[Illustration: BATH IN AN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL] [Illustration: JŪJITSU (AND RIFLES) AT THE SAME SCHOOL. P. 50] YOUNG JAPAN [_Frontispiece_ THE FOUNDATIONS OF JAPAN BY THE SAME AUTHOR FAR EASTERN THE PEOPLE OF CHINAJAPAN, GREAT BRITAIN AND THE WORLD. (Nippon Eikoku oyobi Sekai. )THE IGNOBLE WARRIOR. (Koredemo Bushika. )THE NEW EAST. (Tokyo. ) Vols. I, II & III. (Edited. ) AGRICULTURAL A FREE FARMER IN A FREE STATE. (Holland. )WAR TIME AND PEACE IN HOLLAND. (With an Introduction by the late LORD REAY. )THE LAND PROBLEM: AN IMPARTIAL SURVEYSUGAR BEET: SOME FACTS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS. A Study in Rural Therapeutics. THE TOWNSMAN'S FARMTHE SMALL FARMPOULTRY FARMING: SOME FACTS AND SOME ILLUSIONSTHE CASE FOR THE GOAT. (With Introductions by the DUCHESS OF HAMILTON and SIR H. RIDER HAGGARD. )COUNTRY COTTAGESTHE STORY OF THE DUNMOW FLITCHIN SEARCH OF AN £150 COTTAGE. (Edited. )THE JOURNAL OF A JOURNEYMAN FARMER. (Edited. ) ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THE FOUNDATIONSOF JAPAN NOTES MADE DURING JOURNEYS OF6, 000 MILES IN THE RURAL DISTRICTS ASA BASIS FOR A SOUNDER KNOWLEDGEOF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE BY J. W. ROBERTSON SCOTT ("HOME COUNTIES") WITH 85 ILLUSTRATIONS "In good sooth, my masters, this is no door, yet it is a little window" LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 1922 TO SCOTT SAN NO OKUSAN FOR WHOLESOME CRITICISM A concern arose to spend some time with them that I might feel andunderstand their life and the spirit they live in, if haply I mightreceive some instruction from them, or they might be in any degreehelped forward by my following the leadings of truth among them whenthe troubles of War were increasing and when travelling was moredifficult than usual. I looked upon it as a more favourableopportunity to season my mind and to bring me into a nearer sympathywith them. --_Journal of John Woolman_, 1762. I determined to commence my researches at some distance from thecapital, being well aware of the erroneous ideas I must form should Ijudge from what I heard in a city so much subjected to foreignintercourse. --BORROW. INTRODUCTION The hope with which these pages are written is that their readers maybe enabled to see a little deeper into that problem of the relation ofthe West with Asia which the historian of the future willunquestionably regard as the greatest of our time. I lived for four and a half years in Japan. This book is a record ofmany of the things I saw and experienced and some of the things I wastold chiefly during rural journeys--more than half the population isrural--extending to twice the distance across the United States ornearly eight times the distance between the English Channel and Johno' Groats. These pages deal with a field of investigation in Japan which no othervolume has explored. Because they fall short of what was planned, andin happier conditions might have been accomplished, a word or two maybe pardoned on the beginnings of the book--one of the many literaryvictims of the War. The first book I ever bought was about the Far East. The first leadingarticle of my journalistic apprenticeship in London was about Korea. When I left daily journalism, at the time of the siege of the PekingLegations, the first thing I published was a book pleading for abetter understanding of the Chinese. After that, as a cottager in Essex, I wrote--above a _nom de guerre_which is better known than I am--a dozen volumes on rural subjects. During a visit to the late David Lubin in Rome I noticed in the biglibrary of his International Institute of Agriculture that there wasno took in English dealing with the agriculture of Japan. [1] Justbefore the War the thoughts of forward-looking students of our homeaffairs ran strongly on the relation of intelligently managed smallholdings to skilled capitalist farming. [2] During the early "businessas usual" period of the War, when no tasks had been found for men overmilitary age--Mr. Wells's protest will be remembered--it occurred tome that it might be serviceable if I could have ready, for the periodof rural reconstruction and readjustment of our international ideaswhen the War was over, two books of a new sort. One should be astimulating volume on Japan, based on a study, more sociological thantechnically agricultural, of its remarkable small-farming system andrural life, and the other a complementary American volume based on astudy of the enterprising large farming of the Middle West. I proposedto write the second book in co-operation with a veteran rural reformerwho had often invited me to visit him in Iowa, the father of thepresent American Minister of Agriculture. Early in 1915 I set out forJapan to enter upon the first part of my task. Mr. Wallace died whileI was still in Japan, and the Middle West book remains to beundertaken by someone else. The Land of the Rising Sun has been fortunate in the quality of thebooks which many foreigners have written. [3] But for every work at thestandard of what might be called the seven "M's"--Mitford, Murdoch, Munro, Morse, Maclaren, "Murray" and McGovern--there are many volumesof fervid "pro-Japanese" or determined "anti-Japanese" romanticism. The pictures of Japan which such easily perused books present areincredible to readers of ordinary insight or historical imagination, but they have had their part in forming public opinion. The basic fact about Japan is that it is an agricultural country. Japanese æstheticism, the victorious Japanese army and navy, thesmoking chimneys of Osaka, the pushing mercantile marine, theParliamentary and administrative developments of Tokyo and a costlyworldwide diplomacy are all borne on the bent backs of _Ohyakusho noFufu_, [4] the Japanese peasant farmer and his wife. The depositoriesof the authentic _Yamato damashii_ (Japanese spirit) are to be foundknee deep in the sludge of their paddy fields. One book about Japan may well be written in the perspective of thevillage and the hamlet. There it is possible to find the way beneaththat surface of things visible to the tourist. There it is possible todiscover the _foundations_ of the Japan which is intent on cuttingsuch a figure in the East and in the West. There it is possible tolearn not only what Japan is but what she may have it in her tobecome. A rural sociologist is not primarily interested in the technique ofagriculture. He conceives agriculture and country life as Arthur Youngand Cobbett did, as a means to an end, the sound basis, the touchstoneof a healthy State. I was helped in Japan not only by my closeacquaintance with the rural civilisation of two pre-eminentlysmall-holdings countries, Holland and Denmark, but by what I knew tobe precious in the rural life of my own land. An interest in rural problems cannot be simulated. As I journeyedabout the country the sincerity of my purpose--there are few words incommoner use in the Far East than sincerity--was recognised andappreciated. I enjoyed conversations in which customary barriers hadbeen broken down and those who spoke said what they felt. Weinevitably discussed not only agricultural economy but life, religionand morality, and the way Japan was taking. I spoke and slept in Buddhist temples. I was received at Shintoshrines. I was led before domestic altars. I was taken to gatheringsof native Christians. I planted commemorative trees until morepersimmons than I can ever gather await my return to Japan. I wrote somany _gaku_[5] for school walls and for my kind hosts that my memorywas drained of maxims. I attended guileless horse-races. I was presentat agricultural shows, fairs, wrestling matches, _Bon_ dances, villageand county councils and the strangest of public meetings. I talked notonly with farmers and their families but with all kinds of landlords, with schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, policemen, shopkeepers, priests, co-operative society enthusiasts, village officials, countyofficials, prefectural officials, a score of Governors and an Ainuchief. I sought wisdom from Ministers of State and nobles of everyrank, from the Prince who is the heir of the last of the Shoguns downto democratic Barons who prefer to be called "Mr. ", I chatted withfarmers' wives and daughters, I interrogated landladies and millgirls, and I paid a memorable visit to a Buddhist nunnery. I walked, talked, rode, ate and bathed with common folk and with dignitaries. Idiscussed the situation of Japan with the new countryman in collegeagricultural laboratories and classrooms, and, in a remote region, beheld what is rare nowadays, the old countryman kneeling before hiscottage with his head to the ground as the stranger rode past. I made notes as I traversed paddy-field paths, by mountain ways, incolleges, schools, houses and inns. It can only have been whencrossing water on men's backs that I did not make notes. I jottedthings down as I walked, as I sat, as I knelt, as I lay on my _futon_, as I journeyed in _kuruma_, on horseback, in jolting _basha_, inautomobiles, in shaking cross-country trains and in boats; inbrilliant sunshine and sweltering heat, in the shade and in dust; inthe early morning with chilled fingers or more or less furtively as Icrouched at protracted private or official repasts, or late at nightendeavoured to gather crumbs from the wearing conversation of politecallers who, though set on helping me, did not always find it easy tounderstand the kind of information of which I was in search. One ofthese asked my travelling companion _sotto voce_, "Is he after metalmines?" I went on my own trips and on routes planned out for me byagricultural and social zealots, and from time to time I returnedphysically and mentally fatigued to my little Japanese house nearTokyo to rest and to write out from my memoranda, to seek data for newdistricts from the obliging Department of Agriculture and theAgricultural College people at the Imperial University, and to eat anddrink with rural authorities who chanced to be visiting the capitalfrom distant prefectures. I had many setbacks. I was misinformed, nowand then intentionally and often unintentionally. There were many dayswhich were not only harassing but seemingly wasted. I often despairedof achieving results worth all the exertion I was making and the moneyI was spending. I must have worn to shreds the patience of someEnglish-speaking Japanese friends, but they never owned defeat. In theend I found that I made progress. But so did the War, which when I set out from London few believedwould last long. I was troubled by continually meeting with incredibleignorance about the War, the issues at stake and the certain end. TheJapanese who talked with me were 10, 000 miles away from the fighting. Japan had nothing to lose, everything indeed to gain from theabatement of Europe's activities in Asia. Not only Japanese soldiersbut many administrative, educational, agricultural and commercialexperts had been to school in Germany. There was much in common in theGerman and Japanese mentalities, much alike in Central European andFarthest East regard for the army and for order, devotion toregulations, habit of subordination and deification of the State. Eventually the well-known anti-Ally campaign broke out in Tokyo, athing which has never been sufficiently explained. Soon I was pressedto turn aside from my studies and attempt the more immediately usefultask: to explain why Western nations, whose manifest interests werepeace, were resolutely squandering their blood and wealth in War. If what I published had some measure of success, [6] it was because bythis time, unlike some of the critics who sharply upbraided Japan andmade impossible proposals in impossible terms, I had learnt somethingat first hand about the Japanese, because I wrote of the difficultiesas well as the faults of Japan, and because I was now a little knownas her well-wisher. One of the two books I published was translated asa labour of love, as I shall never forget, by a Japanese public manwhose leisure was so scant that he sat up two nights to get hismanuscript finished. Before long I had involved myself in the arduoustask of founding and of editing for two years a monthly review, _TheNew East (Shin Toyo)_, [7] with for motto a sentence of my own whichexpresses what wisdom I have gained about the Orient, _The realbarrier between East and West is a distrust of each other's moralityand the illusion that the distrust is on one side only. _ The excuse for so personal a digression is that, when this period ofliterary and journalistic stress began, my rural notebooks and MSS. , memoranda of conversations on social problems and a heterogeneouscollection of reports and documents had to be stowed into boxes. Therethey stayed until a year ago. The entries in a dozen of my littlehurriedly filled notebooks have lost their flavour or areunintelligible: I have put them all aside. Neither is it possible toutilise notes which were submarined or lost in over-worked postoffices. This book--I have had to leave out Kyushu entirely--is notthe work I planned, a complete account of rural life and industry inevery part of Japan, with an excursus on Korea and Formosa, andcertain general conclusions: a standard work, no doubt, in, I amafraid, two volumes, and forgetful at times of the warning that "tospend too much Time in Studies is Sloth. " What I had transcribed before leaving Japan I have now been able inthe course of a leisured year in England to overhaul and to supplementby up-to-date statistics in an extensive Appendix. In the changedcircumstances in which the book is completed I have also ruthlesslytransferred to this Appendix all the technical matter in the text, sothat nothing shall obstruct the way of the general reader. At somefuture date there may be by another hand a book about Japan in termsof soils, manures and crops. That is the book the War saved me fromwriting. In the present work I have the opportunity which so fewauthors have enjoyed of jettisoning all technics into an Appendix. [Illustration: _Shin Koron_"BYGONE DAYS IN JAPAN" IS THE TITLE OF THIS CARTOON] "It is necessary, " says a wise modern author, "to meditate over one'simpressions at leisure, to start afresh again and again with a clearervision of the essential facts. " And a Japanese companion of myjourneys writes, "Never can you be sorry that this book is cominglate. This time of delay has been the best time; we have had enoughof first impressions. " The justification for this volume is that, inspite of the difficulties attending the composition of it, it may beheld to offer a picture of some aspects of modern Japan to be foundnowhere else. Politics is not for these pages, nor, because there areso many charming books on æsthetic and scenic Japan, do I write on Artor about Fuji, Kyoto, Nara, Miyanoshita and Nikko. I went to Japan tosee the countryman. The Japanese whom most of the world knows aretownified, sometimes Americanised or Europeanised, and, as often asnot, elaborately educated. They are frequently remarkable men. Theystand for a great deal in modern Japan. But their untownifiedfellow-countrymen, with the training of tradition and experience, ofrural schoolmasters and village elders, and, as frequently, of thecarefully shielded army, are more than half of the nation. What is their health of mind and body? By what social and moralprinciples and prejudices are they swayed? To what extent are theyadequate to the demand that is made and is likely to be made uponthem? In what respects are they the masters of their lives or aremastered? In what ways are they still open to Western influences? Andin what directions are they now inclined to trust to "themselvesalone"? If the masters of the rural journal were sometimes mistaken in theobservations they made from horseback, I cannot have escapedblundering in passing through more dimly lit scenes than they visited. "If there appears here and there any uncorrectness, I do not holdmyself obliged to answer for what I could not perfectly govern. "[8]But I have laboriously taken all the precautions I could and I haveobeyed as far as possible a recent request that "visitors to the FarEast should confine themselves to what they have seen with their owneyes. " As Huxley wrote, "all that I have proposed to myself is to say, This and this have I learned. " I take pleasure in recalling that some years ago I was approached witha view to undertaking for the United States Government asocio-agricultural investigation in a foreign country. Reared as Ihave been in the whole faith of a citizen of the English-speakingworld, I am glad to think that the present volume may be of someservice to American readers. The United States is within tendays--Canada is within nine--of Japan against Great Britain's month bythe Atlantic-C. P. R. -Pacific route and eight weeks by Suez. There aremore American visitors than British to Japan. It was America thatfirst opened Japan to the West, and the debt of Japan to Americantraining and stimulus is immense. But British services to Japan havealso been substantial. Great Britain was the first to welcome herwithin the circle of the Great Powers, and the Anglo-Japanese Alliancedid more for Japan than some Japanese have been willing to admit. Theproblem of Japan is the problem of the whole English-speaking world. Rightly conceived, the interests of the British Empire and the UnitedStates in the Far East are one and indivisible. The Japanese version of the title of this book (kindly suggested byMr. Seichi Narusé) is _Nihon no Shinzui_, literally, "The Marrow" or"The Core of Japan. " His Excellency the Japanese Ambassador, thebeauty of whose calligraphy is well known, was so very kind as toallow me to requisition his clever brush for the script for theengraver; but it must be understood that Baron Hayashi has seennothing of the volume but the cover. I greatly regret that the present conditions of book production makeit impossible to reproduce more than one in thirty of my photographs. It is in no spirit of ingratitude to my hosts and many other kindpeople in Japan that I have taken the decision resolutely to strikeout of the text all those names of places and persons which give sucha forbidding air to a traveller's page. I have pleasure inacknowledging here the particular obligations I am under to KunioYanaghita, formerly Secretary of the Japanese House of Peers and adistinguished and disinterested student of rural conditions, Dr. Nitobe, assistant secretary of the League of Nations, and his wife, Professor Nasu, Imperial University, Mr. Yamasaki, Mr. M. Yanagi, Mr. Kanzō Uchimura, Mr. Bernard Leach, Mr. M. Tajima, Mr. Ono and twoyoung officials in Hokkaido, who each in turn found time to join me onmy journeys and showed me innumerable kindnesses. It was a piece ofgood fortune that while these pages were in preparation Mr. Yanaghita, Professor Nasu and other fellow-travellers were in Europe andavailable for consultation. Professor Nasu unweariedly furnishedpainstaking answers to many questions, and was kind enough to read allof the book in proof; but he has no responsibility, of course, for theviews which I express. I am also specially indebted to Dr. Kozai, President of the Imperial University, to Mr. Ito and other officialsof the Ministry of Agriculture, to Mr. Tsurimi, one of the mostunderstanding of travelled Japanese, to Mr. Iwanaga, formerly of theImperial Railway Board, to Dr. Sato, President of Hokkaido University, and his obliging colleagues, to the Imperial Agricultural Society, toProfessors Yahagi and Yokoi, and to Viscount Kano, Dr. Kuwada, Mr. I. Yoshida, Mr. K. Ohta, Mr. H. Saito, Mr. S. Hoshijima, and manyprovincial agricultural and sociological experts. Portions of drafts for this book have appeared in the _DailyTelegraph, World's Work, Manchester Guardian, New East, Asia, JapanChronicle_ and _Christian World_. I am indebted to the _World's Work_and _Asia_ for some additional illustrations from blocks made from myphotographs, and to the _New East_ for some sketches by Miss ElizabethKeith. FOOTNOTES: [1] There is a small book by an able American soil specialist, thelate Professor King, which describes through rose-tinted glasses thefarming of Japan, and of China and Korea as well, on the basis of aflying trip to countries the population of which is thrice that ofGreat Britain and the United States together. The author of anotherbook, published last year, delivers himself of this astonishingopinion: "The Japanese is no better fitted to direct his ownagriculture than I am to steer a rudderless ship across the Atlantic. " [2] _Vide_ Sir Daniel Hall's _Pilgrimage of English Farming_ andarticles of mine in the _Nineteenth Century_ and _Times_, and my _LandProblem_. [3] The Japanese have only lately, however, made some acknowledgmentof their debt to Hearn, and in an eight-page bibliography of the bestbooks about Japan in the _Japan Year Book_ Murdoch's as yet unrivalled_History_ is not even mentioned. [4] _Ohyakusho_ must not be confused with _Oo-hyakusho_ or_Oo-byakusho_, which means a large farmer. _O_ is a polite prefix;_Oo_ or _O_ means large. [5] Horizontal wall writings. [6] About 35, 000 copies of my two bilingual books were circulated. [7] With the backing of a London Committee composed of Lord Burnham, Sir G. W. Prothero, Mr. J. St. Loe Strachey and Mr. C. V. Sale. [8] Tenison, 1684. CONTENTS STUDIES IN A SINGLE PREFECTURE (AICHI) CHAPTER I. THE MERCY OF BUDDHA II. "GOOD PEOPLE ARE NOT SUFFICIENTLY PRECAUTIOUS" III. EARLY-RISING SOCIETIES AND OTHER INGENUOUS ACTIVITIES IV. "THE SIGHT OF A GOOD MAN IS ENOUGH" V. COUNTRY-HOUSE LIFE VI. BEFORE OKUNITAMA-NO-MIKO-KAMI VII. OF "DEVIL-GON" AND YOSOGI THE MOST EXACTING CROP IN THE WORLD VIII. THE HARVEST FROM THE MUD IX. THE RICE BOWL, THE GODS AND THE NATION BACK TO FIRST PRINCIPLES: THE APOSTLE AND THE ARTIST X. A TROUBLER OF ISRAEL XI. THE IDEA OF A GAP ACROSS JAPAN (TOKYO TO NIIGATA AND BACK) XII. TO THE HILLS (TOKYO, SAITAMA, TOCHIGI AND FUKUSHIMA) XIII. THE DWELLERS IN THE HILLS (FUKUSHIMA) XIV. SHRINES AND POETRY (NIIGATA AND TOYAMA) XV. THE NUN'S CELL (NAGANO) IN AND OUT OF THE SILK PREFECTURE XVI. PROBLEMS BEHIND THE PICTURESQUE (SAITAMA, GUMMA, NAGANO AND YAMANASHI) XVII. THE BIRTH, BRIDAL AND DEATH OF THE SILK-WORM (NAGANO) XVIII. "GIRL COLLECTORS" AND FACTORIES (NAGANO AND YAMANASHI) XIX. "FRIEND-LOVE-SOCIETY'S" GRIM TALE FROM TOKYO TO THE NORTH BY THE WEST COAST XX. "THE GARDEN WHERE VIRTUES ARE CULTIVATED" (FUKUSHIMA AND YAMAGATA) XXI. THE "TANOMOSHI" (YAMAGATA) BACK AGAIN BY THE EAST COAST XXII. "BON" SONGS AND THE SILENT PRIEST (YAMAGATA, AKITA, AOMORI, IWATE, MIYAGI, FUKUSHIMA AND IBARAKI) XXIII. A MIDNIGHT TALK THE ISLAND OF SHIKOKU XXIV. LANDLORDS, PRIESTS AND "BASHA" (TOKUSHIMA, KOCHI AND KAGAWA) XXV. "SPECIAL TRIBES" (EHIME) XXVI. THE STORY OF THE BLIND HEADMAN (EHIME) THE SOUTH-WEST OF JAPAN XXVII. UP-COUNTRY ORATORY (YAMAGUCHI) XXVIII. MEN, DOGS AND SWEET POTATOES (SHIMANE) XXIX. FRIENDS OF LAFCADIO HEARN (SHIMANE, TOTTORI AND HYOGO) TWO MONTHS IN TEMPLE (NAGANO) XXX. THE LIFE OF THE PEASANTS AND THEIR PRIESTS XXXI. "BON" SEASON SCENES IN AND OUT OF THE TEA PREFECTURE XXXII. PROGRESS OF SORTS (SHIDZUOKA AND KANAGAWA) XXXIII. GREEN TEA AND BLACK (SHIDZUOKA) EXCURSIONS FROM TOKYO XXXIV. A COUNTRY DOCTOR AND HIS NEIGHBOURS (CHIBA) XXXV. THE HUSBANDMAN, THE WRESTLER AND THE CARPENTER (SAITAMA, GUMMA AND TOKYO) XXXVI. "THEY FEEL THE MERCY OF THE SUN" (GUMMA, KANAGAWA AND CHIBA) REFLECTIONS IN HOKKAIDO XXXVII. COLONIAL JAPAN AND ITS UN-JAPANESE WAYS XXXVIII. SHALL THE JAPANESE EAT BREAD AND MEAT? XXXIX. MUST THE JAPANESE MAKE THEIR OWN "YOFUKU"? XL. THE PROBLEMS OF JAPAN APPENDICES INDEX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BATH IN AN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL _facing title-page_ JŪJITSU (AND RIFLES) AT THE SAME SCHOOL BYGONE DAYS IN JAPAN THE ROOM IN WHICH THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN THE MERCY OF BUDDHA "TO ROUSE THE VILLAGE YOU MUST FIRST ROUSE THE PRIEST" PLAN OF THE FARMER'S SYMBOLIC TREES ADJUSTED RICE-FIELDS LIBRARY AND WORKSHED OF A Y. M. A. LANDOWNER'S SON AND DAUGHTER SHRINE IN A LANDOWNER'S HOUSE MR. YAMASAKI, DR. NITOBE, AUTHOR AND PROF. NASU THE HOUSE IN WHICH THE TEA CEREMONY TOOK PLACE AUTHOR QUESTIONING OFFICIALS AUTHOR PLANTING COMMEMORATIVE TREES RICE POLISHING BY FOOT POWER "HIBACHI, " A FLOWER ARRANGEMENT AND "KAKEMONO" SCHOOL SHRINE CONTAINING EMPEROR'S PORTRAIT FENCING AT AN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL WAR MEMENTOES--ALL SCHOOLS HAVE SOME A 200-YEARS-OLD DRAWING OF THE RICE PLANT SCATTERING ARTIFICIAL MANURE IN ADJUSTEDPADDIES PLANTING OUT RICE SEEDLINGS PUSH-CART FOR COLLECTION OF FERTILISER MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE'S EFFORTS TO KEEP PRICE OF RICE DOWN MUZZLED EDITORS "THE JAPANESE CARLYLE" MR. AND MRS. YANAGI CHILDREN CATCHING INSECTS ON RICE-SEED BEDS MASTERS OF A COUNTRY SCHOOL AND SOME CHILDREN CULTIVATION TO THE HILL-TOPS IMPLEMENTS, MEASURES AND MACHINES, AND A BALE OF RICE MOVABLE STAGE AT A FESTIVAL FARMHOUSE AT WHICH MR. UCHIMURA PREACHED TENANT FARMERS' HOUSES AUTHOR AT THE "SPIRIT MEETING" SOME PERFORMERS AT THE "SPIRIT MEETING" IN A BUDDHIST NUNNERY JAPANESE GRASS-CUTTING TOOLS COMPARED WITH A SCYTHE CHILD-COLLECTORS OF VILLAGERS' SAVINGS NUNS PHOTOGRAPHED IN A "CELL" STUDENTS' STUDY AT AN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL TEACHERS OF A VILLAGE SCHOOL GIRLS CARRYING BALES OF RICE SERICULTURAL SCHOOL STUDENTS SILK FACTORIES IN KAMISUWA VILLAGE ASSEMBLY-ROOM ARCHERY AT AN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL CULTIVATION OF THE HILLSIDE RAILWAY STATION "BENTO" AND POT OF TEA A SCARECROW THE BLIND HEADMAN AND HIS COLLECTING-BAG MR. YANAGHITA IN HIS CORONATION CEREMONY ROBES PORTABLE APPARATUS FOR RAISING WATER VILLAGE SCHOOL WITH PORTRAIT OF FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE RIVER-BEDS IN THE SUMMER SCHOOL SHRINE FOR EMPEROR'S PORTRAIT AUTHOR ADDRESSING LAFCADIO HEARN MEETING A PEASANT PROPRIETOR'S HOUSE GRAVESTONES REASSEMBLED AFTER PADDY ADJUSTMENT TEMPLE IN WHICH THIS CHAPTER WAS WRITTEN FIRE ENGINE AND PRIMITIVE FIGURES YOUNG MEN'S CLUB-ROOM MEMORIAL STONES ROOF PROTECTED AGAINST STORMS BY STONES OFF TO THE UPLAND FIELDS FARMER'S WIFE MOTHER AND CHILD A CRADLE FIRE ALARM AND OBSERVATION POST RACK FOR DRYING RICE VILLAGE CREMATORIUM DOG HELPING TO PULL JINRIKISHA AUTHOR, MR. YAMASAKI AND YOUNGEST INHABITANTS "TORII" AT THE SHRINE OF THE FOX GOD TABLETS RECORDING GIFTS TO A TEMPLE INSIDE THE "SHOJI" AUTOMATIC RICE POLISHER AUTHOR IN A CRATER A TYPE OF WAYSIDE MONUMENTS GIANT RADISH OR "DAIKON" CUTTING GRASS CURRENCY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURESAND OFFICIAL TERMS The prices given in the text (but not in the footnotes and Appendix) wererecorded before the War inflation began. The War was followed by asevere financial crisis. Professor Nasu wrote to me during the summer of1921: "You are very wise to leave the figures as they stood. It is uselessto try to correct them, because they are still changing. The price ofrice, which did not exceed 15 yen per koku when you were making yourresearch work, exceeded 50 yen in 1919, and is now struggling tomaintain the price of 25 yen. Taking at 100 the figures for the years1915 or 1916--fortunately there is not much difference between thesetwo years--the prices of six leading commodities reached in 1919 anaverage of about 250. After 1919 the prices of some commodities wentstill higher, but mostly they did not change very much; on the otherhand, recently the prices of many commodities--among them rice and rawsilk especially--have been coming down and this downward movement isgradually extending to all other commodities. From theseconsiderations I deduce that the index number of general commoditiesmay be safely taken as 200 when your book appears. _The reader of yourbook has simply to double the figures given by you--that is thefigures of_ 1915 _and_ 1916--_in order to get a rough estimate ofpresent prices. _" Where exact statements of area and yield are necessary, as in thestudy of the intense agriculture of Japan, local measures arepreferable to our equivalents in awkward fractions. Further, themeasures used in this book are easily remembered, and no serious studyof Japanese agriculture on the spot is possible without rememberingthem. While, however, Japanese currency, weights and measures havebeen uniformly used, equivalents have been supplied at every place inthe book where their omission might be reasonably considered tointerfere with easy reading. The following tables are restricted tocurrency, weights and measures mentioned in the book. MONEY[9] _Yen_ = roughly (at the time notes for the book were made) a florin or halfa dollar = 100 sen. _Sen_ = a farthing or half cent = 10 rin. LONG _Ri_ = roughly 2-1/2 miles. _Shaku_ (roughly 1 ft. ) = 11. 