception of education as aprivate and voluntary and religious affair and no business of the State;so self-contained were the English as a people; and so little did theyknow or heed the progress made in other lands, that the arguments fornational action encountered tremendous opposition from the Conservativeelements, and often were opposed even by Liberals. The reasoning of SirJames Kay-Shuttleworth (R. 302), Secretary of the Committee of Council onEducation and one of the clearest heads in England in his day, who heldthat a fee for instruction had a moral value and vindicated personalfreedom, and who resented the interference of the State in the matter of aparent's relation to his child, was typical of thousands of others. EdwardBaines (1774-1848), proprietor of the _Leeds Mercury_, the chief Liberalorgan in northern England, bitterly opposed any action looking towardnationalizing education. He expressed the feeling of many when he wrote:

 Civil government is no fit agency for the training of families or of souls.... Throw the people on their own resources in education, as you did in industry; and be assured, that, in a nation so full of intelligence and spirit, Freedom and Competition will give the same stimulus to improvement in our schools, as they have done in our manufactures, our husbandry, our shipping, and our commerce. 

THE BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL ORGANIZATION. By 1865 it had become evident toa majority that the voluntary system, whatever its merits, would neversucceed in educating the nation, and from this time forth the demand forsome acceptable scheme for the organization of national education became apart of a still more general movement for political and social reform. Once more, as in 1832-33, an education law was enacted following thepassage of a bill for electoral reform and the extension of the suffrage. 

Though the Liberal Party was in power, it was well satisfied with theReform Act of 1832 because through it the middle classes of thepopulation, which the Liberal Party represented, had gained control of thegovernment. The country, though, was not--the working-classes inparticular demanding a share in the government. Finally the demand becametoo strong to be resisted, and the Second Reform Act, of 1867, became alaw. This abolished a number of the remaining smaller boroughs, andgreatly extended the right to vote. In the country the amount of propertyto be owned to vote was reduced from £10 to £5, and the leasehold valuefrom £50 to £12. In the cities and towns the vote was now given to allhouseholders, and to all lodgers who paid a yearly rental of £10. Thislegislation gave the vote to a vastly increased number of people, particularly city workers, [30] and was a political revolution for Englandof great magnitude. 

From the passage of this new Reform Act to 1870, the organization ofnational education only awaited the formulation of some acceptable scheme. "We must educate our new masters, " now became a common expression. Themain question was how to create schools to do what the voluntary schoolshad shown themselves able to do for a part, but were unable to do for all, without at the same time destroying the vast denominational system [31]that, in spite of its defects, had "done the great service of rearing arace of teachers, spreading schools, setting up a standard of education, and generally making the introduction of a national system possible. " Theway in which these "vested interests" were cared for was typicallyEnglish, and characteristic of the strong sense of obligation of theEnglish people. In 1870 a compromise law was proposed and carried. Mr. Gladstone, then Prime Minister, stated the attitude of the Government inframing the new law, when he said: [32]

 It was with us an absolute necessity--a necessity of honour and a necessity of policy--to respect and to favour the educational establishments and machinery we found existing in the country. It was impossible for us to join in the language or to adopt the tone which was conscientiously and consistently taken up by some members of the House, who look upon these voluntary schools, having generally a denominational character, as admirable passing expedients, fit, indeed, to be tolerated for a time, deserving all credit on account of the motives which led to their foundation, but wholly unsatisfactory as to their main purpose, and therefore to be supplanted by something they think better.... That has never been the theory of the Government.... When we are approaching this great work, which we desire to make complete, we ought to have a sentiment of thankfulness that so much has been done for us. 

[Illustration: FIG. 194. WORK OF THE SCHOOL BOARDS IN PROVIDING SCHOOLACCOMMODATIONSLondon taken as a type. Note the deficiency in school accommodation in1838, that the voluntary schools made no appreciable gain on thisdeficiency up to 1870, the attempt to cope with the situation between 1871and 1874, and the long pull of the new Board schools necessary to providesufficient schools and seats. ]

Accordingly the Elementary Education Bill of 1870 (R. 304) preserved theexisting Voluntary Schools; divided the country up into school districts;gave the denominations a short period in which to provide schools, withaid for buildings; [33] and thereafter, in any place where a deficiency inschool accommodations could be shown to exist; School Boards were to beelected, and they should have power to levy taxes and maintain elementaryschools. Existing Voluntary Schools might be transferred to the SchoolBoards, whose schools were to be known as Board Schools. The schools werenot ordered made free, but the fees of necessitous children were to beprovided for by the School Boards, and they might compel the attendance ofall children between the ages of five and twelve. Inspection and grantswere limited to secular subjects, though religious teaching was notforbidden. The central government was to be secular and neutral; the localboards might decide as they saw fit. Such were the beginnings of nationaleducation in England. That the new Board Schools met a real need, especially in the cities, is shown by the chart on the preceding page, giving the results in London. 

IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM

PROGRESS UNDER THE LAW OF 1870. Beginning in 1871 the Board Schools had, by 1893, come to enroll 41 per cent of the pupils in elementary schools inEngland, as against 44 per cent in Voluntary Schools, and by 1903 theproportions were 49 per cent to 39 per cent. By 1902 the government grantsfor maintenance had reached, for all schools, £8, 000, 000 a year, and theBoard Schools were rapidly outrunning the Voluntary Schools both innumbers and in per-capita expenditures. The Board Schools had made theirgreatest headway in the cities. In 1895 there were still some 11, 000 smallparishes which had no Board Schools, and in consequence paid no directtaxes for schools. Of these, 8000 had only Church-of-England VoluntarySchools. 

In 1880 elementary education had been made fully compulsory, and in 1891largely free. In 1893 the age for exemption from attendance was fixed ateleven, and in 1899 this was raised to twelve. In 1888 county and boroughcouncils had been created, better to enforce the Act and to extendsupervision. The _Annual Codes_, from 1870 to 1902, gradually extendedgovernmental control through more and more detailed instructions as toinspection, the addition of new subjects, and better compulsion to attend. In 1899 a Central Board of Education, under a President and aParliamentary Secretary, was created, to consolidate in one body the workformerly done by:

 a. The Committee of Council on Education (established 1839), which administered the grants for elementary education. 

 b. The Department of Science and Art (established 1853), which administered the grants for special and evening instruction in science and art. 

 c. The Charity Commissioners, to which had been given (1874) supervision of the old educational trusts and endowments for education. 

 d. The educational functions of the Board of Agriculture. 

This new Board unified the administration of elementary and secondaryeducation for the first time in English history. 

By about 1895 the strain on the Voluntary Schools had become hard to bear. The Church resented the encroachments of the State on its ancientprivilege of training the young, and the larger resources which the BoardSchools could command. In 1895 the Conservative party won theparliamentary elections, and remained in power for some years. This wasthe opportunity of the Voluntary Schools, and in 1897 a special national-aid grant of five shillings per pupil in average daily attendance was madeto the Voluntary Schools. This simply increased the generaldissatisfaction, and there was soon a general demand for new legislationthat would reconcile the whole question of national education. The Law of1902 was the ultimate result. 

THE ANNEXATION LAW OF 1902. The Balfour Education Act of 1902 marks thebeginning of a new period in English education. For the first time inEnglish history education of all grades--elementary, secondary, andhigher; voluntary and state--was brought under the control of one singlelocal authority, and Voluntary Schools were taken over and made a chargeon the "rates" equally with the Board Schools. New local EducationalCommittees and Councils replaced the old School Boards, and all secularinstruction in state-aided schools of all types was now placed under theircontrol. Religious instruction could continue where desired. In addition, one third of the property of England, which had heretofore escaped alldirect taxation for education, was now compelled to pay its proper share. The foundation principle that "the wealth of the. State must educate thechildren of the State" was now applied, for the first time. 

The State now abandoned the old policy of merely supervising and assistingvoluntary associations to maintain schools, in competition with state-provided schools, and assumed the whole responsibility for the secularinstruction of the people. Though the law awakened intense opposition fromthose who felt that it "riveted the hand of the cleric on the schools ofthe land, " it nevertheless equalized and unified educational provisions;paved the way for much future progress; made the general provision ofsecondary education possible; and represented an important new step in theprocess of creating a national system of education for the people. Underthis Law much has been done by the new Central Board of Education, andsubsequent supplementary legislation, to increase materially theefficiency of the education provided. 

Since 1902 the cost for education per pupil has been increased more thanone half. The local authorities, to whom were given large powers ofcontrol, have levied taxes liberally, and the State has also increased itsgrants. Since 1902 also there has been a continual agitation for aresettlement of the educational question along broad national lines. Billshave been introduced, and important committees have considered the matter, but no affirmative action was taken. By the time of the opening of theWorld War it may be said that English opinion had about agreed upon theprinciple of public control of all schools, absolute religious freedom forteachers, local option as to religious instruction, large local liberty inmanagement and control, well-trained and well-paid teachers, and thefusing of all types of schools into a democratic and truly national schoolsystem, strong in its unity and national elements, but free fromcentralized bureaucratic control. It was left for the World War to giveemphasis to this national need and to permit the final creation of such aneducational organization. 

THE INCORPORATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION INTO THE NATIONAL SYSTEM. Forcenturies the education of the small ruling class has been conducted bythe private tutor and the endowed secondary school, and had been completedby a few years at Oxford or Cambridge. The Reform Bill of 1832 had raisedthe middle commercial and industrial classes to power, and had created newdemands for secondary and higher education for the sons of this class. Theold endowed schools were now no longer sufficient in numbers, and theresult was the founding of many private and joint-stock-company secondaryschools to minister to the new educational needs. The Second Reform Billof 1867 enfranchised a very much greater number of citizens, and theincreasing wealth and the increasing demands for educational advantagesled to an insistence for a further extension along secondary and higherlines. The result was seen in the investigation of the nine "Great PublicSchools" of England, [34] by the Lord Clarendon Commission (1861-64); andthe appointment of the British Schools Inquiry Commission of 1864-67, toinquire into the 820 other endowed schools and the 122 proprietary orjoint-stock-company schools of the land. The Report of the first led tothe Public Schools Act of 1868, reforming abuses and regulating the use oftheir old endowments. The second pointed out the great deficiency thenexisting in secondary education, [35] and led to the enactment of theEndowed Schools Act of 1869, placing all endowed schools under centralizedsupervision. We see here the beginnings of state supervision and controlof the age-old endowments for Latin grammar schools and other types ofschools for secondary training. The repeal of the old Religious-Tests-for-Degrees legislation, at the old universities (R. 305), in 1871, transformed these from Church-of-England into national institutions, andopened up the whole range of education to all who could meet the standardsand pay the fees. 

Under the Act of 1870 many local school boards, especially in themanufacturing cities, began to satisfy the new needs by the organizationof Higher Grade Schools, or High Schools, to supplement the work of theelementary schools and to extend upward, in a truly democratic fashion, the educational ladder. In this movement the manufacturing cities ofSheffield, Birmingham, and Manchester were the leaders. In these threecities also, as well as in four others (Bristol, Leeds, Liverpool, andLondon) [36] new modern-type universities were created. The Department ofScience and Art (created in 1853) also began, in 1872, to give largegrants to the cities for the establishment of a three-years' course inscience, for the encouragement of scientific training. These newsecondary-type schools, providing for the direct passage of children fromthe elementary to the secondary schools, with many free places for capablestudents, served to increase the friction between rate-aided schools onthe one hand, and voluntary and endowed and proprietary schools on theother. Carrying out, as they did, Huxley's idea of a broad educationalladder, [37] they also represented a very democratic innovation in Englisheducational procedure. 

In 1894 a Commission--a favorite English method for considering vexatiousquestions--was appointed, under the chairmanship of Mr. James (afterwardsLord) Bryce, "to consider the best methods of establishing a well-organized system of secondary education in England. " The Report wasimportant and influential. It recommended the creation of a general Boardof Education under a responsible government Minister, with a permanentSecretary and a Consultative Educational Council (as was done in 1899);the establishment of local county and borough boards to provide adequatesecondary-school accommodations, with aid from the "rates"; the inspectionof secondary schools by the Central Board of Education; the professionaltraining of secondary-school teachers; and a great extension of the free-scholarship plan to children from the elementary schools. On this lastpoint the Report said: [38]

 We have to consider the means whereby the children of the less well- to-do classes of our population may be enabled to obtain such secondary education as may be suitable and needful for them. As we have not recommended that secondary education shall be provided free of cost to the whole community, we deem it all the more needful that ample provision be made by every local authority for enabling selected children of poorer parents to climb the educational ladder.... The assistance we have contemplated should be given by means of a carefully graduated system of scholarships, varying in value in the age at which they are awarded and the class of school or institution at which they are tenable. 

The Act of 1902 unified control of both elementary and secondaryeducation. Any private or endowed secondary school was left free to acceptor reject government aid and inspection, but, if the aid were accepted, inspection and the following of government plans were required. Secondaryeducation must provide for scholars up to or beyond the age of sixteen. Noattempt was made to unify the work and character of the secondary schools, it being clearly recognized that, in England at least, these must besuited to the different requirements of the scholars, the means of theparents, the age at which schooling will stop, and the probable place inthe social organism of England which the pupils will occupy. By 1910, outof 841 secondary schools in England receiving grants of state aid, 325were supported by local authorities and were the creations of thepreceding four decades. Most of the others represented old Latin grammar-school foundations, thus incorporated into the national system, andwithout that violence and destruction of endowments which characterizedthe transformations in France and Italy. 

[Illustration: FIG. 195. THE ENGLISH EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AS FINALLY EVOLVEDThe years, for the divisions of English education, are only approximate, as English education is more flexible than that found in most otherlands. ]

A NATIONAL SYSTEM AT LAST EVOLVED. It is a little more than two centuriesfrom the founding of the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge(1699) to the very important Fisher Education Act [39] of August, 1918. The first marked the beginnings of the voluntary system; the second "thefirst real attempt in England to lay broad and deep the foundations of ascheme of education which would be truly national. " This Act, passed byParliament in the midst of a war which called upon the English people forheavy sacrifices, completed the evolution of two centuries and organizedthe educational resources--elementary, secondary, evening, adult, technical, and higher--into one national system, animated by a nationalpurpose, and aimed at the accomplishment for the nation of twentieth-century ends on the most democratic basis of any school system in Europe. In so doing Huxley's educational ladder has not only been changed into abroad highway, but the educational traditions of England (R. 306) havebeen preserved and moulded anew. 

The central national supervisory authority has been still furtherstrengthened; the compulsion to attend greatly extended; and the voice ofthe State has been uttered in a firmer tone than ever before in Englisheducational history. Taxes have been increased; the scope of the schoolsystem extended; all elements of the system better integrated; laggardlocal educational authorities subjected to firmer control; the training ofteachers looked after more carefully than ever before; and the foundationsfor unlimited improvement and progress in education laid down. Still, indoing all this, the deep English devotion to local liberties has beenclearly revealed. The dangers of a centralized French-type educationalbureaucracy have been avoided; necessary, and relatively high, minimumstandards have been set up, but without sacrificing that variety which hasalways been one of the strong points of English educational effort; andthe legitimate claims of the State have been satisfied without destroyinglocal initiative and independence. In this story of two centuries and moreof struggle to create a really national system of education for the peoplewe see strongly revealed those prominent characteristics of Englishnational progress--careful consideration of new ideas, keen sensitivenessto vested rights, strong sense of local liberties and responsibilities, large dependence on local effort and good sense, progress by compromise, and a slow grafting-on of the best elements of what is new withoutsacrificing the best elements of what is old. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Show that the English method of slow progress and after long discussionwould naturally result in a plan bearing evidence of many compromises. 

2. What does the extensive Charity-School movement in eighteenth-centuryEngland indicate as to the comparative general interest in learning inEngland and the other lands we have previously studied?

3. Show how the Sunday-School instruction, meager as it was, was veryimportant in England in paving the way for further educational progress. 

4. What do all the different late eighteenth-century voluntary educationalmovements indicate as to comparative popular interest in education inEngland and Prussia? England and France?

5. Can you explain the much greater percentage of city poor in England inthe late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries than in French orGerman lands?

6. Can you explain why periods of prolonged warfare are usually followedby periods of social and political unrest?

7. Can you explain why Pestalozzian ideas found such slow acceptance inEngland?

8. Explain, on the basis of the English adult manufacturing conception ofeducation, why monitorial instruction was hailed as "a new expedient, parallel and rival to the modern inventions in the mechanicaldepartments. "

9. To what extent do we now accept Robert Owen's conception of theinfluence of education on children?

10. Show how the many philanthropic societies for the education of thechildren of the poor came in as a natural transition from church to stateeducation. 

11. Show the importance of the School Societies in accustoming people tothe idea of free and general education. 

12. Show how the Lancastrian system formed a natural bridge betweenprivate philanthropy in education and tax-supported state schools. 

13. Why were the highly mechanical features of the Lancastrianorganization so advantageous in its day, whereas we of to-day would regardthem as such a disadvantage?

14. Explain how the Lancastrian schools dignified the work of the teacherby revealing the need for teacher-training. 

15. Assuming that there may be some validity to the arguments of Kay-Shuttleworth, what are the limitations to such reasoning?

16. What theory as to education would naturally lie behind a "payment-by-results" plan of distributing state aid?

17. Show how English educational development during the nineteenth centuryhas been deeply modified by the progress of democracy. 

18. Show how the English have attained to minimum standards withoutimposing uniform requirements that destroy individuality and initiative. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following illustrativeselections are reproduced:

 291. Parliamentary Report: Charity-School Education described. 292. S. P. C. K. : Cost and Support of Charity-Schools. 293. Raikes: Description of the Gloucester Sunday Schools. 294. Guthrie: Organization, Support, and Work of a Ragged School. 295. Smith, A. : On the Education of the Common People. 296. Malthus: On National Education. 297. Smith, S. : The School of Lancaster described. 298. Philanthropist: Automatic Character of the Monitorial Schools. 299. Montmorency, de: The First Parliamentary Grant for Education. 300. Macaulay: On the Duty of the State to Provide Education. 301. Mosely: Evils of Apprenticing the Children of Paupers. 302. Kay-Shuttleworth: Typical Reasoning in Opposition to Free Schools. 303. Macnamera: The Duke of Newcastle Commission Report. 304. Statute: Elementary Education Act of 1870. 305. Statute: Abolition of Religious Tests at the Universities. 306. Times: The Educational Traditions of England. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Characterize the type of education described by the witness (291). 

2. Considering equipment provided and comparative money values, then andnow, about how much of an effort did support (292) involve?

3. What class of children did Raikes (293) make provision for?

4. Characterize the type of education provided (294) in the RaggedSchools. 

5. Would Adam Smith's reasoning (295) still hold true?

6. Would that of Malthus (296)?

7. Indicate the improvements Lancaster had made (297, 298) in organizationand teaching efficiency. 

8. Was the first English parliamentary grant (299) expressive of deepnational interest?

9. Would Macaulay's reasoning (300) still be true?

10. Is it probable that the apprenticing of paupers had always given such(301) results?

11. How sound was Kay-Shuttleworth's reasoning (302)?

12. What merit was there to the "payment-by-results" recommendation of theDuke of Newcastle Commission (303)?

13. Just what kind of schools did the Act of 1870 (304) make provisionfor?

14. Have we ever had such religious requirements as those so longmaintained (305) at the English universities?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

 Allen, W. O. B. And McClure, E. _Two Hundred Years; History of S. P. C. K. 1698-1898_. Adams, Francis. _History of the Elementary School Contest in England_. * Binns, H. B. _A Century of Education, 1808-1908, History of the British and Foreign School Society_. * Birchenough, C. _History of Elementary Education in England and Wales since 1800_. Escott, T. H. S. _Social Transformations of the Victorian Era_. Harris, J. H. _Robert Raikes; the Man and his Work_. * Holman, H. _English National Education_. * Montmorency, J. E. G. De. _The Progress of Education in England_. * Montmorency, J. E. G. De. _State Intervention in English Education to 1833_. * Salmon, David. _Joseph Lancaster_. 

CHAPTER XXV

AWAKENING AN EDUCATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE UNITED STATES

I. EARLY NATIONAL ATTITUDES AND INTERESTS

THE AMERICAN PROBLEM. The beginnings of state educational organization inthe United States present quite a different history from that traced forPrussia, France, Italy, or England. While the parochial school existed inthe Central Colonies, and in time had to be subordinated to state ends;and while the idea of education as a charity had been introduced into allthe Anglican Colonies, and later had to be stamped out; the problem ofeducational organization in America was not, as in Europe, one of bringingchurch schools and old educational foundations into harmonious workingrelations with the new state school systems set up. Instead the oldeducational foundations were easily transformed to adapt them to the newconditions, while only in the Central Colonies did the religious-charityconception of education give any particular trouble. The Americaneducational problem was essentially that of first awakening, in a newland, a consciousness of need for general education; and second, that ofdeveloping a willingness to pay for what it finally came to be deemeddesirable to provide. 

By the middle of the eighteenth century, as we have pointed out (p. 438), the earlier religious interests in America had clearly begun to wane. Inthe New England Colonies the school of the civil town had largely replacedthe earlier religious school. In the Middle Colonies many of the parochialschools had died out. In the Southern Colonies, where the classes insociety and negro slavery made common schools impossible, and the lack ofcity life and manufacturing made them seem largely unnecessary, the commonschool had tended to disappear. Even in New England, where the Calvinisticconception of the importance of education had most firmly established theidea of school support, the eighteenth century witnessed a constantstruggle to prevent the dying-out of that which an earlier generation haddeemed it important to create. 

EFFECT OF THE WAR ON EDUCATION. The effect of the American War forIndependence, on all types of schools, was disastrous. The growingtroubles with the mother country had, for more than a decade previous tothe opening of hostilities, tended to concentrate attention on othermatters than schooling. Political discussion and agitation had largelymonopolized the thinking of the time. 

With the outbreak of the war education everywhere suffered seriously. Mostof the rural and parochial schools closed, or continued a more or lessintermittent existence. In New York City, then the second largest city inthe country, practically all schools closed with British occupancy andremained closed until after the end of the war. The Latin grammar schoolsand academies often closed from lack of pupils, while the colleges werealmost deserted. Harvard and Kings, in particular, suffered grievously, and sacrificed much for the cause of liberty. The war engrossed theenergies and the resources of the peoples of the different Colonies, andschools, never very securely placed in the affections of the people, outside of New England, were allowed to fall into decay or entirelydisappear. The period of the Revolution and the period of reorganizationwhich followed, up to the beginning of the national government (1775-89), were together a time of rapid decline in educational advantages andincreasing illiteracy among the people. Meager as had been theopportunities for schooling before 1775, the opportunities by 1790, exceptin a few cities and in the New England districts, had shrunk almost to thevanishing point. For Boston (R. 307), Providence (Rs. 309, 310), and anumber of other places we have good pictures preserved of the schoolswhich actually did exist. 

The close of the war found the country both impoverished and exhausted. All the Colonies had made heavy sacrifices, many had been overrun byhostile armies, and the debt of the Union and of the States was so greatthat many thought it could never be paid. The thirteen States, individually and collectively, with only 3, 380, 000 people, had incurred anindebtedness of $75, 000, 000 for the prosecution of the conflict. Commercewas dead, the Government of the Confederation was impotent, pettyinsurrections were common, the States were quarreling continually with oneanother over all kinds of trivial matters, England still remained more orless hostile, and foreign complications began to appear. That during sucha crucial period, and for some years following, but little or no attentionwas anywhere given to the question of education was only natural. 

NO REAL EDUCATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS BEFORE ABOUT 1820. Regardless of thenational land grants for education made to the new States (p. 523), theprovisions of the different state constitutions (R. 259), the beginningsmade here and there in the few cities of the time, and the early statelaws (R. 262), it can hardly be said that the American people haddeveloped an educational consciousness, outside of New England and NewYork, before about 1820, and in some of the States, especially in theSouth, a state educational consciousness was not awakened until very muchlater. Even in New England there was a steady decline in education duringthe first fifty years of the national history. 

There were many reasons in the national life for this lack of interest ineducation among the masses of the people. The simple agricultural life ofthe time, the homogeneity of the people, the absence of cities, theisolation and independence of the villages, the lack of full manhoodsuffrage in a number of the States, the want of any economic demand foreducation, and the fact that no important political question calling forsettlement at the polls had as yet arisen, made the need for schools andlearning seem a relatively minor one. The country, too, was still verypoor. The Revolutionary War debt still hung in part over the Nation, andthe demand for money and labor for all kinds of internal improvements wasvery large. The country had few industries, and its foreign trade wasbadly hampered by European nations. Ways and means of strengthening theexisting Government and holding the Union together, [1] rather than planswhich could bear fruit only in the future, occupied the attention of theleaders of the time. 

When the people had finally settled their political and commercial futureby the War of 1812-14, and had built up a national consciousness on ademocratic basis in the years immediately following, and the Nation atlast possessed the energy, the money, and the interest for doing so, theyfinally turned their energies toward the creation of a democratic systemof public schools. In the meantime, education, outside of New England, andin part even there, was left largely to private individuals, churches, incorporated school societies, and such state schools for the children ofthe poor as might have been provided by private or state funds, or the twocombined. 

THE REAL INTEREST IN ADVANCED EDUCATION. In so far as the American peoplemay be said to have possessed a real interest in education during thefirst half-century of the national existence, it was manifested in theestablishment and endowment of academies and colleges rather than in thecreation of schools for the people. The colonial Latin grammar school hadbeen almost entirely an English institution, and never well suited toAmerican needs. As democratic consciousness began to arise, the demandcame for a more practical institution, less exclusive and lessaristocratic in character, and better adapted in its instruction to theneeds of a frontier society. Arising about the middle of the eighteenthcentury, a number of so-called Academies had been founded before the newNational Government took shape. While essentially private institutions, arising from a church foundation, or more commonly a local subscription orendowment, it became customary for towns, counties, and States to assistin their maintenance, thus making them semi-public institutions. Theirmanagement, though, usually remained in private hands, or under boards orassociations. [2]

Beside offering a fair type of higher training [3] before the days of highschools, the academies also became training-schools for teachers, andbefore the rise of the normal schools were the chief source of supply forthe better grade of elementary teachers. These institutions rendered animportant service during the first half of the nineteenth century, butwere in time displaced by the publicly supported and publicly controlledAmerican high school, the first of which dates from 1821. This evolutionwe shall describe more in detail a little later on. 

THE COLLEGES OF THE TIME. Some interest also was taken in collegeeducation during this early national period. College attendance, however, was small, as the country was still new and the people were poor. As lateas 1815, Harvard graduated a class of but 66; Yale of 69; Princeton of 40;Williams of 40; Pennsylvania of 15; and the University of South Carolinaof 37. After the organization of the Union the nine old colonial collegeswere reorganized, and an attempt was made to bring them into closerharmony with the ideas and needs of the people and the governments of theStates. Dartmouth, Kings (now rechristened Columbia), and Pennsylvaniawere for a time changed into state institutions, and an unsuccessfulattempt was made to make a state university for Virginia out of Williamand Mary. Fifteen additional colleges were organized by 1800, and fourteenmore by 1820. Between 1790 and 1825 there was much discussion as to thedesirability of founding a national university at the seat of government, and Washington in his will (1799) left, for that time, a considerable sumto the Nation to inaugurate the new undertaking. Nothing ever came of it, however. Before 1825 six States--Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Indiana, and Michigan--had laid the foundations of future stateuniversities. The National Government had also granted to each new WesternState two entire townships of land to help endow a university in each--astimulus which eventually led to the establishment of a state universityin every Western State. 

A HALF-CENTURY OF TRANSITION. The first half-century of the national lifemay be regarded as a period of transition from the church-control idea ofeducation over to the idea of education under the control of and supportedby the State. Though many of the early States had provided for stateschool systems in their constitutions (R. 259), the schools had not beenset up, or set up only here and there. It required time to make thischange in thinking. Up to the period of the beginnings of our nationaldevelopment education had almost everywhere been regarded as an affair ofthe Church, somewhat akin to baptism, marriage, the administration of thesacraments, and the burial of the dead. Even in New England, which formedan exception, the evolution of the civic school from the church school wasnot yet complete. 

The church charity-school had become, as we have seen (p. 449), a familiarinstitution before the Revolution. The English "Society for thePropagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts" (p. 449), which maintainedschools in connection with the Anglican churches in the Anglican Coloniesand provided an excellent grade of charity-school master, withdrew at theclose of the Revolutionary War from work in this country. The differentchurches after the war continued their efforts to maintain their churchcharity-schools, though there was for a time a decrease in both theirnumbers and their effectiveness. 

In the meantime the demand for education grew rather rapidly, and the tasksoon became too big for the churches to handle. For long the churches madean effort to keep up, as they were loath to relinquish in any way theirformer hold on the training of the young. The churches, however, were notinterested in the problem except in the old way, and this was not what thenew democracy wanted. The result was that, with the coming of nationalityand the slow but gradual growth of a national consciousness, nationalpride, national needs, and the gradual development of national resourcesin the shape of taxable property--all alike combined to make secularinstead of religious schools seem both desirable and possible to aconstantly increasing number of citizens. 

II. AWAKENING AN EDUCATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS

Between about 1810 and 1830 a number of new forces--philanthropic, political, social, economic--combined to change the earlier attitude byproducing conditions which made state rather than church control andsupport of education seem both desirable and feasible. The change, too, was markedly facilitated by the work of a number of semi-privatephilanthropic agencies which now began the work of founding schools andbuilding up an interest in education, the most important of which were:(1) the Sunday-School movement; (2) the City School Societies; (3) theLancastrian movement; and (4) the Infant-School Societies. These will bedescribed briefly, and their influence in awakening an educationalconsciousness pointed out. 

THE SUNDAY-SCHOOL MOVEMENT. The Sunday School, as a means of providing themerest rudiments of secular and religious learning, had been made, throughthe initiative of Raikes of Gloucester (p. 617), a very important Englishinstitution for providing the beginnings of instruction for the childrenof the city poor. Raikes's idea was soon carried to the United States. In1786 a Sunday School after the Raikes plan was organized in HanoverCounty, Virginia. In 1787 a Sunday School for African children wasorganized at Charleston, South Carolina. In 1791 "The First Day, or SundaySchool Society, " was organized at Philadelphia, for the establishment ofSunday Schools in that city. In 1793 Katy Ferguson's "School for the Poor"was opened in New York, and this was followed by an organization of NewYork women for the extension of secular instruction among the poor. In1797 Samuel Slater's Factory School was opened at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. 

Though there had been some Sunday instruction earlier at a few places inNew England, the introduction of the Sunday School from England, in 1786, marked the real beginning of the religious Sunday School in America. Afterthe churches had once caught the idea of a common religious school onSundays for the instruction of any one, a number of societies were formedto carry on and extend the work. The most important of these were:

 1808. The Evangelical Society of Philadelphia. 1816. The Female Union for the Promotion of Sabbath Schools (New York). 1816. The New York Sunday School Union. 1816. The Boston Society for the Moral and Religious Instruction of the Poor. 1817. The Philadelphia Sunday and Adult School Union. 1824. The American Sunday School Union. 

These different types of American Sunday Schools, being open to allinstead of only to the poor and lowly, had a small but an increasinginfluence in leveling class distinctions and in making a common day schoolseem possible. The movement for secular instruction on Sundays, though, soon met in America with the opposition of the churches, and before longthey took over the idea, superseded private initiative and control, andchanged the character of the instruction from a day of secular work to anhour or so of religious teaching. The Sunday School, in consequence, neverexercised the influence in educational development in America that it didin England. 

THE CITY SCHOOL SOCIETIES. These were patterned after the English charity-school subscription societies, and were formed in a number of Americancities during the first quarter of the nineteenth century for the purposeof providing the rudiments of an education to those too poor to pay forschooling. These Societies were usually organized by philanthropiccitizens, willing to contribute something yearly to provide some littleeducation for a few of the many children in the city having noopportunities for any instruction. A number of these Societies were ableto effect some financial connection with the city or the State. 

One of the first of these School Societies was "The Manumission Society, "organized in New York, in 1785, for the purpose of "mitigating the evilsof slavery, to defend the rights of the blacks, and especially to givethem the elements of an education. " Alexander Hamilton and John Jay wereamong its organizers. A free school for colored pupils was opened, in1787. This grew and prospered and was aided from time to time by the city, and in 1801 by the State. Finally, in 1834, all its schools were mergedwith those of the "Public School Society" of the city. In 1801 the firstfree school for poor white children "whose parents belong to no religioussociety, and who, from some cause or other, cannot be admitted into any ofthe charity schools of the city, " was opened. This was provided by the"Association of Women Friends for the Relief of the Poor, " which engaged"a widow woman of good education and morals as instructor" at £30 peryear. This Association also prospered, and received some city or state aidup to 1824. By 1823 it was providing free elementary education for 750children. Its schools also were later merged with those of the "PublicSchool Society. "

"THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SOCIETY. " Perhaps the most famous of all the earlysubscription societies for the maintenance of schools for the poor was the"New York Free School Society, " which later changed its name to that of"The Public School Society of New York. " This was organized, in 1805, under the leadership of De Witt Clinton, then mayor of the city, heheading the subscription list with a promise of $200 a year for support. On May 14, 1806, the following advertisement appeared in the daily papers:

 FREE SCHOOL

 The Trustees of the Society for establishing a Free School in the city of New York, for the education of such poor children as do not belong to, or are not provided for by any religious Society, having engaged a Teacher, and procured a School House for the accommodation of a School, have now the pleasure of announcing that it is proposed to receive scholars of the descriptions alluded to without delay; applications may be made to, &c. 

Four days later the officers of the Society issued a general appeal to thepublic (R. 311), setting forth the purposes of the Society and solicitingfunds. 

[Illustration: FIG. 196. THE FIRST SCHOOLHOUSE BUILT BY THE FREE SCHOOLSOCIETY IN NEW YORK CITYBuilt in 1809, in Tryon Row. Cost, without site, $13, 000. ]

This Society was chartered by the legislature "to provide schooling forall children who are the proper objects of a gratuitous education. " Itorganized free public education in the city, secured funds, builtschoolhouses, provided and trained teachers, and ably supplemented thework of the private and church schools. By its energy and its persistenceit secured for itself a large share of public confidence, and aroused aconstantly increasing interest in the cause of popular education. In 1853, after it had educated over 600, 000 children and trained over 1200teachers, this Society, its work done, surrendered its charter and turnedover its buildings and equipment to the public-school department of thecity, which had been created by the legislature in 1842. 

SCHOOL SOCIETIES ELSEWHERE. The "Benevolent Society of the City ofBaltimore for the Education of the Female Poor, " founded in 1799, and the"Male Free Society of Baltimore, " organized a little later, were other ofthese early school societies, though neither became so famous as thePublic School Society of New York. The schools of the city of Washingtonwere started by subscription, in 1804, and for some time were in partsupported by subscriptions from public-spirited citizens. [4] This societydid an important work in accustoming the people of the capital city to theprovision of some form of free education. 

In 1800 "The Philadelphia Society [5] for the Free Instruction of IndigentBoys" was formed, which a little later changed to "The PhiladelphiaSociety for the Establishment and Support of Charity Schools. " In 1814"The Society for the Promotion of a Rational System of Education" wasorganized in Philadelphia, and four years later the public sentimentawakened by a combination of the work of this Society and the coming ofthe Lancastrian system of instruction enabled the city to secure a speciallaw permitting Philadelphia to organize a system of city schools for theeducation of the children of its poor. Other societies which rendereduseful educational service include the "Mechanics and ManufacturersAssociation, " of Providence, Rhode Island, organized in 1789 (Rs. 308, 310); "The Albany Lancastrian School Society, " organized in 1826, for theeducation of the poor of the city in monitorial schools; and the schoolsocieties organized in Savannah in 1818, and Augusta, in 1821, "to affordeducation to the children of indigent parents. " Both these Georgiasocieties received some support from state funds. 

The formation of these school societies, the subscriptions made by theleading men of the cities, the bequests for education, and the grants ofsome city and state aid to these societies, all of which in time becamesomewhat common, indicate a slowly rising interest in providing schoolsfor the education of all. This rising interest in education was greatlystimulated by the introduction from England, about this time, of a new andwhat for the time seemed a wonderful system for the organization ofeducation, the Lancastrian monitorial plan. 

THE LANCASTRIAN MONITORIAL SCHOOLS. Church-of-England ideas were not inmuch favor in the United States for some time after the close of theRevolutionary War, and in consequence it was the Lancastrian plan whichwas brought over and popularized. In 1806 the first monitorial school wasopened in New York City, and, once introduced, the system quickly spreadfrom Massachusetts to Georgia, and as far west as Cincinnati, Louisville, and Detroit. In 1826 Maryland instituted a state system of Lancastrianschools, with a Superintendent of Public Instruction, but in 1828abandoned the idea and discontinued the office. A state Lancastrian systemfor North Carolina was proposed in 1832, but failed of adoption by thelegislature. In 1829 Mexico organized higher Lancastrian schools for theMexican State of Texas. In 1818 Lancaster himself went to America, and wasreceived with much distinction. Most of the remaining twenty years of hislife were spent in organizing and directing schools in various parts ofthe United States. 

In many of the rising cities of the eastern part of the country the firstfree schools established were Lancastrian schools. The system providededucation at so low a cost (p. 629) that it made the education of all forthe first time seem possible. [6] The first free schools in Philadelphia(1818) were an outgrowth of Lancastrian influence, as was also the case inmany other Pennsylvania cities. Baltimore began a Lancastrian school sixyears before the organization of public schools was permitted by law. Anumber of monitorial high schools were organized in different parts of theUnited States, and it was even proposed that the plan should be adopted inthe colleges. A number of New England cities, that already had other typeschools, investigated the new monitorial plan and were impressed with itsmany important points of superiority over methods then in use. The Reportof the Investigating Committee (1828) for Boston (R. 312), forms a goodexample of such. As in England, the system was very popular from about1810 to 1830, but by 1840 its popularity was over. 

THE INTEREST THE NEW PLAN AWAKENED. It is not strange that the new planaroused widespread enthusiasm in many discerning men, and for almost aquarter of a century was advocated as the best system of education thenknown. Two quotations will illustrate what leading men of the time thoughtof it. De Witt Clinton, for twenty-one years president of the New York"Free School Society, " and later governor of the State, wrote, in 1809:

 When I perceive that many boys in our school have been taught to read and write in two months, who did not before know the alphabet, and that even one has accomplished it in three weeks--when I view all the bearings and tendencies of this system--when I contemplate the habits of order which it forms, the spirit of emulation which it excites, the rapid improvement which it produces, the purity of morals which it inculcates--when I behold the extraordinary union of celerity in instruction and economy of expense--and when I perceive one great assembly of a thousand children, under the eye of a single teacher, marching with unexampled rapidity and with perfect discipline to the goal of knowledge, I confess that I recognize in Lancaster the benefactor of the human race. I consider his system as creating a new era in education, as a blessing sent down from heaven to redeem the poor and distressed of this world from the power and dominion of ignorance. 

In a message to the legislature of Connecticut, a State then fairly wellsupplied with schools of the Massachusetts district type, Governor Wolcottsaid, in 1825:

 If funds can be obtained to defray the expenses of the necessary preparations, I have no doubt that schools on the Lancastrian model ought, as soon as possible, to be established in several parts of this state. Wherever from 200 to 1000 children can be convened within a suitable distance, this mode of instruction in every branch of reading, speaking, penmanship, arithmetic, and bookkeeping, will be found much more efficient, direct, and economical than the practices now generally pursued in our primary schools. 

The Lancastrian schools materially hastened the adoption of the freeschool system in all the Northern States by gradually accustoming peopleto bearing the necessary taxation which free schools entail. They alsomade the common school common and much talked of, and awakened thought andprovoked discussion on the question of public education. They likewisedignified the work of the teacher by showing the necessity for teacher-training. The Lancastrian Model Schools, first established in the UnitedStates in 1818, were the precursors of the American normal schools. 

COMING OF THE INFANT SCHOOL. A curious early condition in America wasthat, in some of the cities where public schools had been established, byone agency or another, no provision had been made for beginners. Thesewere supposed to obtain the elements of reading at home, or in the DameSchools. In Boston, for example, where public schools were maintained bythe city, no children could be received into the schools who had notlearned to read and write (R. 314 a). This made the common age ofadmission somewhere near eight years. The same was in part true ofHartford, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and other cities. When themonitorial schools were established they tended to restrict theirmembership in a similar manner, though not always able to do so. 

In 1816 there came to America, also from England, a valuable supplement toeducation as then known in the form of the so-called Infant Schools (p. 630). First introduced at Boston (R. 313), the Infant Schools provedpopular, and in 1818 the city appropriated $5000 for the purpose oforganizing such schools to supplement the public-school system. These wereto admit children at four years of age, were to be known as primaryschools, were to be taught by women, were to be open all the year round, and were to prepare the children for admission to the city schools, whichby that time had come to be known as English grammar schools. Providence, similarly, established primary (Infant) schools in 1828 for childrenbetween the ages of four and eight, to supplement the work of the publicschools, there called writing schools. 

THE DAME SCHOOL ABSORBED. For New England the establishment of primaryschools virtually took over the Dame School instruction as a publicfunction, and added the primary grades to the previously existing school. We have here the origin of the division, often still retained at least inname in the Eastern States, of the "primary grades" and the "grammargrades" of the elementary school. 

[Illustration: FIG. 197 "MODEL" SCHOOL BUILDING OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLSOCIETYErected in 1843. Cost (with site), $17, 000. A typical New York schoolbuilding, after 1830. The infant or primary school was on the first floor, the second floor contains the girls' school, and the third floor the boys'school. Each floor had one large room seating 252 children; the primaryschoolroom could be divided into two rooms by folding doors, so as tosegregate the infant class. This building was for long regarded as theperfection of the builder's art, and its picture was printed for years onthe cover of the Society's Annual Reports. ]

An "Infant-School Society" was organized in New York, in 1827. The firstInfant School was established under the direction of the Public SchoolSociety as the "Junior Department" of School No. 8, with a woman teacherin charge, and using monitorial methods. A second school was establishedthe next year. In 1830 the name was changed from Infant School to PrimaryDepartment, and where possible these departments were combined with theexisting schools. In 1832 it was decided to organize ten primary schools, under women teachers, for children from four to ten years of age, andafter the Boston plan of instruction. This abandoned the monitorial planof instruction for the new Pestalozzian form, which was deemed bettersuited to the needs of the smaller children. By 1844 fifty-six PrimaryDepartments had been organized in connection with the upper schools of thecity. 

In Philadelphia three Infant-School Societies were founded in 1827-28, andsuch schools were at once established there. By 1830 the directors of theschool system had been permitted by the legislature of the State to expendpublic money for such schools, and thirty such, under women teachers, werein operation in the city by 1837. 

[Illustration: FIG. 198. EVOLUTION OF THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THEAMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM]

PRIMARY EDUCATION ORGANIZED. The Infant-School idea was soon somewhatgenerally adopted by the Eastern cities, and changed somewhat to make ofit an American primary school. Where children had not been previouslyadmitted to the schools without knowing how to read, as in Boston, theysupplemented the work of the public schools by adding a new schoolbeneath. Where the reverse had been the case, as in New York City, theorganization of Infant Schools as Junior Departments enabled the existingschools to advance their work. Everywhere it resulted, eventually, in theorganization of primary and grammar school departments, often withintermediate departments in between, and, with the somewhatcontemporaneous evolution of the first high schools, the main outlines ofthe American free public-school system were now complete. 

These four important educational movements--the secular Sunday School, thesemi-public city School Societies, the Lancastrian plan for instruction, and the Infant-School idea--all arising in philanthropy, came assuccessive educational ideas to America during the first half of thenineteenth century, supplemented one another, and together accustomed anew generation to the idea of a common school for all. 

III. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC INFLUENCES

It is hardly probable, however, that these philanthropic efforts alone, valuable as they were, could have resulted in the great American battlefor tax-supported schools, at as early a date as this took place, had theynot been supplemented by a number of other movements of a social, political, and economic character which in themselves materially changedthe nature and direction of our national life. The more important of thesewere: (1) The rise of cities and of manufacturing, (2) the extension ofthe suffrage, and (3) the rise of new class-demands for schools. 

GROWTH OF CITY POPULATION AND MANUFACTURING. At the time of theinauguration of the National Government nearly every one in America livedon the farm or in some little village. The first forty years of thenational life were essentially an agricultural and a pioneer period. Evenas late as 1820 there were but thirteen cities of 8000 inhabitants or overin the whole of the twenty-three States at that time comprising the Union, and these thirteen cities contained but 4. 9 per cent of the totalpopulation of the Nation. 

After about 1825 these conditions began to change. By 1820 many littlevillages were springing up, and these frequently proved the nuclei forfuture cities. In New England many of these places were in the vicinity ofsome waterfall, where cheap power made manufacturing on a large scalepossible. Lowell, Massachusetts, which in 1820 did not exist and in 1840had a population of over twenty thousand people, collected there largelyto work in the mills, is a good illustration. Other cities, such asCincinnati and Detroit, grew because of their advantageous situation asexchange and wholesale centers. With the revival of trade and commerceafter the second war with Great Britain the cities grew rapidly both innumber and size. 

The rise of the new cities and the rapid growth of the older onesmaterially changed the nature of the educational problem, by producing anentirely new set of social and educational conditions for the people ofthe Central and Northern States to solve. The South, with its plantationlife, negro slavery, and absence of manufacturing was largely unaffectedby these changed conditions until well after the close of the Civil War. In consequence the educational awakening there did not come for nearlyhalf a century after it came in the North. In the cities in the coastStates north of Maryland, but particularly in those of New York and NewEngland, manufacturing developed very rapidly. Cotton-spinning inparticular became a New England industry, as did also the weaving of wool, while Pennsylvania became the center of the iron manufacturing industries. [7]

The development of this new type of factory work meant the beginnings ofthe breakdown of the old home and village industries, the eventualabandonment of the age-old apprenticeship system (Rs. 200, 201), the startof the cityward movement of the rural population, and the concentration ofmanufacturing in large establishments, employing many hands to performcontinuously certain limited phases of the manufacturing process. This intime was certain to mean a change in educational methods. It also calledfor the concentration of both capital and labor. The rise of the factorysystem, business on a large scale, and cheap and rapid transportation, allcombined to diminish the importance of agriculture and to change the cityfrom an unimportant to a very important position in our national life. The13 cities of 1820 increased to 44 by 1840, and to 141 by 1860. There werefour times as many cities in the North, too, where manufacturing had founda home, as in the South, which remained essentially agricultural. 

NEW SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN THE CITIES. The many changes in the nature ofindustry and of village and home life, effected by the development of thefactory system and the concentration of manufacturing and population inthe cities, also contributed materially in changing the character of theold educational problem. When the cities were as yet but little villagesin size and character, homogeneous in their populations, and the manysocial and moral problems incident to the congestion of peoples of mixedcharacter had not as yet arisen, the church and charity and private schoolsolution of the educational problem was reasonably satisfactory. As thecities now increased rapidly in size, became more city-like in character, drew to them diverse elements previously largely unknown, and wererequired by state laws to extend the right of suffrage to all theircitizens, the need for a new type of educational organization began slowlybut clearly to manifest itself to an increasing number of citizens. Thechurch, charity, and private school system completely broke down under thenew strain. School Societies and Educational Associations, organized forpropaganda, now arose in the cities; grants of city or state funds for thepartial support of both church and society schools were demanded andobtained; and numbers of charity organizations began to be established inthe different cities to enable them to handle better the new problems ofpauperism, intemperance, and juvenile delinquency which arose. 

THE EXTENSION OF THE SUFFRAGE. The Constitution of the United States, though framed by the ablest men of the time, was framed by men whorepresented the old aristocratic conception of education and government. The same was true of the conventions which framed practically all theearly state constitutions. The early period of the national life was thuscharacterized by the rule of a class--a very well-educated and a verycapable class, to be sure--but a class elected by a ballot based onproperty qualifications and belonging to the older type of political andsocial thinking. 

Notwithstanding the statements of the Declaration of Independence, thechange came but slowly. Up to 1815 but four States had granted the rightto vote to all male citizens, regardless of property holdings or othersomewhat similar restrictions. After 1815 a democratic movement, whichsought to abolish all class rule and all political inequalities, arose andrapidly gained strength. In this the new States to the westward, withtheir absence of old estates or large fortunes, and where men were judgedmore on their merits than in an older society, were the leaders. As willbe seen from the map, every new State admitted east of the MississippiRiver, except Ohio (admitted in 1802), where the New England elementpredominated, and Louisiana (1812), provided for full manhood suffrage atthe time of its admission to statehood. Seven additional Eastern Stateshad extended the same full voting privileges to their citizens by 1845, while the old requirements had been materially modified in most of theother Northern States. This democratic movement for the leveling of allclass distinctions between white men became very marked, after 1820; cameto a head in the election of Andrew Jackson as President, in 1828; and thefinal result was full manhood suffrage in all the States. This gave thefarmer in the West and the new manufacturing classes in the cities apreponderating influence in the affairs of government. 

[Illustration: FIG. 199. DATES OF THE GRANTING OF FULL MANHOOD SUFFRAGESome of the older States granted almost full manhood suffrage at anearlier date, retaining a few minor restrictions until the date given onthe map. States shaded granted full suffrage at the time of admission tothe Union. ]

EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EXTENSION OF SUFFRAGE. The educationalsignificance of the extension of full manhood suffrage to all was enormousand far-reaching. 

There now took place in the United States, after about 1825, what tookplace in England after the passage of the Second Reform Act (p. 642) of1867. With the extension of the suffrage to all classes of the population, poor as well as rich, laborer, as well as employer, there came to thinkingmen, often for the first time, a realization that general education hadbecome a fundamental necessity for the State, and that the generaleducation of all in the elements of knowledge and civic virtue must nowassume that importance in the minds of the leaders of the State that theeducation of a few for the service of the Church and of the many forsimple church membership had once held in the minds of ecclesiastics. 

This new conception is well expressed in the preamble to the first(optional) school law enacted in Illinois (1825), which declares:

 To enjoy our rights and liberties, we must understand them; their security and protection ought to be the first object of a free people; and it is a well-established fact that no nation has ever continued long in the enjoyment of civil and political freedom, which was not both virtuous and enlightened; and believing that the advancement of literature always has been, and ever will be the means of developing more fully the rights of man, that the mind of every citizen in a republic is the common property of society, and constitutes the basis of its strength and happiness; it is therefore considered the peculiar duty of a free government, like ours, to encourage and extend the improvement and cultivation of the intellectual energies of the whole. 

UTTERANCES OF PUBLIC MEN AND WORKINGMEN. Governors now began to recommendto their legislatures the establishment of tax-supported schools, andpublic men began to urge state action and state control. An utterance byDe Witt Clinton, for nine years governor of New York, may be taken as anexample of many. In a message to the legislature, in 1826, defending theschools established, he said:

 The first duty of government, and the surest evidence of good government, is the encouragement of education. A general diffusion of knowledge is a precursor and protector of republican institutions, and in it we must confide as the conservative power that will watch over our liberties and guard them against fraud, intrigue, corruption, and violence. I consider the system of our common schools as the palladium of our freedom, for no reasonable apprehension can be entertained of its subversion as long as the great body of the people are enlightened by education. 

After about 1825 many labor unions were formed, and the representatives ofthese new organizations joined in the demands for schools and education, urging the free education of their children as a natural right. In 1829the workingmen of Philadelphia asked each candidate for the legislaturefor a formal declaration of the attitude he would assume toward theprovision of "an equal and a general system of education" for the State. In 1830 the Workingmen's Committee of Philadelphia submitted a detailedreport (R. 315), after five months spent in investigating educationalconditions in Pennsylvania, vigorously condemning the lack of provisionfor education in the State, and the utterly inadequate provision where anywas made. Seth Luther, in an address on "The Education of Workingmen, "delivered in 1832, declared that "a large body of human beings are ruinedby a neglect of education, rendered miserable in the extreme, andincapable of self-government. " Stephen Simpson, in his _A Manual forWorkingmen_, published in 1831, declared that "it is to education, therefore, that we must mainly look for redress of that perverted systemof society, which dooms the producer to ignorance, to toil, and to penury, to moral degradation, physical want, and social barbarism. " Manyresolutions were adopted by these organizations demanding free state-supported schools. [8]

IV. ALIGNMENT OF INTERESTS, AND PROPAGANDA

THE ALIGNMENT OF INTERESTS. The second quarter of the nineteenth centurymay be said to have witnessed the battle for tax-supported, publiclycontrolled and directed, and non-sectarian common schools. In 1825 suchschools were still the distant hope of statesmen and reformers; in 1850they had become an actuality in almost every Northern State. The twenty-five years intervening marked a period of public agitation and educationalpropaganda; of many hard legislative fights; of a struggle to securedesired legislation, and then to hold what had been secured; of manybitter contests with church and private-school interests, which felt thattheir "vested rights" were being taken from them; and of occasionalreferenda in which the people were asked, at the next election, to advisethe legislature as to what to do. Excepting the battle for the abolitionof slavery, perhaps no question has ever been before the American peoplefor settlement which caused so much feeling or aroused such bitterantagonisms. The friends of free schools were at first commonly regardedas fanatics, dangerous to the State, and the opponents of free schoolswere considered by them as old-time conservatives or as selfish members ofsociety. 

Naturally such a bitter discussion of a public question forced analignment of the people for or against publicly supported and controlledschools, and this alignment of interests may be roughly stated to havebeen about as follows:

 _I. For Public Schools. _ Men considered as: 1. "Citizens of the Republic. " 2. Philanthropists and humanitarians. 3. Public men of large vision. 4. City residents. 5. The intelligent workingmen in the cities. 6. Non-taxpayers. 7. Calvinists. 8. "New England men. "

 _II. Lukewarm, or against Public Schools. _ Men considered as: 1. Belonging to the old aristocratic class. 2. The conservatives of society. 3. Politicians of small vision. 4. Residents of rural districts. 5. The ignorant, narrow-minded, and penurious. 6. Taxpayers. 7. Lutherans, Reformed-Church, Mennonites, and Quakers. 8. Southern men. 9. Proprietors of private schools. 10. The non-English-speaking classes. 

THE WORK OF PROPAGANDA. To meet the arguments of the objectors, to changethe opinions of a thinking few into the common opinion of the many, toovercome prejudice, and to awaken the public conscience to the public needfor free and common schools in such a democratic society, was the work ofa generation. To convince the masses of the people that the scheme ofstate schools was not only practicable, but also the best and mosteconomical means for giving their children the benefits of an education;to convince propertied citizens that taxation for education was in theinterests of both public and private welfare; to convince legislators thatit was safe to vote for free-school bills; and to overcome the oppositiondue to apathy, religious jealousies, and private interests, was the workof years. In time, though, the desirability of common, free, tax-supported, non-sectarian, state-controlled schools became evident to amajority of the citizens in the different American States, and as it didthe American State School, free and equally open to all, was finallyevolved and took its place as the most important institution in thenational life working for the perpetuation of a free democracy and theadvancement of the public welfare. 

For this work of propaganda hundreds of School Societies and EducationalAssociations were organized; many conventions were held, and manyresolutions favoring state schools were adopted; many "Letters" and"Addresses to the Public" were written and published; public-spiritedcitizens traveled over the country, making addresses to the peopleexplaining the advantages of free state schools; many public-spirited mengave the best years of their lives to the state-school propaganda; andmany governors sent communications on the subject to legislatures not yetconvinced as to the desirability of state action. At each meeting of thelegislatures for years a deluge of resolutions, memorials, and petitionsfor and against free schools met the members. 

The invention of the steam printing press came at about this time, and thefirst modern newspapers at a cheap price now appeared. These usuallyespoused progressive measures, and tremendously influenced publicsentiment. Those not closely connected with church or private-schoolinterests usually favored public tax-supported schools. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Explain why the development of a national consciousness was practicallynecessary before an educational consciousness could be awakened. 

2. Show why it was natural, suffrage conditions considered, that the earlyinterest should have been in advanced education. 

3. Why did the Sunday-School movement prove of so much less usefulness inAmerica than in England?

4. Show the analogy between the earlier school societies for educationalwork and other forms of modern associative effort. 

5. Explain the great popularity of the Lancastrian schools over thosepreviously common in America. 

6. What were two of the important contributions of the Infant-School ideato American education?

7. Why are schools and education much more needed in a countryexperiencing a city and manufacturing development than in a countryexperiencing an agricultural development?

8. Show how the development of cities caused the old forms of education tobreak down, and made evident the need for a new type of education. 

9. Show how each extension of the suffrage necessitates an extension ofeducational opportunities and advantages. 

10. Explain the alignment of each class, for or against tax-supportedschools, on historical and on economic grounds. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following illustrativeselections are reproduced:

 307. Fowle: The Schools of Boston about 1790-1815. 308. Rhode Island: Petition for Free Schools, 1799. 309. Providence: Rules and Regulations for the Schools in 1820. 310. Providence: A Memorial for Better Schools, 1837. 311. Bourne: Beginnings of Public Education in New York City. 312. Boston Report: Advantages of the Monitorial System. 313. Wightman: Establishment of Primary Schools in Boston. 314. Boston: The Elementary-School System in 1823. 315. Philadelphia: Report of Workingmen's Committee on Schools. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Just what advantages for boys and for girls existed in Boston (307 a, b) before the creation of the reading schools?

2. What improvements and additions did the reading schools (307 c)introduce?

3. State the main features of the Rhode Island petition (308) of 1799. 

4. Just what kind of schools do the Providence regulations (309) of 1820provide for and describe?

5. Despite the many advances made in public schools since the date of theProvidence Memorial (310), have relative public and private schoolexpenditures materially changed?

6. Compare the New York Public School Society Address (311) with theEnglish charity-school organization (237, 238) as to purpose andinstruction. 

7. Show that a report on modern classroom organization would presentadvantages over the monitorial plan, comparable with those outlined by theBoston Report (312) comparing the monitorial and individual plans. 

8. Just what does the Boston Report on Primary Schools (313) reveal as tothe character of education then provided?

9. Just what kind of elementary schools did Boston have (314) in 1823?

10. Just what kind of schools existed in the cities of Pennsylvania in1830, judging from the Report (315) of the Workingmen's Committee? Was theReport correct with reference to "a monopoly of talent"?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

 Binns, H. B. _A Century of Education, 1808-1908_. Boese, Thos, _Public Education in the City of New York_. Cubberley, E. P. _Public Education in the United States_. * Fitzpatrick, E. A. _The Educational Views and Influences of De Witt Clinton_. McManis, J. T. "The Public School Society of New York City, " in _Educational Review_, vol. 29, pp. 303-11. (March, 1905. )* Palmer, A. E. _The New York Public School System_. * Reigart, J. F. _The Lancastrian System of Instruction in the Schools of New York City_. * Salmon, David. _Joseph Lancaster_. * Simcoe, A. M. _Social Forces in American History_. 

CHAPTER XXVI

THE AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE STATE SCHOOLS

The problem which confronted those interested in establishing state-controlled schools was not exactly the same in any two States, though thebattle in many States possessed common elements, and hence was somewhatsimilar in character. Instead of tracing the struggle in detail in each ofthe different States, it will be much more profitable for our purposes topick out the main strategic points in the contest, and then illustrate theconflict for these by describing conditions in one or two States where thecontroversy was most severe or most typical. The seven strategic points inthe struggle for free, tax-supported, non-sectarian, state-controlledschools in the United States were:

 1. The battle for tax support. 2. The battle to eliminate the pauper-school idea. 3. The battle to make the schools entirely free. 4. The battle to establish state supervision. 5. The battle to eliminate sectarianism. 6. The battle to extend the system upward. 7. Addition of the state university to crown the system. 

We shall consider each of these, briefly, in order. 

I. THE BATTLE FOR TAX SUPPORT

EARLY SUPPORT AND ENDOWMENT FUNDS. In New England, land endowments, localtaxes, direct local appropriations, license taxes, and rate-bills had longbeen common. Land endowments began early in the New England Colonies, while rate-bills date back to the earliest times and long remained afavorite means of raising money for school support. These means wereadopted in the different States after the beginning of our nationalperiod, and to them were added a variety of license taxes, whileoccupational taxes, lotteries, and bank taxes also were employed to raisemoney for schools. A few examples of these may be cited:

Connecticut, in 1774, turned over all proceeds of liquor licenses to thetowns where collected, to be used for schools. New Orleans, in 1826, licensed two theaters on condition that they each pay $3000 annually forthe support of schools in the city. New York, in 1799, authorized fourstate lotteries to raise $100, 000 for schools, a similar amount again in1801, and numerous other lotteries before 1810. New Jersey (R. 246) andmost of the other States did the same. Congress passed fourteen jointresolutions, between 1812 and 1836, authorizing lotteries to help supportthe schools of the city of Washington. Bank taxes were a favorite sourceof income for schools, between about 1825 and 1860, banks being charteredon condition that they would pay over each year for schools a certain sumor percentage of their earnings. These all represent what is known asindirect taxation, and were valuable in accustoming the people to the ideaof public schools without appearing to tax them for their support. 

The National Land Grants, begun in the case of Ohio in 1802, soonstimulated a new interest in schools. Each State admitted after Ohio alsoreceived the sixteenth section for the support of common schools, and twotownships of land for the endowment of a state university. The new WesternStates, following the lead of Ohio (R. 260) and Indiana (R. 261), dedicated these section lands and funds to free common schools. Thesixteen older States, however, did not share in these grants, so most ofthem now set about building up a permanent school fund of their own, though at first without any very clear idea as to how the income from thefund was to be used. [1]

THE BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOL TAXATION. The early idea, which seems for a timeto have been generally entertained, that the income from land grants, license fees, and these permanent endowment funds would in time entirelysupport the necessary schools, was gradually abandoned as it was seen howlittle in yearly income these funds and lands really produced, and howrapidly the population of the States was increasing. By 1825 it may besaid to have been clearly recognized by thinking men that the only safereliance of a system of state schools lay in the general and directtaxation of all property for their support. "The wealth of the State musteducate the children of the State" became a watchword, and the battle fordirect, local, county, and state taxation for education was clearly on by1825 to 1830 in all the Northern States, except the four in New Englandwhere the principle of taxation for education had for long beenestablished. [2] Even in these States the struggle to increase taxationand provide better schools called for much argument and popular education(R. 316), and occasional backward movements (Rs. 317, 318) wereencountered. 

[Illustration: FIG. 200. THE FIRST FREE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN DETROITA one-room school, opened in the Second Ward, in 1838. No action was takenin any other ward until 1842. ]

The struggle to secure the first legislation, weak and ineffective as itseems to us to-day, was often hard and long. "Campaigns of education" hadto be prepared for and carried through. Many thought that tax-supportedschools would be dangerous for the State, harmful to individual good, andthoroughly undemocratic. Many did not see the need for schools at all. Portions of a town or a city would provide a free school, while otherportions would not. Often those in favor of taxation were bitterlyassailed, and even at times threatened with personal violence. Often thosein favor of improving the school had to wait patiently for the oppositionslowly to wear itself out (R. 319) before any real progress could be made. 

STATE SUPPORT FIXED THE STATE SYSTEM. With the beginnings of state aid inany substantial sums, either from the income from permanent endowmentfunds, state appropriations, or direct state taxation, the State became, for the first time, in a position to enforce quite definite requirementsin many matters. Communities which would not meet the State's requirementswould receive no state funds. 

One of the first requirements to be thus enforced was that communities ordistricts receiving state aid must also levy a local tax for schools. Commonly the requirement was a duplication of state aid. Generallyspeaking, and recognizing exceptions in a few States, this represents thebeginnings of compulsory local taxation for education. As early as 1797Vermont had required the towns to support their schools on penalty offorfeiting their share of state aid. New York in 1812, Delaware in 1829, and New Jersey in 1846 required a duplication of all state aid received. Wisconsin, in its first constitution of 1848, required a local tax forschools equal to one half the state aid received. The next step in statecontrol was to add still other requirements, as a prerequisite toreceiving state aid. One of the first of such was that a certain length ofschool term, commonly three months, must be provided in each schooldistrict. Another was the provision of free heat, and later on freeschoolbooks and supplies. 

When the duplication-of-state-aid-received stage had been reached, compulsory local taxation for education had been established, and thegreat central battle for the creation of a state school system had beenwon. The right to tax for support, and to compel local taxation, was thekey to the whole state system of education. From this point on the processof evolving an adequate system of school support in any State has beenmerely the further education of public opinion to see new educationalneeds. 

II. THE BATTLE TO ELIMINATE THE PAUPER-SCHOOL IDEA

THE PAUPER-SCHOOL IDEA. The pauper-school idea was a direct inheritancefrom England, and its home in America was in the old Central and SouthernColonies, where the old Anglican Church had been in control. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and Georgia were the chiefrepresentatives, though the idea had friends among certain classes of thepopulation in other of the older States. The new and democratic West wouldnot tolerate it. The pauper-school conception was a direct inheritancefrom English rule, belonged to a society based on classes, and was whollyout of place in a Republic founded on the doctrine that "all men arecreated equal, and endowed by their Creator with certain unalienablerights. " Still more, it was a very dangerous conception of education for ademocratic form of government to tolerate or to foster. Its friends werefound among the old aristocratic or conservative classes, the heavytaxpayers, the supporters of church schools, and the proprietors ofprivate schools. Citizens who had caught the spirit of the new Republic, public men of large vision, intelligent workingmen, and men of the NewEngland type of thinking were opposed on principle to a plan which drewsuch invidious distinctions between the future citizens of the State. Toeducate part of the children in church or private pay schools, they said, and to segregate those too poor to pay tuition and educate them at publicexpense in pauper schools, often with the brand of pauper made veryevident to them, was certain to create classes in society which in timewould prove a serious danger to our democratic institutions. 

Large numbers of those for whom the pauper schools were intended would notbrand themselves as paupers by sending their children to the schools, andothers who accepted the advantages offered, for the sake of theirchildren, despised the system. [3]

The battle for the elimination of the pauper-school idea was fought out inthe North in the States of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and the strugglein these two States we shall now briefly describe. 

THE PENNSYLVANIA LEGISLATION. In Pennsylvania we find the pauper-schoolidea fully developed. The constitution of 1790 (R. 259) had provided for astate system of pauper schools, but nothing was done to carry even thisconstitutional direction into effect until 1802. A pauper-school law wasthen enacted, directing the overseers of the poor to notify such parentsas they deemed sufficiently indigent that, if they would declarethemselves to be paupers, their children might be sent to some specifiedprivate or pay school and be given free education (R. 315). The expensefor this was assessed against the education poor-fund, which was leviedand collected in the same manner as were road taxes or taxes for poorrelief. No provision was made for the establishment of public schools, even for the children of the poor, nor was any standard set for theeducation to be provided in the schools to which they were sent. No othergeneral provision for elementary education was made in the State until1834. 

With the growth of the cities, and the rise of their special problems, something more than this very inadequate provision for schooling becamenecessary. "The Philadelphia Society for the Establishment and Support ofCharity Schools" had long been urging a better system, and in 1814 "'TheSociety for the Promotion of a Rational System of Education" was organizedin Philadelphia for the purpose of educational propaganda. Bills wereprepared and pushed, and in 1818 Philadelphia was permitted, by speciallaw, to organize as "the first school district" in the State ofPennsylvania, and to provide, with its own funds, a system of Lancastrianschools for the education of the children of its poor. [4]

THE LAW OF 1834. In 1827 "The Pennsylvania Society for the Promotion ofPublic Schools" began an educational propaganda which did much to bringabout the Free-School Act of 1834. In an "Address to the Public" itdeclared its object to be the promotion of public education throughout theState of Pennsylvania, and the "Address" closed with these words:

This Society is at present composed of about 250 members, and acorrespondence has been commenced with 125 members, who reside in everydistrict in the State. It is intended to direct the continued attention ofthe public to the importance of the subject; to collect and diffuse allinformation which may be deemed valuable; and to persevere in their laborsuntil they shall be crowned with success. 

Memorials were presented to the legislature year after year, governorswere interested, "Addresses to the Public" were prepared, and a vigorouspropaganda was kept up until the Free-School Law of 1834 was the result. 