93 in. Ri are converted into miles by being multiplied by 2. 44. SQUARE _Ri_ (roughly 6 sq. Miles) = 5. 955 sq. Miles. _Chō_ (sometimes written, _Chōbu_) (roughly 2-1/2 acres) = 2. 450 acres =10 tan = 3, 000 tsubo. _Tan_ or _Tambu_ (roughly 1/4 acre) = 0. 245 acres = 10 se = 300 bu. _Bu_ or _Tsubo_ (roughly 4 sq. Yds. ) = 3. 953 sq. Yds. An acre is about 4 tan 10 bu or 1, 200 bu or tsubo (an urban measure). The size of rooms is reckoned by the number of mats, which are ordinarily6 shaku in length and 3 shaku in breadth. CAPACITY _Koku_ (roughly 40 gals, or 5 bush. ) = 39. 703 gals, or 4. 960 bush. =10 tō. According to American measurements, there are 47. 653 gals, (liquid) and 5. 119 bush, (dry) in a koku. A koku of rice is 313-1/2 lbs. (British). A koku of imported rice is, however, 330-1/2 lbs. The following koku mustalso be noted: ordinary barley, 231 lbs. ; naked barley 301. 1 lbs. ; wheat288. 7 lbs. ; proso millet, 247. 9 lbs. ; foxtail millet, 280. 9 lbs. ; barnyardmillet, 165. 2 lbs. ; brickaheat, 247. 9 lbs. ; maize, 289. 2 lbs. ; soya beans, 286. 5 lbs. ; azuki (red) beans, 319. 9 lbs. ; horse beans, 266. 6 lbs. ; peas, 306. 5 lbs. _Hyō_ (roughly 2 bush. ) = 1. 985 bush. = 4 tō = bale of rice. _Tō_ (roughly 4 gals, or 1/2 bush. ) = 3. 970 gals, or . 496 bush, or1. 985 pecks = 10 shō. _Shō_ (roughly 1-1/2 qts. ) = 1. 588 qts. Or 0. 198 pecks or 108-1/2cub. In. = 10 gō. _Gō_ (roughly 1/3 pint) =. 3176 pints or 0. 019 pecks. Rice is not bagged but baled, and a bale is 4 tō or 1 hyō. WEIGHT _Kwan_ or _kwamme_ (roughly 8-1/4 lbs. ) = 8. 267 lbs. Av. Or 10. 047 lbs. Troy = 1, 000 momme. _Kin_ (catty) = 1. 322 lbs. Av. Or 1. 607 troy = 160 momme. _Momme_ = 2. 116 drams or 2. 411 dwts. According to American measurementsa momme is 0. 132 oz. Av. And 0. 120 oz. Troy. _Hyakkin_ (_picul_) = 100 kin = 132. 277 lbs. A stone is 1. 693, a cwt. Is 13. 547, and a ton 270. 950 kwamme. LOCAL ADMINISTRATIVE TERMS _Ken_. --Prefecture. There are forty-three ken and Hokkaido. Kenand fu are made up of the former sixty-six provinces. Sometimes the nameof the ken and the name of the capital of the ken are the same: example, Shidzuoka-ken, capital Shidzuoka. _Fu_. --Three prefectures are municipal prefectures and are called notken but fu. They are Tokyo-fu, Kyoto-fu and Osaka-fu. _Gun_ (_kōri_). --Division of a prefecture, a county or rural district. There are 636 gun. Gun are now being done away with. _Shi_. --City. There are seventy-nine cities. _Cho_. --A town or rather a district preponderatingly urban. There are1, 333 cho. _Machi_. --Japanese name for the Chinese character cho. _Son_. --A village or rather a district preponderatingly rural. There are10, 839 son. _Mura_. --Japanese name for a Chinese character son. A true idea of the Japanese village is obtained as soon as one mentallydefines it as a commune. There may be a rural community called sonor a municipal community called cho. The cho or son consists of a number ofoaza, that is, big aza, which in turn consists of a number of ko-aza orsmall aza. A ko-aza may consist of twenty or thirty dwellings, that is, a hamlet, or it may be only one dwelling. It may be ten acres in extentor fifty. I found that the population of a particular municipality was10, 000 in seven big oaza comprising twenty-two ko-aza. [Illustration: THE ROOM, OVERLOOKING THE PACIFIC, IN WHICH MUCH OFTHIS BOOK WAS WRITTENThe feet of the chair and table are fitted with wooden slats so as notto injure the _tatami_. Electricity as a matter of course!] [Illustration: THE MERCY OF BUDDHAThe worshippers in the front row lost relatives by a flood. This is not the priest referred to in Chapter I. ] THEFOUNDATIONS OF JAPAN STUDIES IN A SINGLE PREFECTURE(AICHI)[10] CHAPTER I THE MERCY OF BUDDHA The only hard facts, one learns to see as one gets older, are thefacts of feeling. Emotion and sentiment are, after all, incomparablymore solid than any statistics. So that when one wanders back inmemory through the field one has traversed in diligent search of hardfacts, one comes back bearing in one's arms a Sheaf ofFeelings. --HAVELOCK ELLIS. One day as I walked along a narrow path between rice fields in aremote district in Japan, I saw a Buddhist priest coming my way. Hewas rosy-faced and benign, broad-shouldered and a little rotund. Hehad with him a string of small children. I stood by to let him passand lifted my hat. He bowed and stopped, and we entered intoconversation. He told me that he was taking the children to afestival. I said that I should like to meet him again. He offered tocome to see me in the evening at my host's house. When he arrived, andI asked him, after a little polite talk, what was the chief difficultyin the way of improving the moral condition of his village, heanswered, "I am. " We spoke of Buddhism, and he complained that its sects were "tooaristocratic. " When his own sect of Buddhism, Shinshu, was started, hesaid, it was something "quite democratic for the common people. " Butwith the lapse of time this democratic sect had also "becomearistocratic. " "Though the founder of Shinshu wore flaxen clothing, Shinshu priests now have glittering costumes. And everyone has heardof the magnificence of the Kyoto Hongwanji" (the great temple atKyoto, the headquarters of the sect). [11] "Contrary to the principlesof religion and democracy, " people thought of the priest and thetemple "as something beyond their own lives. " All this stood in theway of improvement. The fashion in which many landowners "despised exertion and livedluxuriously" was another hindrance. These men looked down oneducation, "thinking themselves clever because they read thenewspapers. " Landlords of this sort were fond of curios, and kepttheir capital in such things instead of in agriculture. Sellers ofcurios visited the village too often. A wise man had called thecurio-seller the "Spirit of Poverty" (_Bimbogami_). He said that theSpirit visited a man when he became rich--in order to bring curios tohim; and again when he became poor--in order to take them away fromhim! After he became poor the Spirit of Poverty never visited himagain. Yet another drawback to rural progress was petty political ambition. People slandered neighbours who belonged to another party and theywould not associate with them. Such party feeling was one of the badinfluences of civilisation. Further, "a mercenary spirit and materialism" had to be fought in thevillage. There was not, however, much trouble due to drink, and therewas no gambling now. There might still be impropriety between youngpeople--formerly young men used to visit the factory girls--but it wasrare. Lately there had been land speculation, and some of those whomade money went to tea-houses to see geisha. There was in the neighbourhood, this Buddhist pastor went on, a templebelonging to the same sect as his own, and he was on friendly termswith its priest. It was good discipline, he said, for two priests tobe working near one another if they were of the same sect, for theirwork was compared. In answer to my enquiry, the old man said that hepreached four days a month. Each service consisted of reading for anhour and then preaching for two hours. About 150 or 200 persons wouldattend. He had also a service every morning from five to six. Inaddition to these gatherings in the temple he conducted services infarmers' houses. "I feel rather ashamed sometimes, " he said, "when Ilisten to the good sermons of Christians. " As the priest was taking leave he told me that he was going to afarmer's house in order to conduct a service. I asked to be allowed toaccompany him. He kindly agreed, and invited me to stay the night inhis temple. When I reached the farmhouse there were there about two dozen kneelingpeople, including members of the family. On the coming of the priest, who had gone to the temple to put on his robes, the farmer threw openthe doors of the family shrine and lighted the candles in it. Thepriest knelt down by the shrine and invited me to kneel near him. In afew words he told the people why I was in the district. Whereupon thefarmer's aged mother piped, "We heard that a tall man had come, but tothink that we should see him and be in the same room with him!" When he had prayed, the priest read from a roll of the Shinshuscripture which he had taken reverently from a box and a succession ofwrappings. Afterwards he preached from a "text, " continuing, ofcourse, to kneel as we did. A flickering light fell upon us from alamp hanging from a beam. The room was pervaded with incense from aniron censer which the farmer gently swung. The worshippers told theirbeads, and in intervals between the priest's sentences I heard themurmur of fervent prayer. The priest preached his sermon with his eyesshut, and I could watch him narrowly. It is not so often that one seesan old man with a sweet face. But there was sweetness in both the faceand voice of this priest. He spoke slowly and clearly, sometimespausing for a little between his sentences as if for betterinspiration, as a Quaker will sometimes do in speaking at meeting. Histones were no higher than could be heard clearly in the room. Therewas nothing of the exhorter in this man. His talk did not sound likepreaching at all. It was like kind, friendly talk at the fireside at asolemn time. "Faith, prayer, morality: these alone are necessary, " wasthe burden of the simple address. "We have faith by divine providence;out of our thanksgiving comes prayer, and we cannot but be good. " Itwas plain that the old women loved their priest. In the front of thecongregation were three crones gnarled in hands and face. When thesermon of an hour or so came to an end they spoke quaveringly of themercy of Buddha to them, and of their own feebleness to do well. Theold priest gently offered them comfort and counsel. After the service, in the light of the priest's paper lantern, I mademy way along the road to the temple. At length I found myself mountingthe lichened stone steps to the great closed gates. The priest drewthe long wooden bolt and pushed one gate creakingly back. We went by apaved pathway into the deeper shadow of the temple. Then a lightglowed from the side of the building, and we were in the priest'shouse. It was like a farmer's house only more refined in detail. About half-past four in the morning I was awakened by the booming ofthe temple bell. It is the sound which of all delights in the Far Eastis most memorable. I got up, and, following the example of my host, had a bath in the open, and dressed. Then I was lighted along passages into the public part of the temple. The priest with an acolyte began service at the middle altar. Afterwards he proceeded to a side altar. At one stage of the servicehe chanted a hymn which ran something like this: From the virtues and the mercies of divine providence we get faith, the worth of which is boundless. The ice of petty care and trouble which froze our hearts is melted. It has become the water of divine illumination, bearing us on to peace. The more care and trouble, the greater the illumination and the reward. I knelt on the outside of the congregational group. It was cold asthe great doors were slid open from time to time and the kneelingfigures grew in number to about forty. Day broke and a few sparrowstwittered by the time the first part of the service was over. The priest then took up his lamp and low table, and, coming withoutthe altar rail, knelt down in the midst of the congregation. In thisfamiliar relation with his people he delivered a homily in aconversational tone. Buddha was to mankind as a father to hischildren, he said. If a man did bad things but repented, his fatherwould be more delighted than if he got rich. The way of serving Buddhawas to feel his love. To ask of the rich or of a master wassupplication, but we did not need to supplicate Buddha. Our love ofBuddha and his love for us would become one thing. Carelessness, anevil spirit, doubt: these were the enemies. Gold was beautiful to lookat, but if the gold stuck in one's eyes so that one could not see, howthen? The true essence of belief was the abandonment of ourselves todivine providence. So the speaker went on, pressing home his thoughts with anecdote orlegend. There was the tale of a woman whose character benefited whenher husband became a leper. Another story was of an injured lizardwhich was fed for many days by its mate. We were also told of amischievous fellow who tried to anger a believer. The ne'er-do-weelwent to the man's house and called him a liar. The believer thankedhim for his faithful dealing, and said that it might be true that hewas a liar. He would be glad, he said, to be given further adviceafter his wife had warmed water in order that his visitor might washhis feet. "The mind of the vagabond was thereupon changed. " The rays of light from the lamp illumined the large Buddha-like shavenhead and mild countenance of the priest and the labour-worn faces ofhis flock around him. Two weatherbeaten men curiously resembledHighland elders. I saw that they, an old woman and a young mother witha child tied on her back kept their eyes fixed on the preacher. It wasplain that in the service they found strength for the day. I was in a reverie when the priest ended his talk. To myembarrassment he begged me to come with him within the altar rail andspeak to the people. I had been quickened to such a degree by theexperience of the previous night and by this service at dawn that Istood up at once. But there seemed to be not one word at my call, andmy knees knocked because of cold and shyness. I grasped the chillybrass altar rail, and, as I met the gaze of friendly, sun-tanned, care-rutted alien faces, which yet had the look of "kent folk, " Imarvellously found sentence following sentence. What I said mattersnothing. What I felt was the unity of all religion, my veneration forthis rare priest, a sense of kinship with these worshippers of anotherrace and faith, and a realisation of the elemental things which lie atthe basis of international understanding. Several old men and womencame up to me and bowed and made little speeches of kindness andcordiality. Six was striking on a clock in the priest's house as thedoors of the temple were slid open, the great cryptomeria[12] whichguard the village fane stood forth augustly in the morning light, andthe congregation went out to its labour. As I knelt at breakfast and ate my rice and pickles and drank my_miso_ soup, [13] the priest, after the manner of a Japanese with anhonoured guest, did not take food but waited upon me. He asked if theEnglish clergy wore a costume which marked them off from the people. He liked the way of some of our preachers who wore ordinary clothesand eschewed the title of "reverend. " He was also taken by the idea ofthe Quaker meeting at which there is silence until someone feels hehas a message to utter. As to the future of Buddhism, he deeplyregretted to say that many priests were a generation behind the age. If the priests were "more democratic, better educated and more trulyreligious, " then they might be able to keep hold of young men. He knewof one priest in Tokyo who had a dormitory for university students. The priest presented his wife, a kindly woman full of character. "Thisis my wife, " he said; "please teach her. " I spoke of a kind ofkindergarten which I had learnt had been conducted at the temple forfive years. "We merely play with the children, " she said. "I had theplan of it from the kindergarten of a missionary, " her husband added. The priest and his wife were kneeling side by side in the stilltemple-room looking out on their restful garden. Behind them was ascreen the inscription on which might be translated, "We are to bethankful for our environment; we are to become content quite naturallyby the gracious influence of the universe and by the strength of ourown will. " I could learn nothing from the priest concerning several helpfulorganisations which I had heard that the villagers owed to hisinfluence and exertions. But the manager of the village agriculturalassociation told me that for a quarter of a century Otera San (Mr. Temple) had superintended the education of the young people, thatunder his guidance the village had a seven years' old co-operativecredit and selling society, 294 families belonged to a poultrysociety, 320 men and women gathered to study the doctrines of Ninomiya(whom we in the West know from a little book by a late JapaneseAmbassador in London, called _For His People_), and the young men'sassociation performed its discipline at half-past five in the morningin the winter and at four o'clock in the summer. [Illustration: "TO ROUSE THE VILLAGE YOU MUST FIRST ROUSE THE PRIEST"(Autograph of Otera San)] FOOTNOTES: [9] Exchange in 1916; in 1921 the yen is worth 2s. 8d. [10] The chapters in this section are based on notes of several visitspaid to Aichi, which is in the middle of Japan, and agriculturally andsocially one of the most interesting of the prefectures. It is threeprefectures distant from Tokyo. [11] Throughout this book an attempt has been made to preserve intranslation something of the character of the Japanese phraseology. [12] _Cryptomeria japonica_, or in Japanese, _sugi_, allied to thesequoia, yew and cypress. [13] _Miso_, bean paste. CHAPTER II "GOOD PEOPLE ARE NOT SUFFICIENTLY PRECAUTIOUS" Je ne propose rien, je n'impose rien, j'expose. --_De la liberté du travail_ He had been through Tokyo University, but his hands were rough withthe work of the rice fields. "I resent the fact that a farmer isconsidered to be socially inferior to a townsman, " he said. "I amgoing to show that the income of a farmer who is diligent and skilfulmay equal that of a Minister of State. I also propose to build a finehouse, not out of vanity, but in order to show that an honest farmercan do as well for himself as a townsman. " When I asked the speaker to tell me something about himself he wenton: "My father was a follower of a pupil of the great Ninomiya. Schools of frugal living and high ideals were common in the Tokugawaperiod. [14] The object sought was the education of heart and spirit. At night when I was in bed my father used to kneel by me, [15] hiseldest son, and say, 'When you grow big you must become a great manand distinguish our family name. ' This instruction was given to merepeatedly and it went deeply into my heart. " "When I became a young man, " he continued, "I had two friends. We madepromises to each other. One said, 'I will become the greatest scholarin Japan. ' The second said, 'I will become the greatest statesman. 'The third, myself, said, 'I will be the greatest rice grower in thiscountry. ' If we all succeeded we were to build beautiful houses andinvite each other to them. "I did not graduate at the University because, by the entreaty of myfather, when I reached twenty-one, I left Tokyo in order to become apractical farmer. It is twenty-one years since I began farming. Iconsulted with skilful agriculturists and then I saw my way to make aplan. Rice in my native place is inferior. I improved it for three orfour years. I gained the first gold prize at the prefectural show. Some years later I obtained the first prize at the exhibition whichwas held by five prefectures together. Later still I received thefirst prize at the exhibition for eighteen prefectures, also the firstprize at the exhibition of the National Agricultural Association. Further, I was appointed a judge of rice and travelled about. "I consumed a great deal of time in doing this public work. One day Iwas made to think. A collector for a charity said in my hearing thathe expected larger subscriptions from practical men because thoughpublic men were esteemed by society their economic power was small. Iat once resolved that before doing any more public work I should putmyself in a sound financial position. "As I thought over the matter it seemed to me that it was not to beexpected that a public man should be able to do his really best workif his financial position were not sound. Again, could he have lastinginfluence with people in practical affairs if his own practicalaffairs were not in good order?[16] At any rate I determined not to goout to any more exhibitions or lectures except those which wereremunerative, and I resolved to devote myself as my first duty to myfarming. "I set to work and managed my land, 3 _chō_ (a _chō_ is 2-1/2 acres), so as to obtain the gross income of an M. P. [The reader could scarcelyhave a more striking illustration of the intensity with which Japaneseland is cultivated--the average area is under 3 acres per family. ] Iam now working about 4 _chō_ (10 acres). Later on I am going to farm 7_chō_ (15-1/2 acres) and from that I am expecting the income of aMinister. [17] I have already collected the materials for my villa, forI am approaching my goal. One of my two friends, who is also fortyyears of age, is a distinguished chemist in the Imperial AgriculturalCollege. My other friend, who is forty-four, is Secretary of theKorean Government. " The indomitable experimenter swallowed another cupful of tea anddeclared that "in order to be prosperous, all the members of thefamily must work. " All the members of his family did work. His wifewas strong and there were five healthy children. He used the ordinaryfarm implements and his livestock consisted of only a horse and a fewhens. The home farm was five miles from the station. The outlyingfarms were scattered in five villages--"there are always spendthriftlazy fellows willing to sell their land. " "I have a firm belief, " thespeaker added complacently, "that agriculture is the most honest, themost sincere, the most interesting, the most secure and the mostprofitable calling. " "Very often, " he went on, "good people are not sufficientlyprecautious"--I give the excellent word coined by my interpreter. "They spend for the public good, and in the end they are left poor. Renowned, rich families have come to a miserable condition by suchaction. What they have done may have been good. But they are reducedto pauperism and they are laughed at by many persons. People jeer thatthey pretended to do good, yet they could not do good to themselves. If all people who work for the public benefit are laughed at atlast--and many are--it will come to be thought that to work for thepublic benefit is not good. Therefore I think that the man who wouldwork for the public good must be careful in his own affairs. He mustnot be a poor man if he is to help public business. Howeverphilanthropic he may be, if his financial position is not strong hecannot go on long. He will be stopped on his good way. He cannot helpother people. Therefore I am now gathering wealth for strengtheningmy financial position as a means to attain the higher end. " As the speaker awaited my judgment on his career, I ventured tosuggest that gifts, qualities and inspiration which made a man apublic man did not necessarily equip him for being a great success inbusiness life. The question was, perhaps, whether the type of man whowas pre-eminently successful in promoting his own pecuniary interestswas necessarily the best type of public man. Was the average characterequal to the strain of many years of concentration on money-making tothe exclusion of public interests? When men emerged from the sphere ofconcentrated money-making, were they worth so very much as public men?Might not the values of things have altered a little for them? Mightit not have a shrivelling effect on the heart to resist applicationswhich must be refused when the strengthening of one's financialposition was regarded as the chief object in life? At this point our host, Mr. Yamasaki, the respected principal of thebig agricultural school of the prefecture and a well-known ruralauthor and speaker, broke in with the ejaculation, "He has got aneedle in your head"--the Japanese equivalent for "touching thespot"--and continued: "Surely he is right who through his life offersfreely what he may have as to members of his own family. I give awaymany pamphlets and I have guests. I could save in these directions. But I am not doing it. I am content if I can support my family. I gavea savings book to each of my five children. When the boy becomestwenty-one he will have enough to finish at the university or start asa small merchant so as not to be a parasite. My girls will be providedwith enough to furnish the costs of modest marriage. If I did more Imight perhaps become greedy. " I cannot say that the farmer who had so kindly outlined his life'sprogramme was impressed either by our host's views or by mine, but hetold us that he now spent 5 per cent. Of his income on publicpurposes, and that 150 yen received for giving lectures was spent onbooks and recreation "for enlarging mind and heart. " He happened tomention that, though his family was of the Zen sect of Buddhism, hewas a Shintoist. It is difficult to believe that a genuine Buddhistcould have evolved such a life scheme. There is certainly a Shintosymbolism in his plan of tree planting before his house. He has setthere, in the order shown, eleven pines which he named as marked: [Illustration: PLAN OF THE ELEVEN SYMBOLIC TREES WHICH THE FARMER PLANTEDOUTSIDE HIS HOUSE AND THE EVILS (REPRESENTED BY ARROWS)FROM WHICH THEY ARE SHIELDING HIM] The virtues inscribed on this plan are the guardians of the farmer andhis family, which is represented in the middle of it. The words behindthe arrows represent the character of the attacks to which the farmerconceives himself and his family to be exposed. Courage is imagined asgoing before and Wisdom as protecting the rear. The talk turned to some advice which had been given to farmers to layout "economic gardens. " They were to plant no trees but fruit trees. To this an old farmer of our company replied: "If you are tooeconomical your children will become mercenary. Some families were tooeconomical and cut down beautiful trees, planting instead economicalones. Those families I have seen come to an evil end. The man whoexercises rigid economy may be a good man, but his children can knowlittle of his real motives and must be wrongly influenced by hisconduct. " We all agreed that there was nowadays too much talk aboutmoney-making in rural Japan. "Even I, " laughed the owner of thesymbolic trees, "planted not persimmons but pines. " FOOTNOTES: [14] That is, before the Revolution of half a century ago, when theTokugawa Shogun resigned his powers to the Emperor. [15] The Japanese bed, _futon_, consists of a soft mattress of cottonwool, two or three inches thick. It is spread on the floor, whichitself consists of mats of almost the same thickness, 6 ft. Long by 3ft. Wide. [16] Most of the really big men of Australia have left political lifein comparatively impoverished circumstances. Not only did Sir HenryParkes die poor. Sir George Reid took the High Commissionership inLondon; Sir Graham Berry was provided with a small annuity; Sir GeorgeDibbs was made the manager of a State savings bank; Sir Edmund Bartonwas lifted to the High Court Bench. --_Times_, January 11, 1921. To the last day of his life, executions were levied in hishouse. --Rosebery on Pitt. [17] For his figures see Appendix I. CHAPTER III EARLY-RISING SOCIETIES AND OTHER INGENUOUSACTIVITIES I should be heartily sorry if there were no signs of partiality. On theother hand, there is, I trust, no importunate advocacy or tediousassentation. --MORLEY "The alarum clocks for waking us at four o'clock in the summer andfive in the winter"--it was the chairman of a village Early-RisingSociety who was speaking to me--are placed at the houses of thesecretaries, and each member is in turn a secretary. The duty of asecretary, when the alarum clock strikes, is to get up and visit thehouses of all the members allotted to him and to shout for the youngmen until they answer. Each member on rising walks to the house of thesecretary of his division