This law, though, was optional. It created every ward, township, andborough in the State a school district, a total of 987 being created forthe State. Each school district was ordered to vote that autumn on theacceptance or rejection of the law. Those accepting the law were toorganize under its provisions, while those rejecting the law were tocontinue under the educational provisions of the old Pauper-School Act. 

[Illustration: FIG. 201. THE PENNSYLVANIA SCHOOL ELECTIONS OF 1835Showing the percentage of school districts in each county organizing underand accepting the School Law of 1834. Percentage of districts acceptingindicated on the map for a few of the counties. ]

The results of the school elections of 1834 are shown, by counties, on thebelow map. Of the total of 987 districts created, 502, in 46 of the then52 counties (Philadelphia County not voting), or 52 per cent of the wholenumber, voted to accept the new law and organize under it; 264 districts, in 31 counties, or 27 per cent of the whole, voted definitely to rejectthe law; and 221 districts, in 46 counties, or 21 per cent of the whole, refused to take any action either way. In 3 counties, indicated on themap, every district accepted the law, and in 5 counties, also indicatedevery district rejected or refused to act on the law. It was thepredominantly German counties, located in the east-central portion of theState, which were strongest in their opposition to the new law. One reasonfor this was that the new law provided for English schools; another wasthe objection of the thrifty Germans to taxation; and another was the fearthat the new state schools might injure their German parochial schools. 

The real fight for free _versus_ pauper schools, though, was yet to come. Legislators who had voted for the law were bitterly assailed, and, thoughit was but an optional law, the question of its repeal and thereinstatement of the old Pauper-School Law became the burning issue of thecampaign in the autumn of 1834. Many legislators who had favored the lawwere defeated for reelection. Others, seeing defeat, refused to run. Petitions for the repeal of the law, [5] and remonstrances against itsrepeal, flooded the legislature when it met. The Senate at once repealedthe law, but the House, largely under the leadership of a Vermonter by thename of Thaddeus Stevens, [6] refused to reconsider, and finally forcedthe Senate to accept an amended and a still stronger bill. This defeatfinally settled, in principle at least, the pauper-school question inPennsylvania, [7] though it was not until 1873 that the last district inthe State accepted the new system. 

ELIMINATING THE PAUPER-SCHOOL IDEA IN NEW JERSEY. No constitutionalmention of education was made in New Jersey until 1844, and no educationallegislation was passed until 1816. In that year a permanent state schoolfund was begun, and in 1820 the first permission to levy taxes "for theeducation of such poor children as are paupers" was granted. In 1828 anextensive investigation showed that one third of the children of the Statewere without educational opportunities, and as a result of thisinvestigation the first general school law for the State was enacted, in1829. This provided for district schools, school trustees and visitation, licensed teachers, local taxation, and made a state appropriation of$20, 000 a year to help establish the system. The next year, however, thislaw was repealed and the old pauper-school plan reëstablished, largely dueto the pressure of church and private-school interests. In 1830 and 1831the state appropriation was made divisible among private and parochialschools, as well as the public pauper schools, and the use of all publicmoney was limited "to the education of the children of the poor. "

Between 1828 and 1838 a number of conventions of friends of free publicschools were held in the State, and much work in the nature of propagandawas done. At a convention in 1838 a committee was appointed to prepare an"Address to the People of New Jersey" on the educational needs of theState (R. 320), and speakers were sent over the State to talk to thepeople on the subject. The campaign against the pauper school had justbeen fought to a conclusion in Pennsylvania, and the result of the appealin New Jersey was such a popular manifestation in favor of free schoolsthat the legislature of 1838 instituted a partial state school system. Thepauper-school laws were repealed, and the best features of the short-livedLaw of 1829 were reënacted. In 1844 a new state constitution limited theincome of the permanent state school fund exclusively to the support ofpublic schools. 

With the pauper-school idea eliminated from Pennsylvania and New Jersey, the North was through with it. The wisdom of its elimination soon becameevident, and we hear little more of it among Northern people. Thedemocratic West never tolerated it. It continued some time longer inMaryland, Virginia, and Georgia, and at places for a time in otherSouthern States, but finally disappeared in the South as well in theeducational reorganizations which took place following the close of theCivil War. 

III. THE BATTLE TO MAKE THE SCHOOLS ENTIRELY FREE

THE SCHOOLS NOT YET FREE. The rate-bill, as we have previously stated, wasan old institution, also brought over from England, as the term "rate"signifies. It was a charge levied upon the parent to supplement the schoolrevenues and prolong the school term, and was assessed in proportion tothe number of children sent by each parent to the school. In some States, as for example Massachusetts and Connecticut, its use went back tocolonial times; in others it was added as the cost for educationincreased, and it was seen that the income from permanent funds andauthorized taxation was not sufficient to maintain the school thenecessary length of time. The deficiency in revenue was charged againstthe parents sending children to school, _pro rata_, and collected asordinary tax-bills (R. 321). The charge was small, but it was sufficientto keep many poor children away from the schools. 

The rising cities, with their new social problems, could not and would nottolerate the rate-bill system, and one by one they secured special lawsfrom legislatures which enabled them to organize a city school system, separate from city-council control, and under a local "board ofeducation. " One of the provisions of these special laws nearly always wasthe right to levy a city tax for schools sufficient to provide freeeducation for the children of the city. 

[Illustration: FIG. 202. THE NEW YORK REFERENDUM OF 1850Total vote: For free schools, 17 counties and 209, 346 voters; against freeschools, 42 counties and 184, 308 voters. ]

THE FIGHT AGAINST THE RATE-BILL IN NEW YORK. The attempt to abolish therate-bill and make the schools wholly free was most vigorously contestedin New York State, and the contest there is most easily described. From1828 to 1868, this tax on the parents produced an average annual sum of$410, 685. 66, or about one half of the sum paid all the teachers of theState for salary. While the wealthy districts were securing speciallegislation and taxing themselves to provide free schools for theirchildren, the poorer and less populous districts were left to struggle tomaintain their schools the four months each year necessary to secure stateaid. Finally, after much agitation, and a number of appeals to thelegislature to assume the rate-bill charges in the form of general statetaxation, and thus make the schools entirely free, the legislature, in1849, referred the matter back to the people to be voted on at theelections that autumn. The legislature was to be thus advised by thepeople as to what action it should take. The result was a state-widecampaign for free, public, tax-supported schools, as against partiallyfree, rate-bill schools. 

The result of the 1849 election was a vote of 249, 872 in favor of making"the property of the State educate the children of the State, " and 91, 952against it. This only seemed to stir the opponents of free schools torenewed action, and they induced the next legislature to resubmit thequestion for another vote, in the autumn of 1850. 

The result of the referendum of 1850 is shown on the map on page 685. Theopponents of tax-supported schools now mustered their full strength, doubling their vote in 1849, while the majority for free schools wasmaterially cut down. The interesting thing shown on this map was the clearand unmistakable voice of the cities. They would not tolerate the rate-bill, and, despite their larger property interests, they favored tax-supported free schools. The rural districts, on the other hand, opposedthe idea. 

THE RATE-BILL IN OTHER STATES. These two referenda virtually settled thequestion in New York, though for a time a compromise was adopted. Thestate appropriation for schools was very materially increased, the rate-bill was retained, and the organization of "union districts" to providefree schools by local taxation where people desired them was authorized. Many of these "union free districts" now arose in the more progressivecommunities of the State, and finally, in 1867, after rural and otherforms of opposition had largely subsided, and after almost all the olderStates had abandoned the plan, the New York legislature finally abolishedthe rate-bill and made the schools of New York entirely free. 

The dates for the abolition of the rate-bill in the other older NorthernStates were:

 1834. Pennsylvania. 1867. New York. 1852. Indiana. 1868. Connecticut. 1853. Ohio. 1868. Rhode Island. 1855. Illinois. 1869. Michigan. 1864. Vermont. 1871. New Jersey. 

The New York fight of 1849 and 1850 was the pivotal fight; in the otherStates it was abandoned by legislative act, and without a serious contest. In the Southern States free education came with the educationalreorganizations following the close of the Civil War. 

IV. THE BATTLE TO ESTABLISH SCHOOL SUPERVISION

BEGINNINGS OF STATE CONTROL. The great battle for state schools was notonly for taxation to stimulate their development where none existed, butwas also indirectly a battle for some form of state control of the localsystems which had already grown up. The establishment of permanent stateschool funds by the older States, to supplement any other aid which mightbe granted, also tended toward the establishment of some form of statesupervision and control of the local school systems. The first step wasthe establishment of some form of state aid; the next was the imposing ofconditions necessary to secure this state aid. 

State oversight and control, however, does not exercise itself, and itsoon became evident that the States must elect or appoint some officer torepresent the State and enforce the observance of its demands. It would beprimarily his duty to see that the laws relating to schools were carriedout, that statistics as to existing conditions were collected and printed, and that communities were properly advised as to their duties and thelegislature as to the needs of the State. We find now the creation of aseries of school officers to represent the State, the enactment of newlaws extending control, and a struggle to integrate, subordinate, andreduce to some semblance of a state school system the hundreds of littlecommunity school systems which had grown up. 

THE FIRST STATE SCHOOL OFFICERS. The first American State to create astate officer to exercise supervision over its schools was New York, in1812. In enacting the new law [8] providing for state aid for schools thefirst State Superintendent of Common Schools in the United States wascreated. So far as is known this was a distinctively American creation, uninfluenced by the practice in any other land. It was to be the duty ofthis officer to look after the establishment and maintenance of theschools throughout the State. [9] Maryland created the office in 1826, buttwo years later abolished it and did not re-create it until 1864. Illinoisdirected its Secretary of State to act, _ex officio_, as Superintendent ofSchools in 1825, as did also Vermont in 1827, Louisiana in 1833, Pennsylvania in 1834, and Tennessee in 1835. Illinois did not create areal State Superintendent of Schools, though, until 1854, Vermont until1845, Louisiana until 1847, Pennsylvania until 1857, or Tennessee until1867. The first States to create separate school officials who have beencontinued to the present time were Michigan and Kentucky, both in 1837. Often quite a legislative struggle took place to secure the establishmentof the office, and later on to prevent its abolition. 

[Illustration: FIG. 203. STATUS OF SCHOOL SUPERVISION IN THE UNITED STATESBY 1861For a list of the 28 City Superintendencies established up to 1870, seeCubberley's _Public School Administration_, p. 58. For the history of thestate educational office in each State see Cubberley and Elliott, _Stateand County School Administration, Source Book_, pp. 283-87. ]

By 1850 there were _ex-officio_ state school officers in nine and regularschool officers in seven of the then thirty-one States, and by 1861 therewere _ex-officio_ officers in nine and regular officers in nineteen of thethen thirty-four States, as well as one of each in two of the organizedTerritories. The above map shows the growth of supervisory oversight by1861--forty-nine years from the time the first American state schoolofficer was created. The map also shows the ten of the thirty-four Stateswhich had, by 1861, also created the office of County Superintendent ofSchools, as well as the twenty-five cities which had, by 1861, created theoffice of City Superintendent of Schools. Only three more cities--Albany, Washington, and Kansas City--were added before 1870, making a total oftwenty-eight, but since that date the number of city superintendents hasincreased to something like fourteen hundred to-day. 

THE FIRST STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Another important form for statecontrol which was created a little later was the State Board of Education, with an appointed Secretary, who exercised about the same functions as aState Superintendent of Schools. This form of organization first arose inMassachusetts, in 1837, in an effort to subordinate the district schoolsand reduce them to a semblance of an organized system. In 1826 each town(township) had been required to appoint a School Committee (School Board)to exercise general supervision over its schools, in 1834 the statepermanent school fund was created, and in 1837 the reform movement reachedits culmination in the creation of the first real State Board of Educationin the United States. Instead of following the usual American practice ofthe time, and providing for an elected State School Superintendent, Massachusetts provided for a small appointed State Board of Educationwhich in turn was to select a Secretary, who was to act in the capacity ofa state school officer and report to the Board, and through it to thelegislature and the people. Neither the Board nor the Secretary were givenany powers of compulsion, their work being to investigate conditions, report facts, expose defects, and make recommendations as to action to thelegislature. The permanence and influence of the Board thus depended verylargely on the character of the Secretary it selected. 

HORACE MANN THE FIRST SECRETARY. A prominent Brown University graduate andlawyer in the State Senate, by the name of Horace Mann (1796-1859), who aspresident of the Senate had been of much assistance in securing passage ofthe bill creating the State Board of Education, was finally induced by theGovernor and the Board to accept the position of Secretary. Mr. Mann nowbegan a most memorable work of educating public opinion, and soon becamethe acknowledged leader in school organization in the United States. Stateafter State called upon him for advice and counsel, while his twelveannual Reports to the State Board of Education will always remainmemorable documents. Public men of all classes--lawyers, clergymen, college professors, literary men, teachers--were laid under tribute andsent forth over the State explaining to the people the need for areawakening of educational interest in Massachusetts. Every year Mr. Mannorganized a "campaign, " to explain to the people the meaning andimportance of general education. So successful was he, and so ripe was thetime for such a movement, that he not only started a great common schoolrevival in Massachusetts which led to the regeneration of the schoolsthere, but one which was felt and which influenced development in everyNorthern State. 

His twelve carefully written _Reports_ on the condition of education inMassachusetts and elsewhere, with his intelligent discussion of the aimsand purposes of public education, occupy a commanding place in the historyof American education, while he will always be regarded as perhaps thegreatest of the "founders" of our American system of free public schools. No one did more than he to establish in the minds of the American peoplethe conception that education should be universal, non-sectarian, andfree, and that its aim should be social efficiency, civic virtue, andcharacter, rather than mere learning or the advancement of sectarian ends. Under his practical leadership an unorganized and heterogeneous series ofcommunity school systems was reduced to organization and welded togetherinto a state school system, and the people of Massachusetts wereeffectively recalled to their ancient belief in and duty toward theeducation of the people. 

HENRY BARNARD IN CONNECTICUT AND RHODE ISLAND. Almost equally important, though of a somewhat different character, was the work of Henry Barnard(1811-1900) in Connecticut and Rhode Island. A graduate of Yale, and alsoeducated for the law, he turned aside to teach and became deeplyinterested in education. The years 1835-37 he spent in Europe studyingschools, particularly the work of Pestalozzi's disciples. On his return toAmerica he was elected a member of the Connecticut legislature, and atonce formulated and secured passage of the Connecticut law (1839)providing for a State Board of Commissioners for Common Schools, with aSecretary, after the Massachusetts plan. Mr. Barnard was then elected asits first Secretary, and reluctantly gave up the law and accepted theposition at the munificent salary of $3 a day and expenses. Until thelegislature abolished both the Board and the position, in 1842, herendered for Connecticut a service scarcely less important than thebetter-known reforms which Horace Mann was at that time carrying on inMassachusetts. 

[Illustration: PLATE 17. TWO LEADERS IN THE EDUCATIONAL AWAKENING IN THEUNITED STATES. 

HORACE MANN (1796-1859)(From the painting at the Westfield, Massachusetts, Normal School)

HENRY BARNARD (1811-1900)]

In 1843 he was called to Rhode Island to examine and report upon theexisting schools, and from 1845 to 1849 acted as State Commissioner ofPublic Schools there, where he rendered a service similar to thatpreviously rendered in Connecticut. In addition he organized a series oftown libraries throughout the State. For his teachers' institutes hedevised a traveling model school, to give demonstration lessons in the artof teaching. From 1851 to 1855 he was again in Connecticut, as principalof the newly established state normal school and _ex-officio_ Secretary ofthe Connecticut State Board of Education. He now rewrote the school laws, increased taxation for schools, checked the power of the districts, thereknown as "school societies, " and laid the foundations of a state system ofschools. The work of Mann and Barnard had its influence throughout all theNorthern States, and encouraged the friends of education everywhere. Almost contemporaneous with them were leaders in other States who helpedfight through the battles of state establishment and state organizationand control, and the period of their labors has since been termed theperiod of the "great awakening. "

V. THE BATTLE TO ELIMINATE SECTARIANISM

THE SECULARIZATION OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. The Church, it will beremembered, was from the earliest colonial times in possession of theeducation of the young. Not only were the earliest schools controlled bythe Church and dominated by the religious motive, but the right of theChurch to dictate the teaching in the schools was clearly recognized bythe State. Still more, the State looked to the Church to provide thenecessary education, and assisted it in doing so by donations of land andmoney. The minister, as a town official, naturally examined the teachersand the instruction in the schools. After the establishment of theNational Government this relationship for a time continued. [10] New Yorkand the New England States specifically set aside lands to help bothchurch and school. After about 1800 these land endowments for religionceased, but grants of state aid for religious schools continued for nearlya half-century longer. Then it became common for a town or city to build aschoolhouse from city taxation, and let it out rent-free to anyresponsible person who would conduct a tuition school in it, with a fewfree places for selected poor children. Still later, with the rise of thestate schools, it became quite common to take over church and privateschools and aid them on the same basis as the new state schools. 

In colonial times, too, and for some decades into our national period, thewarmest advocates of the establishment of schools were those who had inview the needs of the Church. Then gradually the emphasis shifted to theneeds of the State, and a new class of advocates of public education nowarose. Still later the emphasis has been shifted to industrial and civicand national needs, and the religious aim has been almost completelyeliminated. This change is known as the secularization of Americaneducation. It also required many a bitter struggle, and was accomplishedin the different States but slowly. The two great factors which served toproduce this change were:

 1. The conviction that the life of the Republic demanded an educated and intelligent citizenship, and hence the general education of all in common schools controlled by the State; and

 2. The great diversity of religious beliefs among the people, which forced tolerance and religious freedom through a consideration of the rights of minorities. 

The secularization of education must not be regarded either as adeliberate or a wanton violation of the rights of the Church, but ratheras an unavoidable incident connected with the coming to self-consciousnessand self-government of a great people. 

THE FIGHT IN MASSACHUSETTS. The educational awakening in Massachusetts, brought on largely by the work of Horace Mann, was to many a rudeawakening. Among other things, it revealed that the old school of thePuritans had gradually been replaced by a new and purely American type ofschool, with instruction adapted to democratic and national rather thanreligious ends. Mr. Mann stood strongly for such a conception of publiceducation, and being a Unitarian, and the new State Board of Educationbeing almost entirely liberal in religion, an attack was launched againstthem, and for the first time in our history the cry was raised that "Thepublic schools are Godless schools. " Those who believed in the old systemof religious instruction, those who bore the Board or its Secretarypersonal ill-will, and those who desired to break down the Board'sauthority and stop the development of the public schools, united theirforces in this first big attack against secular education. Horace Mann wasthe first prominent educator in America to meet and answer the religiousonslaught. 

A violent attack was opened in both the pulpit and the press. It wasclaimed that the Board was trying to eliminate the Bible from the schools, to abolish correction, and to "make the schools a counterpoise toreligious instruction at home and in Sabbath schools. " The local right todemand religious instruction was insisted upon. 

Mr. Mann felt that a great public issue had been raised which should beanswered carefully and fully. In three public statements he answered thecriticisms and pointed out the errors in the argument (R. 322). The Bible, he said, was an invaluable book for forming the character of children, andshould be read without comment in the schools, but it was not necessary toteach it there. He showed that most of the towns had given up the teachingof the Catechism before the establishment of the Board of Education. Hecontended that any attempt to decide what creed or doctrine should betaught would mean the ruin of the schools. The attack culminated in theattempts of the religious forces to abolish the State Board of Education, in the legislatures of 1840 and 1841, which failed dismally. Most of theorthodox people of the State took Mr. Mann's side, and Governor Briggs, inone of his messages, commended his stand by inserting the following:

 Justice to a faithful public officer leads me to say that the indefatigable and accomplished Secretary of the Board of Education has performed services in the cause of common schools which will earn him the lasting gratitude of the generation to which he belongs. 

THE ATTEMPT TO DIVIDE THE SCHOOL FUNDS. As was stated earlier, in thebeginning it was common to aid church schools on the same basis as thestate schools, and sometimes, in the beginnings of state aid, the moneywas distributed among existing schools without at first establishing anypublic schools. In many Eastern cities church schools at first shared inthe public funds. In Pennsylvania church and private schools were aidedfrom poor-law funds up to 1834. In New Jersey the first general school lawof 1829 had been repealed a year later through the united efforts ofchurch and private-school interests, who unitedly fought the developmentof state schools, and in 1830 and 1831 new laws had permitted all privateand parochial schools to share in the small state appropriation foreducation. 

After the beginning of the forties, when the Roman Catholic influence camein strongly with the increase in Irish immigration to the United States, anew factor was introduced and the problem, which had previously been aProtestant problem, took on a somewhat different aspect in the form of ademand for a division of the school funds. Between 1825 and 1842 the fightwas especially severe in New York City. In 1825 the City Council refusedto grant public money to any religious Society, [11] and in 1840 theCatholics carried the matter to the State Legislature. 

The legislature deferred action until 1842, and then did the unexpectedthing. The heated discussion of the question in the city and in thelegislature had made it evident that, while it might not be desirable tocontinue to give funds to a privately organized corporation, to dividethem among the quarreling and envious religious sects would be much worse. The result was that the legislature created for the city a City Board ofEducation, to establish real public schools, and stopped the debate on thequestion of aid to religious schools by enacting that no portion of theschool funds was in the future to be given to any school in which "anyreligious sectarian doctrine or tenet should be taught, inculcated, orpracticed. " Thus the real public-school system of New York City wasevolved out of this attempt to divide the public funds among the churches. The Public School Society continued for a time, but its work was now done, and, in 1853, surrendered its buildings and property to the City Board ofEducation and disbanded. 

THE CONTEST IN OTHER STATES. As early as 1830, Lowell, Massachusetts, hadgranted aid to the Irish Catholic parochial schools in the city, and in1835 had taken over two such schools and maintained them as publicschools. In 1853 the representatives of the Roman Catholic Church made ademand on the state legislature for a division of the school fund of theState. To settle the question once for all a constitutional amendment wassubmitted by the legislature to the people, providing that all state andtown moneys raised or appropriated for education must be expended only onregularly organized and conducted public schools, and that no religioussect should ever share in such funds. This measure failed of adoption atthe election of 1853 by a vote of 65, 111 for and 65, 512 against, but wasre-proposed and adopted in 1855. This settled the question inMassachusetts, as Mann had tried to settle it earlier, and as NewHampshire had settled it in its constitution of 1792, Connecticut in itsconstitution of 1818, and Rhode Island in its constitution of 1842. 

Other States now faced similar demands, but no demand for a share in or adivision of the public-school funds, after 1840, was successful. Thedemand everywhere met with intense opposition, and with the coming ofenormous numbers of Irish Catholics after 1846, and German Lutherans after1848, the question of the preservation of the schools just established asunified state school systems now became a burning one. Petitions for adivision of the funds deluged the legislatures (R. 323), and these weremet by counter-petitions (R. 324). Mass meetings on both sides of thequestion were held. Candidates for office were forced to declarethemselves. Anti-Catholic riots occurred in a number of cities. TheNative-American Party was formed, in 1841, "to prevent the union of Churchand State, " and to "keep the Bible in the schools. " In 1841 the WhigParty, in New York, inserted a plank in its platform against sectarianschools. In 1855 the national council of the Know-Nothing Party, meetingin Philadelphia, in its platform favored public schools and the use of theBible therein, but opposed sectarian schools. This party carried theelections that year in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, RhodeIsland, Maryland, and Kentucky. 

To settle the question in a final manner legislatures now began to proposeconstitutional amendments to the people of their several States whichforbade a division or a diversion of the funds, and these were almostuniformly adopted at the first election after being proposed. No Stateadmitted to the Union after 1858, except West Virginia, failed to insertsuch a provision in its first state constitution. [12]

VI. THE BATTLE TO ESTABLISH THE AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL

The elementary or common schools which had been established in thedifferent States, by 1850, supplied an elementary or common schooleducation to the children of the masses of the people, and the primaryschools which were added, after about 1820, carried this educationdownward to the needs of the beginners. In the rural schools the Americanschool of the 3 Rs provided for all the children, from the little ones up, so long as they could advantageously partake of its instruction. Educationin advance of this common school training was in semi-privateinstitutions--the academies and colleges--in which a tuition fee wascharged. The next struggle came in the attempt to extend the system upwardso as to provide to pupils, free of charge, a more complete education thanthe common schools afforded. 

[Illustration: FIG. 204. A TYPICAL NEW ENGLAND ACADEMYPittsfield Academy, New Hampshire. ]

THE TRANSITION ACADEMY. About the middle of the eighteenth century atendency manifested itself, in Europe as well as in America, to establishhigher schools offering a more practical curriculum than the old Latinschools had provided. In America it became particularly evident, after thecoming of nationality, that the old Latin grammar-school type ofinstruction, with its limited curriculum and exclusively college-preparatory ends, was wholly inadequate for the needs of the youth of theland. The result was the gradual dying-out of the Latin school and theevolution of the tuition Academy, previously referred to briefly on page463. 

The academy movement spread rapidly during the first half of thenineteenth century. By 1800 there were 17 academies in Massachusetts, 36by 1820, and 403 by 1850. By 1830 there were, according to Hinsdale, 950incorporated academies in the United States, and many unincorporated ones, and by 1850, according to Inglis, there were, of all kinds, 1007 academiesin New England, 1636 in the Middle Atlantic States, 2640 in the SouthernStates, 753 in the Upper Mississippi Valley States, and a total reportedfor the entire United States of 6085, with 12, 260 teachers employed and263, 096 pupils enrolled. [13]

The greatest period of their development was from 1820 to 1830, thoughthey continued to dominate secondary education until 1850, and were veryprominent until after the Civil War. 

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES. The most characteristic features of theseacademies were their semi-public control (R. 325), their broadenedcurriculum and religious purpose, and the extension of their instructionto girls. The Latin Grammar School was essentially a town free school, maintained by the towns for the higher education of certain of their malechildren. It was aristocratic in type, and belonged to the early period ofclass education. With the decline in zeal for education, after 1750, thesetax-supported higher schools largely died out, and in their place privateenergy and benevolence came to be depended upon to supply the neededhigher education. 

One of the main purposes expressed in the endowment or creation of theacademies was the establishment of courses which should cover a number ofsubjects having value aside from mere preparation for college, particularly subjects of a modern nature, useful in preparing youths forthe changed conditions of society and government and business. The studyof real things rather than words about things, and useful things ratherthan subjects merely preparatory to college, became prominent features ofthe new courses of study. Among the most commonly found new subjects werealgebra, astronomy, botany, chemistry, general history, United Stateshistory, English literature, surveying, intellectual philosophy, declamation, and debating. [14]

Not being bound up with the colleges, as the earlier Latin grammar schoolshad largely been, the academies became primarily independent institutions, taking pupils who had completed the English education of the common schooland giving them an advanced education in modern languages, the sciences, mathematics, history, and the more useful subjects of the time, with aview to "rounding out" their studies and preparing them for business lifeand the rising professions. They thus built upon instead of runningparallel to the common school course, as the old Latin grammar school haddone (see Figure 198, p. 666) and hence clearly mark a transition from thearistocratic and somewhat exclusive college-preparatory Latin grammarschool of colonial times to the more democratic high school of to-day. Theacademies also served a very useful purpose in supplying to the lowerschools the best-educated teachers of the time. 

The old Latin grammar school, too, had been maintained exclusively forboys. Girls had been excluded as "Improper & inconsistent w'th such aGrammar Schoole as ye law injoines, and is ye Designe of this Settlem't. "The new academies soon reversed this situation. Almost from the first theybegan to be established for girls as well as boys, and in time many becameco-educational. In New York State alone 32 academies were incorporatedbetween 1819 and 1853 with the prefix "Female" to their title. In thisrespect, also, these institutions formed a transition to the modern co-educational high school. The higher education of women in the UnitedStates clearly dates from the establishment of the academies. Troy (NewYork) Seminary, founded by Emma Willard, in 1821, and Mt. Holyoke(Massachusetts) Seminary, founded by Mary Lyon, in 1836, though not thefirst institutions for girls, were nevertheless important pioneers in thehigher education of women. 

THE DEMAND FOR HIGHER SCHOOLS. The different movements tending toward thebuilding-up of free public-school systems in the cities and States, whichwe have described in this and the preceding chapter, and which becameclearly defined in the Northern States after 1825, came just at the timewhen the Academy had reached its maximum development. The settlement ofthe question of general taxation for education, the elimination of therate-bill by the cities and later by the States, the establishment of theAmerican common school as the result of a long native evolution, and thecomplete establishment of public control over the entire elementary-schoolsystem, all tended to bring the semi-private tuition academy intoquestion. Many asked why not extend the public-school system upward toprovide the necessary higher education for all in one common state-supported school. [15]

The demand for an upward extension of the public school, which wouldprovide academy instruction for the poor as well as the rich, and in onecommon public higher school, now made itself felt. As the colonial Latingrammar school had represented the educational needs of a society based onclasses, and the academies had represented a transition period and markedthe growth of a middle class, so the rising democracy of the secondquarter of the nineteenth century now demanded and obtained the democratichigh school, supported by the public and equally open to all, to meet theeducational needs of a new society built on the basis of a new andaggressive democracy. Where, too, the academy had represented in a way amissionary effort--that of a few providing something for the good of thepeople (Rs. 319, 325)--the high school on the other hand represented acoöperative effort on the part of the people to provide something forthemselves. 

[Illustration: FIG. 205. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THEUNITED STATESThe transitional character of the Academy is well shown in this diagram. ]

THE FIRST AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL. The first high school in the United Stateswas established in Boston, in 1821 (R. 326). For three years it was knownas the "English Classical School" (R. 327), but in 1824 the schoolappears in the records as the "English High School. " In 1826 Boston alsoopened the first high school for girls, but abolished it in 1828, due toits great popularity, and instead extended the course of study for girlsin the elementary schools. 

[Illustration: FIG. 206 THE FIRST HIGH SCHOOL IN THE UNITED STATESEstablished at Boston in 1821. ]

THE MASSACHUSETTS LAW OF 1827. Though Portland, Maine, established a highschool in 1821, Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1824, and New Bedford, Haverhill, and Salem, Massachusetts, in 1827, copying the Boston idea, thereal beginning of the American high school as a distinct institution datesfrom the Massachusetts Law of 1827 (R. 328), enacted through the influenceof James G. Carter. This law formed the basis of all subsequentlegislation in Massachusetts, and deeply influenced development in otherStates. The law is significant in that it required a high school in everytown having 500 families or over, in which should be taught United Stateshistory, bookkeeping, algebra, geometry, and surveying, while in everytown having 4000 inhabitants or over, instruction in Greek, Latin, history, rhetoric, and logic must be added. A heavy penalty was attachedfor failure to comply with the law. In 1835 the law was amended so as topermit any smaller town to form a high school as well. 

This Boston and Massachusetts legislation clearly initiated the publichigh-school movement in the United States. It was there that the new typeof higher school was founded, there that its curriculum was outlined, there that its standards were established, and there that it developedearliest and best. 

THE STRUGGLE TO ESTABLISH AND MAINTAIN HIGH SCHOOLS. The development ofthe American high school, even in its home, was slow. Up to 1840 not muchmore than a dozen high schools had been established in Massachusetts, andnot more than an equal number in the other States. The Academy was thedominant institution, the cost of maintenance was a factor, and the sameopposition to an extension of taxation to include high schools wasmanifested as was earlier shown toward the establishment of commonschools. The early state legislation, as had been the case with the commonschools, was nearly always permissive and not mandatory. Massachusettsforms a notable exception in this regard. The support for the schools hadto come practically entirely from increased local taxation, and this madethe struggle to establish and maintain high schools in any State for along time a series of local struggles. Years of propaganda and patienteffort were required, and, after the establishment of a high school in acommunity, constant watchfulness was necessary to prevent its abandonment(R. 329). 

[Illustration: FIG. 207. HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES BY 1860Based on the table given in the _Report of the United States Commissionerof Education_, 1904, vol. II, pp. 1782-1989. This table is onlyapproximately correct, as exact information is difficult to obtain. Thistable gives 321 high schools by 1860, and all but 35 of these were in theStates shown on the above map. There were two schools in California andthree in Texas, and the remainder not shown were in the Southern States. Of the 321 high schools reported, over half (167) were in the three Statesof Massachusetts (78), New York (41), and Ohio (48). ]

In many States, legislation providing for the establishment of highschools was attacked in the courts. One of the clearest cases of this camein Michigan, in a test case appealed from the city of Kalamazoo, andcommonly known as the Kalamazoo case. The opinion of the Supreme Court ofthe State (R. 330) was so favorable and so positive that this decisiondeeply influenced development in almost all of the Upper MississippiValley States. The struggle to establish and maintain high schools inMassachusetts and New York preceded the development in most other States, because there the common school had been established earlier. Inconsequence, the struggle to extend and complete the public-school systemcame there earlier also. The development was likewise more peaceful there, and came more rapidly. In Massachusetts this was in large part a result ofthe educational awakening started by James G. Carter and Horace Mann. InNew York it was due to the early support of Governor De Witt Clinton, andthe later encouragement and state aid which came from the Regents of theUniversity of the State of New York. Maine, Vermont, and New Hampshirewere like Massachusetts in spirit, and followed closely its example. InRhode Island and New Jersey, due to old conditions, and in Connecticut, due to the great decline in education there after 1800, the high schooldeveloped much more slowly, and it was not until after 1865 that anymarked development took place in these States. The democratic West soonadopted the idea, and established high schools as soon as cities developedand the needs of the population warranted. In the South the main high-school development dates from relatively recent times. 

Gradually the high school has been accepted as a part of the state common-school system by all the American States, and the funds and taxationoriginally provided for the common schools have been extended to cover thehigh school as well. The new States of the West have based theirlegislation largely on what the Eastern and Central States earlier foughtout. 

VII. THE STATE UNIVERSITY CROWNS THE SYSTEM

THE COLONIAL COLLEGES. The earlier colleges--Harvard, William and Mary, Yale--had been created by the religious-state governments of the earliercolonial period, and continued to retain some state connections for a timeafter the coming of nationality. As it early became evident that ademocracy demands intelligence on the part of its citizens, that theleaders of democracy are not likely to be too highly educated, and thatthe character of collegiate instruction must ultimately influence nationaldevelopment, efforts were accordingly made to change the old colleges orcreate new ones, the final outcome of which was the creation of stateuniversities in all the new and in most of the older States. The evolutionof the state university, as the crowning head of the free public schoolsystem of the State, represents the last phase which we shall trace of thestruggle of democracy to create a system of schools suited to its peculiarneeds. 

The close of the colonial period found the Colonies possessed of ninecolleges. These, with the dates of their foundation, the Colony foundingthem, and the religious denomination they chiefly represented were:

 1636. Harvard College Massachusetts Puritan 1693. William and Mary Virginia Anglican 1701. Yale College Connecticut Congregational 1746. Princeton New Jersey Presbyterian 1753-55 Academy and College Pennsylvania Non-denominational 1754. King's College (Columbia) New York Anglican 1764. Brown Rhode Island Baptist 1765. Rutgers New Jersey Reformed Dutch 1769. Dartmouth New Hampshire Congregational

The religious purpose had been dominant in the founding of eachinstitution, though there was a gradual shading-off in strictdenominational control and insistence upon religious conformity in thefoundations after 1750. Still the prime purpose in the founding of eachwas to train up a learned and godly body of ministers, the earliercongregations at least "dreading to leave an illiterate ministry to thechurches when our present ministers shall lie in the dust. " In a pamphlet, published in 1754, President Clap of Yale declared that "Colleges are_Societies of Ministers_, for training up Persons for the Work of the_Ministry_" and that "The great design of founding this School (Yale), wasto Educate Ministers in our _own Way_. " In the advertisement published inthe New York papers announcing the opening of King's College, in 1754, itwas stated that:

 IV. The chief Thing that is aimed at in this College, is, to teach and engage the Children _to know God in Jesus Christ_, and to love and serve him in all _Sobriety, Godliness_, and _Richness of Life_, with a perfect Heart and a Willing Mind: and to train them up in all Virtuous Habits, and all such useful Knowledge as may render them creditable to their Families and Friends, Ornaments to their Country, and useful to the Public Weal in their generation. 

These colonial institutions were all small. For the first fifty years ofHarvard's history the attendance at the college seldom exceeded twenty, and the President did all the teaching. The first assistant teacher(tutor) was not appointed until 1699, and the first professor not until1721, when a professorship of divinity was endowed. By 1800 theinstruction was conducted by the President and three professors--divinity, mathematics, and "Oriental languages"--assisted by a few tutors whoreceived only class fees, and the graduating classes seldom exceededforty. The course was four years in length, and all students studied thesame subjects. The first three years were given largely to the so-called"Oriental languages" Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. In addition, Freshmenstudied arithmetic; Sophomores, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry; andJuniors, natural (book) science; and all were given much training inoratory, and some general history was added. The Senior year was givenmainly to ethics, philosophy, and Christian evidences. [16] Theinstruction in the eight other older colleges, before 1800, was notmaterially different. 

[Illustration: FIG. 208. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES ESTABLISHED BY 1860Compiled from data given in the _Reports of the United States Commissionerof Education_. Of the 246 colleges shown on the map, but 17 were stateinstitutions, and but two or three others had any state connections. ]

GROWTH OF COLLEGES BY 1860. Fifteen additional colleges were foundedbefore 1800, and it has been estimated that by that date the two dozenAmerican colleges then existing did not have all told over one hundredprofessors and instructors, not less than one thousand nor more than twothousand students, or property worth over one million dollars. Theirgraduating classes were small. No one of the twenty-four admitted womenin any way to its privileges. After 1820, with the firmer establishmentof the Nation, the awakening of a new national consciousness, thedevelopment of larger national wealth, and a court decision whichsafeguarded the endowments, interest in the founding of new collegesperceptibly quickened, as may be seen from the adjoining table, andbetween 1820 and 1880 came the great period of denominational effort. Themap shows the colleges established by 1860, from which it will be seen howlarge a part the denominational colleges played in the early history ofhigher education in the United States. Up to about 1870 the provision ofhigher education, as had been the case earlier with the provision ofsecondary education by the academies, had been left largely to privateeffort. There were, to be sure, a few state universities before 1870, though usually these were not better than the denominational collegesaround them, and often they maintained a non-denominational character onlyby preserving a proper balance between the different denominations in theemployment of their faculties. Speaking generally, higher education in theUnited States before 1870 was provided very largely in the tuitionalcolleges of the different religious denominations, rather than by theState. Of the 246 colleges founded by the close of the year 1860, as shownon the map, but 17 were state institutions, and but two or three othershad any state connections. 

 COLLEGES FOUNDED UP TO 1900

 Before 1780 10 1780-89 7 1790-99 7 1800-09 9 1810-19 5 1820-29 22 1830-39 38 1840-49 42 1850-59 92 1860-69 73 1870-79 61 1880-89 74 1890-99 54 --- Total 494

 (After a table by Dexter corrected by U. S. Comr. Educ. Data. Only approximately correct. )

THE NEW NATIONAL ATTITUDE TOWARD THE COLLEGES. After the coming ofnationality there gradually grew up a widespread dissatisfaction with thecolleges as then conducted, because they were aristocratic in tendency, because they devoted themselves so exclusively to the needs of a class, and because they failed to answer the needs of the States in the matter ofhigher education. Due to their religious origin, and the commonrequirement that the president and trustees must be members of someparticular denomination, they were naturally regarded as representing theinterests of some one sect or faction within the State rather than theinterests of the State itself. With the rise of the new democratic spiritafter about 1820 there came a demand, felt least in New England and mostin the South and the new States in the West, for institutions of higherlearning which should represent the State. It was argued that collegeswere important instrumentalities for moulding the future, that the kind ofeducation given in them must ultimately influence the welfare of theState, and that higher education cannot be regarded as a private matter. The type of education given in these higher institutions, it was argued, "will appear on the bench, at the bar, in the pulpit, and in the senate, and will unavoidably affect our civil and religious principles. " For thesereasons, as well as to crown our state school system and to provide highereducational advantages for its leaders, it was argued that the Stateshould exercise control over the colleges. 

This new national spirit manifested itself in a number of ways. In NewYork we see it in the reorganization of King's College, the rechristeningof the institution as Columbia, and the placing of it under at least thenominal supervision of the governing educational body of the State. InPennsylvania an attempt was made to bring the university into closerconnection with the State, but this failed. In New Hampshire thelegislature tried, in 1816, to transform Dartmouth College into a stateinstitution. This act was contested in the courts, and the case wasfinally carried to the Supreme Court of the United States. There it wasdecided, in 1819, that the charter of a college was a contract, theobligation of which a legislature could not impair. 

EFFECT OF THE DARTMOUTH COLLEGE DECISION. The effect of this decisionmanifested itself in two different ways. On the one hand it guaranteed theperpetuity of endowments, and the great period of private anddenominational effort (see table) now followed. On the other hand, sincethe States could not change charters and transform old establishments, they began to turn to the creation of new state universities of their own. Virginia created its state university the same year as the Dartmouth casedecision. The University of North Carolina, which had been established in1789, and which began to give instruction in 1795, but which had neverbeen under direct state control, was taken over by the State in 1821. TheUniversity of Vermont, originally chartered in 1791, was rechartered as astate university in 1838. The University of Indiana was established in1820. Alabama provided for a state university in its first constitution, in 1819, and the institution opened for instruction in 1831. Michigan, inframing its first constitution preparatory to entering the Union, in 1835, made careful provisions for the safeguarding of the state university andfor establishing it as an integral part of its state school system, asIndiana had done in 1816. Wisconsin provided for the creation of a stateuniversity in 1836, and embodied the idea in its first constitution whenit entered the Union in 1848, and Missouri provided for a state universityin 1839, Mississippi in 1844, Iowa in 1847, and Florida in 1856. The stateuniversity is today found in every "new" State and in some of the"original" States, and practically every new Western and Southern Statefollowed the patterns set by Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin and madecareful provision for the establishment and maintenance of a stateuniversity in its first state constitution. 

There was thus quietly added another new section to the Americaneducational ladder, and the free public-school system was extended fartherupward. Though the great period of state university foundation came after1860, and the great period of state university expansion after 1885, thebeginnings were clearly marked early in our national history. Of thesixteen States having state universities by 1860 (see Figure 208), allexcept Florida had established them before 1850. For a long time small, poorly supported by the States, much like the church colleges about themin character and often inferior in quality, one by one the stateuniversities have freed themselves alike from denominational restrictionson the one hand and political control on the other, and have set aboutrendering the service to the State which a state university ought torender. Michigan, the first of our state universities to free itself, takeits proper place, and set an example for others to follow, opened in 1841with two professors and six students. In 1844 it was a little institutionof three professors, one tutor, one assistant, and one visiting lecturer, had but fifty-three students, and offered but a single course of study, consisting chiefly of Greek, Latin, mathematics, and intellectual andmoral science (R. 331). As late as 1852 it had but seventy-two students, but by 1860, when it had largely freed itself from the incubus of BaptistLatin, Congregational Greek, Methodist intellectual philosophy, Presbyterian astronomy, and Whig mathematics, and its remarkable growth asa state university had begun, it enrolled five hundred and nineteen. 

THE AMERICAN FREE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM NOW ESTABLISHED. By the close ofthe second quarter of the nineteenth century, certainly by 1860, we findthe American public-school system fully established, in principle atleast, in all our Northern States (R. 332). Much yet remained to be doneto carry into full effect what had been established in principle, buteverywhere democracy had won its fight, and the American public school, supported by general taxation, freed from the pauper-school taint, freeand equally open to all, under the direction of representatives of thepeople, free from sectarian control, and complete from the primary schoolthrough the high school, and in the Western States through the universityas well, was established permanently in American public policy. It was areal democratic educational ladder that had been created, and not thetypical two-class school system of continental European States. Theestablishment of the free public high school and the state universityrepresent the crowning achievements of those who struggled to found astate-supported educational system fitted to the needs of great democraticStates. Probably no other influences have done more to unify the AmericanPeople, reconcile diverse points of view, eliminate state jealousies, setideals for the people, and train leaders for the service of the States andof the Nation than the academies, high schools, and colleges scatteredover the land. They have educated but a small percentage of the people, tobe sure, but they have trained most of the leaders who have guided theAmerican democracy since its birth. 

[Illustration: FIG. 209. THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL LADDERCompare this with the figure on page 577, and the democratic nature of theAmerican school system will be apparent. ]

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Explain the theory of "vested rights" as applied to private andparochial schools. 

2. Does every great advance in provisions for human welfare require aperiod of education and propaganda? Illustrate. 

3. Explain just what is meant by "the wealth of the State must educate thechildren of the State. "

4. Show how the retention of the pauper-school idea would have beendangerous to the life of the Republic. 

5. Why were the cities more anxious to escape from the operation of thepauper-school law than were the towns and rural districts?

6. Why were the pauper-school and the rate-bill so hard to eliminate?

7. Explain why, in America, schools naturally developed from the communityoutward. 

8. State your explanation for the older States beginning to establishpermanent school funds, often before they had established a state systemof schools. 

9. Show the gradual transition from church control of education, throughstate aid of church schools, to secularized state schools. 

10. Show why secularized state schools were the only possible solution forthe United States. 

11. Show that secularization would naturally take place in the textbooksand the instruction, before manifesting itself in the laws. 

12. Show how the American academy was a natural development in thenational life. 

13. Show how the American high school was a natural development after theacademy. 

14. Show why the high school could be opposed by men who had accepted tax-supported elementary schools. Why has such reasoning been abandoned now?

15. Explain the difference, and illustrate from the history of Americaneducational development, between establishing a thing in principle andcarrying it into full effect. 

16. Was the early argument as to the influence of higher education on theState a true argument? Why?

17. What would have been the probable results had the Dartmouth Collegecase been decided the other way?

18. Show how the opening of collegiate instruction to women was a phase ofthe new democratic movement. 

19. Show how college education has been a unifying force in the nationallife. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following illustrativeselections are reproduced:

 316. Mann: The Ground of the Free-School System. 317. Governor Cleveland: Repeal of the Connecticut School Law. 318. Mann: On the Repeal of the Connecticut School Law. 319. Gulliver: The Struggle for Free Schools in Norwich. 320. Address: The State and Education. 321. Michigan: A Rate-Bill, and a Warrant for Collection. 322. Mann: On Religious Instruction in the Schools. 323. Michigan: Petition for a Division of the School Fund. 324. Michigan: Counter-Petition against a Division. 325. Connecticut: Act of Incorporation of Norwich Free Academy, 326. Boston: Establishment of the First American High School. 327. Boston: The Secondary-School System in 1823. 328. Massachusetts: The High School Law of 1827. 329. Gulliver: An Example of the Opposition to High Schools. 330. Michigan: The Kalamazoo Decision. 331. Michigan: Program of Studies at University, 1843. 332. Tappan: The Michigan State System of Public Instruction. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Do Mann's three propositions (316) hold equally true to-day?

2. Of what type of person is the reasoning of Governor Cleveland (317)typical?

3. Assuming Mann's description of Connecticut progress (318) to becorrect, how do you account for the legislature following GovernorCleveland's recommendations so readily?

4. Did the leaders in Norwich (319) use good diplomacy?

5. Point out the essential soundness of the reasoning of the New JerseyReport (320). 

6. Explain the willingness of people seventy-five years ago to conduct theschool business on such a small basis (321) as the rate-bill indicates. 

7. Show that, as Mr. Mann points out (322), sectarian schools and a StateChurch are near together. 

8. Point out the weakness in the argument in the Michigan petition (323). 

9. State the purpose and nature of the first American high school (326), and contrast it with the earlier academy. 

10. Contrast the English Classical School (High School) of Boston of 1823, with the older Latin School (327), as to purpose and instruction. 

11. Just what did the Massachusetts Law of 1827 (328) require?

12. Has such opposition as that described in 329 completely died out evennow?

13. State the line of reasoning and the conclusions of the Court in theKalamazoo Case (330). Point out how this decision might influencedevelopment elsewhere. 

14. Compare the University of Michigan of 1843 (331) with a present-dayhigh school. 

15. Show that Michigan (332) had perfected an American educational ladder. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Brown, E. E. _The Making of our Middle Schools_. * Brown, S. W. _The Secularization of American Education_. Cubberley, E. P. _Public Education in the United States_. Dexter, E. G. _A History of Education in the United States_. * Hinsdale, B. A. _Horace Mann, and the Common School Revival in the United States_. * Inglis, A. J. _The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts_. Martin, George H. _The Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System_. * Mead, A. R. _The Development of Free Schools in the United States, as Illustrated by Connecticut and Michigan_. Taylor, James M. _Before Vassar Opened_. * Thwing, Charles F. _A History of Higher Education in America_. 

CHAPTER XXVII

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL

I. SPREAD OF THE STATE-CONTROL IDEA

THE FIVE TYPE NATIONS. We have now traced, in some detail, the strugglesof forward-looking men to establish national systems of education in fivegreat world nations. In each we have described the steps by means of whichthe State gradually superseded the Church in the control of education, andthe motives and impulses which finally led the State to take over theschool as a function of the State. The steps and impelling motives andrate of transfer were not the same in any two nations, but in each of thefive the political necessities of the State in time made the transfer seemdesirable. Time everywhere was required to effect the change. The movementbegan earliest and was concluded earliest in the German States, and wasconcluded last in England. In the German States, France, and Italy thechange came rapidly and as a result of legislative acts or imperialdecrees. In England and the United States the transfer took place, as wehave seen, only in response to the slow development of public opinion. 

This change in control and extension of educational advantages wasessentially a nineteenth-century movement, and a resultant of the newpolitical philosophy and the democratic revolutions of the latereighteenth century, combined with the industrial revolution of thenineteenth century. A new political impulse now replaced the earlierreligious motive as the incentive for education, and education forliteracy and citizenship became, during the nineteenth century, a newpolitical ideal that has, in time, spread to progressive nations all overthe world. 

The five great nations whose educational evolution has been described inthe preceding chapters may be regarded as having formed types which havesince been copied, in more or less detail, by the more progressive nationsin different parts of the world. The continental European two-class schoolsystem, the American educational ladder, and the English tendency tocombine the two and use the best parts of each, have been reproduced inthe different national educational systems which have been created by thevarious political governments of the world. The continental European ideaof a centralized ministry for education, with an appointed head or acabinet minister in control, has also been widely copied. The Prussiantwo-class plan has been most influential among the Teutonic and Slavicpeoples of Europe, and has also deeply influenced educational developmentamong the Japanese; English ideas have been extensively copied in theEnglish self-governing dominions; and the American plan has been clearlyinfluential in Canada, the Argentine, and in China. The French centralizedplan for organization and administration has been widely copied in thestate educational organizations of the Latin nations of Europe and SouthAmerica. In a general way it may be stated that the more democratic thegovernment of a nation has become the greater has been the tendency tobreak away from the two-class school system, to introduce more of aneducational ladder, and to bring in more of the English conception ofgranting to localities a reasonable amount of local liberty in educationalaffairs. 

SPREAD OF THE STATE CONTROL IDEA AMONG NORTHERN NATIONS. The developmentof schools under the control of the government, and the extension of statesupervision to the existing religious schools, took place in the differentcantons of Switzerland, and in Holland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, somewhat contemporaneously with the development described for the fivetype nations. The work of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg, and of theirdisciples and followers, had given an early impetus to the establishmentof schools and teacher-training in the Swiss cantons, most being done inthe German-speaking portions. 

In Holland, where the Reformation zeal for schools largely died out in theeighteenth century, the organization of the "Society of Public Good, " in1784, by a Mennonite clergyman, did much to awaken a new interest inschools for the people and to inaugurate a new movement for educationalorganization. In 1795 a revolution took place in Holland, a republic wasestablished, and the extension of educational advantages followed. From1806 to 1815 Holland was under the rule of Napoleon. A school law of 1806forms the basis of public education in Holland. This asserted thesupremacy of the State in education, and provided for state inspection ofschools. In 1812 the French scientist, M. Cuvier, reported to Napoleonthat there were 4451 schools in little Holland, and that one tenth of thetotal population was in school. In 1816 a normal school was established atHaarlem. Both the constitutions of 1815 and 1848 provided for statecontrol of education, which has been steadily extended since the beginningof the revival in 1784. Today Holland provides a good system of publicinstruction for its people. 

[Illustration: Fig. 210. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF DENMARK]

In Denmark and Sweden the development of state schools has been workedout, much as in England, in coöperation with the Church, and the Churchstill assists the State in the administration and supervision of theschool systems which were eventually evolved. In each of these countries, too, the continental two-class school system has been somewhat modified byan upward movement of the transfer point between the two and thedevelopment of people's high schools, so as to produce a more democratictype of school and afford better educational opportunities to all classesof the population. The annexed diagram, showing the organization ofeducation in Denmark, is typical of this modification and extension. 

Finland should also be classed with these northern nations in matters ofeducational development. Lutheran ideas as to religion and the need foreducation took deep hold there at an early date (p. 297). A knowledge ofreading and the Catechism was made necessary for confirmation as early as1686, and democratic ideas also found an early home among this people. Inconsequence the Finns have for long been a literate people. The law makingelementary education a function of the State, however, dates only from1866, and secondary education was taken over from the ecclesiasticalauthorities only in 1872. 

Similarly, Scotland, another northern nation, began schools as a phase ofits Reformation fervor. During the eighteenth century the parish schools, created by the Acts of 1646 (R. 179; p. 335) and 1696, provedinsufficient, and voluntary schools were added to supplement them. Together these insured for Scotland a much higher degree of literacy thanwas the case in England. The final state organization of education inScotland dates from the Scottish Education Act of 1872. 

[Illustration: FIG. 211. THE PROGRESS OF LITERACY IN EUROPE BY THE CLOSEOF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY]

The map reproduced here, showing the progress of general education by theclose of the nineteenth century, as measured by the spread of the abilityto read and write, reveals at a glance the high degree of literacy of thenorthern Teutonic and mixed Teutonic nations. It was among these nationsthat the Protestant Reformation ideas made the deepest impression; it wasin these northern States that the Protestant elementary vernacular school, to teach reading and religion, attained its earliest start; it was therethat the school was taken over from the Church and erected into aneffective national instrument at an early date; and it was these nationswhich had been most successful, by the close of the nineteenth century, inextending the elements of education to all and thus producing literatepopulations. 

THE STATE-CONTROL IDEA IN THE SOUTH AND EAST OF EUROPE. As we pass to thesouth and east of Europe we pass not only to lands which remained loyal tothe Roman Church, or are adherents of the Greek Church, and hence did notexperience the Reformation fervor with its accompanying zeal foreducation, but also to lands untouched by the French-Revolution movementand where democratic ideas have only recently begun to make any progress. Greece alone forms an exception to this statement, a constitutionalgovernment having been established there in 1843. Removed from the mainstream of European civilization, these nations have been influenced lessby modern forces; the hold of the Church on the education of the young hasthere been longest retained; and the taking-over of education by the Statehas there been longest deferred. In consequence, the schools provided havefor long been inadequate both in number and scope, and the progress ofliteracy and democratic ideas among the people has been slow. 

Despite the beginnings made by Maria Theresa (p. 475) in the lateeighteenth century, Austria dropped backward to a low place in matters ofeducation during the period of reaction following the Napoleonic wars, andthe real beginnings of state elementary-schools there date from the law of1867. The beginnings in Hungary date from 1868. The beginnings of otherstate elementary school systems are: Greece, 1823; Portugal, 1844; Spain, 1857; Roumania, 1859; Bulgaria, 1881; and Serbia, 1882. In many of theseStates, despite early beginnings, but little real progress has even yetbeen made in developing systems of national education that will providegratuitous elementary-school training for all and inculcate the nationalspirit. In many of these States the illiteracy of the people is stillhigh, [1] the people are poor, the nations are economically backward, themilitary and clerical classes still dominate, and intelligent andinterested governments have not as yet been evolved. 

In Russia, though Catherine II and her successors made earnest efforts tobegin a system of state education, the period following Napoleon was oneof extreme repressive reaction. The military class and the clergy of theGreek Church joined hands in a government interested in keeping the peoplesubmissive and devout. In consequence, at the time of the emancipation ofthe serfs, in 1861, it was estimated that not one per cent of the totalpopulation of Russia was then under instruction, and the ratio ofilliteracy by the close of the nineteenth century was the highest inEurope outside of Spain, Portugal, and the Balkan States. 

THE STATE-CONTROL IDEA IN THE ENGLISH SELF-GOVERNING DOMINIONS. TheEnglish and French settlers in Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provincesof Canada brought the English and French parochial-school ideas from theirhome-lands with them, but these home conceptions were materially modified, at an early date, by settlers from the northern States of the AmericanUnion. These introduced the New England idea of state control and publicresponsibility for education. In part copying precedents recentlyestablished in the new American States, as an outcome of the strugglesthere to establish free, tax-supported, and state-controlled schools, bothOntario and Quebec early began the establishment of state systems ofeducation for their people. A superintendent of education was appointed inOntario in 1844, and the Common School Act of 1846 laid the foundation ofthe state school system of the Province. In the law of 1871 a system ofuniform, free, compulsory, and state-inspected schools was definitelyprovided for. Quebec, in 1845, made the ecclesiastical parish the unit forschool administration; in 1852 appointed government inspectors for thechurch schools; and in 1859 provided for a Council of Public Instructionto control all schools in the Province. The Dominion Act of 1867 lefteducation, as in the United States, to the several Provinces to control, and state systems of education, though with large liberty in religiousinstruction, or the incorporation of the religious schools into the stateschool systems, have since been erected in all the Canadian Provinces. Following American precedents, too, a thoroughly democratic educationalladder has almost everywhere been created, substantially like that shownin the Figure on page 708. 

In Australia and New Zealand education has similarly been left to thedifferent States to handle, but a state centralized control has beenprovided there which is more akin to French practice than to Englishideas. In each State, primary education has been made free, compulsory, secular, and state-supported. The laws making such provision in thedifferent States date from 1872, in Victoria; 1875, in Queensland; 1878, in South Australia, West Australia, and New Zealand; and 1880, in NewSouth Wales. Secondary education has not as yet been made free, and manyexcellent privately endowed or fee-supported secondary schools, after theEnglish plan, are found in the different States. 

In the new Union of South Africa all university education has been takenover by the Union, while the existing school systems of the differentStates are rapidly being taken over and expanded by the state governments, and transformed into constructive instruments of the States. 

THE STATE-CONTROL IDEA IN THE SOUTH AMERICAN STATES. As we have seen inChapter XX, the spirit of nationality awakened by the French Revolutionspread to South America, and between 1815 and 1821 all of Spain's SouthAmerican colonies revolted, declared their independence from the mothercountry, and set up constitutional republics. Brazil, in 1822, in asimilar manner severed its connections from Portugal. The United States, through the Monroe Doctrine (1823), helped these new States to maintaintheir independence. For approximately half a century these States, isolated as they were and engaged in a long and difficult struggle toevolve stable forms of government, left such education as was provided toprivate individuals and societies and to the missionaries and teachingorders of the Roman Church. After the middle of the nineteenth century, the new forces stirring in the modern world began to be felt in SouthAmerica as well, and, after about 1870, a well-defined movement toestablish state school systems began to be in evidence. 

The Argentine constitution of 1853 had directed the establishment ofprimary schools by the State, but nothing of importance was done untilafter the election of Dr. Sarmiento as President, in 1868. Under hisinfluence an American-type normal school was established, teachers wereimported from the United States, and liberal appropriations for educationwere begun. In 1873 a general system of national aid for primary educationwas established, and in 1884 a new law laid the basis of the present stateschool system. Though some earlier beginnings had been made in some of theother South American nations, Argentine is regarded as the leader ineducation among them. This is largely due to the democratic nature of thegovernment which, in connection with the deep interest in education ofPresident Sarmiento, [2] found educational expression in the creation ofan American-type educational ladder, as the accompanying diagram shows. Large emphasis has been placed on scientific and practical studies in thesecondary _colegios_. The normal school has been given large importance, and made a parallel and connecting link in the educational ladder betweenthe primary schools and the universities. The Argentine school system, probably due to American influences acting through President Sarmiento, forms an exception to the usual South American state school system, asnearly all the other States have followed the French model and created aEuropean two-class school system. 

[Illustration: FIG. 212. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC]

In Chili, the constitution of 1833 declared education to be of supremeimportance, and a normal school was established in Santiago, as early as1840. The basic law for the organization of a state system of primaryinstruction, however, dates from 1860, and the law organizing a statesystem of secondary and higher education from 1872. 

In Peru, an educational reform movement was inaugurated in 1876, but thewar with Chili (1879-84) checked all progress. In 1896 an EducationalCommission was appointed to visit the United States and Europe, and thelaw of 1901 marked the creation of a ministry for education and the realbeginnings of a state school system. 

The Brazilian constitution of 1824 left education to the several States(twenty and one Federal District), and a permissive law of 1827 allowedthe different States to establish schools. It was not until 1854, however, that public schools were organized in the Federal District, and these markthe real beginning of state education in Brazil. Since then theestablishment of state schools has gradually extended to the coast States, and inland with the building of railway lines and the opening-up of theinterior to outside influences. The basis for state-controlled educationhas now been laid in all the States, but the attendance at the schools asyet is small. [3]

In some of the other South American States, such as Bolivia, Ecuador, andVenezuela, but little progress in extending state-controlled schools hasas yet been made, and the training of the young is still left largely toprivate effort, the Church, and the religious orders. The illiteracy inall the South American States is still high, in part due to the largenative populations, and much remains to be done before education becomesgeneral there. The state-control idea, though, has been definitelyestablished in principle in these countries. With the establishment ofstable governments, the building of railroads and steamship lines, and thedevelopment of an important international commerce--events which therehave characterized the first two decades of the twentieth century--earlyand important progress in state educational organization and in theextension of educational advantages may be expected. 

THE STATE-SCHOOL IDEA IN EASTERN ASIA. In 1854 Admiral Perry effected thetreaty of friendship with Japan which virtually opened that nation to theinfluences of western civilization, and one of the most wonderfultransformations of a people recorded in history soon began. In 1867 a newMikado came to the throne, and in 1868 the small military class, which hadruled the nation for some seven hundred years, gave up their power to thenew ruler. A new era in Japan, known as the _Meiji_, dates from thisevent. In 1871 the centuries-old feudal system was abolished, and allclasses in the State were declared equal before the law. This same yearthe first newspaper in Japan was begun. In 1872 the first educational codefor the nation was promulgated by the Mikado. This ordered the generalestablishment of schools, the compulsory education of the people (R. 334a), and the equality of all classes in educational matters. Students werenow sent abroad, especially to Germany and the United States; foreignteachers were imported; an American normal-school teacher was placed incharge of the newly opened state normal school; the American class methodof instruction was introduced; schoolbooks and teaching apparatus wereprepared, after American models; middle schools were organized in thetowns; higher schools were opened in the cities; and the old Academy ofForeign Languages was evolved (1877) into the University of Tokyo. In 1884the study of English was introduced into the courses of the publicschools. In 1889 a form of constitution was granted to the people, and aparliament established. [4]

[Illustration: FIG. 213. THE JAPANESE TWO-CLASS SCHOOL SYSTEM. ]

Adapting the continental European idea of a two-class school system to thepeculiar needs of the nation, the Japanese have worked out, during thepast half-century, a type of state-controlled school system which has beenwell adapted to their national needs. [5] Instruction in nationalmorality, based on the ancestral virtues, brotherly affection, and loyaltyto the constitution and the ruling class (R. 334 b-c), has been wellworked out in their schools. Though the government has remained largelyautocratic in form, the Japanese have, however, retained throughout alltheir educational development the fundamental democratic principleenunciated in the Preamble to the Educational Code of 1872 (R. 334 a), _viz_. , that every one without distinction of class or sex shall receiveprimary education at least, and that the opportunity for higher educationshall be open to all children. So completely has the education of thepeople been conceived of as one of the most important functions of theState that all education has been placed under a centralized statecontrol, with a Cabinet Minister in charge of all administrative mattersconnected with the education of the nation. 

[Illustration: FIG. 214. THE CHINESE EDUCATIONAL LADDER]

Since near the end of the nineteenth century what promises to be an evenmore wonderful transformation of a people-political, social, scientific, and industrial--has been taking place in China (R. 335). A much moredemocratic type of national school system than that of the Japanese hasbeen worked out, and this the new (1912) Republic of China is rapidlyextending in the provinces, and making education a very important functionof the new democratic national life. [6] In the beginning, when displacingthe centuries-old Confucian educational system, [7] the Chinese adoptedJapanese ideas and organized their schools (1905) somewhat after theJapanese model. Later on, responding to the influence of many American-educated Chinese and to the more democratic impulses of the Chinesepeople, the new government established by the Republic of 1912 changed theschool system at first established so as to make it in type more like theAmerican educational ladder. The new Chinese school system is shown in thedrawing on page 721. The university instruction is modern and excellent, and the addition of the cultural and scientific knowledge worked out inwestern Europe to the intellectual qualities of this capable people canhardly fail to result, in time, in the production of a wonderful modernnation, [8] probably in one of the greatest nations of the mid-twentiethcentury. 

In 1891 the independent Kingdom of Siam, [9] awakened from its age-longisolation by new world influences, sent a prince to Europe to study andreport on the state systems of education maintained there. As a result ofhis report a department of public education was created, which laterevolved into a ministry of public instruction, and elementary schools wereopened by the State in the thirteen thousand old Buddhist temples. Theseschools offered a two-year course in Siamese, followed by a five-yearcourse in English, given by imported English teachers. Schools for girlswere provided, as well as for boys. Since this beginning, higher schoolsof law, medicine, agriculture, engineering, and military science have beenadded, taught largely by imported English and American teachers. Inconsequence of the new educational organization, and the new influencesbrought in, the whole life of this little kingdom has been transformedduring the past three decades. 

GENERAL ACCEPTANCE OF THE STATE-FUNCTION CONCEPTION. The differentnational school systems, the creation of which has so far been brieflydescribed, are typical and represent a great world movement whichcharacterized the latter half of the nineteenth century. This movement isstill under way, and increasing in strength. Other state schoolorganizations might be added to the list, but those so far given aresufficient. Beginning with the nations which were earliest to the front ofthe onward march of civilization, the movement for the state control ofeducation, itself an expression of new world forces and new nationalneeds, has in a century spread to every continent on the globe. To-dayprogressive nations everywhere conceive of education for their people asso closely associated with their social, political, and industrialprogress, and their national welfare and prosperity (R. 336), that thecontrol of education has come to be regarded as an indispensable functionof the State. State constitutions (R. 333) have accordingly required thecreation of comprehensive state school systems; legislators have turned toeducation with a new interest; bulky state school codes have given forceto constitutional mandates; national literacy has become a goal; thediffusion of political intelligence by means of the school has naturallyfollowed the extension of the suffrage; while the many new forces andimpulses of a modern world have served to make the old religious type ofeducation utterly inadequate, and to call for national action to a degreenever conceived of in the days when religious, private, and voluntaryeducational effort sufficed to meet the needs of the few who felt the callto learn. What a few of the more important of these new nineteenth-centuryforces have been, which have so fundamentally modified the character anddirection of education, it may be worth while to set forth briefly, beforeproceeding further. 

II. NEW MODIFYING FORCES

THE ADVANCE OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE. The first and most important of thesenineteenth-century forces, and the one which preceded and conditioned allthe others, was the great increase of accurate knowledge as to the forcesand laws of the physical world, arising from the application of scientificmethod to the investigation of the phenomena of the material world (R. 337). During the nineteenth century the intellect of man was stimulated toactivity as it had not been before since the days when little Athens wasthe intellectual center of the world. What the Revival of Learning was tothe classical scholars of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, themovement for scientific knowledge and its application to human affairs wasto the nineteenth. It changed the outlook of man on the problems of life, vastly enlarged the intellectual horizon, and gave a new trend toeducation and to scholarly effort. What the scholars of the seventeenthand eighteenth centuries had been slowly gathering together as interestingand classified phenomena, the scientific scholars of the nineteenthcentury organized, interpreted, expanded, and applied. Since the day ofCopernicus (p. 386) and Newton (p. 388) a growing appreciation of thepermanence and scope of natural law in the universe had been slowlydeveloping, and this the scholars of the nineteenth century fixed as aprinciple and applied in many new directions. A few of the more importantof these new directions may profitably be indicated here. 

[Illustration: FIG. 215. BARON JUSTUS VON LIEBIG (1803-73)]

In the domain of the physical sciences very important advancescharacterized the century. Chemistry, up to the end of the first quarterof the nineteenth century largely a collection of unrelated facts, wastransformed by the labors of such men as Dalton (1766-1844), Faraday(1791-1867), and Liebig into a wonderfully well-organized and vastlyimportant science. Liebig carried chemistry over into the study of theprocesses of digestion and the functioning of the internal organs, andreshaped much of the instruction in medicine. Liebig is also important ashaving opened, at Giessen, in 1826, the first laboratory instruction inchemistry for students provided in any university in the world. By manysubsequent workers chemistry has been so applied to the arts that it isnot too much to say that a knowledge of chemistry underlies the wholemanufacturing and industrial life of the present, and that the degree ofindustrial preeminence held by a nation to-day is largely determined byits mastery of chemical processes. 

Physics has experienced an equally important development. It, too, at thebeginning of the nineteenth century was in the preliminary state ofcollecting, coördinating, and trying to interpret data. In a centuryphysics has, by experimentation and the application of mathematics to itsproblems, been organized into a number of exceedingly important sciences. In dynamics, heat, light, and particularly in electricity, discoveries andextension of previous knowledge of the most far-reaching significance havebeen made. What at the beginning of the nineteenth century was a smalltextbook study of natural philosophy has since been subdivided into thetwo great sciences of physics and chemistry, and these in turn intonumerous well-organized branches. Today these are taught, not fromtextbooks, but in large and costly laboratories, while manufacturingestablishments and governments now find it both necessary and profitableto maintain large scientific institutions for chemical and physicalresearch. 

The great triumph of physics, from the point of view of the reign of lawin the world of matter, was the experimental establishment (1849) of thefundamental principle of the conservation of energy. This ranks inimportance in the world of the physical sciences with the theory ofevolution in the biological. The perfection of the spectroscope (1859)revealed the rule of chemical law among the stars, and clinched the theoryof evolution as applied to the celestial universe. The atomic theory ofmatter [10] was an extension of natural laws in another direction. In 1846occurred the most spectacular proof of the reign of natural law which thenineteenth century witnessed. Two scientists, in different lands, [11]working independently, calculated the orbit of a new planet, Neptune, andwhen the telescope was turned to the point in the heavens indicated bytheir calculations the planet was there. It was a tremendous triumph forboth mathematics and astronomy. Such work as this meant the firmestablishment of scientific accuracy, and the ultimate elimination of theold theories of witchcraft, diabolic action, and superstition ascontrolling forces in the world of human affairs. 

The publication by Charles Lyell (1797-1875) of his _Principles ofGeology_, in 1830, marked another important advance in the knowledge ofthe operations of natural law in the physical world, and likewise arevolution in thinking in regard to the age and past history of the earth. Few books have ever more deeply influenced human thinking. The oldtheological conception of earthly "catastrophes" [12] was overthrown, andin its place was substituted the idea of a very long and a very orderlyevolution of the planet. Geology was created as a new science, and out ofthis has come, by subsequent evolution, a number of other new sciences[13] which have contributed much to human progress. 

[Illustration: FIG. 216. CHARLES DARWIN (1809-82)]

Another of the great books of all time appeared in 1859, when CharlesDarwin (1809-1882) published the results of thirty years of carefulbiological research in his _Origin of Species_. This swept away the oldtheory of special and individual creation which had been cherished sinceearly antiquity; and substituted in its place the reign of law in thefield of biological life. This substitution of the principle of orderlyevolution for the old theory of special creation marked another forwardstep in human thinking, [14] and gave an entirely new direction to the oldstudy of natural history. [15] In the hands of such workers as Wallace(1823-1913), Asa Gray (1810-88), Huxley (1825-94), and Spencer (1820-1903)it now proved a fruitful field. 

In 1856 the German Virchow (1821-1902) made his far-reaching contributionof cellular pathology to medical science; between 1859 and 1865 the Frenchscientist Pasteur (1822-95) established the germ theory of fermentation, putrefaction, and disease; about the same time the English surgeon Lister(1827-1914) began to use antiseptics in surgery; and, in 1879, thebacillus of typhoid fever was found. Out of this work the modern sciencesof pathology, aseptic surgery, bacteriology, and immunity were created, and the cause and mode of transmission of the great diseases [16] whichonce decimated armies and cities--plague, cholera, malaria, typhoid, typhus, yellow fever, dysentery--as well as the scourges of tuberculosis, diphtheria, and lockjaw, have been determined. The importance of thesediscoveries for the future welfare and happiness of mankind can scarcelybe overestimated. Sanitary science arose as an application of thesediscoveries, and since about 1875 a sanitary and hygienic revolution hastaken place. 

[Illustration: FIG. 217 LOUIS PASTEUR (1822-95)]

The above represent but a few of the more important of the many greatscientific advances of the nineteenth century. What the thinkers of theeighteenth century had sowed broadcast through a general interest inscience, their successors in the nineteenth reaped as an abundant harvest. The three great master keys of science--the higher mathematics, theprinciple of the conservation of energy, and the principle of orderlyevolution of life according to law--so long unknown to man, had at lastbeen discovered, and, with these in their possession, men have sinceopened up many of the long-hidden secrets of cause and growth and form andfunction, both in the heavens and on the earth, and have revealed to awondering world the prodigious and eternal forces of an orderly universe. The fruitfulness of the Baconian method (p. 390) in the hands of hissuccessors has far surpassed his most sanguine expectations. 

THE APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE AND THE RESULT. All this work, as has beenfrequently pointed out (R. 338), had of necessity to precede theapplications of science to the arts and to the advancement of the comfortsand happiness of mankind. The new studies soon caught the attention ofyounger scholars; special schools for their study began to be establishedby the middle of the nineteenth century; [17] enthusiastic students ofscience began forcefully to challenge the centuries-long supremacy ofclassical studies; funds for scientific research began to be provided; theprinting-press disseminated the new ideas; and thousands of applicationsof science to trade and industry and human welfare began to attract publicattention and create a new demand for schools and for a new extension oflearning. During the past century the applications of this new learning tomatters that intimately touch the life of man have been so numerous and sofar-reaching in their effects that they have produced a revolution in lifeconditions unlike anything the world ever experienced before. In all thedays from the time of the Crusades to the end of the Napoleonic Wars thechanges in living effected were less, both in scope and importance, thanhave taken place in the century since Napoleon was sent to Saint Helena. 

THIS TRANSFORMATION WE CALL THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. This, as we pointedout earlier (p. 492), began in England in the late eighteenth century. France did not experience its beginnings until after the Napoleonic Wars, though after about 1820 the transformations there were rapid and far-reaching. In the United States it began about 1810-15, and between 1820and 1860 the industrial methods of the people of the northeastern quarterof the United States were revolutionized. Between 1860 and 1900 they wererevolutionized again. In the German States the transformation began about1840, though it did not reach its great development until after theestablishment of the Empire, in 1871. Since the middle of the nineteenthcentury, with the development of factories, the building of railroads, andthe extension of steamship lines, even the most remote countries have beenaffected by the new forces. Nations long primitive and secluded have beenmodernized and industrialized; century-old trades and skills have beendestroyed by machinery; the old home and village industries have beenreplaced by the factory system; cities for manufacturing and trade haveeverywhere experienced a rapid development; and even on the farm theagricultural methods of bygone days have been replaced by the discoveriesof science and the products of invention. Almost nothing is done to-day asit was a century ago, and only in remote places do people live as theyused to live. The nature and extent of the change which has been wrought, and some estimate as to its effect upon educational procedure, may perhapsbe better comprehended if we first contrast living conditions before andafter this industrial transformation. 

[Illustration: FIG. 218. MAN POWER BEFORE THE DAYS OF STEAMFoot power a century ago. (From a cut by Anderson, America's firstimportant engraver)]

LIVING CONDITIONS A CENTURY AGO. A century ago people everywhere livedcomparatively simple lives. The steam engine, while beginning to be put touse (p. 493), had not as yet been extensively applied and made the willingand obedient slave of man. The lightning had not as yet been harnessed, and the now omnipresent electric motor was then still unknown. Only inEngland had manufacturing reached any large proportions, and even therethe methods were somewhat primitive. Thousands of processes which we nowperform simply and effectively by the use of steam or electric power, acentury ago were done slowly and painfully by human labor. The chiefsources of power were then man and horse power. The home was a center inwhich most of the arts and trades were practiced, and in the long winterevenings the old crafts and skills were turned to commercial account. Whatevery family used and wore was largely made in the home, the village, orthe neighborhood. 

Travel was slow and expensive and something only the well-to-do couldafford. To go fifty miles a day by stage-coach, or one hundred by sailingpacket on the water, was extraordinarily rapid. "One could not travelfaster by sea or by land, " as Huxley remarked, "than at any previous timein the world's history, and King George could send a message from Londonto York no faster than King John might have done. " The steam train was notdeveloped until about 1825, and through railway lines not for a quarter-century longer. It took four days by coach from London to York (188miles); six weeks by sailing vessel from Southampton to Boston; and sixmonths from England to India. People moved about but little. A journey offifty miles was an event--for many something not experienced in alifetime. To travel to a foreign land made a man a marked individual. Benjamin Franklin tells us that he was frequently pointed out on thestreets of Philadelphia, then the largest city in the United States, as aman who had been to Europe. George Ticknor has left us an interestingrecord (R. 339) of his difficulties, in finding anything in print in thelibraries of the time, about 1815, or any one who could tell him about thework of the German universities, which he, as a result of reading Madamede Staël's book on Germany, was desirous of attending. [18]

Everywhere it was a time of hard work and simple living. Every youngsterhad to become useful at an early age. The work of life, in town or on thefarm, required hard and continual labor from all. Farm machinery had notbeen perfected, and hand labor performed all the operations of ploughingand sowing, reaping and harvesting. With the introduction of the factorysystem, men, women, and children were used to operate machinery, childrenbeing apprenticed to the mills at about eight years of age and working tento twelve hours a day. This soon worked the life out of human beings, andin consequence sickness, wretchedness, juvenile delinquency, ignorance, drunkenness, pauperism, and crime increased greatly as cities grew and thefactory system drew thousands from the farms to the towns. When QueenVictoria came to the throne (1837) one person in twelve in England was apauper, and the lot of the poor was wretched in the extreme. In citiesthey lived in cellars and basements and hovels. There was practically nosanitation or drainage. Streets and alleys were filthy. Graveyards werecommonly located in the heart of a town. A pure water-supply throughwater-mains was unknown. Pumps and water-carriers supplied nearly all theneeds. There was in consequence much sickness, and such diseases astyphoid and malaria ran rampant. 

[Illustration: FIG. 219. THRESHING WHEAT A CENTURY AGO(After a woodcut by Jacque, in _L'Illustration_)]

CHANGE IN LIVING CONDITIONS TO-DAY. In a century all has been changed. Steam and electricity and sanitary science have transformed the world; therailway, steamship, telegraph, cable, and printing-press have made theworld one. The output of the factory system has transformed living andlabor conditions, even to the remote corners of the world; sanitaryscience and sanitary legislation have changed the primitive conditions ofthe home and made of it a clean and comfortable modern abode; men andwomen have been freed from an almost incalculable amount of drudgery andtoil, and the human effort and time saved may now be devoted to othertypes of work or to enjoyment and learning. Thousands who once were neededfor menial toil on farm or in shop and home are now freed for employmentin satisfying new wants and new pleasures that mankind has come to know, [19] or may devote their time and energies to forms of service thatadvance the welfare of mankind or minister to the needs of the humanspirit. 

[Illustration: FIG. 220. A CITY WATER-SUPPLY ABOUT 1830(After a lithograph by Bellange)]

Labor-saving devices and the applications of scientific work have touchedall phases of life and labor of men and women, and under modern methods oftransportation go everywhere. The American self-binding reaper is found inthe grain-fields of Russia and the Argentine; one may buy cans of keroseneand tinned meats and vegetables almost anywhere in the world today; sewingmachines and phonographs add to the comfort and pleasure of the Africannative and the dweller on the Yukon; "milady" in Siam uses cosmeticsmanufactured for the devotees of fashion in Paris; the Sultan of Suluwears an elegant American wrist-watch; the Dahomeny tribesman has a safetyrazor, and a mirror of French plate; the Persian dandy wears shoes andhaberdashery made in the United States; old Chinamen up the Yellow RiverValley read their Confucius by the light of an Edison Mazda; the steamtrain wends its way up from Jaffa to Jerusalem; the gasoline power boatchugs its course up the Nile the Pharaohs sailed; and modern surgicalmethods and instruments are used in the hospitals of Manila and Singapore, Cairo and Cape Town. A rupee spent for thread at Calcutta starts thespindles going in Manchester; a new calico dress for a Mandalay bellehelps the cotton-print mills of Leeds; a new carving set for a FijiIslander means more labor for some cutlery works in Sheffield; a half-dollar for a new undershirt in Panama means increased work for a cottonmill in New England; a new blanket called for against the winter's cold ofSiberia moves the looms of some Rhode Island town; a dime spent for a boxof matches in Alaska means added labor and profit for a match factory inCalifornia; a new bath tub in Paraguay spells increased output for afactory at Milan or Turin; and the Christmas wishes of the children inBrazil give work to the toy factories of Nüremberg. 

Trains and huge steamers move today along the great trade routes of themodern world, exchanging both the people and their products. The holds ofthe ships are filled with coal and grain and manufactured implements andcommodities of every description, while their steerage space is crowdedwith modern Marco Polos and Magellans going forth to see the world. TheHindoo walks the streets of Cape Town, London, Sydney, New York, SanFrancisco, and Valparaiso; the Russian Jew is found in all the Old and NewWorld cities; the Englishman and the American travel everywhere; theJapanese are fringing the Pacific with their laboring classes; toilingItalians and Greeks are found all over the world; peasants from theBalkans gather the prune and orange crops of California; the moujic fromthe Russian Caucasus tills the wheat-fields of the Dakotas; while theIrish, Scandinavians, and Teutons form the political, farming, andcommercial classes in many far-distant lands. In the recent World WarSerbs from Montana and Colorado fought side by side with Serbs fromBelgrade and Nisch; Greeks from New York and San Francisco helped theirbrothers from Athens drive the Bulgars back up the Vardar Valley; Italiansfrom New Orleans and Rio de Janeiro helped their kinsmen from the valleyof the Po hold back the Hun from the Venetian plain; Chinese from thevalleys of the Tong-long and the Yang-tse-Kiang backed up the Alliedarmies by tilling the fields of France; and Algerian and Senegalesenatives helped the French hold back the Teutonic hordes from theravishment of Paris. So completely has the old isolation been broken down!So completely is the world in flux! So small has the world become!

[Illustration: FIG. 221. THE GREAT TRADE ROUTES OF THE MODERN WORLDBroken lines, on land, indicate gaps soon to be closed. Compare this withthe maps on pages 161 and 258, and note the progress in discovery andintercommunication. Ships and trains are constantly passing over theseroutes, bearing both freight and peoples. ]

It was almost a century from the time instruction in Greek was revived inFlorence (1396) until Linacre first lectured on Greek at Oxford (c. 1492);six months after the X-ray was perfected in Germany it was in use in thehospitals of San Francisco. In the Middle Ages thousands might have diedof starvation in Persia or Egypt, a famous city in Asia Minor might havebeen destroyed by an earthquake and many people killed, or war might haveraged for years in the Orient without a citizen of western Europe knowingof it all his life. Today any important event anywhere within the range ofthe telegraph or the cable would be reported in tomorrow morning's paper, and carefully described and illustrated in the magazines at an early date. Man is no longer a citizen of a town or a state, but of a nation and ofthe world. How intelligently he can use this larger citizenship dependstoday largely upon the character and the extent of the education he hasreceived. 

[Illustration: FIG. 222. AN EXAMPLE OF THE SHIFTING OF OCCUPATIONS. Sawing boards by hand, before the introduction of steam power. ]

EFFECT OF THESE CHANGES ON THE LABORING-CLASSES. At first the effect ofthe introduction of factory-made goods and labor-saving devices was toupset the old established institutions. Trades practiced by the guildssince the Middle Ages were destroyed, because factories could turn outgoods faster and cheaper than guild workmen could make them. The age-oldapprenticeship system began to break down. Everywhere people were thrownout of employment, and a vast shifting of occupations took place. Therewas much discontent, and laborers began to unite, where allowed to do so, [20] with a view to improving their economic and political condition byconcerted action. The political revolutions of 1848 throughout Europe werein part a manifestation of this discontent, and the right to organize waseverywhere demanded and in time generally obtained. Among the planks intheir platform were equality of all before the law; the limitation ofchild and woman labor; better working conditions and wages; the provisionof schools for their children at public expense; and the extension of theright of suffrage. 

Despite certain unfortunate results following the change from age-oldworking conditions, the century of transition has seen the laboring manmaking gains unknown before in history, and the peasant has seen theabolition of serfdom [21] and feudal dues. Homes have gained tremendously. The drudgery and wasteful toil have been greatly mitigated. To-day thereis a standard of comfort and sanitation, even for those in the humblestcircumstances, beyond all previous conceptions. The poorest workman to-daycan enjoy in his home lighting undreamed of in the days of tallow candles;warmth beyond the power of the old smoky soft-coal grate; food of avariety and quality his ancestors never knew; kitchen conveniences and anease in kitchen work wholly unknown until recently; and sanitaryconveniences and conditions beyond the reach of the wealthiest half acentury ago. The caste system in industry has been broken down, and menand their children may now choose their occupations freely, [22] and moveabout at will. Wages have greatly increased, both actually and relativelyto the greatly improved standard of living. The work of women and childrenis easier, and all work for shorter hours. Child labor is fast beingeliminated in all progressive nations. In consequence of all these changesfor the better, people to-day have a leisure for reading and thinking andpersonal enjoyment entirely unknown before the middle of the nineteenthcentury, and governments everywhere have found it both desirable andnecessary to provide means for the utilization of this leisure and thegratification of the new desires. Along with these changes has gone thedevelopment of the greatest single agent for spreading liberalizing ideas--the modern newspaper--"the most inveterate enemy of absolutism andreaction. " Despite censorships, suppressions, and confiscations, the presshas by now established its freedom in all enlightened lands, and thecylinder press, the telegraph, and the cable have become "indispensableadjuncts to the development of that power which every absolutist has cometo dread, and with which every prime minister must daily reckon. "

III. EFFECT OF THESE CHANGES ON EDUCATION

GENERAL RESULT OF THESE CHANGES. The general result of the vast and far-reaching changes which we have just described is that the intellectual andpolitical horizon of the working classes has been tremendously broadened;the home has been completely altered; children now have much leisure anddo little labor; and the common man at last is rapidly coming into hisown. Still more, the common man seems destined to be the dominant force ingovernment in the future. To this end he and his children must beeducated, his wife and children cared for, his home protected, andgovernments must do for him the things which satisfy his needs and advancehis welfare. The days of the rule of a small intellectual class and ofgovernment in the interests of such a class have largely passed, and thepolitical equality which the Athenian Greeks first in the western worldgave to the "citizens" of little Athens, the Industrial Revolution hasforced modern and enlightened governments to give to all their people. Inconsequence, real democracy in government, education, justice, and socialwelfare is now in process of being attained generally, for the first timein the history of the world. 

The effect of all these changes in the mode of living of peoples iswritten large on the national life. The political and industrialrevolutions which have marked the ushering-in of the modern age have beenfar-reaching in their consequences. The old home life and home industriesof an earlier period are passing, or have passed, never to return. Peoplesin all advanced nations are rapidly swinging into the stream of a new andvastly more complex world civilization, which brings them into contact andcompetition with the best brains of all mankind. At the same time a greatand ever-increasing specialization of human effort is taking place on allsides, and with new and ever more difficult social, political, educational, industrial, commercial, and human-life problems constantlypresenting themselves for solution. The world has become both larger andsmaller than it used to be, and even its remote parts are now being linkedup, to a degree that a century ago would not have been deemed possible, with the future welfare of the nations which so long bore the brunt of thestruggle for the preservation and advancement of civilization. 

THESE CHANGES AND THE SCHOOL. It is these vast and far-reaching political, industrial, and social changes which have been the great actuating forcesbehind the evolution and expansion of the state school systems which wehave so far described. The American and French political revolutions, withtheir new philosophy of political equality and state control of education, clearly inaugurated the movement for taking over the school from theChurch and the making of it an important instrument of the State. Theextension of the suffrage to new classes gave a clear political motive forthe school, and to train young people to read and write and know theconstitutional bases of liberty became a political necessity. Theindustrial revolution which followed, bringing in its train such extensivechanges in labor and in the conditions surrounding home and child life, has since completely altered the face of the earlier educational problem. What was simple once has since become complex, and the complexity hasincreased with time. Once the ability to read and write and cipherdistinguished the educated man from the uneducated; to-day the man orwoman who knows only these simple arts is an uneducated person, hardly fitto cope with the struggle for existence in a modern world, and certainlynot fitted to participate in the complex political and industrial life ofwhich, in all advanced nations, he or she [23] to-day forms a part. 

It is the attempt to remould the school and to make of it a more potentinstrument of the State for promoting national consciousness (R. 340) andpolitical, social, and industrial welfare that has been behind the manychanges and expansions and extensions of education which have marked thepast half-century in all the leading world nations, and which underlie themost pressing problems in educational readjustment to-day. These changesand expansions and problems we shall consider more in detail in thechapters which follow. Suffice it here to say that from mere teachinginstitutions, engaged in imparting a little religious instruction and someknowledge of the tools of learning, the school, in all the leadingnations, has to-day been transformed into an institution for advancingnational welfare. The leading purpose now is to train for political andsocial efficiency in the more democratic types of governments beinginstituted among peoples, and to impart to the young those industrial andsocial experiences once taught in the home, the trades, and on the farm, but which the coming of the factory system and city life have deprivedthem otherwise of knowing. 

NEW PROBLEMS TO BE MET BY EDUCATION. As participation in the politicallife of nations has been extended to larger and larger groups of thepeople, and as the problems of government have become more and morecomplex, the schools have found it necessary to add instruction ingeography, history, government, and national ideals and culture to theearlier instruction. In the less democratic nations which have evolvednational school systems, this new instruction has often been utilized togive strength to the type of government and social conditions which theruling class desired to have perpetuated. This has been the evidentpurpose in Japan (R. 334), though the government of Imperial Germanyformed perhaps the best illustration of such perversion. This was seen andpointed out long ago by Horace Mann (R. 281). There the idea ofnationality through education (R. 342) was carried to such an extreme asmade the government oppressive to subject peoples and a menace toneighboring States. [24] On the other hand, the French have used theirschools for national ends (R. 341) in a manner that has been highlycommendable. 

As the social life of nations has become broader and more complex, alonger period of guidance has become necessary to prepare the futurecitizens of the State for intelligent participation in it. As a result, child life everywhere has and is still experiencing a new lengthening ofthe period of dependence and training, and all national interests nowindicate that the period devoted to preparing for life's work will need tobe further lengthened. All recent thinking and legislation, as well as theinterests of organized labor and the public welfare, have in recentdecades set strongly against child labor. Economically unprofitable undermodern industrial conditions, and morally indefensible, it has at lastcome to be accepted as a principle, by progressive nations, that it isbetter for children and for society that they remain under some form ofinstruction until they are at least sixteen years of age. To this end thecommon primary school has been continued upward, part-time continuationschools of various types have been organized for those who must go tolabor earlier, and people's high schools or middle schools have been added(see Figure 210, p. 713) to give the equivalent of a high-school educationto the children of the classes not patronizing the exclusive and limitedtuition secondary school. 

As large numbers of immigrants from distant lands have entered some of theleading nations, notably England and the United States, and particularlyimmigrants from less advanced nations where general education is not asyet common, and where far different political, social, judicial, andhygienic conditions prevail, a new duty has been thrust upon the school ofgiving to such incoming peoples, and their children, some conception ofthe meaning and method and purpose of the national life of the people theyhave come among. The national schools have accordingly been compelled togive attention to the needs of these new elements in the population, andto direct their attention less exclusively to satisfying the needs of thewell-to-do classes of society. Educational systems have in consequencetended more and more to become democratic in character, and to serve inpart as instruments for the assimilation of the stranger within thenation's gates and for the perpetuation and improvement of the nationallife. 

EDUCATION A CONSTRUCTIVE NATIONAL TOOL. One result of the many political, social, and industrial changes of a century has been to evolve educationinto the great constructive tool of modern political society. For ages achurch and private affair, and of no great importance for more than a few, it has to-day become the prime essential to good government and nationalprogress, and is so recognized by the leading nations of the world. Aspeople are freed from autocratic rule and take upon themselves thefunctions of government, and as they break loose from their age-oldpolitical, social, and industrial moorings and swing out into the currentof the stream of modern world-civilization, the need for the education ofthe masses to enable them to steer safely their ship of state, and taketheir places among the stable governments of a modern world, becomespainfully evident. In the hands of an uneducated people a democratic formof government is a dangerous instrument, while the proper development ofnatural resources and the utilization of trade opportunities by backwardpeoples, without being exploited, is almost impossible. In Russia, Mexico, and the Central American "republics" we see the results of a democracy inthe hands of an uneducated people. There, too often, the revolver insteadof the ballot box is used to settle public issues, and instead of orderlygovernment under law we find injustice and anarchy. A general system ofeducation that will teach the fundamental principles of constitutionalliberty, and apply science to production in agriculture and manufacturing, is almost the only solution for such conditions. By contrast with thesurrounding "republics" one finds in Guatemala [25] a country that hasused education intelligently as a tool to advance the interests of itspeople. 

[Illustration: FIG. 223. THE PHILIPPINE SCHOOL SYSTEMA teacher-training course is given as one of the vocational courses in theIntermediate School, and the Normal School at Manila represents one of thesecondary school courses. The University, besides the combined five-yearcollege course, has eight professional courses of from three to five yearsin length. ]

When the United States freed Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines fromSpanish rule, a general system of public education, modeled after theAmerican educational ladder, was created as a safeguard to the libertyjust brought to these islands, and to education the United States addedcourts of justice and bureaus of sanitation as important auxiliaryagencies. As a result the peoples of these islands have made a degree ofprogress in self-government and industry in three decades not made inthree centuries under Spanish rule. The good results of the work done inthese islands in establishing schools, building roads and bridges, introducing police courts, establishing good sanitary conditions, buildinghospitals and training nurses, applying science to agriculture, developingtropical medicine, and training the people in the difficult art of self-government, will for long be a monument to the political foresight andintelligent conceptions of government held by the American people. In asimilar way the French have opened schools in Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Senegal, Madagascar, and French Indo-China, as have the English in Egypt, India, Hong Kong, [26] the West Indies, and elsewhere. With the freeing ofPalestine from the rule of the Turk, the English at once began theestablishment of schools and a national university there, and doubtlessthey will do the same in time in Persia and Mesopotamia. 

Germany, too, before the World War, but with less benevolent purposes thanthe Americans, the French, or the English, was also busily engaged inextending her influence through education. Her universities were thrownopen to students from the whole world, and excellent instruction did theyoffer. The "Society for the Extension of Germanism in Foreign Countries"rendered an important service. Professors were "exchanged"; theintroduction of instruction in the German language into the schools ofother nations was promoted; and German schools were founded and encouragedabroad. Especially were _Realschulen_ promoted to teach the wonders ofGerman science, pure and applied. In southern Brazil and the Argentine, and in Roumania, Bulgaria, and Turkey, particular efforts were made toextend German influence and pave the way for German commercial and perhapspolitical expansion. Primary schools, girls' schools, and _Real_-schoolsin numbers were founded and aided abroad, and their progress reported tothe colonial minister at home. All through the Near East the German wasbusily building, through trade and education, a new empire for himself. Had he been content to follow the slower paths of peaceful commercial andintellectual conquest, with his wonderful organization he would have beenirresistible. With one gambler's throw he dashed his future to the ground, and unmasked himself before the world!

EXPANSION OF THE EDUCATIONAL IDEA. In all lands to-day where there is anintelligent government, the education of the people through a system ofstate-controlled schools is regarded as of the first importance inmoulding and shaping the destinies of the nation and promoting thecountry's welfare. Beginning with education to impart the ability to readand write and cipher, and as an aid to the political side of government, the education of the masses has been so expanded in scope during thecentury that today it includes aims, classes, types of schools, and formsof service scarcely dreamed of at the time the State began to take overthe school from the Church, with a view to extending elementaryeducational advantages and promoting literacy and citizenship. What someof the more important of these expansions have been we shall state in afollowing chapter, but before doing so let us return to another phase ofthe problem--that of the progress of educational theory--and see what havebeen the main lines of this progress in the theory as to the educationalpurpose since the time when Pestalozzi formulated a theory for the secularschool. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What does the emphasis on the People's High Schools in Denmark indicateas to the political status of the common people there?

2. Explain the educational prominence of Finland, compared with itsneighbor Russia. 

3. Show the close relation between the character of the school systemdeveloped in Japan and the character of its government. In China. 

4. Show why the state-function conception of education is destined to bethe ruling plan everywhere. 

5. Show the close connection between the Industrial Revolution and asomewhat general diffusion of the fundamental principles revealed by thestudy of science. 

6. Show how the Industrial Revolution has created entirely new problems ineducation, and what some of these are. 

7. Show the connection between the Industrial Revolution and politicalenfranchisement. 

8. Enumerate some of the educational problems we now face that we shouldnot have had to deal with had the Industrial Revolution not taken place. 

9. Why has the result of these changes been to extend the period ofdependence and tutelage of children?

10. Outline an educational solution of the problem of Mexico. Of Russia. Of Persia. 

11. Show how Germany found it profitable to establish _Realschulen_ insuch distant countries as Turkey, Mesopotamia, and the Argentine. 

12. Describe the expansion of the educational idea since the days whenPestalozzi formulated the theory for the secular school. 

13. What is the social significance of the development of parallelsecondary schools and courses, in all lands?

14. Contrast the American and the European secondary school in purpose. Why should the American be a free school, while those in Europe aretuition schools?

15. Show why the essentially democratic school system maintained in theUnited States would not be suited to an autocratic form of government. 

16. Show that the weight of a priesthood and the force of religiousinstruction in the schools would be strong supports for monarchical formsof government. 

17. Homogeneous monarchical nations look after the training of theirteachers much better than does such a cosmopolitan nation as the UnitedStates. Why?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following illustrativeselections are reproduced:

 333. Switzerland: Constitutional Provisions as to Education and Religious Freedom. 334. Japan: The Basic Documents of Japanese Education. (a) Preamble to the Education Code of 1872. (b) Imperial Rescript on Moral Education. (c) Instructions as to Lessons on Morals. 335. Ping Wen Kuo: Transformation of China by Education. 336. Mann: Education and National Prosperity. 337. Huxley: The Recent Progress of Science. 338. Anon. : Scientific Knowledge must precede Invention. 339. Ticknor: Illustrating Early Lack of Communication. 340. Monroe: The Struggle for National Realization. 341. Buisson, F. : The French Teacher and the National Spirit. 342. Fr. De Hovre: The German Emphasis on National Ends. 343. Stuntz: Landing of the Pilgrims at Manila. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Compare the Swiss and American Federal organizations, and state justwhat the Swiss Constitution (333) provides as to education. 

2. Suppose you knew nothing about the Japanese, what type of governmentwould you take theirs to be from reading the Imperial Rescript (334b)?

3. In comparing the Chinese transformation and the Renaissance (335), doesMr. Ping propose comparable events?

4. Show that Mr. Mann's argument (336) is still sound. 

5. Does Huxley overdraw (337) our dependence on science?

6. From 338, show why the Middle Ages were so poor in inventions anddiscoveries. 

7. Are there universities anywhere to-day of which we know as little asTicknor was able to find out (339) a century ago?

8. Show that Monroe's statements are true that the struggle for nationalrealization (340) has dominated modern history from the fifteenth centuryon. 

9. Compare the conceptions as to the function of education in a State asrevealed in the selections as to French (341) and German (342) educationalpurpose. 

10. Show the entirely new character of the event (343) described byStuntz. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Buisson, F. And Farrington, F. E. _French Educational Ideals of To- day_. Butler, N. M. "Status of Education at the Close of the Century"; in _Proceedings National Education Association_, 1900, pp. 188-96. Davidson, Thos. "Education as World Building"; in _Educational Review_, vol. Xx, pp. 325-45. (November, 1900. ) Doolittle, Wm. H. _Inventions of the Century_. Foster, M. "A Century's Progress in Science"; in _Educational Review_, vol. Xviii, pp. 313-31. (November, 1899. )* Friedel, V. H. _The German School as a War Nursery_. Gibbons, H. De B. _Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century_. Hughes, J. L. , and Klemm, L. R. _Progress of Education in the Nineteenth Century_. * Huxley, Thos. "The Progress of Science"; in his _Methods and Results_. * Kuo, Ping Wen. _The Chinese System of Public Education_. Lewis, R. E. _The Educational Conquest of the Far East_. Macknight, Thos. _Political Progress of the Century_. * Ross, E. A. "The World Wide Advance of Democracy"; in his _Changing America_. Routledge, R. _A Popular History of Science_. Sandiford, Peter, Editor. _Comparative Education_. * Sedgwick, W. T. , and Tyler, H. W. _A Short History of Science_. * Thwing, C. F. _Education in the Far East_. Webster, W. C. _General History of Commerce_. White, A. D. _The-Warfare of Science and Theology_. 

CHAPTER XXVIII

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS

I. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION

THE BEGINNINGS OF NORMAL-SCHOOL TRAINING. The training of would-beteachers for the work of instruction is an entirely modern proceeding. Thefirst class definitely organized for imparting training to teachers, concerning which we have any record, was a small local training group ofteachers of reading and the Catechism, conducted by Father Démia, atLyons, France, in 1672. The first normal school to be established anywherewas that founded at Rheims, in northern France, in 1685, by Abbé de laSalle (p. 347). He had founded the Order of "The Brothers of the ChristianSchools" the preceding year, to provide free religious instruction forchildren of the working classes in France (R. 182), and he conceived thenew idea of creating a special school to train his prospective teachersfor the teaching work of his Order. Shortly afterward he established twosimilar institutions in Paris. Each institution he called a "Seminary forSchoolmasters. " In addition to imparting a general education of the typeof the time, and a thorough grounding in religion, his student teacherswere trained to teach in practice schools, under the direction ofexperienced teachers. This was an entirely new idea. 

The beginnings elsewhere, as we have previously pointed out were made inGerman lands, Francke's _Seminarium Praeceptorum_, established at Halle(p. 419), in 1697, coming next in point of time. In 1738 Johann JuliusHecker (1707-68), one of Francke's teachers (p. 562), established thefirst regular Seminary for Teachers in Prussia, and in 1748 he establisheda private _Lehrerseminar_ in Berlin. In these two institutions he firstshowed the German people the possibilities of special training forteachers in the secondary school. In 1753 the Berlin institution wasadopted as a Royal Teachers' Seminary (p. 563) by Frederick the Great. After this, and in part due to the enthusiastic support of the Berlininstitution by the King, the teacher-training idea for secondary teachersbegan to find favor among the Germans. We accordingly find something likea dozen Teachers' Seminaries had been founded in German lands before theclose of the eighteenth century. [1] A normal school was established inDenmark, by royal decree, as early as 1789, and five additional schoolswhen the law organizing public instruction in Denmark was enacted, in1814. In France the beginnings of state action came with the action of theNational Convention, which decreed the establishment of the "SuperiorNormal School for France, " in 1794 (p. 517). This institution, though, wasshort lived, and the real beginnings of the French higher normal schoolawaited the reorganizing work of Napoleon, in 1808 (p. 595; R. 283). 

The schools just mentioned represent the first institutions in the historyof the world organized for the purpose of training teachers to teach. Theteachers they trained, though, were intended primarily for the secondaryschools, and the training was largely academic in character. Only inSilesia was any effort made, before the nineteenth century, to givetraining in special institutions to teachers intended for the vernacularschools. There Frederick the Great, in his "Regulations for the CatholicSchools of Silesia" (R. 275, a § 2) designated six cathedral and monasteryschools as model schools, where teachers could "have the opportunity forlearning all that is needed by a good teacher. " In another place hedefined this as "skill in singing and playing the organ sufficient toperform the services of the Church, " and "the art of instructing the youngin the German language" (R. 275, a § 1). So long as the instruction in thevernacular school consisted chiefly of reading and the Catechism, and ofhearing pupils recite what they had memorized, there was of course butlittle need for any special training for the teachers. It was not untilafter Pestalozzi had done his work and made his contribution that therewas anything worth mentioning to train teachers for. 

PESTALOZZI'S CONTRIBUTION. The memorable work done by Pestalozzi inSwitzerland, during his quarter-century (1800-25) of effort at Burgdorfand Yverdon, changed the whole face of the preparation of teachersproblem. His work was so fundamental that it completely redirected theeducation of children. Taking the seed-thought of Rousseau that sense-impression was "the only true foundation of human knowledge" (R. 267), heenlarged this to the conception of the mental development of human beingsas being organic, and proceeding according to law. His extension of thisidea of Rousseau's led him to declare that education was an individualdevelopment, a drawing-out and not a pouring-in; that the basis of alleducation exists in the nature of man; and that the method of education isto be sought and constructed. [2] These were his great contributions. These ideas fitted in well with the rising tide of individualism whichmarked the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries, and uponthese contributions the modern secular elementary school has been built. 

These ideas led Pestalozzi to emphasize sense perception and expression;to formulate the rule that in teaching we must proceed from the concreteto the abstract; and to construct a "faculty psychology" which conceivedof education as "a harmonious development" of the different "faculties" ofthe mind. He also tried, unsuccessfully to be sure, to so organize theteaching process that eventually it could be so "mechanized" that therewould be a regular A, B, C, for each type of instruction, which, oncelearned, would give perfection to a teacher. In his Report of 1800 (R. 267), which forms a very clear statement of his aims, he had said:

 I know what I am undertaking; but neither the difficulties in the way, nor my own limitations in skill and insight, shall hinder me from giving my mite for a purpose which Europe needs so much... The most essential point from which I start is this:--Sense-impression of Nature is the only true foundation of human knowledge. All that follows is the result of this sense-impression, and the process of abstraction from it.... 

 Then the problem I have to solve is this:--How to bring the elements of every art into harmony with the very nature of mind, by following the psychological mechanical laws by which mind rises from physical sense-impressions to clear ideas. 

Largely out of these ideas and the new direction he gave to instructionthe modern normal school for training teachers for the elementary schoolsarose. 

ORAL AND OBJECTIVE TEACHING DEVELOPED. Up to the time of Pestalozzi, andfor years after he had done his work, in many lands and places theinstruction of children continued to be of the memorization of textbookmatter and of the recitation type. The children learned what was down inthe book, and recited the answers to the teacher. Many of the earlytextbooks were constructed on the plan of the older Catechism--that is, ona question and answer plan (R. 351 a). There was nothing for children todo but to memorize such textbook material, or for the teacher but to seethat the pupils knew the answers to the questions. It was school-keeping, not teaching, that teachers were engaged in. 

The form of instruction worked out by Pestalozzi, based on sense-perception, reasoning, and individual judgment, called for a completechange in classroom procedure. What Pestalozzi tried most of all to do wasto get children to use their senses and their minds, to look carefully, tocount, to observe forms, to get, by means of their five important senses, clear impressions and ideas as to objects and life in the world aboutthem, and then to think over what they had seen and be able to answer hisquestions, because they had observed carefully and reasoned clearly. Pestalozzi thus clearly subordinated the printed book to the use of thechild's senses, and the repetition of mere words to clear ideas aboutthings. Pestalozzi thus became one of the first real teachers. 

This was an entirely new process, and for the first time in history a real"technique of instruction" was now called for. Dependence on the words ofthe text could no longer be relied upon. The oral instruction of a classgroup, using real objects, called for teaching skill. The class must bekept naturally interested and under control; the essential elements to betaught must be kept clearly in the mind of the teacher; the teacher mustraise the right kind of questions, in the right order, to carry the classthinking along to the right conclusions; and, since so much of this typeof instruction was not down in books, it called for a much more extendedknowledge of the subject on the part of the teacher than the old type ofschool-keeping had done. The teacher must now both know and be able toorganize and direct. Class lessons must be thought out in advance, andteacher-preparation in itself meant a great change in teaching procedure. Emancipated from dependence on the words of a text, and able to standbefore a class full of a subject and able to question freely, teachersbecame conscious of a new strength and a professional skill unknown in thedays of textbook reciting. Out of such teaching came oral languagelessons, drill in speech usage, elementary science instruction, observational geography, mental arithmetic, music, and drawing, to add tothe old instruction in the Catechism, reading, writing, and ciphering, andall these new subjects, taught according to Pestalozzian ideas as topurpose, called for an individual technique of instruction. 

[Illustration: FIG. 224. THE FIRST MODERN NORMAL SCHOOLThe old castle at Yverdon, where Pestalozzi's Institute was conducted andhis greatest success achieved. ]

THE NORMAL SCHOOL FINDS ITS PLACE. These new ideas of Pestalozzi proved soimportant that during the first five or six decades of the nineteenthcentury the elementary school was made over. The new conception of thechild as a slowly developing personality, demanding subject-matter andmethod suited to his stage of development, and the new conception ofteaching as that of directing mental development instead of hearingrecitations and "keeping school, " now replaced the earlier knowledge-conception of school work. Where before the ability to organize anddiscipline a school had constituted the chief art of instruction, now theability to teach scientifically took its place as the prime professionalrequisite. A "science and art" of teaching now arose; methodology soonbecame a great subject; the new subject of pedagogy began to take form andsecure recognition; and psychology became the guiding science of theschool. 

As these changes took place, the normal school began to come into favor inthe leading countries of Europe and in the United States, and in time hasestablished itself everywhere as an important educational institution. Pestalozzi had himself conducted the first really modern teacher-trainingschool, and his work was soon copied in a number of the Swiss cantons. Other cantons, on the contrary, for a time would have nothing to do withthe new idea. 

1. _The German States. _ The first nation, though, to take up the teacher-training idea and establish it as an important part of its state schoolsystem was Prussia. Beginning in 1809 with the work of Zeller (p. 569), by1840 there were thirty-eight Teachers' Seminaries, as the normal schoolsin German lands have been called, in Prussia alone. The idea was alsoquickly taken up by the other German States, and from the first decade ofthe nineteenth century on no nation has done more with the normal school, or used it, ends desired considered, to better advantage than have theGermans. One of the features of the Prussian schools which most impressedProfessor Bache, when he visited the schools of the German States in 1838, was the excellence of the Seminaries for Teachers (R. 344), and these hedescribed (R. 345) in some detail in his Report. Horace Mann, similarly, on his visit to Europe, in 1843, was impressed with the thoroughness ofthe training given prospective teachers in the Teachers' Seminaries of theGerman States (R. 278). University pedagogical seminars were alsoestablished early (c. 1810) [3] in the universities, for the training ofsecondary teachers, and this training was continued with increasingthoroughness up to 1914. Every teacher in the German States, elementary orsecondary, before that date, was a carefully-trained teacher. This was afeature of the German state school systems of the pre-War period of whichno other nation could boast. 

2. _France. _ After the German States, France probably comes next as thenation in which the normal school has been most used for trainingteachers. The Superior Normal School had been recreated in 1808 (R. 283), and after the downfall of Napoleon the creation of normal schools forelementary-school teachers was begun. Twelve had been established by 1830, and between 1830 and 1833 thirty additional schools for training theseteachers were begun (R. 285). These rendered a service for France (R. 346)quite similar to that rendered by the Teachers' Seminaries in Germanlands. During the period of reaction, from 1848 to 1870, the normal schooldid not prosper in France, but since 1870 a normal school to trainelementary teachers has been established for men and one for women in eachof the eighty-seven departments into which France, for administrativepurposes, has been divided. Satisfactory provision has also been made forthe training of teachers for the secondary schools. 

3. _The United States. _ The United States has also been prominent, especially since about 1870, in the development of normal schools for thetraining of elementary teachers. The Lancastrian schools had trainedmonitors for their work, but the first teacher-training school in theUnited States to give training to individual teachers was openedprivately, [4] in 1823, and the second in a similar manner, [5] in 1827. These were almost entirely academic institutions, being in the nature oftuition high schools, with a little practice teaching and some lectures onthe "Art of Teaching" added in the last year of the course. In 1826Governor Clinton recommended to the legislature of New York theestablishment by the State of "a seminary for the education of teachers inthe monitorial system of instruction. " Nothing coming of this, in 1827 herecommended the creation of "a central school in each county for theeducation of teachers" (R. 349). That year (1827) the New York legislatureappropriated money to aid the academies "to promote the education ofteachers"--the first state aid in the United States for teacher-training. 

The publication of an English edition of Cousin's _Report_ (p. 597; R. 284) in New York, in 1835; Calvin E. Stowe's _Report on ElementaryEducation in Europe_, [6] in 1837; and Alexander D. Bache's _Report onEducation in Europe_ (Rs. 344, 345), in 1838, with their strongcommendations of the German teacher-training system, awakened new interestin the United States, in the matter of teacher-training. Finally, in 1839, the legislature of Massachusetts duplicated a gift of $10, 000, and placedthe money in the hands of the newly created State Board of Education (p. 689) to be used "in qualifying teachers for the common schools ofMassachusetts" (R. 350 a). After careful consideration it was decided tocreate special state institutions, after the German and French plans, inwhich to give the desired training, and the French term of Normal Schoolwas adopted and has since become general in the United States. 

[Illustration: TEACHER-TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES BY 1860. A few private training-schools also existed, though less than half a dozenin all. ]

On July 3, 1839, the first state normal school in the United States openedin the town hall at Lexington, Massachusetts, with one teacher and threestudents. Later that same year a second state normal school was opened atBarre, and early the next year a third at Bridgewater, both inMassachusetts. For these the State Board of Education adopted a statementas to entrance requirements and a course of instruction (R. 350 b) whichshows well the academic character of these early teaching institutions. Their success was largely due to the enthusiastic support given the newidea by Horace Mann. In an address at the dedication of the first buildingerected in America for normal-school purposes, in 1846, he expressed hisdeep belief as to the fundamental importance of such institutions (R. 350c). By 1860 eleven state normal schools had been established in eight ofthe States of the American Union, and six private schools were alsorendering similar services. Closely related was the Teachers' Institute, first definitely organized by Henry Barnard in Connecticut, in 1839, tooffer four- to six-weeks summer courses for teachers in service, and thesehad been organized in fifteen of the American States by 1860. Since 1870the establishment of state normal schools has been rapid in the UnitedStates, two hundred having been established by 1910, and many since. TheUnited States, though, is as yet far from having a trained body ofteachers for its elementary schools. For the high schools, it is onlysince about 1890 that the professional training of teachers for suchservice has really been begun. 

4. _England. _ In England the beginnings of teacher-training came with theintroduction of monitorial instruction, both the Bell and the LancasterSocieties (p. 625) finding it necessary to train pupils for positions asmonitors, and to designate certain schools as model and training schools. In 1833, it will be remembered (p. 638), Parliament made its first grantof money in aid of education. Up to 1840 this was distributed through thetwo National Societies, and in 1839 a portion of this aid was definitelyset aside to enable these Societies to establish model schools (R. 347). From this beginning, the model training-schools for the differentreligious Societies were developed. In these model schools prospectiveteachers were educated, being trained in religious instruction and in theart of teaching. In 1836, with the founding of the "Home and ColonialInfant Society, " a Pestalozzian Training College was founded by it. 

In a further effort to secure trained teachers the government, in 1846, adopted a plan then in use in Holland, and instituted what became known asthe "pupil-teacher system" (R. 348). This was an improvement on the waningmonitorial training system previously in use. Under this, a favorite oldEnglish method, used somewhat for the same purpose a century earlier (R. 243), was adapted to meet the new need. ' Under it promising pupils wereapprenticed to a head teacher for five years (usually from thirteen toeighteen), he agreeing to give them instruction in both secondary-schoolsubjects and in the art of teaching in return for their help in theschoolroom. Beginning in 1846, there were, by 1848, 200 pupil teachers; by1861, 13, 871; and by 1870, 14, 612. This system formed the great dependenceof England before the days of national education. In 1874 the pupil-teacher-center system was begun, and between 1878 and 1896 the age forentering as a pupil-teacher was raised from thirteen to sixteen, and theyears of apprenticeship reduced from five to two. In most cases now theacademic preparation continues to seventeen or eighteen, and is followedby one year of practice teaching in an elementary school, undersupervision. After that the teacher may, or may not, enter what is thereknown as a Training-College. [7] So far the training of teachers has notmade such headway in England and Wales as has been the case in the GermanStates, France, the United States, or Scotland, but important progress maybe expected in the near future as an outcome of new educational impulsesarising as a result of the World War. 

SPREAD OF THE NORMAL-SCHOOL IDEA. The movement for the creation of normalschools to train teachers for the elementary schools has in time spread tomany nations. As nation after nation has awakened to the desirability ofestablishing a system of modern-type state schools, a normal school totrain leaders has often been among the first of the institutions created. The normal school, in consequence, is found to-day in all the continentalEuropean States; in all the English self-governing dominions; in nearlyall the South American States; and in China, [8] Japan, Siam, thePhilippines, Cuba, Algiers, India, and other less important nations. Inall these there is an attempt, often reaching as yet to but a smallpercentage of the teachers, to extend to them some of that training in thetheory and art of instruction which has for long been so important afeature of the education of the elementary teacher in the German States, France, and the United States. Since about 1890 other nations have alsobegun to provide, as the German States and France have done for so long, some form of professional training for the teachers intended for theirsecondary schools [9] as well. 

PSYCHOLOGY BECOMES THE MASTER SCIENCE. Everywhere the establishment ofnormal schools has meant the acceptance of the newer conceptions as tochild development and the nature of the educational process. These arethat the child is a slowly developing personality, needing careful study, and demanding subject-matter and method suited to his different stages ofdevelopment. The new conception of teaching as that of directing andguiding the education of a child, instead of hearing recitations and"keeping school, " in time replaced the earlier knowledge-conception ofschool work. Psychology accordingly became the guiding science of theschool, and the imparting to prospective teachers proper ideas as topsychological procedure, and the proper methodology of instruction in eachof the different elementary-school subjects, became the great work of thenormal school. Teachers thus trained carried into the schools a newconception as to the nature of childhood; a new and a minute methodologyof instruction; and a new enthusiasm for teaching;--all of which wereimportant additions to school work. 

A new methodology was soon worked out for all the subjects of instruction, both old and new. The centuries-old alphabet method of teaching readingwas superseded by the word and sound methods; the new oral languageinstruction was raised to a position of first importance in developingpupil-thinking; spelling, word-analysis, and sentence-analysis were givenmuch emphasis in the work of the school; the Pestalozzian mentalarithmetic came as an important addition to the old ciphering of sums; theold writing from copies was changed into a drill subject, requiringcareful teaching for its mastery; the "back to nature" ideas of Rousseauand Pestalozzi proved specially fruitful in the new study of geography, which called for observation out of doors, the study of type forms, andthe substitution of the physical and human aspects of geography for theolder political and statistical; object lessons on natural objects, andlater science and nature study, were used to introduce children to aknowledge of nature and to train them in thinking and observation; whilethe new subjects of music and drawing came in, each with an elaboratetechnique of instruction. 

By 1875 the normal school in all lands was finding plenty to do, andteaching, by the new methods and according to the new psychologicalprocedure, seemed to many one of the most wonderful and most importantoccupations in the world. How great a change in the scope, as well as inthe nature of elementary-school instruction had been effected in acentury, the above diagram of American elementary-school development willreveal. History and literature, it will be noticed, had also come in asadditional new subjects, but these were relatively unimportant in eitherthe elementary school or the normal school until after the coming ofHerbartian ideas, to which we shall refer a little further on. 

[Illustration: FIG. 226. EVOLUTION OF THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL CURRICULUM ANDOF METHODS OF TEACHING]

Accompanying the organization of professional instruction for teachers, another important change in the nature of the elementary school waseffected. 

THE GRADING OF SCHOOLROOM INSTRUCTION. For some time after elementaryschools began it was common to teach all the children of the differentages together in one room, or at most in two rooms. In the latter case thesubjects of instruction were divided between the teachers, rather than thechildren. [10] Many of the pictures of early elementary schools show suchmixed-type schools. In these the children were advanced individually andby subjects as their progress warranted, [11] until they had progressed asfar as the instruction went or the teacher could teach (R. 352). From thispoint on the division of the elementary school into classes and a gradedorganization has proceeded by certain rather well-defined steps. 

The first step (Rs. 353, 354) was the division of the school into twoschools, one more advanced than the other, such as lower and higher, orprimary and grammar. Another division was introduced when the InfantSchool was added, beneath. The next step was the division of each schoolinto classes. This began by the employment of assistant teachers, inEngland and America known as "ushers, " to help the "master, " and theprovision of small recitation rooms, off the main large schoolroom, towhich the usher could take his class to hear recitations. The third andfinal step came with the erection of a new type of school building, withsmaller and individual classrooms, or the subdivision of the largerschoolrooms. It was then possible to assign a teacher to each classroom, sort and grade the pupils by ages and advancement, outline the instructionby years, and the modern graded elementary school was at hand. 

The transition to the graded elementary school came easily and naturally. For half a century the course of instruction in the evolving elementarystate school had been in process of expansion. Pestalozzi paved the wayfor its creation by changing the purpose and direction, and greatlyenlarging (p. 543) the field of instruction of the vernacular school. After him other new subjects of study were added (see diagram, Figure226), new and better and longer textbooks were prepared (R. 351), and theschool term was gradually lengthened. The way in time became clear, earliest in the German lands and in a few American cities, but by about1850 in most leading nations, for that simple reorganization of schoolwork which would divide the school into a number of classes, or forms, orgrades, and give one to each teacher to handle. When this point had beenreached, which came about 1850 to 1860 in most nations, but earlier in afew, the modern type of town or city graded elementary school was at hand. Teaching had by this time become an organized and a psychological process;graded courses of study began to appear; professional schoolsuperintendents began to be given the direction and supervision ofinstruction; and the modern science of school organization andadministration began to take shape. From this point on the furtherdevelopment of the graded elementary public school has come through theaddition of new materials of instruction, and by changing the direction ofthe school to adapt it better to meeting the new needs of society broughtabout by the scientific, industrial, social, and political revolutionswhich we, in previous chapters, have described. A few of the moreimportant of these additions and changes in direction we shall now brieflydescribe. 

[Illustration: FIG. 227. AN "USHER" AND HIS CLASS. The usher, or assistant teacher, is here shown with a class in one of thesmall recitation-rooms, off the large schoolroom. ]

II. NEW IDEAS FROM HERBARTIAN SOURCES

THE WORK OF HERBART. Taking up the problem as Pestalozzi left it, a Germanby the name of Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) carried it forward byorganizing a truer psychology for the whole educational process, byerecting a new social aim for instruction, by formulating new steps inmethod, and by showing the place and the importance of properly organizedinstruction in history and literature in the education of the child. Though the two men were entirely different in type, and worked alongentirely different lines, the connection between Herbart and Pestalozziwas, nevertheless, close. [12]

The two men, however, approached the educational problem from entirelydifferent angles. Pestalozzi gave nearly all his long life to teaching andhuman service, while Herbart taught only as a traveling private tutor forthree years, and later a class of twenty children in his universitypractice school. Pestalozzi was a social reformer, a visionary, and animpractical enthusiast, but was possessed of a remarkable intuitiveinsight into child nature. Herbart, on the other hand, was a well-trainedscholarly thinker, who spent the most of his life in the peacefuloccupation of a professor of philosophy in a German university. [13] Itwas while at Königsberg, between 1810 and 1832, and as an appendix to hiswork as professor of philosophy, that he organized a small practiceschool, conducted a Pedagogical Seminar, and worked out his educationaltheory and method. His work was a careful, scholarly attempt at theorganization of education as a science, carried out amid the peace andquiet which a university atmosphere almost alone affords. He addressedhimself chiefly to three things: (1) the aim, (2) the content, and (3) themethod of instruction. 

THE AIM AND THE CONTENT OF EDUCATION. Locke had set up as the aim ofeducation the ideal of a physically sound gentleman. Rousseau had declaredhis aim to be to prepare his boy for life by developing naturally hisinborn capacities. Pestalozzi had sought to regenerate society by means ofeducation, and to prepare children for society by a "harmonious training"of their "faculties. " Herbart rejected alike the conventional-socialeducation of Locke, the natural and unsocial education of Rousseau, andthe "faculty-psychology" conception of education of Pestalozzi. Instead heconceived of the mind as a unity, instead of being divided into"faculties, " and the aim of education as broadly social rather thanpersonal. The purpose of education, he said, was to prepare men to liveproperly in organized society, and hence the chief aim in education wasnot conventional fitness, natural development, mere knowledge, norpersonal mental power, but personal character and social morality. Thisbeing the case, the educator should analyze the interests and occupationsand social responsibilities of men as they are grouped in organizedsociety, and, from such analyses, deduce the means and the method ofinstruction. Man's interests, he said, come from two main sources--hiscontact with the things in his environment (real things, sense-impressions), and from his relations with human beings (socialintercourse). His social responsibilities and duties are determined by thenature of the social organization of which he forms a part. 

Pestalozzi had provided fairly well for the first group of contacts, through his instruction in objects, home geography, numbers, and geometricform. For the second group of contacts Pestalozzi had developed only orallanguage, and to this Herbart now added the two important studies ofliterature and history, and history with the emphasis on the social ratherthan the political side. Two new elementary-school subjects were thusdeveloped, each important in revealing to man his place in the socialwhole. History in particular Herbart conceived to be a study of the firstimportance for revealing proper human relationships, and leading men tosocial and national "good-will. "

The chief purpose of education Herbart held to be to develop personalcharacter and to prepare for social usefulness (R. 355). These virtues, heheld, proceeded from enough of the right kind of knowledge, properlyinterpreted to the pupil so that clear ideas as to relationships might beformed. To impart this knowledge interest must be awakened, and to arouseinterest in the many kinds of knowledge needed, a "many-sided" developmentmust take place. From full knowledge, and with proper instruction by theteacher, clear ideas or concepts might be formed, and clear ideas ought tolead to right action, and right action to personal character--the aim ofall instruction. Herbart was the first writer on education to place thegreat emphasis on proper instruction, and to exalt teaching and properteaching-procedure instead of mere knowledge or intellectual discipline. He thus conceived of the educational process as a science in itself, having a definite content and method, and worthy of special study by thosewho desire to teach. 

HERBARTIAN METHOD. With these ideas as to the aim and content ofinstruction, Herbart worked out a theory of the instructional process anda method of instruction (R. 356). Interest he held to be of firstimportance as a prerequisite to good instruction. If given spontaneously, well and good; but, if necessary, forced interest must be resorted to. Skill in instruction is in part to be determined by the ability of theteacher to secure interest without resorting to force on the one hand orsugar-coating of the subject on the other. Taking Pestalozzi's idea thatthe purpose of the teacher was to give pupils new experiences throughcontacts with real things, without assuming that the pupils already hadsuch, Herbart elaborated the process by which new knowledge is assimilatedin terms of what one already knows, and from his elaboration of thisprinciple the doctrine of apperception--that is, the apperceiving orcomprehending of new knowledge in terms of the old--has been fixed as animportant principle in educational psychology. Good instruction, then, involves first putting the child into a proper frame of mind to apperceivethe new knowledge, and hence this becomes a corner-stone of all goodteaching method. 

Herbart did not always rely on such methods, holding that the "committingto memory" of certain necessary facts often was necessary, but he heldthat the mere memorizing of isolated facts, which had characterized schoolinstruction for ages, had little value for either educational or moralends. The teaching of mere facts often was very necessary, but suchinstruction called for a methodical organization of the facts by theteacher, so as to make their learning contribute to some definite purpose. This called for a purpose in instruction; the organization of the factsnecessary to be taught so as to select the most useful ones; theconnection of these so as to establish the principle which was the purposeof the instruction; and training in systematic thinking by applying theprinciple to new problems of the type being studied. The carrying-out ofsuch ideas meant the careful organization of the teaching process andteaching method, to secure certain predetermined ends in childdevelopment, instead of mere miscellaneous memorizing and school-keeping. 

THE HERBARTIAN MOVEMENT IN GERMANY. Herbart died in 1841, without havingawakened any general interest in his ideas, and they remained virtuallyunnoticed until 1865. In that year a professor at Leipzig, Tuiskon Ziller(1817-1883), published a book setting forth Herbart's idea of instructionas a moral force. This attracted much attention, and led to the formation(1868) of a scientific society for the study of Herbart's ideas. Zillerand his followers now elaborated Herbart's ideas, advanced the theory ofculture-epochs in child development, the theory of concentration instudies, and elaborated the four steps in the process of instruction, asdescribed by Herbart, into the five formal steps of the modern Herbartianschool. 

In 1874 a pedagogical seminary and practice school was organized at theUniversity of Jena, and in 1885 this came under the direction of ProfessorWilliam Rein, a pupil of Ziller's, who developed the practice schoolaccording to the ideas of Ziller. A detailed course of study for thisschool, filling two large volumes, was worked out, and the practicelessons given were thoroughly planned beforehand and the methods employedwere subjected to a searching analysis after the lesson had been given. 

HERBARTIAN IDEAS IN THE UNITED STATES. For a time, under the inspirationof Ziller and Rein, Jena became an educational center to which studentswent from many lands. From the work at Jena Herbartian ideas have spreadwhich have modified elementary educational procedure generally. Inparticular did the work at Jena make a deep impression in the UnitedStates. Between 1885 and 1890 a number of Americans studied at Jena and, returning, brought back to the United States this Ziller-Rein-Jena brandof Herbartian ideas and practices. [14] From the first the new ideas metwith enthusiastic approval. 

[Illustration: PLATE 18. TWO LEADERS IN THE REORGANIZATION OF EDUCATIONALTHEORY

JOHANN FRIEDRICH HERBART (1776-1841)Organizer of the Psychology of Instruction

FRIEDRICH WILHELM TROEBEL (1782-1852)Founder of the Kindergarten]

New methods of instruction in history and literature, and a newpsychology, were now added to the normal-school professional instruction. Though this psychology has since been outgrown (R. 357), it has been veryuseful in shaping pedagogical thought. New courses of study for thetraining-schools were now worked out in which the elementary-schoolsubjects were divided into drill subjects, content subjects, and motor-activity subjects. [15]

Apperception, interest, correlation, social purpose, moral education, citizenship training, and recitation methods became new terms to conjurewith. From the normal schools these ideas spread rapidly to the bettercity school systems of the time, and soon found their way into courses ofstudy everywhere. Practice schools and the model lessons in dozens ofnormal schools were remodeled after the pattern of those at Jena, and fora decade Herbartian ideas and the new child study vied with one anotherfor the place of first importance in educational thinking. The Herbartianwave of the nineties resembled the Pestalozzian enthusiasm of the sixties. Each for a time furnished the new ideas in education, each introducedelements of importance into the elementary-school instruction, each deeplyinfluenced the training of teachers in normal schools by giving a new turnto the instruction there, and each gradually settled down into its properplace in educational practice and history. 

THE HERBARTIAN CONTRIBUTION. To the Herbartians we are indebted inparticular for important new conceptions as to the teaching of history andliterature, which have modified all our subsequent procedure; for theintroduction of history teaching in some form into all the elementary-school grades; for the emphasis on a new social point of view in theteaching of history and geography; for the new emphasis on the moral aimin instruction; for a new and a truer educational psychology; and for abetter organization of the technique of classroom instruction. Inparticular Herbart gave emphasis to that part of educational developmentwhich comes from without--environment acting upon the child--as contrastedwith the emphasis Pestalozzi had placed on mental development from withinand according to organic law. With the introduction of normal childactivities, which came from another source about this same time, theelementary-school curriculum as we now have it was practically complete, and the elementary school of 1850 was completely made over to form theelementary school of the beginning of the twentieth century. 

III. THE KINDERGARTEN, PLAY, AND MANUAL ACTIVITIES

To another German, Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852), we are indebted, directly or indirectly, for three other additions to elementary education--the kindergarten, the play idea, and handwork activities. 

ORIGIN OF THE KINDERGARTEN. Of German parentage, the son of a ruralclergyman, early estranged from his parents, retiring and introspective bynature, having led a most unhappy childhood, and apprenticed to a foresterwithout his wishes being consulted, at twenty-three Froebel decided tobecome a schoolteacher and visited Pestalozzi in Switzerland. Two yearslater he became the tutor of three boys, and then spent the years 1808-10as a student and teacher in Pestalozzi's Institute at Yverdon. During hisyears there Froebel was deeply impressed with the great value of music andplay in the education of children, and of all that he carried away fromPestalozzi's institution these ideas were most persistent. After servingin a variety of occupations--student, soldier against Napoleon, andcurator in a museum of mineralogy--he finally opened a little privateschool, in 1816, which he conducted for a decade along Pestalozzian lines. In this the play idea, music, and the self-activity of the pupils wereuppermost. The school was a failure, financially, but while conducting itFroebel thought out and published (1826) his most important pedagogicalwork--_The Education of Man_. 

Gradually Froebel became convinced that the most needed reform ineducation concerned the early years of childhood. His own youth had beenmost unhappy, and to this phase of education he now addressed himself. After a period as a teacher in Switzerland he returned to Germany andopened a school for little children in which plays, games, songs, andoccupations involving self-activity were the dominating characteristics, and in 1840 he hit upon the name _Kindergarten_ for it. In 1843 his_Mutter- und Kose-Lieder_, a book of fifty songs and games, was published. This has been translated into almost all languages. 

SPREAD OF THE KINDERGARTEN IDEA. After a series of unsuccessful efforts tobring his new idea to the attention of educators, Froebel, himself rathera feminine type, became discouraged and resolved to address himselfhenceforth to women, as they seemed much more capable of understandinghim, and to the training of teachers in the new ideas. Froebel wasfortunate in securing as one of his most ardent disciples, just before hisdeath, the Baroness Bertha von Marenholtz Bulow-Wendhausen (1810-93), whodid more than any other person to make his work known. Meeting, in 1849, the man mentioned to her as "an old fool, " she understood him, and spentthe remainder of her life in bringing to the attention of the world thework of this unworldly man who did not know how to make it known forhimself. In 1851 the Prussian Government, fearing some revolutionarydesigns in the new idea, and acting in a manner thoroughly characteristicof the political reaction which by that time had taken hold of all Germanofficial life, forbade kindergartens in Prussia. The Baroness then went toLondon and lectured there on Froebel's ideas, organizing kindergartens inthe English "ragged schools. " Here, by contrast, she met with a cordialreception. She later expounded Froebelian ideas in Paris, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, Belgium, and (after 1860, when the prohibition wasremoved) in Germany. In 1870 she founded a kindergarten training-collegein Dresden. Many of her writings have been translated into English, andpublished in the United States. 

Considering the importance of this work, and the time which has sinceelapsed, the kindergarten idea has made relatively small progress on thecontinent of Europe. Its spirit does not harmonize with autocraticgovernment. In Germany and the old Austro-Hungary it had made but littleprogress up to 1914. Its greatest progress in Europe, perhaps, has been indemocratic Switzerland. [16] In England and France, the two great leadersin democratic government, the Infant-School development, which cameearlier, has prevented any marked growth of the kindergarten. In England, though, the Infant School has recently been entirely transformed by theintroduction into it of the kindergarten spirit. [17] In France, infanteducation has taken a somewhat different direction. [18]

In the United States the kindergarten idea has met with a most cordialreception. In no country in the world has the spirit of the kindergartenbeen so caught and applied to school work, and probably nowhere has theoriginal kindergarten idea been so expanded and improved. [19] The firstkindergarten in the United States was a German kindergarten, establishedat Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1855, by Mrs. Carl Schurz, a pupil of Froebel. During the next fifteen years some ten other kindergartens were organizedin German-speaking communities. The first English-speaking kindergartenwas opened privately in Boston, in 1860, by Miss Elizabeth Peabody. In1868 a private training-college for kindergartners was opened in Boston, largely through Miss Peabody's influence, by Madame Matilde Kriege and herdaughter, who had recently arrived from Germany. In 1872 Miss Marie Boelteopened a similar teacher-training school in New York City, and in 1873 herpupil, Miss Susan Blow, accepted the invitation of Superintendent WilliamT. Harris, of St. Louis, to go there and open the first public-schoolkindergarten in the United States. [20]

To-day the kindergarten is found in some form in nearly all countries inthe world, having been carried to all continents by missionaries, educational enthusiasts, and interested governments. [21] Japan earlyadopted the idea, and China is now beginning to do so. 