and writes his name on the record ofattendances. Then the member goes to the shrine, where we fence andwrestle for a time. At first we thought that if we fenced and wrestledearly in the morning we should be tired for our work, but we foundthat it was not so. "Sometimes a clock gets damaged and does not ring, so a few of us maybe getting up later that morning. Or a man becomes afraid of sleepingtoo late, fears his clock is wrong, and gets up at 3 o'clock and thengoes off to waken members. Hence complaints. Some cunning fellows asktheir friends or brothers to write down for them their names on thelist of attendances. But we find out their deceit by theirhandwriting. It is very difficult to form the habit of early rising, because members are not expected to report at the secretaries' houseson a rainy day. As there is no control over them that day, they areeasy in their minds and sleep on. Thus they break the habit of earlyrising that they are forming. Getting up early is necessary not onlybecause it is good to begin work early but because early risingovercomes the habit of gadding about at night which is customary inmany villages. "You may say that all this is a great deal to ask of young men, " thechairman continued. "But if you ask from them comfortable practicesonly, how can you expect from them a remarkable result? Young menshould ponder this and be willing to exert themselves. " Later on itwas explained to me that it had been found that it took a great dealof time for the secretaries to call up all the members in the morningby shouting to them, "so the secretary obtained bugles; but even thebugles were not heard everywhere, so they were changed to drums, andnow five drums go round our village every morning. " In every village of Japan there is a young men's association, which isby no means to be confounded with the world-encircling Y. M. C. A. [18]The village Y. M. A. Of Japan is an institution of some antiquity and ithas nothing whatever to do with religious effort. One day, when I wasstaying in a rural district, I was invited to a remoter part in orderto see something of the discipline that the members of a group ofyoung men's associations were imposing on themselves. The members ofthis group of Y. M. A. Belonged to the branches established in a villageof nineteen _aza_, that is hamlets. This fact, with the further factthat the village containing the nineteen _aza_ had four elementaryschools and one higher school, will show that a Japanese village maybe much larger than a Western one. Nearly six hundred young men were in the parade. They were dressedexactly alike in the tight blue calico trousers and kimono of jacketlength which the Japanese farmer ordinarily wears. Each man had theusual _obi_ (waist scarf) tied round his kimono, and in the _obi_ wasthrust the small cotton towel which Japanese carry with themeverywhere. The young men wore puttees, _waraji_ (straw sandals) andcaps. It is only of late that the Japanese worker has taken to wearinghead-gear, or at any rate head-gear other than he could contrive withhis towel. The physical condition of the young fellows was good andtheir evolutions with dummy "rifles" were smart and skilful. Theparaders seemed lost in their desire to do their best for theircredit's sake and their own good. After the first movements, the"troops" with "rifles" held as if there were bayonets at the end, maderushes with loud cries. The secret of this somewhat surprising displayfar away in the heart of Japan was that the work of the young men hadbeen done under the direction of two fit, be-medalled army surgeons, reserve officers, who were present in order to answer my questions. Every morning half an hour before sunrise these Y. M. A. Membersassemble in the grounds of their Shinto shrine or of their school, where they exercise until the sun shows itself. In the evenings afterwork they also fence, wrestle, lift weights and develop their wrists. This wrist development is done by two youths grasping a pole, one ateither end, and then trying to rotate it one against the other. The members endeavour to cultivate their minds as well as theirbodies, and they also observe in their dress a self-denying ordinance. On ceremonial occasions they permit themselves to wear a full-lengthkimono and the _hakama_ or divided skirt, but they deny themselves thethird article of a Japanese man's full dress, the _haori_ or silkovercoat. An effort is also made to dispense with the use of"luxurious" _geta_ (the national wooden pattens). [19] The object of all this varied discipline is to develop physique, self-control, self-respect and what the Japanese call the spirit ofassociation, or, as we might say, good fellowship. The spirit ofassociation is needed in order to promote greater administrative, educational and social efficiency. The modern Japanese village is nolonger an historical but a political unit which covers a considerabledistrict. It is, as I have explained, a combination of clusters of_aza_ (hamlets). Each of these _aza_ has its local sentiment, and thislocal sentiment when untouched by outside influences tends to becomeselfish, narrow and prejudiced. If, however, anything is to be done inthe development of rural life there must be co-operation between_aza_ for all sorts of objects. I was assured that in addition to the development of physique, _moral_and the spirit of association, there was to be seen, under theinfluence of the Y. M. A. , a development of good manners and mentalnimbleness. A special result of early rising and discipline in onearea had been that "the habit of spending evening hours idly has diedaway, immorality has diminished, singing loudly and foolishly andboasting oneself have disappeared, while punctuality and respect forold age have increased. " I was even assured that parents--whom no trueJapanese would ever dream of attempting to reform at firsthand--parents, I say, moved by the physical and mental advance intheir sons, have "begun to practise greater punctuality. " After the drilling was over I was taken to a large elementary schooland was called upon to address the young men, who were kneeling inperfect files. Mr. Yamasaki followed me and told the youths thatJapanese were not so tall as they might be, and that therefore theirphysique "must be continuously developed. " Nor were rural conditionsall they should be from a moral point of view. Therefore, "everydesire which interferes with the development of your health ormorality must be overcome. " Let me speak of another village. It numbers a thousand families and itrises in the morning and goes to bed at night by the sound of thebugle. It has five public baths and a notice-board of news "to enlargepeople's ideas. " The shopkeepers are said to "work very diligently, sothings are cheaper. " The education of such of the young men as areexempted from military service is continued on Saturday evenings forfour years. The Y. M. A. , in addition to the military discipline, fencing, wrestling, weight-lifting and pole-twisting of which I havespoken, exercises itself in handwriting--which many Japanese practiseas an art during their whole lifetime--and in composing theconventional short poem. I was gravely informed that "the custom ofspending money on sweet-stuff is decreasing. " What this really meansis that the young men were not frequenting the sweet-stuff shops, which are staffed by girls who are in many cases a greater temptationthan the sweets. The worthy members of this association had "burnttheir _geta_. " In some places Y. M. A. Members give their labour when a school teacheror a fellow member is building his house, or they do repairs at theschool. Bicycle excursions are made to neighbouring villages in orderto participate in inter-Y. M. A. Debates, or to study vegetable raising, fruit culture or poultry keeping. The Japanese are much given to"taking trips, " and the special training which they receive at schoolin making notes and plans results in everybody having a notebook andbeing able to sketch a rough route-plan for personal use, or for astranger who may ask his way. Not a few associations favour members cutting each other's hair once afortnight, thus at one and the same time saving money and curbingvanity. Several Y. M. A. S publish cyclostyled monthlies. Others minutelyinvestigate the economic condition of their villages. Some Y. M. A. Sprovide public "complaint boxes, " and have boards up asking forfriendly help for soldiers billeted in the district. One associationhas issued instructions to its members that they are not to ride whenin charge of ox-drawn carts. The reason is that the ox is onlypartially under control and may injure a pedestrian--unwittingly, I amsure, for the gentleness of the ox and even of the bull in harnessarrests one's attention. Many Y. M. A. S devote themselves to cultivatingimproved qualities of rice or to breaking up new land. Sometimes theland of the Shinto shrine is cultivated. I have heard of Y. M. A. S inremote parts having handed over to them the exclusive sale of _saké_. I find a Y. M. A. Counselling its members "not to speak vulgar words ina crowd. " There is also among the members of Y. M. A. S a certainaddiction to diary keeping for moral as well as economic purposes. Thediaries are distributed by the associations and "afterwards examinedand rewarded"--a plan which would hardly work in the West. There areY. M. A. S which make a point of seeing off conscripts with flags andmusic. Others have fallen on the more economical plan of "writing tothe conscript as often as possible and helping with labour the familywhich is suffering from the loss of his services. " By some Y. M. A. S"old people are respected and comforted. " More than one associationhas a practice of serving out red and black balls to its members atthe opening of every new year, when good resolutions are in order, andat the end of the year recalling either the red or the black accordingto the degree to which the publicly announced good resolutions havebeen kept. Among the good resolutions are: to worship at the Shintoshrine or the Buddhist temple regularly, to be tidier, to be moreefficient in cropping the land, to undertake work for the common good, to have a secondary occupation in addition to farming, to sit withmore decorum at meals, to rise earlier, to visit the graves ofancestors monthly, to be more considerate to parents or elderbrothers, and "not to remain idly at people's houses. " One Y. M. A. Decrees that a member found in a tea-house in conversationwith a geisha shall be fined 20 yen. There is even a village in whichthe young men's association and the young women's association haveunited to issue a regulation providing that at night time members, inorder that their doings shall be public, shall carry lanterns paintedwith the ideographs of their societies. [20] With regard to the young women's associations, I found that one ofthem studied domestic matters and good manners, "asking questions andreceiving answers. " The motto of the organisation was "Good Wives andGood Mothers. " A member, this Society believes, should be "polite, gentle and warm-hearted, but with a strong will inside and able tomeet difficulties. " Her hairdressing and clothes "should not beluxurious, " and she "must not run after fashions. " She must "respectBuddha and abandon sweet-eating, " for "taking food between meals isbad for your health, for economy and for your posterity. " Let us now hear something of Societies for the Cultivation of Rice bySchoolboys. The lads become responsible for the cultivation of a _tan_of their family land, or of a small paddy, and they work it themselveswith the help of such advice as the schoolmaster may give them. (Thecultivation of a _tan_ of a paddy, a quarter of an acre, is supposedto need in a year about twenty-one days' labour of a man working fromsunrise to sunset. ) The report of one boy to which I turned in acollection of reports by members of a rice-cultivation society showedthat he was between fourteen and fifteen. His diary of work andobservations was as follows: _June_ 5. --4 _to_ of herring applied. _June_ 7. --Locusts and other insects arrive. [21] _June_ 20. --153 clumps of rice transplanted from the seed bed. [22] _July_ 11. --Rice cultivated and 4 _to_ of herring applied. _July_ 27. --First weeding. _Aug_. 6. --Second weeding. _Aug_. 8. --Locusts again. _Aug_. 11. --Third weeding. _Sept_. 10. --All ears shot. _Oct_. 10. --Some plants suffering from bacillus. It was further noted that the soil was sandy, that cold spring waterwas percolating through the bottom of the paddy field, that theaeration of the soil was bad and that some plants were laid by wind. The young farmer appended to his report an excellent plan. He receivedmarks as follows: Method of planting, 15; levelling, 20; provisionagainst insects, 5; general attention, 25; total, 65. Some boys got asmany as 99 marks. A word concerning a Village Association for Promoting Morality. One ofthe things it does is to assemble yearly the whole population, old andyoung, "in order to get friendly. " The police meanwhile keep an eyeopen for strangers who might take it into their heads to visit thevillage on that day and help themselves from the houses. I may quotethree poems in rough translations from a speech made by a priest atthe annual meeting: The legs of a horse, the rudder of a boat, the pin of a fan, and the sincerity of a man. Let your heart be pure and true and you need not pray for the protection of the gods. The bride brings many things with her to her new home, but one thing more, the spirit of sincerity, will not encumber her. After these varied accounts of rural merit, I could not but listenwith attention to a tale of village gamblers, the offence of gamblinghaving been "introduced by the excavators on the new railway. " Firstthe headman fined a dozen young men. Then he made a raid and foundamong the village sinners several members of his own council. "Thesalaried officials were at a loss to know what to do, and proposed toresign. But the headman brought the prisoners together before thewhole body of officials. He spoke of the sufferings of the troops inManchuria and the heroic deaths among them. (It was the time of theRussian war. ) 'Lest your offences should come to be known by oursoldiers and discourage them, ' said the headman, 'I cannot butoverlook your conduct. ' It is thought that gambling practically ceasedfrom that time. " Local officials have a way of making the most of historic events inorder to touch the imagination of their villagers. Many originalundertakings were begun, for example, under the inspiration of theCoronation. One village set about raising a fund by a system oftaxation under which inhabitants contribute according to the followingtariff: Birth of a child, 10 sen (that is, 2-1/2 d. Or 5 cents). Wedding, 15 sen. Adoption, 15 sen. Graduation from the primary school, 10 sen; advanced school, 20 sen. Teacher or official on appointment, 2 per cent. Of salary; when salary is increased, 10 per cent. Of increase. When an official receives a prize of money from his superior, 5 per cent. Every villager to pay every quarter, 1 sen. On the basis of this assessment it is expected that fifty-seven yearsafter the Coronation such a sum will have been accumulated as willenable the villagers to live rate free. Some villages havethanksgiving associations in connection with Shinto shrines. Agedvillagers are "respected by being blessed before the shrine and bybeing given a present. " Worthy villagers who are not aged "receiveprizes and honour. " More than once when I went to a village I was welcomed first by aparade of the Y. M. A. , then by the school children in rows, and finallyin the school grounds by two lines of venerable members of anEx-Public Servants' Association. The object of an E. P. S. A. Is tostrengthen the hands of the present officials and to give honour totheir predecessors. A headman explained to me: "If ex-officials fellinto poverty or lacked public respect, people would not be inclined towork for the public good. A former clerk in the village office whomeverybody had forgotten was working as a labourer. But as a member ofthe association he was seen to be treated with honour, so the childrenwere impressed. The funeral of such a man is apt to be lonely, butwhen this man died all the members of the association attended hisfuneral in ceremonial dress and offered some money to his memory. [23]His honour is great and the villagers say, 'We may well work for thepublic benefit. '" Every village in Japan has a Village Agricultural Association. OneV. A. A. , which belongs to a village of less than 6, 000 people, sees thefruit of its labours in the existence of "322 good manure houses. " Thegift of a plan and the grant of a yen had prompted the building ofmost of them. Then the organisation incites its members to cement theground below their dwellings. This is not so much for the benefit ofthe farmer and his family as for the welfare of their silkworms. A flyharmful to silkworms winters in the soil, but it cannot find aresting-place in concrete. [Illustration: A WIDE EXPANSE OF ADJUSTED RICE-FIELDS. P. 71] A word may also be said about the way in which silkworm rearers havebeen induced by the V. A. A. To keep the same breed of caterpillar, sofacilitating bulking of cocoons at the association's co-operativesales. A small library of silkworm-culture books has been started inthe village, and there is a special pamphlet for young men whichthey are urged to keep in "their pockets and to study ten minutes eachday. " A general library has 2, 400 volumes divided into eightcirculating libraries. The cost of the building which provides thelibrary in chief, a meeting hall and also a storehouse for cocoons hasbeen defrayed by the commissions charged for the co-operative sale ofcocoons. [Illustration: LIBRARY AND WORKSHED OF A YOUNG MEN'S ASSOCIATION. P. 15] Again, there used to be no cattle in the village, but now, thanks tothe purchase of young animals by the association, and thanks tovillage shows, there are 103. There is a competition to get the biggest yield of rice, and there isalso "an exhibition of crops. " This exhibition incidentally aims atending trouble between landlord and tenants due to complaints of theinferiority of the rice brought in as rent. (Paddy-field rent isinvariably paid in rice. ) These complaints are more directly dealtwith by the V. A. A. Arbitrating between landlords and tenants who areat issue. In addition to rice crop and cattle shows in the village, there is a yearly exhibition of the prod ucts of secondary industries, such as mats, sandals and hats. The V. A. A. Is also working to secure the planting of hill-side waste. Some 300, 000 tree seedlings have been distributed to members of theY. M. A. , who "grow them on, " and, after examination and criticism, plant them out. I must not omit to speak of the V. A. A. S' distributionof moral and economic diaries of the type already referred to. Thevillagers, in the spirit of boy-scoutism, are "advised to do one goodthing in a day. " I saw several of these diaries, well thumbed by theirauthors after having been laboured at for a year. One young farmernoted down on the space for January 2 that he said his prayers andthen went _daikon_[24] pulling, and that _daikon_ pulling (like ourmangold pulling) is a cold job. FOOTNOTES: [18] There are, however, 11, 000 members of Y. M. C. A. In Japan. There isalso a Y. W. C. A. With a considerable membership. [19] See Appendix II. [20] For official action in regard to the Y. M. A. S, see later. [21] The damage done by insects is estimated at 10 million yen a year. In some parts locusts are roasted and eaten. [22] For an account of the processes of rice cultivation, see ChapterIX. [23] It is the practical Japanese custom to make a gift of money to afamily on the occasion of a death. The Emperor makes a present to thefamily of a deceased statesman. [24] The giant white radish which reaches 2 or 3 ft. In length and 3in. Or more in diameter. There is also a correspondingly largeturnip-shaped sort. CHAPTER IV "THE SIGHT OF A GOOD MAN IS ENOUGH" It has been said that we should emulate rather than imitate them. All I say is, Let us study them. --MATTHEW ARNOLD For seven years in succession the men, old, middle-aged and young, whohad done the most remarkable things in the agriculture of theprefecture had been invited to gather in conference. I went to thisannual "meeting of skilful farmers. " Among the speakers were the localgovernor and chiefs of departments who had been sent down by theMinistry of Agriculture and the Home Office. According to our ideas, everybody but the unpractised speakers--the expert farmers who werecalled from time to time to the platform--spoke too long. But thekneeling audience found no fault. Indeed, a third of it was takingnotes. It was an audience of seeking souls. One of the impromptu speakers, a white-haired, toil-marked farmer, told how forty years before he had gone to the next prefecture andopened new land. "With his spectacles and moustache, " explained thechairman--if the man who takes the initiative from time to time at aJapanese meeting may be properly called a chairman--"he looks like agentleman; but he works hard. " And the man showed his hands as atestimony to the severity of his labours. "It was in the winter, " he said, "that I went away from my home andobtained a certain tract of waste. I had no acquaintance near. Ibrought some food, but when I fell short I had no more. I had gonewith my third boy. We lived in a small hut and were in a miserablecondition. Then a fierce wind took off the roof. It was at four in themorning when the roof blew off. In February I began to open a ricefield. Gradually we got a _chō_. At length I opened another _chō_, but there was much gravel. Some of my newly opened fields are veryhigh up the hill. If you chance to pass my house please come to seeme. The maple leaves are very beautiful and you can enjoy the sight ofmany birds. " The early meetings of the expert farmers used to last not one day buttwo, for the men delighted in narrating their experiences to oneanother. Some of the audience used to weep as the older men told theirtales. The farmers would sit up late round a farmer or a professor whowas talking about some subject that interested them. The originator ofthese gatherings, Mr. Yamasaki, told me that he was "more than oncemoved to tears by the merits and pure hearts of the farmer speakers. " Of the regard and respect which the farmers had for this man I hadmany indications. Like not a few agricultural authorities, he is asamurai. [25] He is exceptionally tall for a Japanese, looks indeedrather like a Highland gillie, and when one evening I prevailed on himto put on armour, thrust two swords in his _obi_ and take a long bowin his hand, he was an imposing figure. He carries the ideals of_bushido_ into his rural work. He does not sleep more than five hours, and he is up every morning at five. But I am getting away from the meeting. There was a priest who spoke, a man curiously like Tolstoy. (He had, no doubt, Ainu blood in him. )He wore the stiff buttoned-up jacket of the primary school teacher andspoke modestly. "Formerly the rice fields of my village suffered verymuch from bad irrigation, " he said, "but when that was put right thesoil became excellent. In the days when the soil was bad the peoplewere good and no man suspected another of stealing his seal. [26] Butwhen the soil became good the disposition of the people was influencedin a bad way, and they brought their seals to the temple to be keptsafe. "At that time the organiser of this meeting came and made a speech inmy village. On hearing his speech I thought it an easy task to make myvillage good. At once I began to do good things. I formed severalmen's and women's associations, all at once, as if I were Buddha. Butthe real condition of the people was not much improved. There camemany troubles upon me, and our friend wrote a letter. I was verythankful, and I have been keeping that letter in the temple and bowingthere morning and evening. "I began to ask many distinguished persons to help me. They influencedthe farmers. The sight of a good man is enough. Speech is unnecessary. The villagers were not educated enough to understand moralisings orthinking, but the kind face of a good man has efficacy. There was aman in the village who was demoralised, and when I told of him to adistinguished man who lives near our village he sympathised very much. That distinguished man is eighty-four years old, but he accompaniedthat demoralised man for three days, giving no instruction but simplyliving the same life, and the demoralised man was an entirely changedman and ever thankful. "I am a sinful man. Sometimes it happens that after I have beenworking for the public benefit I am glad that I am offered thanks. Iknow it is not a good thing when people express gratitude to me, for Iought not to accept it. When I know I am doing a good thing andexpecting thanks, I am not doing a good thing. My thanks must not comefrom men but from Buddha. I am trying to cast out my sinful feelings. It must not be supposed that I am leading these people. You skilfulfarmers kindly come to my village if you pass. You need not give anyspeech. Your good faces will do. " But the two speeches I have reported are hardly a fair sample of thediscourses which were delivered. The addresses of the earnest Tokyoofficials and the Governor were directed towards urging on the farmersincreased production and increased labour, and the duty was pressedupon them, as I understood, in the name of the highest patriotism andof devotion to their ancestors. This talk was excellent in its way, but when I got up I hazarded a few words on different lines. If Iventure to summarise my somewhat elementary address it is because itfurnishes a key to some of the enquiries I was to make during myjourneys. I was told the next day that the local daily had declaredthat my "tongue was tipped with fire, " which was a compliment to mykind and clever interpreter, who, when he let himself go, seemed to beable to make two or three sentences out of every one of mine: I said that my Japanese friends kept asking me my impressions, and onething I had to say to them was that I had got an impression in manyquarters of spiritual dryness. I dared to think that someresponsibility for a materialistic outlook must be shared by theadmirable officials and experts who moved about among the farmers. They were always talking about crop yields and the amount of moneymade, and they unconsciously pressed home the idea that rural progresswas a material thing. But the rural problem was not only a problem of better crops and ofgreater production. Man did not live by food alone. Tolstoy wrote abook called _What Men Live By_, and there was nothing in it aboutfood. Men lived not by the number of bales of rice they raised, but bythe development of their minds and hearts. It might be asked if it wasnot the business of rural experts to teach agriculture. But a poet ofmy country had said that it took a soul to move a pig into a cleanersty. It was necessary for a man who was to teach agriculture well toknow something higher than agriculture. The teacher must be moreadvanced than his pupils. There must be a source from which the energyof the rural teacher must be again and again renewed. There must be awell from which he must be continually refreshed and stimulated. Somecalled that well by the name of religion, unity with God. Some calledit faith in mankind, faith in the destiny of the world, that faith inman which is faith in God. But it must be a real belief, not ahalf-hearted, shivering faith. Agriculture was not only the oldest and the most serviceable calling, it was the foundation of everything. But the fact must not be lostsight of that agriculture, important and vital though it was, was onlya means to an end. The object in view was to have in the ruraldistricts better men, women and children. The highest aim of ruralprogress was to develop the minds and hearts of the rural population, and in all discussion of the rural problems it was necessary not tolose in technology a clear view of the final object. But when account is taken of all the drab materialism in the ruraldistricts there remains a leaven of unworldliness. It takes variousforms. Here is the