THE KINDERGARTEN IDEA. The dominant idea in the kindergarten is naturalbut directed self-activity, focused upon educational, social, and moralends. Froebel believed in the continuity of a child's life from infancyonward, and that self-activity, determined by the child's interests anddesires and intelligently directed, was essential to the unfolding of thechild's inborn capacities. He saw, more clearly than any one before himhad done, the unutilized wealth of the child's world; that the child'schief characteristic is self-activity; the desirability of the childfinding himself through play; and that the work of the school during theseearly years was to supplement the family by drawing out the child andawakening the ideal side of his nature. To these ends doing, selfactivity, and expression became fundamental to the kindergarten, andmovement, gesture, directed play, song, color, the story, and humanactivities a part of kindergarten technique. Nature study and schoolgardening were given a prominent place, and motor-activity much calledinto play. Advancing far beyond Pestalozzi's principle of sense-impressions, Froebel insisted on motor-activity and learning by doing (R. 358). 

Froebel, as well as Herbart, also saw the social importance of education, and that man must realize himself not independently amid nature, asRousseau had said, but as a social animal in coöperation with hisfellowmen. Hence he made his schoolroom a miniature of society, a placewhere courtesy and helpfulness and social coöperation were prominentfeatures. This social and at times reverent atmosphere of the kindergartenhas always been a marked characteristic of its work. To bring out socialideas many dramatic games, such as shoemaker, carpenter, smith, andfarmer, were devised and set to music. The "story" by the teacher was madeprominent, and this was retold in language, acted, sung, and often workedout constructively in clay, blocks, or paper. Other games to develop skillwere worked out, and use was made of sand, clay, paper, cardboard, andcolor. The "gifts" and "occupations" which Froebel devised were intendedto develop constructive and aesthetic power, and to provide for connectionand development they were arranged into an organized series of playthings. Individual development as its aim, motor-expression as its method, andsocial coöperation as its means were the characteristic ideas of this newschool for little children (R. 358). 

THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE KINDERGARTEN. Wholly aside from the specifictraining given children during the year, year and a half, or two yearsthey spend in this type of school, the addition of the kindergarten toelementary-school work has been a force of very large significance andusefulness. The idea that the child is primarily an active and not alearning animal has been given new emphasis, and that education comeschiefly by doing has been given new force. The idea that a child's chiefbusiness is play has been a new conception of large educational value. Theelimination of book education and harsh discipline in the kindergarten hasbeen an idea that has slowly but gradually been extended upward into thelower grades of the elementary school. 

To-day, largely as a result of the spreading of the kindergarten spirit, the world is coming to recognize play and games at something like theirreal social, moral, and educational values, wholly aside from theirbenefits as concern physical welfare, and in many places directed play isbeing scheduled as a regular subject in school programs. Music, too, hasattained new emphasis since the coming of the kindergarten, and methods ofteaching music more in harmony with kindergarten ideas have beenintroduced into the schools. 

INSTRUCTION IN THE MANUAL ACTIVITIES. Froebel not only introducedconstructive work--paper-folding, weaving, needlework, and work with sandand clay and color--into the kindergarten, but he also proposed to extendand develop such work for the upper years of schooling in a school forhand training which he outlined, but did not establish. His proposed planincluded the elements of the so-called manual-training idea, developedlater, and he justified such instruction on the same educational groundsthat we advance to-day. It was not to teach a boy a trade, as Rousseau hadadvocated, or to train children in sense-perception, as Pestalozzi hademployed all his manual activities, but as a form of educationalexpression, and for the purpose of developing creative power within thechild. The idea was advocated by a number of thinkers, about 1850 to 1860, but the movement took its rise in Finland, Sweden, and Russia. 

The first country to organize such work as a part of its schoolinstruction was Finland, where, as early as 1858, Uno Cygnaeus (1810-1888)outlined a course for manual training involving bench and metal work, wood-carving, and basket-weaving. In 1866 Finland made some form of manualwork compulsory for boys in all its rural schools, and in its training-colleges for male teachers. In 1872 the government of Sweden decided tointroduce sloyd work into its schools, partly to counteract the badphysical and moral effects of city congestion, and partly to revivify thedeclining home industries of the people. A sloyd school was established atNaas, in 1872, to train teachers, and in 1875 a second school, known as a"Sloyd Seminarium, " was begun. The summer courses of these two schoolswere soon training teachers from many nations. In 1877 sloyd work wasadded to the Folk School instruction of Sweden. At first the old nativesloyd occupations were followed, such as carpentering, turning, wood-carving, brush-making, book-binding, and work in copper and iron, butlater the industrial element gave way to a well-organized course ineducational tool work for boys from twelve to fifteen years of age, afterthe Finnish plan. 

SPREAD OF THE MANUAL-TRAINING IDEA. France was the first of the largerEuropean nations to adopt this new addition to elementary-schoolinstruction, a training-school being organized at Paris in 1873, and, in1882, the instruction in manual activities was ordered introduced into allthe primary schools of France. It has required time, though, to providework rooms and to realize this idea, and it is still lacking in completeaccomplishment. In England the work was first introduced in London, about1887. The government at once accepted the idea, encouraged its spread, andbegan to aid in the training of teachers. By 1900 the work was found inall the larger cities, and included cooking and sewing for girls, as wellas manual work for boys. The training for girls goes back still farther, and was an outgrowth of the earlier "schools of industry" established totrain girls for domestic service (R. 241). By 1846 instruction inneedlework had been begun in earnest in England. In German landsneedlework was also an early school subject, while some domestic trainingfor girls had been provided in most of the cities, before 1914. Manualtraining for boys, though, despite much propaganda work, had made butlittle headway up to that time. As in the case of the kindergarten, theinitiative and self-expression aspects of the manual-training movementmade no appeal to those responsible for the work of the people's schools, and, in consequence, the manual activities have in German lands beenreserved largely for the continuation and vocational schools for olderpupils. 

In the United States the manual-training and household-arts ideas havefound a very ready welcome. Curious as it may seem, the first introductionto the United States of this new form of instruction came through theexhibit made by the Russian government at the Centennial Exhibition of1876, showing the work in wood and iron made by the pupils at the ImperialTechnical Institute at Moscow. This, however, was not the Swedish sloyd, but a type of work especially adapted to secondary-school instruction. Inconsequence the movement for instruction in the manual activities in theUnited States, unlike in other nations, began as a highly organizedtechnical type of high-school instruction, [22] while the elementary-school sloyd and the household arts for girls came in later. This type oftechnical high school has since developed rapidly in this country, hasrendered an important educational service, and is a peculiarly Americancreation. In Europe the manual-training idea has been confined to theelementary school, and no institution exists there which parallels thesecostly and well-equipped American technical secondary schools. 

The introduction of manual work into the elementary schools came a littlelater, and a little more slowly. As early as 1880 the Workingmen's School, founded by the Ethical Culture Society of New York, had provided akindergarten and had extended the kindergarten constructive-work ideaupward, in the form of simple woodworking, into its elementary school. Inthe public schools, experimental classes in elementary-school woodworkingwere tried in one school in Boston, as early as 1882, the expense beingborne privately. In 1888 the city took over these classes. In 1886 ateacher was brought to Boston from Sweden to introduce Swedish sloyd, anda teacher-training school which has been very influential was establishedthere, in 1889. In 1876 Massachusetts permitted cities to provideinstruction in sewing, and Springfield introduced such instruction in1884, and elementary-school instruction in knifework in 1886. 

From these beginnings the movement spread, [23] though at first ratherslowly. By 1900 approximately forty cities, nearly all of them in theNorth Atlantic group of States, had introduced work in manual training andthe household arts into their elementary schools, but since that time thework has been extended to practically all cities, and to many towns andrural communities as well. 

[Illustration: FIG. 228. REDIRECTED MANUAL TRAININGA boy mending his shoe instead of making a mortice-joint ]

CONTRIBUTION OF THE MANUAL-ACTIVITIES IDEA. These new forms of school workwere at first advocated on the grounds of formal discipline--that theytrained the reasoning, exercised the powers of observation, andstrengthened the will. The "exercises, " true to such a conception, werequite formal and uniform for all. With the breakdown of the "facultypsychology, " and the abandonment in large part of the doctrine of formaldiscipline in the training of the mind, the whole manual-training andhousehold-arts work has had to be reshaped. As the writings of Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel were studied more closely, and with the new light onchild development gained from child-study and the newer psychology, thesenew subjects came to be conceived of in their proper light as means ofindividual expression, and to be extended to new forms, materials, colors, and new practical and artistic ends. To-day the instruction in manual workand the household arts in all their forms has been further changed to makeof them educational instruments for interpreting the fields of art andindustry and home-life in terms of their social significance andusefulness. Through these two new forms of education, also, the pupils inthe elementary schools have been given training in expression and aninsight into the practical work of life impossible in the old textbooktype of elementary school. In the kindergarten, manual work, and thehousehold arts, Froebel's principle of education through directed self-activity and self-expression has borne abundant fruit. 

In the hands of French, English, and American educators the originalmanual-arts idea has been greatly expanded. In France some form ofexpression has been worked out for all grades of the primary school, andthe work has been closely connected with art and industry on the one handand with the home-life of the people on the other. In England the projectsystem as applied to industry, and the household arts with reference tohome-life, have been emphasized. In the United States the work has beenindividualized perhaps more than anywhere else, applied in many newdirections--clay, leather, cement, metal--and used as a very importantinstrument for self-expression and the development of individual thinking. 

IV. THE ADDITION OF SCIENCE STUDY

THE GRADUAL EXTENSION OF THE INTEREST IN SCIENCE. A very prominent featureof world educational development, since about the middle of the nineteenthcentury, has been the general introduction into the schools of the studyof science. It is no exaggeration of the importance of this to say that noaddition of new subject-matter and no change in the direction and purposeof education, since that time, has been of greater importance for thewelfare of mankind, or more significant of new world conditions, than hasbeen the emphasis recently placed, in all divisions of state schoolsystems, on instruction in the principles and the applications of science. 

From the days of Francis Bacon (p. 390) on, the study of science has beenmaking slow but steady progress. The early history of modern science wetraced in chapter XVII. During the seventeenth century English scholarswere most prominent in the further development, due largely to the greatertolerance of new ideas there, and the University of Cambridge earlyattained to some reputation (p. 423) as a place where instruction in thenew scientific studies might be found. After the middle of the eighteenthcentury, in large part due to the illuminating work of Voltaire (p. 485), a great interest in science arose among the French. In the Revolutionarydays we accordingly find the French creating important scientificinstitutions (p. 518), and Napoleon gave frequent evidence of his deepinterest in scientific studies. [24] This interest the French have sinceretained. 

From France this new interest in science passed quickly to the Germans. The new mathematical and physical studies had early found a home at thenew University of Göttingen (p. 555), and largely under French influencesscientific studies were later introduced into all the German universities. Early in the nineteenth century the German universities took the lead ascenters for the new scientific studies (p. 576)--a lead they retainedthroughout the century. In England the universities had, by the nineteenthcentury, lost much of their seventeenth-century prominence in science, andhad settled down into teaching colleges, instead of developing, as had theGerman universities, into institutions for scientific research. Comparedwith the reformed German universities, actuated by the new scientificspirit, the English universities of the mid-nineteenth century presented avery unfavorable [25] aspect (R. 359). In the United States, bookinstruction in the sciences came in near the close of the eighteenthcentury, but the first laboratory instruction in our colleges was notbegun until 1846, and our real interest in science teaching dates from aneven later period. Until the coming of German influences, after the middleof the century, the American college [26] largely followed English modelsand practices. 

Yet, as we pointed out earlier, the early nineteenth century witnessed avast expansion of scientific knowledge, and by 1860 the main keys ofmodern science (p. 727) were in the hands of scholars everywhere. Thegreat early development of scientific study had been carried on in a fewuniversities or had been done by independent scholars, and had influencedbut little instruction in the colleges or the schools below. 

SCIENCE INSTRUCTION REACHES THE SCHOOLS BUT SLOWLY. The textbookorganization of this new scientific knowledge, for teaching purposes, andits incorporation into the instruction of the schools, took place butslowly. 

1. _The elementary schools. _ The greatest and the earliest success wasmade in German lands. There the pioneer work of Basedow (p. 534) and thePhilanthropinists had awakened a widespread interest in scientificstudies. In Switzerland, too, Pestalozzi had developed elementary sciencestudy and home geography, and, when Pestalozzian methods were introducedinto the schools of Prussia, the study of elementary science (_Realien_)soon became a feature of the _Volksschule_ instruction. From Prussia itspread to all German lands. In England the Pestalozzian idea wasintroduced into the Infant Schools, [27] though in a very formal fashion, under the heading of object lessons. In this form elementary science studyreached the United States, about 1860, though a decade later well-organized courses in elementary science instruction began to be introducedinto the American elementary schools. [28]

After the political reaction following the Napoleonic wars had set in, onthe continent of Europe, all thought-provoking studies were greatlycurtailed in the people's schools. In England, for other reasons, objectlessons did not make any marked headway, and as late as 1865 practicallynothing relating to the great new world of scientific knowledge had as yetbeen introduced into the private and religious elementary schools (R. 360)which, up to that time, constituted England's chief dependence for theelementary instruction of her people. 

2. _The secondary schools. _ In the secondary schools the earliest work ofimportance in introducing the new scientific subjects was done by theGermans and the French. In German lands the _Realschule_ obtained an earlystart (1747; p. 420), and the instruction in mathematics and science itincluded [29] had begun to be adopted by the German secondary schools, especially in the South German States, before the period of reaction setin. During the reign of Napoleon the scientific course in the French_Lycées_ was given special prominence. After about 1815, and continuinguntil after 1848, practical and thought-provoking studies were under anofficial ban in both countries, and classical studies were speciallyfavored. [30] Finally, in 1852 in France and in 1859 in Prussia, responding to changed political conditions and new economic demands, boththe scientific course in the _Lycées_ and the _Realschulen_ were givenofficial recognition, and thereafter received increasing state favor andsupport. The scientific idea also took deep root in Denmark. There thesecondary schools were modernized, in 1809, when the sciences were givenan important place, and again in 1850, when many of the Latin schools weretransformed into _Realskoler_. 

In the United States the academies and the early high schools both hadintroduced quite an amount of mathematics and book-science, [31] and, after about 1875, the development of laboratory instruction in science inthe growing high schools took place rather rapidly. Fellenberg's work inSwitzerland (p. 546) had also awakened much interest in the United States, and by 1830 a number of Schools of Industry and Science had begun toappear. [32] These made instruction in mathematics and science prominentfeatures of their work. After the Napoleonic wars, England attained tothe first place as an industrial and commercial nation. This led to acontinual agitation on the part of manufacturers for some science and artinstruction. In 1853, Parliament created a State Department of Science andArt (p. 638), and the promotion of science and art education by governmentgrants was now begun. Though the nation had been the first to betransformed by the industrial revolution, and its foreign trade by 1850reached all parts of the world, the secondary schools of England hadremained largely untouched by the change. They were still mainly theRenaissance Latin grammar schools they had been ever since Dean Colet(1510) marked out the lines for such instruction by founding his reformedgrammar school at St. Pauls (p. 275). Their courses of instructioncontained little that was modern, and in their aims and purposes they wentback to the days of the Revival of Learning for their inspiration (R. 361). 

THE CHALLENGE OF HERBERT SPENCER. By the middle of the nineteenth centurythe scientific and industrial revolutions had produced important changesin the conditions of living in all the then important world nations. Particularly in the German States, France, England, and the United Stateshad the effects of the revolutions in manufacturing and living been felt. In consequence there had been, for some time, a growing controversybetween the partisans of the older classical training and the newerscientific studies as to their relative worth and importance, both forintellectual discipline and as preparation for intelligent living, and bythe middle of the nineteenth century this had become quite sharp. The"faculty psychology, " upon which the theory of the discipline of thepowers of the mind by the classics was largely based, was attacked, andthe contention was advanced that the content of studies was of moreimportance in education than was method and drill. The advocates of thenewer studies contended that a study of the classics no longer provided asuitable preparation for intelligent living, and the question of therelative worth of the older and newer studies elicited more and morediscussion as the century advanced. 

[Illustration: FIG. 229. HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903)]

In 1859 one of England's greatest scholars, Herbert Spencer, brought thewhole question to a sharp issue by the publication of a remarkablyincisive essay on "What Knowledge is of Most Worth?" In this he declaredthat the purpose of education was to "prepare us for complete living, " andthat the only way to judge of the value of an educational course was firstto classify, in the order of their importance, [33] the leading activitiesand needs of life, and then measure the course of study by how fully itoffers such a preparation. Doing so (R. 362), and applying such a test, heconcluded that of all subjects a knowledge of science (R. 363) "was alwaysmost useful for preparation for life, " and therefore the type of knowledgeof most worth. In three other essays [34] he recommended a complete changefrom the classical type of training which had dominated English secondaryeducation since the days of the Renaissance. Still more, instead of a fewbeing educated by a "cultural discipline" for a life of learning andleisure, he urged general instruction in science, that all might receivetraining and help for the daily duties of life. 

These essays attracted wide attention, not only in England but in manyother lands as well. They were a statement, in clear and forceful English, of the best ideas of the educational reformers for three centuries. In hisstatement of the principles upon which sound intellectual education shouldbe based he merely enunciated theses for which educational reformers hadstood since the days of Ratke and Comenius. In his treatment of moral andphysical education he voiced the best ideas of John Locke. Spencer's greatservice was in giving forceful expression to ideas which, by 1860, hadbecome current, and in so doing he pushed to the front anew the questionof educational values. The scientific and industrial revolutions hadprepared the way for a redirection of national education, and the time wasripe in England, France, German lands, and the United States for such adiscussion. As a result, though the questions he raised are still in partunsettled, a great change in assigned values has since been effected notonly in these nations, but in most other nations and lands which havedrawn the inspiration for their educational systems from them. Though hiswork was not specially original, we must nevertheless class HerbertSpencer as one of the great writers on educational aims and purposes, andhis book as one of the great influences in reshaping educational practice. He gave a new emphasis to the work of all who had preceded him, and out ofthe discussion which ensued came a new and a greatly enlarged estimate asto the importance of science study in all divisions of the school. 

[Illustration: FIG. 230. THOMAS H. HUXLEY (1825-95)]

THE NEW EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE. It is perhaps not too much to say that out ofSpencer's gathering-up and forceful statement of the best ideas of histime, and the discussion which followed, a new conception of theeducational purpose as adjustment to the life one is to live--physical, economic, social, moral, political--was clearly formulated, and a newdefinition of a liberal education was framed. The former found expressionin a rather rapid introduction of science-study into the elementaryschool, the secondary school, and the college, after about 1865, in theschool systems of all progressive nations, and the subsequent extension ofthe scientific method to such new fields as history, politics, government, and social welfare. The latter--the new definition of a liberal education--was wonderfully well stated in an address (1868) by the Englishscientist, Thomas Huxley, when he said: [35]

 That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts of equal strength, and in smooth working order; ready, like a steam engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of Nature and of the laws of her operations; one who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty, whether of Nature or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect others as himself. 

 Such an one and no other, I conceive, has had a liberal education; for he is, as completely as a man can be, in harmony with Nature. He will make the best of her, and she of him. They will get on together rarely: she as his ever-beneficent mother; he as her mouthpiece, her conscious self, her minister and interpreter. 

The inter-relation between the movement for the study of the sciences andthe other movements for the improvement of instruction which we have sofar described in this chapter, was close. Pestalozzi had emphasizedinstruction in geography and the study of nature; Froebel had given aprominent place to nature study and school gardening; the manual-arts worktended to exhibit industrial processes and relationships; and thescientific emphasis on content rather than drill was in harmony with thetheories of all the modern reformers. Still more, the scientific movementwas in close harmony with the new individualistic tendency of the earlypart of the nineteenth century, and with the movements for the improvementof individual and national welfare which have been so prominent acharacteristic of the latter half of the century. 

V. SOCIAL MEANING OF THESE CHANGES

A CENTURY OF PROGRESS. Pestalozzi, true to the individualistic spirit ofthe age in which he lived and worked, had seen education as an individualdevelopment, and the ends of education as individual ends. The spirit ofthe French Revolutionary period was the spirit of individualism. With theprogress of the Industrial Revolution and the consequent rise of newsocial problems, the emphasis was gradually shifted from the individual tosociety--from the single man to the man in the mass. The first educationalthinker of importance to see and clearly state this new conception interms of the school was Herbart. Seeing the educational purpose in farclearer perspective than had those who had gone before him, he showed thateducation must have for its function the preparation of man to live inorganized society, and that character and social morality, rather thanindividual development, must in consequence be the larger aims. Froebel, possessed of something of the same insight, and seeing clearly theeducational importance of activity and expression, had opened up forchildren a wealth of new contacts with the world about them in the newtype of educational institution which he created. His principles, he said, when thoroughly worked out and applied to education "would revolutionizethe world. " He did not complete the full educational organization he hadplanned, but in the hands of the Swedes and Finns similar ideas wereworked out in practical form and made a part of school work. ApplyingFroebel's idea to instruction in the old trades and industries, decliningin importance in the face of the rise of the factory system, they evolvedthe manual-training activities, and these have since been made importanttools for giving to young people some intelligent ideas as to theindustrial relationships and economic problems of our complex modern life. 

Since this early pioneer work changes in school work have been numerousand of far-reaching importance. The methods and purpose of instruction inthe older subjects have been revised; new studies, which would serve tointerpret to the young the industrial and social revolutions of thenineteenth century, have been introduced; the expression-subjects--thedomestic arts, music, drawing, clay-modeling, color work, the manual arts, nature study, gardening--have given a new direction to school work; andthe study of science and the vocations has attained to a place ofimportance previously unknown. During the past half-century the school hasbeen transformed, in the principal world nations, from a disciplinaryinstitution where drill in mastering the rudiments of knowledge was given, into an instrument of democracy calculated to train young people forliving, for useful service in the office and shop and home, and to preparethem for intelligent participation in the increasingly complex social andpolitical and industrial life of a modern world. This transformation ofthe school has not always been easy (R. 365), but the vastly changedconditions of modern life have demanded such a transformation in allprogressive nations. 

THE CONTRIBUTION OF JOHN DEWEY. The foremost American interpreter, interms of the school, of the vast social and industrial changes which havemarked the nineteenth century, is John Dewey [36] (1859- ). Better perhapsthan anyone else he has thought out and stated a new educationalphilosophy, suited to the changed and changing conditions of human living. His work, both experimental and theoretical, has tended both to re-psychologize (R. 364) and socialize education; to give to it a practicalcontent, along scientific and industrial lines; and to interpret to thechild the new social and industrial conditions of modern society byconnecting the activities of the school closely with those of real life. 

[Illustration: FIG. 231. A REORGANIZED KINDERGARTENDrawn from a photograph showing the reconstruction of the kindergartenactivities, as worked out by Dewey at Chicago. ]

Starting with the premises that "the school cannot be a preparation forsocial life except as it reproduces the typical conditions of sociallife"; that "industrial activities are the most influential factors indetermining the thought, the ideals, and the social organization of apeople"; and that "the school should be life, not a preparation forliving"; Dewey for a time conducted an experimental school, for childrenfrom four to thirteen years of age, to give concrete expression to hiseducational ideas. These, first consciously set forth by Froebel, were:[37]

 1. That the primary business of the school is to train in coöperative and mutually helpful living.... 

 2. That the primary root of all educational activity is in the instinctive, impulsive attitudes and activities of the child, and not in the presentation and application of external material. 

 3. That these individual tendencies and activities are organized and directed through the uses made of them in keeping up the coöperative living ... Taking advantage of them to reproduce, on the child's plane, the typical doings and occupations of the larger, maturer society into which he is finally to go forth; and that it is through production and creative use that valuable knowledge is clinched. 

The work of this school [38] was of fundamental importance in directingthe reorganization of the work of the kindergarten along different andlarger lines, and also has been of significance in redirecting theinstruction in both the social subjects--history (R. 366), literature, etc. --and the manual, domestic, and artistic activities of the school. Inhis subsequent writings he may be said to have stated an important newphilosophy for the school in terms of modern social, political, andindustrial needs. 

THE DEWEY EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY. Believing that the public school is thechief remedy for the ills of organized society, Professor Dewey has triedto show how to change the work of the school so as to make it a miniatureof society itself. Social efficiency, and not mere knowledge, he hasconceived to be the end, and this social efficiency is to be producedthrough participation in the activities of an institution of society, theschool. The different parts of the school system thus become a unifiedinstitution, in which children are taught how to live amid the constantlyincreasing complexities of modern social and industrial life. 

Education, therefore, in Dewey's conception, involves not merely learning, but play, construction, use of tools, contact with nature, expression, andactivity; and the school should be a place where children are workingrather than listening, learning life by living life, and becomingacquainted with social institutions and industrial processes by studyingthem. The work of the school is in large part to reduce the complexity ofmodern life to such terms as children can understand, and to introduce thechild to modern life through simplified experiences. Its primary businessmay be said to be to train children in coöperative and mutually helpfulliving. The virtues of a school, as Dewey points out, are learning bydoing; the use of muscles, sight and feeling, as well as hearing; and theemployment of energy, originality, and initiative. The virtues of theschool in the past were the colorless, negative virtues of obedience, docility, and submission. Mere obedience and the careful performance ofimposed tasks he holds to be not only a poor preparation for social andindustrial efficiency, but a poor preparation for democratic society andgovernment as well. Responsibility for good government, under anydemocratic form of organization, rests with all, and the school shouldprepare for the political life of to-morrow by training its pupils to meetresponsibilities, developing initiative, awakening social insight, andcausing each to shoulder a fair share of the work of government in theschool. 

We have now before us the great contributions to a philosophy for theeducational process made since the beginning of the nineteenth century. Many other workers in different lands, but more particularly in Germanlands, France, Italy, England, and the United States, have added theirlabors to the expansion and redirection of the school. They are toonumerous to mention and, though often nationally important, need not beincluded here. Still more, the contributions of Pestalozzi, Herbart, Froebel, Spencer, Dewey, and their followers and disciples are sointerwoven in the educational theory and practice of to-day that it is inmost cases impossible to separate them from one another. [39]

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. How do you explain the long-continued objection to teacher-training?

2. Contrast "oral and objective teaching" with the former "individualinstruction. "

3. Show how complete a change in classroom procedure this involved. 

4. Show how Pestalozzian ideas necessitated a "technique of instruction. "

5. Why is it that Pestalozzian ideas as to language and arithmeticinstruction have so slowly influenced the teaching of grammar, language, and arithmetic?

6. How do you explain the decline in importance of the once-popular mentalarithmetic?

7. Show how child study was a natural development from the Pestalozzianpsychology and methodology. 

8. Explain what is meant by the statements that Herbart rejected: (a) The conventional-social ideal of Locke. (b) The unsocial ideal of Rousseau. (c) The "faculty-psychology" conception of Pestalozzi. 

9. Explain what is meant by saying that Herbart conceived of education asbroadly social, rather than personal. 

10. Show in what ways and to what extent Herbart: (a) Enlarged our conception of the educational process. (b) Improved the instruction content and process. 

11. Explain why Herbartian ideas took so much more quickly in the UnitedStates than did Pestalozzianism. 

12. State the essentials of the kindergarten idea, and the psychologybehind it. 

13. State the contribution of the kindergarten idea to education. 

14. Show the connection between the sense impression ideas of Pestalozzi, the self-activity of Froebel, and the manual activities of the modernelementary school. 

15. Explain why scientific studies came into the schools so slowly, up toabout 1860, and so very rapidly after about that time. 

16. Explain the particularly long resistance to the introduction ofscientific studies by industrial England. 

17. State the comparative importance of content and drill in education. 

18. Does the reasoning of Herbert Spencer appeal to you as sound? If not, why not?

19. Show how the argument of Spencer for the study of science was also anargument for a more general diffusion of educational advantages. 

20. Would schools have advanced in importance as they have done had theindustrial revolution not taken place? Why?

21. Why is more extended education called for as "industrial life becomesmore diversified, its parts narrower, and its processes more concealed"?

22. Point out the social significance of the educational work of JohnDewey. 

23. Point out the value, in the new order of society, of each group ofschool subjects listed in footnote 1 on page 763. 

24. Contrast the virtues of a school before Pestalozzi's time and those ofa modern school. 

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selectionsillustrative of the contents of this chapter are reproduced:

 344. Bache: The German Seminaries for Teachers. 345. Bache: A German Teachers' Seminary Described. 346. Bache: A French Normal School Described. 347. Barnard: Beginnings of Teacher-Training in England. 348. Barnard: The Pupil-Teacher System Described. 349. Clinton: Recommendation for Teacher-Training Schools. 350. Massachusetts: Organizing the First Normal Schools. (a) The Organizing Law. (b) Admission and Instruction in. (c) Mann: Importance of the Normal School. 351. Early Textbooks: Examples of Instruction from (a) Davenport: History of the United States. (b) Morse: Elements of Geography--Map. (c) Morse Elements of Geography. 352. Murray: A Typical Teacher's Contract. 353. Bache: The Elementary Schools of Berlin in 1838. 354. Providence: Grading the Schools of. 355. Felkin: Herbart's Educational Ideas. 356. Felkin: Herbart's Educational Ideas Applied. 357. Titchener: Herbart and Modern Psychology. 358. Marenholtz-Bülow: Froebel's Educational Views. 359. Huxley: English and German Universities Contrasted. 360. Huxley: Mid-nineteenth-Century Elementary Education in England. 361. Huxley: Mid-nineteenth-Century Secondary Education in England. 362. Spencer: What Knowledge is of Most Worth? 363. Spencer: Conclusions as to the Importance of Science. 364. Dewey: The Old and New Psychology Contrasted. 365. Ping: Difficulties in Transforming the School. (a) Relating Education to Life. (b) The Old Teacher and the New System. 366. Dewey: Socialization of School Work illustrated by History. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Contrast the instruction in a German Teachers' Seminary (345) or aFrench normal school (346) of 1838, as described by Bache, with that of anAmerican normal school of to-day. 

2. What do the beginnings of teacher training in England (347, 348)indicate as to conceptions then existing as to the educational process?

3. Show, by comparison, that the beginnings of the American normal schoolwere German, rather than English in origin. 

4. Just what educational conditions does Governor Clinton (349) indicateas existing in New York State, in 1827?

5. Contrast the instruction in the early Massachusetts normal schools(350) with that in the German (345) and French (346) of about the sametime. 

6. What do the three professional courses reproduced (345, 346, 350 b)indicate as to the development of pedagogical work by about 1840?

7. Compare the textbook types, given in 351, with modern textbooks inequivalent subjects. 

8. Just what light on school teaching, in 1841, does the teacher'scontract given (352) throw?

9. State the steps in the evolution of a graded system of schools (353, 354). 

10. State the essentials of Herbart's educational ideas (355, 356), and thenature of the advances made over his predecessors. 

11. State the essentials of Froebel's educational ideas, as explained bythe Baroness von Marenholtz-Bülow (358). 

12. Explain the difference between the universities of the two nations(359). 

13. Contrast elementary education in England (360) with that in the UnitedStates at the same period. 

14. Would you add anything else to Spencer's requirements to prepare forcomplete living? What? Why?

15. How do you explain science being "written against in our theologiesand frowned upon from our pulpits" (363) when it is of such importance asSpencer concludes?

16. Contrast the old and the new psychology (357, 364). 

17. Have the difficulties experienced in the transformation of instructionin China (365) been essentially different than with us? How?

18. Apply Dewey's idea as to the socialization of history (366) toinstruction in geography. 

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

 Barnard, Henry. _National Education in Europe_. * Bowen, H. C. _Froebel and Education through Self-Activity_. Compayré, G. _Herbart and Education by Instruction_. * De Garmo, Chas. _Herbart and the Herbartians_. Dewey, John. _The School and Social Progress_. (Nine numbers. )* Dewey, John. _The School and Society_. Gordy, J. P. _Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea in the United States_. Circular of Information, United States Bureau of Education, No. 8, 1891. Hollis, A. P. _The Oswego Movement_. * Jordan, D. S. "Spencer's Essay on Education"; in _Cosmopolitan Magazine_, vol. Xxix, pp. 135-49. (Sept. 1902. ) Judd, C. H. _The Training of Teachers in England, Scotland, and Germany_. (Bulletin 35, 1914, United States Bureau of Education. ) Monroe, Will S. _History of the Pestalozzian Movement in the United States_. * Parker, S. C. _History of Modern Elementary Education_. Ping Wen Kuo. _The Chinese System of Public Education_. Spencer, Herbert. _Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical_. Vanderwalker, N. C. _The Kindergarten in American Education_. 

CHAPTER XXIX

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS

I. POLITICAL

THE ENLARGED CONCEPTION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. The new ideas as to thepurpose and functions of the State promulgated by English and Frencheighteenth-century thinkers, and given concrete expression in the Americanand French revolutions near the close of the century, imparted, as we haveseen, a new meaning to the school and a new purpose to the education of apeople. In the theoretical discussion of education by Rousseau and theempirical work of Pestalozzi a new individualistic theory for a secularschool was created, and this Prussia, for long moving in that direction, first adopted as a basis for the state school system it early organized toserve national ends. The new American States, also long moving towardstate organization and control, early created state schools to replace theearlier religious schools; while the French Revolution enthusiastsabolished the religious school and ordered the substitution of a generalsystem of state schools to serve their national ends. 

From these beginnings, as we have seen, the state-school idea has incourse of time spread to all continents, and nations everywhere to-dayhave come to feel that the maintenance of a more or less comprehensivesystem of state schools is so closely connected with national welfare andprogress as to be a necessity for the State (R. 367). In consequence, state ministries for education have been created in all the importantworld nations; state and local school officials have been providedgenerally to see that the state purpose in creating schools is carriedout; state normal schools for the preparation of teachers have beenestablished; comprehensive state school codes have been enacted oreducational decrees formulated; and constantly increasing expenditures foreducation are to-day derived by taxing the wealth of the State to educatethe children of the State. 

CHANGE FROM THE ORIGINAL PURPOSE. The original purpose in theestablishment of schools by the State was everywhere to promote literacyand citizenship. Under all democratic forms of government it was also toinsure to the people the elements of learning that they might be preparedfor participation in the functions of government. [1] This is wellexpressed in the quotations given (p. 525) from early American statesmenas to the need for the education of public opinion and the diffusion ofknowledge among the people. The same ideas were expressed by Frenchwriters and statesmen of the time, and by the English after the passage ofthe Reform Bills of 1832 and 1867 (p. 642). With the gradual extension ofthe franchise to larger and larger numbers of the people, the extension ofeducational advantages naturally had to follow. The education of newcitizens for "their political and civil duties as members of society andfreemen" became a necessity, and closely followed each extension of theright to vote. In all democratic governments the growing complexity ofmodern political society has since greatly enlarged these early duties ofthe school. To-day, in modern nations where general manhood suffrage hascome to be the rule, and still more so in nations which have added femalesuffrage as well, the continually increasing complexity of the political, economic, and social problems upon which the voters are expected to passjudgment is such that a more prolonged period of citizenship education isnecessary if voters are to exercise, in any intelligent manner, theirfunctions of citizenship. In nations where the initiative, referendum, andrecall have been added, the need for special education along political, economic, and social lines has been still further emphasized. 

At first instruction in the common-school branches, with instruction inmorals or religion added, was regarded as sufficient. In States, such asthe German, where religious instruction was retained in the schools, thishas been made a powerful instrument in moulding the citizenship andupholding the established order. The history of the different nations hasalso been used by each as a means for instilling desired conceptions ofcitizenship, and some work in more or less formal civil government hasusually been added. To-day all these means have been proven inadequate fordemocratic peoples. In consequence, the work in civil government is beingchanged and broadened into institutional and community civics; the work ofthe elementary school is being socialized, along the lines advocated byDewey; and instruction in economic principles and in the functions ofgovernment is being introduced into the secondary schools. Instead ofbeing made mere teaching institutions, engaged in promoting literacy anddiffusing the rudiments of learning among the electorate, schools are to-day being called upon to grasp the significance of their political andsocial relationships, and to transform themselves into institutions forimproving and advancing the welfare of the State (R. 368). 

THE PROMOTION OF NATIONALITY. In Prussia the promotion of nationalsolidarity was early made an important aim of the school. This has in timebecome a common national purpose, as there has dawned upon statesmengenerally the idea that a national spirit or culture is "an artificialproduct which transcends social, religious, and economic distinctions, "and that it "could be manufactured by education" (R. 340). In consequenceof this discovery the school has been raised to a new position ofimportance in the national life, and has become the chief means fordeveloping in the citizenship that national unity and national strength sodesirable under present-day world conditions. In the German States, wherethis function of the school has in recent times been perverted to carryforward imperialistic national ends (R. 342); in France, where it has beenintelligently used to promote a rational type of national strength (R. 341); in Italy, where divergent racial types are being fused into a newnational unity; in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines (R. 343) wherethe United States has used education to bring backward peoples up to a newlevel of culture, and to develop in them firm foundations of nationalsolidarity; in China (R. 335) where an ancient people, speaking numerousdialects, is making the difficult transition from an old culture to thenewer western civilization; and in Algiers and Morocco, where the spiritof French nationality is being fused into dark-skinned tribesmen--everywhere to-day, where public education has really taken hold on thenational life, we find the school being used for the promotion of nationalsolidarity and the inculcation of national ideals and national culture. Tosuch an extent has this become true that practically all the pressingproblems of the school to-day, in any land, find their ultimateexplanation in terms of the new nineteenth-century conceptions ofpolitical nationality. 

Since the development of world trade routes following long rail andsteamship lines, along which people as well as raw materials andmanufactured articles pass to and fro, the entrance of new and diversepeoples into distant national groups has created a new problem ofnationalization that before the early nineteenth century was largelyunknown. Previous to the nineteenth century the problem was confinedalmost entirely to peoples conquered and annexed by the fortunes of war. To-day it is a voluntary migration of peoples, and a migration of suchproportions and from such distant and unlike civilizations that theproblem of assimilating the foreigner has become, particularly in theEnglish-speaking nations and colonies, to which distant and unrelatedpeoples have turned in largest numbers, [2] a serious national problem. The migration of 32, 102, 671 persons to the United States, between 1820 and1914, from all parts of the world, has been a movement of peoples comparedwith which the migrations of the Germanic tribes--Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Suevi, Danes, Burgundians, Huns--into the oldRoman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries pale into insignificance. No such great movement of peoples was ever known before in history, andthe assimilative power of the American nation has not been equal to thetask. The World War revealed the extent of the failure to nationalize theforeigner who has been permitted to come, and brought the question of"Americanization" to the front as one of the most pressing problemsconnected with American national education. With the world in fluxracially as it now is, the problem of the assimilation of non-nativepeoples is one which the schools of every nation which offers politicaland economic opportunity to other peoples must face. This has called forthe organization of special classes in the schools, evening and adultinstruction, community-center work, nationalization programs, compulsoryattendance of children, state oversight of private and religious schools, and other forms of educational undertakings undreamed of in the days whenthe State first took over the schools from the Church the better topromote literacy and citizenship. 

EFFECTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. The effects of the great industrialand social changes which we have previously described are written largeacross the work of the school. As the civilization in the leading worldnations has increased in complexity, and the ramifications of the socialand industrial life have widened, the school has been called upon tobroaden its work, and develop new types of instruction to increase itseffectiveness. An education which was entirely satisfactory for thesimpler form of social and industrial life of two generations ago has beenseen to be utterly inadequate for the needs of the present and the future. It is the far-reaching change in social and industrial and home-life, brought about by the Industrial Revolution, which underlies most of thepressing problems in educational readjustment to-day. As the industriallife of nations has become more diversified, its parts narrower, and itsprocesses more concealed, new and more extended training has been calledfor to prepare young people for the work of life; to reveal to themsomething of the intricacy and interdependence of modern political andindustrial and social groups; and to point out to them the importance ofeach one's part in the national political and industrial organization. With the ever-increasing subdivision and specialization of labor, thedanger from class subdivision has constantly increased, and more and morethe school has been called upon to instill into all a political and socialconsciousness that will lead to unity amid increasing diversity, and toconcerted action for the preservation and improvement of the nationallife. 

More education than formerly has also been demanded to enable futurecitizens to meet intelligently national and personal problems, and withthe widening of the suffrage and the spread of democratic ideas there hascome a necessary widening of the educational ladder, so that more of themasses of the people may climb. Even in nations having the continental-European two-class school system, larger educational opportunities for themasses have had to be provided. This has come through the provision ofmiddle schools, continuation schools, higher primary schools, and people'shigh schools, [3] as in Germany, France (see diagram, p. 598), theScandinavian countries (p. 713; R. 370), and Japan (p. 720). In nationshaving an American-type educational ladder, it has led to themultiplication of secondary schools and secondary-school courses, that alarger and larger percentage of the people may be prepared better to meetthe increasingly complex and increasingly difficult conditions of modernpolitical, social, and industrial life. In the more advanced and moredemocratic nations we also note the establishment of systems of eveningschools, adult instruction, university extension, science and artinstruction in special centers, the multiplication of libraries, and theincreasing use of the lecture, the stereopticon, and the public press, forthe purpose of keeping the people informed. No nation has done more toextend the advantages of secondary education to its people than has theUnited States; France has been especially prominent in adult instruction;England has done noteworthy work with university extension and science andart instruction; while the United States has carried the library movementfarther than any other land. All these, again, are extensions ofeducational opportunity to the masses of the people in a manner undreamedof a century ago. 

UNIVERSITY EXPANSION. The modern university first attained its developmentin Prussia (pp. 553-55), while in England and in the nations which drewtheir inspiration from her, the teaching college, with its narrow range ofstudies and disciplinary instruction (R. 331), continued to dominatehigher education until past the middle of the nineteenth century (R. 359). The old universities of France, aside from Paris, were virtually destroyedin the days of the Revolution, and their re-creation as effective teachingand research institutions has been a relatively recent (1896) event. Theuniversities of Italy and Spain ceased to be effective teachinginstitutions centuries ago, and only recently have begun to give evidencesof new life. 

Within the past three quarters of a century, and in many nations within amuch shorter period of time, the university has very generally experienceda new manifestation of popular favor, and is to-day looked upon as perhapsthe most important part, viewed from the standpoint of the future welfareof the State, of the entire system of public instruction maintained by theState. In it the leaders for the State are trained; in it the thinkingwhich is to dominate government a quarter-century later is largely done;out of it come the creative geniuses whose work, in dozens of fields ofhuman endeavor, will mould the political, social, and scientific future ofthe nation (R. 369). Every government depending upon a two-class schoolsystem must of necessity draw its leaders in the professions, ingovernment, in pure and applied science, and in many other lines from thesmall but carefully selected classes its universities train. In ademocracy, depending entirely upon drawing its future leaders from amongthe mass, the university becomes an indispensable institution for thetraining of leaders and for the promotion of the national welfare. In ademocratic government one of the highest functions of a university is toeducate leaders and to create the standards for democracy. 

The university has, accordingly, in all lands, recently experienced agreat expansion. The German universities have been prominent moderninstitutions for a century and a half. Realizing, as no other people havedone, their value in developing skilled leaders for the State, promotingthe national welfare, integrating the Empire, and as centers for buildingup among students of other nationalities a good-will toward Germany, largesums have been spent on their further development since 1871. Within thepast quarter-century new and strong French universities have been created, [4] and old universities in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Greece have beenawakened to a new life. The English universities have been made over, since 1870, and new municipal universities in Sheffield, Bristol, Leeds, Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool, and London have set new standards inEnglish higher education. The universities of Scotland, Holland, Switzerland, and the Scandinavian countries have also recently attained toworld prominence. In Australia, New Zealand, Japan, China, thePhilippines, India, Egypt, Palestine, Algiers, and South Africa, newuniversities have been created to advance the national welfare. The SouthAmerican nations have also established a number of promising newfoundations, and given new life to older ones. Often nations swinging outinto the current of western civilization have developed their universitiesbefore popular education really got under way. 

In no country has the development of university instruction been morerapid than in the United States and Canada. New and important stateuniversities are to-day found in most of the American States and CanadianProvinces, some States maintaining two. These have been relatively recentcreations to serve democracy's needs, and upon the support of these stateuniversities large and increasing sums of money are spent annually. [5] Inno nation of the world, too, has private benevolence created and endowedso many private universities of high rank as in the United States, [6] andthese have fallen into their proper places as auxiliary agents for thepromotion of the national welfare in government, science, art, and thelearned professions. 

From small collegiate institutions with a very limited curriculum, acentury ago, stimulated in part by the German example and in partresponding to new national needs, universities to-day, in all the leadingworld nations, have developed into groups of well-organized professionalschools, ministering to the great number of special needs of modern lifeand government. The university development since the middle of thenineteenth century has been greater than at any period before in worldhistory, and with the spread of democracy, dependent as democracy is uponmass education to obtain its leaders, the university has become "the soulof the State" (R. 369). The university development of the next half-century, the world as a whole considered, may possibly surpass anythingthat we have recently witnessed. 

THE STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS AS ORGANIZED. We now find state school systemsorganized in all the leading world nations. In many the system of publicinstruction maintained is broad and extensive, beginning often with infantschools or kindergartens, continuing up through elementary schools, middleschools, continuation schools, secondary schools, and normal schools, andculminating in one or more state universities. In addition there are to-day, in many nations, state systems of scientific and technical schoolsand institutions, and vocational schools and schools for special classes, to which we shall refer more in detail a little further on. The support ofall these systems of public instruction to-day comes largely from thedirect or indirect taxation of the wealth of the State. Being nowconceived of as essential to the welfare and progress of the State, theState yearly confiscates a portion of every man's property and uses it tomaintain a service deemed vital to its purposes. 

The sums spent to-day on education by modern States seem enormous, compared with the sums spent for education under conditions existing acentury ago. In England, for example, where the first national aid wasgranted, in 1833, in the form of a parliamentary grant of £20, 000(approximately $100, 000), the parliamentary grants for elementary schoolshad reached approximately £12, 000, 000 by 1910, with an additional nationalaid for universities of over £1, 100, 000. The year following the World Warthe grants were £32, 853, 111. In France a treasury grant of 50, 000 francs(approximately $10, 000) was first made for primary schools, in 1816. Thiswas doubled in 1829, and in 1831 was raised to a million francs. By 1850, the state aid for primary education had reached 3, 000, 000 francs; by 1870, 10, 000, 000 francs; by 1880, 30, 000, 000; and by 1914, approximately220, 000, 000 francs. In addition the State was paying out 25, 000, 000 francsfor secondary schools, and 10, 000, 000 francs for universities. In theUnited States the total expenditures for maintenance only of publicelementary and secondary schools was $69, 107, 612, in 1870-71; had reached$214, 964, 618 by the end of the nineteenth century; and was $640, 717, 053 in1915-16, with an additional $101, 752, 542 for universities. By 1920 thetotal expenditures for the maintenance of public elementary, secondary, and higher education in the United States will probably total a billiondollars. These rapidly increasing expenditures merely record the changingpolitical conception as to the national importance of enlarging theeducational opportunities and advantages of those who are to constituteand direct the future State. 

II. SCIENTIFIC

In no phase of the remarkable educational development made by nations, since the middle of the nineteenth century, has there been a moreimportant expansion of the educational service than in the creation ofschools dealing with the applications of science to the affairs of thenational life. Still more, no extension of instruction into new fields hasever yielded material benefits, increased productivity, alleviatedsuffering, or multiplied comforts and conveniences as has this newdevelopment in applied scientific education during the past three quartersof a century. 

SCIENCE INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS. At first this new work came in, as wehave seen (p. 774), but slowly, and its introduction into the secondaryschools of France, Germany, England, the United States, and other nationsfor a time met with bitter opposition from the partisans of the older typeof intellectual training. In Germany it was not until after EmperorWilliam II came to the throne (1888) that the _Realschulen_ really found awarm partisan, he demanding (1890), in the name of the national welfare, that the secondary schools "depart entirely from the basis that hasexisted for centuries--the old monastic education of the Middle Ages"--andthat "young Germans and not young Greeks and Romans" be trained in theschools (R. 368). During his reign the _Realschulen_ (six-year course) and_Oberrealschulen_ (nine-year course) were especially favored, whilepermission to found additional _Gymnasien_ became hard to obtain. Thescientific course in the French _Lycées_ similarly did not prosper untilafter the coming of the Third Republic (1871) and the rise of modernscientific and industrial demands. In England it was not until after 1870that the endowed secondary schools began to include science instruction, and laboratory instruction in the sciences began to be introduced into thesecondary schools of the United States at about the same time. In theUnited States, too, the first manual-training high school was notestablished until 1880, but by 1890 the creation of such schools wasclearly under way. Other nations--Switzerland, Holland, the Scandinaviancountries--also began to include laboratory science instruction in thework of their secondary schools at about the same time. The decade of theseventies witnessed a rising interest in instruction in science whichcarried such work into the secondary schools of all progressive nations. To-day, in nearly all lands, we find secondary-school courses in science, or special secondary schools for scientific instruction, occupying aposition of at least equal importance with the older classical courses orschools. As science instruction has become organized, and a knowledge ofthe principles of science has become diffused, object lessons, _Realien_, nature study, or elementary science instruction has very generally beenput into the elementary or people's schools for the younger pupils. As aresult, young people finishing the elementary schools to-day know morerelating to the laws of the universe, and the applications of these lawsto human life and industry, than did distinguished scholars two centuriesago. 

All this work in the elementary schools, middle schools, people's highschools, secondary schools, or special technical schools of middle orsecondary grade has been of much value in diffusing scientific knowledgeand scientific methods of thinking and working among large numbers ofpeople, as well as in revealing to many the possibilities of a scientificcareer. The great and important development of scientific instruction, however, since about 1860, has been in the fields of advanced appliedscience or technical education, and has taken place chiefly in new andhigher specialized schools and research foundations. The fields in whichthe greatest scientific advances have been made, and to which we shallhere briefly refer, have been engineering, agriculture, and medicine. 

THE BEGINNINGS OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The beginnings of technicaleducation were made earliest in France, Germany, and the United States, and in the order named. France and German lands, but particularly France, inherited through the monasteries what survived of the old Roman skillsand technical arts. In the building of bridges, roads, fortifications, aqueducts, and imposing public buildings, the Romans had shown thepossession of engineering ability of a high order. Some of this knowledgewas retained by the monks of the early Middle Ages, as is evidenced by themonasteries they erected and the churches they built. Later it passed toothers, and is evidenced in the great cathedrals and town halls of Europe, and particularly of northern France. In military and civil engineeringthe French were also the true successors of the Romans. As early as 1747 aspecial engineering school for bridges and highways (_École des Ponts etChaussées_) had been created, and a little later a special school to trainmining engineers (_École des Mines_) was added. These were the first ofthe world's higher technical schools. After the Revolution, the new needfor military and medical knowledge, as well as the general French interestin applied science, led to the creation of a large number of importanthigher technical institutions (list, p. 518), most of which have persistedto the present and been enlarged and extended with time. Napoleon alsocreated a School of Arts and Trades (R. 282), and a number of militaryschools (p. 590). 

In German lands there was early founded a series of trade schools, [7]which have in time been developed into important technical universities. After the creation of the Imperial German Empire, in 1871, these schoolswere especially favored by the government, and their work was raised to arank equal to that of the older universities. To the excellent traininggiven in these institutions the German leadership in applied science andindustry, before 1914, was largely due. [8] It has been the particularfunction of these technical universities to apply scientific knowledge tothe industries and the arts, and to show the technical schools beneath andthe directors of German industries how further to apply it (R. 371). Oftheir work a recent _Report_ [9] well says:

 While in other countries the development of science has been academic, in Germany every new principle elaborated by science has revolutionized some industry, modified some manufacturing process, or opened up an entirely new field of commercial exploitation. In the chemical industries of Germany ... There is one trained university chemist for every forty working-people. It is important to realize that the development of Germany's manufactures and commerce has depended not upon the establishment of any monopoly in the domain of science, not upon any special advancement of science within her own boundaries, but primarily upon the practical utilization of the results of scientific research in Germany and other countries. 

The creation of the United States Military Academy, at West Point, in1802, marks the American beginnings in technical education. In 1824 theRensselaer Polytechnic Institute was begun, largely as a manual-laborschool after the Fellenberg plan, to give instruction "in the applicationsof science to the common purposes of life, " and about 1850 this developedinto one of the earliest of our four-year engineering colleges. In 1846the United States organized a college for naval engineering, at Annapolis, to do for the Navy what West Point had done for the Army. In 1861 theMassachusetts Institute of Technology was founded, opening its doors in1865. This was the first of a number of important new engineeringcolleges, and eight others had been established, by private funds, before1880. 

The development in England came a little later. Good engineering schoolshave since been developed in connection with the new municipaluniversities, while good engineering colleges have also been created atOxford and Cambridge, as well as at the Scottish and Irish universities. 

THE NEW IMPULSES TO DEVELOPMENT. During the first six decades of thenineteenth century, France, the German States, and the United States wereslowly moving toward the creation of special schools for technicaleducation. After about 1860 the movement increased with great rapidity. Anumber of events contributed to this change in rate of development, themost important of which were:

 1. The development attained by pure science, by about 1860. (See chapter XXVII, part II, p. 723. )

 2. The Industrial Revolution (p. 728), which changed nations from an agricultural to an industrial status, opened up the possibilities of vast world trade, and created enormous demands for technically trained men to supervise and develop the rapidly growing industries of nations. 

 3. The London Exhibition of 1851, which displayed to the world the applications of science to trade, manufacturing, and the arts, made in particular by England. This opened the eyes of Europe and America to the possibilities of technical education, and led to the creation, in 1853, of a national Department of Science and Art (p. 638) for England. This began the stimulation, by money grants, of technical education and instruction in drawing, and exerted from the first an important influence on English education. 

 4. The passage by the Congress of the United States of the Morrill Land-Grant-College Act, in 1862, which provided for the creation of colleges of engineering, military science, and agriculture, in each of the American States. 

 5. The militarily successful wars of Prussia against Denmark, in 1864; Austria, 1866; and France, 1870-71. These revealed to other nations the importance of sound military and engineering education for a nation, and so tremendously stimulated German technical education that the new nation soon arose, in many lines, to a position of world industrial leadership (369). 

 6. The Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in 1876, which repeated the work of the London Exhibition of 1851, and gave a new meaning to the scientific and engineering education then developing in the new American Land-Grant Colleges. 

 7. The work of Virchow in Germany (1856) in developing pathology; of Pasteur in France, after 1859, in establishing the germ theory of disease; the English surgeon Lister, about the same time, in developing antiseptic surgery; and the new work of physiologists and chemists. Combined these have remade medical science, and have opened up immense possibilities for benefiting mankind. 

Following these important stimuli to activity, the important nations ofthe world began the earnest development of technical education, and latermedical education, with the result that this new development has affectededucational practice all over the world. The new ideas have spread to allcontinents, and to-day the call for technical education comes not onlyfrom the older nations and such new countries as Canada, Australia, SouthAfrica, and the South American States, but from such ancient and backwardcivilizations as Japan, China, Siam, the Philippines, the East Indies, Egypt, Persia, and Turkey. 

In consequence to-day numerous and expensive engineering colleges andresearch institutions are maintained by the important world nations. To-day the trained engineer goes to work his wonders in all corners of theglobe, and his task has become primarily that of organizing and directingmen in the work of controlling the forces and materials of nature so thatthey may be made to benefit the human race. So rapid has been thedevelopment that, out of the earlier comprehensive type of engineering, to-day dozens of specialized types of engineering education andspecialization have been evolved, covering such related fields as civil, mechanical, mining, metallurgical, electrical, architectural, chemical, electro-chemical, marine, naval, sanitary, biological, and public-healthengineering. No longer can a nation hope to develop its resources, careproperly for the modern needs of its people, or be counted among theimportant industrial or agricultural nations if it neglects thedevelopment of technical education. 

SCIENCE APPLIED TO AGRICULTURE. France also was the direct inheritor, through the monks, of the old Roman agricultural knowledge and skills, though up to the nineteenth century no attempt to organize agriculturalinstruction took place anywhere in Europe. The earliest effort in thatdirection was a proposal made in 1775 by Abbé Rosier, in France, toTurgot, then Minister of Finance, on "A Plan for a National School ofAgriculture. " Nothing coming of the proposal, the Abbé submitted theproposal to the National Assembly, in 1789, and the same idea was laterpresented to Napoleon, but without results. The first person to givepractical form to the idea was Fellenberg (p. 546), who conducted hismanual-labor agricultural institute at Hofwyl, from 1806 to 1844, andinaugurated a plan of educational procedure which was soon afterwardscopied in Switzerland, France, the South German States, England, and theUnited States. One of the earliest institutions to be established outsideof Switzerland was the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, founded bythe Agricultural Society of Würtemberg, in 1817, at Hohenheim, nearStuttgart. 

The earliest schools to teach agriculture in France were the RoyalAgronomic Institution at Grignon (1827); the Institute at Coetbo (1830), and the Agricultural School at San Juan (1833). By 1847 twenty-fiveagricultural schools were in operation in France, to several of whichorphan asylums and penal colonies were attached. In 1848 the FrenchGovernment reorganized the instruction in agriculture and gave it anational basis. It ordered the creation of a farm school in eachdepartment of France; a number of higher schools for agriculturalinstruction at central places; and a National Agronomic Institute for moreadvanced instruction. A treasury grant of 2, 500, 000 francs to establishthe system was voted. In 1873 elementary instruction in agriculture wasordered given in all village and rural elementary schools. 

In the United States a number of agricultural societies were formed earlyin the century, and a private school of agriculture was opened in Maine, in 1821, and another in Connecticut, in 1824. With the opening-up of thenew West to farming and the change of the East to manufacturing, afterabout 1825, the agitation for agricultural education for a time died out, reappearing in Michigan, in 1850. In that year a new constitution wasadopted which required the legislature to create a State School ofAgriculture, and in 1857 the Michigan Agricultural College opened itsdoors. Two years later a "Farmers' High School, " which later became thePennsylvania State College, was opened in central Pennsylvania. In 1862, in the midst of the greatest civil war in history, the American Congresspassed the very important Morrill Act, which provided for the creation ofa college to teach agriculture, mechanic arts, and military science ineach of the American States. It was a decade before many of theseinstitutions opened, and for a time they amounted to but little. They hadbut few students, little money, and the instruction was very elementaryand but poorly organized. Cornell University, in New York State, was oneof the first (1868) of the new institutions to get under way and find itswork. The Centennial Exposition (1876) gave the needed emphasis to theengineering courses, and by 1880 these were well established. Theagricultural courses did not flourish for two decades longer, and themilitary science not until the World War, Despite feeble beginnings, theresult of the aid given by the national government has in time proved veryvaluable, and to-day very large sums of money are being appropriated bythe American States and Territories for instruction in engineering, agriculture, home economics, and related sciences, and large numbers ofstudents are now enrolled for this technical training. 

THE RECENT NEW INTEREST IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. Since the latter partof the nineteenth century agricultural education has awakened new interestin many lands. The German States have created many schools for instructionin agriculture and forestry. Denmark has regenerated the rural life of thenation (R. 370) by its "People's High Schools" and its special schools forinstruction in agriculture. Italy has recently made special efforts toextend agricultural instruction to its people. Canada, Australia, and NewZealand have established agricultural schools. In Algiers, Morocco, Japan, China, the Philippines, and India, good beginnings in agriculturaleducation have been made. 

As agricultural knowledge has been worked out and classified, andagricultural instruction has become organized, it has become possible torelegate some of the more elementary instruction to the school below. Thiswas done in European nations before it took place in the United States. In1888 the first American agricultural high school was established inMinnesota. By 1898 there were ten such schools in the United States, butsince 1900 the development has been very rapid. By 1920 probably athousand high schools were offering instruction in agriculture, whileelementary instruction in agriculture had been introduced into the ruraland village schools of practically every American agricultural State. 

The agricultural schools, colleges, and experimental stations establishedby the national, state, and local educational authorities of differentnations have added another new division to the work of public education, and one which is both very costly and very remunerative. Out of the workof these schools has come a vast quantity of useful knowledge, andhundreds of important applications of science to farm and home life. Oldbreeds in stock and grains have been improved, new breeds have beenderived, and productivity has been greatly increased. Through theteachings of home economics the farmer's home is being transformed, whilethe applications of science made in these schools are modifying almostevery phase of agricultural life and rural living. 

MEDICINE AND SANITARY SCIENCE. Closely related to sanitary, biological, and public-health engineering has been the enormous recent development ofmedicine and surgery. Within half a century instruction in these subjectshas been entirely transformed, and large and costly laboratories andhospitals are now required for the work. There has also been muchspecialization in medical training, within recent years, and especiallyhas preventive medicine been developed. Extending the newly foundbiological and medical knowledge to the animal and vegetable worlds hasresulted in a similar development of veterinary medicine [10] and plantpathology. A combination of medical knowledge with engineering andchemistry has produced the sanitary engineer, while medical knowledge andapplied biology has produced the public-health expert. [11]

So important, too, has the control of all kinds of disease become, nowthat people, animals, insects, plants, and goods move so freely along thegreat trade routes of the world, that nations everywhere feel thenecessity, now that scientific research has revealed to questioning manthe methods of transmission of the diseases which once decimated armiesand cities, destroyed stocks, and ruined harvests, of developing amplequarantine service and medical staffs to cope with diseases--human, animal, and plant--from without, and to control those which arise within. Nations too poor as yet to provide such service for themselves are todayhaving such provision made for them by other nations, or by great nationalfoundations, [12] so that other lands may be protected from the ravages oftheir diseases and the economic wealth of all may be increased. Theelement of Christian charity has also entered into the service, the laborsof Dr. Grenfell in Labrador, and the work of the Rockefeller medical andsurgical boat traveling among the Philippine Islands and its hookworm workon every continent, being good examples of such Christian effort. 

[Illustration: FIG. 232. THE PEKING UNION MEDICAL COLLEGEA well-equipped center for instruction in western medicine, endowed by theRockefeller Foundation. A similar school is being created at Shanghai, incentral China. Existing medical schools at two other points, and nineteenhospitals scattered over the Republic, have also been aided by thisAmerican foundation. In addition, many medical missionaries, Chinesephysicians, and nurses have been sent to the United States for study. Toimprove health standards and living conditions throughout the world is thepurpose of the work of the Foundation, which now has work under way onevery continent. ]

APPLIED SCIENCE THE NATION'S PROTECTOR. To-day applied science standseverywhere as the nation's protector. Applied in sanitation and preventivemedicine it has reduced the death rate, prolonged life, and protects homesfrom many hidden dangers. In the engineering fields it has transformed theface of the earth and all our ways of living and doing business. Appliedto industry it builds factories and railways, and works out new processesto eliminate wastes, improve production, and utilize by-products. Thousands of labor-saving inventions owe their origin to a new truthworked out in some laboratory, and applied in another. Applied chemistryhas wrought wonders in advancing industry, protecting the public welfare, eliminating unnecessary labor, and making life richer for all. 

To-day the engineer with his railway and irrigating dam and power plant inthe desert has replaced the monk as the vanguard of the forces ofcivilization. The scientist in his laboratory in part replaces armies andnavies as the protector of the nation's safety. The scientifically trainedRed Cross nurse is fast replacing the unskilled devotion of the olderSister of Charity. The doctor and the surgeon at the medical mission arecarrying a very practical type of Christian civilization into far-awaylands. The laboratory expert in the quarantine station has succeeded thepriest with bell and book in keeping pestilence away from the land. Thepublic-health officer in the little town, and the sanitary engineer in thecity, protect the health and happiness of millions of homes. The plantpathologist and veterinarian guard the crops and herds from which food andclothing are derived. The scientific experts in plant and animalindustries work steadily to improve breeds and increase yields. When onecompares present-day scientific knowledge with that represented in thethirteenth-century Encyclopaedia of Bartholomew Anglicus (R. 77); ourmodern knowledge of diseases with the theories as to disease advanced byHippocrates (p. 197), and taught for so many centuries in ChristianEurope; our modern knowledge of bacterial transmission with the mediaevaltheories of Divine wrath and diabolic action; our modern ability toannihilate time and space compared with early nineteenth-centuryconditions; or modern applied science with the very limited technicalknowledge possessed by the guilds of the later Middle Ages--the stories ofAladdin and his wonderful lamp seem to have been even more than realizedin our practical everyday life. 

Engineering, agriculture, and modern medicine stand as three of the greatapplications of modern science to human affairs, and as three of the mostimportant and costly additions to state educational effort made since thetime when nations began to accept the political philosophy of theeighteenth-century reformers and to take over the school from the Church, because by so doing the interests of the State could better be advancedthereby. 

III. VOCATIONAL

WHAT IS VOCATIONAL EDUCATION? In a certain sense, all education isvocational, in that it aims to prepare one for some vocation in life. InGreece and Rome education was vocational, in that it prepared one to be acitizen in the State. During the Middle Ages education was to prepare fora vocation in the Church. Later the vocation of a scholar appeared, andstill later that of a gentleman. In modern times a large range of stateservices have been opened up as vocations. Since the beginning of thenineteenth century, with the extension of educational advantages toincreasing numbers of the people, preparation for more intelligent livingand citizenship have come to be new motives in education. To-day we nolonger use the term vocational education in this rather general sense, butrestrict its use to the specific training of individuals for some usefulemployment. Training for law, medicine, the ministry, teaching, engineering, scientific agriculture, nursing, and commerce are examples ofvocational education in its higher ranges. The development of educationalong these lines has previously been described. In this division of thischapter we shall use the term in a still more common and still morerestricted sense, as meaning the training of the younger people of a Stateto do well certain specific things, by teaching them processes and thepractical applications of knowledge, chiefly science and art, to the workof the vocation they expect to follow to earn their living. The Report ofthe American Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education (1914)defined vocational education (p. 16) as follows:

 Wherever the term "vocational education" is used in this _Report_, it will mean, unless otherwise explained, that form of education whose controlling purpose is to give training of a secondary grade to persons over fourteen years of age, for increased efficiency in useful employment in the trades and industries, in agriculture, in commerce and commercial pursuits, and in callings based upon a knowledge of home economics. The occupations included under these are almost endless in number and variety. 

THE NEED FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. Used in this sense vocational educationis an application of technical knowledge, worked out in the higherschools, to the ordinary vocations of a modern industrial world. As suchit is a product of the Industrial Revolution and the breakdown of the age-old system of apprenticeship training, [13] and represents another of theimportant recent extensions of educational advantages to the masses of thepeople who labor with their hands to earn their daily bread. 

Besides further democratizing education by extending its advantages tothose who work in the shop and the office and on the farm, vocationaleducation tends to correct many of the evils of modern industrial life. Itputs the worker in possession of a great body of scientific knowledgerelating to his work which shops and offices cannot give, and it keepshim, for several years after he becomes a wage earner and at a veryimpressionable period of his life, under the directing care of the school. It thus tends "to counteract the specialization and routine of theworkshop, which wears out his body before nature has completed itsdevelopment in form and power, blunts the intelligence which the schoolhad tried to awaken, shrivels up his heart and imagination, and destroyshis spirit of work. "

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES. For almost half acentury the leading nations of western Europe, in an effort to readjusttheir age-old apprenticeship system of training to modern conditions ofmanufacture, and to develop new national prestige and strength, have givencareful attention to the education of such of their children as weredestined for the vocations of the industrial world. Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France have been leaders, with Germany most prominent ofall. [14] No small part of the great progress made by that country insecuring world-wide trade, [15] before the World War, was due to theextensive and thorough system of vocational education worked out forGerman youths (R. 371). In commercial education, too, the Germans, up to1914, led the world. Even more, they were the only great national groupwhich had done much to develop commercial training. Next to Germanyprobably came the United States. The marked economic progress ofSwitzerland during the past quarter-century has likewise been due in largepart to that type of education which would enable her, by skillfulartisanship, to make the most of her very limited resources France hasprofited greatly, during the past half-century also, from vocationaleducation along the lines of agriculture and industrial art. In Denmark, agricultural education has remade the nation (R. 370), since the days ofits humiliation and spoliation at the hands of Prussia. England, thoughkeenly sensitive to German trade competition, made only very moderateefforts in the direction of vocational education until Germany plunged theworld in war in an effort more quickly to dominate commercially. Now, inthe Fisher Education Act of 1918 (p. 649), England has $t last laidfoundations for a great national system of vocational education. Japan, also, recently laid large plans for a national system of vocationaltraining. 

[Illustration: FIG. 233. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE TRADES IN MODERN INDUSTRYUnder the old conditions of apprenticeship a boy learned all the processesand became a tailor. To-day, in a thoroughly organized clothing factory, thirty-nine different persons perform different specialized operations inthe manufacture of a coat. ]

In the United States but little attention was given to educating youngpeople for the vocations of life until about 1905-10, though modernmanufacturing conditions had before this largely destroyed the oldapprenticeship type of training. Endowed with enormous natural resources;not being pressed for the means of subsistence by a rapidly expandingpopulation on a limited land area; able to draw on Europe for both cheapmanual labor and technically educated workers; largely isolated and self-sufficient as a nation; lacking a merchant marine; not being thrown intosevere competition for international trade; and able to sell its products[16] to nations anxious to buy them and willing to come for them in theirown ships; the people of the United States did not, up to recently, feelany particular need for anything other than a good common-school educationor a general high-school education for their workers. The commercialcourse in the high school, the manual-training schools and courses, andsome instruction in drawing and creative art were felt to be about allthat it was necessary to provide. 

THE NATIONAL COMMISSION ON VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. Largely since 1910, duein part to expanding world commerce and increasing competition in worldtrade; in part to a national realization that the battles of the futureare to be largely commercial battles; and in part to the dawning upon theAmerican people of the conception, first thought out and put into practiceby Imperial Germany (R. 371), that that nation will triumph in foreigntrade, with all that such triumph means to-day in terms of the happinessand welfare of its citizenship (R. 372), which puts the greatest amount ofskill and brains into what it produces and sells. 

After a number of sporadic efforts in different parts of the country, [17]and the introduction of a number of bills into Congress which failed tosecure passage, the favorite English plan was followed and a PresidentialCommission was appointed (1913) to inquire into the matter, and to reporton the desirability and feasibility of some form of national aid tostimulate the development of vocational education. The Commission made itsreport in 1914, and submitted a plan for gradually increasing national aidto the States to assist them in developing and maintaining what willvirtually become a national system of agricultural, trade, commercial, andhome-economics education. 

THE COMMISSION'S FINDINGS. The Commission found that there were, in 1910, in round numbers, 12, 500, 000 persons engaged in agriculture in the UnitedStates, of whom not over one per cent had had any adequate preparation forfarming; and that there were 14, 250, 000 persons engaged in manufacturingand mechanical pursuits, not one per cent of whom had had any opportunityfor adequate training. [18] In the whole United States there were fewertrade schools, of all kinds, than existed in the little German kingdom ofBavaria, a State about the size of South Carolina; while the one Bavariancity of Munich, a city about the size of Pittsburgh, had more tradeschools than were to be found in all the larger cities of the UnitedStates, put together. The Commission further found that there were25, 000, 000 persons in the nation, eighteen years of age or over, engagedin farming, mining, manufacturing, and mechanical pursuits, and in tradeand transportation, and of these the _Report_ said:

 If we assume that a system of vocational education, pursued through the years of the past, would have increased the wage-earning capacity of each of these persons to the extent of only ten cents a day, this would have made an increase of wages for the group of $2, 500, 000 a day, or $750, 000, 000 a year, with all that this would mean to the wealth and life of the nation. 

 This is a very moderate estimate, and the facts would probably show a difference between the earning power of the vocationally trained and the vocationally untrained of at least twenty-five cents a day. This would indicate a waste of wages, through lack of training, amounting to $6, 250, 000 every day, or $1, 875, 000, 000 for the year. 

[Illustration: FIG. 234. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE OF AMERICAN CHILDREN, FOURTEENTO TWENTY YEARS or AGEBased on an estimate made by the United States Bureau of Education in 1907(Bulletin No. 1, p. 29), and based on conditions then existing, butprobably still approximately true. In evening schools all classes werecounted--public, private, Y. M. C. A. , Y. W. C. A. , etc. Public and private dayschools, both elementary and secondary, also were counted. ]

The Commission estimated that a million new young people were requiredannually by our industries, and that it would need three years ofvocational education, beyond the elementary-school age, to prepare themfor efficient service. This would require that three million young peopleof elementary-school age be continually enrolled in schools offering someform of vocational training. This was approximately three times the numberof young people then enrolled in all public and private high schools inthe United States, and following any kind of a course of study. Inaddition, the untrained adult workers then in farming and industry alsoneeded some form of adult or extension education to enable them to do moreeffective work. The Commission further pointed out that there were in theUnited States, in 1910, 7, 220, 298 young people between the ages offourteen and eighteen years, only 1, 032, 461 of whom were enrolled in ahigh school of any type, public or private, day or evening (Fig. 234), andfew of those enrolled were pursuing studies of a technical type. 

AMERICAN BEGINNINGS; MEANING OF THE WORK. In 1917 the American Congressmade the beginnings of what is destined to develop rapidly into a trulynational system of vocational education for the boys and girls ofsecondary-school age in the United States. This new addition to thesystems of public instruction now provided is one which in time will bringreturns out of all proportion to its costs. Without it the nationalprosperity and happiness would be at stake, and the position the UnitedStates has attained in the markets of the world could not possibly bemaintained (R. 372). 

This new American legislation is based on the best continental Europeanexperience, and is somewhat typical of recent national legislation forsimilar objects elsewhere. It is to include vocational training foragriculture, the trades and industries, commerce, and home economics. [19]A certain portion of the money appropriated annually by the nationalgovernment is to be used for making or coöperating in studies andinvestigations as to needs and courses in agriculture, home economics, trades, industries, and commerce. The courses must be given in the publicschools; must be for those over fourteen years of age and of less thancollege grade; and must be primarily intended for those who are preparingto enter or who have entered (part-time classes) a trade or a usefulindustrial pursuit. 

As nation after nation becomes industrialized, as all except the smallestand poorest nations are bound to become in time, vocational education forits workers in the field, shop, and office will be found to be anotherstate necessity. Only the State can adequately provide this, for only theState can finance or properly organize and integrate the work of so largeand so important an undertaking. Though costly, this new extension ofstate educational effort will be found to be a wise business investmentfor every industrial and commercial nation. Considered nationally, theworkers of any nation not provided with vocational education will findthemselves unable to compete with the workers of other nations which doprovide such specialized training. 

IV. SOCIOLOGICAL

A NEW ESTIMATE AS TO THE VALUE OF CHILD LIFE. As we saw in chapter XVIII, which described the opportunities for and the kind of schooling developedup to the middle of the eighteenth century, but little of what may becalled formal education had been provided up to then for the great mass ofchildren, even in the most progressive nations. We also noted the extremebrutality of the school. Such was the history of childhood, so far as itmay be said to have had a history at all, up to the rise of the greathumanitarian movement early in the nineteenth century. [20] Neglect, abuse, mutilation, excessive labor, heavy punishments, and often virtualslavery awaited children everywhere up to recent times. The sufferings ofchildhood at home were added to by others in the school (p. 455) for suchas frequented these institutions. 

After the coming of mills and manufacturing the lot of children became, for a time, worse than before. The demand for cheap labor led to theapprenticing of children to the factories to tend machines, instead of toa master to learn a trade, and there they became virtual slaves and theirtreatment was most inhuman. [21] Conditions were worse in England thanelsewhere, not because the English were more brutal than the French or theGermans, but because the Industrial Revolution began earlier in Englandand before the rise of humanitarian influences. England was amanufacturing nation decades before France, and longer still beforeGermany. By the time Germany had changed from an agricultural to amanufacturing nation (after 1871), the new humanitarianism and neweconomic conditions had placed a new value on child life and childwelfare. 

Since about 1850 an entirely new estimate has come to be placed on theimportance of national attention to child welfare, though the beginningsof the change date back much earlier. As we have seen (p. 325), Englandearly began to care for the children of its poor. In the Poor-Relief andApprenticeship Law of 1601 (R. 174) England organized into law the growingpractice of a century (p. 326) and laid the basis for much future work ofimportance. In this legislation, as we have seen, the foundations of theMassachusetts school law of 1642 were laid. In the Virginia laws of 1643and 1646 (R. 200 a) and the Massachusetts law of 1660, providing for theapprenticeship of orphans and homeless children, the beginnings of child-welfare work in the American Colonies were made. 

Many of the Catholic religious orders in Europe had for long cared for andbrought up poor and neglected children, and in 1729 the first privateorphanage in the new world was established by the Ursulines (p. 346) inNew Orleans. The first public orphanage in America was established inCharleston, South Carolina, in 1790; the first in England at Birmingham, in 1817, and in 1824 the New York House of Refuge was founded. The latterwas the forerunner of the juvenile reformatory institutions establishedlater by practically all of the American States. These have developedchiefly since 1850. To-day most of the American States and governments inmany other lands also provide state homes for orphan and neglectedchildren, where they are clothed, fed, cared for, educated, and trainedfor some useful employment. 

CHILD-LABOR LEGISLATION. One of the best evidences of the new nineteenth-century humanitarianism is to be found in the large amount of child-laborlegislation which arose, largely after 1850, and which has beenparticularly prominent since 1900. 

Under the earlier agricultural conditions and the restricted demand foreducation for ordinary life needs, child labor was not especially harmful, as most of it was out of doors and under reasonably good healthconditions. With the coming of the factory system, the rise of cities andthe city congestion of population, and other evils connected with theIndustrial Revolution, the whole situation was changed. Humanitarians nowbegan to demand legislation to restrict the evils that had arisen. Thisdemand arose earliest in England, and resulted in the earliest legislationthere. 

The year 1802 is important in the history of child-welfare work for theenactment, by the English Parliament, of the first law to regulate theemployment of children in factories. This was known as the Health andMorals of Apprentices Act (R. 373). This Act, though largely ineffectualat the time, ordered important reforms which aroused public opinion andwhich later bore important fruit. By it the employment of work-houseorphans was limited; it forbade the labor of children under twelve, formore than twelve hours a day; provided that night labor of children shouldbe discontinued, after 1804; ordered that the children so employed must betaught reading and writing and ciphering, be instructed in religion onehour a week, be taken to church every Sunday, and be given one new suit ofclothes a year; ordered separate sleeping apartments for the two sexes, and not over two children to a bed; and provided for the registration andinspection of factories. This law represents the beginnings of modernchild-labor legislation. It was 1843 before any further child-laborlegislation of importance was enacted, and 1878 before a comprehensivechild-labor bill was finally passed. In the United States the first lawsregulating the employment of children and providing for their schoolattendance were enacted by Rhode Island in 1840, and Massachusetts in1842. Factory legislation in other countries has been a product of morerecent forces and times. 

To-day important child-labor legislation has been enacted by allprogressive nations, and the leading world nations have taken advancedground on the question. All recent thinking is opposed to childrenengaging in productive labor. With the rise of organized labor, and theextension of the suffrage to the laboring man, he has joined thehumanitarians in opposition to his children being permitted to labor. Froman economic point of view also, all recent studies have shown theunprofitableness of child labor and the large money-value, under presentindustrial conditions, of a good education. As a result of much agitationand the spread of popular education, it has at last come to be a generallyaccepted principle (R. 374) that it is better for children and better forsociety that they should remain in school until they are at least fourteenyears of age, and be specially trained for some useful type of work. Shownto be economically unprofitable, and for long morally indefensible, childlabor is now rapidly being superseded by suitable education and thevocational training and guidance of youth in all progressive nations. 

COMPULSORY SCHOOL-ATTENDANCE LEGISLATION. The natural corollary of thetaxation of the wealth of the State to educate the children of the State, and the prohibition of children to labor, is the compulsion of children toattend school that they may receive the instruction and training which theState has deemed it wise to tax its citizens to provide. 

Except in the German States, compulsory education is a relatively recentidea, though in its origins it is a child of the Protestant Reformationtheory as to education for salvation. Luther and his followers had stoodfor the education of all, supported by (R. 156) and enforced by (R. 158)the State. This idea of the education of all to read the Bible took deeproot, as we have seen, with both Lutherans and Calvinists. In 1619 thelittle Duchy of Weimar made the school attendance of all children, six totwelve years of age, compulsory, and the same idea was instituted in Gothaby Duke Ernest (p. 317), in 1642; the same year that the MassachusettsGeneral Court ordered the Selectmen of the towns to ascertain if parentsand the masters of apprentices (R. 190) were training their children "inlearning and labor" and "to read and understand the principles of religionand the capital laws of the country. " This latter law is remarkable inthat, for the first time in the English-speaking world, a legislative bodyrepresenting the State ordered that all children should be taught to read. Five years later (1647) the Massachusetts Court ordered the establishmentof schools (R. 191) better to enforce the compulsion, and thus laid thefoundations upon which the American public-school systems have since beenbuilt. In Holland, the Synod of Dort (1618) had tried to institute theidea of compulsory education (R. 176), and in 1646 the Scotch Parliamenthad ordered the compulsory establishment of schools (R. 179). 

In German lands the compulsory-attendance idea took deep root, and inconsequence the Germans were the first important modern nation to enforce, thoroughly, the education of all. In 1717 King Frederick William I issued(p. 555) the first compulsory-education law for Prussia, ordering that"hereafter wherever there are schools in the place the parents shall beobliged, under severe penalties, to send their children to school, ... Daily in winter, but in summer at least twice a week. " He further orderedthat the fees for the poor were to be paid "from the community's funds. "Finally Frederick the Great organized the earlier procedure intocomprehensive codes, and made (1763, R. 274, Section 10; 1765, R. 275 d)detailed provisions relating to the compulsion to attend the schools. Inthe Code of 1794 (p. 565) the final legislative step was taken when it wasordered that "the instruction in school must be continued until the childis found to possess the knowledge necessary to every rational being. " Bythe middle of the eighteenth century the basis was clearly laid in Prussiafor that enforcement of the compulsion to attend schools which, by themiddle of the nineteenth century, had become such a notable characteristicof all German education. The same compulsory idea early took deep rootamong the Scandinavian peoples. In consequence the lowest illiteracy inEurope, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, was to be found (seemap, p. 714) among the Finns, Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, and Germans. 

The compulsory-attendance idea died out in America, in the Netherlands, and in part in Scotland. In England and in the Anglican Colonies inAmerica it never took root. In France the idea awaited the work of theNational Convention, which (1792) ordered three years of educationcompulsory for all. War and the lack of interest of Napoleon in primaryeducation caused the requirement, however, to become a dead letter. TheLaw of 1833 provided for but did not enforce it, and real compulsoryeducation in France did not come until 1882. In England the compulsoryidea received but little attention until after 1870, met with muchopposition, and only recently have comprehensive reforms been provided. Inthe United States the new beginnings of compulsory-attendance legislationdate from the Rhode Island child-labor law of 1840, and the first moderncompulsory-attendance law enacted by Massachusetts, in 1852. By 1885, fourteen American States and six Territories had enacted some form ofcompulsory-attendance law. Since 1900 there has been a general revision ofAmerican state legislation on the subject, with a view to increasing andthe better enforcement of the compulsory-attendance requirements, and witha general demand that the National Congress should enact a national child-labor law. 

As a result of this legislation the labor of young children has beengreatly restricted; work in many industries has been prohibited entirely, because of the danger to life and health; compulsory education has beenextended in a majority of the American States to cover the full schoolyear; poverty, or dependent parents, in many States no longer serves as anexcuse for non-attendance; often those having physical or mental defectsalso are included in the compulsion to attend, if their wants can beprovided for; the school census has been changed so as to aid in thelocation of children of compulsory school-attendance age; and specialofficers have been authorized or ordered appointed to assist schoolauthorities in enforcing the compulsory-attendance and child-labor laws. Having taxed their citizens to provide schools, the different States nowrequire children to attend and partake of the advantages provided. Theschools, too, have made a close study of retarded pupils, because of theclose connection found to exist between retardation in school and truancyand juvenile delinquency. 

ONE RESULT OF THIS LEGISLATION. One of the results of all this legislationhas been to throw, during the past quarter of a century, an entirely newburden on schools everywhere. Such legislation has brought into theschools not only the truant and the incorrigible, who under formerconditions either left early or were expelled, but also many children whohave no aptitude for book learning, and many of inferior mental qualitieswho do not profit by ordinary classroom procedure. Still more, they havebrought into the school the crippled, tubercular, deaf, epileptic, andblind, as well as the sick, needy, and physically unfit. By steadilyraising the age at which children may leave school, from ten or twelve upto fourteen and sixteen, schools everywhere have come to contain manychildren who, having no natural aptitude for study, would at once, unlessspecially handled, become a nuisance in the school and tend to demoralizeschoolroom procedure. These laws have thrown upon the school a new burdenin the form of public expectancy for results, whereas a compulsory-education law cannot create capacity to profit from education. Under theearlier educational conditions the school, unable to handle or educatesuch children, dealt with them much as the Church of the time dealt withreligious delinquents. It simply expelled them or let them drop fromschool, and no longer concerned itself about them. To-day the publicexpects the school to retain and get results with them. Consequently, within the past twenty-five years the whole attitude of the school towardsuch children has undergone a change; many different kinds of classes andcourses, that might serve better to handle them, have been introduced; andan attempt has been made to salvage them and turn back to society as manyof them as possible, trained for some form of social and personalusefulness. 

THE EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES. Another nineteenth-century expansion of stateeducation has come in the provision now generally made for the educationof defectives. To-day the state school systems of Christian nationsgenerally make some provision for state institutional care, and often forlocal classes as well, for the training of children who belong to theseriously defective classes of society. This work is almost entirely aproduct of the new humanitarianism of modern times. Excepting theeducation of the deaf, seriously begun a little earlier, all effectivework dates from the first half of the nineteenth century. At first thefeasibility of all such instruction was doubted, and the work generallywas commenced privately. Out of successes thus achieved, publicinstitutions have been built up to carry on, on a large scale, what wasbegun privately on a small scale. It is now felt to be better for theState, as well as for the unfortunates themselves, that they be cared forand educated, as suitably and well as possible, for self-respect, self-support, and some form of social and vocational usefulness. Inconsequence, the compulsory-attendance laws of the leading world Statesto-day require that defectives, between certain ages at least, be sent toa state institution or be enrolled in a public-school class specializedfor their training. 

[Illustration: FIG. 235. ABBÉ DE L'ÉPÉE (1712-89)]

BEGINNINGS OF THE WORK. Up to the middle of the eighteenth century anumber of private efforts at the education of the deaf are on record, alldating however from the pioneer work of a Spanish Benedictine, in 1578. In1760 a new era in the education of the deaf was begun when Abbé de l'Épéeopened a school at Paris for the oral instruction of poor deaf mutes, andThomas Braidwood (1715-1806) began similar work at Edinburgh. A few yearslater (1778) a third school was opened at Leipzig. This last wasestablished under the patronage of the Elector of Saxony, and was thefirst school of its kind in the world to receive government recognition. The Paris school was taken over as a state institution by the ConstituentAssembly, in 1791. In England the instruction of the deaf remained aprivate and a family monopoly until 1819. In 1817 the first school inAmerica was opened, at Hartford, Connecticut, by the Reverend Thomas H. Gallaudet, and Massachusetts, in 1819, sent the first pupils paid for atstate expense to this institution. In 1823 Kentucky created the firststate school for the training of the deaf established in the new world, and Ohio the second, in 1827. 

[Illustration: FIG. 236. REV. THOMAS H. GALLAUDET TEACHING THE DEAF ANDDUMBFrom a bas-relief on the monument of Gallaudet, erected by the deaf anddumb of the United States, in the grounds of the American Asylum, atHartford, Connecticut. ]

The education of the blind began in France, in 1784; England, in 1791;Austria, in 1804; Prussia, in 1806; Holland, in 1808; Sweden, in 1810;Denmark, in 1811; Scotland, in 1812; in Boston and New York, in 1832; andin Philadelphia, in 1833. All were private institutions, and generalinterest in the education of the blind was awakened later by exhibitingthe pupils trained. The first book for the blind was printed in Paris, in1786. The first kindergarten for the blind was established in Germany, in1861; the first school for the colored blind, by North Carolina, in 1869. 

[Illustration: FIG. 237. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS MAINTAINED BY THE STATEAs state institutions, other than public schools. ]

Before the nineteenth century the feeble-minded and idiotic were thelaughing-stock of society, and no one thought of being able to do anythingfor them. In 1811 Napoleon ordered a census of such individuals, and in1816 the first school for their training was opened at Salzburg, Austria. The school was unsuccessful, and closed in 1835. The real beginning of thetraining of the feeble-minded was made in France, by Edouard Séguin, "TheApostle of the Idiot, " in 1837, when he began a life-long study of suchdefectives. By 1845 three or four institutions had been opened inSwitzerland and Great Britain for their study and training, and for a timean attempt was made to effect cures. Gallaudet had tried to educate suchchildren at Hartford, about 1820, and a class for idiots was establishedat the Blind Asylum in Boston, in 1848. The interest thus aroused led tothe creation of the Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble-MindedYouth, in 1851, the first institution of its kind in the United States. In1867 the first city school class to train children of low-gradeintelligence was organized in Germany, and all the larger cities ofGermany later organized such special classes. Norway followed with asimilar city organization, in 1874; and England, Switzerland, and Austria, about 1892. The first American city to organize such classes wasProvidence, Rhode Island, in 1893. Since that time special classes forchildren of low-grade mentality have become a common feature of the largecity school systems in most American cities. 

In 1832 the first attempt to educate crippled children, as such, was madein Munich. The model school in Europe for the education of cripples wasestablished in Copenhagen, in 1872. The work was begun privately in NewYork City, in 1861, and first publicly in Chicago, in 1899. The LondonSchool Board first began such classes in England, in 1898. 

Dependents, orphans, children of soldiers and sailors, and incorrigiblesof various classes represent others for whom modern States have nowprovided special state institutions. To-day a modern State finds itnecessary to provide a number of such specialized institutions, or to makearrangements with neighboring States for the care of its dependents, if itis to meet what have come to be recognized as its humanitarian educationalduties. The more important of these special state institutions are shownin the diagram given in Fig. 237. 

Public playgrounds and play directors, vacation schools, juvenile courts, disciplinary classes, parental schools, classes for mothers, visitinghome-teachers and nurses, and child-welfare societies and officers, areother means for caring for child life and child welfare which have allbeen begun within the past half-century. The significance of theseadditions lies chiefly in that the history of the attitude of nationstoward their child life is the history of the rise of humanitarianism, altruism, justice, order, morality, and civilization itself. 

THE EDUCATION OF SUPERIOR CHILDREN. All the work described above andrelating to the work of defectives, delinquents, and children for somereason in need of special attention and care has been for those whorepresent the less capable and on the whole less useful members ofsociety--the ones from whom society may expect the least. They are at thesame time the most costly wards of the State. 

Wholly within the second decade of the present century, and largely as aresult of the work of the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857-1911) weare now able to sort out, for special attention, a new class of what areknown as superior, or gifted children, and to the education of thesespecial attention is to-day here and there beginning to be directed. Educationally, it is an attempt to do for democratic forms of nationalorganization what a two-class school system does for monarchical forms, but to select intellectual capacity from the whole mass of the people, rather than from a selected class or caste. We know now that the number ofchildren of superior ability is approximately as large as the number ofthe feeble in mind, and also that the future of democratic governmentshinges largely upon the proper education and utilization of these superiorchildren. One child of superior intellectual capacity, educated so as toutilize his talents, may confer greater benefits upon mankind, and beeducationally far more important, than a thousand of the feeble-mindedchildren upon whom we have recently come to put so much educational effortand expense. Questions relating to the training of leaders for democracy'sservice attain new significance in terms of the recent ability to measureand grade intelligence, as also do questions relating to grading, classification in school, choice of studies, rate of advancement, and thevocational guidance of children in school. 

 _Net Average Worth of a Person_ _Age_ _Worth_ 0 $90 5 950 10 2000 20 4000 30 4100 40 3650 50 2900 60 1650 70 15 80 -700 (Calculations by Dr. William Farr, formerly Registrar of Vital Statistics for Great Britain. Based on pre-war values. )

THE NEW INTEREST IN HEALTH. Another new expansion of the educationalservice which has come in since the middle of the nineteenth century, andwhich has recently grown to be one of large significance, is work in themedical inspection of schools, the supervision of the health of pupils, and the new instruction in preventive hygiene. This is a product of thescientific and social and industrial revolutions which the nineteenthcentury brought, rather than of humanitarian influences, and represents anapplication of newly discovered scientific knowledge to health work amongchildren. Its basis is economic, though its results are largely physicaland educational and social (R. 375). 

The discovery and isolation of bacteria; the vast amount of new knowledgewhich has come to us as to the transmission and possibilities for theelimination of many diseases; the spread of information as to sanitaryscience and preventive medicine; the change in emphasis in medicalpractice, from curative to preventive and remedial; the closer crowdingtogether of all classes of people in cities; the change of habits for manyfrom life in the open to life in the factory, shop, and apartment; and thegrowing realization of the economic value to the nation of its manhood andwomanhood; have all alike combined with modern humanitarianism and appliedChristianity to make progressive nations take a new interest in childhealth and proper child development. European nations have so far donemuch more in school health work than has the United States, though a verycommendable beginning has been made here. 

MEDICAL INSPECTION AND HEALTH SUPERVISION. Medical inspection of schoolsbegan in France, in 1837, though genuine medical inspection, in a modernsense, was not begun in France until 1879. The pioneer country for realwork was Sweden, where health officers were assigned to each large schoolas early as 1868. Norway made such appointments optional in 1885, andobligatory in 1891. Belgium began the work in 1874. Tests of eyesight werebegun in Dresden in 1867. Frankfort-on-Main appointed the first Germanschool physician in 1888. England first employed school nurses in 1887;and, in 1907, following the revelations as to low physical vitalitygrowing out of the Boer War, adopted a mandatory medical-inspection andhealth-development act applying to England and Wales, and the yearfollowing Scotland did the same. Argentine and Chili both instituted suchservice in 1888, and Japan made medical inspection compulsory anduniversal in 1898. 

In the United States the work was begun voluntarily in Boston, in 1894, following a series of epidemics. Chicago organized medical inspection in1895, New York City in 1897, and Philadelphia in 1898. From these largercities the idea spread to the smaller ones, at first slowly, and then veryrapidly. The first school nurse in the United States was employed in NewYork City, in 1902, and the idea at once proved to be of great value. In1906 Massachusetts adopted the first state medical inspection law. In 1912Minnesota organized the first "State Division of Health Supervision ofSchools" in the United States, and this plan has since been followed byother States. 

From mere medical inspection to detect contagious diseases, in which themovement everywhere began, it was next extended to tests for eyesight andhearing, to be made by teachers or physicians, and has since been enlargedto include physical examinations to detect hidden diseases and aconstructive health-program for the schools. The work has now come toinclude eye, ear, nose, throat, and teeth, as well as general physicalexaminations; the supervision of the teaching of hygiene in the schools, and to a certain extent the physical training and playground activities;and a constructive program for the development of the health and physicalwelfare of all children. All this represents a further extension of thepublic-education idea. 

V. THE SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION

An important recent development in the field of public education, and in asense an outgrowth of all the preceding recent development which we havedescribed, has been the organization of collegiate and universityinstruction in the history, theory, practice, and administration ofeducation. Still more recent has been the organization of Teachers'Colleges and Schools of Education to give advanced training in educationalresearch and in the solution of the practical problems of schoolorganization and administration. So important has this recent developmentbecome that no history of educational progress would be complete withoutat least a brief mention of this recent attempt to give scientificorganization to the educational process. 

EARLY BEGINNERS. Though the teachers' seminaries had been organized inGermany and other northern lands toward the close of the eighteenthcentury, the normal school in France early in the nineteenth, and thetraining-college in England and the normal school in the United States bythe close of the first third of that century, the work in these remainedfor a long time almost entirely academic in nature and elementary incharacter. This was also true of the superior normal school for trainingteachers for the _lycées_ of France. 

The reason for this is easy to find. The writings of the earliereducational reformers were little known; the contributions of Herbart andFroebel had not as yet been popularized; there was no organized psychologyof the educational process, and no psychology better than that of JohnLocke; the detailed Pestalozzian procedure had not as yet been worked outin the form of teaching technique; the history of the development ofeducational theory or of educational practice had not been written; andalmost no philosophy of the educational purpose had been formulated whichcould be used in the training-schools. In consequence the training ofteachers, both for elementary and secondary instruction, [22] was almostentirely in academic subjects, with some talks on school-keeping and classorganization and management added, and at times a little philosophy as toeducational work, such as habit-formation, morality, thinking, and thetraining of the will. Educational journalism did not begin in eitherEurope or America until near the close of the first quarter of thenineteenth century, and it was 1850 before it attained any significance, and 1840 to 1850 before any important pedagogical literature arose. [23]

[Illustration: FIG. 238. KARL GEORG VON RAUMER (1783-1865)]

NEW INFLUENCE. In 1843 there appeared, in Germany, the first two volumesof a very celebrated and influential History of Education, by a professorof mineralogy in the University of Erlangen, by the name of Karl Gcorg vonRaumer. As a young man in Paris (1808-09), studying the great mineralcollections found there, he read and was deeply stirred by Fichte's"Address to the German Nation" (p. 567). As a result he went to Yverdon, in 1809, and spent some months in studying the work in Pestalozzi'sInstitute. This interest in education he never lost, and thereafter, asprofessor of mineralogy at Halle and Erlangen, he also gave lectures onpedagogy (_Uber Pädagogik_). The outgrowth of these lectures was his four-volume _History of Pedagogy from the Revival of Classical Studies to ourown Time_. [24] The work was done with characteristic German thoroughness, and for long served as a standard organization and text on the history ofthe development of educational theory and practice since the days of theRevival of Learning. The work of von Raumer stimulated many to a study ofthe writings of the earlier educational reformers, and numerous books andpapers on educational history and theory soon began to appear. Mostimportant, for American students, was Henry Barnard's monumental _AmericanJournal of Education_, begun in 1855, and continued for thirty-one years. This is a great treasure-house of pedagogical literature for Americaneducators. 

After 1850 the organization of a technique of instruction for theelementary-school subjects took place rapidly, in the normal schools ofall lands, as it had earlier in the German teachers' seminaries. By 1868the study of the new Herbartian psychology and educational theory was wellunder way in Germany, and by 1890 in the United States. By 1875 thekindergarten, with its new theory of child life, was also beginning tomake itself felt in both Europe and America. Between 1850 and 1875 Weber, Lotze, Fechner, and Wundt laid the foundations for a new psychology (R. 357), and in 1878 Wundt opened the first laboratory for the experimentalstudy of psychology at the University of Leipzig. In 1890 William Jamespublished his two-volume work on _Principles of Psychology_, a book sooriginal and lucid in treatment that it at once gave a new teachingorganization to modern psychology. After about 1880, the extension ofeducation upward and outward in the United States, and the rapiddevelopment of state school systems which had by that time begun, began tomake new demands for better scientific and legal and administrativeorganization, and this gave rise to a new type of educational literature. 

After von Raumer's work, probably the greatest single stimulativeinfluence of the mid-nineteenth century was that exerted by the markedsuccesses of the Prussian armies in a series of short but very decisivewars. Against Denmark (1864) and Austria (1866), but in particular in theFranco-Prussian War of 1870-71, the Prussian armies proved irresistible. These military operations attracted new attention to education, and "thePrussian schoolmaster has triumphed" became a common world saying. This, coupled with the remarkable national development of United Germany whichalmost immediately set in, caused progressive nations to turn to the studyof education with increased interest. The English and Scottishuniversities now began to establish lectureships in the theory and historyof education, [25] and the first university chairs in education in theUnited States were founded. 

THE UNIVERSITY STUDY OF EDUCATION. In no country in the world have theuniversities, within the past three decades, given the attention to thestudy of Education--a term that in English-speaking lands has replaced theearlier and more limited "Pedagogy"--that has been given in the UnitedStates. [26] After the United States the newer universities of Englandprobably come next. Up to 1890 less than a dozen chairs of education hadbeen established in all the colleges of the United States, and their workwas still largely limited to historical and philosophical studies ofeducation, and to a type of classroom methodology and school management, since almost entirely passed over to the normal schools. By 1920 therewere some four hundred colleges in the United States giving seriouscourses on educational history and procedure and administration, many ofthem maintaining large and important professional Schools of Education forthe more scientific study of the subject, and for the training of leadersfor the service of the nation's schools. 

In the great advances which have taken place in the organization ofeducation, during these three decades, no institution in the world hasexerted a more important influence than has "Teachers College, " ColumbiaUniversity, in the City of New York, which was organized in 1887 as "TheNew York College for the Training of Teachers, " but since 1890 has beenaffiliated with Columbia University, under its present name. Thisinstitution has been a model copied by many others over the world; hastrained a large percentage of the leaders in education in the UnitedStates; and has been particularly influential with students from England, the English self-governing dominions, China, and South America. 

To-day, in all the state universities and in many non-state institutionsin the United States, we find well-organized Teachers' Colleges engaged ina work which two decades ago was being attempted by but a few institutionsanywhere, In the municipal universities of England, in Canada, in Japanand China, and in other democratic lands, we find the beginnings of asimilar development of the scientific study of education. In these Schoolsor Colleges for the scientific study of education the best thinking on theproblems of the reorganization and administration of education, and themost new and creative work, has been and is being done. [27]

THE PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT. Pestalozzi dreamed that he might be able topsychologize instruction and reduce all to an orderly procedure, which, once learned, would make one a master teacher. What he was not able toaccomplish he died thinking others after him would do. The problem ofeducation has had, with time, no such simple and easy solution. Instead, with the development of state school systems, the extension of educationin many new directions to meet new needs, and the application to the studyof education of the same scientific methods which have produced suchresults in other fields of human knowledge, we have come to-day to havehundreds of problems, many of which are complex and difficult and whichinfluence deeply the welfare of society and the State. That theseproblems, even with time, will receive any such simple solution as that ofwhich Pestalozzi dreamed, may well be doubted. In the days of churchcontrol, memoriter instruction, and a school for religious ends, educationwas a simple matter; to-day it partakes of the difficulty and complexitywhich characterize most of the problems of modern world States. Inconsequence of this important change in the character of education a greatnumber of important problems in educational organization, practice, andprocedure now face us for solution. 

Space can here be taken to mention only the more prominent of thesepresent-day educational problems. On the administrative side is a wholegroup of problems relating to forms of organization: the propereducational relationships between the State and its subordinate units; thedevelopment of a state educational policy: the types of instruction theState must provide, and compel attendance upon; questions of taxation andsupport, compulsory attendance, and child labor; the training andoversight of teachers for the service of the State; problems of childhealth and welfare; the provision of adequate and professionalsupervision; the provision of continuation schools, and of industrial andvocational training; the supervision of school buildings for health andsanitary control; and the relation of the State to private and parochialeducation. The problem of how to produce as effective and as thorougheducation for leadership with a one-class school system as with a two-class; the opening-up of opportunity for youth of brains in any socialclass to rise and be trained for service; the selection and propertraining of those of superior intelligence; the elimination of barriers tothe advancement of children of large intellectual endowment; and what bestto do with those of small intellectual capacity, form another importantgroup of present-day educational problems. Vocational training andtechnical education, and the relation and the proper solution of thesequestions to national happiness and prosperity and human welfare, formstill another important group. The many questions which hinge uponinstruction; the elimination of useless subject-matter; the bestorganization of instruction; proper aims and ends; moral and civictraining; the most economical organization of school work; the saving oftime; and what are desirable educational reorganizations, all these form agroup of instructional problems of large significance for the future ofpublic education. Still more in detail, but of large importance, are thequestions relating to the scientific measurement of the results ofinstruction; the erection of attainable goals in teaching; and theintroduction of scientific accuracy into educational work. Still anotherimportant group of problems relates to the readjustment of inheritedschool organization and practices, the better to meet the changed andchanging conditions of national life--social, industrial, political, religious, economic, scientific--brought about by the industrial andsocial and scientific and political revolutions which have taken place. 

These represent some of the more important new problems in education whichhave come to challenge us since the school was taken over from the Churchand transformed into the great constructive tool of the State. Theirsolution will call for careful investigation, experimentation, and muchclear thinking, and before they are solved other new problems will arise. So probably it will ever be under a democratic form of government; only inautocratic or strongly monarchical forms of government, where the study ofproblems of educational organization and adjustment are not looked uponwith favor, can a school system to-day remain for long fixed in type oruniform in character. Education to-day has become intricate and difficult, requiring careful professional training on the part of those who wouldexercise intelligent control, and so intimately connected with nationalstrength and national welfare that it may be truthfully said to havebecome, in many respects, the most important constructive undertaking of amodern State. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Show that education must be extended and increased in efficiency inproportion as the suffrage is extended, and additional political functionsgiven to the electorate. Illustrate. 

2. Trace the changes in the character of the instruction given in theschools, paralleling such changes. 

3. Explain the difference in use of the schools for nationality ends inGermany and France. 

4. Of what is the recent development of evening, adult, and extensioneducation an index?

5. Show why university education is more important in national life to-daythan ever before in history. 

6. Compare the rate of development of universities during the nineteenthcentury, and all time before the nineteenth. Of what is the difference inrate an index?

7. Explain why Americans have been less successful in introducing scienceinstruction into their schools than have the Germans. Agriculture than theFrench. 

8. Explain the breakdown of the old apprenticeship education. 

9. Explain the American recent rapid acceptance of the agricultural highschool, whereas the agricultural colleges for a long time faced oppositionand lack of interest and support. 

10. Explain the continued emphasis of high-school studies leading to theprofessions rather than the vocations, though so small a percentage ofpeople are needed for professional work. 

11. In Germany this was largely regulated by the Government; show how itwould be much easier there than in the United States. 

12. Show why European nations would naturally take up vocational trainingahead of the United States, Canada, Australia, or South America. 

13. Explain the reasons for the new conceptions as to the value of childlife which have come within the past hundred years, in all advancednations. Why not in the less advanced nations?

14. Show the relation between the breakdown of the apprentice system, theIndustrial Revolution, and the rise of compulsory school attendance. 

15. Show that compulsory school attendance is a natural corollary togeneral taxation for education. 

16. How do you account for the relatively recent interest in the educationof defectives and delinquents? Of what is this interest an expression?

17. Does the obligation assumed to educate involve any greater exercise ofstate authority or recognition of duty than the advancement of the healthof the people and the sanitary welfare of the State?

18. What additional unsolved problems would you add to the list given onthe preceding page?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selectionsillustrative of the contents of this chapter are reproduced:

 367. McKechnie, W. S. : The Environmental Influence of the State. 368. Emperor William II. : German Secondary Schools and National Ends. 369. Van Hise, Chas. R. : The University and the State. 370. Friend: What the Folk High Schools have done for Denmark. 371. U. S. Commission: The German System of Vocational Education. 372. U. S. Commission: Vocational Education and National Prosperity. 373. De Montmorency: English Conditions before the First Factory-Labor Act. 374. Giddings, F. R. : The New Problem of Child Labor. 375. Hoag, E. B. , and Terman, L. M. : Health Work in the Schools. 

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Explain why it is now so important that the State properly environ(367) its youth. 

2. What were the actuating motives behind the German Emperor's speech(368)? Was he right in his position as to the relation of the schools andnational needs and welfare?

3. Explain Van Hise's conception (369) that the university is "The Soul ofthe State. "

4. Does Denmark form any exception as to what might be done (370) in anycountry, such as Russia? Mexico?

5. Show that the results justified the German emphasis (371) on vocationaltraining. How do you explain this German far-sightedness?

6. What will be the result when many nations (372) become highly skilled?

7. Show the growth of humanitarian influences by contrasting conditions inEngland in 1802 (373), and conditions to-day. 

8. Would the English 1802 conditions be found in any Christian land today?Why?

9. Show that the child-labor problem (374) is a product of the IndustrialRevolution. 

10. Viewed in the light of history, what would we say of the presentopposition to health work (375) in the schools?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Allen, E. A. "Education of Defectives"; in Butler, N. M. , _Education in the United States_, pp. 771-820. Barnard, Henry. _National Education in Europe_. * _Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education, Report_, vol. I. (Document 1004, H. R. , 63d Congress, 2d session, Washington, 1914. ) Cook, W. A. "A Brief Survey of the Development of Compulsory Education in the United States"; in _Elementary School Teacher_, vol. 12, PP. 33l-35 (March, 1912. )* Dean, A. D. _The Worker and the State_. Eliot, C. W. _Education for Efficiency_. Farrington, F. E. _Commercial Education in Germany_. Foght, H. W. _Rural Denmark and its Schools_. Friend, L. L. _The Folk High Schools of Denmark_. (Bulletin No. 3, 1914, United States Bureau of Education. )* Hoag, E. B. , and Terman, L. M. _Health Work in the Schools_. Kandel, I. L, "The Junior High School in European Systems"; in _Educational Review_, vol. 58, pp. 305-29. (Nov. 1919. )* Munroe, J. P. _New Demands in Education_. * Payne, G. H. _The Child in Human Progress_. Smith, A. T. , and Jesien, W. S. _Higher Technical Education in Foreign Countries_. (Bulletin No. N, 1917, United States Bureau of Education. ) Snedden, D. S. _Vocational Education_. * Terman, L. M. _The Intelligence of School Children_. Waddle, C. W. _Introduction to Child Psychology_, chap. I. Ware, Fabian. _Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry_. 

CONCLUSION; THE FUTURE

We have now reached the end of the story of the rise and progress of man'sconscious effort to improve himself and advance the welfare of his groupby means of education. To one who has followed the narrative thus far itmust be evident how fully this conscious effort has paralleled the historyof the rise and progress of western civilization itself. Beginning firstamong the Greeks--the first people in history to be "smitten with thepassion for truth. " the first possessing sufficient courage to put faithin reason, and the first to attempt to reconcile the claims, of the Stateand the individual and to work out a plan of "ordered liberty"--a newspirit was born and in time passed on to the western world. As Butcherwell says (R. 11), "the Greek genius is the European genius in its firstand brightest bloom, and from a vivifying contact with the Greek spiritEurope derived that new and mighty impulse which we call Progress. "Hellenizing first the Eastern Mediterranean, and then taking captive herrude conqueror, the Hellenization of the Roman and early Christian worldwas the result. 

Then followed the reaction under early Christian rule, and the fearfuldeluge of barbarism which for centuries well-nigh extinguished both theancient learning and the new spirit. Finally, after the long mediaevalnight, came "time's burst of dawn, " first and for a long time confined toItaly, but later extending to all northern lands, and in the century ofrevival and rediscovery and reconstruction the Greek passion for truth andthe Greek courage to trust reason were reawakened, and once more made theheritage of the western world. Once again the Greek spirit, the spirit offreedom and progress and trust in the power of truth, became the impulsethat was to guide and dominate the future. To follow reason without fearof consequences, to substitute scientific for empirical knowledge, toequip men for intelligent participation in civic life, to discover arational basis for conduct, to unfold and expand every inborn faculty andenergy, and to fill man with a restless striving after an ideal--theseessentially Greek characteristics in time came to be accepted by anincreasing number of modern men, as they had been by the thoughtful men ofthe ancient Greek world, as the law and goal of human endeavor. From thispoint on the intellectual progress of the western world was certain, though at times the rate seems painfully slow. 

The great events which stand before, modern history--milestones, as itwere, along the road to the intellectual progress of mankind in therecovery of the Greek spirit--were the revival of the ancient learning, the Protestant appeal to reason, the recovery and vast extension of theold scientific knowledge, the assertion of the rights of the individual asopposed to the rights of the State, and the growth of a newhumanitarianism, induced by the teachings of Christianity, which hassoftened old laws and awakened a new conception of the value of child andhuman life. Out of these great historic movements have come modernscholarship, the inestimable boon of religious liberty, the firmestablishment of the idea of the reign of law in an orderly universe, theconception of government as in the interests of the governed, thesubstitution of democracy and political equality for the rule of a classor an autocratic power, and the assertion of the right to an education atpublic expense as a birthright of every child. The common school, theeducation of all, equality of rights and opportunity, full and equalsuffrage, the responsibility of all for the advancement of the commonwelfare, and liberty under law have been the natural consequences and theoutcome of these great struggles to set free and quicken the human spirit. 

The Peace of Westphalia (1648), which marked the close of a century ofeffort to crush human reason and religious liberty with violence andoppression, marked a turning-point in the history of the world. Thoughreligious intolerance and bigotry might still persist in places forcenturies to come, this Peace acknowledged the futility of persecution tostamp out human inquiry, and marked the downfall of intellectualmedievalism. The work of the political philosophers of the eighteenthcentury, the establishment of a new political ideal by the leaders of theAmerican Revolution, and the drastic sweeping-away of ancient abuses inChurch and State in the Revolution in France, applied a new spirit togovernment, ushered in the rule of the common man, and began theestablishment of democracy as the ruling form of government for mankind. The recent World War in Europe was in a sense a sequel to what had gonebefore. One result of its outcome, despite certain reactionary buttemporary old-type governments that the near future may see set up inplaces, has been the elimination of the mediaeval theory of the "divineright of kings" from the continent of Europe, and the establishment of thedemocratic type of government as the ruling type of the future. Some ofthe nations for a time will be in a sense experimental, as shown on theabove map, and even well-governed Germany must learn new forms and ways, but in time government of and by and for the people is practically certainto become established everywhere on the continent of Europe. 

[Illustration: FIG. 239. THE ESTABLISHED AND EXPERIMENTAL NATIONS OFEUROPEThe established nations are in white; the experimental nations shaded. After a time Germany should become white also. ]

Still more, the outcome of the World War would seem to indicate thatdemocratic forms of government are destined in time to extend to peopleseverywhere who have the capacity for using them. The great problem of thecoming century, then, and perhaps even of succeeding centuries, will be tomake democracy a safe form of government for the world. This can be doneonly by a far more general extension of educational opportunities andadvantages than the world has as yet witnessed. In the hands of anuneducated proletariat democracy is a dangerous instrument. In Russia, Mexico, and in certain of the Central American Republics we see what ademocracy results in in the hands of an uneducated people. There, toooften, the revolver instead of the ballot box is used to settle publicissues, and instead of orderly government under law we have a reign ofinjustice and anarchy. Only by the slow but sure means of generaleducation of the masses in character and in the fundamental bases ofliberty under law can governments that are safe and intelligent becreated. In a far larger sense than anything we have as yet witnessed, education must become the constructive tool for national progress. 

The great needs of the modern world call for the general diffusion amongthe masses of mankind of the intellectual and spiritual and politicalgains of the centuries, which are as yet, despite the great recentprogress made in extending general education, the possession of but arelatively small number of the world's population. Among the moreimportant of these are the religious spirit, coupled with full religiousliberty and tolerance; a clear recognition of the rights of minorities, solong as they do not impair the advancement of the general welfare; thegeneral diffusion of a knowledge of the more common truths andapplications of science, particularly as these relate to personal hygiene, sanitation, agriculture, and modern industrial processes; the generaleducation of all, not only in the tools of knowledge, but in thosefundamental principles of self-government which lie at the basis ofdemocratic life; training in character, self-control, and in the abilityto assume and carry responsibility; the instilling into a constantlywidening circle of mankind the importance of fidelity to duty, truth, honor, and virtue; the emphasis of the many duties and responsibilitieswhich encompass all in the complex modern world, rather than theeighteenth-century individualistic conception of political and personalrights; the clear distinction between liberty and license; and theconception of liberty guided by law. In addition each man and woman shouldbe educated for personal efficiency in some vocation or form of service inwhich each can best realize his personal possibilities, and at the sametime render the largest service to that society of which he forms a part. 

The great needs of the modern world also call for that form of educationand training which will not merely impart literacy and prepare foreconomic competence and national citizenship, but which will give tonational groups a new conception of national character and internationalmorality and create new standards of value for human effort. Nationalcharacter and international morality are always the outgrowth of thepersonality of a people, and this in turn calls for the inculcation ofhumane ideals, the proper discipline of the instincts, the training of awill to do right, good physical vigor, and, to a large degree, thedevelopment of individual efficiency and economic competence. Moral andreligious instruction, as it has been given, will not suffice, because itdoes not reach the heart of the problem. No nation has shown morecompletely the utter futility of religious instruction to produce moralitythan has Germany, where the instruction of all in the principles ofreligion has been required for centuries. 

The problem of the twentieth century, then, and probably of othercenturies to come, is how the constructive forces in modern society, ofwhich the schools of nations should stand first, can best direct theirefforts to influence and direct the deeper sources of the life of apeople, so that the national characteristics it is desired to display tothe world will be developed because the schools have instilled into everychild these national ideals. Many forces must coöperate in such a task, but unless the schools of nations become clearly conscious of nationalneeds and of international purposes, become inspired by an ideal ofservice for the welfare of mankind, substitute among national groupscompetition in the things of the spirit--art, architecture, music, sports, education, letters, sanitation, housing, public works, and suchapplications of science as minister to health and happiness--forcompetition in the creation of material wealth, the piling-up ofarmaments, the extension of national boundaries, and the presentoveremphasis of a narrow nationalism, and direct the energies of cominggenerations to the carrying-out of this new and larger human service, nations must inevitably fail to reach the world position they mightotherwise have occupied, destructive international competition and warfarewill continue, and the advancement of world civilization and internationalwell-being will be greatly retarded thereby. 

In this work of advancing world civilization, the nations which have longbeen in the forefront of progress must expect to assume important roles. It is their peculiar mission--for long clearly recognized by Great Britainand France in their political relations with inferior and backwardpeoples; by the United States in its excellent work in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines; and clearly formulated in the system of "mandatories"under the League of Nations--to help backward peoples to advance, and toassist them in lifting themselves to a higher plane of world civilization. In doing this a very practical type of education must naturally play theleading part, and time, probably much time, will be required to achieveany large results. Disregarding the large need for such service among theleading world nations, the map reproduced on the opposite page reveals howmuch of such work still remains to be done in the world as a whole. "TheWhite Man's Burden" truly is large, and the larger world tasks of thetwentieth century for the more advanced nations will be to help otherpeoples, in distant and more backward lands, slowly to educate themselvesin the difficult art of self-government, gradually establish stable anddemocratic governments of their own, and in time to take their placesamong the enlightened and responsible peoples of the earth. 

[Illustration: FIG. 240. THE EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURETransition peoples are shaded; dependant and backward peoples black. The"mandatories" of the "League of Nations" will be in the black areas, andwill have to be carried by the nations which have made the most progressin civilization and shown in the highest sense of responsibility for thewelfare of peoples that have come under their care. The black areas reveal"The White Man's Burden" of the future. ]

At the bottom of all this work and service lie the new human-libertyconceptions first worked out and formulated for the world by littleGreece, In time the ideas to which they gave expression have become theheritage of what we know as our western civilization, and the warp andwoof of the intellectual and political life of the modern world. As aresult of the Industrial Revolution, and of the new political andcommercial and social forces of our time, this western civilization, usingeducation as its great constructive tool, is now spreading to everycontinent on the globe. The task of succeeding centuries will be to carryforward and extend what has been so well begun; to level up the peoples ofthe earth, as far as inherent differences in capacity will permit; and toextend, through educative influences, the principles and practices of aChristian civilization to all. In establishing intelligent and interestedgovernment, and in moulding and shaping the destinies of peoples, generaleducation has become the great constructive tool of modern civilization. Ahundred and fifty years ago education was of but little importance, beingprimarily an instrument of the Church and used for church ends. To-daygeneral education is an instrument of government, and is rightfullyregarded as a prime essential to good government and national progress. With the spread of the democratic type the importance of the school isenhanced, its control by the State becomes essential, its continuedexpansion to include new types of schools and new forms of educationalopportunities and service a necessity, the study of its organization andadministration and problems becomes a necessary function of government, while the training it can give is dignified and made the birthright ofevery boy and girl. 

FOOTNOTES

PREFACE

[1] _Syllabus of Lectures on the History of Education, withBibliographies_, 1st ed. , 302 pp. , illustrated, New York, 1902; 2d ed. , with classified bibliographies, 358 pp. , illustrated. New York, 1905. 

PART I

CHAPTER I

[1] The average size of an Illinois county is 550 square miles, or an area22 x 25 miles square. The State of West Virginia contains 24, 022 squaremiles, and Rhode Island 1067 square miles. Rhode Island would beapproximately 30 x 36 miles square, which would make Attica approximately20 x 36 miles square in area. 

[2] The nearest analogy we have to the Greek City-States exists in thelocal town governments of the New England States, particularlyMassachusetts, and the local county-unit governmental organizations of anumber of the Southern States, though in each of these cases we have astate and a federal government above to unify and direct and control thesesmall local governments, which did not exist, except temporarily, inGreece. 

If an area the size of West Virginia were divided into some twentyindependent counties, which could arrange treaties, make alliances, anddeclare war, and which sometimes united into leagues for defense oroffense, but which were never able to unite to form a single State, weshould have a condition analogous to that of mainland Greece. [3] A sea-faring people, the Greeks became to the ancient Mediterranean world whatthe English have been to the modern world. Southern Italy became sothickly set with small Greek cities that it was known as _Magna Graecia_. On the island of Sicily the city of Syracuse was founded (734 B. C. ), andbecame a center of power and a home of noted Greeks. The city ofMarseilles, in southern France, dates from an Ionic settlement about 600B. C. The presence of another seafaring people, the Phoenicians, along thenorthern coast of Africa and southern and eastern Spain, probably checkedthe further spread of Greek colonies to the westward. The city of Cyrene, in northern Africa, dates from about 630 B. C. Greek colonists also wentnorth and east, through the Dardanelles and on into the Black Sea. (Seemap, Figure 2. ) Salonica and Constantinople date back to Greekcolonization. Many of the colonies reflected great honor and credit on themotherland, and served to spread Greek manners, language, and religionover a wide area. 

[4] It is the great mixed races that have counted for most in history. Thestrength of England is in part due to its wonderful mixture of peoples--Britons, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Danes, Northmen, to mention only the moreimportant earlier peoples which have been welded together to form theEnglish people. 

[5] Athens, however, permitted the children of foreigners to attend itsschools, particularly in the later period of Athenian education. 

[6] "When I compare the customs of the Greeks with these (the Romans), Ican find no reason to extol either those of the Spartans, or the Thebans, or even of the Athenians, who value themselves the most for their wisdom;all who, jealous of their nobility and communicating to none or to veryfew the privileges of their cities ... Were so far from receiving anyadvantage from this haughtiness that they became the greatest sufferers byit. " (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in his _Roman Antiquities_ book II, chap. XVII. )

[7] In Sparta the number of citizens was still less. At the time of theformulation of the Spartan constitution by Lycurgus (about 850 B. C. ) therewere but 9000 Spartan families in the midst of 250, 000 subject people. This disproportion increased rather than diminished in later centuries. 

[8] The Austrian-Magyar combination, which held together and dominated themany tribes of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire, is an analogous modernsituation, though on a much larger scale. 

[9] Two Greek poems illustrate the Spartan mother, who was said toadmonish her sons to come back with their shields, or upon them. The firstis:

 "Eight sons Daementa at Sparta's call Sent forth to fight: one tomb received them all. No tears she shed, but shouted, 'Victory! Sparta, I bore them but to die for thee. '"

The second:

 "A Spartan, his companion slain, Alone from battle fled: His mother, kindling with disdain That she had borne him, struck him dead; For courage and not birth alone. In Sparta testifies a son. "

 "Go, tell at Sparta, thou that passest by, That here, obedient to her laws, we lie. " (Epitaph on the three hundred who fell at Thermopylae. )

[10] An Athenian saying, of a man who was missing, was: "Either he is deador has become a schoolmaster. " To call a man a schoolmaster was to abusehim, according to Epicurus. Demosthenes, in his attack on Aeschines, ridicules him for the fact that his father was a schoolmaster in thelowest type of reading and writing school. "As a boy, " he says, "you werereared in abject poverty, waiting with your father on the school, grindingthe ink, sponging the benches, sweeping the room, and doing the duty of amenial rather than of a freeman's son. " Lucian represents kings as beingforced to maintain themselves in hell by teaching reading and writing. 

[11] Women were not supposed to possess any of the privileges ofcitizenship, belonging rather to the alien class. They lived secludedlives, were not supposed to take any part in public affairs, and, if theirhusbands brought company to the house, they were expected to retire fromview. In their attitude toward women the Greeks were an oriental ratherthan a modern or western people. 

[12] "We learn first the names of the elements of speech, which are called_grammata_; then their shape and functions; then the syllables and theiraffections; lastly, the parts of speech, and the particular mutationsconnected with each, as inflection, number, contraction, accents, positionin the sentence; then we begin to read and write, at first in syllablesand slowly, but when we have attained the necessary certainty, easily andquickly. " (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, _De Compos. Verb_, cap 25. )

[13] Fragments of a tile found in Attica have stamped upon them thesyllables _ar, bar, gar; er, ber, ger_; etc. A bottle-shaped vase has alsobeen found which, in addition to the alphabet, contains pronouncingexercises as follows:

 bi-ba-bu-be zi-za-zu-ze pi-pa-pu-pe gi-ga-gu-ge mi-ma-mu-me etc. 

[14] "Learning to read must have been a difficult business in Hellas, forbooks were written only in capitals at this time. There were no spacesbetween the words, and no stops were inserted. Thus the reader had toexercise his ingenuity before he could arrive at the meaning of asentence. " (Freeman, K. J. , _Schools of Hellas_, p. 87. )

[15] The Greeks had no numbers, but only words for numbers, and used theletters of the Greek alphabet with accents over them to indicate the wordsthey knew as numbers. Counting and bookkeeping would of course be verydifficult with such a system. 

[16] "These poems, especially Homer, Hesiod, and Theognis, served at thesame time for drill in language and for recitation, whereby on the onehand the memory was developed and the imagination strengthened, and on theother the heroic forms of antiquity and healthy primitive utterancesregarding morality, and full of homely common sense, were deeply engravedon the young mind. Homer was regarded not merely as a poet, but as aninspired moral teacher, and great portions of his poems were learned byheart. The Iliad and the Odyssey were in truth the Bible of the Greeks. "(Laurie, S. S. , _Pre-Christian Education_, p. 258. )

[17] Davidson, Thos. , _Aristotle_, pp. 73-75. 

[18] Plutarch later expressed well the Greek conception of musicaleducation in these words: "Whoever be he that shall give his mind to thestudy of music in his youth, if he meet with a musical education properfor the forming and regulating his inclinations, he will be sure toapplaud and embrace that which is noble and generous, and to rebuke andblame the contrary, as well in other things as in what belongs to music. And by that means he will become clear from all reproachful actions, fornow having reaped the noblest fruit of music, he may be of great use, notonly to himself, but to the commonwealth; while music teaches him toabstain from everything that is indecent, both in word and deed, and toobserve decorum, temperance, and regularity. " (Monroe, Paul, _History ofEducation_, p. 92. )

[19] A flat circle of polished bronze, or other metal, eight or nineinches in diameter. 

[20] "There were no home influences in Hellas. The men-folk lived out ofdoors. The young Athenian from his sixth year onward spent his whole dayaway from home, in the company of his contemporaries, at school orpalaestra, or in the streets. When he came home there was no home life. His mother was a nonentity, living in the woman's apartments; he probablysaw little of her. His real home was the palaestra, his companions hiscontemporaries and his _paidagogos_. He learned to disassociate himselffrom his family and associate himself with his fellow citizens. No doubthe lost much by this system, but the solidarity of the State gained. "(Freeman, K. J. , _Schools of Hellas_, p. 282. )

[21] "No doubt the Athenian public was by no means so learned as wemoderns are; they were ignorant of many sciences, of much history, --inshort of a thousand results of civilization which have since accrued. Butin civilization itself, in mental power, in quickness of comprehension, incorrectness of taste, in accuracy of judgment, no modern nation, howeverwell instructed, has been able to equal by labored acquirements the inborngenius of the Greeks. " (Mahaffy, J. P. , _Old Greek Education_. )

[22] The great institutions of the Greek City-State were in themselveshighly educative. The chief of these were:

 1. The Assembly, where the laws were proposed, debated, and made. 2. The Juries, on which citizens sat and where the laws were applied. 3. The Theater, where the great masterpieces of Greek literature were performed. 4. The Olympian and other Games, which were great religious ceremonies of a literary as well as an athletic and artistic character, and to which Greeks from all over Hellas came. 5. The city life itself, among an inquisitive, imaginative, and disputatious people. 

CHAPTER II

[1] The culmination came in what is known as the Age of Pericles, who wasthe master mind at Athens from 459 to 431 B. C. During the fifth centuryB. C. Such names as Themistocles and Pericles in government, Phidias andMyron in art, Herodotus and Thucydides in historical narrative, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides in tragic drama, and Aristophanes in comedy, graced Athens. 

[2] With the Greeks, morality and the future life never had anyconnection. 

[3] The early Greek philosophers tried to explain the physical world aboutthem by trying to discover what they called the "first principle, " fromwhich all else had been derived. Thales (c. 624-548 B. C. ), the father ofGreek science, had concluded that water was the original source of allmatter; Anaximenes (c. 588-524 B. C. ), that air was the first principle;Heraclites (c. 525-475 B. C. ), fire; and Pythagoras (c. 580-500 B. C. ), number. 

[4] "There was now demanded ability to discuss all sorts of social, political, economic, and scientific or metaphysical questions; to argue inpublic in the marketplace or in the law courts; to declaim in a formalmanner on almost any topic; to amuse or even instruct the populace upontopics of interest or questions of the day; to take part in the manydiplomatic embassies and political missions of the times--the ability, infact, to shine in a democratic society much like our own and to controlthe votes and command the approval of an intelligent populace where thefunction of printing-press, telegraph, railroad, and all modern means ofcommunication were performed through public speech and private discourse, and where the legal, ecclesiastical, and other professional classes ofteachers did not exist. " (Monroe, Paul, _History of Education_, pp. 109-10. )

[5] The importance of a political career in the new Athens will be betterunderstood if we remember that the influence on public opinion to-dayexerted by the pulpit, bar, public platform, press, and scholar was thenconcentrated in the public speaker, and that the careers now open topromising youths in science, industry, commerce, politics, and governmentwere then concentrated in the political career. It must also be rememberedthat the Greeks had always been a nation of speakers, both the content andthe form of the address being important. 

[6] Each of these philosophers proposed an ideal educational systemdesigned to remedy the evils of the State. Xenophon (c. 410-362 B. C. ), inhis _Cyropaedia_, purporting to describe the education of Cyrus of Persia, proposed a Spartan modification of the old Athenian system. Plato (429-348B. C. ), in his _Republic_, proposed an aristocratic socialism as a means ofsecuring individual virtue and state justice. He first presents the super-civic man, an ideal destined for great usefulness among the Christianslater on. Aristotle (384-322 B. C. ), in his _Ethics_, and in his_Politics_, outlined an ideal state and a system of education for it. 

[7] "It is beyond all conception what that man espied, saw, beheld, remarked, observed. " (Goethe. )

"One of the richest and most comprehensive geniuses that has everappeared--a man beside whom no age has an equal to place. " (Hegel. )

"Aristotle, Nature's private secretary, dipping his pen in intellect. "(Eusebius. )

[8] "As Alexander passed conquering through Asia, he restored to the East, as garnered grain, that Greek civilization whose seeds had long ago beenreceived from the East. Each conqueror in turn, the Macedonian and theRoman bowed before conquered Greece and learnt lessons at her feet. "(Butcher, S. H. , _Some Aspects of the Greek Genius_, p. 43. )

[9] Webster, D. H. , _Ancient History_, p. 302. 

[10] Previous to this, paper had been made from the papyrus plant, butEgypt, having forbidden its export, necessity again became the mother ofinvention. 

[11] With this exception, never before the Italian Renaissance was theresuch interest in collecting books. Almost every book written in antiquitywas gathered here, and the library at Alexandria became the British Museumor the Bibliothèque Nationale of the ancient world. Every book enteringEgypt was required to be brought to this library. 

[12] He founded the science of geography. Before his time Greek studentshad concluded that the world was round, instead of flat, as stated in theHomeric poems. By careful measurements he determined its size, within afew thousand miles of its actual circumference, and predicted that onemight sail from Spain to the Indies along the same parallel of latitude. 

[13] From the tradition that seventy scholars labored on it. 

[14] Henry Sumner Maine. 

CHAPTER III

[1] This struggle of the common people (_plebeians_) for an equal placewith the ruling class (_patricians_) before the law, in religious matters, and in politics, covered two and a half centuries, the old restrictionsbeing broken down but gradually. The most important steps in the processwere:

 509 B. C. Magistrates forbidden to scourge or execute a Roman citizen without giving him a chance to appeal to the people in their popular assembly. This "right of appeal" was regarded as the Magna Charta of Roman liberty. 

 494 B. C. Plebeian soldiers granted officers of their own (_Tribunes_) to protect them against patrician cruelty and injustice. 

 451-449 B. C. Laws must be written--Code commission appointed. Result, the _Laws of the Twelve Tables_ (R. 12); these mark the beginning of the great Roman legal system. 

 445 B. C. Intermarriage between the two orders legalized. 

 367 B. C. Right to hold office granted, and one of the Consuls elected each year to be a plebeian. 

 250 B. C. By this date the distinctions between the two orders had disappeared; patricians and plebeians intermarried and formed one compact body of citizens in the Roman State. 

[2] "The scholar who compares carefully the Greek constitutions with theRoman will undoubtedly consider the former to be finer and more finishedspecimens of political work. The imperfect and incomplete character whichthe Roman constitution presents, at almost any point of its history, thenumber of institutions it exhibits which appear to be temporary expedientsmerely, are necessary results of its method of growth to meet demands asthey rose from time to time; they are evidence, indeed, of its highlypractical character. " (Adams, G. B. , _Civilization during the MiddleAges_, 2d ed. , p. 20. )

[3] The same opportunity came to Athens after the Persian Wars and toSparta after the Peloponnesian War, but neither possessed the creativepower along political and governmental lines, or the tolerance for theideas and feelings of subject peoples, to accomplish anything permanent. Rome succeeded where previous States had failed because of her largerinsight, tolerance, patience, and constructive to create a great worldempire. 

[4] Caesar extended Roman citizenship to certain communities in Gaul andin Sicily, and began the further extension of the process of assimilationby taking the conquered provincial into citizenship in the Empire. Thiswas carried on and extended by succeeding Emperors until finally, in 212A. D. , Roman citizenship was extended to all free-born inhabitants in allthe provinces. 

[5] For example, Balbus, a Spaniard, was Consul in Rome forty years beforethe Christian era, and another Spaniard, Nerva, had become Emperor beforethe close of the first century A. D. Many commanders in the army andgovernors in the provinces were provincials by birth. 

[6] Roman citizenship was much more than a mere name. A Roman citizencould not be maltreated or punished without a legal trial before a Romancourt. If accused in a capital case he could always protect himself fromwhat he considered an unjust decision by an "appeal to Caesar"; that is, to the Emperor at Rome. The protection of law was always extended to hisproperty and himself, wherever in the Roman Empire he might live ortravel. 