story of a landlord at whose beautiful house Istayed. "When a tenant brings his rent rice to this landlord'sstorehouse, " a fellow-guest told me, "it is never examined. The doorof the storehouse is left unpadlocked, and the rent rice is brought bythe tenant when he is minded to do so. No one takes note of hiscoming. If he meets his landlord on the road he may say, 'I broughtyou the rent, ' and the landlord says, 'It is very kind of you. ' It isan old custom not to supervise the tenants' bringing of the rent. "Nowadays, however, some tenants are sly. They say, 'Our landlordnever looks into our payments. Therefore we can bring him inferiorrice or less than the quantity. ' The landlord loses somewhat by this, but it is not in accordance with the honour of his family to changethe method of collecting his rent. He is now chairman of the villageco-operative society as well as of the young men's society, and heaims to improve his village fundamentally. " I also heard this narrative. The tenants in a certain place wished tocultivate rice land rather than to farm dry land. But when silkwormcultivation became prosperous they began to prefer dry land again inorder that they might extend the area of mulberries. Therefore thelandlords raised the rents of the dry farms. But there was onelandlord who said, "If this dry farm land had been improved by me Ishould be justified in raising the rent. But I did not improve it. Therefore it would be base to take advantage of economic conditions toraise the rent. " So he did not raise the rent. Then he was excluded from socialintercourse by the other landlords because their tenants grumbled. These landlords said to him, "You can afford not to raise your rents, but we cannot. " Therefore the landlord who had not raised his rentscalled his tenants together. He said to them, "It is a hard thing forme to have no social intercourse with my equals. Therefore I will nowraise the rents. But I cannot accept that raised portion, and I willtake care of it for you, and in ten years I think it will amount toenough for you to start a cooperative society. " That was eight years ago and the formation of the society was nowproceeding. In order that the reader may not forget on what a verydifferent scale landlordism exists in Japan, I may mention that thearea owned by this landlord was only 10 _chō_. I was told the story of a landlord's solution of the rent reductionproblem. "Tenants, " the narrator said, "sometimes pretend that theircrops are poorer than they are. Landlords may reduce the payment due, but sometimes with a certain resentment. One landowner was asked for areduction for several years in succession on account of poor crops, and gave it. But he was trying to think of a plan to defeat thepretences of his tenants. At last he hit on one. While the tenants'rice was young he often visited the fields, and when any insects wereto be seen he sent his labourers secretly to destroy them. In the sameway, when crops seemed to be under-manured, he secretly castartificial manure on them. At last his tenants found out what he wasdoing, and they said, 'As our landlord is so kind to us, we must notpretend that we need a reduction. ' And they did not, and things aregoing on very well there. This is an illustration of the fact that ourpeople are moved more by feeling than by logic. " This was capped by another story. "A landlord, a samurai, has for histenants his former subjects, so something of the relation of masterand servant still remains. He wished to raise his tenants to theposition of peasant proprietors, so when land was for sale in thevillage he advised them to buy. They said they had no money, but heanswered, 'Means may perhaps be found. ' He secretly subscribed a sumto the Shinto shrine and then advised the formation of a co-operativesociety, which could borrow from the shrine for a tenant, so that thetenant need not go to the landlord to thank him and feel patronised byhim. He need only to go to the shrine and give thanks there. " "Thelandlord, " added the speaker in his imperfect English, "has entirelyhided himself from the business. " A third of the tenants had becomepeasant proprietors. In order to better the feeling between the farmers and landowners thislandlord and several others had begun to ask their tenants to theirgardens, where they were given tea and fruit. "In Japan, " said one manto me, "we see feudal ideas broken down by the upper, not the lowerclass. " I visited the romantic coast of a peninsula a dozen miles from therailway. Some 10, 000 pilgrims come in a year to the eighty-eighttemples on the peninsula, and in some parts the people are such strictBuddhists that in one village the county authorities find greatdifficulty in overcoming an objection to destroying the insect lifewhich preys on the rice crops. When rice land does not yield well, onelandlord causes an investigation to be made and gives advice basedupon it to the tenant, saying, "Do this, and if you lose I willcompensate you. If you gain, the advantage will be yours. " Money isalso contributed by the landlord to enable tenants to make journeys inorder to study farming methods. A landlord here--I had the pleasure of being his guest--had started anagricultural association. It had developed the idea of a secondaryschool for practical instruction, "rich men to give their money andpoor men their labour. " In order to obtain a fund to enable tenants toget money with which to set up as peasant proprietors, this landlordhad thought of the plan of setting aside each harvest 250 _shō_[27] ofrice to each tenant's 3 _shō_. Good work was done in teaching farmers' wives. "When no instruction isgiven, " I was informed, "a wife may say, when her husband is testinghis rice seed with salt water, 'Salt is very dear, nowadays, why notfresh water?' If a husband is kind he will explain. If not, someunpleasantness may arise, so wives are taught about the necessity ofselecting by salt water. " [Illustration: LANDOWNER'S SON AND DAUGHTER OFF TO THE VILLAGESCHOOL. P. 38] [Illustration: BUDDHIST SHRINE IN A LANDOWNER'S HOUSE. P. 33] Tenants are advised to save a farthing a day. In order to keep themsteadfast in their thriftiness they are asked to bring their savingsto their landlord every ten days. It is troublesome to beconstantly receiving so many small sums, but the landlord and hisbrother think that they should not grudge the trouble. In two yearsnearly 1, 000 yen have been saved. Said one tenant to his landlord, "Iknow how to save now, therefore I save. " [Illustration: MR. YAMASAKI, DR. NITOBE, THE AUTHOR AND PROFESSORNASU. P. Xv] [Illustration: THE HOME IN WHICH THE TEA CEREMONY TOOK PLACE. P. 31] One of my hosts, who was thirty-two, hoped to see all his tenantspeasant proprietors before he was fifty. The relation of this landlordand his tenants was illustrated by the fact that on my arrival severalfarmers brought produce to the kitchen "because we heard that thelandlord had guests. " The village was very kind in its reception ofthe foreign visitor. A meeting was called in the temple. I told thestory of Wren's _Si monumentum requiris circumspice_ and pointed arural moral. Some months afterwards I received a request from my hostto write a word or two of preface to go with a report of my addresswhich he was giving to each of his tenants as a New Year gift. This landlord's family had lived in the same house for elevengenerations. The courtesy of my host and his relatives and the beautyof their old house and its contents are an ineffaceable memory. Fromthe time my party arrived until the time we left no servant wasallowed to do anything for us. The ladies of the house cooked our foodand the landlord and his younger brother brought it to us. The youngerbrother waited upon us throughout our meals, even peeling our pears. At night he spread our silk-covered _futon_ (mattresses). In themorning he folded them up, arranged my clothes, swept the room andstood at hand with towels, all of which were new, while I washed. When on our arrival in the house we sat and talked in the firstreception-room we entered, I noticed that outside the lattice acompany of villagers was listening with no consciousness of intrusion, in full view of our host, to the sound of foreign speech. It was aShakespearean scene. Out of its setting, as it is often witnessed to-day, the tea ceremonyseems meaningless and wearisome, an affected simplicity of the idle. But as a guest of this old house of fine timbers weathered tosilver-grey I found the secret of _Cha-no-yu_. This flower of FarEastern civilisation is an æsthetic expression of truegood-fellowship, and a gentle simplicity and sincerity are of itsessence. The admission of a foreigner to a family _Cha-no-yu_ was agesture of confidence. Five of us gathered late in the afternoon of an August day in the coolmatted rest-room in the garden. We looked on the beauty thatgenerations of gardeners of a single vision had created. Our mindsrested in the quiet as in the quaint phrase, we "tasted the sound ofthe kettle and listened to the incense. " At length at a signal werose. Led by the priestess of the ceremony, our host's aunt, a slightfigure in grey with snow-white _tabi_ and new straw sandals, we passedby the dripping rocky fountain, with its lilies, and the azurehydrangea of the hills which, some say, suggests distance. Thehut-like tea-room, traditionally rude in the material of which it wasbuilt but perfect in every detail of its workmanship, we entered oneby one. According to old custom we humbly crept through the smallopening which serves as entrance, the idea being that all worldly rankmust bow at the sanctuary of beauty. The tiny chamber held, besidesthe wonderful vessels of the ceremony, a flower arrangement of blueMichaelmas daisies, and an exquisite scroll of wild duck in flight inthe miniature _tokonoma_, [28] the tea mistress, our host and fourguests. We drank from a black daimyo bowl which had been made fourhundred years before. We passed an hour together and in the twilightwe came out from the little room as from a sacrament of friendship. Ayear afterwards my host wrote to me, "Yesterday we had _Cha-no-yu_again and you were in our thoughts. During the ceremony we placed yourphotograph in the _tokonoma_. " After dinner we had _kyōgen_[29] by distinguished amateurs, one ofwhom, a neighbouring landowner, had lately appeared before theEmperor. After the plays he painted _kyōgen_ scenes for us on_kakemono_ and fans. He painted the _kakemono_ as he knelt with hispaper lying on a square of soft material on the floor. The plays were performed in ancient costumes or copies of old onesand of course without scenery. The players were lighted by oilycandles two inches in diameter, which flamed and guttered incandlesticks not of this century nor of the last. A player may makehis exit merely by sitting down. The players are men; masks are usedin playing women's parts. The stories are of the simplest. There wasthe well-known tale of the sly servant who was sent to town by astupid daimyo in order to buy a fan, and, though he brought back anumbrella, succeeded in imposing it on his master. There was also theplay of the fox who comes to a farmer to advise him not to kill foxes, but is himself caught in a trap. I also recall a story of two goodtenants who had been rewarded by their landlord with an order thatthey should receive hats. Owing to an oversight they received one hatonly between the two. Problem, how to meet the difficulty. It wassolved by the rustics fastening two pieces of wood together T-shape, raising the hat of honour upon the structure and walking home intriumph under either side of the T. The next morning I was greeted by the aged father and mother of ourhost. The household was an interesting one, for the landlord and hisbrother were married to two sisters. Before taking our departure weknelt with our landlord and his father before the Buddhist shrine onwhich rested the memorial tablets of former heads of the house. Iexpressed my sense of the privilege extended to strangers. The replywas, "Our ancestors will feel pleasure in your being among us. " FOOTNOTES: [25] Samurai or _shizoku_ comprise about a twentieth of thepopulation. [26] Every Japanese signs by means of a stone or hard-wood seal whichhe keeps in a case and ordinarily carries with him. [27] A _shō_ is about a quart and a half. [28] The raised recess in which is usually displayed the flowerarrangement, a piece of pottery and a _kakemono_. (See Note, page 35. ) [29] Farcical interludes of the _Nō_ stage. CHAPTER V COUNTRY-HOUSE LIFE The sense of a common humanity is a real political force. --J. R. GREEN The stranger in Japan sees so little of the intimacies of country lifethat I shall say something of further visits to what we should callcounty families. My hosts, who seemed to be active to a greater orless degree in promoting the welfare of their tenants, lived in purelyJapanese style. Yet now and then in a beautiful house there was ashowy gilt timepiece or some other thing of a deplorable Westernfashion. At all the houses without exception we were waited upon bythe host and his son, son-in-law or brother, and for some time afterour arrival our host and the members of his family would kneel, not inthe apartment in which our _zabuton_ (kneeling cushions) werearranged, but in the adjoining apartment with its screens pushed back. Even when the time of sweets and tea had passed and a regular meal wasserved, all the little tables of food were brought in not by servantsbut by the master of the house and such male relatives as were athome. When the duration of a Japanese meal is borne in mind, some idea maybe gained of the fatigue endured by the head of a house in servingmany guests. The host sometimes honours his guests still further byeating apart from them or by partaking of a portion only of the meal. The name of a feast in Japanese is significant, "a running about. " Theladies of the house are usually seen for only a few minutes, when theycome with the children to welcome the guests on their arrival; but onthe second day of the visit the ladies may bring in food or tea orplay the _koto_. The foreigner, though on his knees, feels a little at a loss to knowhow to acknowledge politely the repeated bows of so many kneeling menand women. He watches with appreciation the perfect response of hisJapanese travelling companions. It is difficult to convey a sense ofthe charm and dignity of old courtesies exchanged with sinceritybetween well-bred people in a fine old house. Although all the_shoji_[30] are open, the trees of the beautiful garden cast a pensiveshade. The ancient ceremonial of welcome and introduction would seemludicrous in the full light of a Western drawing-room, but in theperfectly subdued light of these romantically beautiful apartments, charged with some strange and melancholy emotion, the visitor from theWest feels himself entering upon the rare experience of a new world. Everyone knows how few are the treasures that a Japanese displays inhis house. His heirlooms and works of art are stored in a fireproofannexe. For the feasting of the eye of every guest or party ofvisitors the appropriate choice of _kakemono_, [31] carving or potteryis made. I had the delight of seeing during my country-house visitingmany ancient pictures of country life and of animals and birds. It wasalso a precious opportunity to inspect armour and wonderful swords andstands of arrows in the houses in which the men who had worn thearmour and used the weapons had lived. The way of stringing theseven-feet-high bow was shown to me by a kimono-clad samurai, as hasbeen recorded in the previous chapter. When he threw himself into awarlike attitude and with an ancient cry whirled a gleaming two-handedsword in the dim light thrown by lanterns which had lighted the housein the time of the Shoguns, the figures on old-time Japanese printshad a new vividness. What also helped in illuminating for me the old prints of warlikescenes was a display of a remarkable kind of fencing with nakedweapons which one of my hosts kindly provided in his garden oneevening. The tournament was conducted by the village young men'sassociation. The exercises, which, as I saw them, are peculiar to thedistrict, are called _ki-ai_, which means literally "spirit meeting. "They call not only for long training but for courage and ardour. Thecombats took place on a small patch of grass which was fenced by fourbamboo branches. These were connected by a rope of paper streamerssuch as are used to distinguish a consecrated place. Before the firstbout the bamboos and rope were taken away and a handful of salt wasthrown on the grass. Salt was similarly thrown on the grass beforeevery contest. The idea is that salt is a purifier. It signifies, likethe handshake of our boxers, that the feelings of the combatants arecleansed from malice. Most of the events were single combats, but there were two meetings inwhich a man confronted a couple of assailants. The contests I recallwere spear _v_. Spear, spear _v_. Sword, sword _v_. Long billhook, spear _v_. The short Japanese sickle and a chain, spear _v_. Paperumbrella and sword, pole _v_. Wooden sword, pole _v_. Pole, and longbillhook _v_. Fan and sword. The weapons were sharp enough to inflictserious wounds if a false move should be made or there should be amomentary lack of self-control. The flashing steel gave an impressionof imminent danger. There was also the feeling aroused in thespectators by the way in which the combatants sought to gain advantageover one another by fierce snarls, stamping on the ground andappalling gestures. The neck veins of the fighters swelled and theirfaces flamed with mock defiance. Their agility in escaping descendingblades was amazing. But the _ki-ai_ player's dexterity is famous. Itis his boast that with his sword he could cut a straw on a friend'shead. I noticed that no women were present at the "spirit meeting. " More than once I found that my landlord host was accustomed to make acircuit of his village once or twice a week in order to see how thingswere going with his tenants. Public-spirited landlords were workingfor their people by means of co-operation, lectures and prizes, thedistribution of leaflets and the giving of from 2-1/2 to 7-1/2 percent. Discount in rent when good rice was produced. The ruralphilanthropist in Japan sees himself as the father of his village. [32]The Japanese word for landlord is "land master" and for tenant "sontiller. " The old idea was patronage on the one side and respect on theother. This idea is disappearing. "We wish, " said one landlord to me, "to pass through the transition stage gradually. We do not feel thesame responsibility to our people, perhaps, now that they do not showthe same reverence for us, but we do not say to them that they may goto the factory and we will invest our money for our children. We checkourselves. We know well, however, that things will change in ourgrandsons' time. We therefore try to mix our grandfathers' ideas andmodern ideas. We are believers in co-operation and we try to becounsellors and to work behind the curtain. " From time to time there are such things as tenants' strikes. Mr. Yamasaki assured me that the problem of the rural districts can besolved only by appealing to the feelings of the people in the rightway. He said that "the Japanese are largely moved by feelings, not byconvictions. " In some coastwise counties, someone told me, a hurricanedestroyed the crops to such an extent that the tenants could not payrent, and the landlords who depended on their rents were impoverished. Things reached such a pass that a hundred thousand peasants signed apaper swearing fidelity to an anti-landlord propaganda. Officials andlawyers achieved nothing. Then Mr. Yamasaki went, and, sitting in thelocal temple, talked things over with both sides for days. He got thelandlords to say that they were sorry for their tenants and thetenants to say that they were sorry for the landlords, and eventuallyhe was allowed to burn the oath-attested document in the temple. [33] Many landlords are "endeavouring to cultivate a moral relation"between themselves and their tenants. They have often the advantagethat their ancestors were the landlords of the same peasant familiesfor many generations. But there are still plenty of absentee landlordsand landlords who are usurers. There are also the landlords who havelet their lands to middlemen. The cultivator therefore pays out of allproportion to what the landlord receives. Of landlords generally, anex-daimyo's son said to me: "Many landlords treat their tenantscruelly. The rent enforced is too high. In place of the intimaterelations of former days the relations are now that of cat and dog. The ignorance of the landlords is the cause of this state of things. It is very important that the landlord's son shall go to theagricultural school, where there is plenty of practical work whichwill bring the perspiration from him. " The object of most goodlandlords is to increase the income of their tenants. It is felt thatunless the farmers have more money in their hands, progress isimpossible. There is one direction in which the landlords are nottried. The franchise is so narrow that farmers cannot vote againsttheir landlords. In the house of one old landowning family in which I was a guest I sawa _gaku_ inscribed, "Happiness comes to the house whose ancestors werevirtuous. " I was admitted to the family shrine. Round the walls of thesmall apartment in which the shrine stood were the autographs orportraits of distinguished members of the house going back four orfive hundred years. It was easy to see that the inspiring force ofthis family was its untarnished name. It was a crime against theancestors to reduce the prestige or merit of the family. No strongerinfluence could be exerted upon an erring member of such a family thanto be brought by his father or elder brother before the family shrineand there reprimanded in the presence of the ancestral spirits. Thehead of this house is at present a schoolboy of twelve and thegovernment of the family is in the hands of a "regent, " the lad'suncle. I saw the boy and his younger sister trot off in the morningwith their satchels on their backs to the village school in democraticJapanese fashion. Japan is a much more democratic country than thetourist imagines. Distinctions of class are accompanied by easyrelations in many important matters. I went for a second time to the restful city of Nagoya. It is out ofthe sphere of influence of Tokyo and is conservative of old ideas. People live with less display than in the capital and perhaps pridethemselves on doing so. But if the houses of even the well-to-do aresmall and inconspicuous, the interiors are of satisfying quality inmaterials and workmanship, and the family godowns bring forthsurprises. Here as elsewhere the guest is served in treasured lacquerand porcelain. (While we are not accustomed in the West to look at themarks on our host's table silver, it is perfect Japanese manners toadmire a food bowl by examining the potter's marks. ) My host hung arural _kakemono_ in my room, one day a fine old study of poultry, another an equally beautiful painting of hollyhocks. As we left the town my attention was attracted by a commemorativestone overlooking rice fields. The inscription proclaimed the factthat at that spot the late Emperor Meiji, [34] as a lad of fifteen, onhis historic first journey to Tokyo, "beheld the farmers reaping. " The matron of a farmhouse two centuries old showed me a tub containingtiny carp which she had hatched for her carp pond, the inmates ofwhich, as is common, came to be fed when she clapped her hands. In thegarden there was an old clay butt still used for archery. In thefarmhouse I was taken into a room in which in the old days the daimyooverlord had rested, into another room which had a secret door andinto a third room where--an electric fan was buzzing. At a school I had to face the usual ordeal of having to "write" asbest I could a motto for use as a wall picture. Our lettering, whendone with a brush, falls pitifully behind Chinese characters indecorative value, and our mottoes will not readily translate intoJapanese. I was often grateful to Henley for "I am the master of myfate, I am the captain of my soul, " because with the substitution of"commander" for captain, the lines translate literally. We left the village through arches which had been erected by the youngmen's association. At an old country house four interesting thingswere shown to me. There was, first, a phial of rice seed 230 yearsold. The agricultural professor who was my fellow-guest told me thathe had germinated some of the grains, but they did not produce riceplants. The second thing was a fine family shrine before which areligious ceremony had been performed twice a day by succeedinggenerations of the same family for 350 years. The third object ofinterest was a little, narrow, flat steel dagger about eight incheslong, sheathed in the scabbard of a sword. The dagger was used for"fastening an enemy's head on. " After the owner of the sword hadbeheaded his foe, he drew the smaller weapon, and, thrusting one endinto the headless trunk and the other end into the base of the head, politely united head and body once more, thus making it possible "toshow due respect and sympathy towards the dead. " Finally, I had theprivilege of handling a wonderful suit of armour which was fittedslowly together for me out of many pieces. Although it had been madeseveral centuries ago, this rich suit of lacquered leather had been aJapanese general's wear on the field of battle within living memory. One of the landowners I met was a poet who had been successful in theImperial poem competition which is held every New Year. A subject isset by His Majesty and the thousands of pieces sent in are submittedto a committee. The dozen best productions are read before thesovereign himself, and this is the honour sought by the competitors. The subject for competition in the year in which the landowner hadbeen successful was, "The cryptomeria in a temple court. " His poem wasas follows: In transplanting The young cryptomeria trees Within the sacred fence There is a symbol Of the beginning of the reign. The New Year poems come from every class of the community and thereis seldom a year in which landowners or farmers are not among thefortunate twelve. As we rode along a companion spoke of the force of public opinion inkeeping things straight in the countryside, also of the far-reachingcontrol exercised by fathers and elder brothers. But the goodbehaviour of some people was due, he said, to a dread of beingridiculed in the newspapers, which allow themselves extraordinaryfreedom in dealing with reputations. I met a man who had had a monument erected to him. He was a member ofa little company which received me in a farmer's house. He wasformerly the richest man in the village, that is to say, he owned 20_chō_ and was worth about 100, 000 yen. Moved by the poverty of hisneighbours, he devoted his substance to improving their condition. Nowmany of them are well off, the village has been "praised and rewarded"by the prefecture for its "good farming and good morals, " and thephilanthropist is worth only 50, 000 yen. Impressed by hisunselfishness, the village has raised a great slab of stone in hishonour. I made enquiries continually about the influence exerted by priests. Iwas told of many "careless" priests, but also of others who deliveredsermons of a practical sort. A few of the younger priests weredescribed as "philosophical" and some preached "the kingdom of God iswithin you. " Many people laid stress on the necessity for a bettereducation of the priesthood and for combating superstition among thepeasantry, though the schools had already had a powerful influence inshaking the faith of thousands of the common people in charms andsuchlike. Many folk put up charms because it was the custom or toplease their old parents or because it could do no harm. I was told that the Government does not encourage the erection of newtemples. Its notion is that it is better to maintain the existingtemples adequately. When I went to see a gorgeous new temple, I foundthat official permission for its erection had been obtained becausethe figures, vessels and some of the fittings of an old anddilapidated temple were to