[7] Both literature and inscriptions testify abundantly to theaffectionate regard in which Roman rule was held. The rule may have beenfar from perfect, judged from a modern point of view, but it was so muchbetter and so much more orderly than anything that had gone before that itwas accepted in all quarters. 

[8] Every house was protected from the evil spirits of the outside worldby Janus, and had its sacred fire presided over by Vesta. Every house hadits protecting Lares. The cupboard where the food was stored was blest byand under the charge of the Penates. The daily worship of these householddeities took place at the family meal, the father offering a little foodand a little wine at the sacred hearth. Every house father, too, had hisguardian Genius, whose festival was celebrated on the master's birthday. In a similar fashion the State had its temples, its sacred fire and votiveofferings, and various divinities ruled the elements and sent or withheldsuccess. 

Almost every activity in life was presided over by some deity, whom it wasnecessary to propitiate before engaging in it. Davidson says, withreference to the practical nature of their religion, that "While theAthenians rejoiced before their gods, the Romans kept a debtor andcreditor account with theirs, and were very anxious that the balanceshould be on the right side. "

[9] "Among our ancestors, " says Pliny, "one learned not only through theears, but through the eyes. The young, in observing the elders, learnedwhat they would soon have to do themselves, and what they would one dayteach to their successor. "

[10] Such careful physical training as was given in a Greek _palaestra_and _gymnasium_ would have been regarded by the Romans as most effeminate. Unlike the Greeks, who strove for a harmonious bodily development, theRomans exercised for usefulness in war. Cicero exclaims, with reference toGreek gymnasial training: "What an absurd system of training youth isexhibited in their _gymnasia_! What a frivolous preparation for the laborsand hazards of war!"

[11] Macaulay, in his _Horatius_, describes the results of the educationof this early period as follows:

 "Then none were for the party, But all were for the State; And the rich man loved the poor, And the poor man loved the great. Then lands were fairly portioned And spoils were fairly sold; For the Romans were like brothers In the brave days of old. "

[12] "The Romans, " says the historian Wilhelm Ihne, "were distinguishedfrom all other nations, not only by the extreme earnestness and precisionwith which they conceived their law and worked out the consequences of itsfundamental principles, but by the good sense which made them submit tothe law, once established, as an absolute necessity of political healthand strength. It was this severity in thinking and acting which, more thanany other cause, made Rome great and powerful. "

[13] The lot of a captive in war, everywhere throughout the ancient world, was to be taken and sold as a slave by his captors. Many educated Greekswere thus taken in the capture of Greek cities in southern Italy and soldas slaves in Rome. These were let out by their masters as teachers of thenew learning. Even the thrifty Cato, who vigorously opposed the newlearning on principle, was not averse to permitting his educated Greekslaves to conduct schools and thus add to his private fortune. 

[14] These men had little choice otherwise. Grain from Spain and Africabecame so cheap that a farmer could not raise enough on his small farm topay his taxes and support his family, so he was obliged to sell his landto men who turned it into large cattle and sheep ranches. He would notemigrate to the provinces, as Englishmen have done to Canada andAustralia, but instead went to the cities, where he led a hand-to-mouthexistence in a type of tenement house. It was from such sources that theRoman mob, demanding free grain and entertainment in return for its votes, was made up. 

[15] Arithmetic was not easy for the Romans, partly because they had nofigure or other sign for zero, partly because they used a decimal systemfor counting and a duodecimal for their money, and partly because theRoman system of notation (I, V, X, L, C, D, M) did not adapt itself toquick calculation. Try, for example, these simple sums:

 Add: CCLVII Subtract: LXVIII CIX XXXIV ------ ------

 Multiply: CXXV Divide: XII |CXXXII XII ------ ----

[16] Finger reckoning (whence _digits_) with the Romans attained aprominence probably never reached with any other people. Bills andaccounts were reckoned up on the fingers, in the presence of the patron. Eighteen positions of the fingers of the left hand stood for the nineunits and the nine tens, and eighteen positions of the fingers of theright hand stood for the nine hundreds and the nine thousands. For largersums, such as ten thousand and more, various parts of the body weretouched. Any one who betrayed, according to Quintilian, "by an uncertainor awkward movement of his fingers, a want of confidence in hiscalculations, " was thought to be but imperfectly trained in arithmetic. 

[17] There was much complaint that parents were slow with their fees, andat times forgot them entirely if the boy did not turn out well. Finally, in the reign of Diocletian (284-305 A. D. ), in an effort to relieve thedistress of schoolmasters, prices were legally fixed at approximately theequivalent of $1. 20 per month per pupil for teaching reading and $1. 80 forarithmetic, measured in money values of a decade ago. These were regardedas "hard times prices. "

[18] "Reading aloud, with careful attention to pronunciation, accent, quantity, and expression, formed an important part of the training inliterature of a Latin youth. Correct reading of Latin was a much moredifficult art, as practiced, than is the reading of English, as all of uswell know who learned properly to intone our

 "Arma virumque cano, Trojae qui primus ab oris Italiam, fato profugus, Lavinaque venit. "

The lack of use of small letters and spacing between the words (R. 21), aswell as poor punctuation, also added to the difficulty. 

[19] A nonsensical minuteness was followed here, and many trivialitieswere emphasized. Juvenal tells us, in his Seventh Satire, written about130 A. D. , that "a teacher was expected to read all histories and know allauthors as well as his finger ends. That, if questioned, he should be ableto tell the name of Anchises' nurse, and the name and native land of thestepmother of Anchemotus--tell how many years Acestes lived--how manyflagons of wine the Sicilian king gave to the Phrygians. " This reminds usof some of the dissected study of English and Latin until recently givenin our colleges and high schools. 

[20] Quintilian well states the aim of this higher education when he saysthat "the man who can duly sustain his character as a citizen, who isqualified for the management of public and private affairs, and who cangovern communities by his counsels, settle them by means of laws, andimprove them by judicial enactments, can certainly be nothing else but anorator. "

[21] In his _Lives of Eminent Grammarians and Rhetoricians_, chap. I. Suetonius lived from 75 to 160 A. D. , and was an advocate at Rome andprivate secretary to the Emperor Hadrian. 

[22] There was a general dread of Greek higher learning on the part of theolder Romans, and this found expression in many ways. Among these was anedict of the Senate, in 161 B. C. , directing the Praetor to see that "nophilosophers or rhetoricians be suffered at Rome" (R. 20), a decree whichcould not be enforced, and the edict of the Censors, in 92 B. C. (R. 20), expressing their disapproval of the Latin schools of rhetoric. 

[23] These seven studies became the famous studies of the church schoolsof the Middle Ages, with Grammar as the greatest and most important study(see chap. VII; R. 74). The curriculum of the Middle Ages was a directinheritance from Rome. 

[24] See Quintilian, _Institutes of Oratory_, book I, chap. X, 22, 37, and46. This chapter is devoted largely to a description of the use of thesestudies. 

[25] Sample questions which were debated to bring out the finedistinctions in Roman Law and Ethics were:

 (a) Was a slave about whose neck a master had hung the leather or golden token (worn by free youths only), in order to smuggle him past the boundary, freed when he reached Roman soil wearing this insignia of freedom?

 (b) If a stranger buys a prospective draught of fishes and the fisherman draws up a casket of jewels, does the stranger own the jewels?

[26] In the later centuries of the Empire, people went to hear a man whocould orate or declaim, as people now do to hear a great political orator, a revivalist preacher, or a popular actor or singer. A form of amusementfor distinguished travelers passing through a city was to have some oneorate before them. "This power of using words for mere pleasurableeffect, " says Professor Dill, in his _Roman Society in the Last Century ofthe Western Empire_, "on the most trivial or the most extravagantly absurdthemes, was for many ages, in both West and East, esteemed the highestproof of talent and cultivation. "

[27] Each Greek rhetorician in Rome was given one hundred _sestertia_(about $4000) yearly from the Imperial Treasury, Quintilian probably beingone of the first to receive a state salary. 

[28] "He [Claudius] was also attentive to provide a liberal education forthe sons of their chieftains;... And his attempts were attended with suchsuccess that they, who lately disdained to make use of the Roman language, were now ambitious of becoming eloquent. Hence the Roman habit began to beheld in honor, and the toga was frequently worn. " Tacitus's Account ofBritain, _Agricola_, chap. 21. 

[29] England offers us the nearest modern analogy. This was one of thelast of the great European nations to establish popular education, but forcenturies previous thereto the great private, tuition, grammar schools ofEngland--Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester, and others--together with theUniversities of Oxford and Cambridge, prepared a succession of leaders forthe State--men who have steered England's destinies at home and abroad andmade her a great world power. 

[30] This grew up, as all law grows, by enacted laws and decisions of thecourts, and in time came to be an enormous body of law. Lacking theprinted law books and indices of to-day, to obtain a knowledge of Romanlaw became a formidable task. Finally the practical Roman mind codifiedit, and reduced it to system and order. The Theodosian Code, of 438 A. D. , and the Justinian Code, of 528 and 534 A. D. , were the final results. Thesecodes were compact, capable of duplication with relative ease, and laterbecame the standard textbooks throughout the Middle Ages. The greatimportance of these codifications may be appreciated when we know thatalmost all the original laws and decisions from which they were compiledhave been lost. 

[31] The Romanic countries--France, Spain, Italy--have drawn their lawmost completely from the Justinian Code. Due to Spanish and Frenchoccupation of parts of America, Roman legal ideas also entered here, theLouisiana Code of 1824 being Roman in law and technical expressions andspirit, though English in language. Spanish and Portuguese settlement ofthe South American continent has carried Roman law there. 

[32] The Roman alphabet is the alphabet of all North and South America, Australia, Africa, and all of Europe except Russia, Greece, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and a few minor Slavic and Teutonic peoples. Even inGermany and Austria, Roman letters were rapidly superseding the moredifficult German letters in the printing of papers and books for thebetter-educated classes before the Great War. In India, Siam, China, andJapan, Roman letters are also being increasingly used. 

CHAPTER IV

[1] The Farmer's Calendar, given in the accompanying _Book of Readings_(R. 14), illustrates very well the gods and sacrifices for one phase ofRoman life. Petronius, in his Satires, says, "Our country is so full ofdivinities that it is much easier to find a god than a man. "

[2] "The chief objects of pagan religion were to foretell the future, toexplain the universe, to avert calamity, and to obtain the assistance ofthe gods. They contained no instruments of moral teaching analogous to ourinstitution of preaching, or to the moral preparation for the reception ofthe sacrament, or to confession, or to the reading of the Bible, or toreligious education, or to united prayer for spiritual benefits. To makemen virtuous was no more the function of the priest than of thephysician. " (Lecky, W. E. H. , _History of European Morals_, chap, iv. )

[3] Seneca (4-65 A. D. ), the tutor of the Emperor Nero, and the Greekfreedman Epictetus (d. 100 A. D. ) both expounded Stoicism at Rome duringthe first Christian century, and the _Thoughts_ of the Emperor MarcusAurelius (161-180 A. D. ) represents one of the finest expositions of theapplication of this philosophy to the problems of human life. 

[4] See Proverbs, xxxi, for a good statement of the ancient Hebrew idealof womanhood. 

[5] This collective term is applied to the first five books of the OldTestament, and includes Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, andDeuteronomy. These five books form a wonderful collection of thehistorical and legal material relating to the wanderings and experiencesand practices of the people. 

[6] Chapter 1 of the Gospel according to Saint Matthew gives, in detail(1-16), the genealogy of Jesus, concluding with the following verse:

 "17. So all the generations from Abraham to David are fourteen generations; and from David until the carrying away into Babylon are fourteen generations; and from the carrying away into Babylon unto Christ are fourteen generations. "

[7] To many of these churches he wrote a series of epistles. Theseconstitute a little more than one fourth of the New Testament. Seeaccompanying _Book of Readings_ (or Romans, I, 1-17) for the introductorypart of Paul's Epistle to the Romans. 

[8] "Its missionaries were Jews, a turbulent race, not to be assimilated, and as much despised and hated by pagan Rome as by the mediaevalChristians. Wherever it attracted any notice, therefore, it seems to havebeen regarded as some rebel faction of the Jews, gone mad upon someobscure point of the national superstition--an outcast sect of an outcastrace. " (Adams, G. B. , _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, p. 39. )

[9] "Starting from an insignificant province, from a despised race, proclaimed by a mere handful of ignorant workmen, demanding self-controland renunciation before unheard of, certain to arouse in time powerfulenemies in the highly cultivated and critical society which it attacked, the odds against it were tremendous. " (Ibid. , p. 41. )

[10] "It is not easy to imagine how, in the face of an Asia Minor, aGreece, an Italy the Roman split up into a hundred small republics; of aGaul, a Spain, an Africa, an Egypt, in possession of their old nationalinstitutions, the apostles could have succeeded, or even how their projectcould have been started. The unity of the Empire was a condition precedentof all religious proselytism on a grand scale if it was to place itselfabove the nationalities. " (Renan, E. , _Hibbert Lectures, 1880; Influenceof Rome on the Christian Church_. )

[11] In Acts xxv, 1-12, it is recorded that the Apostle Paul, accused bythe Jews and virtually on trial for his life before the provincialgovernor Festus, fell back on his Roman citizenship and successfully"appealed to Caesar. " (See footnote 3, page 57. ) 

[12] "The miracle of miracles, greater than dried-up seas and clovenrocks, greater than the dead rising again to life, was when the Augustuson his throne, Pontiff of the gods of Rome, himself a god to the subjectsof Rome, bent himself to become the worshiper of a crucified provincialof his Empire. " (Freeman, E. A. , _Periods of European History_, p. 67. )

[13] In 319 and 326 the clergy were exempted from all public burdens, andonly the poor were to be admitted to the clergy. In 343 the clergy wereexempted "from public burdens and from every disquietude of civil office. "In 377 all clergy were exempted from personal taxes. (See R. 38. )

[14] From the Roman world the idea has spread, through the Greek CatholicChurch, to Greece, parts of the Balkans, and Russia; through the RomanCatholic Church to all western Europe and the two Americas; and throughthe Protestant churches which sprang from the Roman Catholic by secession, and the Mohammedan faith, to include almost all the world. Only amonguncivilized tribes and in Asia do we find any great number offundamentally different religious conceptions. 

[15] Paul to the Romans (x, 9) stated the fundamentals of belief asfollows: "If thou shalt confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and shaltbelieve in thine heart that God hath raised him from the dead, thou shaltbe saved. "

[16] M. Boissier. _La Fin du Paganisme_, vol. 1, p. 200. 

[17] _Justin Martyr_ (105?-167), a former Greek teacher and philosopher, continued to follow his profession, wear his Greek philosopher's garb, andheld that the teachings of Christianity were already contained in Greekphilosophy, and that Plato and Socrates were Christians before the comingof the Christian faith. 

_Clement_ (c. 160-c. 215), the successor of Pantaeus as head of thecatechetical school at Alexandria, held to the harmony of the Gospels withphilosophy, and that "Plato was Moses Atticized. "

_Origen_ (c. 185-c. 254), a pupil and successor of Clement, and the mostlearned of all the early Christian Fathers, labored to harmonize theChristian faith with Greek learning and philosophy, and did much toformulate the dogmas of the early Church. 

_Saint Basil_ (331-379) tried to allay the rising prejudice against paganlearning, and to show the helpfulness to the Christian life of the Greekliterature and philosophy. 

_Gregory of Nazianzus_ (c. 330-c. 390) was filled with indignation andprotested loudly at the closing of the pagan schools to Christians by theedict of the Emperor Julian, in 362. 

[18] _Tertullian_ (c. 150-230) had been well educated in Greek literatureand philosophy, and had attained distinction as a lawyer. 

_Saint Jerome_ (c. 340-420) was saturated with pagan learning, but lateradvised against it. 

_Saint Augustine_ (354-430), the master mind among the Latin Fathers, wasfor years a teacher of oratory and rhetoric in Roman schools, and hadwritten part of an encyclopaedia on the liberal arts before hisconversion. Many others who became prominent in the Western Church had intheir earlier life been teachers in the Roman higher schools. 

[19] Dreaming that he had died and gone to Heaven, he was asked, "Who artthou?" On replying, "A Christian, " he heard the awful judgment, "It isfalse: thou art no Christian; thou art a Ciceronian; where the treasureis, there the heart is also. "

[20] The knowledge of Greek remained alive longer in Ireland than anywhereelse in the western world, being known there as late as the seventhcentury. Greek was also preserved in parts of Spain for two centuriesafter it had died out in Italy. 

[21] In the West there was no other great city than Rome. At the period ofits maximum greatness, in the first century B. C. , it was a city ofapproximately 450, 000 people. 

[22] After many struggles and conflicts between the Bishops ofConstantinople, Alexandria, and Rome, the Bishop of Rome was finallyrecognized by the second great Church Council, held at Constantinople in381, as the head of the entire Church (Canon 3), corresponding to theEmperor on the political side of the dying Empire. The separation of theeastern and western churches was rapid after this time. (See Map, p. 103. )

[23] The word _pagan_ as applied to unbeliever illustrates this progressof the Church, being derived from the Latin _paganus_, meaning countryman, villager, rustic. 

[24] See the accompanying _Book of Readings_ for a drawing and detailedexplanation of the monastery of Saint Gall, in Switzerland (R. 69). Thiswas one of the most important monasteries of the Middle Ages. 

PART II

CHAPTER V

[1] The period from the reign of Augustus Caesar through that of MarcusAurelius (31 B. C. -192 A. D. ) was known as "the good Roman peace. " No otherlarge section of the western world has ever known such unbroken peace andprosperity for so long a time. Piracy ceased upon the seas, and trade andcommerce flourished. The cities and the great middle class in thepopulation were prosperous. Travel was safe and common, and men traveledboth for business and pleasure. The Christian State within a State had notyet taken form. Literature and learning flourished. The law became milder. The rights of the accused became better recognized. A certain broadhumanity pervaded the administration of both law and government. There wasmuch private charity. Hospitals were established. Women were given greaterfreedom, larger intellectual advantages, and a better position in the homethan they were to know again until the nineteenth century. It was theGolden Age of the Empire. Toward the close of the period the ChristianFather, Tertullian, wrote: "Every day the world becomes more beautiful, more wealthy, more splendid. No corner remains inaccessible.... Recentdeserts bloom.... Forests give way to tilled acres.... Everywhere arehouses, people, cities. Everywhere there is life. "

[2] Slavery in Rome came to be much more demoralizing than ever was thecase in the United States. Instead of an ignorant people of an inferiorrace, the Roman slave was often the superior of his master--theunfortunate captive in an unsuccessful war against an oppressor. Theholding of such educated and intelligent people in slavery was far moredegrading to a ruling people than would have been the case had theirslaves been ignorant and of inferior racial stock. 

[3] The Roman State had come to be essentially a collection of cities. Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Corinth, Carthage, Ephesus, and Lyons weregreat cities, judged even by present-day standards, throbbing with variedindustries and a strong intellectual life. In addition there were hundredsof other cities scattered all over the Empire, each with its own municipallife, while on the frontier were stockaded villages serving as centers oftrade with the barbarian tribes beyond. 

[4] Chief among the new ideals that sapped the old Roman strength must bementioned the new Christian religion, with its doctrine of other-worldliness and its system of government not responsible to the Empire. Another influence was the rise of a super-civic philosophy, derivedchiefly from the writings of Plato (see footnote 1, page 42), which heldthat certain men could be above the State and yet by their wisdom in partdirect it. The two influences combined to undermine the resisting strengthof the State. 

[5] Not only was the future of western European civilization settledthere, but that of North and South America as well. Had Saraceniccivilization come to dominate Europe, the Koran might have been taught to-day in the theological schools of Boston, New York, Chicago, SanFrancisco, Buenos Aires, and Valparaiso, and the Christian religion beenthe possession only of the Greek and Russian churches, while ourliterature and philosophy and civilization would have been tinctured, through and through, with oriental ideas and Mohammedan conceptions. 

[6] It is hard for us to imagine what happened, for the Indians we knowto-day represent a much higher grade of civilization than did the Germaninvaders. If we could imagine the United States overrun by the Indians ofa hundred and fifty years ago, as the German tribes overran the RomanEmpire, and becoming the rulers of a people superior to them in numbersand intellect, we should have something analogous to the Roman situation. 

[7] As allies, citizens, soldiers, colonists, and slaves the Germans hadlong been filtering into the Roman world, and the Roman world was in partGermanized before the barriers were broken. These German-Romans helped toassimilate the Germans who came later, much as Italian-Americans in theUnited States help to receive and assimilate new Italians when they come. 

[8] "The historical importance of the mere fact that it was an organicunity which Rome established, and not simply a collection of fragmentsartificially held together by military force, that the civilized world wasmade, as it were, one nation, cannot be overstated.... It was a union, notin externals merely, but in every department of thought and action; and itwas so thorough, and the Gaul became so completely a Roman, that when theRoman government disappeared he had no idea of being anything else than aRoman.... It was because of this that, despite the fall of Rome, Romaninstitutions were perpetual. " (Adams, G. B. , _Civilization during theMiddle Ages_, 2d ed. , p. 30. )

[9] A Germanic king, when he feared no Roman general or emperor, couldusually be made to stand in awe when a Christian priest or bishop appealedto Heaven and the saints, and threatened him with eternal hell-fire if hedid not do his bidding. 

[10] The Church, it must be remembered, maintained its separate system ofgovernment and kept up the old forms of the Roman law. It had also itscourts and its exemptions for the clergy, and these it forced thebarbarians to respect. During half a dozen centuries it was the chiefforce that made life tolerable for myriads of men and women, and almostthe only force upholding any semblance of humane ideals. 

[11] Clotilda, wife of the heathen Clovis, was a Burgundian princess and adevout Christian, who had long tried to persuade her husband to accept herfaith. In 496, during a battle with the Alemanni, near the present city ofStrassburg, Clovis vowed that if the God of Clotilda would give himvictory, he would do as she desired. The Alemanni were crushed, and he andthree thousand of his chiefs were at once baptized. 

[12] Draper, John W. , _Intellectual Development of Europe_, vol. II, pp. 145-46. 

[13] The extent of the Benedictine order alone may be seen from theBenedictine statement that "Pope John XXII, who died in 1334, after anexact inquiry, found that, since the first rise of the order, there hadbeen of it 24 popes, near 200 cardinals, 7000 archbishops, 15, 000 bishops, 15, 000 abbots of renown, above 4000 saints, and upwards of 37, 000monasteries. There had been likewise, of this order, 20 emperors, 10empresses, 47 kings and above 50 queens, 20 sons of emperors and 48 sonsof kings, about 100 princesses and daughters of kings and emperors, besides dukes, marquises, earls, countesses, etc. , innumerable. " From thisit may be inferred how fully the Church was the State during the longperiod of the Middle Ages. 

[14] Draper, John W. , _Intellectual Development of Europe_, vol. I, p. 437. 

CHAPTER VI

[1] From the sixth to the twelfth centuries. 

[2] The story which has come down to us of the German warrior who, onbeing shown into an anteroom, saw some ducks swimming in the floor anddashed his battle-axe at them to see if they were real, thus ruining thebeautiful mosaic, is typical of the time. 

[3] During the period of Rome's greatness the publishing business becamean important one. Manuscripts were copied in numbers by trained writers, and books were officially published. Both public and private librariesbecame common, men of wealth often having large libraries. These werefound in the provincial towns as well as in the large Italian cities, andin country villas as well as in town houses. 

By the beginning of the eighth century books had become so scarce thatmonasteries guarded their treasures with great care (R. 65), and bookswere borrowed from long distances that copies might be made. 

[4] Charlemagne (King of Frankland, 768-814), for example, found itnecessary to order that priests and monks must show themselves capable ofchanging the wording of the masses for the living and the dead, ascircumstances required, from singular to plural, or from masculine tofeminine. 

[5] Longfellow's poem _Monte Cassino_ is interesting reading here. OfBenedict he says:

 "He founded here his Convent and his Rule Of prayer and work, and counted work as prayer; The pen became a clarion, and his school Flamed like a beacon in the midnight air. "

[6] Sometimes as early as eleven to twelve years of age. The novitiatecourse was two years, but as the vows could not be taken before eighteen, the course of instruction often covered six to eight years. 

[7] To teach a novice to copy accurately a manuscript book was quite adifferent thing from the teaching of writing to-day, It was more nearlycomparable to present-day instruction in lettering in a collegeengineering course, as it called for a degree of workmanship and accuracynot required in ordinary writing. 

[8] The Vulgate, a Latin translation of the Bible made by Saint Jerome, atthe close of the fourth century. The Old Testament he translated mostlyfrom the Hebrew and Chaldaic, and the New Testament he revised from theolder Latin versions. This is the only version of the Scriptures which theRoman Catholic Church admits as authentic. 

[9] Letters from one monastery to another, and from one country toanother, begging the loan of some ancient book, have been preserved innumbers. Lupus, Abbot of Ferrières in France, for example, wrote to Romein 855, and addressing himself to the Pope in person, requested a completecopy of Cicero's _De Oratore_, which he desired. 

[10] The Missal is a book containing the service of the mass for theentire year. The Psalter the book of Psalms. 

[11] From _manu scriptum_, meaning written by hand. 

[12] So expensive of time and effort was the production of books by thismethod that many of the manuscripts now extant were written crosswise onsheets from which the previous writing had been largely erased by chemicalor mechanical means. How many valuable ancient manuscripts were lost inthis manner no one knows. Fortunately the practice was not common untilafter the thirteenth century, when the rise of the universities and thespread of learning made new demands for skins for writing purposes. 

[13] That the printing was not always carefully done is shown by theconstant need, throughout the Middle Ages, of correct copies forcomparison. The following injunction of the Abbot Alcuin to the monks atTours, given at the beginning of the ninth century, is illustrative of theneed for care in copying:

 "Here let the scribes sit who copy out the words of the Divine Law, and likewise the hallowed sayings of Holy Fathers. Let them beware of interspersing their own frivolities in the words they copy, nor let a trifler's hand make mistakes through haste. Let them earnestly seek out for themselves correctly written books to transcribe, that the flying pen may speed along the right path. Let them distinguish the proper sense by colons and commas, and set the points, each one in its due place, and let not him who reads the words to them either read falsely or pause suddenly. It is a noble work to write out holy books, nor shall the scribe fail of his due reward. Writing books is better than planting vines, for he who plants a vine serves his belly, but he who writes a book serves his soul. "

[14] West, A. F. , _Alcuin_, pp. 72-73. 

[15] The largest monastic library on the Continent was Fulda, whichspecialized in the copying of manuscripts. In 1561 it had 774 volumes. InEngland the largest collections were at Canterbury, which in thefourteenth century possessed 698 volumes, and at Peterborough, which had344 volumes at about the same time. The library of Croyland, also inEngland, burned in 1091, at that time contained approximately 700 volumes. These represented the largest collections in Europe. 

[16] The _Hortus Delicarum_ of the Abbess Herrard, of the convent ofHohenburg, in Alsace, was a famous illustration of artistic workmanship. This was an attempt to embody, in encyclopaedic form, the knowledge of hertime. The manuscript was embellished with hundreds of beautiful pictures, and was long preserved as a wonderful exhibition of mediaeval skill. Itwas lost to civilization, along with many other treasures, when thePrussians bombarded Strassburg, in 1870. 

[17] He there "enjoyed advantages which could not perhaps have been foundanywhere else in Europe at the time--perfect access to all the existingsources of learning in the West. Nowhere else could he acquire at once theIrish, the Roman, the Gallician, and the Canterbury learning; theaccumulated stores of books which Benedict (founder and abbot) had boughtat Rome and at Vienne; or the disciplinary instruction drawn from themonasteries on the Continent, as well as from Irish missionaries. " (BishopStubbs, _Dictionary of Christian Biography_, article on Bede. )

[18] West, A. F. , _Alcuin_, pp. 45-47. 

[19] _Annals of Xanten_, 846 A. D. 

[20] _Ibid. _, 851 A. D. 

[21] _Annals of Saint Vaast_, 884 A. D. 

[22] It is related that ignorant court officials, fearing the king'sdispleasure, sought to learn from their children. 

[23] Through Alfred's efforts, the compilation of the _Anglo-SaxonChronicle_ was begun, that the people of England might be able to read thehistory of their country in their own language. 

CHAPTER VII

[1] Anderson tells of a monastic student's notebook on conduct which hasbeen preserved, and which "prescribes that the young man is to kneel whenanswering the Abbot, not to take a seat unasked, not to loll against thewall, nor fidget with things within reach. He is not to scratch himself, nor cross his legs like a tailor. He is to wash his hands before meals, keep his knife sharp and clean, not to seize upon vegetables, and not touse his spoon in the common dish. "

[2] This expression came into common use in the fifth century, when theChristian writers summarized the ancient learning under these sevenheadings or studies, following earlier Greek and Roman classifications. (See p. 70). 

[3] The _Doctrinale_, by Alexander de Villa Die. This was in rhyme, andbecame immensely popular. It was the favorite text until the fifteenthcentury. 

[4] Donatus begins as follows:

 "How many parts of speech are there?" "Eight. "

 "What are they?" "Noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, participle, conjunction, preposition, and interjection. "

 "What is a noun?" "A part of speech with case, signifying a body or thing particularly or commonly. "

 "How many attributes have nouns?" "Six. "

 "What are they?" "Quality, comparison, gender, number, figure, case. "

 Etc. , etc. 

[5] The following from Priscian, reproduced by Graves, illustrates themethod of instruction as applied to the first book of the Aeneid ofVergil. 

 "What part of speech is _arma_?" "A noun. " "Of what sort?" "Common. " "Of what class?" "Abstract. " "Of what gender?" "Neuter. " "Why neuter?" "Because all nouns whose plurals end in _a_ are neuter. " "Why is not the singular used?" "Because this noun expresses many different things. " Etc. , etc. 

This form of textbook writing was common, not only during the Middle Ages, but well into modern times. The famous _New England Primer_ was in part inthis form, and many early American textbooks in history and geography werewritten after this plan. 

[6] Vergil, due to his beautiful poetic form and to his love of nature andlife, was especially guarded against during the early Middle Ages as themost seductive of the ancient Latin writers. It is not at allinappropriate that, in Dante's _Inferno_, Vergil should have been theperson to guide Dante through hell and purgatory, but should not have beenallowed to accompany him into paradise. 

[7] Textbooks on the art of letter-writing began to appear by the eleventhcentury, explaining in detail how to prepare the five divisions of aletter: (1) the salutation (_salutatio_), (2) the art of introducing thesubject properly and making a good impression (_captatio benevolentiae_), (3) the body of the letter (_narratio_), (4) how to make the request(_petitio_), and (5) a fitting conclusion (_conclusio_). 

[8] Anderson reproduces a portion of a chapter by Capella on the numberfour, which is illustrative of the mediaeval study of the properties ofnumber:

 "What shall I call four? in which is a certain perfection of solidarity; for it is composed of length and depth, and a full decade is made up from those four numbers added together in order, that is, from one, two, three, four. Similarly a hundred is made up of the four decades, that is, ten, twenty, thirty, forty, which are a hundred; and again four numbers from a hundred on amount to a thousand, that is, 100, 200, 300, 400. So ten thousand is made up of another series. What is to be said of the fact that there are four seasons of the year, four quarters of the heavens, and four principles of the elements? There are also four ages of man, four vices, and four virtues. "

[9] Anderson reproduces a paragraph from Maurus, showing how number wasapplied to Holy Writ. It reads:

 "A real thinker, " says Maurus, "will not pass on indifferently when he reads that Moses, Elijah, and our Lord fasted forty days. Without strict observance and investigation the matter cannot be explained. The number 40 contains the number 10 four times, by which all is signified which concerns the temporal. For, according to the number 4, the days and the seasons run their course. The day consists of morning, midday, evening, and night, the year of spring, summer, autumn, winter. Further, we have the number 10 to recognize God and the creature. The three (trinity) indicated the Creator; the seven, the creature which consists of body and spirit. In the latter is the three: for we must love God with our whole heart and soul and mind. In the body, on the other hand, the four elements of which it consists reveal themselves clearly. So if we are moved through that which is signified by the number 10 to live in time--for 10 is taken four times--chaste, withholding ourselves from worldly lusts, that means to fast forty days. So the Holy Scriptures contain suggestively in many different numbers all sorts of secrets which must remain hidden to those who do not understand the meaning of numbers. "

[10] Gerbert (953-1003) was one of the most learned monks of his day, having studied in the Saracen schools of Spain. He afterwards became PopeSylvester II (999-1003). Because of his scientific knowledge in an age ofsuperstition he was accused of transactions with the devil. 

[11] For example, the _Stabat Mater_ and the _Dies Irae_, two thirteenth-century hymns. The former has been called the most pathetic and the latterthe most sublime of all mediaeval poems. 

[12] Cassiodorus was an educated later Roman, who had been chief ministerto Theodoric, the Ostrogothic king, and had done much to carry over Latinlearning and civilization into the new régime. He later founded themonastery of Viviers, in southern Italy, and spent the latter part of hislife there in writing and contemplation. He urged the monks to study, andthose who had no head for learning he advised to read Cato and Columellaon agriculture, and then to devote themselves to it. 

[13] "Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars. "(Proverbs, IX, 1. )

[14] Abelson, in his monograph on _The Seven Liberal Arts_, reduces eachof these textbooks to their equivalent in a modern 16mo printed page, withthe following results:

 Cassi- Capella Boethius odorus Isidore Alcuin Maurus Subject (c. 425) (c. 520) (c. 575) (c. 630) (c. 800) (c. 844) /Grammar...... 11 -- 25 50 54 55 |Rhetoric..... 14 -- 5-1/2 14 26 -- \Dialectic.... 11 -- 18 14 25 -- /Arithmetic... 11 40 2 2 -- -- |Geometry..... 15 30 2 1 -- -- |Astronomy.... 9 -- 15 3 23 60 \Music........ 11 67 2 12 -- -- --- --- --- --- --- --- Totals in pages 82 137 69-1/2 96 128 115

[15] The mediaeval serf was the successor of the Roman slave, and was astep upward in the process of the evolution of the free man. The serf wastied to the soil and by obligations of personal service to the lord. Gradually, due to economic causes, the personal service was changed fromgeneral to definite service, and finally to a fixed rental sum. When afixed money payment took the place of personal service the free man hadbeen evolved. This took place rapidly with the rise of cities and industrytoward the latter part of the Middle Ages. 

[16] The German private duel and the American fist fight are the modernsurvivals of the time when personal insults, easily taken, and privategrievances were settled in the "noble way" by sword and battle-axe andtorch. 

[17] In the earlier days of noblemen's education reading and writing wereregarded as effeminate, but in the later times the nobles becameincreasingly literate. By the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries many beganto pride themselves on their patronage of learning. 

[18] Rhyming in the vernacular language came to be an important part ofthe training, and many old love songs and songs expressing the joy of lifedate from this period. Chaucer's knight is described as:

 "Syngynge he was or floytynge [playing], al the day; He was as fressh as is the monthe of May. Short was his gowne, with sleves longe and wyde. Wel cowde he sitte on hors and faire ryde; He cowde songes make and wel endite, Juste and eek daunce, and wel purtreye and write. So hote he loved, that by nighterdale [night time] He slept no more than doth the nightingale. "

[19] From the life of the Frankish Abbot, John of Gorze, Abbot at Gorze inthe tenth century. 

[20] Leach, A. F. , _Educational Charters_, p. 143. 

[21] _Ibid. _, p. 147. 

[22] Anselm (1033-1109), Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109, formulated the early mediaeval view when he said:

 "I do not seek to know in order that I may believe, but I believe in order that I may know. "

 "The Christian ought to advance to knowledge through faith, not to come to faith through knowledge. "

 "The proper order demands that we believe the deep things of Christian faith before we presume to reason about them. "

[23] Monroe, Paul, _Text-Book in the History of Education_, p. 258. 

CHAPTER VIII

[1] "In the school of Nisibis the Church possessed an institution, whichfor centuries secured her a system of higher education, and therewith animportant social and political position. To the older literature, consisting of translations, there was added, from the middle of the fifthcentury onward, a large number of philosophical, scientific, and medicaltreatises belonging to Greek antiquity, and especially the works ofAristotle. Through these Greek wisdom and learning, clothed in Syrianattire, found a home on these borders of Christendom. " (Müller, D. K. , _Kirchengeschichte_, vol. I, p. 278. )

[2] "By the year 600 A. D. The triumph of the oriental element inChristendom had well-nigh banished learning and education from the domainof the Church, giving place to a gloomy, unquestioning faith which sankever deeper and deeper in the mire of superstition. What enlightenmentsurvived had found a home beyond the limits of the Roman Empire, --inIreland, in the extreme West; in Syria, in the far East. " (Davidson, Thomas, _History of Education_, p. 133. )

[3] This was determined as being 56-1/3 miles, which would make thecircumference of the earth 20, 280 miles. The correct distance is 69 miles. 

[4] The fanaticism of the eastern Arabs now reasserted itself, and highereducation In the Mohammedan countries of the East drew permanently to aclose. A harsh, rigid orthodoxy, fatal to educational progress, nowtriumphed. The coming of the Turks only made matters worse, and with theiradvent education throughout Arabia and Asia Minor became a thing of thepast. Some day it will be the task of western Europe to hand back schoolsand learning to the Mohammedan East. This may be one of the by-products ofthe great World War. 

[5] The Alhambra, built between 1238 and 1354, at Granada, is an exquisiteexample of their art. (See plate in vol. 1, p. 658, of the _EncyclopaediaBritannica_, 11th ed. , for an illustration of their architecture and art. )

[6] It was an age of superstition and miracles, diabolic influences, witchcraft and magic, private warfare, trials by ordeal, robber bands, little dirty towns, no roads, unsanitary conditions, and miserable homes. Even the nobility had few comforts and conveniences, and personalcleanliness was not common. Disease was punishment for sin and to be curedby prayer, while the insane were scourged to cast out the devils withinthem. 

[7] Frederic II was Emperor of the mediaeval Holy Roman Empire, rulingfrom 1227 to 1250. Though a German by birth, he had lived long in Sicily, and spent most of his time in Italy after becoming Emperor. He greatlyadmired the Saracens for their learning, and tried to transfer some oftheir knowledge to Christian Europe. He lived, however, at a time when thePapacy was cementing its temporal power and the Pope was becoming theEmperor of Europe. This encroachment Frederick resisted and tried tobreak, but without success. At his death the mediaeval German dream ofworld empire perished; Germany was left a collection of feudal States; andthe temporal power of the Pope was henceforth for centuries to comeundisputed. 

[8] Christianity had not as yet been introduced among the mixed Slavic andGermanic tribes along the eastern Baltic. In Prussia and Lithuania, wheremissionary efforts had been made from 900 on, success did not come untilmore than three centuries later. (See art. "Missions, " _Ency. Brit. _, 11thed. , vol. 18. )

[9] The more important questions arising concerned the Trinity, theEucharist, and Transubstantiation. 

[10] This discussion was over what was known as nominalism vs. Realism. Anselm of Canterbury (1034-1109), basing his argument largely on someparts of Plato, had declared that ideas constituted our real existence. Roscellinus of Compiègne (1050-1105), basing his argument on parts of the_Organon_ of Aristotle, had held that ideas or concepts are only names forreal, concrete things. Anselm, as a realist, contended that the humansenses are deceptive, and that revealed truth alone is reliable. Roscellinus, as a nominalist, held that truth can be reached only throughinvestigation and the use of reason. The church accepted the realism ofAnselm as correct, and Roscellinus was compelled to recant. The stiflingeffect of such an attitude toward honest doubt can be imagined. 

[11] McCabe, Joseph, _Peter Abelard_, p. 7. 

[12] By the beginning of the eleventh century this cathedral school hadbecome the most important in France, a position which it retained forcenturies. It was the great center for theological study, and drew to it asuccession of eminent teachers--William of Champeaux, Abelard, Peter theLombard--and, in time, thousands of students. 

[13] The term _scholasticism_ comes from _scholasticus_, because it waschiefly in the cathedral schools that scholasticism arose. It means, literally, the method of thinking worked out by the teachers in thecathedral schools. 

[14] The English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) once said that when heconsidered the inertness of the Middle Ages he was led to think that Godhad been content to make man a two-legged animal, leaving to Aristotle thetask of making him a thinking being. The worship of Aristotle is easilyexplained by the great amount of information his works contained, hislogical method and skillful classification of knowledge, and the way hisideas as to causes fitted into Christian reasoning. 

[15] The Dominicans, or Black Friars, were a new teaching and preachingmonastic order, founded in 1216. It was a revival of monasticism, directedtoward more modern ends. The Dominicans established themselves inconnection with the new universities, and sought to control education andto defend orthodoxy. Another new order of this same period was that of theFranciscans, or Gray Friars, founded by Saint Francis in 1212. Their workwas directed still more to preaching, missions, and public service. Theywere a less intellectual but a more democratic brotherhood. It was theFranciscans who followed the armies of Spain to Mexico, and later builtand conducted the missions of the central and southern California coast. 

[16] Special translations of Aristotle's _Rhetoric_ and _Politics_, fromthe original Greek texts, obtained at Constantinople by the Crusaders, were made for Thomas Aquinas at his special request, about 1260, byWilliam of Moerbeke, who knew enough Greek to perform the task. This gavehim better translations from which to lecture and write. 

[17] In 529 the Eastern Emperor, Justinian (see p. 76), directed that anorderly compilation be prepared of the many and confused laws anddecisions which had been made in the Roman Empire, with a view toproducing a standard body of Roman law in place of the unwieldy mass ofcontradictory material then existing. The result was the _Corpus JurisCivilis_, worked out by a staff of eminent lawyers between 529 and 533 (R. 93). This consisted of

 I. The _Code_, in twelve books, containing the Statutes of the Emperors;

 II. The _Digest_, in fifty books, containing pertinent extracts from the opinions of celebrated Roman lawyers;

 III. The _Institutes_, in four books, being an elementary textbook on the law for the use of students;

 IV. The _Novellae_, or new Statutes, the final edition of which was issued in 565, and included the laws from 533 on. This was preserved and used in the East, but came too late to be of much service to the Western Empire. 

[18] The subdivisions were as follows: I. Contained 106 "distinctions, "relating to ecclesiastical persons and affairs. II. Contained 36"distinctions, " relating to problems arising in the administration ofcanon law. III. Contained 5 "distinctions, " relating to the ritual andsacraments of the Church. 

[19] The additions were:

 I. The _Decretals_ of Pope Gregory IX, issued in 1234, in five books. II. A Supplement to the above by Pope Boniface VIII (_Liber Sextus_), issued in 1298. III. The _Constitutions_ of Clementine, issued in 1317. IV. Several additions of Papal Laws, not included in any of the above. 

[20] He held that the body contained four humors--blood, phlegm, yellowbile, and black bile. Disease was caused by an undue accumulation of someone of the four. Hence the office of the physician was to reduce thisaccumulation by some means such as blood-letting, purging, blisters, diaphoretics, etc. In the monastery of Saint Gall (see Diagram, R. 69) ablood-letting room was a part of the establishment, and this practice wascontinued until well into the nineteenth century. 

[21] Galen was born at Pergamon, in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian. Hestudied medicine at Pergamon, Smyrna, and Alexandria, and for a time livedin Rome. Returning to Pergamon he was appointed physician to the athletesin the gymnasium there. He later went back to Rome and became physician tothe Emperor Marcus Aurelius. He is credited with five hundred works onliterature, philosophy, and medicine, one hundred and eighteen of whichhave survived. In medicine he wrote on anatomy, physiology, diagnosis, pathology, therapeutics, materia medica, surgery, hygiene, and dietetics. He was the first to use the pulse as a means of detecting physicalcondition. 

[22] Saint Augustine, _The City of God_, book xxii, chap. 24. 

[23] Often spoken of as Constantius Africanus. It is recorded that hestudied the arts in Babylon, visited Egypt and India, and returned to hishome in Carthage one of the most learned men of his age. Suspected ofdealings with the Devil he fled to Salernum (c. 1065), taught there formany years, published many medical works of his own, and finally retiredto the monastery of Monte Cassino, dying there in 1087. 

[24] In 1064 a company of seven thousand is said to have started for theHoly Land. 

[25] Adams, G. B. , _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, 2d ed. , p. 261. 

[26] "From Clermont the enthusiasm spread over France like wildfire. Stirring preachers, whereof the most notable was Peter the Hermit, set allFrance, peasant and noble, to arming. It was the old gospel of Mohammedrecast in Christian guise:--pardon for sin and the spoils of the infidelif victorious!--a swift road to heaven if slain in the battle! Pressedwith this hope and enthusiasm, armies to be reckoned by the hundreds ofthousands were launched upon the East. " (Davis, W. S. , _Mediaeval andModern Europe_, p. 95). 

[27] Of the thousands of petty lords and knights who went to the hot East, clad in the heavy armor of northern Europe, large numbers left their bonesalong the way or in the Syrian sands, and the landholdings at homereverted to the Crown. This was a crushing blow to the old feudal regime, advanced the cause of civilization, and helped in the rise of the modernnations. Especially was this true in France and England, whose knightswent in large numbers to the East. In Germany the knights and nobles, as aclass, refused to have anything to do with the Crusades, and hence theywere not killed off or impoverished, but remained to rule and multiply andbe troublesome. This is one reason for the much earlier rise and greaterstrength of French than German nationality, and one reason why Germany hasbeen so much slower than France and England in developing a democratictype of civilization. 

[28] "As presented to the eye, a typical mediaeval city would be aremarkable sight. Its extent would be small, both because of the limitedpopulation, and the need of making the circuit of the walls to be defendedas short as possible; but within these walls the huge, many-storied houseswould be wedged closely together. The narrow streets would be dirty andill-paved--often beset by pigs in lieu of scavengers; but everywhere therewould be bustling human life with every citizen elbowing close toeverybody else. Out of the foul streets here and there would rise parishchurches of marvelous architecture, and in the center of the town extendedthe great square--market-place--where the open-air markets would be held, and close by it, dwarfing the lesser churches, the tall gray cathedral--the pride of the community; close by, also, the City Hall, an elegantsecular edifice, where the council met, where the great public feastscould take place, and above which rose the mighty belfry, whence clangedthe great alarm-bell to call the citizens together in mass meeting, or todon armor and man the walls. " (Davis, W. S. , _Mediaeval and ModernEurope_, p. 146. )

[29] In Italy, in particular, the cities became strong and powerful, andeventually overthrew the rule of the bishops and defeated the GermanEmperor, Frederick I, in a long battle to preserve their independence. InFlanders such cities as Ypres, Bruges, and Ghent, came to dominate there. In 1302 their burghers defeated the French army; and in the sixteenthcentury they helped to break the autocratic power of Spain in a greatstruggle for human and civic freedom. By the thirteenth century Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen, Augsburg, and Nuremburg were important commercial citiesin Germany. 

[30] They came there because, due to their plundering and murderingproclivities, Venice forbade her merchants to go to them. 

[31] So poor were the mediaeval bridges that the old prayer-bookscontained formulas for "commending one's soul to God ere starting to crossa bridge. "

[32] The peasants were of two classes: (1) serfs, who were not free andwho were attached to the soil, but unlike slaves had plots of land oftheir own and could not be sold off the land; and (2) villeins, who werepersonally free, but still were bound to their lord for much menialservice and for many payments in produce and money. 

[33] The Church originally held many serfs and villeins, as did thenobles. It began the process of setting them free, encouraging others todo likewise. In time it became common, as it did in our Southern Statesbefore the Civil War, for nobles in dying to set free a certain number oftheir serfs and villeins. These went as free men to the rising cities. 

[34] The mediaeval guild was an important institution, and the guild ideawas applied to many forms of mediaeval associations. Thus we read ofguilds of notaries in Florence, pleaders' and attorneys' guilds in London, medical guilds and barber-surgeons' guilds in various cities, and of thebook-writers-and-sellers' guild in Paris. In a religious pageant given atYork, England, on Corpus Christi Day, 1415, fifty-one different localguilds presented each a scene. (See Cheyney, E. P. , _English Towns andGilds. _, Pa. Sources, vol. II, no. I. )

[35] "The ready money of the merchant was as effective a weapon as thesword of the noble, or the spiritual arms of the Church. Very speedily, also, the men of the cities began to seize upon one of the weapons whichup to that time had been the exclusive possession of the Church, and oneof the main sources of its power, --knowledge and intellectual training. With these two weapons in its hands, wealth and knowledge, the ThirdEstate forced its way into influence, and compelled the other two(Estates) to recognize it as a partner with themselves in the managementof public concerns. " (Adams, G. B. , _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, 2d ed. P. 299. )

[36] In Hamburg, for example, the city council established four writingschools in 1402, to which the church authorities objected. The councilrefused to give them up, and for this was laid under the ban of theChurch, compelled to recede, admit that it had no right to establish suchschools, and pay the costs involved in the contest. 

[37] For example, the three most widely read books of the thirteenthcentury were _Reynard the Fox_, a profoundly humorous animal epic; _TheGolden Legend_, which so deeply impressed Longfellow; and the _Romance ofthe Rose_, for three centuries the most read book in Europe. 

[38] Despite all the criticisms one may offer against business, commercehas always been a great civilizing force. While not anxious to pay heavytaxes, the merchant has always been willing to pay what has been necessaryto support a public power capable of maintaining order and security forproperty. Feudal turmoil, private warfare, and plundering are deadly foesof commerce, and these have come to an end where commerce and industryhave gained the ascendant. 

[39] As a rule a master craftsman might teach his trade to all his sons, but could have only one other apprentice who received board, lodging, clothing, and training, as one of the family. The guild still supervisedthe apprentice, protecting him from bad usage or defective training by themaster. 

[40] This required the production of a "masterpiece. " This piece of workhad to be produced to prove high competency. For example, in theshoemakers' guild of Paris, a pair of boots, three pairs of shoes, and apair of slippers, all done in the best possible manner, were required. 

[41] Of thirty-three guilds investigated by Leach, all maintained songschools, and twenty-eight maintained a grammar school as well. In London, Merchant Taylors' School, Stationers' School, and the Mercers' School arepresent-day survivals of these ancient guild foundations. 

CHAPTER IX

[1] By the twelfth century the cathedral schools had passed the monasticschools in importance, and had obtained a lead which they were ever afterto retain (R. 71). 

[2] As contrasted with the monasteries, which were under a "Rule. " Theopportunities offered by such open institutions in the Middle Ages canhardly be overestimated. 

[3] Frederick I, of the mediaeval Holy Roman Empire of Germany and Italy. 

[4] "No individual during the Middle Ages was secure in his rights, evenof life or property, certainly not in the enjoyment of ordinary freedom, unless protected by specific guarantees secured from some organization. Politically, one must owe allegiance to some feudal lord from whomprotection was received; economically, one must secure his rights throughmerchant or craft guild; intellectual interests and educational activitieswere secured and controlled by the Church. " (Monroe, P. , _Text Book in theHistory of Education_, p. 317. )

[5] At first the older institutions organized themselves without charter, securing this later, while the institutions founded after 1300 usuallybegan with a charter from pope or king, and sometimes from both (R. 100). 

[6] The degree of master was originally the license to practice theteaching trade, and analogous to a master shoemaker, goldsmith, or othermaster craftsmen. 

[7] "The universities, then, at their origins, were merely academicassociations, analogous, as societies of mutual guaranty, to thecorporations of working men, the commercial leagues, the trade-guildswhich were playing so great a part at the same epoch; analogous also, bythe privileges granted to them, to the municipal associations andpolitical communities that date from the same time. " (Compayré, G. , _Abelard and the Rise of the Universities_, p. 33. )

[8] "M. Bimbenet, in his _History of the University of Orleans_ (Paris, 1853) reproduces several articles from the statutes of the guilds, theprovisions of which are identical with those contained in the statutes ofthe universities. " (_Ibid. _, p. 35. )

[9] Bologna and Paris were the great "master" universities of thethirteenth century, while those founded on a model of either were more inthe nature of "journeymen" institutions. 

[10] Between 1600 and 1700, although most of the cities capable ofsupporting universities were provided with them, twenty-one more werecreated, chiefly in Germany and Holland. The first American university(Harvard) was established in 1636, and the second (Yale) in 1702. In theeighteenth and nineteenth centuries, without counting the United States orany western-hemisphere country, forty more were created. Among theimportant nineteenth-century creations were Berlin, 1810; Christiana, 1811; St. Petersburg, 1819; Brussels, 1834; London, 1836; and Athens, 1836. 

[11] See Compayré, G. , _Abelard_, pp. 87-90 for list of these "strikes. "

[12] "It is impossible to fix the period at which the system of degreesbegan to be organized. Things were done slowly. At the outset, and untiltowards the end of the twelfth century, there existed nothing resembling areal conferring of degrees in the rising universities. In order to teachit was necessary to have a respondent, a master authorized by age andknowledge.... 

"The 'license to teach, ' nevertheless, became by slow degrees, as masterand pupils multiplied, a preliminary condition of teaching, a sort ofdiploma more and more requisite, and of which the bishops (or theirrepresentatives, the chancellors) were the dispensers. Up to thefourteenth century there was hardly any other clearly-defined universitytitle. " (Compayré, G. , _Abelard_, pp. 142-43. )

[13] "It is manifest that the universities borrowed from the industrialcorporations their 'companionships, ' their 'masterships, ' and even theirbanquets; a great repast being the ordinary sequel of the reception of thebaccalaureate or doctorate. " (Compayré, G. , _Abelard_, p. 141. )

[14] The term professor has become general in its significance, and isused in all countries. In England the term master was retained for thehigher degree, while in Germany the term doctor was retained, and thedoctorate made their one degree. America followed the English plan in theestablishment of the early colleges, and the degree of A. B. And A. M. Wereprovided for. Later, when the German university influence became prominentin the United States, the doctor's degree was superimposed on the Englishplan. 

[15] At Paris, for example, there were four nations--France, Picardy, Normandy, and England. These were again divided into tribes, as forexample, there were five tribes of the French--Paris, Sens, Rheims, Tours, and Bourges. Orleans had ten nations--France, Germany, Lorraine, Burgundy, Champagne, Picardy, Normandy, Touraine, Guyenne, and Scotland. In thosedays these represented separate nationalities, who little understood oneanother, and carried their constant quarrels up to the very lecturebenches of the professors. 

[16] A contemporary writer, Jacobus de Vitriaco, has left us an account ofstudent life at Paris, in which he says:

 "The students at Paris wrangled and disputed not merely about the various sects or about some discussions; but the differences between the countries also caused dissensions, hatreds and virulent animosities among them, and they impudently uttered all kinds of affronts and insults against one another. 

 "They affirmed that the English were drunkards and had tails; the sons of France proud, effeminate and carefully adorned like women. They said that the Germans were furious and obscene at their feasts; the Normans vain and boastful; the Poitevins traitors and always adventurers. The Burgundians they considered vulgar and stupid. The Bretons were reputed to be fickle and changeable, and were often reproached for the death of Arthur. The Lombards were called avaricious, vicious and cowardly; the Romans, seditious, turbulent and slanderous; the Sicilians, tyrannical and cruel; the inhabitants of Brabant, men of blood, incendiaries, brigands and ravishers; the Flemish, fickle, prodigal, gluttonous, yielding as butter, and slothful. After such insults from words they often came to blows. " (Pa. Trans. And Repts. From _Sources_, vol. II, no. 3, pp. 19-20. )

[17] In an American university the term _college_ or _school_ has largelyreplaced the term _faculty_; in Europe the term _faculty_ is still used. Thus we say College of Liberal Arts, or School of Law, instead of Facultyof Arts, etc. 

[18] For example, one of our modern state universities is organized intothe following faculties, schools, and colleges:

 (1) college of liberal arts; (2) school of medicine; (3) school of law; (4) school of fine arts; (5) school of pure science; (6) college of engineering; (7) college of agriculture; (8) school of history, economics, and social sciences; (9) school of business administration; (10) college of education; (11) school of household arts; (12) school of pharmacy; (13) school of veterinary medicine; (14) school of library science; (15) school of forestry; (16) school of sanitary engineering; (17) the graduate school; and (18) the university-extension division. 

[19] "He was called 'The Philosopher'; and so fully were scholarsconvinced that it had pleased God to permit Aristotle to say the last wordupon each and every branch of knowledge that they humbly accepted him, along with the Bible, the church fathers, and the canon and Roman law, asone of the unquestioned authorities which together formed a complete guidefor humanity in conduct and in every branch of science. " (Robinson, J. H. , _History of Western Europe_, p. 272. )

[20] This tendency increased with time, due both to the development ofsecondary schools which could give part of the preparation, and to theincreasing number of students who came to the university for cultural orprofessional ends and without intending to pass the tests for themastership and the license to teach. Finally the arts course was reducedto three or four years (the usual college course), and the master's degreeto one, and for the latter even residence was waived during the middle ofthe nineteenth century. The A. M. Degree has recently been rehabilitatedand now usually signifies a year of hard study in English and Americanuniversities, though a few eastern American institutions still play withit or even grant it as an honorary degree. In Germany the arts coursedisappeared, being given to the secondary schools entirely in the lateeighteenth century, and the universities now confer only the degree ofdoctor. 

[21] For a list of the books used in the faculty of medicine atMontpellier, in 1340, see Rashdall, H. , _Universities of Europe in theMiddle Ages_, vol. II, pt. I, p. 123; pt. II, p. 780. 

[22] After the latter part of the thirteenth century the book-writing andselling trade was organized as a guild industry, and the copying of textsfor sale became common. Then arose the practice of erasing as much of thewriting from old books as could be done, and writing the new bookcrosswise of the page. In this way the expense for parchment was reduced, and in the process many valueless and a few valuable books were destroyed. Still, the cost for books during the days of parchment must have beenhigh. Walsh estimates that "an ordinary folio volume probably cost from400 to 500 francs in our [1914] values, that is, between $80 and $100. "

[23] In Germany the old mediaeval expression has been retained, and theannouncements of instruction there still state that the professor will"read" on such and such subjects, instead of "offer courses, " as we say inthe United States. 

[24] Norton, in his _Readings in the History of Education; MediaevalUniversities_, pp. 59-75, gives an extract from a text (Gratian) and"gloss" by various writers, on the question--"Shall Priests be Acquaintedwith Profane Literature, or No?" which see for a good example of mediaevaluniversity instruction and the manner in which a small amount of knowledgewas spun out by means of a gloss. 

[25] Not many early library catalogues have been preserved, but thosewhich have all show small libraries before the days of printing. AtOxford, where the university was broken up into colleges, each of whichhad its own library, the following college libraries are known to haveexisted: Peterhouse College (1418), 304 volumes; Kings College (1453), 174volumes; Queens College (1472), 199 volumes; University Library (1473), 330 volumes. The last two were just before the introduction of printing. The Peterhouse library (1418) was classified as follows:

 Subject Chained Loanable Theology............ 61 63 Natural Philosophy.. 26 | Moral Philosophy.... 5 | 19 Metaphysics......... 3 | Logic............... 5 15 Grammar............. 6 | Poetry.............. 4 | 13 Medicine............ 15 3 Civil Law........... 9 20 Canon Law........... 18 19 Totals.............. 152 152(Clarke. J. W. , _The Care of Books_, pp. 145, 147. )

[26] Survivals of these old privileges still exist in the Germanuniversities which exercise police jurisdiction over their students andhave a university jail, and in the American college student's feeling ofhaving the right to create a disturbance in the town and break minorpolice regulations without being arrested and fined. 

[27] See Compayré, G. , _Abelard_, p. 201, for illustrations. 

PART III

CHAPTER X

[1] One of the best known of the Troubadours was Arnaul de Marveil. Thefollowing specimen of his art reveals both the new love of nature and thereaction which had clearly set in against the "other-worldliness" of thepreceding centuries:

 "Oh! how sweet the breeze of April, Breathing soft as May draws near, While, through nights of tranquil beauty, Songs of gladness meet the ear: Every bird his well-known language Uttering in the morning's pride. Reveling in joy and gladness By his happy partner's side. 

 "When around me all is smiling, When to life the young birds spring, Thoughts of love I cannot hinder Come, my heart inspiriting- Nature, habit, both incline me In such joy to bear my part: With such sounds of bliss around me Could I wear a sadden'd heart?"

[2] "In the Middle Ages man as an individual had been held of very littleaccount. He was only part of a great machine. He acted only through somecorporation--the commune, guild, the order. He had but little self-confidence, and very little consciousness of his ability single-handed todo great things or overcome great difficulties. Life was so hard andnarrow that he had no sense of the joy of living, and no feeling for thebeauty of the world around him, and, as if this world were not darkenough, the terrors of another world beyond were very near and real. "(Adams, G. B. , _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, 2d ed. , p. 363. )

[3] Adams, G. B. , _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, 2d. Ed. , p. 364. 

[4] Petrarch refused to have the works of the Scholastics in his library. Though a university man, he was out of sympathy with the universitymethods of his time. 

[5] "Florence was essentially the city of intelligence in early moderntimes. Other nations have surpassed the Italians in their genius ... Butnowhere else except at Athens has the whole population of a city been sopermeated with ideas, so highly intellectual by nature, so keen inperception, so witty and so subtle, as at Florence. " (Symonds, J. A. , _TheRenaissance in Italy_. )

[6] Sandys, J. E. , in his _Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning_, pp. 35-41, gives a list of the more important later finds, which see. 

[7] Of the Florentine scholars one of the most famous was Niccolò Niccoli(1363-1436), of whom Sandys says: "Famous for his beautiful penmanship, hewas much more than a copyist. He collected manuscripts, compared andcollated their various readings, struck out the more obvious corruptions, restored the true text, broke it up into convenient paragraphs, addedsuitable summaries at the head of each, and did much toward laying thefoundation of textual criticism. " (Sandys, J. E. , _Harvard Lectures on theRevival of Learning_, p. 39. )

[8] For example, Laurentius Valla (1407-57) of Pavia, exceeded Niccoli inability in textual criticism. He extended this method to the New Testamentand, at the request of King Alphonso, of Naples, subjected the so-called"Donation of Constantine, " a document upon which the Papacy based in partits claims to temporal power, to the tests of textual criticism and showedits historical impossibility. This, indeed, was a new and daring spirit inthe mediaeval world, but it represented the spirit and method of themodern scholar. 

[9] For example, Ciriaco, of Ancona (1391-1450), has been called "theSchliemann of his time. " He spent his life in travel and in copying andediting inscriptions. After exploring Italy, he visited the Greek isles, Constantinople, Ephesos, Crete, and Damascus. One of his contemporaries, Flavio Blondo, of Forli (1388-1463), published a four-volume work on theantiquities and history of Rome and Italy. These two men helped to foundthe new science of classical archaeology. 

[10] Classical scholars assert that Greek became extinct in the Italy ofthe Roman Church in 690 A. D. Greek was taught at Canterbury in the days ofthe learned Theodore, of Tarsus (R. 59 a), who died in 690. Irish monks, who carried Greek from Gaul to Ireland in the fifth century, brought itback in the seventh century to Saint Gall, founded by them in 614. "Johnthe Scot, " an Irish monk who was master of the Palace School under Charlesthe Bald (c. 845-55), is said to have been able to read Greek. RogerBacon, the Oxford monk (1214-94), also knew a little Greek. William ofMoerbeke, in 1260, was able to translate the _Rhetoric_ and _Politics_ ofAristotle for Thomas Aquinas. Greek monks were still found in the extremesouth of Italy at the time of the Renaissance, and Greek has remained aliving language in a few villages there up to the present time. 

[11] Gian Antonio Campano; trans. By J. A. Symonds, _The Renaissance inItaly_, vol. II, p. 249. 

[12] For long it was thought that the revival of the study of Greek in theWest dated from the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, but this idea hasbeen exploded by classical scholars. The events we have enumerated in thischapter show this, and at least five of the important Greek scholars whotaught in Italy came before that date. As the Turks closed in on thiswonderful eastern city, for so long the home of Greek learning andculture, many other Greek scholars fled westward. The principal Greekauthors had, however, been translated into Latin before then. 

[13] Some of the Italian universities participated but little in the newmovement. Bologna and Pavia, in particular, held to their primacy in lawand were but little affected by the revival. 

[14] Bessarion (c. 1403-72), at one time Archbishop of Nicaea andafterwards a cardinal at Rome, is said to have been surrounded by a crowdof Greek and Latin scholars whenever he went out, and who escorted himevery morning from his palace to the Vatican. He was a great patron oflearned Greeks who fled to Italy. On his death he gave his entire libraryof Greek manuscripts to Venice, and this collection formed the foundationof the celebrated library of Saint Mark's. 

[15] Symonds, J. A. , _The Renaissance in Italy_, vol. II, p. 139. 

[16] In 1436, Niccolò de Niccoli, a copyist of Florence, died, leaving hiscollection of eight hundred manuscripts to the Medicean Library for theuse of the public, meaning thereby any scholar. This is said to have beenthe first public-library collection in western Europe. 

[17] Nicholas as a monk had had his enthusiasm for the new movementawakened, and had gone deeply into debt for manuscripts. He was helped byCosimo de' Medici. When he became Pope (1447-55) he collected scholarsabout him, built up the university at Rome, laid the foundations of thegreat Vatican Library, and made Rome a great literary center. After thedeath of Lorenzo the Magnificent at Florence, in 1492, the glory that hadbeen Florence passed to Rome, and it in turn became the cultural center ofChristendom. 

[18] Much earlier, another Oxford man had returned from study underGuarino at Ferrara--William Gray (1449)--but he seems to have made noimpression. A few other scholars went before Linacre and Grocyn and Colet, but these men were the first to attract attention on their return. 

[19] Agricola's real name was Roelof Huysman, meaning "Roelof thehusbandman. " In keeping with a common practice of the time he Latinizedhis name, taking the equivalent Roman word. 

[20] This was bound in two volumes, and in 1911 a copy of it was sold at asale of old books, in New York City, for $50, 000. 

[21] A second edition of this Psalter was printed two years later, andcontains at the end, in Latin, a statement which Robinson translates asfollows: "The present volume of the Psalms, which is adorned with handsomecapitals and is clearly divided by means of rubrics, was produced not bywriting with a pen, but by an ingenious invention of printed characters:and was completed to the glory of God and the honor of Saint James by JohnFust, a citizen of Mayence, and Peter Schoifher of Gernsheim, in the yearof our Lord 1459, on the 29th of August. "

[22] The usual early edition was three hundred copies. 

[23] At Florence about three hundred editions are said to have beenprinted before 1500; at Bologna, 298; at Milan, 625; and at Rome, 925. 

[24] The following numbers of different editions are said to have beenprinted at the northern cities before 1500: Paris, 751; Cologne, 530;Strassburg, 526; Nuremberg, 382; Leipzig, 351; Basel, 320; Augsburg, 256;Louvain, 116; Mayence, 134; Deventer, 169; London, 130; Oxford, 7; SaintAlbans, 4. 

[25] By 1500 it is said that a book could be purchased for the equivalentof fifty cents which a half century before would have cost fifty dollars. 

CHAPTER XI

[1] Much as universities have contributed to intellectual progress, hostility to new types of thinking and to new subjects of study has been, through all time, a characteristic of many of their members, and often ithas required much pressure from progressive forces on the outside toovercome their opposition to new lines of scholarship and public service. 

[2] For a list of these treatises, see Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. V, p. 154. 

[3] The distinguished author, Montaigne, was mayor in 1580. 

[4] This order had begun as an institution for the instruction of thepoor, emphasizing the use of the Bible and the vernacular, but when thenew learning came in from Italy, classical learning was added and theinstruction of the brotherhood became largely humanistic. 

[5] The influence of the old Greek classical terms in this connection isinteresting, and is another evidence of the permanence of Greek ideas. Sturm here adopted the Italian nomenclature, Vittorino da Feltre havingcalled his school a _Gymnasium Palatinum_, or Palace School. Guarino wroteof _gymnasia Italorum_. Both derived the term from the _Gymnasia_ ofancient Greece, just as the academies of the Italian cities took theirname from the _Academy_ of Plato at Athens (p. 44). Another famous Greekschool was the _Lyceum_, founded by Aristotle (p. 44). All these namescame in during the Revival of Learning in Italy, and were applied to thenew classical schools at a time when every term, and even the names ofmen, were given classical form. As a result the Italian secondary schoolsof to-day are known as _ginnasio_, and the German classical secondaryschools as _gymnasia_. The French took their term from the _Lyceum_, hencethe French _lycées_. The English named their classical schools after thechief subject of study, hence the English _grammar schools_. In 1638Milton visited Italy, and was much entertained in Florence by members ofthe academy and university there. In 1644 he published his _Tractate onEducation_, in which he outlined his plan for a series of classical_academies_ for England. Milton was a church reformer, as were thePuritans, and the Puritans, in settling America, brought over first theterm _grammar school_, and later the term _academy_ to England. 

[6] Melanchthon, in his famous Saxony plan of 1528, had provided for butthree classes (R. 161). The class-for-each-year idea was new in Germanlands. 

[7] This became a fixed practice, Latin being the one language of theschool. A century later, when it was attempted by the Jansenists, inFrance, to teach Greek directly through the vernacular, the practice wasloudly condemned by the Jesuits as impious, because it broke theconnection between France and Rome. 

[8] His phrase book, _De Copia Verborum et Rerum_, went through sixtyeditions in his lifetime, and was popular for a century after his death. His book of proverbs, the _Adagia_, was in both Latin and Greek, and waswidely used. His Book of Sayings from the Ancients (_Apophthegmata_) was acollection of little stories, much like some of our best modern books forelementary-school use. His _Colloquies_, or Latin dialogues, were widelyused for two centuries in Protestant countries. These four were writtenbetween 1511 and 1519, and largely for use in Saint Paul's School. HisLatin edition of Theodorus Gaza's Greek Grammar (1516) gave Englishschools for the first time a standard text. 

[9] They were _On the First Liberal Education of Children_ (1529), and _Onthe Order of Study_ (1511). 

[10] His _Praise of Folly_ (1509), and his _Ciceronian_ (1528). 

[11] The introduction of the new learning into the English universitieswas easier than elsewhere, because the English universities had broken upinto groups of residence halls, known as _colleges_. If the old collegescould not be reformed new ones could be created, and this took place. Trinity College, at Cambridge, founded in 1540, was from the first acenter of humanistic studies. That same year the King founded royalprofessorships of Civil Law, Hebrew, and Greek at Cambridge. 

[12] Elizabeth had had for her tutor Roger Ascham, author of _TheScholemaster_, and a teacher of Greek at Cambridge (R. 139). 

[13] For generations this famous grammar was to England what Donatus wasto mediaeval Europe. It was also used in the grammar schools of NewEngland. Lily visited Jerusalem and studied under the best Latin teachersin Rome, so that he ranks with Linacre, Grocyn, and Colet as an introducerof classical culture into England. 

[14] Winchester was the first of the so-called "great public schools" ofEngland, of which Eton, Saint Paul's, Westminster, Harrow, Charterhouse, Rugby, Shrewsbury, and Merchant Taylors' are the other eight. Thefoundation statutes of Winchester made elaborate provision for "a Warden, a Head Master, ten Fellows, three Chaplains, an Usher, seventy scholars, three Chapel Clerks, sixteen Choristers, and a large staff of servants, "as did Henry VIII later on for Canterbury (R. L72 a). The Warden andFellows were the trustees. In addition to the seventy scholars(Foundationers) other non-foundationers (Commoners) were to be admitted toinstruction. The admission requirements were to be "reading, plain song, and Old Donatus, " and the school was to teach Grammar, the first of theLiberal Arts. Except for the change in the nature of the instruction whenthe new learning came in, this and the other "public schools" remainedalmost unchanged until the second half of the nineteenth century. 

[15] Statutes for this school had provided the following entranceregulations: "But first see that they can the Catechisme in English orLatyn, that every one of the said two hundred & fifty schollers can readperfectly & write competently, or els lett them not be admitted in nowise. "

[16] His _The Positions_ (1581), and _The Elementarie_ (1582). See ChapterXVIII. 

[17] Solomon Lowe, in his Grammar, published in 1726, gives a bibliographyof 128 _Phrase Books_ which had appeared by that time. The followingselection from the _Colloquies_ of Corderius (R. 136) illustrates theirnature:

 Col. 7. Clericus Col. 7. Clericus, The Master. Magister. C. Master, may not I and my uncle's Licetne, Magister, ut ego & son go home? patruélis eámus domom? M. To what end? Quid eó? C. To my sister's daughter's wedding. Ad nuptias consobrinae. M. When is she to be married? Quando est nuptura? C. To-morrow. Crástino die. M. Why will you go so quickly? Cur tam citò vultis ire? C. To CHANGE OUR CLOATHS. _Ut mutémus vestimenta_. 

[18] Sturm, Trotzendorf, and Neander insisted on the use of Latin in allconversation in the school, and the Jesuits later on subjected boys to awhipping if reported as having used the vernacular. 

[19] Leach, A. F. , _English Schools at the Reformation_, p. 105. 

CHAPTER XII

[1] Up to this time the only Latin Bible had been the _Vulgate_ (p. 131), translated by Jerome in the fourth century. Erasmus went back to andedited the original Greek manuscripts, and then prepared a new parallelLatin translation, the two being printed side by side. He also added manyexplanations of his own which mercilessly exposed the mistakes of thetheologians and the Church, and pointed out the errors in translationwhich were embodied in the _Vulgate_. This work passed through numerouseditions and sold in thousands of copies all over Europe. 

So dangerous was this comparative method that "Greek was judged aheretical tongue. No one should lecture on the New Testament, it wasdeclared, without a previous theological examination. It was held to beheresy to say that the Greek or Hebrew text read thus, or that a knowledgeof the original language is necessary to interpret the Scripturescorrectly. "

[2] This was accomplished between 1382 and 1384. Wycliffe translated onlya part of the Old Testament, and the Gospels of Saint Matthew and SaintMark of the New. The remainder was done under his direction by others. Thetranslation was from the Latin _Vulgate_, and was crude and imperfect. Thelarge number of copies of parts of this translation which have survived, in manuscript form, to the present time show that it must have awakenedmuch interest, and been widely copied and recopied during the centurybefore the invention of printing. 

[3] The heretic, it should be remembered, was the anarchist of the MiddleAges. The Church regarded heresy as a crime, worthy of the most severepunishments. The Church and the civil governments proceeded against theheretic as against an enemy of society and order. Heretics could not giveevidence in a civil court, were prohibited from marrying or from giving ason or daughter in marriage, and even to speak with a heretic was anoffense. Even torture and death were regarded as justified to stamp outheresy. 

[4] "What would have been the result had the Council of Constancesucceeded where it failed? It seems certain that one result would havebeen the formation of a government for the Church like that which wastaking shape at the same time in England--a limited monarchy with alegislature gradually gaining more and more the real control of affairs. It seems almost equally certain that with this the churches of eachnationality would have gained a large degree of local independence, andthe general government of the Church have assumed by degrees the characterof a great federal and constitutional State. If this had been the case, itis hard to see why all the results which were accomplished by thereformation of Luther might not have been attained as completely withoutthe violent disruption of the Church. " (Adams, G. B. , _Civilisation duringthe Middle Ages_, p. 403. )

[5] In 1302 the first "Estates-General" of France supported the King, anddenied the right of the Pope to any supremacy over the State in France. InEngland, about the same time, the right of the Pope to levy taxation onthe English was disputed by King and Parliament. In 1446 William III ofSaxony limited the powers of ecclesiastical courts, and forbade appealsfrom Saxon decisions to any foreign court. 

[6] The London _Academy_, 1893, p. 197, published evidence to show thatthere was a widespread demand among the bishops of Spain for churchreformation, during the fifteenth century, and along the same lines thatLuther advocated later. 

[7] "But all these attempts at reformation in the Church, large and small, had failed, as had those of the early fifteenth century to reform itsgovernment, leaving the Church as thoroughly mediaeval in doctrine and inpractical religion as it was in polity. It was the one power, therefore, belonging to the Middle Ages which still stood unaffected by the newforces and opposed to them. In other directions the changes had been many;here nothing had been changed. And its resisting power was very great. Endowed with large wealth, strong in numbers in every State, with no lackof able and thoroughly trained minds, its interests, as it regarded them, in maintaining the old were enormous, and its power of defending itselfseemed scarcely to be broken.... 

"The Church had remained unaffected by the new forces which hadtransformed everything else. It was still thoroughly mediaeval. Ingovernment, in doctrine, and in life it still placed the greatest emphasisupon those additions which the peculiar conditions of the Middle Ages hadbuilt upon the foundations of the primitive Christianity, and it wasdetermined to remain unchanged. " (Adams, G. B. , _Civilization during theMiddle Ages_, pp. 406, 412. )

[8] Every reform movement produces two kinds of reformers, each seekingthe same ultimate goal, but differing materially as to methods of work. Inthe religious conflict these two types are well represented by Erasmus andLuther. Erasmus was as deeply interested in religious reform as Luther anddevoted the energies of a lifetime to trying to secure reform, but hebelieved that reformation should come from within, and that the way toobtain it was to remain within the old organization and work to reform it. Luther represented the other type, the type which feels that things aretoo bad for mere reform to be effective, and that what is wanted isrebellion against the old. The two types seldom agree as to means, andusually part company. One is content to be known as a conservative or aconformer; the other delights in being classed as a progressive or even asa radical. 

[9] "The early Protestant theory was that an individual's Christianreligious life, convictions, and salvation were to be worked out through adirect study of the Scriptures, acceptance of the obvious teachings ofChrist as there presented, and direct appeal to God through prayer forhelp in leading a Christian life. The Catholic position, on the otherhand, came to be that the individual's religious life was to be achievedthrough the intervention of the Church, which claimed on historicalgrounds to have been founded by Christ, and to be his officialrepresentative and mediator in the world. It was through the teachings ofthis Church that the individual was to receive his ideas of the Christianreligion, to be stimulated to believe these, to be kept in the path ofrighteousness, and to obtain salvation. " (Parker, S. C. , _History ofModern Elementary Education_, p. 35. )

[10] Adams, G. B. , _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, p. 413. 

[11] A good illustration of the way parts of Germany and GermanSwitzerland were divided by religious differences is to be found in theCanton of Appenzell, in northeastern Switzerland. As each smallgovernmental division had to follow the religion of the ruling prince inGermany, so in Switzerland the cantons divided on religious lines. Tocompromise matters in Appenzell the canton was divided into two halfcantons, following the religious wars of 1597--Inner Rhoden, of sixty-three square miles, exclusively Roman Catholic, and Outer Rhoden, ofninety-six square miles, entirely under the Swiss Reformed Church. 

[12] Calvinism is also a product of the northern humanism, Calvin'sdifficulties with the Church arising out of his study of the Greek texts. Calvin had received an excellent theological and legal education, and usedthe knowledge and training derived from both to help him formulate acomprehensive system of belief. 

[13] Like the famous _Sentences_ of Peter Lombard (p. 171), it formed asplendid textbook of the new faith. Calvin based his work on theinfallibility of the Bible, as against that of the Church and Pope, andpresented, in a remarkably clear and logical manner, the principles ofCalvinistic doctrine. Before 1630, as many as seventy-four full editionsand fourteen partial editions of the _Institutes_ had been printed, and innine different languages. 

[14] This went through seventy-seven editions (fourteen in English) before1630, and in nearly all the languages of Europe, and was one of fourCatechisms, one of which was required of all Oxford undergraduates in1578. It was adopted by the Scotch, Huguenot, French-Swiss, and Walloon(Dutch) churches, and was widely used in Holland, England, and America. (See "Calvin and Calvinism, " in Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. I. )

[15] By 1560 the Calvinists had two thousand houses for religious worshipin France, and demanded religious freedom. In 1562 the persecutions beganin earnest, and for the next thirty-six years religious warfare ruled inFrance. In 1598 the Edict of Nantes established religious freedom, thoughthis was revoked in 1685. 

[16] Even the celebrated Peace of Augsburg (1555) which left to eachGerman prince and each town and knight the liberty to choose between thebeliefs of the Roman Church and the Lutheran, provided only for religiousfreedom for the rulers, and only one alternative. Calvinists, for example, hated equally by Catholic and Lutheran, were not included. So deeply wasthe idea of Church and State as inseparable embedded in the minds of menthat no provision was made for the religious freedom of subjects. This wasa much later evolution, coming first in America. 

[17] In the proposals for the League of Nations Covenant, made at theconclusion of the World War, in 1919, religious freedom for all persons inany State in the League was finally decided to be a necessary principlefor any world league. 

[18] Paulsen, Fr. , _German Education, Past and Present_, pp. 96-97. 

[19] The terms _atheist_ and _atheism_ now arose, as the modernsubstitutes for excommunication and imprisonment, and during the next twocenturies these were applied, by the churchmen of the time, to almostevery prominent philosopher and scientist and independent thinker. 

[20] Very severe measures were enacted to prevent the spread of thecontagion of heresy. All Protestant literature was forbidden circulationin Catholic lands. The printing-press, as a disseminator of heresy, wasplaced under strict license. Certain books were ordered burned. Perhapsthe most extreme and ruthless measure was the prohibition, under penaltyof death, of the reading of the Bible. That this harsh act was carried outthe record of martyrs shows. As one example may be mentioned the sister ofthe Flemish artist Matsys and her husband, he being decapitated and sheburied alive in the square fronting the cathedral at Louvain, in 1543, forhaving been caught reading the sacred Book. 

CHAPTER XIII

[1] Dr. Philip Schaff, the Church historian, says: "Schleiermacher reducedthe whole difference between Romanism and Protestantism to the formula, 'Romanism makes the relation of the individual to Christ depend on hisrelation to the Church: Protestantism, _vice versa_, makes the relation ofthe individual to the Church depend on his relation to Christ. '" (Quotedby G. B. Adams, from a pamphlet, _Luther Symposiac_, Union Seminary, 1883. )

[2] The importance of writing before the days of printing can readily beappreciated. Just as the monk was carefully trained to copy manuscript, sothe clerk for a city or a business house needed to be carefully trained toread and write. Writing formed a distinct profession, there being the"city writer" (city clerk, we say), Latin and vernacular secretaries, traveling writers, writing teachers, etc. Writing masters sometimes taughtreading also, but usually not. In some French cities the guild of writingmasters was granted an official monopoly of the privilege of teachingwriting in the city. 

[3] Reckoning schools were to meet direct commercial needs in the cities, and were seldom found outside of commercial towns. The arithmetic taughtin the Latin schools as a part of the Seven Liberal Arts was largelytheoretical; the arithmetic in the reckoning schools was practical. Thework of the professional reckoner in time developed similarly to that ofthe professional writer, and often the two were combined in one person. When employed by a city he was known as the city clerk. In 1482 the firstreckoning book to be published in Germany appeared, filled with merchant'srules and applied problems in denominate numbers and exchange. See aninteresting monograph by Jackson, L. L. , _Sixteenth Century Arithmetic_(Trs. College Pubs. , No. 8, 1906). 

[4] Luther tried to make a translation so simple that even the unlearnedmight profit by listening to its reading. To insure that his translationshould be in a language that would be perfectly clear and natural to thecommon people, he went about asking questions of laborers, children, andmothers to secure good colloquial expressions. It sometimes took him weeksto secure the right word, but so satisfactory was the result that it fixedthe standard for modern German, and still stands as the most conspicuouslandmark in the history of the German language. 

[5] The French version of this great original work represents the firstuse of French as a language for an argumentative treatise, and, asCalvin's work was more widely discussed than any other Protestanttheological treatise, it did much to fix the character of this nationallanguage. 

[6] "Tyndale's translation is not only the first which goes back to theoriginal tongues, but it is so noble a translation in its mingledtenderness and majesty, its Saxon simplicity, and its smooth, beautifuldiction that it has been but little improved on since. Every succeedingversion is little more than a revision of Tyndale's. " (J. Paterson Smyth, _How We Got Our Bible_. )

The following extract from Matthew is illustrative: "O oure father whichart in heven, halewed be thy name. Let thy kingdom come. Thy wyll befulfilled, as well in erth, as hit ys in heven. Geve vs this daye ouredayly breade. And forgeve vs oure treaspases, even as we forgeve themwhych treaspas vs. Lede vs nott in to temptacion, but delyvre vs fromyvell. Amen. "

[7] The most famous of Luther's German hymns, and one expressive of theProtestant spirit, is the one beginning:

 "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, "A mighty fortress is our God, Ein gute Wehr und Waffen. " A bulwark never failing. "

This hymn has often been called "The Marseillaise of the Reformation. "

[8] The evolution, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, of theGerman vernacular school-teacher out of the parish sexton is one of theinteresting bits of our educational history. 

[9] Magdeburg is typical, where the Lutherans united all the parishschools under the supervision of one pastor. 

[10] Wittenberg, founded in 1502 as a new-learning university, and inwhich Luther, Melanchthon, and Bugenhagen were professors, was the firstof the universities to become Protestant. Gradually the other universitiesin Protestant Germany threw off their allegiance to the Pope, and took onthat of the ruling prince. 

[11] The first Protestant university to be founded was Marburg, in Hesse, in 1527. When this later went over to Calvinism, a new university wasfounded at Giessen, in 1607, by a migration of the Lutheran professors. Other Protestant universities founded were Königsberg (1544) Jena (1555), Helmstadt (1576), and the free-city universities of Altdorf (1573), Strassburg (1621), Rinteln (1621), Duisberg (1655) and Kiel (1665). Thesupport of these came, to a considerable extent, from old monastic orecclesiastical foundations which had been dissolved after the Reformation. 

[12] This was in response to a petition to the King, nearly two yearsbefore. The King finally granted the request, "though maintaining that hewas not compelled by God's Word to set forth the Scriptures in English, yet 'of his own liberality and goodness was and is pleased that his saidloving subjects should have and read the same in convenient places andtimes. '" (Procter and Frere, _History of the Book of Common Prayer_, p. 30. )

[13] "The injunctions directed that 'a Bible of the largest volume inEnglish' be set up in some convenient place in every church, where itmight be read, only without noise, or disturbance of any public service, and without any disputation, or exposition. " (_Ibid. _, p. 30. )

[14] The right to read the Bible was later revoked, during the closingyears of Henry VIII's reign (d. 1547), by an act of Parliament, in 1543, which provided that "no woman (unless she be a noble or gentle woman), noartificers, apprentices, journeymen, servingmen, under the degree ofyeomen ... Husbandmen, or laborers" should read or use any part of theBible under pain of fines and imprisonment. 

[15] These were, distributed by reigns, as follows:

 Henry VIII (1509-1547) 63 schools Edward VI (1547-1553) 50 " Mary (1553-1558) 19 " Elizabeth (1558-1603) 138 " James I (1603-1625) Charles I (1625-1649) 142 " Protectorate (1649-1660) Charles II (1660-1685) James II (1685-1688) 146 "

CHAPTER XIV

[1] "These Calvinists had a common program of broad scope--not merelydoctrinal, but also political, economic, and social. Their common programand their social ideals demanded education of all as instruments ofProvidence for church and commonwealth. Their industrious habits andproductive economic life provided funds for education. Theirrepresentative institutions in both church and commonwealth not onlynecessitated general diffusion of knowledge, but furnished theorganization necessary for founding, supervising, and maintaining, inwholesome touch with the common man, both elementary and higherinstitutions of learning. Their disciplined and responsive conscience, their consequent intensity of moral conviction and spirit of self-sacrifice for the common weal, compelled them to realize, in concrete andpermanent form, their ideals of college and common school. " (Foster, H. D. , In Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. I, p. 499. )

[2] In 1625 a list of the famous men of the city of Louvain, in Belgium, was printed. More than one fourth of those listed had studied in thecolleges of Geneva. 

[3] Foster, H. D. , Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. I, p. 491. 

[4] In Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. I, p. 498. 

[5] "That public schools abounded throughout the Netherlands is evident. Every study of the archives of town or province discloses their presence. The minutes of every religious body bear overwhelming testimony not onlyto the existence of schools, but also a zealous interest in theirmaintenance. " (Kilpatrick, W. H. , _Dutch Schools of New Netherlands_, p. 37. )

[6] For long the Church had had the Inquisition, but, while it hadrendered loyal and iniquitous service, the results had been in no waycommensurate with the bitter hatred which its work awakened. Excommunication, persecution, imprisonment, the stake, and the sword hadbeen tried extensively, but with only partial success. In education thereformers had shown the Church a new method, which was positive andeffective and did not awaken opposition, and from the reformer's zeal forLatin grammar schools to provide an intelligent ministry the Church tookits cue of establishing schools to train its future leaders. It was along-headed and far-sighted plan, and its success was proportionatelylarge. 

[7] This is not true of their missions in foreign lands, where the missionpriests usually gave elementary instruction. Elementary schools weremaintained in the Jesuit missions of North and South America. Thus amission school was established at Quebec as early as 1635, and one atNewtown, in Catholic Maryland, in 1640. After 1740 elementary parishschools were opened by the Jesuits among the German Catholics inPennsylvania. From these beginnings Catholic parish schools have beendeveloped in the United States. 

[8] The Order was reëstablished in 1814 and it has since been allowed toreëstablish itself in most countries, though not in France or Germany. There are 41 Jesuit colleges in America, in 21 states. (For list seeMonroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. III, p. 540. ) In the revision ofits course of instruction, in 1832, modern studies were added, but theSociety has never played any such conspicuous part in education since itsreëstablishment as it did during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 

[9] It is an interesting speculation as to whether the fact that theJesuits made such headway in German lands, and so deeply impressed theirtraining on the children of the nobility there, has had any connectionwith the attitude of German and Austrian political leaders in theirgovernmental and political policies since that time. 

[10] By the middle of the eighteenth century the Jesuits had lost much oftheir former vigor, and their colleges their former large influence. Theyhad become powerful and arrogant, mixed deeply in political intrigues, quarreled with any one who crossed their path, and refused to change theirinstruction to meet new intellectual needs. They were finally driven fromFrance, Spain, Portugal, and German lands, and were ultimately abolishedas an Order. 

[11] The care with which the _Ratio Studiorum_ was worked out is typicalof the thoroughness of the Order. A preliminary outline of work wasfollowed for many years, the whole being experimental. Reports on it weremade, and finally a preliminary Ratio was issued, in 1586. This was againrevised and cast into final form, in 1599. In this form it remained until1832, when some modern studies were added. 

[12] Dabney, R. H. , _The Causes of the French Revolution_, p. 203. 

[13] For example, the "States-General" of France met four times during theseventeenth century, with weighty problems of religion and state forconsideration, yet in three of the four meetings resolutions were passedurging the clergy to establish schoolmasters in all the towns andvillages, and a general system of compulsory education for all. 

[14] _Les vrais Constitutions des Religieuses de la Congrégation de NostreDame_, chap. Xi, sec. 6, 2d ed. , Toul, 1694. 

[15] See especially Felix Cadet, _Port-Royal Education_ (Scribners, NewYork, 1898), for translations of many of the brief pedagogical writings ofmembers of the Order. 

[16] Father Demia, at Lyons, had organized what was probably the firsttraining-school for masters, in 1672. La Salle's training-school datesfrom 1684. Francke's German _Seminarium Praeceptorum_, at Halle, the firstin German lands, dates from 1696. 

[17] The numerous pictures of schools and educational literature well intothe nineteenth century show the general prevalence of the individualmethod of instruction. It was the method in American schools until welltoward the middle of the nineteenth century. To have graded the childrenand introduced class instruction in 1684 was an important advance whichthe world has been slow in learning. 

[18] Everything was according to rule, even the ferule, which must be madeof two strips of leather, ten to twelve inches long, sewed together. Alloffenses, and the number and location of the blows for each, werespecified. Later the corporal punishment was replaced by penances. 

CHAPTER XV

[1] Representing not over one tenth of the population, the Protestants inFrance had from the first been subjected to much persecution. In theMassacre of Saint Bartholomew (1572) over one thousand had been massacredin Paris and ten thousand more in the provinces. After some warfare, atreaty was made, in 1598, under which the so-called "Edict of Nantes"guaranteed religious toleration for the Protestants. In 1685 this wasrevoked, and their ministers were given fifteen days to leave France. Themembers were, however, forbidden to leave. Many, though, got away, escaping to the Low Countries, England, and to America. 

[2] The culmination of this dissatisfaction came in 1649, when Charles Iwas beheaded and "The Commonwealth" was established under Cromwell. Duringthe troubled times which followed (1649-60) much damage was done to thechurches of England by way of eliminating vestiges of "popery. "

[3] Some of these went back to England--many after the establishment ofthe Protestant Commonwealth under Cromwell (1649). It has been estimated, for three of the early colonies, that the population by decades wasapproximately as follows:

 1630 1640 1650 1660 New Netherlands.............. 500 1000 3000 6000 Massachusetts................ 1300 14000 18000 25000 Virginia...................... 3000 8000 17000 33000

[4] The name and the form came alike from old England, where an irregulararea known as a "town" or a "township, " constituted the unit ofrepresentation in the shiremoats and the membership of the church parish. Almost every town and parish officer known in England was created by thenew towns in New England, with practically the same functions as in theold home. 

[5] "The settlers were in the first freshness of their Utopian enthusiasm, and their church establishment was the very heart of their enterprise. Itbecame therefore a matter of primary importance to educate preachers. Forages preparation for the ministry had consisted mainly in acquiring aknowledge of Latin, the sacred tongue of western Christendom. Though theLatin service was no longer used by Protestants, and the Vulgate Bible hadbeen dethroned by the original text, and though the main stream of Englishtheology was by this time flowing in the channel of the mother tongue, thenotion that all ministers should know Latin had still some centuries oftough life in it. " (Eggleston, E. , _The Transit of Civilization_, p. 225. )

[6] For example, the town of Boston, in 1641, devoted the income fromDeere Island to the support of schools, and Plymouth, in 1670, appropriated the income from the Cape Cod fishing industry to the supportof grammar schools (R. 194 c). 

These are among the earliest of the permanent endowments for education inAmerica. 

[7] See _The Development of School Support in Colonial Massachusetts_, byGeorge L. Jackson, for a careful study of the different early methods ofschool support. 

[8] The Puritan emigrants to New England represented a sturdy and well-educated class of English country squires and yeomen. They came of thriftyand well-to-do stock, the shiftless and incompetent not being represented. All had had good educational advantages, and many were graduates ofCambridge University. It has been asserted that probably never since hasthe proportion of college men in the community been so large. 

[9] Martin, Geo. H. , _The Evolution of the Massachusetts Public-SchoolSystem_, pp. 14-16. 

[10] The charging of a tuition fee to those who could afford to pay was acommon European practice of the time, nevertheless the public authorities--at that time a mixture of civil and church officials--provided theschool, employed and licensed the teacher, determined the textbooks to beused, and laid down the conditions under which the school should beconducted. The schoolmaster assisted the church by participating in theSunday services. The elementary school of the Dutch, which was copied inthe New Netherland, was thus a combination of a public and parochial, anda free and pay school. 

[11] This was, of course, much more true of New York City and Island thanof the outlying Dutch villages. In these latter a public school was forlong maintained. 

[12] Draper, A. S. , _Origin and Development of the New York Common SchoolSystem_. 

[13] Among the German Lutherans, who constituted nearly one fourth of thetotal population of the colony, a school is claimed to have beenestablished alongside the church by each of the congregations "at theearliest possible period after its formation. " The close connectionbetween these Lutheran congregations and their schools may be seen fromthe following contract, dated at Lancaster, in 1774:

 "I, the undersigned, John Hoffman, parochial teacher of the church at Lancaster, have promised in the presence of the congregation, to serve as choirister, and, as long as we have no pastor, to read sermons on Sunday. In summer I promise to hold cathechetical instruction with the young, as becomes a faithful teacher, and also to lead them in the singing and attend to the clock. "

[14] The seventeenth-century Virginia legislation relating to educationis as follows:

 1643. Orphans to be educated "according to the competence of their estate. " 1646. "If the estate be so meane and inconsiderate that it will not reach to a free education, then that orphan [shall] be bound to some manuall trade ... Except some friends or relatives be willing to keep them. " 1660-61. "To avoid sloth and idleness ... As also for the relief of parents whose poverty extends not to giving [their children] breeding, the justices of the peace should ... Bind out children to tradesmen or husbandmen to be brought up in some good and lawful calling. "

[15] "Perhaps the most remarkable, because the most widespread and complexillustration of the educational genius of Calvinism is to be found in theAmerican colonies, where the various European streams of Calvinism soconverged that the seventeenth-century colonists were predominantlyCalvinists--not merely the Puritans of New England, but the Dutch, Walloons, Huguenots, Scotch, and Scotch-Irish, with a considerable Puritanadmixture in Anglican Virginia and Catholic Maryland. " (Foster, H. D. , inMonroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. I, p. 498. )

[16] "To illustrate how omnipresent this religious atmosphere was, Icannot do better than to cite the occasion when Judge Sewell found thatthe spout which conducted the rain water from his roof did not perform itsoffice. After patient searching, a ball belonging to the small childerenwas found lodged in the spout. Thereupon the father sent for the ministerand had a season of prayer with his boys that their mischief orcarelessness might be set in its proper aspect and that the event might besanctified to their spiritual good. Powers of darkness and of light werestruggling for the possession of every soul, and it was the duty ofparents, ministers, and teachers to lose no opportunity to pluck thechildren as brands from the burning. " (Johnson Clifton, _Old-Time Schoolsand Schoolbooks_, p. 12. )

CHAPTER XVI

[1] Thales had guessed that water was the primal element from which allhad been derived; Anaximenes guessed air; Heraclitus fire; Pythagoras heldthat number was the essence of all things; Empedocles thought that fireand heat, accompanied by "indestructible forces, " formed the basis;Xenophanes had guessed air, fire, water, and earth, and had worked out acomplete scheme of creation. For an interesting discussion of these earlyattempts to explain creation, see J. W. Draper, _History of theIntellectual Development of Europe_, vol. 1, chap. Iv. 

[2] Among the treatises by him accepted as genuine are _On Airs, Waters, and Places_; _On Epidemics_; _On Regimen in Acute Diseases_; _OnFractures_; and _On Injuries of the Head_. 

[3] For example, Hippocrates had held that the human body contains four"humors"--blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile--and that disease wascaused by the undue accumulation of some one of these humors in someorgan, which it was the business of the physician to get rid of by blood-letting, blistering, purging, or other means. 

[4] From a collection of doggerel rhymes put out by two pastors anddoctors of theology at Basle, in 1618, by the names of Grassner and Gross, to interpret the orthodox theory of comets to peasants and schoolchildren. 

[5] "The earth is a sphere, situated in the center of the heavens; if itwere not, one side of the heavens would appear nearer to us than theother, and the stars would be larger there. The earth is but a point incomparison to the heavens, because the stars appear of the same magnitudeand at the same distance _inter se_, no matter where the observer goes onthe earth. It has no motion of translation.... If there were a motion, itwould be proportionate to the great mass of the earth and would leavebehind animals and objects thrown into the air. This also disproves thesuggestion made by some, that the earth, while immovable in space, turnsround on its own axis. " (Ptolemy, Digest of argument of Book 1 of the_Almagest_. )

[6] In the dedicatory letter Copernicus states that he had had thecompleted manuscript in his study for thirty-six years, and published itnow only on the urging of friends. 

[7] To secure the greatest possible accuracy he constructed a woodenoutdoor quadrant some ten feet in radius, with a brass scale, thuspermitting readings to a fraction of an inch. 

[8] "The current view was that comets were formed by the ascending ofhuman sins from the earth, that they were changed into a kind of gas, andignited by the anger of God. This poisoned stuff then fell down onpeople's heads, causing all kinds of mischief, such as pestilence, suddendeath, storms, etc. " (Dryer, J. L. E. , _Tycho Brahe_. )

[9] "For over fifty years he was the knight militant of science, andalmost alone did successful battle with the hosts of Churchmen andAristotelians who attacked him on all sides--one man against a world ofbigotry and ignorance. If then... When face to face with the terrors ofthe Inquisition he, like Peter, denied his Master, no honest man, knowingall the circumstances, will be in a hurry to blame him. " (Fahie, J. J. , _Galileo, His Life and Work_. )

[10] See Routledge, R. , _A Popular History of Science_, pp. 135-36, for agood digest of Bacon's inductive investigation, as a result of which hearrived at the conclusion that "Heat is an expansive bridled motion, struggling in the small particles of bodies. "

[11] Bacon himself died a victim of one of his inductive experiments. Wishing to try out his theory that cold would prevent or retardputrefaction, he killed a chicken, cleaned it, and packed it in snow. Inso doing he contracted a cold which caused his death. 

CHAPTER XVII

[1] See footnote 1, p. 272, on the origin of the term. Six years beforethe publication of the _Tractate_, Milton had visited Italy, and had beenmuch entertained in Florence by members of the Academy and Universitythere. In the _Tractate_ he outlined a plan for a series of classicalAcademies for England, many of which were established. From England theterm was carried to America, and became the name for a great developmentof semi-private secondary schools which flourished during the lateeighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. 

[2] Unlike England and France, the German lands long remained feudal andnot united. As late as the beginning of the nineteenth century Germany wasmade up of more than three hundred little principalities, of which sixtywere free cities. Each little principality was self-governing andmaintained its little court. 

[3] Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611), for forty-eight years a famous LondonLatin grammar-school master, often classed as a precursor of the senserealists, in two books, published in 1581 and 1582, had urged the greatimportance of a study of the English tongue, and of using it as a mediumfor instruction. In his _Elementarie_ (1582) he had said: "Our ownlanguage bears the joyful title of our liberty and freedom, the Latinremembers us of our thralldom and bondage. I love Rome, but London better;I favor Italy, but England more. I honor the Latin, but I worship theEnglish. " (R. 226. )

[4] The school was opened with 433 boys and girls enrolled. It was dividedinto six classes. In the first three German only was used. In the firsttwo classes the children were taught to read and write German, Genesisbeing the reading book of the second class. In the third class Germangrammar was studied. Music, religion, and the elements of arithmetic werealso taught in these classes. In the fourth class Latin was begun, studying Terence, and Latin grammar was worked out from the constructions. In the sixth and highest class Greek was taught. A good education was tobe given in six years, through the saving of time. 

[5] This was written out in his native Czech tongue, but was not publishedat the time. A quarter of a century later it appeared in Latin, with hiscollected works, as published by his patron at Amsterdam (1657). It wasthen forgotten for two centuries. In 1841 the manuscript was found atLissa, and published in the original at Prague, in 1848. The first Englishedition appeared in 1896. 

[6] See the English edition edited by M. W. Keatinge, A. And C. Black, London, 1896. 

[7] The following is illustrative: "Sec. 518 (Geometria). Ex concursulinearum fit angulus qui est vel rectus, quern linea incidensperpendicularis efficit, ut est (in subjecto schemate) angulus A C B; velacutus, minor recto, A ut B C D; vel obtusus, major recto, ut A C D. "

[Illustration: B D | / |/ A------------- C ]

[8] A very good reprint of the 1727 English edition, with pictures fromthe first edition of 1658, was brought out by C. W. Bardeen, of Syracuse, New York, in 1887. This ought to be in all libraries where the history ofeducation is taught. 

[9] Basedow's _Elementarwerk mit Kupfern_ (Elementary Reading Book, withcopperplate pictures), published in 1773 (see p. 535), was the firstattempt, and not a particularly successful one either, to improve on the_Orbis Pictus_. 

[10] This term was at first applied in derision, just as Methodism wasapplied to the English religious reformers in the eighteenth century, butthe term was soon made reputable by the earnestness and ability of thosewho accepted it. 

[11] Francke's father had been counselor to Duke Ernest of Gotha, who hadcreated for his little duchy the most modern-type school system of theseventeenth century. How much Francke's progressive ideas in educationalmatters go back to the work of Duke Ernest forms an interestingspeculation. 

[12] "Francke had the rare ability to see clearly what needed doing, andthen to do it regardless of obstacles or consequences. The magnitude ofhis work in Halle is simply marvelous, and yet what he actuallyaccomplished is insignificant in comparison with what he inspired othersto do. He showed how practical Christianity could be incorporated in thework of the common schools; his plan was immediately adopted by FrederickWilliam I and made well-nigh universal in Prussia. He showed how theRealien could be profitably employed in a Latin school, and even made aconstituent part of a university preparatory course; as a result of hismethods, and especially of his suggestion that schools should be foundedfor the exclusive purpose of fitting the youth of the citizen class forpractical life, there has since grown up in Germany a class of Real-schools. " (Russell, J. E. , _German Higher Schools_, p. 64. )

[13] Paulsen, Fr. , _The German Universities_, p. 36. 

[14] As late as 1805, according to Paulsen, of the whole number ofstudents in the universities of Prussia, there were but 144 in thecombined medical faculties, as against 555 in theology, and 1036 in law. 

[15] Francke relates that, as a student at Erfurt (c. 1675), he was ableto study physics and botany, along with his theological studies. Oxfordrecords show the publication of a list of plants in the "Physick Garden"there as early as 1648. The garden was endowed about that time by the Earlof Danby, and in 1764 lectures on botany were begun there. Lord Bacon, inhis _Advancement of Learning_ (1605), had written: "We see likewise thatsome places instituted for physic (medicinae) have annexed the commodityof gardens for simples of all sorts, and do likewise command the use ofdead bodies for anatomies. "

[16] Thomasius was made professor of theology, and Francke professor ofGreek and Oriental languages. Both had been expelled from the Universityof Leipzig. Christian Wolff, who had been banished by Frederick William I, was recalled and made professor of philosophy. It was he who "madephilosophy talk German. "

CHAPTER XVIII

[1] Quick, R. H. , _Essays on Educational Reformers_, 26. Ed. , p. 97. 

[2] Locke was the first to lay the basis for modern scientific psychologyto supersede the philosophic psychology of Plato and Aristotle. In his_Essay on the Conduct of the Human Understanding_ (1690) upon which hespent many years of labor, he first applied the methods of scientificobservation to the mind, analyzed experiences, and employed introspectionand comparative mental study. He thus built up a psychology based on theanalysis of experiences, and came to the conclusion that our knowledge isderived by reflection on experience coming through sensation. He isconsequently called the founder of empirical psychology, and theforerunner of modern experimental psychology and child study. Hisphilosophy, and his theory of education as well, thus came to be aphilosophy of experience--a rejection of mere authority, and a constantappeal to reason as a guide. 

[3] "Freedom and self-reliance, these are the watchwords of these twomarvelously modern men (Montaigne and Locke). Expansion, real education, drawing out, widening out, that is the burden of their preaching; andvoices in the wilderness theirs were! Narrowness, bigotry, flippancy, inertia, these were the rule until Rousseau's time, and even his voice wasto fall upon deaf ears in England. " (Monroe, Jas. P. , _Evolution of theEducational Ideal_, p. 122. )

[4] Schmidt, Karl, _Geschichte der Pädagogik_, translated in Barnard's_American Journal of Education_. 

[5] Rules for the schools of Dorchester, Massachusetts. 

[6] Duke Eberhard Louis's _Renewed Organization of the German School_, 1729; republished 1782. 

[7] One of the earliest horn books known appears in the illuminatedmanuscript shown in Figure 44, which dates from 1503. The first definitelyknown horn book in England dates from 1587, while most, of the specimensfound in museums date from about the middle of the eighteenth century. Asimprovements or variations of the horn book, cardboard sheets and woodensquares, known as battledores, appeared after 1770. On these theillustrated alphabet was printed. (See Tuer, A. W. , _History of the HornBook_, 2 vols. , illustrated, London, 1886, for detailed descriptions. )

[8] The diversity of religious primers which had grown up by 1565 ledHenry VIII to cause to be issued a unified and official Primer, containingthe Pater Noster, Ave Maria, Credo, and the Ten Commandments. 

[9] The title-page of an edition of 1715 declares that edition to be:"_The Protestant Tutor_, instructing Youth and Others, in the compleatmethod of _Spelling, Reading, and Writing True English_: Also discoveringto them the Notorious _Errors_, Damnable _Doctrines_, and cruel_Massacres_ of the bloody _Papists_ which _England_ may expect from a_Popish_ Successor. "

[10] This was compiled by the Westminster Assembly of Divines, calledtogether by Parliament, in 1643, composed of 121 clergymen, 30 of thelaity, and 5 special commissioners from Scotland. It held 1163 sessions, extending over six years, and framed the series of 107 questions andanswers which appeared in the Primer as "The Shorter Catechism. "

[11] So great was the sale of this book that the author was able tosupport his family during the twenty years (1807-27) he was at work on his_Dictionary of the English Language_, entirely from the royalties from the_Speller_ though the copyright returns were less than one cent a copy. Atthe time of his death (1843), the sales were still approximately a millioncopies a year, and the book is still on sale. 

[12] In Nuremberg, as an example of German practice, the guild of writingand arithmetic masters continued, throughout all of the eighteenthcentury, and even into the nineteenth, as an organization separate fromthat of other types of teachers. 

[13] Francke, in his Institutions at Halle (p. 418), had tried to developa number-concept, and apply the teaching. In the Braunschweig-Lüneburgschool decree of 1737 appeared directions for beginning number work bycounting the fingers, apples, etc. , and basing the multiplication table onaddition. A few German writers during the eighteenth century suggestedbetter instruction, Basedow (chapter XXII) tried to institute reform inthe teaching of the subject, but it was left for Pestalozzi (chapter XXI)to give the first real impetus to the rational teaching of the subject. 

[14] Such offices were not considered in any sense as degrading, and theattaching of the new duty of instructing the young of the parish inreading and religion dignified still more the other church office. Asschools grew in importance there was a gradual shifting of emphasis, andfinally a dropping of the earlier duties. Many early school contracts inAmerica (Rs. 105; 236) called for such church duties on the part of theparish teacher. See also footnote, p. 370. 

[15] In 1722 country schoolmasters in Prussia were ordered selected fromtailors, weavers, blacksmiths, wheelwrights, and carpenters, and in 1738they were granted the tailoring monopoly in their villages, to help themto live. Later Frederick the Great ordered that his crippled andsuperannuated soldiers should be given teaching positions in theelementary vernacular schools of Prussia. 

[16] The "Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, " organized in1609 to aid the Church and provide schools at home, and the "Society forthe Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, " organized in 1702 tosupply ministers and teachers for churches and schools in the Englishcolonies. 

[17] In 1704 the ordinary charge in London for a "School of 50 BoysCloathed comes to about £75 per Annum, for which a School-Room, Books, andFiring are provided, a Master paid, and to each Boy is given yearly, 3Bands, 1 Cap, 1 Coat, 1 Pair of Stockings, and one Pair of Shooes. " Agirls' school of the same size cost £60 per annum, which paid for theroom, books, mistress, fixing and providing each girl with "2 Coyfs, 2Bands, 1 Gown and Petticoat, 1 Pair of knit Gloves, 1 Pair of Stockings, and 2 Pair of Shooes. "

[18] McCarthy, Justin H. , _Ireland since the Union_, p. 13. 

[19] Frederick the Great, in the General School Regulations issued in 1763(R. 274, § 15), strictly prohibited the keeping of "hedge schools" in thetowns and rural districts of Prussia. 

[20] Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_ (1678, ) Defoe's _Robinson Crusoe_(1719), and _Gulliver's Travels_ (1726), The publication of thesetremendously stimulated the desire to read. 

[21] Strype, John, _Stowe's Survey of London_, 1720; bk. 1, pp. 199, 201-02. 

[22] Paulsen, Friedrich, _German Education_, p. 141. 

[23] Barnard, Henry. Translated from Karl von Raumer; in his _AmericanJournal of Education_, vol. V. , p. 509. 

[24] Salmon, David, "The Education of the Poor in the Eighteenth Century";in _Educational Record_, London, 1908. 

[25] "If you would comprehend the success of Rousseau's _Émile_, call tomind the children we have described, the embroidered, gilded, dressed-up, powdered little gentlemen, decked with sword and sash, ... Alongside ofthese, little ladies of six years, still more artificial, --so manyveritable dolls to which rouge is applied, and with which a mother amusesherself for an hour and then consigns them to her maids for the rest ofthe day. This mother reads _Émile_. It is not surprising that sheimmediately strips the poor little thing (of its social harness ofwhalebone, iron, and hair) and determines to nurse her next childherself. " (Taine, H. A. , _The Ancient Régime_, vol. II, p. 273. )

[26] Montmorency, J. E. G. De. , _The Progress of Education in England_, pp. 46, 50. 

[27] A change now took place in the intellectual life of Germany: "Thenation began to make itself independent of French influence. In literatureKlopstock and Lessing broke the fetters of French classicism. An ardentdesire for a deeper culture peculiar to the German people asserted itself. But the soil of the national life was too poor in genus for a purelyGerman culture, hence scholars looked for new models and found them inclassical antiquity. The ancient authors became again the masters ofculture and taste; with this difference, though, that it was not desiredto learn how to express their thoughts as well as the learner's thoughtsin Latin, but to become familiar with their manner of thinking andfeeling, for the purpose of enlarging and ennobling German thought andspeech. From this standpoint Greek, on account of its more valuableliterature, assumed a higher importance, and, by degrees, a superiorityover Latin. " (Nohle, E. , _History of the German School System_, pp. 48-49. )

[28] "If any one be destined for a studious career, let him not shirk hisGreek lessons, inasmuch as he would thereby suffer irretrievable loss.... He who reads the classic writers, studying mathematical reasoning at thesame time, trains his mind to distinguish what is true or false, beautifulor unsightly, fills his memory with manifold fine thoughts, attains skillin grasping the ideas of others as well as in fluently expressing his own, acquires a number of excellent maxims for the improvement of theunderstanding and the will, and thus learns by practice nearly all that agood compendium of philosophy could teach him in systematic order anddogmatic form. " (School Regulations for Braunschweig-Lüneburg, of 1737. )

[29] "Be assured that if you forget your Greek, yes, even your Latin too, you still have the advantage of having given your mind a training anddiscipline that will go with you into your future occupation. " (FriedrichGedike, 1755-1803. )

PART IV

CHAPTER XIX

[1] "The Period of the Enlightenment" had two main aims: (1) theperfection of the individual, which gave a new emphasis to education, and(2) the mastery of man over his environment, which expressed itselfthrough the new scientific studies. In German lands elementary education, a regenerated classical education, and the _Realschule_ were the fruits ofthis period. 

[2] Frederick used to say that his subjects might think as they pleased solong as they behaved as he ordered. 

[3] Though Prussia was primarily Lutheran, Catholics, Mennonites, Jews, and Huguenots early found a home in the kingdom. Frederick used to saythat "all religions must be tolerated, for in this country every man mustgo to heaven in his own way. "

[4] After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (p. 301; 1685), over20, 000 French Huguenots--merchants, manufacturers, skilled workmen--foundan asylum in Prussia alone. Settling in the Rhine countries, theycontributed much to the future development of this region. 

[5] "For the first time since Luther, the German people could call a greathero their own, whether they were the subjects of Frederick or not. Joyouspride in this prince, whose achievements in times of peace were no lessthan those in time of war, brought national consciousness to life againand this national feeling found expression in literature. It was therestoration of confidence in themselves that gave the Germans the courageto break with French rules and French models, and to seek independentlyafter ideals of beauty. And this self-confidence they owed to Frederickthe Great. " (Priest, G. M. , _History of German Literature_, p. 116. )

[6] Though Joseph II claimed to be a good Catholic, he felt thatmonasticism had outlived its usefulness as an institution, and that itscontinuance was inimical to the interests of organized society and theState. This view has since been taken by the rulers of every progressivemodern nation. 

[7] The Cortes, or National Parliament, met but three times during thecentury, and when it did meet possessed but few powers and exercised butlittle influence. 

[8] The first Russian university was established at Kiev, in 1588; thesecond at Dorpat, in 1632; the third at Moscow, in 1755; and the fourth atKasan, in 1804. The University of Petrograd dates from 1819. 

[9] The great difference between a church and true religion must always bekept in mind. Religion is a thing of the spirit, and its principlerepresents the loftiest thoughts of the race; a church is a humangoverning institution, and clearly subject to its own ambitions and thehuman frailties of its age. 

[10] That is, 25, 000 to 30, 000 families. There were also, in even numbers, 83, 000 monks in 2500 monasteries (one for every ninety square miles inFrance), 37, 000 nuns in 1500 convents, and 60, 000 priests. Of the soil ofFrance, the King and towns owned one fifth, the clergy and the monks onefifth, the nobility one fifth, the bourgeoisie one fifth, and thepeasantry one fifth. 

[11] In 1788 the 131 bishops and archbishops of France had an averageincome of 100, 000 francs, and 33 abbots and 27 abbesses had incomesranging from 80, 000 to 500, 000 francs. The Cardinal de Rohan, Archbishopof Strasbourg, had an income of more than 1, 000, 000 francs, and the 300Benedictine monks at Cluny had an income of more than 1, 800, 000 francs. 

[12] "The real importance of _Esprit des lois_ is not that of a formaltreatise on law, or even on polity. It is that of an assemblage of themost fertile, original, and inspiriting views on legal and politicalsubjects, put in language of singular suggestiveness and vigour, illustrated by examples which are always apt and luminous, permeated bythe spirit of temperate and tolerant desire for human improvement andhappiness, and almost unique in its entire freedom at once fromdoctrinairism, visionary enthusiasm, egotism, and an undue spirit ofsystem. The genius of the author for generalization is so great, hisinstinct in political science so sure, that even the falsity of hispremises frequently fails to vitiate his conclusions. " (Saintsbury, George, in _Encyclopedia Britannica_, vol. XVIII, p. 777. )

[13] "By the captivating prospects which he held out of future progress, and by the picture which he drew of the capacity of society to improveitself, Turgot increased the impatience which his countrymen werebeginning to feel against the despotic government, in whose presenceamelioration seemed to be hopeless. These, and similar speculations of thetime, stimulated the activity of the intellectual classes, cheered themunder the persecutions to which they were exposed, and emboldened them toattack the institutions of their native land. " (Buckle, H. T. , _History ofCivilisation in England_, vol. I, p. 597. )

[14] Duruy, V. , _History of France_, p. 523. 

[15] _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 11th ed. , vol. Viii, p. 204. 

[16] "The real king of the eighteenth century was Voltaire; but Voltaire, in his turn, was a pupil of the English. Before Voltaire became acquaintedwith England, through his travels and his friendships, he was notVoltaire, and the eighteenth century was still undeveloped. " (Cousin, _History of Philosophy_. )

[17] "The first Frenchmen who in the eighteenth century turned theirattention to England were amazed at the boldness with which, in thatcountry, political and religious questions of the deepest moment werediscussed--questions which no Frenchman in the preceding age had dared tobroach. With wonder they discovered in England a comparative freedom ofthe public press, and saw with astonishment how in Parliament itself thegovernment of the Crown was attacked with impunity, and the management ofits revenues actually kept under control. To see the civilization andprosperity of England increasing, while the power of the upper classes andthe King diminished, was to them a revelation.... England, said Helvetius, is a country where the people are respected, a country where each citizenhas a part in the management of affairs, where men of genius are allowedto enlighten the public upon its true interests. " (Dabney, R. H. , _Causesof the French Revolution_, p. 141. )

[18] Tennyson, in his "You ask me why, " well describes the growth ofconstitutional liberty in England when he says that England is:

 "A land of settled government, A land of just and old renown, Where freedom broadens slowly down, From precedent to precedent. "

[19] James I, in 1604, had declared: "As it is atheism to dispute what Godcan do, so it is presumption and a high contempt in a subject to disputewhat a king can do. " For this attitude the Commons continually contestedhis authority, his son lost his crown and his head, and his grandson wasdriven from the throne and from England. By contrast, and as showing thedifferent attitude toward self-government of the two peoples, the GermanEmperor William II, three centuries later, so continually boasted of hisrule by divine right that "Me and God" became an international joke, andto his assumption the German people took little or no exception. 

[20] The passage of the Bill of Rights (1689) ended the divine-right-of-kings idea in England for all time. This prohibited the King from keepinga standing army in times of peace, gave every subject the right topetition for a redress of grievances, gave Parliament the right of freedebate, prohibited the King from interfering in any way with the properexecution of the laws, declared that members ought to be elected toParliament without interference, and gave the Commons control of all formsof taxation. 

[21] Though the English first developed regulated or constitutionalgovernment, they themselves have no single written constitution. Instead, the foundations of English constitutional government rest on _MagnaCharta_ (1215), the Petition of Rights (1628), and the Bill of Rights(1689), these three constituting "the Bible of English Liberty. "

[22] At first used as a term of ridicule, from the very methodical mannerin which the Wesleyans organized their campaigns. 

[23] "If we except the great Puritan movement of the seventeenth century, no such appeal had been heard since the days when Augustine and his bandof monks landed in Kent and set forth on their mission among the barbarousSaxons. The results answered fully to the zeal that awakened them. Betterthan the growing prosperity of extending commerce, better than all theconquests of the East or the West, was the new religious spirit whichstirred the people of both England and America, and provoked the NationalChurch to emulation in good works--which planted schools, checkedintemperance, and brought into vigorous activity all that was best andbravest in a race that when true to itself is excelled by none. "(Montgomery, D. H. , _English History_, p. 322. )

[24] The contrast between eighteenth-century England and France, in thematter of religious liberty, is interesting. In France the Church tookcare, during the whole of the eighteenth century, that the persecutionprocess should go on. "In 1717 an assembly of seventy-four Protestantshaving been surprised at Andure, the men were sent to the galleys and thewomen to prison. An edict of 1724 declared that all who took part in aProtestant meeting, or who had any direct or indirect communication with aProtestant preacher, should have their heads shaved and be imprisoned forlife, and the men condemned to perpetual servitude in the galleys. In 1745and 1746, in the province of Dauphine, 277 Protestants were condemned tothe galleys and a number of women flogged. From 1744 to 1752 six hundredProtestants in the east and south of France were condemned to variouspunishments. In 1774 the children of a Calvinist of Rennes were taken fromhim. Up to the very eve of the Revolution Protestant ministers were hangedin Languedoc, and dragoons were sent against their congregations. "(Dabney, R. H. , _Causes of the French Revolution_, p. 42. )

[25] Back as early as 1695 the Commons had refused to renew the press-licensing act, enacted in 1637, to control heresy. This had confinedprinting to London, Oxford, and Cambridge, and to twenty master printersand four letter founders for the realm. This refusal marks the beginningof the freedom of the press in England. In 1709 the copyright law wasenacted, and in 1776 the redress against publishers of libelous articleswas confined to the ordinary courts of law. A century ahead of France, andmore than two centuries ahead of Teutonic and Romanic lands, Englandprovided for a free press and open discussion. 

[26] George III, always consistently wrong, opposed this extension ofpopular rights. In 1771 he wrote the Prime Minister, Lord North: "It ishighly necessary that this strange and lawless method of publishingdebates in the papers should be put a stop to. But is not the House ofLords the best court to bring such miscreants before; as it can fine, aswell as imprison, and has broader shoulders to support the odium of sosalutary a measure. "

[27] "It is evident that a nation perfectly ignorant of physical laws willrefer to supernatural causes all the phenomena by which it is surrounded. But as soon as natural science begins to do its work there are introducedthe elements of a great change. Each successive discovery, by ascertainingthe law that governs events, deprives them of that apparent mystery inwhich they were formerly involved. The love of the marvelous becomesproportionally diminished; and when any science has made such progress asto enable it to fortell the events with which it deals, it is clear thatthe whole of those events are at once withdrawn from the jurisdiction ofthe supernatural, and brought under the authority of natural power? Henceit is that, supposing other things equal, the superstition of a nationmust always bear an exact proportion to the extent of its physicalknowledge. " (Buckle, H. T. , _History of Civilization in England_, vol. 1, p. 269. )

[28] The Charter of this Society stated the purpose to be to increaseknowledge by direct experiment, and that the object of the Society was theextension of natural knowledge, as opposed to that which is supernatural. As an institution embodying the idea of intellectual progress it was mostbitterly assailed by partisans of the old flunking. 

[29] Birmingham, Sheffield, Leeds, and Manchester, for example, greatmanufacturing cities early in the nineteenth century, were insignificantvillages in Cromwell's day. The steam engine made the coal and irondeposits of northern England of immense value, and the "smoky mill towns"that arose in the north began to displace southern agricultural England inpopulation, wealth, and importance. 

[30] For example, in 1774 John Howard began his great work in prisonreform; in 1772 pressing to death was abolished; in 1780 the ducking-stoolwas used for the last time; and soon thereafter the earlier laws relatingto the death penalty were modified, and the slave trade abolished. Up tothe middle of the eighteenth century as many as one hundred and sixtyoffenses were punishable by death. 

[31] The Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jefferson, agreat admirer of French life and a propagandist for French ideas. 

[32] Compare the American preamble with the following sentence from the_Social Contract_ (Book I, chap, ix) of Rousseau:

 "I shall close this chapter and this book with a remark which ought to serve as a basis for the whole social system; it is that instead of destroying natural equality, the fundamental pact, on the contrary, substitutes a moral and lawful equality for the physical inequality which nature imposed upon men, so that, although unequal in strength or intellect, they all become equal by convention and legal right. "

[33] "I read attentively the _cahiers_ drawn up by the three Orders beforetheir union in 1789. I see that here the change of a law is demanded, andthere of a custom--and I make note of them. I continue thus to the end ofthis immense task, and, when I come to put side by side all theseparticular demands, I see, with a sort of terror, that what is called foris the simultaneous and systematic abolition of all the laws and of allthe customs existing in the country; whereupon I instantly perceive theapproach of the vastest and most dangerous revolutions that have takenplace in the world. " (De Tocqueville, A. C. , _State of Society in Francebefore the Revolution of 1789_, p. 219. )

[34] For example, the clergy of Rodez and Saumur demanded "that there maybe formed a plan of national education for the young"; the clergy of Lyonsthat education be restricted "to a teaching body whose members may not beremovable except for negligence, misconduct, or incapacity; that it may nolonger be conducted according to arbitrary principles, and that all publicinstructors be obliged to conform to a uniform plan adopted by the States-General"; the clergy of Blois that a system of colleges under churchcontrol be formed (R. 252); the nobility of Lyons that "a nationalcharacter be impressed on the education of both sexes"; the nobility ofParis that "public education be perfected and extended to all classes ofcitizens"; the nobility of Blois that "better facilities for the educationof children, and elementary textbooks adapted to their capacity, whereinthe rights of man and the social duties shall be clearly set forth" shallbe provided, and to this end that "there be established a council composedof the most enlightened scholars of the capital and of the provinces andof the citizens of the different orders, to formulate a plan of nationaleducation, for the benefit of all classes of society, and to editelementary textbooks. " The Third Estate of Blois demanded theestablishment of free schools in all the rural parishes. 

[35] See footnote 1, page 165. One of the great results of the FrenchRevolution was the abolition of serfdom in central and western Europe. Thelast European nation to emancipate its serfs was Russia, where they werefreed in 1861. 

[36] "Great was the difference between France at the end of 1791 and atthe end of 1793. At the former date all looked hopeful for the future; theking was the father of his people; the Constitution of 1791 was toregenerate France, and set an example to Europe; all old institutions hadbeen renovated; everything was new, and popular on account of itsnovelty.... By the end of 1793 all looked threatening for the future; forthe purpose of repelling her foreign foes, who included nearly the wholeof Europe, France submitted to be ground down by the most despotic andarbitrary government ever known in modern history, --the Great Committee ofPublic Safety; the Reign of Terror was in full exercise, and it wasdoubtful whether the energy, audacity, and concentrated vigour of theGreat Committee would enable France to be victorious over Europe, and thussecure for her the right of deciding on the character of their owngovernment. She was to be successful, but at what a cost!" (Stephens, H. M. , _The French Revolution_, vol. II, p. 512. )

[37] The _Code Napoléon_, prepared in 1804, was the first modern code ofcivil laws, though Frederick the Great had earlier prepared a partial codeof Prussian laws. What the _Justinian Code_ was to ancient Rome, this, organized into better form, was to modern France. This _Code_, preparedunder Napoleon's direction, substituted one uniform code of laws worthy ofa modern nation for the thousands of local laws which formerly prevailedin France. 

CHAPTER X

[1] The complaints were largely along such lines as that the instructionwas confined to a few Latin authors; that instruction in the Frenchlanguage was neglected; that instruction in the history and geography ofFrance should be introduced; that time was wasted "in copying and learningnotebooks filled with vain distinctions and frivolous questions"; thattraining in the use of the French language should be substituted for thedisputations in Latin; that in religion the study of the Bible wasneglected for books of devotion and propaganda compiled by the members ofthe Order; that moral casuistry and religious bigotry were taught; andthat the discipline was unnecessarily severe and wrong in character. 

[2] In 1759 the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal, in 1767 from Spain, and in 1773 the Pope at Rome, "recognizing that the members of thisSociety have not a little troubled the Christian commonwealth, and thatfor the welfare of Christendom it were better that the Order shoulddisappear, " abolished the Society entirely. Forty years later it wasreconstituted in a modernized form. 

[3] Little boys wore their hair long and powdered, carried a sword, andhad coats with gilded cuffs, while little girls were dressed in imitationof the lady of fashion. Proper deportment was an important part of achild's training. 

[4] The iconoclastic nature of Rousseau's volume may be inferred from itsopening sentence, in which he says: "Everything is good as it comes fromthe hand of the author of nature; everything degenerated in the hand ofman. " In another place he breaks out: "Man is born, lives, and dies in astate of slavery. At his birth he is stitched into swaddling clothes, athis death he is nailed in his coffin; and as long as he preserves thehuman form he is held captive by our institutions. "

[5] "I do not presume to exclude ecclesiastics, but I protest against theexclusion of laymen. I dare claim for the nation an education whichdepends only on the State, because it belongs essentially to the State;because every State has an inalienable and indefeasible right to instructits members; because, finally, the children of the State ought to beeducated by the members of the State. " (La Chalotais. )

[6] "Education cannot be too widely diffused, to the end that there may beno class of citizens who may not be brought to participate in itsbenefits. It is expedient that each citizen receive the education which isadapted to his needs. " (Rolland. )

[7] Condorcet had not been a member of the Constituent Assembly, but forsome years had been deeply interested in the idea of public education, andhad published five articles on the subject. His Report was a sort ofembodiment, in legal form, of his previous thinking on the question. 

[8] All the educational aims of the past were now relegated to a secondplace, and man became a political animal, "brought into the world to know, to love, and to obey the Constitution. " The _Declaration of the Rights ofMan_ became the new Catechism of childhood. 

[9] This was created on a grand and visionary scale. Its purpose was tosupply professors for the higher institutions. It opened with a largeattendance, and lectures on mathematics, science, politics, and languageswere given by the most eminent scholars of the time. A normal school, though, it hardly was, and in 1795 it closed--a virtual failure. In 1808Napoleon re-created it, on a less pretentious and a more useful scale, andsince then it has continued and rendered useful service as a training-school for teachers for the higher secondary schools of France. 

[10] A total of 105 of these Central Schools were to be established, fivein Paris, and one in each of the one hundred chief towns in thedepartments. By 1796 there were 40, by 1797 there were 52, by 1798 therewere 59, by 1799 there were 86, and by 1800 there were 91 such schools inexistence. This, times considered, was a remarkable development. 

[11] "The commercial depression of 1740 fell upon a generation of NewEnglanders whose minds no longer dwelt preeminently upon religiousmatters, but who were, on the contrary, preeminently commercial in theirinterests. " (Green, M, L. , _Development of Religious Liberty inConnecticut_, p, 226. )

[12] Prominent in the Indiana constitutional convention of 1816 were anumber of Frenchmen of bearing and ability, then residing in the oldterritorial capital--Vincennes. How much they influenced the statement ofthe article on education is not known, but it reads as though Frenchrevolutionary ideas had been influential in shaping it. 

[13] For the original Bill of 1779 in full, in the original spelling, seethe _Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction forVirginia_, 1900-01, pp. Lxx-lxxv. 

[14] Though Jefferson had been Governor of Virginia during theRevolutionary War; had repeatedly served in the Virginia legislature andin Congress; and had twice been President of the United States, he countedall these as of less importance than the three services mentioned, and inpreparing the inscription to be placed on his tomb he included only thesethree. 

CHAPTER XXI

[1] "As a man who sought after glory, and whose gloomy temper took umbrageat everything, Rousseau complained that his _Émile_ did not obtain thesame success as his other writings. He was truly hard to please! The angerof some, the ardent sympathy of others; on the one hand, the parliamentarydecrees condemning the book and issuing a warrant for the author's arrest, the thunders of the Church, and the famous mandate of the Archbishop ofParis; on the other hand, the applause of the philosophers, of Clairant, Duclos, and d'Alembert, --what more, then, did he want? _Émile_ was burnedin Paris and Geneva, but it was read with passion; it was twice translatedin London, an honor which no French work had received up to then. In truthnever did a book make more noise and thrust itself so much on theattention of men. By its defects, no less than by its qualities, by theinspired and prophetic character of its style, as well as by theparadoxical audacity of its ideas, _Émile_ swayed opinion and stirred upthe more generous parts of the human soul. " (Compayré, G. , _Jean-JacquesRousseau_, p. 100. )

[2] Paulsen, Fr. , _German Education, Past and Present_, p. 157. 

[3] Within three years Basedow had collected seven thousand_Reichsthaler_, subscriptions coming to him from such widely scatteredsources as Joseph II of Austria, Empress Catherine of Russia, KingChristian VII of Denmark, "the wealthy class in Basle, " the Abbot of themonastery of Einsiedel in Switzerland, "the royal government ofOsnabruck, " the Grand Prince Paul, and others. Jews and Freemasons seem tohave taken particular interest in his ideas. Freemason lodges in Hamburg, Leipzig, and Göttingen were among the generous contributors. 

[4] See Barnard's _American Journal of Education_, vol. V, pp. 487-520, for an account of the examinations and the institution. 

[5] "The pedagogical character of the _Real_ school was established byBasedow and his followers. Originally the plan was to provide for themiddle classes what would be called nowadays manual training schools, inwhich the scientific principles underlying the various trades and businessvocations should have a prominent place. These schools were to be one stepremoved from the trade schools for the lower classes. But under theinfluence of the Philanthropinists the _Real_ school was transformed intoa modern humanistic school, and placed in competition with the humanistic_Gymnasium_. " (Russell, J. E. , _German Higher Schools_, pp. 65-66. )

[6] His two most important followers were Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746-1818), who succeeded Basedow at Dessau and later founded a Philanthropinumat Hamburg, and Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744-1811), who founded aschool at Schnepfenthal, in Saxe-Gotha. Both these men had for a time beenteachers with Basedow at Dessau. Campe translated Locke's _Thoughts_ andRousseau's _Émile_ into German, wrote a number of books for children(chief among which was the famous _Robinson der Jünger_), and alsoprepared a number of treatises for teachers. Salzmann's school, opened in1784 in the Thuringen forest, made much of gardening, agricultural work, animal study, home geography, nature study, gymnastics, and recreation, aswell as book study. It was distinctively a small but high-gradeexperimental school, so successful that in 1884 it celebrated its onehundredth anniversary. A pupil in the school was Carl Ritter, the founderof modern geographical study. 

[7] "The picture shown in _Leonard and Gertrude_ is very crude. Everywhereis visible the rough hand of the painter, a strong, untiring hand, painting an eternal image, of which this in paper and print is the merestsketch.... Read it and see how puerile it is, how too obvious are itsmoralities. Read it a second time, and note how earnest it is, how exactand accurate are its peasant scenes. Read it yet again, and recognize init the outpouring of a rare soul, working, pleading, ready to be despised, for fellow souls. " (J. P. Monroe, _The Educational Ideal_, p. 182. )

[8] "When I now look back and ask myself: What have I specially done forthe very being of education, I find I have fixed the highest supremeprinciple of instruction in the recognition of _sense impression as theabsolute foundation of all knowledge_. Apart from all special teaching Ihave sought to discover the _nature of teaching itself_, and theprototype, by which nature herself has determined the instruction of ourrace. " (Pestalozzi, _How Gertrude teaches her Children_, X, Section 1. )

[9] "What he did was to emphasize the new purpose in education, butvaguely perceived, where held at all, by others; to make clear the newmeaning of education which existed in rather a nebulous state in thepublic mind; to formulate an entirely new method, based on new principles, both of which were to receive a further development in subsequent times, and to pass under his name; and finally, to give an entirely new spirit tothe schoolroom. " (Monroe, Paul, _Text Book in the History of Education_, p. 600. )

[10] In 1809 the German, Carl Ritter, a former pupil of Salzmann (seefootnote 2, p. 538) and the creator of modern geographical study, visitedPestalozzi at Yverdon. Of this visit he writes:

 "I have seen more than the paradise of Switzerland, I have seen Pestalozzi, I have learned to know his heart and his genius. Never have I felt so impressed with the sanctity of my vocation as when I was with this noble son of Switzerland. I cannot recall without emotion this society of strong men, struggling with the present, with the aim of clearing the way for a better future, men whose only joy and reward is the hope of raising the child to the dignity of man. 