be used in the new edifice. This templewas on a large tract of land which had recently been recovered fromthe sea. The building had cost between 80, 000 and 90, 000 yen. It stoodon piles on rising ground and had a secondary purpose in that itoffered a place of refuge to the settlers on the new land if the seadike should break. The founder of the temple was the man who had drained the land andestablished the colony. He had given an endowment of 500 yen a year, three-quarters of which was for the priest. This functionary had alsoan income of 150 yen from a _chō_ of land attached to the temple. Further he received gifts of rice and vegetables. I noticed that thegifts of rice--acknowledged on a list hung up in his house--varied inquantity from four pecks to half a cupful. Probably the priest boughtvery little of anything. If he needed matting for his house, which wasattached to the temple, or if he had to make a journey, the villagerssaw that his requirements were met. And he was always getting presentsof one kind or another. "A man says to the priest, " I was told, "'Thisis too good for me; please accept it. '" The villagers on their sidesat and smoked in one of the temple rooms and drank his reverence'stea for hours before and after service. [35] The building of the temple was not only an act of piety but a work ofcommercial necessity. The colonists on the reclaimed land would neverhave settled there if there had not been a temple to hold them to theplace and to provide burial rites for their old parents. Not all thepeople were of the same sect of Buddhism, but "they gradually cametogether. " A third of what a tenant produced went for rent and anotherthird for fertilisers, the remaining third being his own. Thepopulation was 1, 800 in 300 families. The average area per family was2 _chō_ and colonists were expected to start with about 200 yen ofcapital. Some unpromising tenants had been sent away and "some hadleft secretly. " Half of the people were in debt to the landlord--thetotal indebtedness was about 15, 000 yen--for the erection of housesand the purchase of implements and stock. The rate was 8 per cent. Inthe district 10 per cent. Was quite usual and 12 per cent. By no meansrare. The co-operative society lent at the daily rate of 2-1/2 sen per100 yen. The landlord told me that the sea dikes took two years to build andthat most of the earth was carried by women, 5, 000 of them. Theirlabour was cheap and the small quantities of earth which each womanbrought at a time permitted of a better consolidation of an embankmentthat was 240 feet wide at the base. More than a million yen were laidout on the work. The reclaimed land was free of State taxes for half acentury, but the landlord made a voluntary gift to the village of2, 000 yen a year. The yearly rent coming in was already nearly 56, 000yen. The cost of the management of the drained land and of repairs tothe embankment, 20, 000 yen a year, was just met by the profits of afishpond. A valuable edible seaweed industry was carried on outsidethe sea dikes. The landlord mentioned that he had had great difficultyin overcoming the objections of his grandfather to the investment, butthat eventually the old man got so much interested that atninety-three he used to march about giving orders. One day in the course of my journeying I was near a railway stationwhere country people had assembled to watch the passing of a train bywhich the Emperor was travelling. No one was permitted along the lineexcept at specified points which were carefully watched. A youngconstable who wore a Russian war medal was opposite the spot where Istood. He politely asked me to keep one _shaku_ (foot) or so away fromthe paling. When someone's child pushed itself half-way through thepaling the police instruction was, "Please keep back the little onefor, if it should pass through, other children will no doubt wish tofollow. " A later request by the constable was to take off our hats andkeep silence when he raised his hand on the approach of the Imperialtrain. We were further asked not to point at the Emperor and on noaccount to cry Banzai. (The Japanese shout _Banzai_ for the Emperor inhis absence and cry _Banzai_ to victorious generals and admirals, butperfect silence is considered the most respectful way of greeting theEmperor himself. ) The Imperial train, which was preceded by a pilotengine drawing a van full of rather anxious-looking police, sloweddown on approaching the station so that everyone had a chance ofseeing the Emperor, who was facing us. All the school children of thedistrict had been marshalled where they could get a good view. TheJapanese bow of greatest respect--it has been introduced since theRestoration, I was told--is an inclination of the head so slight thatit does not prevent the person who bows seeing his superior. This bowwhen made by rows of people is impressive. Undoubtedly the crowd wasmoved by the sight of its sovereign. Not a few people held their handstogether in front of them in an attitude of devotion. The day before Ihad happened to see first a priest and then a professor examining amagazine which had a portrait of the Emperor as frontispiece. Bothbowed slightly to the print. Coloured portraits of the Emperor andEmpress are on sale in the shops, but in many cases there is a littlesquare of tissue paper over the Imperial countenances. FOOTNOTES: [30] _Shoji_ are the screens which divide a room from the outside. They are a dainty wooden framework of many divisions, each of which iscovered by a sheet of thin white paper. The _shoji_ provide light andare never painted. The sliding doors between two rooms are _karakami(fusuma_ is a literary word). They are a wooden framework with thickpaper or cloth on both sides of it and with paper packing between thelayers. _Karakami_ are often decorated with writing or may be painted. No light passes through them. [31] A writing or a picture on a long perpendicular strip of paper orsilk or of paper mounted on silk, with rollers. The length is aboutthree times the width, which is usually 1 ft. 3 in. Or 1 ft. 10 in. The _kakemono_ in the _tokonoma_ of tea-ceremony rooms is about 10 in. Wide. [32] For budgets of large property owners, see Appendix III. [33] There have been several serious tenants' demonstrations in Aichiduring 1921. See Chapter XIX. [34] Each Emperor receives on his succession a name which is appliedto the period of his reign. The period of Mutsuhito's reign, 1868-1912, is called _Meiji_; that of the present Emperor _Taisho_. Thus the year 1912 would be _Taisho_ I. [35] It will be remembered that there is only one prefecture in whichtea is not grown in larger or smaller areas, and that it is servedeconomically without sugar or milk. CHAPTER VI BEFORE OKUNITAMA-NO-MIKO-NO-KAMI[36] Nor do I see why we should take it for granted that their gods areunworthy of respect. --_Valerius_ In Aichi prefecture I was asked to plant trees (persimmons) in thegrounds of three temples or shrines and on the land of severalfarmers. In an exposed position on a hill-top I found persimmons beinggrown on a system under which the landlord provided the land, treesand manures and the farmer the labour, and the produce was equallydivided. The cryptomeria at one of the shrines I visited were of great age. Allof them had lost their tops by lightning. It cannot be easy for thosewho have never seen cryptomeria or the redwoods of California torealise the impression made by dark giant trees that have stood beforesome shrine for generations. At the approach to the shrine of which Ispeak there were venerable wooden statues. I recall one figure carvedin wood as full of life as that of the famous Egyptian headman. The aged chief priest, who was assisted by two younger priests, kindlyinvited me to take part in a Shinto service. First, I ceremoniallywashed my hands and rinsed my mouth. Then, having ascended the steps, my shoes were removed for me so that my hands should not be defiled. On entering the shrine I knelt opposite the young priests, one of whombrought me the usual evergreen bough with paper streamers. Onreceiving it I rose to my feet, passed through the beautiful buildingand advanced to what I may call, for the lack of a more accurate term, the altar table. On this table, which, as is usual in Shintoceremonies, was of new white wood following the ancient design, I laidthe offering. Then I bowed and gave the customary three smarthand-claps which summon the attention of the deity of the shrine, andbowed again. On returning to my former kneeling-place one of thepriests offered me _saké_ and a small piece of dried fish inpaper. [37] The chief priest was good enough to read and to hand to mean address headed, "Words of Congratulation to the Investigator, "which may be Englished as follows: "I, Yukimichi Otsu, the chief priest, speak most respectfully andreverently before the shrine of the august deity, Okunitama-no-miko-no-kami, and other deities here enshrined: Dr. Robertson Scott, of England, is here this good day. He comes to seethe things of Japan under the governance of our gracious Emperor. I, having made myself quite pure and clean, open the door of graciouseyes that they may look upon those who are here. May Dr. RobertsonScott be protected during night and day, no accident happeningwherever he may go. Dr. Robertson Scott goes everywhere in thiscountry; he may cross a hundred rivers and pass over many hills. Maythere be no foundering of his boat, no stumbling of his horse. Offering produce of land and sea, I say this most respectfully beforethe shrine. " After the shrine I visited a co-operative store, curiously reminiscentof many a similar rural enterprise I had seen in Denmark. Sugar, coarser than anything sold at home, was dear. Half the price paid forsugar in Japan is tax. I was informed that there were no fewer than400 cooperative organisations in the prefecture. [Illustration: AUTHOR QUESTIONING OFFICIALS--] [Illustration: AND PLANTING COMMEMORATIVE TREES p. 145] At several places, although the villagers were busy rice planting, theyoung men's association turned out. The young men were reinforced byreservists and came sharply to attention as our _kuruma_(_jinrikisha_, usually pneumatic-tyred) passed. Some of the villageswe bowled through were off the ordinary track, and the older villagersobserved the ancient custom of coming out from their houses or farmplots, dropping on their knees and bowing low as we passed. [38] Allover Japan, a villager encountered on the road removed the towel fromhis head before bowing. If a cloak or outer coat was worn, it wastaken off or the motion of taking it off was made. Frequently, inshowery weather, cyclists who were wearing mackintoshes or capes, alighted and removed these outer garments before saluting. [Illustration: RICE POLISHING BY FOOT POWER. P. 78] I saw a village which a few years ago had been "disorderly and poor"and in continual friction with its landlord. Eventually this manrealised his responsibility, and, inspired by Mr. Yamasaki, took thesituation in hand. He talked in a straightforward way with hisvillagers, reduced a number of rents and spent money freely inameliorative work. To-day the village is "remarkable for its goodconduct" and the relation between landlord and tenant seems to beeverything that can be desired. The landlord is not only the movingspirit of the co-operative store but has started a school for girls offrom fifteen to twenty. They bring their own food but the schooling isfree. On the gables of one or two houses near the roof I noticed ventilatorswhich were cut in the form of the Chinese ideograph which means water, a kind of charm against fire. At the door of one rather well-to-dopeasant house I saw several paper charms against toothache. There wasalso an inscription intimating that the householder was a director ofthe co-operative society and another announcing that he was an expertin the application of the moxa. [39] Every house I went into had acollection of charms. One charm, a verse of poetry hung upside-down, as is the custom, was against ants. Another was understood to ensurethe safe return of a straying cat. In one house in the village my attention was drawn to the fact thatthe rice pot contained a large percentage of barley. In two or three places I passed pits for the excavation of lignite, which does not look unlike the wood taken out of bogs. A pit I stoppedat was twenty-two fathoms deep. There were twenty miners at work andair was being pumped down. One of the things we in the West might imitate with advantage is thevillage crematorium. In Japan it is of the simplest construction. Therate for villagers was 50 sen, that for outsiders 2 yen. No doubtthere would be an additional yen for the priest. In a little buildingwhich was thirty years old 200 bodies had been cremated. I looked into a small co-operative rice storehouse. The building wasprovided by a number of members "swearing" to save at the rate of ayen and a half a month each until the funds needed had accumulated. The money was obtained by extra labour in the evening. Just before Ileft Japan the Department of Agriculture was arranging to spend 2million yen within a ten-years' period to encourage the building of4, 000 rice storehouses. As I watched the water pouring from one rice field to another andwondered how the rights of landowners were ever reconciled, someonereminded me of the phrase, "water splashing quarrels, " that isdisputes in which each side blames the other without getting anyfarther forward. To take an unfair advantage in controversy is to drawwater into one's own paddy. The equivalent for "pouring water on aduck's back" is "flinging water in a frog's face. " A Western Europeanis always astonished in Japan by the lung power of Far Eastern frogs. The noise is not unlike the bleating of lambs. Every now and again one comes on a fragrant bed of lotus in its paddyfield. It seems odd at first that lotus--and burdock--should becultivated for food. As a pickle burdock is eatable, but lotus andsome unfamiliar tuberous plants are pleasant food resembling inflavour boiled chestnuts. _Konnyaku_ (_hydrosme rivieri_), a nearrelative of the arum lily, is produced to the weight of 11 million_kwan_--a _kwan_ is roughly 8-1/4 lbs. [40] The yield of burdock isabout 44 million _kwan_. The chief of all vegetables is the giantradish, of which 7-1/4 million _kwan_ are grown. Taro yields about 150million _kwan_. Foreigners usually like the young sprouts taken fromthe roots of the bamboo, a favourite Japanese vegetable. This is as convenient a place as any to speak of an importantagricultural fact, the enormous amount of filth worked into thepaddies. As is well known, hardly any of the night soil of Japan iswasted. Japanese agriculture depends upon it. Formerly the night soilwas removed from the houses after being emptied into a pair of tubswhich the peasant carried from a yoke. Such yoke-carried tubs arestill seen, but are chiefly employed in carrying the substance to thepaddies. The tubs which are taken to dwellings are now mostly borne onlight two-wheeled handcarts which carry sometimes four and sometimessix. A farmer will push or pull his manure cart from a town ten ortwelve miles off. It is difficult to leave or enter a town withoutmeeting strings of manure carts. The men who haul the carts gettogether for company on their tedious journey. They seem insensible tothe concentrated odour. Often the wife or son or daughter may be seenpushing behind a cart. There is a certain amount of transportation byhorse-drawn frame carts, carrying a dozen or sixteen tubs, and byboats. I was told of a city of half a million inhabitants which hadthirty per cent. Of its night soil taken ten miles away. The work wasundertaken by a co-operative society which paid the municipality thelarge sum of 70, 000 yen a year. The removal of night soil, its storagein the fields in sunken butts and concrete cisterns--carefullyprotected by thatched, wooden or concrete roofs--and its constantapplication to paddy fields or upland plots cause an odour to prevailwhich the visitor to Japan never forgets. [41] It must not be supposed that, because the Japanese are careful toutilise human waste products, no other manure is employed. There is anenormous consumption of chemical fertilisers. Then there are broughtinto service all sorts of crop-feeding materials, such as straw, grass, compost, silkworm waste, fish waste, and of course the manureproduced by such stock as is kept. [42] In Aichi the value of humanwaste products used on the land is only a quarter of the value of thebean cake and fish waste similarly employed. At Mr. Yamasaki's excellent agricultural school (prefectural), whichI visited more than once, [43] I was struck by the grave bearing of thestudents. I saw them not only in their classrooms but in their largehall, where I was invited to speak from a platform between the bustsof two rural worthies, Ninomiya, of whom we have heard before, andanother who was "distinguished by the righteousness of his publiccareer. " As in the Danish rural high schools, store is set on hardphysical exercise. An hour of exercise--_judō_ (jujitsu), sword playor military drill--is taken from six to seven in the morning andanother at midday with the object of "strengthening the spirit" and"developing the character, " for "our farmers must not only be honestand determined but courageous. " Severe physical labour, shared by theteacher, is also given out of doors, for example, in heaping manure. "We believe, " said one of the instructors, "in moral virtue taught bythe hands. " For an hour a day "the main points of moral virtue" are put before thedifferent grades of students, according to their ages and development. The school has a guild to which the twenty teachers and all thestudents belong. It is a kind of co-operative society for the"purchase and distribution of daily necessities, " but one of itsobjects is "the maintenance of public morality. " Then there is thestudents' association which has literary and gymnastic sides, the oneside "to refine wisdom and virtue, " the other "for the rousing ofspirit. " Mention may also be made of a "discipline calendar" of fixedmemorial days and ceremonies "that all the students should observe":the ceremony of reading the Imperial Rescript on education, thrift andmorality, and the ceremonies at the end of rice planting, at harvestand at the maturity of the silk-worm. The fitting-up of the school isSpartan but the rooms are high and well lighted and ventilated. Thestudents' hot bath accommodates a dozen lads at a time. The studiesare also the dormitories, and in the corner of each there is stored abig mosquito netting. Except for a few square yards near the doors, these rooms consist of the usual raised platform covered with thenational _tatami_ or matting. I heard a characteristic story of the Director. During theRusso-Japanese war everybody was economising, and many people who hadbeen in the habit of riding in _kuruma_ began to walk. Ouragricultural celebrity had always had a passion for walking, so it wasout of his power to economise in _kuruma_. What he did was to ceasewalking and take to _kuruma_ riding, for, he said, "in war time onemust work one's utmost, and if I move about quickly I can get moredone. " I may add a story which this rare man himself told me. I had seen inhis house a photograph of a memorial slab celebrating the heroic deathof a peasant. It appeared that in a period of scarcity there was leftin this peasant's village only one unbroken bale of rice. This ricewas in the possession of the peasant, who was suffering from lack offood. But he would not cook any of the rice because he knew that if hedid the village would be without seed in spring. Eventually the braveman was found dead of hunger in his cottage. His pillow had been theunopened bale of rice. In the house of a small peasant proprietor I visited the inscriptionson the two _gaku_ signified "Buddha's teaching broken by a beautifulface" and "Cast your eyes on high. " On the wall there was also a copyof a resolution concerning a recent Imperial Rescript which 500 ruralhouseholders, at a meeting in the county, had "sworn to observe, " and, as I understood, to read two or three times a year. Japan, as I have already noted, has always been a more democraticcountry than is generally understood; but the people have beenaccustomed to act under leaders. Some time ago an official of theDepartment of Agriculture visited a certain district in order to speakat the local temple in advocacy of the adjustment of rice fields. (SeeChapter VIII. ) A dignitary corresponding to the chairman of an Englishcounty council was at the temple to receive the official, but at thetime appointed for the meeting to begin the audience consisted of oneold man. Although the official from Tokyo and the _gunchō_ (head of acounty) waited for some time, no one else put in an appearance. Sothey asked the old man the reason. He replied by asking them theobject of the meeting. They told him. He said that he had sounderstood and that the community had so understood, but the farmerswere very busy men. Therefore, as he was the oldest man in thedistrict, they had sent him as their representative. Theirinstructions were that he would be able to tell from his experience ofthe district whether what the authorities proposed would be a goodthing for it or not. If he considered it to be a bad thing they wouldnot do it, but if he thought it to be a good thing they would do it. He was to hear all that was said and then to give a decision on thecommunity's behalf to the officials who might attend. "So, " said theold man to the Tokyo official and the _gunchō_, "if you convince meyou have convinced the village. " And after two hours' explanation theyconvinced him! There are in Japan hydraulic engineering works as remarkable in theirway as any I have seen in the Netherlands. Some of these works, forexample the tunnels for conducting rice-field water throughconsiderable hills, have been the work of unlettered peasants. In oneplace I found that 80 miles or more of irrigation was based on a canalmade two centuries ago. It is good to see so many embankings ofrefractory streams and excavations of river beds commemorated by slabsrecording the public services of the men who, often at their owncharges, carried out these works of general utility. In various parts of the country I came upon smallholders who hadreached a high degree of proficiency in the fine art of dwarfingtrees. One day I stopped to speak with a farmer who by this art hadadded 1, 000 yen a year to his agricultural income. A thirty-years-oldmaple was one of his triumphs. Another was a pomegranate about a footand a half high. It was in flower and would bear fruit of ordinarysize. The wonder of dwarfing is wrought, as is now well known, bycramping the roots in the pot and by extremely skilful pruning, manuring and watering. While we drank tea some choice specimens weredisplayed before a screen of unrelieved gold. In the room in which wesat the farmer had arranged in a bowl of water with greateffectiveness hydrangea, a spray of pomegranate and a cabbage. One marks the respect shown to the rural policeman. In his summeruniform of white cotton, with his flat white cap and white gloves, andan imposing sword, he looks like a naval officer, even if, assometimes happens, his feet are in _zori_. He gets respect because ofhis dignified presence and sense of official duty, because of theconsiderable powers which he is able to exercise, because he standsfor the Government, and because he is sometimes of a higher socialgrade than that to which policemen belong in other countries. At theRestoration many men of the samurai class did not think it beneaththem to enter the new sword-wearing police force and they helped togive it a standing which has been maintained. As to the policemanbeing a representative of the Government, the ordinary Japanese has away of speaking of the Government doing this or that as if theGovernment were irresistible power. Average Japanese do not yetconceive the Government as something which they have made and mayunmake[44]. But is it likely that they should, parliamentary history, the work of their betters, being as short as it is? It is not whithoutsignificance that the Chambers of the Diet are housed in temporarywooden buildings. The rural policeman is not only a paternal guardian of the peace butan administrative official. He keeps an eye on public health. He ischarged with correctly maintaining the record of names andaddresses--and some other particulars--of everybody in the village. Itis his duty to secure correct information as to the name, age, placeof origin and real business of every stranger. He attends all publicmeetings, even of the young men's and young women's associations, andno strolling players can give their entertainment without hispresence. As to the movements of strangers, my own were obviously wellknown. Indeed a friend told me that in the event of my losing myself Ihad only to ask a policeman and he would be able to tell me where Iwas expected next! At the houses of well-to-do people I was struck bythe way in which the local police officer--sometimes, no doubt, asergeant or perhaps a man of the rank of our superintendent or chiefconstable--called with the headman and joined our kneeling circle inthe reception-room. Nominally he came to pay his respects, but hischief object, no doubt, was to take stock of what was going on. Iinvariably took the opportunity of closely interviewing him. The extraordinary degree to which Japanese are commonly accustomed intheir differences of opinion to refrain from blows makes many of theirquarrels harmless. The threat to send for the policeman or the actualappearance of the policeman has an almost magical effect in calming adisturbance. The Japanese policeman believes very much in reproving orreprimanding evil doers and in reasoning with folk whose"carelessness" has attracted attention. Sometimes for greaterimpressiveness the admonitions or exhortations are delivered at thepolice station[45]. In more than one village I heard a tribute paid tothe good influence exerted on a community by a devoted policeman. The chief of an agricultural experiment station also seems to obtain alarge measure of respect, to some extent, no doubt, because heoccupies a public office. The regard felt for Mr. Yamasaki goesdeeper. A few years ago he was sent on a mission abroad and in hisabsence his local admirers cast about for a way of showing theirappreciation of his work. They began by raising what was described tome as "naturally not a large but an honourable sum. " With this moneythey decided to add three rooms to his dwelling. They had noted howvisitors were always coming to his house in order to profit by hisexperience and advice. Mr. Yamasaki uses the rooms primarily as "anhotel for people of good intentions--those who work for betterconditions. " I was proud to stay at this "hotel" and to receive as aparting gift an old _seppuku_ blade. Which reminds me that one night at a house in the country I foundmyself sitting under photographs of the late General and Countess Nogiand of the gaunt bloodstained room of the depressing "foreign style"house in which they committed suicide on the day of the funeral ofthe Emperor Meiji[46]. One of my fellow-guests was a professor at theImperial University; the other was a teacher of lofty and unselfishspirit. They were both samurai. I mentioned that a man of worth anddistinction has said to me that, while he recognised the nobility ofNogi's action, he could but not think it unjustifiable. I was at oncetold that Japanese who do not approve of Nogi's action "must beover-influenced by Western thought. " "Those who are quintessentiallyJapanese, " it was explained, "think that Nogi did right. Bodily deathis nothing, for Nogi still lives among us as a spirit. He labours witha stronger influence. Many hearts were purified by his sacrifice. Oneof Nogi's reasons for suicide was no doubt that he might be able tofollow his beloved Emperor, but his intention was also to warn manyvicious or unpatriotic people. Some politicians and rich people saythey are patriotic, but they are animated by selfish motives anddesires. Nogi's suicide was due to his loving his fellow-countrymensincerely. Surely he was acting after the manner of Christ. Nogicrucified himself for the people in order to atone in a measure fortheir sins and to lead them to a better way of life. " I heard from my friends something of Nogi's demeanour. The old generalwas a familiar figure in Tokyo. In the street cars--those were thedays when they were not over-crowded--he was always seen standing. Hisadmirers used to say that his face "beamed with beneficence. " ButNogi, though he loved to be within reach of the Emperor and did hispart as head of the Peers' School, liked nothing better than to getaway to the country. He was originally a peasant and he stillpossessed a _chō_ of upland holding. He was glad to work on it withthe digging mattock of the farmer. FOOTNOTES: [36] Son-God-of-the-Spirit-of-the-Province. [37] It was a tiny squid. There are seventy sorts of cuttlefish andoctopuses in Japanese waters. Value of dried cuttlefish in 1917, 4million yen. [38] The hands are laid flat on the ground with finger-tips meetingand the forehead touches the hands. [39] See Chapter XX. [40] The root grows to about the size of a big apple. It may be seenin the shops in white dried sections. A stiff greyish jelly made fromit is eaten with rice. It is also eaten as _oden_ or _dengaku_. [41] See Appendix IV. [42] See Appendix XX. [43] See Appendix V. [44] The truth is being learnt by the younger generation. [45] For crime statistics, see Appendix VI. [46] _Harakiri_ (_seppuku_ is the polite word) still happens. Justbefore writing this note I read of the captain of the first company ofthe Japanese garrison in a Korean town having committed _seppuku_because of a sense of responsibility for the irregularities ofsubordinates. But of 7, 239 suicides of men in 1916 only 308 were bycold steel. Of 4, 558 cases of women suicides 140 were by steel. CHAPTER VII OF "DEVIL-GON" AND YOSOGI The consciousness of a common purpose in mankind, or even theacknowledgment that such a common purpose is possible, would alter theface of world politics at once. --GRAHAM WALLAS There was a bad landlord who was nicknamed "Devil-gon. " He was shot. There was another bad landlord who, as he was crossing a narrow bridgeover a brook, was "pistolled through the sleeve and tumbled into thewater. " Although the murderer was well known, his name was neverrevealed to the police, and the family of the dead man was glad toleave the district. The villagers celebrated their freedom by eatingthe "red rice" which is prepared on occasions of festivity. In anothervillage, the _gunchō_ who spoke to me of these things said, there wereseveral usurious landlords. "The village headman got angry. He calledthe landlords to him. He said to them that if they continued to lendat high interest the people would set fire to their houses and hewould not proceed against them. So the landlords became affrighted andamended their lives. " The rural people of Japan have always threeweapons against usury, it was explained to me. First, there may betried injuring the offending person's house--rural dwellings aremainly bamboo work and mud--by bumping into it with the heavypalanquin which is carried about the roadway at the time of the annualfestival. If such a hint should prove ineffective, recourse may be hadto arson. Finally, there is the pistol. I remember someone's remark, "A man does not lose a common mind and heart by becoming a landowner. " I could not travel about the rural districts without there beingbrought under my eyes the conditions which lead country girls to go tothe towns as _joro_ (prostitutes). A considerable agriculturalauthority who had been all over Japan told me that he was in no doubtthat most of the girls adopted an immoral life through poverty. Ispoke to this man, who had been abroad, of the disgrace to Japaninvolved in the presence of thousands of Japanese _joro_ at Singaporeand so many other ports of the Asiatic mainland. Did these women gothere of their free will? My informant was of opinion that "half aredeceived. " I remember that on the Japanese steamship by which I wentout to Japan there were several Japanese girls, degraded in aspect andapparently in ill health, who were returning from Singapore. They wereshepherded by an evil-looking fellow. The parting of theseunfortunates from their girl friends as the vessel was about to startwas a piteous sight. An official who called on me in Aichi--Iunderstood that he was the chief of the prefectural police--told methat there were in the prefecture 2, 011 girls in 222 houses, and thatthere were in a year 725, 598 customers, of whom 2, 147 were foreigners. Sums of from 200 to 500 yen might be paid to parents for a girl for athree-years term. Food and clothes were also provided, but the girlswere almost invariably drawn into debt to the keepers, and not morethan 15 per cent. Were able to return to their villages. All the girlsin the houses had alleged poverty as the reason for their beingthere. [47] Because I was told that the moral condition of the town ofAnjo--population 17, 000--where the agricultural school of theprefecture is situated, had improved since its establishment, I askedfor some statistics. I found that there were 23 registered geisha, no_joro_, 50 teahouse girls with dubious characters and 55 sellers of_saké_. Against these figures were to be counted 19 Buddhist templesof four sects with 19 priests and 20 Shinto shrines with 4 priests. I met a schoolmaster who had prepared a history of his village in adozen beautifully written volumes. He had been a vegetarian forfifteen years because, as a Buddhist, he believed that "all livingthings are in some degree my relatives. " I picked up from him avariant on "the early bird catches the worm. " It was, "The early risermay find a lost _rin_" (tenth of a farthing). He gave me anotherproverb, "The contents of a spitting pot, like riches, become foulerthe more they accumulate. " I heard of temples which were promoting rural improvement by means oflanterns. In one village the lanterns were at the service of borrowersat three different places. The inscription on the lanterns says, "Think of the mercy of Buddha who illuminates the darkness of yourheart. " There is written in smaller characters, "If you live half a_ri_ away you need not return this lantern. " Three hundred lanternsare lost or damaged in a year, but paper lanterns are cheap. One temple has a society composed of those who have family graves inits grounds. These people "study how to get the most abundant crop. "There is a prize for the best cultivated _tan_. Under this temple'sauspices there is not only a co-operative credit and purchaseassociation, a poultry society and an annual exhibition ofagricultural products, but a school for nurses--they are "taught to benurses not only physically but morally. " The boys and girls of thevillage are invited to the temple once a month and "told a story. " Theyoungsters are asked to come to a "learning meeting" where they mustrecite or exhibit something they have written or drawn; "blockheads aswell as clever children are encouraged. " A fund is being raised sothat "a genius who may be suffering from poverty may be able to getproper education. " Then there is a Women's Religious Association whichaims at "the improvement, necessary from a religious point of view, inthe home and of agricultural business. " Sermons are given to 500 womenmonthly. The society sent comfort bags, containing letters, tooth-brushes and sweets, to soldiers at the taking of Tsingtao. Asimilar organisation for men had for thirteen years listened to amonthly lecture by a well-known priest. It sends occasionalsubscriptions outside the village. Finally, this praiseworthy templeissues every month 20, 000 copies of a 4-1/2-sen magazine. The Shinto shrines of the prefecture have in all a little more than 40_chō_ of land. Someone has hit on the plan of getting theagricultural societies of the county and villages to provide thepriests with rice seed of superior varieties, the crop of which can beexchanged with farmers for common rice. This is done on a profitablebasis, because the shrines exchange unpolished rice for polished. A_gō_ of seed rice makes only about . 5 _gō_ when husked. I walked along the road some little way with a Buddhist priest. Inanswer to my enquiry he said that as a Buddhist he felt no difficultyabout the bag strung across his shoulders being of leather, for thefounder of his sect (Shinshu) ate meat. Even a strict Buddhist mightnowadays eat animals not intentionally killed, animals which had notbeen seen alive and animals which were killed painlessly. But mycompanion abstained as much as possible from meat. As to the reasonwhy some priests were inactive in the work of rural amelioration, hesupposed that their poverty, the tradition of devoting themselves tounworldly business and the fact that many of them were hereditarypriests accounted for it. He dwelt on the things in common betweenShinshu and Christianity and said that, next to the teaching of thehead of the agricultural college in the prefecture, the preaching of amissionary had led him to work for the good of his village. In my host's house in the evening someone happened to quote theproverb, "Richer after the fire. " It means, of course, that after thefire the neighbours are so ready with help that the last state of thevictim of the fire is better than the first. The view was expressedthat hitherto charitable institutions of some Western patterns had notbeen so much needed in Japan as might be supposed. [48] "Those who goto Europe from Japan are indeed much surprised by the number ofinstitutions to help people. " Here, however, is the story of aninstitution coming into existence in a village: "There was a man whowas thought to be rich, but he lived like a miser. His _shoji_ weremade of waste paper and his guests received tea only. So he wasdespised. But many years afterwards it was found that for a long timehe had been collecting books. Then, to the surprise of everybody, hebuilt a library for his village. He is not at all proud of this andthose who ridiculed him are now ashamed. " I was invited to a "Rural Life Exhibition. " Some agricultural producewas shown, but three hundred of the exhibits were manuscript books ordiagrams. One diagram illustrated the development in a particularcounty of the use of two bactericides, formalin and carbon bisulphide. The formalin was in use to the value of 2, 000 yen. Then there was awall picture, a sort of Japanese "The Child: What will he Become?" Thegood boy, aged fifteen, was shown spending his spare time in makingstraw rope to the value of 3 sen 3 rin nightly, with the result thatafter thirty years of such industry he became a rural capitalist whopossessed 1, 000 yen and lived in circumstances of dignity. In contrastwith this virtuous career there was shown the rural rake's progress. Ayouth who was in the habit of laying out 3 sen 3 rin riotously insweet-shops was proved to have wasted 1, 000 yen in thirty years: theprodigal was justly exhibited fleeing from his home in debt. One of the books on exhibition mentioned the volumes most in demand atsome village library. I translate the titles: Physical and Intellectual Training About being Ambitious The Housewife of a Peasant Family The Management of a Farm The Days when Statesmen were Boys Culture and Striving Essence of Rural Improvement A Hundred Beautiful Stories The Art of Composition The Preparation of the Conscript A Medical Treatise A Translation of "Self-Help" Nature and Human Life The Glories of Native Places Anecdotes concerning Culture Lives of Distinguished Peasants Mulberry Planting Chinese Romances Glories of this Peaceful Reign Ninomiya Sontoku I noticed among the exhibits a short autobiography of a farmer, anengaging egoist who wrote: "As a young man my will was not in study and though I used my wits Idid many stupid things and the results were bad. Then I became alittle awakened and for two years I studied at night with the primaryschool teacher. After that I thought to myself in secret, 'Shall Ibecome a wise man in this village, or, by diligently farming, a richman?' That was my spiritual problem. Then all my family gatheredtogether and consulted and decided[49] that it would suit the familybetter if I were to become a rich man, and I also agreed. Toaccomplish that aim I increased my area under cultivation and workedhard day and night. I cut down the cryptomeria at my homestead andplanted in their stead mulberries and persimmons. And I slowly changedmy dry land into rice fields (making it therefore more valuable). Thesoil I got I heaped up at the homestead for eighteen years until I had28, 000 cubic feet. I was able then to raise the level of my housewhich had become damp and covered with mould. The increase of mycultivated area and of the yield per _tan_ and the improvement of myhouse and the practice of economy were the delight of my life. I feltgrateful to my ancestors who gave me such a strong body. Sometimes Ikept awake all night talking with my wife about the goodness of myancestors. Also when in bed I planned a compact homestead. I once reada Japanese poem, 'What a joy to be born in this peaceful reign and tobe favoured by ploughs and horses. ' (Most Japanese farming is donewithout either horses or ploughs. ) It went deeply into my heart. AlsoI heard from the school teacher of four loves: love of State, love ofEmperor, love of teacher and love of parent. I have been much favouredby those loves. I also heard the doctrines of Ninomiya: sincerity, diligence, moderate living, unselfishness. I felt it a great joy tolive remembering those doctrines. I also went to the prefecturalexperiment station and studied fruit growing and my spirit was muchexpanded. I returned again to the station and the expert talked to mevery earnestly. I asked for a special variety of persimmon. The expertsent to Gifu prefecture for it. I planted the tree and made its topinto six grafts. It bore fruit and many passers-by envied it. Twoyears after that I grafted five hundred trees and sold the graftedstock. " Several villages sent to the exhibition statistics of great interest. One village set forth the changes which had taken place in the socialstatus of its inhabitants[50]. Some communities were represented bystatements of their hours of labour[51]. One small community's tablesshowed how many of its inhabitants were "diligent people, " how many"average workers" and how many "other people[52]. " A countyagricultural association had painstakingly collected information notonly about the work done in a year[53] and the financial returnsobtained by three typical farmers but about the way in which theyspent what they earned. [54] On my way back from the exhibition I heard the story of a priest. Whenfourteen years of age he obtained seeds of cryptomeria and plantedthem in a spot in the hills. He also practised many economies. Whenstill in his teens he asked permission to take two shares in a 50-yenmoney-sharing club, but was not allowed to do so as no one wouldbelieve that he could complete his payments. He persisted, however, that he would be able to pay what was required and he was at lengthaccepted as a member. At twenty he became priest of a small templewhich was in bad repair and had a debt of 125 yen. He brought with himhis 100 yen from the club and the young cryptomeria. He planted thetrees in the temple grounds. He said, "I wish to rebuild the templewhen these trees grow up. " He cultivated the land adjoining his templeand contrived to employ several labourers. At last the cryptomeriagrew large enough for his purpose and he rebuilt the temple, expendingon the work not only his trees but 600 yen which he had by this timesaved. Then he proceeded to bring waste land into cultivation. At theage of sixty-two he gave his temple to another priest and went to livein a hut on the waste land. There came a tidal wave near the place, sohe went to the sufferers and invited five families to his nowcultivated waste land. He gave them each a _tan_ of land and thematerial for building cottages and showed them how to open more land. [Illustration: "HIBACHI" AND, IN "TOKONOMA, " FLOWER ARRANGEMENT AND"KAKEMONO. " See Index] [Illustration: SCHOOL SHRINE CONTAINING EMPEROR'S PORTRAIT. P. 113] A good judge expressed the opinion that Buddhism was flourishing in 80per cent. Of the villages of Aichi, but this was in a material andceremonial sense. The prefectures of Aichi and Niigata had been calledthe "kitchens of Hongwanji"[55] (the great temple at Kyoto), suchliberal contributions were forthcoming from them. "A belief inprogress, " this speaker said, "may be a substitute for religion formany of our people; another substitute is a belief in Japan. " Avillage headman from the next prefecture (Shidzuoka) said: "People inmy village do not omit to perform their Buddhist ceremonies, but theyare not at their hearts religious. In our prefecture the influence ofNinomiya is greater than that of Buddhism. If the villagers are goodit is Ninomiyan principles that make them so. Under Ninomiyaninfluence the spirit of association has been aroused, thriftiness hasbeen encouraged and extravagance reprimanded. " [Illustration: FENCING AT AN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. P. 50] [Illustration: WAR MEMENTOES AT THE SAME SCHOOL--ALL SCHOOLS HAVE SOME] I told Mr. Yamasaki one day that there was an old Scotswoman whodivided good people into "rael Christians and guid moral fowk. " What Iwas curious to know was what proportion of Japanese rural people mightbe fairly called "real Buddhists" and what proportion "good moralfolk. " "There are certainly some real Buddhists, not merely good moralfolk, " he assured me. "If you penetrate deeply into the lives of thepeople you will be able to find a great number of them. In ordinarydaily life, during a period when nothing extraordinary happens, it isnot easy to distinguish the two classes; but when any trouble comesthen those real religious people are undismayed, while the ordinarilygood moral people may sometimes go astray. The proportion of religiouspeople is rather large among the poor compared with the middle andupper classes. These poor people are always weighted with manytroubles which would be a calamity to persons of the middle or upperclasses. Such humble folk get support for their lives from what is intheir hearts. Though they may suffer privation or loss they are gladthat they can live on by the mercy of Buddha. There are some religiouspeople even among those who are not poor. They are usually people whohave lost some of their riches suddenly, or a dear child, or have beendeprived of high position, or have met some kind of misfortune. Sometimes a man may become religious because he feels deeply themisfortunes or miseries of a neighbour or the miseries of war. Or hisreligion may come by meditation. A man who begins to be religious isnot, however, at once noticed. On the contrary, if he is a truebeliever his daily life will be most ordinary. " One day I passed a primary school playground. The girls had justfinished and the boys were beginning Swedish drill. Everyone engagedin the drill, including the master, was barefoot. I saw that some of the cottages were built in an Essex fashion, ofpuddled clay and chopped straw faced with tarred boards. Somedwellings, however, were faced with straw instead of boards. They hadjust had their wall thatch renewed for the winter. In one spot there was a quarter of a mile of wooden aqueduct for theservice of the paddy fields. Much agricultural pumping is done inAichi. I visited an irrigation installation where pumps (from London)were turning barren hill tops into paddy fields. [56] The work wasbeing done by a co-operative society of 550 members who had borrowedthe 40, 000 yen they needed from a bank on an undertaking to repay infifteen years. It was stated that common paddy near Anjo had been bought at 5, 000 yenper _chō_ and not for building purposes. When one member of ourcompany said, "The farmers here are rivalling each other in hardwork, " the weightiest authority among us replied: "What the farmermust do is to work not harder but better. At present he is not workingon scientific principles. The hours he is spending on reallyprofitable labour are not many. He must work more rationally. In 26villages in the south-west of Japan, where farming calls for muchlabour, it was found that the number of days' work in the year wasonly 192. Statistics for Eastern Japan give 186 days. [57] As to asecondary industry, one or two hours' work a night at straw ropemaking for a month may bring in a yen because the market for rope isconfined to Japan. The same with _zori_, a coarse sort beingpurchasable for 2 sen a pair. But supplementary work like silk-wormculture produces an article of luxury for which there is a worldmarket. " When we returned home my host was kind enough to summarise for me--thegeneral reader may skip here--some of the reasons set forth by aprofessor of agricultural politics for the farmer's position beingwhat it is: 1. The average area cultivated per family is very small. 2. The law of diminishing return. 3. Imperfection of the agricultural system. Mainly crop raising, not acombination of crop and stock raising, as in England. No profitablesecondary business but silkworm culture. Therefore the distribution oflabour throughout the year is not good and the number of days ofeffective labour is relatively small. 4. The commercial side of agriculture has not been sufficientlydeveloped. 5. There has been a rise in the standard of living. In the old daysthe farmer did not complain; he thought his lot could not be changed. He was forbidden to adopt a new calling and he was restricted by lawto a frugal way of living. Now farmers can be soldiers, merchants orofficials and can live as they please. They begin to compare theirstandard of living with that of other callings. What were once notfelt to be miseries are now regarded as such. 6. Formerly the farmer had not the expense of education and of losingthe services of his sons to the army. There is also an increase intaxation. A representative family which incurred a public expenditure, not including education, of 12. 86 yen in 1890, paid in 1898 19. 68 yen. In 1908 it was faced by a claim for 34. 28 yen. [58] 7. Although the area of land does not increase in relation to theincrease of population, the size of the peasant family is increasingowing to the decrease of infanticide and abortion and the developmentof sanitation. 8. The farmer suffers from debts at high interest. 9. The character, morality and ability of the farmer are not yet fullydeveloped. 10. Formerly the farmer lived an economically self-containedexistence. He had no great need of money. He must now sell his produceon a market with wider and wider fluctuations. 11. There are many expensive customs and habits, for instance the twoor three days' feasting at weddings and funerals. During the evening I was told this story. In a village in a far partof the prefecture there lived a farmer called Yosōgi. He was a thriftyand diligent man. When he became old he gave all that he had to hisson. But the old man could not stop working. He would go to the farmand help his son. The son did not like this. He wanted his old fatherto rest. In the end he found that the only way to cope with hisindustrious parent was to work very hard and leave him nothing to do. But the old man was not to be balked. He took himself off to thehillside and began to make a paddy field where there had never been apaddy field before. To make a paddy field on such a slope is adifficult task. The land must be embanked with stones and thenlevelled. The building of the strong embankment alone calls for muchlabour. The old man toiled very hard at his job and sometimes his sonin despair sent his labourers to help him. At length the paddy fieldwas finished. But it was only a tenth of a _tan_ in area. When the sonsaw the small result of so much labour he said to his father, "Igrieve for the way you have toiled. You have laboured hard for manydays and my labourers have helped you, but all that has beenaccomplished is the making of a paddy field so small and distant thatit is uneconomical. " To this the old man replied: "When you go to Tokyo and see thegraveyard at Aoyama you will behold there many monuments of generalsand ministers of State. Their merits and their works in this world aredescribed on those monuments. But do you know where the monument ofthe famous hero Kusunoki Masashige is? It is near Kobe, and it is notmore than half as big as those monuments at Tokyo. Do you know wherethe monument of the great Taiko is? It is in Kyoto, but it is onlyrecently that this monument was put up. Thus the monuments of ourgreatest heroes are small or have been erected recently. The reason isthat it is unnecessary to raise big monuments for them because whatthey did in their lives was in itself their monument. They built theirmonument in the hearts of the people. Therefore we can never judgefrom the size of the monument the kind of work which was accomplishedby the man who sleeps under it. Monuments are not only for ministersand warriors. We peasants can also erect monuments in our own way. Toopen a new paddy field, to plant the bare hillside with trees, theseare our monuments. How lonely it would be for me if there were nomonument left after my death. However small this paddy field may be, it will not be forgotten so long as it yields for your posterity theblessing of its rice crop. " "Happily, " the interpreter added, "the oldman did not die so soon as he thought he would do. He lived forseveral years and planted the bare hillside with trees. Now the woodwhich grows there is worth 10, 000 yen. " A peasant proprietor expressed the conviction that goodness in afamily was "not the result of its own efforts but of the accumulationof ancestral effort. " The "ancestral merits and good spirit remain inthe family. " On the problem of rich and poor he quoted the proverb, "The very rich cannot remain very rich for more than threegenerations; a poor family cannot long remain poor. " He said that hewould be interested to know what I found to be "the causes of ourvillagers becoming good or bad. " "For ourselves, " he said, quotinganother proverb, "'At the foot of the lighthouse it is dark. '" THE MOST EXACTING CROP IN THE WORLD CHAPTER VIII THE HARVEST FROM THE MUD _Toyo-ashiwara-no-chiiho-aki-mizuho-no-Kuni_ (Land of plenteous earsof rice in the plain of luxuriant reeds). The vast difference between Far Eastern and Western agriculture ismarked by the fact that, except by using such a phrase as shallowpond--and this is inadequate, because a pond has a sloping bottom anda rice field necessarily a level one--it is difficult to describe arice field in terms intelligible to a Western farmer. The Japanesehave a special word for a rice field, _ta_, water field, written[Kanji: ta]. It will be noticed that the ideograph looks like a waterfield in four compartments. Another word, _hata_ or _hatake_, [59]written [Kanji: hata], tells the story of the dry or upland field. Itis the ideograph for water field in association with the ideograph forfire, and, as we shall see later on, when we make acquaintance with"fire farming, " an upland field is a tract the vegetation of which wasoriginally burnt off. Many of us have seen rice growing in Italy or in the United States. But in Japan[60] the paddies are very-much smaller than anything to beseen in the Po Valley and in Texas. Owing to the plentiful watersupply of a mountainous land, cultivation proceeds with some degree ofregularity and with a certain independence of the rainy season; andthere has been applied to traditional rice farming not a fewscientific improvements. There is a kind of rice with a low yield called upland rice which, like corn, is grown in fields. But the first requisite of general riceculture is water. The ordinary rice crop can be produced only on apiece of ground on which a certain depth of water is maintained. In order to maintain this depth of water, three things must be done. The plot of ground must be made level, low banks of earth must bebuilt round it in order to keep in the water, and a system ofirrigation must be arranged to make good the loss of water byevaporation, by leakage and by the continual passing on of some of thewater to other plots belonging to the same owner or to other farmers. The common name of a rice