 "I left Yverdon resolved to fulfill my promise made to Pestalozzi to carry his method into geography.... Pestalozzi did not know as much geography as a child in our Primary Schools, but, none the less, have I learned that science from him, for it was in listening to him that I felt awaken within me the instinct of the natural methods; he showed me the way. " (Guimps, Baron de, _Pestalozzi, his Aim and Work_, p. 167. )

[11] The young German student of geology and mineralogy, Karl George vonRaumer (1783-1865), was in Paris, in 1808. While there he readPestalozzi's _How Gertrude teaches her Children_, and what Fichte had saidof his work in his _Addresses to the German Nation_ (see chapter xxii). These sent him to Yverdon to see for himself. He remained two years, andreturned to Germany as a teacher. In 1846 he published his four-volume_Geschichte der Pädagogik_, the first important history of education to bewritten. 

[12] In 1814 King Frederick William III himself visited Pestalozzi, atNeufchatel. His queen, Louise, was deeply touched by reading the _Émile_, and frequently spent hours in the Prussian schools witnessing workconducted after the ideas of Pestalozzi. 

CHAPTER XXII

[1] One of the first acts of the reign of Frederick the Great was torecall Wolff from banishment. In doing so he said: "A man that seekstruth, and loves it, must be reckoned precious in any human society. "

[2] "It was a bold declaration, but one which exactly described the greatchange which had taken place. The older university instruction waseverywhere based upon the assumption that the truth had already beengiven, that instruction had to do with its transmission only, and that itwas the duty of the controlling authorities to see to it that no falsedoctrines were taught. The new university instruction began with theassumption that the truth must be discovered, and that it was the duty ofinstruction to qualify and guide the student in this task. By assumingthis attitude the university was the first to accept the consequences ofthe conditions which the Reformation had created. " (Paulsen, Fr. , _TheGerman Universities_, p. 46. )

[3] "He who reads the works of the ancients will enjoy the acquaintance ofthe greatest men and the noblest souls who ever lived, and will get inthis way, as it happens in all refined conversation, beautiful thoughtsand expressive words. 

"We thus receive, in early childhood, doctrines and philosophy and wisdomof life from the wisest and best educated men of all ages; we thus learnto recognize and understand clearness, dignity, charm, ingenuity, delicacy, and elegance in language and action, and gradually accustomourselves to them. " (Gesner, Johann Matthias. )

[4] The sacristan or custodian of the church was frequently also theteacher of the elementary school, the two offices being combined in oneperson. Out of this combination the elementary teacher was later evolved. (See p. 446. )

[5] "When the schoolmaster had to pass an examination before the clergymanof the place by order of the inspector, the local authorities, owing tothe lamentable life of a schoolmaster, were glad to find persons at allwho were willing to accept an engagement for such a position. Inconsequence an otherwise intolerable indulgence in examining and employingteachers took place, especially in districts where large landholders hadpatriarchal sway. " (Schmid, K. A. , _Encydopädie_, vol. VI, p. 287. )

[6] Austria at that time included not only the Austro-Hungarian Empire of1914, but extended further into the German Empire and Italy, and includedBelgium and Luxemburg as well. 

[7] Bassewitz, M. Fr. Von, _Die Kurmark Brandenburg_, p. 342. (Leipzig, 1847. )

[8] These lectures were listened to by Napoleon's police and passed toprint by his censor, not being regarded as containing anything seditiousor dangerous. 

[9] "He set all his hopes for Germany on a new national system ofeducation. One German State was to lead the way in establishing it, makinguse of the same right of coercion to which it resorted in compelling itssubjects to serve in the army, and for the exercise of which certainly nobetter justification could be found than the common good aimed at innational education. " (Paulsen, Fr. , _German Education, Past and Present_, p. 240. )

[10] "Never have the souls of men been so deeply stirred by the idea ofraising the whole existence of mankind to a higher level. Something likethe enthusiasm which had taken hold of the minds at the outbreak of theFrench Revolution was again at work, the only difference being that thestrong current of national feeling directed it toward an aim which, ifmore limited, was, for that very reason, more practicable and moredefined. " (Paulsen, Fr. , _German Education, Past and Present_, p. 183. )

[11] As a result of the overthrow of Napoleon, the Congress of Viennarestored to Prussia and France substantially the boundaries they had atthe opening of the Napoleonic Wars. Still more important for the futurewas the consolidation of some four hundred States and petty Germankingdoms into thirty-eight States. 

[12] Friedrich Adolph Wilhelm Diesterweg became a pupil in one of theearliest normal schools in Prussia, that at Frankfort; then a teacher; andin 1820 became a director of a Teachers' Seminary at Moers. From 1833 to1849 he was head of the normal school at Berlin. He has often been called"der deutsche Pestalozzi. "

[13] Made in a letter to Baron von Altenstein, Prussian Minister forEducation. 

[14] "Herbart's seminar at the university of Königsberg was officiallyrecognized, in 1810; Gedike's seminar in Berlin was formally taken over bythe university, in 1812; the seminar in Stettin, founded in 1804, wasreorganized in 1816; Breslau began pedagogical work, in 1813; and in 1817it was stated that the purpose of the reorganized seminar in Halle was'the training of skilled teachers for the _Gymnasien_. '" (Russell, JamesE. , _German Higher Schools_, p. 97. )

[15] Gesner at Göttingen and Wolff at Halle laid down the lines for thesein the middle eighteenth century. The early nineteenth-century foundationswere at Königsberg, 1810; Berlin, 1812; Breslau, 1812; Bonn, 1819;Griefswald, 1820; and Münster, 1825. 

[16] All prospective gymnasial teachers, whether graduates of theuniversities or not, were now required to take examinations in philosophy, pedagogy, theology, and the main gymnasial subjects, showing markedproficiency in one of the following groups, and a reasonable knowledge ofthe other two: namely, (1) Greek, Latin, German; (2) Mathematics and theNatural Sciences; (3) History and Geography. 

[17] See Russell, Jas. E. , _German Higher Schools_, p. 101, for thedetailed "Gymnasial Program" promulgated in 1837. 

[18] In 1840 there were six Prussian universities; by 1900 the number hadincreased to eleven, and three technical universities in addition. In theother German States eleven additional universities and six technicaluniversities were in existence, in 1900. 

[19] Benjamin Franklin visited Göttingen, as early as 1766, but the firstAmerican student to take a degree at a German university was Benjamin S. Barton, of Philadelphia, who took his doctor's degree at Göttingen, in1799. By 1825 ten American students had studied one or more semesters atGöttingen. That year the first American student registered at Berlin, andin 1827 the first at Leipzig. (See Hinsdale, B. A. , in _Report, U. S. Commissioner of Education_, 1897-98, vol. 1, pp. 603-16. )

[20] The remark attributed to Bismarck is interesting in this connection. "Of the students who attend the German universities, " he said, "one-thirddie prematurely as the result of disease arising from too great povertyand undernourishment while students; another one-third die prematurely oramount to little due to bad habits and drinking and disease contractedwhile students; the remaining third rule Europe. "

[21] Barnard, Henry, _American Journal of Education_, vol. Xx, p. 365. 

[22] This was proposed by Czar Alexander I of Russia in 1815, and became apersonal alliance of the Czar of Russia, the Emperor of Austria, and theKing of Prussia, "to promote religion, peace, and order. " Other princeswere asked to join this continental League to enforce peace and, under therule of Prince Metternich, chief minister of Austria, it dominated Europeuntil after the political revolutions of 1848. 

[23] As a young man Altenstein had been in charge of a subordinatedivision of the Department of Public Instruction under Humboldt, and was aman of somewhat liberal ideas. Now he was compelled to fall in with theideas of the political leaders and the wishes of the king, though he stilldid something to hold back the reactionary forces and preserve much ofwhat had been gained. 

[24] Paulsen, Fr. , _German Education, Past and Present_, p. 246. 

[25] It was this same Frederick William IV who had for a time refused togrant constitutional government to Prussia, saying: "No written sheet ofpaper shall ever thrust itself like a second providence between the LordGod in heaven and this land. " In 1850, however, he was forced to grant alimited form of constitutional government to his people. 

[26] "The motive which dictated the law of 1872 on school supervision(namely, placing the State in complete control of the supervision ofreligious as well as other instruction) was, as is well understood, tostrengthen the hands of the government in its struggle with the Catholichierarchy, which was then prominently before the public. The law affirmedagain the sovereign right of the State over the whole school system, including the elementary or people's schools. " (Nohle, Dr. E. , _History ofthe German School System_, p. 79. )

[27] Alexander, Thomas, _The Prussian Elementary Schools_, pp. 537-38. 

CHAPTER XXIII

[1] The commune in France was the smallest unit for local government, andcorresponded to the district, town, or township with us, or with theChurch parish under the old régime. There were approximately 37, 000communes in France. The Department was a much larger unit, France beingdivided, for administrative purposes, into 82 Departments, thesecorresponding to a rather large county. 

[2] By this term what is known elsewhere as secondary school must beunderstood. See footnote, page 272, for explanation of the term. 

[3] The University had at its disposal approximately 2, 500, 000 francs ayear. This was derived from a state grant of 400, 000 francs, the incomefrom the property still remaining from the old confiscated universities, and the remainder largely from examination fees. In 1850 its property wastaken over by the State, and the University was changed into a statedepartment. 

[4] This type of administrative organization is at first not easy for theAmerican student to understand. The University of the State of New York--virtually the department of public instruction for the State--is ourclosest American analogy. On the banishment of Napoleon and therestoration of the monarchy, in 1815, the Grand Master and Council werereplaced by a Commissioner of Public Instruction, with AssistantCommissioners for the different divisions, and in 1820 this was furtherchanged into a Royal Council of Public Instruction. 

[5] In 1909 a decree restored Greek and Latin to their old place of firstimportance in the Lycées, thus destroying the strong interest inscientific instruction, in so far as the higher secondary schools wereconcerned, which had characterized the Revolution. 

[6] _Report on the Condition of Public Instruction in Germany, andparticularly in Prussia_. Paris, 1831. Reprinted in London, 1834; New YorkCity, 1835. 

[7] François Pierre Guillaume Guizot was Minister for public Instructionfrom 1832 to 1837, and head of the French government from 1840 to 1848. Hewas throughout his entire political career a conservative, anxious topreserve constitutional government under a monarchy and stem the tide ofrepublicanism. 

[8] We see here the beginnings of education in agriculture, in which theFrench were pioneers. 

[9] The schools, though, were not very successful, because of socialreasons. Parents who could afford to do so sent their children to the muchhigher-priced Communal Colleges or _Lycées_, where Latin was the mainstudy, in preference to sending them to a scientific, modern-type, middle-class school, as conferring a better social distinction on both pupils andparents. 

[10] By 1838 there were 14, 873 public schools the property of thecommunes; by 1847 there were 23, 761; and by 1851 but 2500 out ofapproximately 37, 000 communes were without schools. There were also oversix thousand religious schools by 1850. By 1834 the number of boys in thecommunal schools was 1, 656, 828, and a decade later over two millions. Thethirteen normal schools of 1830 had grown to seventy-six by 1838, withover 2500 young men then in training for teaching. In 1836 the Law of 1833was extended to include, where possible, schools for girls as well, andthe creation of a new set of normal schools to train schoolmistresses wasbegun. By 1848 over three and a half millions of children, of both sexes, were receiving instruction in the primary schools. In 1835 primaryinspectors, those "sinews of public instruction, " as Guizot termed them, were established, one for every Department, by royal decree. By 1847 therewere two inspectors-general, and 13 inspectors and sub-inspectors at workin France. 

[11] This was in large part due to manufacturing and business needs, asFrance was rapidly forging ahead during the period as a manufacturing andcommercial nation. 

[12] Prominent among these, perhaps most prominent, was Jules Ferry, Mayorof Paris during the trying period of 1870-71, then member of the Frenchlegislature and Minister of Public Instruction in a number of cabinetsbetween 1879 and 1885. Drawing his inspiration from Condorcet's _Plan ofEducation_ (p. 514; R. 256) and Edgar Quinet's _Instruction of the People_(R. 289), he brought about the enactment of a series of reform school lawscommonly known as the "Ferry Laws. " These provided for free, compulsory, elementary education, to be given by laymen; secondary education forgirls; the extension of normal schools; and enlarged aid by the State inthe building up of popular education. 

[13] "The non-sectarian school is not the work of a few advanced thinkersimposed upon a docile country. They would not have been able to createanything enduring if the French conscience had not been ready to followthem. This is what the adversaries of our schools do not wish tounderstand, cannot understand, or are anxious to conceal from those whomthey direct. Certainly they have the right to attempt a reaction accordingto their own preferences. They have no right to believe, nor even to allowit to be believed, that the creation of the non-sectarian school was the_coup de force_ of an audacious minority. The non-sectarian school hascome because the nation wished it. The program of moral instruction, longprophesied, conceived, and hoped for, was in the traditions of France asshe marched forward toward her republican aspirations. This program is notonly the conscious effort of the men who gave the school a new mission--that of laying the foundation of social peace through elementaryinstruction; it is the expression of the republican conscience of 1882. "(Moulet, Alfred, _D'une éducation morale démocratique_. )

[14] "To each man his proper sphere; to the minister of religion theliberty of preaching the doctrine of the different churches, to teacherswho teach in the name of the State, that is, of society, the right oflimiting themselves to the field of universal human morals, together withthe duty of refraining from any attack on religious beliefs. Neutrality isguaranteed by the secularization of the teaching body, and it must bestrictly observed. " (Compayré, Gabriel. )

[15] "The most striking feature is that, in place of the one single anduniform course for all pupils, several are provided for their selection. Here is obvious the influence of the elective courses common in the UnitedStates, whose existence and success were reported on to the Minister ofPublic Instruction by the Commission to the World Exposition at Chicago, in 1893. The courses last seven years. The school period is divided intotwo cycles, first one of four years, and then one of three. In the firstcycle, the pupils have a choice of two sections, one emphasizing theancient and modern languages, the other the modern languages and science. In the second cycle there are four sections, viz. , Graeco-Latin; Latin-modern languages; Latin-scientific; and scientific-modern languages. "(Compayré, Gabriel, _Education in France_. )

[16] Arnold, Matthew, _Schools and Universities on the Continent_, p. 115, (London, 1868. )

[17] For example, by the Peace of Lunéville (1801), by which Napoleon tookfrom the Germans all territory west of the Rhine and consolidated it, heextinguished 118 free cities, principalities, and petty states. Inaddition, he extinguished the separate existence of 160 others east of theRhine. The importance of such consolidations for the future of Germany hasbeen large. 

[18] Bologna, for example, had 166 professors in the early seventeenthcentury, but by 1737 it had but 62. The universities came chiefly to beplaces where young men obtained degrees but not learning. At Naples anoble family by the name of Avellino came to have the power of virtuallyselling degrees in law and medicine. 

[19] Not only were schools built up, but commerce, roads, and inparticular scientific agriculture were subjects of deep interest toCavour. He saw, very clearly, that if Sardinia was to be the nucleus of afuture Italy, Sardinia must show unmistakably her worthiness to lead. 

[20] By 1859 Sardinia had come to include Savoy and Lombardy, and was thelargest State in northern Italy. A year later all but Venetia and theStates of the Church had been added. 

[21] The Law of 1877 fixed the instruction in the primary schools, for thethree compulsory years, as reading, writing, the Italian language, elements of civics, arithmetic, and the metric system. The omission ofreligious instruction excited much opposition from church authorities, butwithout effect. 

CHAPTER XXIV

[1] Prussia and Holland possibly form exceptions in the matter. Frederickthe Great (p. 474) was noted for his liberality in religious matters. There different varieties of Protestants, Catholics, and Jews were alltolerated, and there they mingled and intermarried. So well were the Jewsreceived that the type--German-Jew--is to-day familiar to the world. 

[2] As early as 1670, in the celebrated Bates case, the English court heldthat a teacher could not be dispossessed from his school for teachingwithout the Bishop's license, if he were the nominee of the founder orpatron. This led (p. 438) to a great increase in endowed schools. 

[3] In the Cox case (1700), another important legal decision, the Englishcourt held that there was not and never had been any ecclesiasticalcontrol over any schools other than grammar schools, and that teachers inelementary schools did not need to have a license from the Bishop. Theyear following, in the case of _Rex_ v. _Douse_, the same principle wasaffirmed in even clearer language. 

[4] It was not until 1779 that an Act (19 Geo. III, c. 44) granted fullfreedom to Dissenters to teach. In 1791 a supplemental Act (31 Geo. III, c. 32, s. 13-14) granted similar liberty to Roman Catholics. 

[5] It was this second Society that did notable work in the AnglicanColonies of America, and particularly in and about New York City (p. 369). See Kemp, W. W. , _Support of Schools in Colonial New York by the S. P. G. _(New York, 1913. )

[6] Begun, in 1704, in London, these were continued yearly there until1877. They were also preached for more than a century in many otherplaces. To these sermons the children marched in procession, wearing theiruniforms, and a collection for the support of the schools was taken. Ofthe first of these occasions in London, Strype; in his edition of Stow, says: "It was a wondrous surprising, as well as a pleasing sight, thathappened June the 8th, 1704, when all the boys and girls maintained atthese schools, in their habits, walked two and two, with their Masters andMistresses, some from Westminster, and some through London; with many ofthe Parish ministers going before them; and all meeting at Saint Andrews', Holburn, Church, where a seasonable sermon was preached... Upon Genesisxviii, 19, _I know him that he will command his children_, etc. , thechildren (about 2000) being placed in the galleries. "

[7] "The religious revival under Wesley owed, perhaps, more than isgenerally suspected to the Christian teaching in these new and humbleelementary schools. " (Montmorency, J. E. G. De, _The Progress of Educationin England_, p. 54. )

[8] He gathered together the children (90 at first) employed in the pinfactories of Gloucester, and paid four women a shilling each to spendtheir Sundays in instructing these poor children "in reading and theChurch Catechism. "

[9] Sunday being a day of rest and the mills and factories closed, thechildren ran the streets and spent the day in mischief and vice. In theagricultural districts of England farmers were forced to take specialprecautions on Sundays to protect their places and crops from thedepredations of juvenile offenders. 

[10] "In a very special way they met the sentiment of the times. They werecheap--many were conducted by purely voluntary teachers--they did notteach too much, and they had the further merit of not interfering with thework of the week. " (Birchenough, C. , _History of Elementary Education inEngland and Wales_, p. 40. )

[11] In a Manchester Sunday School, in 1834, there were 2700 scholars and120 unsalaried teachers, all but two or three of whom were former pupilsin the Sunday Schools, now teaching others, free of charge, in return forthe advantages once given them. 

[12] "The amount of instruction rarely, if ever, exceeds the first fourrules of arithmetic, with reading and writing. The class of childreninstructed is presumed to be of the very poorest, living in the mostcrowded districts. No doubt a large number come under this designation, but not a few better-to-do persons are found ready to take advantage fortheir children of the free instruction thus held out to them, and even attimes almost pressed upon them. " (Bartley, George C. T. , _The Schools forthe People_, p. 385. )

[13] The Reverend George Crabbe (1754-1832). "The schools of the Borough. "

[14] French Revolutionary thought "represented an attack on over-interference, vested interests, superstition, and tyranny of every form. It showed a marked propensity to ignore history, and to judge everythingby its immediate reasonableness. It pictured a society free from all lawsand coercion, freed from all clerical influence and ruled by benevolence, a society in which all men had equal rights and were able to attain thefullest self-realization. In its strictly educational aspects, it demandedthe withdrawal of education from the Church and the setting up of a statesystem of secular instruction. " (Birchenough, C. , _History of ElementaryEducation in England and Wales_, p. 20. )

[15] The ideas of Malthus were especially offensive to his brotherclergymen, and created quite a furor. Many regarded him as an insane andunorthodox fanatic. A prevailing idea of the time was that of a "beautifulorder Providentially arranged, " and it was the custom to give everything arose-colored hue. The poor were thought to be contented in their poverty, and the rich and the aristocratic considered themselves divinely appointedto rule over them. Malthus saw the fallacy of such thinking, and statedmatters in the light of biologic and political truths. 

[16] Foster, John, _An Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance_, p. 259. 

[17] Bell, Reverend Dr. Andrew, _An Experiment in Education made at theMale Asylum at Madras, Suggesting a System by which a School or a Familymay teach itself under the Superintendence of the Master or Parent_. London, 1797. 

[18] Lancaster, Joseph, _Improvements in Education as it Respects theIndustrial Classes of the Community_. London, 1803; New York, 1807. 

[19] Both Bell and Lancaster worked with great energy to organize schoolsafter their respective plans, and quarreled with equal energy as to whooriginated the idea. While both probably did, the idea nevertheless isolder than either. In 1790 Chevalier Paulet organized a monitorial schoolin Paris; while the English schoolmaster, John Brinsley (1587-1665), inhis _Ludus Literarius, or the Grammar Schooles_ (1612), laid down themonitorial principle in explicit language. 

[20] This Society adopted, as a fundamental principle, "that the nationalreligion should be made the foundation of national education, andaccording to the excellent liturgy and catechism adopted by our Church forthat purpose. "

[21] "When Lancaster had his famous interview with King George III, thatmonarch was impressed, as he naturally might be, by the statement that onemaster 'could teach five hundred children at the same time. ' 'Good, ' saidthe King; 'Good, ' echoed a number of wealthy subscribers to Lancaster'sprojects. " (Binns, H. B. , _A Century of Education_, p. 299. )

[22] In 1807 Mr. Whitbread, an ardent supporter of schools, said, in anaddress before the House of Commons: "I cannot help noticing that this isa period particularly favorable for the institution of a national systemof education, because within a few years there has been discovered a planfor the instruction of youth which is now brought to a state of greatperfection, happily combining rules by which the object of learning mustbe infallibly attained with expedition and cheapness, and holding out thefairest prospect of utility to mankind. "

[23] When Lancaster first hired the large hall in Borough Road which laterbecame an important training-college, and opened it as a mutual-instruction school, he announced: "All that will may send their children, and have them educated freely, and those who do not wish to have educationfor nothing, may pay for it if they please. "

[24] In 1820, Brougham, in introducing his "Bill for the Better Educationof the Poor in England and Wales, " gave statistics as to the progress ofeducation at that time in England. His estimate as to the numbers beingeducated were:

 430, 000 in endowed and privately managed schools; 220, 000 in monitorial schools; 50, 000 being educated at home; 100, 000 educated only in Sunday Schools; 53, 000 being educated in dame schools. 

From these figures he argued that one in fifteen of the population ofEngland and one in twenty in Wales were attending some form of school, butwith only one in twenty-four in London. The usual period of schoolattendance for the poorer classes was only one and a half to two years. 

[25] Known as the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act. It limited theworking hours of apprentices to twelve; forbade night work; required dayinstruction to be provided in reading, writing, and arithmetic; requiredchurch attendance once a month; and provided for the registration andinspection of factories. The Act was very laxly enforced, and its chiefvalue lay in the precedent of state interference which it established. 

[26] Whitbread proposed a national system of rate-aided schools to provideall children in England with two years of free schooling, between the agesof seven and fourteen. 

[27] See J. E. G. De Montmorency's _State Intervention in EnglishEducation_, pp. 248-85, for Brougham's address to the Commons in 1820 on"The Education of the Poor"; and pp. 285-324 for his address before theHouse of Lords in 1835, on "The Education of the People. " Both addressescontain an abundance of data as to existing conditions and needs. 

[28] So called because the House of Lords rejected the first two passed bythe Commons, and finally accepted the third only because the King hadagreed to create enough new Lords to pass the bill unless it was enactedby the upper House. 

[29] This was a development of the monitorial system of training, and wasvirtually an apprenticeship form of teacher-training. 

[30] In 1885 the same liberty was extended to rural laborers. This addedtwo million more voters, and gave England almost full manhood suffrage. Finally, in 1918, some five million women were added to the votingclasses. 

[31] Nearly two million children had been provided with schoolaccommodations, three fourths of which had been done by those associatedwith the Church of England. In doing this the Church had spent some£6, 270, 000 on school buildings, and had raised some £8, 500, 000 involuntary subscriptions for maintenance. The Government had also paid outsome £6, 500, 000 in grants, since 1833. In 1870 it was estimated that1, 450, 000 children were on the registers of the state-aided schools, while1, 500, 000 children, between the ages of six and twelve, were unprovidedfor. 

[32] Speech before the House of Commons, July 23, 1870. 

[33] "The clergy of the National Society exhibited amazing energy andsucceeded, according to their own account, in doing in twelve months whatin the normal course of events would have taken twenty years. By the endof the year they had lodged claims for 2885 building grants, out of atotal of 3342. They also set to work, without any governmental assistance, to enlarge their schools and so increased denominational accommodationenormously. The voluntary contributions in aid of this work have beenestimated at over £3, 000, 000. At the same time the annual subscriptionsdoubled.... By 1886, over 3, 000, 000 places had been added, one-half ofwhich were due to voluntary agencies, and Voluntary Schools were providingrather more than two-thirds of the school places in the country. In 1897the proportion had fallen to three-fifths. " (Birchenough, C. , _History ofElementary Education_, pp. 138, 140. )

[34] These were the seven endowed secondary boarding schools--Winchester(1382), Eton (1440), Shrewsbury (1552), Westminster (1560), Rugby (1567), Harrow (1571), and Charterhouse (1611)--and the two endowed day schools, --Saint Paul's (1510) and Merchant Taylors' (1561). 

[35] At least one hundred towns, the Report showed, with a population offive thousand or over had no endowed secondary school, and London, with apopulation then (1867) of over three million, had but twenty-six schoolsand less than three thousand pupils enrolled. All the new manufacturingcities were in even worse condition than London. 

[36] The University of London was originally founded in 1836, andreorganized in 1900. 

[37] The scientist Thomas Huxley was a London School Board member, and, speaking as such, he expressed the views of many when he said: "I conceiveit to be our duty to make a ladder from the gutter to the university alongwhich any child may climb. "

[38] Royal (Bryce) Commission on Secondary Education, vol. I, p. 299. London, 1895. 

[39] Known as the "Education Act, 1918" (8 and 9 Geo. V, ch. 39). The Acthas been reprinted in full in the _Biennial Survey of Education_, 1916-18, of the United States Commissioner of Education, in the chapter onEducation in Great Britain. It also has been reprinted as an appendix toMoore, E. C. , _What the War teaches about Education_, New York, 1919. 

CHAPTER XXV

[1] "The Constitution, " as John Quincy Adams expressed it, "was extortedfrom the grinding necessities of a reluctant people" to escape anarchy andthe ultimate entire loss, of independence, and many had grave doubts as tothe permanence of the Union. It was not until after the close of the Warof 1812 that belief in the stability of the Union and in the capacity ofthe people to govern themselves became the belief of the many rather thanthe very few, and plans for education and national development began toobtain a serious hearing. 

[2] After the beginning of the national life a number of States foundedand endowed a state system of academies. Massachusetts, in 1797, grantedland endowments to approved academies. Georgia, in 1783, created a systemof county academies for the State. New York extended state aid to itsacademies, in 1813, having put them under state inspection as early as1787. Maryland chartered many academies between 1801 and 1817, andauthorized many lotteries to provide them with funds, as did also NorthCarolina. The Rhode Island General Assembly chartered many academies, andaided them by lotteries. Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana, among westernStates, also provided for county systems of academies. 

[3] The study of Latin and a little Greek had constituted the curriculumof the old Latin grammar school, and its purpose had been almostexclusively to prepare boys for admission to the colony colleges. In trueEnglish style, Latin was made the language of the classroom, and evenattempted for the playground as well. As a concession, reading, writing, and arithmetic were sometimes taught. The new academies, while retainingthe study of Latin, and usually Greek, though now taught through themedium of the English, added a number of new studies adapted to the needsof a new society. English grammar was introduced and soon rose to a placeof great importance, as did also oratory and declamation. Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, geography, and astronomy were in time added, andsurveying, rhetoric (including some literature), natural and moralphilosophy, and Roman antiquities were frequently taught. Girls wereadmitted rather freely to the new academies, whereas the grammar schoolshad been exclusively for boys. For better instruction a "femaledepartment" was frequently organized. 

[4] Thomas Jefferson's name appears in the first subscription list asgiving $200, and he was elected a member of the first governing board. Thechief sources of support of the schools, which up to 1844 remained pauperschools, were subscriptions, lotteries, a tax on slaves and dogs, certainlicense fees, and a small appropriation ($1500) each year from the citycouncil. 

[5] This organization opened the first schools in Philadelphia forchildren regardless of religious affiliation, and for thirty-seven yearsrendered a useful service there. 

[6] All at once, comparatively, a new system had been introduced which notonly improved but tremendously cheapened education. In 1822 it cost but$1. 22 per pupil per year to give instruction in New York City, though by1844 the per-capita cost, due largely to the decreasing size of theclasses, had risen to $2. 70, and by 1852 to $5. 83. In Philadelphia, in1817, the expense was $3, as against $12 in the private and churchschools. One finds many notices in the newspapers of the time as to thevalue and low cost of the new system. 

[7] The cotton-spinning industry illustrates the rapid growth ofmanufacturing in the United States. The 15 cotton mills of 1807 hadincreased to 801, by 1831; and to 1240, by 1840. The South owed itsprosperity chiefly to cotton-growing and shipping, and did not developfactories and workshops until a much more recent period. 

[8] Among many resolutions adopted by the laboring organizations thefollowing is typical: "At a General Meeting of Mechanics and Workingmenheld in New York City, in 1829, it was

 "_Resolved_, that next to life and liberty, we consider education the greatest blessing bestowed upon mankind. 

 "_Resolved_, that the public funds should be appropriated (to a reasonable extent) to the purpose of education upon a regular system that shall insure the opportunity to every individual of obtaining a competent education before he shall have arrived at the age of maturity. "

CHAPTER XXVI

[1] Connecticut and New York both had set aside lands, before 1800, tocreate such a fund, Connecticut's fund dating back to 1750. Delaware, in1796, devoted the income from marriage and tavern licenses to the samepurpose, but made no use of the fund for twenty years. Connecticut, in1795, sold its "Western Reserve" in Ohio for $1, 200, 000, and added this toits school fund. New York, in 1805, similarly added the proceeds of thesale of half a million acres of state lands, though the fund then formallycreated accumulated unused until 1812. Tennessee began to build up apermanent state school fund in 1806; Virginia in 1810; South Carolina in1811; Maryland in 1812; New Jersey in 1816; Georgia in 1817; Maine, NewHampshire, Kentucky, and Louisiana in 1821; Vermont and North Carolina in1825; Pennsylvania in 1831; and Massachusetts in 1834. These wereestablished as permanent state funds, the annual income only to be used, in some way to be determined later, for the support of some form ofschools. 

[2] Now for the first time direct taxation for schools was likely to befelt by the taxpayer, and the fight for and against the imposition of suchtaxation was on in earnest. The course of the struggle and the resultswere somewhat different in the different States, but, in a general way, the progress of the conflict was somewhat as follows:

 1. Permission granted to communities so desiring to organize a school taxing district, and to tax for school support the property of those consenting and residing therein. 

 2. Taxation of all property in the taxing district permitted. 

 3. State aid to such districts, at first from the income from permanent endowment funds, and later from the proceeds of a small state appropriation or a state or county tax. 

 4. Compulsory local taxation to supplement the state or county grant. 

[3] Concerning the system, "The Philadelphia Society for the Establishmentand Support of Charity Schools, " in an "Address to the Public, " in 1818, said:

 "In the United States the benevolence of the inhabitants has led to the establishment of Charity Schools, which, though affording individual advantages, are not likely to be followed by the political benefits kindly contemplated by their founders. In the country a parent will raise children in ignorance rather than place them in charity schools. It is only in large cities that charity schools succeed to any extent. These dispositions may be improved to the best advantage, by the Legislature, in place of Charity Schools, establishing Public Schools for the education of all children, the offspring of the rich and the poor alike. "

[4] In 1821 the counties of Dauphin (Harrisburg), Allegheny (Pittsburg), Cumberland (Carlisle), and Lancaster (Lancaster) were also exempted fromthe state pauper-school law, and allowed to organize schools for theeducation of the children of their poor. 

[5] Some 32, 000 persons petitioned for a repeal of the law, 66 of whomsigned by making their mark, and "not more than five names in a hundred, "reported a legislative committee which investigated the matter, "weresigned in English script. " It was from among the parochial-school Germansthat the strongest opposition to the law came. 

[6] For Stevens's speech in defense of the Law of 1834, see _Report of theUnited States Commissioner of Education_, 1898-99, vol. I, pp. 516-24. 

[7] By 1836 the new free-school law had been accepted by 75 per cent ofthe districts in the State, by 1838 by 84 per cent, and by 1847 by 88 percent. 

[8] This State had enacted an experimental school law, and made an annualstate grant for schools, from 1795 to 1800. Then, unable to reënact thelaw, the system was allowed to lapse and was not reëstablished until theNew England element gained control, in 1812. 

[9] By his vigorous work in behalf of schools the first appointee, GideonHawley, gave such offense to the politicians of the time that he wasremoved from office, in 1821, and the legislature then abolished theposition and designated the Secretary of State to act, _ex officio_, asSuperintendent. This condition continued until 1854, when New York againcreated the separate office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

[10] When Connecticut sold its Western Reserve, in 1795, and added the sumto the Connecticut school fund, it was stated to be for the aid of"schools and the gospel. " In the sales of the first national lands in Ohio(1, 500, 000 acres to The Ohio Company, in 1787; and 1, 000, 000 acres in theSymmes Purchase, near Cincinnati, in 1788), section 16 in each townshipwas reserved and given as an endowment for schools, and section 29 "forthe purposes of religion. "

[11] The Public School Society continued to receive money grants, it beingregarded as a non-denominational organization, though chartered to teach"the sublime truths of religion and morality contained in the HolyScriptures" in its schools. In 1828 the Society was even permitted to levya local tax to supplement its resources, it being estimated that at thattime there were 10, 000 children in the city with no opportunities foreducation. 

[12] The question may be regarded as a settled one in our American States. Our people mean to keep the public-school system united as one stateschool system, well realizing that any attempt to divide the schools amongthe different religious denominations (the _World Almanac_ for 1917 lists49 different denominations and 171 different sects in the United States)could only lead to inefficiency and educational chaos. 

[13] The movement gained a firm hold everywhere east of the MissouriRiver, the States incorporating the largest number being New York with887, Pennsylvania with 524, Massachusetts with 403, Kentucky with 330, Virginia with 317, North Carolina with 272, and Tennessee with 264. SomeStates, as Kentucky and Indiana, provided for a system of countyacademies, while many States extended to them some form of state aid. InNew York State they found a warm advocate in Governor De Witt Clinton, whourged (1827) that they be located at the county towns of the State to givea practical scientific education suited to the wants of farmers, merchants, and mechanics, and also to train teachers for the schools ofthe State. 

[14] The new emphasis given to the study of English, mathematics, andbook-science is noticeable. New subjects appeared in proportion as theacademies increased in numbers and importance. Of 149 new subjects forstudy appearing in the academies of New York, between 1787 and 1870, 23appeared before 1826, 100 between 1826 and 1840, and 26 after 1840. Between 1825 and 1828 one half of the new subjects appeared. This also wasthe maximum period of development of the academies. 

[15] The existence of a number of colleges, basing their entrancerequirements on the completion of the classical course of the academy, andthe establishment of a few embryo state universities in the new States ofthe West and the South, naturally raised the further question of why thereshould be a gap in the public-school system. The increase of wealth in thecities tended to increase the number who passed through the elementarycourse and could profit by more extended education; the academies hadpopularized the idea of more advanced education; while the newmanufacturing and commercial activities of the time called for moretraining than the elementary schools afforded, and of a different typefrom that demanded by the small colleges of the time for entrance. 

[16] For an interesting table showing the simple entrance requirements ofHarvard in 1642, 1734, 1803, 1825, 1850, 1875, and 1885, see _Report ofthe United States Commissioner of Education_, 1902, vol. I, pp. 930-33. 

CHAPTER XXVII

[1] In Spain, for example, the percentage of illiteracy in 1860 was 75. 52;in 1870 70. 01 per cent; in 1887, 68. 01 per cent; in 1890, 63. 78 per cent;and in 1910, 59. 35 per cent. The percentage for 1920 will probably not beless than for 1910, due to the closing of many schools for lack ofteachers during the World War. In 1916 ten provinces had an illiteracy ofover 70 per cent, and but five had less than 40 per cent. In Madrid andBarcelona, cities as large as Baltimore and Cleveland, the illiteracyapproaches a third of the population in Madrid, and a half in Barcelona. 

[2] While an exile from the Argentine, Dr. Sarmiento was commissioned byChili to visit, study, and report on the state school systems of theUnited States and Europe. While in the United States he became intimatelyacquainted with Horace Mann. Later he was Minister from the Argentine tothe United States, being recalled, in 1868, to assume the presidency ofthe Republic. He was deeply impressed with the type of educationalopportunity provided in the schools of the United States and, through anappointed Minister of Education, impressed his ideas on the Argentinenation. 

[3] In 1910 only about 3 per cent of the total population was in any typeof school. 

[4] The Mikado still retained, through his ministers, very large powers, while the parliament was a consultative assembly rather than a legislativeone. The form of government has been much like that of the German Empirebefore the World War. 

[5] The Japanese Government has so far been a military autocracy, and theJapanese have been the Prussians of the Orient. The two-class schoolsystem has accordingly met the needs of a benevolent autocracy fairlywell. With the rise of a liberal party in Japan, and the beginning of somedemocratic life, we may look for progressive changes in their schoolswhich will tend to produce a more democratic type of educationalorganization. 

[6] "The idea of education for all classes, the aim of all educators andstatesmen of western countries, scarcely entered the minds of the leadersof China under the traditional system of education. With the introductionof the new educational system, however, the problem of universal educationsuddenly came into prominence. Indeed, it is the stated goal of the neweducational policy. " (Ping Wen Kuo, _The Chinese System of PublicEducation_, p. 149. )

[7] Education in China has been common, for a class, for over fourthousand years. The schools were private, but a detailed national systemof examinations was provided by the State, and all who expected any statepreferment were required to pass these state examinations. The system wasbased on the old Confucian classics. Under it schools existed in all thechief towns, and the examination system exerted a strong unifyinginfluence on the nation. In 1842 China opened five treaty ports to theships and commerce of western nations, and from 1842 to 1903 a process ofgradual transition from the ancient examination system to modernconditions took place. 

[8] "A nation that has preserved its identity by peaceful means for threemilleniums; that has made the soil produce subsistence for a multitudinouspopulation during that long period, while Western peoples have worn outtheir soil in less than that many centuries; that has produced many of themost influential of modern inventions, such as printing, gunpowder, andthe compass; that has developed such mechanical ingenuity and commercialability as are shown in its everyday life, undoubtedly possesses theability to accomplish results by the use of methods worked out by theWestern world. When modern scientific knowledge is added by the Chinese tothe skill which they already have in agriculture, in commerce, inindustry, in government, and in military affairs, results will beachieved, on the basis of their physical stamina and moral qualities, which will remove the ignorance, the indifference, and the prejudice ofthe Western world regarding things Chinese. " (Monroe, Paul, Editorialintroduction to Ping Wen Kuo's _The Chinese System of Public Education_. )

[9] Though appearing small on the map, Siam is a nation of six millions ofpeople and an area over three and a half times that of the six New EnglandStates. 

[10] "Through metaphysics first; then through alchemy and chemistry, through physical and astronomical spectroscopy, lastly through radio-activity, science has slowly groped its way to the atom. " (Soddy, F. , _Matter and Energy_. )

[11] Adams in England, and Leverrier in France. The planet Uranus had forlong been known to be erratic in its movements, and Adams and Leverrierconcluded, working from Newton's law for gravitation, that it must be dueto the pull of an unknown planet. Both calculated the orbit of thisunknown body, Adams sending his calculations to the Royal Observatory atGreenwich, and Leverrier to the observatory at Berlin. At bothobservatories the new planet--later named Neptune--was picked up by thetelescope at the position indicated. 

[12] This theory of "catastrophes" held that at a number of successiveepochs, of which the age of Noah was the latest, great revolutions ordisasters had taken place on the earth's surface, in which all livingthings were destroyed. Later the world was restocked, and again destroyed. This explained the successive strata, and the fossils they contained. Forthis theory Lyell substituted a slow and orderly evolution, covering ages, and completely upset the Mosaic chronology. 

[13] For example:--mineralogy, petrography, petrology, crystallography, stratigraphy, and paleontology. 

[14] "Darwin's Origin of Species had come into the theological world likea plow into an ant-hill. Everywhere those thus rudely awakened from theirold comfort and repose had swarmed forth angry and confused. Reviews, sermons, books, light and heavy, came flying at the new thinker from allsides. " (White, A. D. , _The Warfare of Science and Theology_, vol. 1, p. 70. )

[15] Natural history as a study goes back to the days of Aristotle, inGreece, but it had always been a study of fixed forms. Darwin destroyedthis conception, and vitalized the new subject of biology. From thisbotany and zoology have been derived, and from these again many other newsciences, such as physiology, morphology, bacteriology, anthropology, cytology, entomology, and all the different agricultural sciences. 

[16] The bacillus of tuberculosis was isolated in 1882, Asiatic cholera in1883, lockjaw and diphtheria in 1884, and bubonic plague in 1894. 

[17] Schools of engineering, mining, agriculture, and applied science aretypes. 

[18] The book on Germany (_De l'Allemagne_) by Madame de Staël (1766-1817), a brilliant French novelist, was published and immediatelyconfiscated in France in 1811, and republished in England in 1813. It isone of the most remarkable books on one country written by a native ofanother which had appeared up to that time. Through reading it manyEnglish and Americans discovered a new world. 

[19] For example, it has been estimated that one fifteenth of the workingpopulation of modern industrial nations devotes itself to transportation;another one fifteenth to maintaining public services--light, gas, telephone, water, sewage, streets, parks--unknown in earlier times; andanother one fifteenth to the manufacture and distribution and care ofautomobiles. Add still further the numbers employed in connection withtheaters, moving-picture shows, phonographs, magazines and the newspapers, soft-drink places, millinery and dry goods, hospitals, and similar"appendages of civilization, " and we get some idea of the increased laborefficiency which the applications of science have brought about. 

[20] Labor unions were legalized in England in 1825. In the United Statesthey arose about 1825-30, and for a time played an important part insecuring legislation to better the condition of the workingman and tosecure education for his children. In continental Europe, the reactionarygovernments following the downfall of Napoleon forbade assemblies ofworkingmen or their organization, as dangerous to government. Inconsequence, labor organizations in France were not permitted until 1848, and in Germany and Austria not until after the middle of the century. InJapan, as late as 1919, laborers were denied the right to organize. 

[21] Up to 1789 serfdom was the rule on the continent of Europe; by 1850there was practically no serfdom in central and western Europe, and in1866 serfdom was abolished in Russia. For the worker and farmer the yearsbetween 1789 and 1848 were years of rapid progress in the evolution frommediaeval to modern conditions of living. 

[22] Under conditions existing up to the close of the eighteenth century, in part persisting up to the middle of the nineteenth on the continent, and still found in unprogressive lands, a close limitation of the rightsof labor was maintained. Children followed the trade of their fathers, andthe right of an apprentice later to open a shop and better his conditionwas prohibited until after he had become an accepted master (p. 210) inhis craft. Guild members, too, were not permitted to branch out into anyother line of activity, or to introduce any new methods of work. All theseold limitations the Industrial Revolution swept away. 

[23] Women in Europe have secured the ballot rapidly since the end of thenineteenth century. With manhood suffrage secured, universal suffrage isthe next step. Women were given the right to vote and hold office inFinland in 1906; in Norway in 1907; in Denmark in 1916; in England in1918; in Germany in 1919; and in the United States in 1920. 

[24] See an excellent brief article "On German Education, " by E. C. Moore, in _School and Society_, vol. I, pp. 886-89. 

[25] A State approximately the size of Illinois, and containing apopulation of about two million people. The great development of thiscountry is in reality a history of the work of President Manuel EstradaCabrera, who was president from 1898 to 1920. His ruling interest has beenpublic education, believing that in universal education rests the futuregreatness of the State. He accordingly labored to establish schools, andto bring them up to as high a level as possible. The government has spentmuch in building modern-type schoolhouses and in subsidizing schools, holding that with the proper training of the younger generation the futureposition of the nation rests. A sincere admirer of the United States, American models have been copied. When the United States entered the WorldWar, Guatemala was the first Central American republic to follow. Duringthe War President Cabrera "would allow nothing to interfere with theadvancement of free and compulsory education in the State. " (See Domville-Fife, C. W. , _Guatemala and the States of Central America_. )

[26] "Imagine how the streams of Celestials circulating between Hong Kongand the mainland spread the knowledge of what a civilized government doesfor the people! At Shanghai and Tientsin, veritable fairylands for theChinese, they cannot but contrast the throngs of rickshas, dog-carts, broughams, and motor cars that pour endlessly through the spotless asphaltstreets with the narrow, crooked, filthy, noisome streets of their nativecity, to be traversed only on foot or in a sedan chair. Even the youngmandarin, buried alive in some dingy walled town of the far interior, without news, events, or society, recalled with longing the lights, thegorgeous tea houses, and the alluring 'sing-song' girls of Foochow Road, and cursed the stupid policy of a government that penalized evenenterprising Chinamen who tried to 'start something' for the benefit ofthe community. " (Ross, E. A. , _Changing America_, p. 22. )

CHAPTER XXVIII

[1] The earliest Teachers' Seminaries in German lands were:

 1750. Alfeld, in Hanover. 1753. Wolfenbüttel, in Brunswick. 1764. Glatz, in Prussia. 1765. Breslau, in Prussia. 1768. Carlsruhe, in Baden. 1771. Vienna, in Austria. 1777. Bamberg, in Bavaria. 1778. Halberstadt, in Prussia. 1779. Coburg, in Gotha. 1780. Segeberg, in Holstein. 1785. Dresden, in Saxony. 1794. Weissenfels, in Prussia. 

[2] "My views of the subject, " said he, "came out of a personal strivingafter methods, the execution of which forced me actively andexperimentally to seek, to gain, and to work out what was not there, andwhat I yet really knew not. "

[3] See footnote 1, page 573, for places and dates. 

[4] By the Reverend Samuel R. Hall, who conducted the school as an adjunctto his work as a minister. The school accordingly traveled about, beingheld at Concord, Vermont, from 1823 to 1830; at Andover, Massachusetts, from 1830 to 1837; and at Plymouth, New Hampshire, from 1837 to 1840. 

[5] By James Carter, at Lancaster, Massachusetts. 

[6] In 1836, Calvin Stowe, a professor in the Lane Theological Seminary atCincinnati, went to Europe to buy books for the library of theinstitution, and the legislature of Ohio commissioned him to examine andreport upon the systems of elementary education found there. The resultwas his celebrated _Report on Elementary Education in Europe_, made to thelegislature in 1837. In it chief attention was given to contrasting theschools of Würtemberg and Prussia with those found in Ohio. The report wasordered printed by the legislature of Ohio, and later by the legislaturesof Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Michigan, North Carolina, and Virginia, and did much to awaken American interest in advancing common schooleducation. 

[7] These are higher institutions which offer two, three, or four years ofacademic and some professional education, and may be found in connectionwith a university; may be maintained by city or county school authorities;or may be voluntary institutions. In 1910-11 there were eighty-three suchinstitutions in England and Wales. 

[8] In China, for example, as soon as the new general system of educationhad been decided upon, normal schools of three types--higher normalschools, lower normal schools, and teacher-training schools--were created, and missionary teachers, foreign teachers, and students returning fromabroad were used to staff these new schools. By 1910 as many as thirtyhigher normal schools, two hundred and three lower normal schools, and ahundred and eighty-two training classes had been established in Chinaunder government auspices. (Ping Wen Kuo, _The Chinese System of PublicEducation_, p. 156. )

[9] The beginnings in the United States date from about 1890, and inEngland even later. In France, on the other hand, the training of teachersfor the secondary schools goes back to the days of Napoleon. 

[10] A common division was between the teacher who taught reading, religion, and spelling, and the teacher who taught writing and arithmetic(R. 307). Writing being considered a difficult art, this was taught by aseparate teacher, who often included the ability to teach arithmetic alsoamong his accomplishments. 

[11] A good example of this may be found in the monitorial schools. TheNew York Free School Society (p. 660), for example, reported in its_Fourteenth Annual Report_ (1819) that the children in its schools hadpursued studies as follows:

 297 children have been taught to form letters in sand. 615 have been advanced from letters in sand, to monosyllabic reading on boards. 686 from reading on boards, to Murray's First Book. 335 from Murray's First Book, to writing on slates. 218 from writing on slates, to writing on paper. 341 to reading in the Bible. 277 to addition and subtraction. 153 to multiplication and division.. 60 to the compound of the four first rules. 20 to reduction. 24 to the rule of three. 

[12] Herbart had visited Pestalozzi at Burgdorf, in 1799, just aftergraduating from Jena and while acting as a tutor for three Swiss boys, andhad written a very sympathetic description of his school and his theory ofinstruction. Herbart was one of the first of the Germans to understand andappreciate "the genial and noble Pestalozzi. "

[13] The son of a well-educated public official, Herbart was himselfeducated at the _Gymnasium_ of Oldenburg and the University of Jena. Afterspending three years as a tutor, he became, at the age of twenty-six, anunder teacher at the University of Göttingen. At the age of thirty-threehe was called to succeed Kant as professor of philosophy at Königsberg, and from the age of fifty-seven to his death at sixty-five he was again aprofessor at Göttingen. 

[14] Charles De Garmo's _Essentials of Method_, published in 1889, markedthe beginning of the introduction of these ideas into this country. In1892 Charles A. McMurry published his _General Method_, and in 1897, withhis brother, Frank, published the _Method in the Recitation_. These threebooks probably have done more to popularize Herbartian ideas and introducethem into the normal schools and colleges of the United States than allother influences combined. Another important influence was the "NationalHerbart Society, " founded in 1892 by students returning from Jena, inimitation of the similar German society. 

[15] The studies which have come to characterize the modern elementaryschool may now be classified under the following headings:

 _Drill subjects_ _Content subjects_ _Expression subjects_ Reading Literature Kindergarten Work Writing Geography Music Spelling History Manual Arts Language Civic Studies Domestic Arts Arithmetic Manners and Conduct Plays and Games Nature Study School Gardening Agriculture Vocational Subjects

[16] Next, perhaps, would come Italy, which is strongly democratic inspirit. In the cities of Holland one finds many privately supportedkindergartens, but the State has not made them a part of the schoolsystem. In Norway and Sweden the kindergarten practically does not exist. The kindergarten will always do best among self-governing peoples, andseldom meets with favor from autocratic power. 

[17] "In the best English Infant Schools a profound revolution has takenplace in recent years. Formal lessons in the 3 Rs have disappeared, andthe whole of the training of the little ones has been based on theprinciples of the kindergarten as enunciated by Froebel. Much of the oldroutine still remains; nevertheless there is no part of the Englisheducational system so brimful of real promise as the work that is nowbeing done in the best Infant Schools. " (Hughes, R. E. , _The Making ofCitizens_ (1902), p. 40. )

[18] In France, the Infant School or kindergarten is known as the MaternalSchool. Pupils are received at two years of age, and carried along untilsix. In the lower division the school is largely in the nature of a daynursery, but in the upper division many of the features of thekindergarten are found. 

[19] Since Froebel's day we have learned much about children that was thenunknown, especially as to the muscular and nervous organization anddevelopment of children, and with this new knowledge the tendency has beento enlarge the "gifts" and change their nature, to introduce new"occupations, " elaborate the kindergarten program of daily exercises, andto give the kindergarten more of an out-of-door character. Especially hasthe work of Dewey (p. 780) and the child-study specialists been importantin modifying kindergarten procedure. 

[20] By 1880 some 300 kindergartens and 10 kindergarten training-schools, mostly private undertakings, had been opened in the cities of thirty ofthe States of the Union. By 1890 philanthropic kindergarten associationsto provide and support kindergartens had been organized in most of thelarger cities, and after that date cities rapidly began to adopt thekindergarten as a part of the public-school system, and thus add, at thebottom, one more rung to the American educational ladder. To-day there areapproximately 9000 public and 1500 private kindergartens in the cities ofthe United States, and training in kindergarten principles and practicesis now given by many of the state normal schools. 

[21] In 1918, for example, according to a recent Report to the ZionistBoard of Education in the United States, there were over 5300 children inkindergartens in Palestine, 125 kindergarten teachers there, and a Collegefor Kindergarten Teachers had been organized in the Holy Land to trainadditional teachers. 

[22] The Saint Louis Manual Training High School, founded in 1880 inconnection with Washington University, first gave expression to this newform of education, and formed a type for the organization of such schoolselsewhere. Privately supported schools of this type were organized inChicago, Toledo, Cincinnati, and Cleveland before 1886, and the firstpublic manual-training high schools were established in Baltimore in 1884, Philadelphia in 1885, and Omaha in 1886. The shop-work, based for long onthe "Russian system, " included wood-turning, joinery, pattern-making, forging, foundry and machine work. The first high school to providesewing, cooking, dressmaking, and millinery for girls was the one atToledo, established in 1886, though private classes had been organizedearlier in a number of cities. 

[23] A few of the earlier adaptations of the idea may be given. In 1882Montclair, New Jersey, introduced manual training into its elementaryschools, and in 1885 the State of New Jersey first offered state aid toinduce the extension of the idea. In 1885 Philadelphia added cooking andsewing to its elementary schools, having done so in the girls' high schoolfive years earlier. In 1888 the City of New York added drawing, sewing, cooking, and woodworking to its elementary-school course of study. 

[24] In 1802 Napoleon provided for instruction in natural history, astronomy, chemistry, physics, and mineralogy in the scientific course ofthe _lycées_, and in 1814 enlarged this instruction. He also establishednumerous technical and military schools, with instruction based onmathematics and science. 

[25] The Royal Commissioners which reported on the condition of theUniversity of Oxford, in 1850, said: "It is generally acknowledged thatboth Oxford and the country at large suffer greatly from the absence of abody of learned men devoting their lives to the cultivation of science, and to the direction of academical education. The fact that so few booksof profound research emanate from the University of Oxford materiallyimpairs its character as a seat of learning, and consequently its hold onthe respect of the nation. "

[26] Book instruction in the new sciences goes back, in the universitiesof most lands, to the late eighteenth century, but laboratory instructionis a much more recent development. Chemistry was the first science todevelop, being the mother of science instruction, and probably the firstchemical laboratory in the world to be opened to students was that ofLiebig at Giessen, in 1826. The first American university to providelaboratory instruction in chemistry was Harvard, in 1846. The instructionin science in most of the universities, up to at least 1850, was bookinstruction. (See schedule of studies for University of Michigan, R. 331. )The first American university to be founded on the German model was JohnsHopkins, in 1876. 

[27] By Charles Mayo and his sister, who opened a private Pestalozzianschool, about 1825. Miss Mayo published her _Lessons on Objects_, explaining the method, and this became very popular in England after about1830. Both the Mayos were prominent in the Infant-School movement, whichadopted a formalized type of Pestalozzian procedure. 

[28] In 1871 Dr. William T. Harris, then Superintendent of City Schools inSaint Louis, published a well-organized course for the orderly study ofthe different sciences. This attracted wide attention, and was in timesubstituted for the scattered lessons on objects which had preceded it. This in turn has largely given way, in the lower grades, to nature study. 

[29] At the time of Professor Bache's visit, in 1838, the instructionincluded Latin, French, English, German, history, religion, music, drawing, mathematics, natural history, physics, chemistry, and geography. 

[30] Scientific instruction in the _Lycées_ was not in favor in Franceafter 1815, and in 1840 it was materially reduced, on the ground that itwas injuring classical studies. 

[31] Astronomy, botany, chemistry, and natural philosophy had beenprominent studies in the American academies. Between about 1825 and 1840was the great period of their introduction. The first American high school(Boston, 1821) provided for instruction in geography, navigation andsurveying, astronomy, and natural philosophy. By 1850 the rising highschools were incorporating scientific studies quite generally. Theinstruction was still textbook instruction, but some lecture-tabledemonstrations had begun to be common. 

[32] The Oneida School of Science and Industry, the Genesee Manual-LaborSchool, the Aurora Manual-Labor Seminary, and the Rensselaer School, allfounded in the State of New York, between 1825 and 1830, were among themost important of these early institutions. 

[33] Spencer's classification of life activities and needs, in the orderof their importance, was (R. 362):

 1 Those ministering directly to self-preservation. 

 2. Those which secure for one the necessities of life, and hence minister indirectly to self-preservation. 

 3. Those which have for their end the rearing and discipline of offspring. 

 4. Those involved in the maintenance of proper social and political relations. 

 5. Those which fill up the leisure part of life, and are devoted to the gratification of tastes and feelings. 

[34] All were republished in book form, in 1861, under the title of_Education; Intellectual, Moral, and Physical_. The volume contains fouressays: What Knowledge is of Most Worth?; Intellectual Education; MoralEducation; and Physical Education. The first essay served as anintroduction to the other three. 

[35] "A Liberal Education, " in his _Science and Education_. P. 86. 

[36] For many years head of the School of Education at the University ofChicago, but more recently Professor of Philosophy at Columbia University, New York City. 

[37] Dewey, John, in _Elementary School Record_, p. 142. 

[38] Described in _The Elementary School Record_, a series of ninemonographs, making a volume of 241 pages. University of Chicago Press, 1900. 

[39] A very good example of this is to be found in the work of ColonelFrancis W. Parker (1837-1902) in the United States. It was he whointroduced Germanized Pestalozzian-Ritter methods of teaching geography;he who strongly advocated the Herbartian plan for concentration ofinstruction about a central core, which he worked out for geography; hewho insisted so strongly on the Froebelian principle of self-expression asthe best way to develop the thinking process; he who advocated scienceinstruction in the schools; and he who saw educational problems so clearlyfrom the standpoint of the child that he, and the pupils he trained, didmuch to bring about the reorganization in elementary education which wasworked out in the United States between about 1875 and 1900. 

CHAPTER XXIX

[1] For long the knowledge-conception dominated instruction, it beingfirmly believed by the advocates of schools that knowledge and virtue weresomewhat synonymous terms. 

[2] It is to democratic England and the United States, and to the Englishself-governing dominions, that the greatest flood of emigrants from lessadvanced civilizations have gone. South America has also experienced alarge recent immigration, but this has been mainly of peoples from theLatin races, and hence easier of assimilation. 

[3] See a good article on this development by I. L. Kandel, in the_Educational Review_ for November, 1919, entitled "The Junior High Schoolin European Systems. "

[4] Paris, for example, has become the greatest university in Europe, exceeding Berlin (1914) in students by approximately 25 per cent and inexpenditures 40 per cent. 

[5] "The rise of these great universities is the most epoch-making featureof our American civilization, and they are to become more and more theleaders and the makers of our civilization. They are of the people. When astate university has gained solid ground, it means that the people of awhole state have turned their faces toward the light; it means that thewhole system of state schools has been welded into an effective agent forcivilization. Those who direct the purposes of these great enterprises ofdemocracy cannot be too often reminded that the highest function of auniversity is to furnish standards for a democracy. " (Pritchett, Henry S. , in _Atlantic Monthly_. )

[6] The gifts and bequests for colleges and universities in the UnitedStates, from 1871 to 1916, totaled $647, 536, 608, and by 1920 probably havereached $750, 000, 000. 

[7] The oldest was Charlottenburg (1799), Darmstadt (1822), Carlsruhe(1825), Munich (1827), Dresden (1828), Nuremberg (1829), Stuttgart (1829), Cassel (1830), Hanover (1831), Augsburg (1833), and Brunswick (1835). Asimilar school, which later developed into a technical university, wasfounded at Prague, in Bohemia, in 1806. 

[8] The German technical training "produces an engineer who is not onlyolder in years, but also more mature in experience and in judgment thanthe average graduate of an engineering college in America. Whether or notit would be wise to adopt--so far as that would be possible--Germanmethods in the schools and colleges of the United States, it mustnevertheless be recognized that those methods have given Germany aleadership in applied science and in industry which she will keep unlessthe educational authorities of other nations find some way of producingmen of like calibre. " (Munroe, James P. , "Technical Education"; inMonroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_. )

[9] _Report of Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education_, Washington, 1914, p. 90. 

[10] The first veterinary school in the world was established at Lyons, France, in 1762; the second at Alfort, a suburb of Paris, in 1766; thethird at Berlin, in 1792; and the fourth at London, in 1793. 

[11] The development of scientific training for nursing, begun by theGermans near the end of their wars with Napoleon, is another example ofthe creation of a new profession through the application of science. Thiswas carried to new levels by Miss Florence Nightingale, who began work inLondon, in 1860, after her experiences in the Crimean War of 1854-56, andhas been greatly improved since 1870 as a result of the new medicalknowledge and methods which have come in since that time. The provision oftraining for nurses, and the certification of doctors and nurses forpractice, are other new developments in the field of state education. Similarly is the training and certification of dentists, veterinarians, and pharmacists, all of which are nineteenth-century additions. 

[12] The work of the Rockefeller Foundation, an American Foundationorganized to promote "the well-being of mankind throughout the world, " inspending millions to provide China with a modern system of western medicaleducation and hospital service, is perhaps the greatest example of ascientifically organized service ever tendered by the people of one nationto those of another. 

[13] "Large-scale production, extreme division of labor, and the all-conquering march of the machine, have practically driven out theapprenticeship system through which, in a simpler age, young helpers weretaught, not simply the technique of some single process, but the 'arts andmysteries of a craft' as well. The journeyman and the artisan have givenway to an army of machine workers, performing over and over one smallprocess at one machine, turning out one small part of the finishedarticle, and knowing nothing about the business beyond their narrow andlimited task. " (_Report of the Commission on National Aid to VocationalEducation_, vol. I, pp. 19-20. )

[14] "In no country will you find the problem taken up in so thorough amanner; in no country will you find an attempt made to cover, by means ofindustrial schools, the occupations of everyone, from the lowly laborer tothe director of the great manufacturing establishment. The State providedindustrial training for every person who will be better off with it thanwithout it. No occupation is too humble to receive the attention of theGerman authorities; and the opinion prevails there that science and arthave a place in every occupation known to man. " (Cooley, E. G. , in _Reportto the Commercial Club of Chicago_, 1912. )

[15] For example, the foreign trade of Germany, in 1880, was $31 percapita of the total population, and that of the United States was $32. Thirty years later, in 1910, Germany's foreign trade had increased to $62per capita, and that of the United States to only $37. 

[16] Chiefly raw products--a prodigal waste of natural resources. Whatevery nation should do is to work up its raw products at home, and sellfinished goods rather than raw products--"sell brains, rather thanmaterials. " (R. 370. )

[17] The first trade school in the United States was establishedprivately, in New York City, in 1881. By 1900 some half-dozen had beensimilarly established in different parts of the country. In 1902 a tradeschool for girls was founded in New York City, which did pioneer work. In1906 Massachusetts created a State commission on Industrial Education, andlater provided for the creation of industrial schools. In 1907 Wisconsinenacted the first trade-school law, and New York State followed in 1909. 

[18] Germany before 1914 formed an interesting contrast to suchconditions. There few untrained youths were to be found, and the nation, before 1914, was rapidly moving toward universal vocational education. 

[19] As illustrative of the general character of the vocations to betrained for, a few of the more common ones may be mentioned:

 _In agriculture_: The work of general farming, orcharding, dairying, poultry-raising, truck gardening, horticulture, bee culture, and stock-raising. 

 _In the trades and industries_: The work of the carpenter, mason, baker, stonecutter, electrician, plumber, machinist, toolmaker, engineer, miner, painter, typesetter, linotype operator, shoecutter and laster, tailor, garment maker, straw-hat maker, weaver, and glove maker. 

 _In commerce and commercial pursuits_: The work of the bookkeeper, clerk, stenographer, typist, auditor, and accountant. 

 _In home economics_: The work of the dietitian, cook and housemaid, institution manager, and household decorator. 

[10] "The snail's pace at which the race has moved toward humanitarianismis indicated by Payne's estimate (p. 6) that the race is perhaps twohundred and forty thousand years old, civilized man a few hundred yearsold, and a humanitarianism large enough to have any real concern in anyorganized fashion for the protection of children scarcely fifty years old. The fact that organizations in great number, laws, penalties, and constantvigilance are still everywhere needed to secure for children theirinherent rights is evidence enough that we have still a long way to gobefore we reach the golden age. " (Waddel, C. W. , _An Introduction to ChildPsychology_, p. 5. )

[21] "As late as 1840 children of ten to fifteen years of age and youngerwere driven by merciless overseers for ten, twelve, sixteen, even twentyhours a day in the lace mills. Fed the coarsest food, in ways moredisgusting than those of the boarding schools described by Dickens, theyslept, when they had opportunity, often in relays, in beds that wereconstantly occupied. They lived and toiled, day and night, in the din andnoise, filth and stench, of the factory that coined their life's bloodinto gold for their exploiters. Sometimes with chains about their ankles, to prevent their attempts to escape, they labored until epidemics, disease, or premature death brought welcome relief from a slavery that wasforbidden by law for negro slaves in the colonies. " (Payne, G. H. , _TheChild in Human Progress_. )

[22] An exception to this statement is to be found in the work of thePedagogical Seminars, organized in the German universities in the seconddecade of the nineteenth century, which were intended for the professionaltraining of German university students for teaching in the Germansecondary schools. (See footnote 1, page 573. )

[23] When the first teachers' training-school in America was opened atConcord, Vermont, by the Reverend Samuel R. Hall, in 1823, it included, besides a three-year academy-type academic course, practice teaching in arural school in winter, and some lectures on the "Art of Teaching. "Without a professional book to guide him, and relying only upon hisexperience as a teacher, Hall tried to tell his pupils how to organize andmanage a school. To make clear his ideas he wrote out a series of_Lectures on School-keeping_, which some friends induced him to publish. This, the first professional book in English issued in America forteachers, appeared in 1829. 

[24] _Geschichte der Padagogik vom Wiederaufblühen klassicher Studien bisauf unsere Zeit_. Vols. I and II, 1843; vol. III, 1847; vol. IV, 1855. Much of this was translated into other languages. Barnard's _AmericanJournal of Education_, begun in 1855, published a translation of much ofvon Raumer's work for American readers. 

[25] In 1876 S. S. Laurie (1829-1909) was elected to one of the firstchairs in education in Great Britain, that of "Professor of the Theory, History, and Practice of Education" in the University of Edinburgh. 

[26] Probably the first lectures on Pedagogy given in any American collegewere given in 1832, in what is now New York University. From 1850 to 1855the city superintendent of schools of Providence, Rhode Island, wasProfessor of Didactics, in Brown University. In 1860 a course of lectureson the "Philosophy of Education, School Economy, and the Teaching Art" wasgiven to the seniors of the University of Michigan. In 1873 aProfessorship of Philosophy and Education was established in theUniversity of Iowa. This was the first permanent chair created in America. In 1879 a Department of the Science and Art of Teaching was created at theUniversity of Michigan. In 1881 a Department of Pedagogy was created atthe University of Wisconsin, and in 1884 similar departments at theUniversity of North Carolina and at Johns Hopkins University. 

[27] In education, as in other lines of work, the statement of Richard H. Quick that the distinctive function of a university is not action, butthought, has been exemplified.