plot is paddy, and the rice with its huskon, that is, as it is knocked from the ear by threshing, is calledpaddy rice. The rice exported from Japan is some of it husked and someof it polished. [Illustration: A 200-YEARS-OLD JAPANESE DRAWINGOF THE RICE PLANT] Some 90 per cent. Of the rice grown in Japan is ordinary rice. Theremaining 10 per cent. Is about 2 per cent. Upland and 8 per cent, glutinous[61]--the sort used for making the favourite _mochi_ (riceflour dumplings, which few foreigners are able to digest). It would bepossible to collect in Japan specimens of rice under 4, 000 differentnames, but, like our potato names, many of these represent duplicatevarieties. Rice, again reminding us of potatoes, is grown in early, middle and late season sorts. [62] Just one-half of the cultivated area of Japan is devoted to paddy, but there is to be added to this area under rice more than a quartermillion acres producing the upland rice, the yield of which is lowerthan that of paddy rice. The paddy and upland rice areas together makeup more than a half of the cultivated land. The paddies which are notin situations favourable to the production of second crops of rice(they are grown in one prefecture only) are used, if the water can bedrawn off, for growing barley or wheat or green manure as a secondcrop[63]. It is not only the Eastern predilection for rice and the wet conditionof the country, but the heavy cropping power of the plant[64]--500_go_ per _tan_ above barley and wheat yields--that makes the Japanesefarmer labour so hard to grow it[65]. Intensively cultivated thoughJapan is, the percentage of cultivated land to the total area of thecountry is, however, little more than half that in Great Britain[66]. This is because Japan is largely mountains and hills. Level land forrice paddies can be economically obtained in many parts of such acountry by working it in small patches only. There is no minimum sizefor a Japanese paddy. I have seen paddies of the area of a counterpaneand even of the size of a couple of dinner napkins. The problem is not only to make the paddy in a spot where it can besupplied with water, but to make it in such a way that it will holdall the water it needs. It must be level, or some of the rice plantswill have only their feet wet while others will be up to their necks. The ordinary procedure in making a paddy is to remove the top soil, beat down the subsoil beneath, and then restore the top soil--theremay be from 5 to 10 in. Of it. But the best efforts of thepaddy-field builder may be brought to naught by springs or by agravelly bottom. Then the farmer must make the best terms he can withfortune. Paddies, as may be imagined from their physical limitations, are ofevery conceivable shape. There is assuredly no way of altering theshape of the paddies which are dexterously fitted into the hillsides. But large numbers of paddies are on fairly level ground. [67] There isno real need for these being of all sizes and patterns. They are whatthey are because of the degree to which their construction wasconditioned by water-supply problems, the financial resources of thosewho dug them or the position of neighbours' land. And no doubt in thecourse of centuries there has been a great deal of swapping, buyingand inheriting. So the average farmer's paddies are not only of allshapes and sizes but here, there and everywhere. Therefore there arose wise men to point out that for a farmer to worka number of oddly shaped bits of land scattered all about the villagewas uneconomical and out of date. (Like the old English strip systemwhich still survives in the Isle of Axholme. ) So what was called anadjustment of paddy fields was carried out in many places. The farmerswere persuaded to throw their varied assortment of fields intohotchpot and then to have the mass cut up into oblong fields of equalor relative sizes. These were then shared out according to what eachman had contributed. In some cases a little compensation had to begiven, for there were differences in the qualities as well as theareas of the holdings. But reasonable justice was eventually done allround, and ever afterwards a farmer, now that his holding was inadjoining tracts, might spend his time working in his paddies insteadof in walking to and from them. Because many unnecessary paths anddivisions between paddies were done away with there was brought abouta saving of labour and increased efficiency of cultivation. There wasalso a little more land to cultivate and the paddies were big enoughfor an ox or a pony to be employed in them, and the water supply wasbetter and sufficiently under control for floods to be averted. [68] Inbrief, costs were lower and crops were better. [69] Thus all over Japan nowadays one sees considerable tracts of adjustedpaddy fields. They are a joy to the rural sociologist. In its waythere has been nothing like it agriculturally in our time. For each ofthese little farmers valued his odds and ends of paddy above theiragricultural worth. He or his forbears had made them or bought them ormarried into them. And he believed that his own paddies were in acondition of fertility surpassing not a few, and he doubted greatlywhether after adjustment he would find himself in possession of asvaluable land as his own. Sometimes also he believed that his paddieswere especially fortunate geomantically. [70] Yet, convinced by thearguments for adjustment, the peasant agreed to the proposedrearrangement, let his old tracts go and accepted in exchange neatoblongs out of the common stock. Sometimes so great was the changebrought about in a village by adjustment that more than the paddieswere dealt with. Cottages were taken to new sites and the bones inmany little grave plots were removed. In a village in which there hadbeen an exhumation of the bones of 2, 700 persons and a transference oftombstones, I was told that the assembling together of the remains ofthe departed in one place "had had a unifying effect on thecommunity. " In this village within a period of twelve years 96 percent. Of the paddies had been adjusted. [71] An advantage of adjustment which has not yet been mentioned is thatadjusted paddies can usually be dried off at harvest and can thereforebe put under a second crop, usually of grain. More than a third of thepaddy-field area of the country can be dried off, and thereforeproduces a second crop of barley or wheat. The farmer has twoadvantages if, owing to adjustment or natural advantages, he is ableto dry off his land. Of the first or rice crop, if he is a tenantfarmer, he has had to pay his landlord perhaps 60 per cent, in rent, less straw;[72] but the second crop is his own. The further advantageis that second-crop land can be cultivated dry shod. One-crop paddy isunder water all the year round, and must be cultivated with wet feetand legs. It is because more than half the paddies are always under water thatrice cultivation is so laborious. Think of the Western farm labourerbeing asked to plough and the allotment holder to dig almost knee-deepin mud. Although much paddy is ploughed with the aid of an ox, a cowor a pony, [73] most rice is the product of mattock or spade labour. There is no question about the severity of the labour of paddycultivation. For a good crop it is necessary that the soil shall bestirred deeply. Following the turning over of the stubble under water, comes the clodsmashing and harrowing by quadrupedal or bipedal labour. It is notonly a matter of staggering about and doing heavy work in sludge. Thesludge is not clean dirt and water but dirty dirt and water, for ithas been heavily dosed with manure, and the farmer is not fastidiousas to the source from which he obtains it. [74] And the sludgeordinarily contains leeches. Therefore the cultivator must workuncomfortably in sodden clinging cotton feet and leg coverings. Longcustom and necessity have no doubt developed a certain indifference tothe physical discomfort of rice cultivation. The best rice will growonly in mud and, except on the large uniform paddies of the adjustedareas, there is small opportunity for using mechanical methods. One day when I went into the country it happened to be raining hard, but the men and women toiled in the paddies. They were breaking up theflooded clods with a tool resembling the "pulling fork" used in theWest for getting manure from a dung cart. On other farms the task ofworking the quagmire was being done by two persons with the aid of adisconsolate pony harnessed to a rude harrow. The men and women in thepaddies kept off the rain by means of the usual wide straw hats andloose straw mantles, admirable in their way in their combination oflightness and rainproofness. Often, besides the farmer's wife, a youngwidow or a young unmarried woman may be seen at work, but, as was onceexplained to me, "The old Miss is not frequent in Japan. "[75] Planting time arrives in the middle of June or thereabouts, when thepaddy has been brought by successive harrowings into a fine tilth orrather sludge. It is illustrative of the exacting ways of rice thatnot only has it to have a growing place specially fashioned for it, itcannot be sown as cereals are sown. It must be sown in beds and thenbe transplanted. The seed beds have been sown in the latter part ofApril or the early part of May, according to the variety of rice andthe locality. [76] The seeds have usually been selected by immersion insalt water and have been afterwards soaked in order to advancegermination. There is a little soaking pond on every farm. By the useof this pond the period in which the seeds are exposed to thedepredations of insects, etc. , is diminished. The seed bed itself isabout the width of an onion bed, in order that weeds and insect pestsmay be easily reached. The seed bed is, of course, under water. Theseed is dropped into the water and sinks into the mud. Within aboutthirty or forty days the seedlings are ready for transplanting. Theyhave been the object of unremitting care. Weeds have been plucked outand insects have been caught by nets or trapped. There is acontrivance which, by means of a wheel at either end, straddles theseed bed, and is drawn slowly from one end to the other. It catchesthe insects as they hop or fly up. In many localities specially fine varieties are grown for seed on theland of the Shinto shrines. In other localities special sorts areraised in ordinary paddies but surrounded by the rope and white paperstreamers which represent a consecrated place. In not a few villagesthere are communal seed beds so that many farmers may grow the samevariety, and there may be a considerable bulk for co-operative sale. At transplanting time every member of the family capable of helpingrenders assistance. Friends also give their aid if it is not plantingtime for them too. The work is so engrossing that young children whoare not at school are often left to their own devices. Sometimes theyplay by the ditch round the paddies and are drowned. Five such casesof drowning are reported from three prefectures on the day I writethis. The suggestion is made that in the rice districts there shouldbe common nurseries for farmers' children at planting time. The rate at which the planters, working in a row across the paddy, setout the seedlings in the mud below the water, is remarkable. [77] Thefirst weeding or raking takes place about a fortnight after planting. After that there are three more weedings, the last being about the endof August. All kinds of hoes are used in the sludge. They are usuallyprovided with a wooden or tin float. But most of the weeding is donesimply by thrusting the hand into the mud, pulling out the weed andthrusting it back into the sludge to rot. The back-breaking characterof this work may be imagined. As much of it is done in the hottesttime of the year the workers protect themselves by wide-brimmed hatsof the willow-plate pattern and by flapping straw cloaks or by bundlesof straw fastened on their backs. A sharp look-out must be kept for insects of various sorts. In morethan one place I saw the boys and girls of elementary schools wadingin the paddies and stroking the young rice with switches in order tomake noxious insects rise. The creatures were captured by the youngenthusiasts with nets. The children were given special times off fromschool work in which to hunt the rice pests and were encouraged tobring specimens to school. There is no greater delight to the eye than the paddies in their earlygreen, rippled and gently laid over by the wind. (One should saygreens, for there is every tint from the rather woe-begone yellowishgreen of the newly planted out rice to the happy luxuriant dark greenof the paddies that have long been enjoying the best of quarters. ) Asharvest time approaches, [78] the paddies, because they are not allplanted with the same variety of rice, are in patches of differentshades. Some are straw colour, some are reddish brown or almost black. A poet speaks of the "hanging ears of rice. " Rice always seems to hangits head more than other crops. It is weaker in the straw than barley, but rice frequently droops not only because of its natural habit, butbecause it has been over-manured or wrongly manured or because of windor wet. Beyond wind, [79] insects and drought, floods are the enemies of rice. When the plants are young, three or four days' flooding do not mattermuch, but in August, when the ears are shooting, it is a differentmatter. The sun pours down and soon rots the rice lying in the warmwater. Sometimes the farmer, by almost withdrawing the water from hispaddies, raises the temperature of the soil with benefit to the crop. The farmer is fortunate who is able to get the water completely out ofhis paddies by the time harvest arrives, but, as we have seen, two-thirds of the paddies must be harvested in sludge. Many crops aremuddied before they can be cut. Sometimes on the eve of harvest thefarmer wades in and tries, by arranging the fallen stems across oneanother, to keep some of the ears out of the water. But he is not verysuccessful. Rice may lie in the wet a week or even the best end of afortnight without serious damage. But all that this means is thatwithin the period specified it may not sprout. It must be damaged tosome extent even by a few days' immersion. The reason why it is notdamaged more than it is is no doubt, first, because rice is a plantwhich has been brought up to take its chances with water, and in thesecond place because the thing which is known to the housewife as riceis not really the grain at all but the interior of the grain. Western farmers are hard put to it when their grain crops are beatendown by wind and rain; Japanese agriculturists, because they gathertheir harvest with a short sickle, do not find a laid crop difficultto cut. But these harvesters are very muddy indeed. When the rice iscut and the sheaves are laid along the low mud wall of the paddy theyare still partly in the sludge. We know how miserable a wet harvest isat home, but think of the slushy harvest with which most Japanesefarmers struggle every year of their lives. The rice grower, althoughyear in and year out he has the advantage of a great deal of sunshine, seldom gets his crop in without some rain. How does he manage to dryhis October and November rice? By means of a temporary fence or rackwhich he rigs up in his paddy field or along a path or by theroadside. On this structure the sheaves are painstakingly suspendedears down. Sometimes he utilises poles suspended between trees. Thesetrees, grown on the low banks of the paddies, have their trunkstrimmed so that they resemble parasols. When the sheaves are removed in order to be threshed on the uplandpart of the holding, they are carried away at either end of a pole ona man's shoulder or are piled up on the back of an ox, cow or pony. The height of the pile under which some animals stagger up from thepaddies gives one a vivid conception of "the last straw. " Threshing is usually done by a man, woman, girl or youth taking asmany stems as can be easily grasped in both hands and drawing theears, first one way and then another, through a horizontal row ofsteel teeth. The flail is not used for threshing rice but is employedfor barley. Another common way of knocking out grain is by beating thestraw over a table or a barrel. There are all sorts of cheaphand-worked threshing machines. After the threshing of the rice comesthe winnowing, which may be done by the aid of a machine but is morelikely to be effected in the immemorial way, by one person pouring theroughly threshed ears from a basket or skep while another workervigorously fans the grain. The result is what is known as paddy rice. The process which follows winnowing is husking. This is done in thesimplest possible form of hand mill. Before husking the rice grain isin appearance not unlike barley and it is no easy matter to get itshusk off. The husking mill is often made of hardened clay with manywooden teeth on the rubbing surface. After husking there is anotherwinnowing. Then the grains are run through a special apparatus ofrecent introduction called _mangoku doshi_, so that faulty ones may bepicked out. The result is unpolished rice. It looks grey and unattractive, and unfortunately the unprepossessingbut valuable outer coat is polished away. This is done in a mortarhollowed out of a section of a tree trunk or out of a large stone. Onemay see a young man or a young woman pounding the rice in the mortarwith a heavy wooden beetle or mallet. Often the beetle is fastened toa beam and worked by foot. Or the polishing apparatus may be driven bywater, oil or steam power. Constantly in the country there are seenlittle sheds in each of which a small polishing mill driven by a waterwheel is working away by itself. After the polishing, the _mangokudoshi_ is used again to free the rice from the bran. This polishedrice is still further polished by the dealer, who has more perfectmills than the farmer. [Illustration: SCATTERING ARTIFICIAL MANURE IN ADJUSTED PADDIES, p. 20] The farmer pays his rent not in the polished but in the husked rice. At the house of a former _daimyo_ I saw an instrument which thefeudal lord's bailiff was accustomed to thrust into the rice thetenants tendered. If when the instrument was withdrawn more than threehusks were found adhering, the rice was returned to be recleaned. There are names for all the different kinds of rice. For instance, paddy rice is _momi_; husked rice is _gemmai_; half-polished rice is_hantsukimai_; polished rice is _hakumai_; cooked rice is _gohan_. [Illustration: PLANTING OUT RICE SEEDLINGS. P. 75] [Illustration: PUSH-CART FOR COLLECTION OF FERTILISER (TOKYO). P. 49] A century ago the farmer ate his rice at the _gemmai_ stage, that isin its natural state, and there was no _beri-beri_. The "black saké"made from this _gemmai_ rice is still used in Shinto ceremonies. Inorder to produce clear _saké_ the rice was polished. Then well-to-dopeople out of daintiness had their table rice polished. Now polishedrice is the common food. Half-polished rice may be prepared with twoor three hundred blows of the mallet; fully polished or white rice mayreceive six, seven or eight hundred, or even it may be a thousandblows. FOOTNOTES: [47] See Appendix VII. [48] See Appendix VIII. [49] Family in the French sense. [50] See Appendix IX. [51] See Appendix X. [52] See Appendix XI. [53] See Appendix XII. [54] See Appendix XIII. [55] It was recently stated that the consent of the authorities wasawaited for collections to the amount of 20 million yen, of which13-1/2 million were for the two Hongwanjis. [56] For yields of new paddy, see Appendix XIV. [57] See Appendix XII. [58] It would be from 80 to 100 yen now. [59] _Hata_ (upland field) is not to be confounded with _hara_(prairie, wilderness, moor, often erroneously translated, plain). [60] Rice is grown in every prefecture. The largest total yields arein Niigata, Hyogo, Fukuoka, Aichi, Yamagata, Ibariki and Chiba. [61] See Appendix XV. [62] The average yield of the three kinds at Government experimentalfarms--the middle variety yields best and next comes the latevariety--is about 2-1/2 _koku_ per _tan_ or roughly (a _koku_ beingabout 5 bushels and a _tan_ about a quarter of an acre) about 45bushels per acre. The average yield of ordinary rice in Japan in anordinary year is 40-3/4 bushels. In the bumper year of 1920 theaverage yield was 41-1/3 bushels. In the year 1916 (to which most ofthe figures in this book, apart from the Appendix and footnotes, inwhich the latest available figures are given, refer) there wasproduced 58-1/4 million _koku_ of all kinds of rice, the value ofwhich was 826-1/2 million yen. The normal yield (average of 7 years, excluding the years of highest and lowest production) is 54-1/2million _koku_. See Appendix XV. [63] For wheat and barley crops, see Appendix XVI. [64] A few rice plants may be seen growing at Kew. [65] The cost of the rice crop and the income it yields are discussedin Appendix XVII. [66] See Appendix XVIII. [67] In Japanese rural statistics the word plain may be said to mean atract of land which is neither cultivated nor timbered nor used forthe purposes of habitation. Sometimes it is called prairie, but thisis not always correct as it is very often a barren waste, a tract ofvolcanic ash, or an area producing bamboo grass. Some of this land, however, could be cultivated after proper irrigation, etc. In thisnote, plains is employed in the ordinary acceptation of the word. Ofsuch plains there are several. The plain in which Tokyo is situated is82, 000 acres in extent. The traveller from Kobe to Tokyo passesthrough the Kinai plain in which Kobe, Kyoto and Osaka stand. It issaid to feed 2-1/2 million people. Four other plains are reputed tofeed 7-1/2 million. [68] Rivers supply about 65 per cent. Of the paddy water andreservoirs about 21 per cent. The remainder has to be got from othersources. [69] An acreage of a _tan_ is aimed at, but it is frequently larger;it may even be 4 _tan_ (an acre). The cost ranges from about 8 yen to50 yen per _tan_. The average increase in yield alter adjustment isabout 15 per cent. , to which must be added the yield of the new landobtained, say 3 per cent. Of the area adjusted. The consent of halfthe owners is required for adjustment. [70] Once when a friend in Tokyo had trouble with her servants a maidinformed her that the house was unlucky because a certain necessaryapartment faced the wrong point of the compass. [71] In the whole of Japan by 1919 two million and a half acres hadbeen adjusted or were in course of adjustment. [72] The rent is usually 57 per cent. Of the rice harvest in thepaddies and 44 per cent. (in cash or kind) of the crops on thenon-paddy land. Any crop raised in the paddies between the harvestingof one rice crop and the planting out of the next belongs to thefarmer. (All taxes and rates are paid by the landlord, and amount tofrom 30 to 33 per cent. Of the rent. ) The area under paddy and thearea of upland under cultivation are almost equal. [73] See Appendix XIX. [74] See Appendix XX. [75] In 1920 there were 38, 922, 437 males and 38, 083, 073 females. [76] See Appendix XXI. [77] See Appendix XXII. [78] The harvest extends from mid-September in the north of Japan tothe end of October or beginning of November in the south. The harvestis taken early in the north for fear of frost. [79] The "210th day" (counted from the beginning of spring), whenflowering commences, is so critical a period that the weatherconditions during the twenty-four hours in every prefecture arereported to the Emperor. CHAPTER IX THE RICE BOWL, THE GODS AND THE NATION I thank whatever gods there be.... --HENLEY I How many people who have not been in the East or in the rice traderealise that rice, in the course of the polishing it receives from thefarmer and the dealer, loses nearly half its bulk? A necessary part ofthe grain is lost. No wonder that sensible people in Japan and theWest demand the grey unpolished rice. In Japan some enterprisingperson has started selling bottled stuff made from the part of therice grain that is rubbed off in the polishing process. It does notlook appetising. An easier thing would be to leave some of the coatingon the rice. One thinks of what Smollett said of white bread: "They prefer it to wholesome bread because it is whiter. Thus theysacrifice their health to a most absurd gratification of a misjudgingeye, and the tradesman is obliged to poison them in order to live. " Although, for economy's sake, a considerable amount of barley is eatenwith or instead of rice, it may be said in a general way that theJapanese people, like so many millions of other Asiatics, have ricefor breakfast, rice for lunch and rice for dinner. If they haveanything to eat between meals it is as like as not to be rice cakes---to the foreigner's taste a loathly, half-cooked compost of rice flouror pounded rice and water, a sort of tepid underdone muffin. We in theWest have bread at every meal as the Japanese have rice, but we eatour bread not only as plain bread but as toast and bread-and-butter;we also ring the changes on brown, white and oat bread. Among the covered lacquer dishes on the little table set before eachkneeling breakfaster, luncher or diner in Japan there is one which isempty. This is the rice bowl. When the meal begins--or in the case ofan elaborate dinner at the rice course--the maid brings in a largecovered wooden copper-bound or brass-bound tub or round lacquered boxof hot rice. This rice she serves with a big wooden spoon, the onlyspoon ever seen at a Japanese meal. A man may have three helpings orfour in a bowl about as big as a large breakfast cup. The etiquette isthat, though other dishes may be pecked at, the rice in one's bowlmust be finished. The usage on this point may have originated in thefeeling that it was almost impious to waste the staple food of thecountry. It is not difficult to pick up the last rice grains with thewooden _hashi_ (chopsticks), for the rice is skilfully boiled. (Softrice is served to invalids only. ) But when the bowl is almost emptythe custom is to pour into it weak tea or hot water, and then to drinkthis, so getting rid of the odd grains. It is through omitting todrink in this way that foreigners get indigestion when at a Japanesemeal they eat a lot of rice. At first it is not easy for the foreigner to believe that people cancome with appetite to several bowls of plain rice three times aday. [80] But good rice does seem to have something of the property ofoatmeal, the property of a continual tastiness. Further, the riceeater picks up now and then from a small saucer a piece of picklewhich may have either a salty or a sweet fermented taste. Thenutrition gained at a Japanese meal is largely in soups in which thebean preparations, _tofu_ and _miso_, and occasionally eggs, are used. And there is no country in the world where more fish is eaten than inJapan. The coast waters and rivers team with fish, and fish--fresh, dried and salted, shell-fish and fish unrecognisable as fish after allsorts of ingenious treatment--is consumed by almost everybody. The Japanese are in no doubt that the foreign rice which is broughtinto the country to supplement the home supply is inferior to theirown. [81] Inferior means that they prefer the flavour of their ownrice, just as most Scots prefer oatmeal made from oats grown inScotland. II In the year of the Coronation--it took place three years after theEmperor's accession--two prefectures had the honour of being chosen toproduce the rice to be placed before gods, Emperor and dignitaries atKyoto. The work was not undertaken without ceremony. I was a witnessof the rites performed at the planting of the rice in one of theprefectures. Plots had been prepared with enormous care. Along the topof the special fencing were the Shinto straw bands and paperstreamers. A small shrine had been built to overlook the plots. Eventhe instruments of the little meteorological station near, by whichthe management of the crop would be guided, were surrounded by strawbands and streamers--religion protecting science. The mattocks andother implements which had been used in the preparation of the paddyor were to be used in getting in the crops and in cultivating, harvesting, threshing and cleaning it were all new. Even the herringwhich had manured the plot had been "specially selected and blessed. "Further, there was a special bath-house where the young men and womenwho were to plant the rice had washed ceremonially at an early hour. We had reached the spot through a crowd of twenty or thirty thousandpeople who were gathering to witness the ceremony. A covered platformhad been built in front of the rice field shrine, and on either sidewere large roofed-in spaces for some scores of Shinto priests and thefavoured spectators. The ceremony lasted two hours. It carried usmagically away from a Japan of frock coats to Japan of a thousand, itmay be two thousand years ago. Between the wail of ancient wood andwind instruments and the cinema operators who missed nothing externaland some bored top-hatted spectators who furtively puffed a cigarettebefore the ceremony came to an end, [82] what a gulf! Platter afterplatter of food, sometimes rice, sometimes vegetables, sometimesfruit, sometimes a big fish, was passed by one priest to another inthe sunlight until all the offerings were reverently placed by aspecial dignitary on one of those unpainted, unvarnished, undecoratedbut exquisitely proportioned altars which are an artistic glory ofShintoism. The shrine was wholly open on the side of the rice field, and the high priest was in full view as he stood before the altar withbowed head and folded hands, his robe caught by the breeze, anddelivered in a loud voice his zealous invocation. His words werestressed not only by an acolyte who twanged the strings of a venerableharp, but by the song of a lark which rose with the first strains ofthe harpist. The purpose of the ceremony was to call down the gods andto gain their blessing for the crop and the new reign. At the momentof highest solemnity the thousands assembled bowed their heads: thegods were deigning to descend and accept the offering. More ancientmusic, more ceremonial, and the gods having been called upon to returnto high heaven, the laden platters were gravely removed, and the riceplanting in the adjoining field began. To the sound of drum the youngmen and women in special costumes strode through the wicket into themud of the paddies, and, under the supervision of the director of theprefectural agricultural experiment station in a silk hat, planted outthe tufts of rice seedlings in scrupulously measured rows. I asked a distinguished Japanese who was standing near me--he is aChristian--how many of the educated people in the assembly believedthat the gods had descended. His answer was, "I may not believe thatthe gods of a truth descended, but I find something beautiful incalling on the gods with a harp of Old Japan, and I do believe thatour humble and natural offering to-day may be acceptable to whatevergods there may be and that it is a worthy exercise for us to undertakeand may also be conducive to a good harvest. " My friend attempted thefollowing rough rendering of a song which had been sung by the riceplanters before the shrine: This day the beginning of sowing at an auspicious time--Long life to the rice!May it be a token of the years of the Reign, The seed of peace for the world--May it start from this consecrated field!One in heart we see to it that our seedlings are well matched. Mikawa's[83] millennium and the millennium of rice. Let us pray for an abundant shooting. Now let us plant the seedlings straight;Pleasing to the gods are the ways that are not crooked. After this ceremony, in which the staple crop of the country and thelabour of the farmer in his paddy field had been honoured by the Stateand dignified by ancestral blessings, there was luncheon in one ofthose deftly contrived reed-covered structures, of the building ofwhich the Japanese have the knack, and the Governor asked some of usto say a few words. Then on a raised platform in the open there wasenacted a comic interlude such as might have been seen in England inthe Middle Ages. In the evening I was bidden to a dinner of theofficials responsible for the day's doings. The Governor made a kindlyreference to my labours and the local M. P. Presented me with a kimonolength of the cotton material which had been woven for the planters ofthe sacred rice. III[84] The production of rice has increased more quickly than the growth ofthe population. If we consider, along with the advance in population, the crops of the years 1882 and 1913, which were held to be average, and, in order to be as up-to-date as possible, the normal annualyield[85] of the five-years period 1912-18, we find that, as between1882 and 1913, the population increased 45 per cent. And riceproduction increased 63 per cent. , while as between 1882 and thenormal annual yield period of 1912-18, the population increased 55 percent, and the crop 75 per cent. [86] This is a noteworthy fact. But equally noteworthy is the fact that inthe 1882-1913 period, in which the production of rice increased 63 percent. And the population only 45 per cent. , the price of rice did notfall. On the contrary it rose. This was due largely[87] to the factthat people had begun to eat rice who had not before been able toafford it. Many people who grow rice eat, as has been noted, barley orbarley mixed with a little rice. From the 'eighties onwards more andmore rice was eaten. [88] The reason was that, what with the cash obtained from cocoons throughthe enormous development of sericulture, [89] what with the moneyreceived by the girls who had gone to the factories, what with thegrowth of big cities causing an increased demand for vegetables, eggsand especially fruit at good prices, what with the use of better seedand more artificial manure, what with agricultural co-operation, paddy-field adjustment and the taking-in of new land, the farmer, inspite of increased taxation, [90] was doing better, or at any rate wasminded to live better. In the thirty-years period 1882-1913, his cropincreased 63 per cent. Although his area under cultivation increasedby only 17 per cent. In the following pages we shall hear more of themethods by which the farmer's receipts have been increased. We shallhear also, alas! of the ways in which his expenditure has increased. He is indeed in a trying situation. Everything depends on hischaracter and education and on the influences, social and political, moral and religious, under which he lives. That is why this book, indevoting itself to an examination of the foundations of anagricultural country, is concerned with rural sociology rather thanwith the technique of crops and cropping. The outstanding problem of the rice grower is fluctuations inprice. [91] It is also the problem of the landlord, for rents are fixednot at so much money but at so many _koku_ of rice. This means thaton rent day the farmer must pay the same amount of rice whether hiscrop has been good or bad. It also means that when the price of ricerises the amount of rent is automatically raised. If rent were paid, not in so many _koku_ of rice but in money at a fixed amount, thelandlord would know where he was and the tenant would be in an easierposition, for when the rice crop failed the price would be high and hewould be able to meet his rent by selling a smaller amount of rice. The counsel of the prudent to the rice producer is to buildstorehouses and not to sell the whole of his crop immediately afterharvest, but to extend the sale over the whole year, marketing eachmonth about the same amount if possible. The Government Granary plancame into force in 1921, some 3 million _koku_ of unpolished ricebeing bought in five grades at from 27 yen to 33 yen. In the yearbefore the War rice was selling at 20 yen per _koku_ (5 bushels). Theprevious year (1912) it had been 21 yen--had risen at times to 23yen--an unheard-of price. Between 1894 and 1912 it had climbed merelyfrom about 7 yen to a maximum of 16 yen. [92] In the year in which theWar broke out, it dropped as low as 12 yen, and in 1915 it was only 11yen. By 1916 it had not risen beyond 14 yen. The fall in prices was due to exceptional harvests in 1914 and 1915(that is, 57, 006, 541 _koku_ and 55, 924, 590 _koku_ as compared with the50, 255, 000 _koku_ of the year before the War, or the 51, 312, 000 whichmay be taken as the average of the seven-years period 1907-13). Suchexceptional harvests as those of 1914 and 1915 showed a surplus offrom 4½ to 6 million _koku_ over and above the needs of the country, which are roughly estimated at 1 _koku_ per head including infants andthe old and feeble. In 1916 it was established, when account was takenof stored rice, that the actual surplus was something like 6 or 7million _koku_. Therefore a fall in price took place. The extent towhich rice is imported and exported is shown in Appendix XXIV. ThisChapter would become much more technical than is necessary if Ientered into the question of the correctness of rice statistics. Roughly, the statistics show a production 15 per cent. Less than theactual crops. Formerly the under-estimation was 20 per cent. Thepractice has its origin in the old taxation system. The notes for the account of rural life in Japan which will be foundin this book were chiefly made in the second and third years of theWar. Since that time there has been an enormous rise in the price ofeverything. For a time the farmers prospered as they had prospered inthe high rice-price years, 1912-13. [93] The high prices of all grainas well as the fabulous price of raw silk (due to increased export toAmerica and to increased home consumption) were a great advantage. [Illustration: MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE'S EFFORTS TO KEEP THE PRICE OF RICEFROM RISING] Then came the rice riots of the city workers, the general slump andfinally the commercial and industrial crash. Raw silk fell nearly toone-third of its top price, and farmers had to sell cocoons under thecost of production. Everywhere countrymen and countrywomen employed inthe factories were discharged in droves. A large proportion of theseunfortunates returned to their villages to dispel some rural dreams ofurban Eldorado. But this matter of the going up and coming down of prices has but apassing interest for the reader. The only economic fact of which heneed lay hold is that in recent years the farmers have been led intothe way of spending more money--in taxation as well as in generalexpenses of living--and that, when account is taken of every advantagethey have gained from better methods of production, they have pressingon them the limitations imposed by the size of their farms and theirfarming practice. Whatever the prices obtained for the: products ofthe soil, climatic facts, [94] the character and social condition ofthe people, their attitude towards life and authority and the attitudeof authority towards them remain very much the same. And thus anarrative of things seen and heard chiefly during the first years ofthe War is not at all out of date even if it were not supplemented asit is by a plentiful supply of notes containing the latest statisticaldata. There is one curious exception only. The reader of these pages willconstantly come on references to the poverty of the tenant farmers. They are, of course, practically labourers, for they cultivate two orthree acres only, and at the end of the year, as has been shown, havemerely a trifle in hand and sometimes not that. Influenced by thelabour movement, which developed in the industrial centres during andafter the War, [95] this depressed class has of late shown spirit. Ithas begun to assert its claims against landowners. At the end of 1920there were as many as ninety associations of tenant farmers, and sixtyof these had been started for the specific purpose of representingtenants' interests against landowners. Strikes of tenants began andcontinue. The end of this movement of a proverbially conservativeclass is not at all certain. [96] The outstanding facts which are to be borne in mind about agriculturalJapan are that the population is as thick on the ground as thepopulation of the British Isles (thicker in reality, for so much ofJapan is mountain and waste)--ten times thicker than the population ofthe United States[97]--that Japan is primarily an agriculturalcountry, while Great Britain is largely a manufacturing and tradingcountry, and that only 15½ per cent. Of Japan proper (includingHokkaido) is under cultivation against 27 per cent. In GreatBritain. [98] The average area cultivated per farming family in Japan, counting paddy and upland together, is less than 3 acres. As the totalpopulation of Japan is now (1921) 56 millions (55, 960, 150 in 1920, plus the annual increase of 600, 000), every acre has to feed close onfour persons. ("Even in Hokkaido, " Dr. Sato notes, "the average areaper family is only 7½ acres. ") Happily the number of familiescultivating less than 1¼ acres is decreasing and the numbercultivating from 1¼ up to 5 acres is increasing. [99] In other words, the favourite size of farm is one which finds work for all the membersof the farmer's family. As on small holdings all over the world, it isfound that profits are difficult to make when help has to be paid for. The facts that in the last four years for which figures are availablethe number of farming families keeping silk-worms has risen by half amillion and that every year the area of land under cultivationincreases show that new ways of increasing income are eagerly seizedon. FOOTNOTES: [80] For estimate of daily consumption of rice by Japanese, seeAppendix XXIII. [81] For statistics of imported and exported rice, see Appendix XXIV. [82] Japanese. I was the only foreigner present. [83] The old name for a considerable part of Aichi [84] This section of the chapter was written in 1921. [85] For the way in which "normal yield" is arrived at, see p. 70. [86] See Appendix XXV. [87] War with China, 1894; with Russia, 1904. [88] For farmers' diet, see Appendix XXVI. [89] Farmers in sericultural districts live better than the ordinaryrice farmers. [90] See Appendix XXVII. [91] See Appendix XXVIII. [92] For prices, see Appendix XVII. [93] The rise in prices towards the close of the War, with the rise inthe cost of living throughout the world, has been discussed on pagexxv. [94] See Appendix XXIX. [95] See Chapter XX. [96] Recent figures show 400 tenants' associations, of which a thirdare militant. [97] See Appendix XXX and page 97. [98] See Chapter XX. [99] See Appendix XXXI. BACK TO FIRST PRINCIPLES: THE APOSTLEAND THE ARTIST CHAPTER X A TROUBLER OF ISRAEL The signification of this gift of life, that we should leave a betterworld for our successors, is being understood. --MEREDITH To some people in Japan the countryman Kanzō Uchimura is "the JapaneseCarlyle. " To others he is a religious enthusiast and the Japaneseequivalent of a troubler of Israel. He appeared to me in the guise ofa student of rural sociology. Uchimura is the man who as a school teacher "refused to bow before theEmperor's portrait. "[100] He endured, as was to be expected, socialostracism and straitened means. But when his voice came to be heard injournalism it was recognised as the voice of a man of principle bypeople who heard it far from gladly. There is a seamy side to someJapanese journalism[101] and Uchimura soon resigned his editorialchair. He abandoned a second editorship because he was determined tobrave the displeasure of his countrymen by opposing the war withRussia. To-day he deplores many things in the relations of Japan andChina. [Illustration: _Fuhei_MUZZLED EDITORS] Uchimura has written more than two dozen books, mostly on religion. _How I became a Christian_ has been translated into English, German, Danish, Russian and Chinese, and is to that extent a landmark in theliterary history of Japan. His Christianity is an Early Christianitywhich places him in antagonism, not only to his own countrymen who areShintoists, Buddhists or Confucians, or vaguely Nationalists, but tosuch foreign missionaries as are sectarians and literalists. Hisearliest training was in agricultural science, and the welfare of theJapanese countryside is near his heart. If he be a Carlyle, as hisfibre and resolution, downright way of writing and speaking, hortatorygift, humour, plainness of life and dislike of officials, no less thanhis cast of countenance, his soft hat and long gaberdine-like coathave suggested, he is a Carlyle who is content to stay both in bodyand mind at Ecclefechan. He is not, however, like Carlyle, whom hecalls "master, " a peasant, but a samurai. "As you penetrate into the lives of the farmers and discover theinfluences brought to bear on them, " Uchimura said to me in hisdecisive way, "there will be laid bare to you _the foundations ofJapan_. You know our proverb, of course, _No wa kuni no taihon nari_('Agriculture is the basis of a nation')? Have you been to Nikko?"This seemed a little inconsequent, but I told him I had not yet beento Nikko. ("Until you have seen Nikko, " runs the adage, "do not say'splendid'. ") "How many of the tourists who are delighted with Nikko, "he went on, "have heard how the richest farms near that town weredevastated? A century ago a minister of the Shogun, who realised thatfertility depended on trees, saw to the whole range of Nikko hillsbeing afforested. It was a tract twenty miles by twenty miles inextent. But the 'civilised' authorities of our own days sold all thetimber to a copper company for 8, 000 yen. The company destroyed thefertility of the district not only by cutting down the forest but bypoisoning the water with which the farmers irrigated their crops. Amember of Parliament gave himself with such devotion to the cause ofthe ruined farmers that when he died the ashes of his cremated bodywere divided and preserved in four shrines erected to his memory. " It was a sad thing, said Uchimura, that the farmers of Japan, becauseof the decreased fertility of the land due to the denudation of thehills of trees, and because of their increased expenses, should belaying out "a quarter of their incomes on artificial manures. " "Theenemies which Japan has most to fear to-day, " Uchimura declared, "areimpaired fertility and floods. " It may be well, perhaps, to explain for a few readers how floods dotheir ill work. The rain which falls on treeless mountains is notabsorbed there. The water washes down the mountain sides, bringingwith it first good soil and then subsoil, stones and rock. The hillseventually become those peaked deserts the queer look of which musthave puzzled many students of Japanese pictures. The debris washedaway is carried into the rivers, along with trees from the lowerslopes, and the level of the river beds is raised. Because there isless space in the river beds for water the rivers overflow theirbanks, and disastrous floods take place. The farmers, the localauthorities and the State raise embankments higher and higher, butembankment building is costly and cannot go on indefinitely. The realremedy is to decrease the supply of water by planting forests in themountains[102]. In many places the rivers are flowing above the levelof the surrounding country. The imagination is caught by the fact thatthere are four earthquakes a day in Japan[103] and that within atwelvemonth fires destroy 400 acres or so of buildings; but everyyear, on an average, floods, tidal waves and typhoons together drownmore than 600 people and cause a money loss of 25 million yen! Everyyear 10½ million yen are spent by the State and the prefectures onriver control alone. Uchimura put on his famous wideawake and we went out for a walk. "Ishould like, " he said, "to press the view that the vaunted expansionof Japan has meant to the farmers an increase of prices and taxes andof armaments out of all proportion to our population[104]. " Uchimura stood stock still in the little wood we had entered. "Thereis one thing more, " he added gravely. "Before you can get deeply intoyour subject you must touch religion. There you see the depths of thepeople. A large part of the deterioration of the countryside is due tothe deterioration of Buddhism. You must ask about it. You will see inthe villages much of what your old writers used to call 'priestcraft. 'You will hear of the thraldom of many of the people. You will see withyour own eyes that real Christianity may be a moral bath for a ruraldistrict. " "The essentials, not the forms of Christianity, " he declared, wouldsave the countryside by "brotherly union. " "Brotherly union" wouldmake a better life and a better agriculture. The rural class, heexplained, was more sharply divided than foreigners understood intoowners of land who lived on their rents and farmers who farmed[105]. The division between the two classes was "as great as an Indian castedivision. " "To the landowner who lives in his village like a feudallord the simple Gospel, with its insistence on the sacredness of work, comes as an intellectual revolution. " Women as well as men of meansreceived from Christianity "a new conception of humanity. " They ceasedto "look upon their own glory and to take delight in the flattery ofpoor people. " They changed their way of speaking to the peasants. Theydeveloped an interest, of which they knew nothing before, in thespiritual and material betterment of the men, women and children oftheir village. I went a two-days journey into the country with Uchimura. We stayed atthe house of a landowner who was one of his adherents. I found myselfin a large room where two swallows were flitting, intent on buildingon a beam which yearly bore a nest. In this room stood a shrinecontaining the ancestral tablets. The daily offerings were no longermade, but Uchimura's counsel, unlike that of some zealots, was topreserve not only this shrine but the large family shrine in thecourtyard. Near by was an engraving of Luther. [Illustration: "THE JAPANESE CARLYLE. " p. 90] [Illustration: MR. AND MRS. YANAGI. P. 98] Uchimura spoke in the house to some thirty or more "people of thedistrict who had accepted Christianity. " His appeal was to "liveChristianity as given to the world by its founder. " The address, whichwas delivered from an arm-chair, was based on the fifth chapter ofMatthew, which in the preacher's copy appeared to containcross-references to two disciples called Tolstoy and Carlyle. When Iwas asked to speak I found that the women in the gathering had placesin front. "The remarkable effect of Christianity among those whohave come to think with us, " Uchimura told me afterwards, "is seenmost in their treatment of women. Our host, had he not been aChristian, would have been credited by public opinion with thepossession of a concubine, and would not have been blamed for it. "When, after the speaking, we knelt in a circle and talked lessformally of how best to benefit rural people, we were joined by thewomen folk. Later, when a dozen of the neighbours were invited todinner, it was not served at separate tables for each kneeling guest, but at one long table, an innovation "to indicate the brotherlyrelation. " [Illustration: CHILDREN CATCHING INSECTS ON RICE-SEED BEDS] [Illustration: MASTERS OF A COUNTRY SCHOOL AND SOME OF THE CHILDREN. P. 112] "So you see, " said Uchimura, as we walked to the station in themorning, "in an antiquated book, which, I suppose, stands dusty on theshelves of some of your reformers, there is power to achieve the verythings they aim at. " He went on to explain that he looked "in thelives of hearers, not in what they say, " for results from histeaching. He believed in liberty and freedom, in sowing the seed ofchange and reform and allowing people to develop as they would. "Letmen and women believe as they have light. " He spoke in his kindly way of how "the bond of a common faith enablesJapanese to get closer to the foreigner and the foreigner closer tothe Japanese. " There were many things we foreigners did notunderstand. We did not understand, for example, that "A man's a manfor a' that" was an unfamiliar conception to a Japanese. I was toremember, when I interrogated Japanese about the problems of rurallife, that they had had to coin a word for "problems. " Above all, Imust be careful not to "exaggerate the quality of Eastern morality. "Uchimura asserted sweepingly that "morality in the Anglo-Saxon senseis not found in Japan. " We of the West underrated the value of thepart played by the Puritans in our development. Our moral life hadbeen evolved by the soul-stirring power of the Hebrew prophets and ofChrist. To deny this was "kicking your own mother. " Just as it was notpossible for the Briton or American to get his present morality fromGreece and Rome exclusively, it was not possible for the Japanese toobtain it from the sources at his disposal. The faults of the Eastern were that he thought too much of outwardconduct. Good political and neighbourly-relations, kindliness, honestyand thrift were his idea of morality. "To love goodness and to hateevil with one's whole soul is a Christian conception for which you maysearch in vain through heathendom. " The horror which the Western manof high character felt when he thought of the future of the littlegirls in attendance on geisha was not a horror generated by Plato. "Heathen life looks nice on the outside to foreigners, " butConfucianism, Buddhism and Shintoism had all been weak in theirattitude towards immorality. It was Christianity alone whichcontrolled sexual life. Without deep-seated love of and joy ingoodness and deep-seated horror of evil it was impossible to reformsociety. Uchimura said that it had taken him thirty years to reach theconviction that the best way of raising his countrymen was bypreaching the religion of "a despised foreign peasant. " Many things hehad been told by exponents of Christianity now seemed "very strange, "but there remained in the first four books of the New Testament, inthe essence of Christianity, principles "which would give new life toall men. " Moved by this belief, Uchimura and his friends gave theirlives to the work of the Gospel, to a work attended by humiliations;"but this is our glory. " Japanese civilisation, he reiterated, was "only good in the sense thatGreek and Roman civilisations were good. " Modern Japan represented"the best of Europe minus Christianity; the moral backbone ofChristianity is lacking. " "Probe a dozen Buddhist priests in turn, " hesaid, "and you find something lacking; you don't find the Buddhist orConfucian really to be your brother[106]. " "The greatness of England, " he went on, "is not due to the inherentgreatness of the English people, but to the greatness of the truthswhich they have received. " In considering the sources of nationalgreatness, it was idle to believe that some peoples were original andsome not original in their ideas and methods. Where were the people tobe found who were without extraneous influence? Where would England bewithout Greek philosophy, Roman law, and Christianity? Our talk broke off as several peasant women passed us on the narrowway by the rice fields. The mattocks they carried were the same weightas their husbands' mattocks and the women were going to do the samework as the men. But the women were nearly all handicapped by having achild tied on their backs. Uchimura, returning to his objection toforeign political adventure, said that Japan, properly cultivated, could support twice its present population. There were many marshydistricts which could be brought into cultivation by drainage. Thenwhat might not forestry do? But the progress could not be made becauseof lack of money. The money was needed for "national defence. " "For myself, " said Uchimura, "I find it still possible to believe insome power which will take care of inoffensive, quiet, humble, industrious people. If all the high virtues of mankind are notsafeguarded somehow, then let us take leave of all the ennoblingaspirations, all the poetry, and all the deepest hopes we have, andcease to struggle upward. The question is whether we have faith. " Westill waited, he declared, for the nation which would be Christianenough to take its stand on the Gospel and sacrifice itselfmaterially, if need be, to its faith that right was greater thanmight. And so "impractical, outspoken to rashness, but thoroughly sincere andexperienced, " as one of his appreciative countrymen characterised himto me, we take leave of the "Japanese Carlyle. " With whom could I havegone more provocatively towards the foundation of things at thebeginning of my investigation in farther Japan? FOOTNOTES: [100] The statement is, he told me, a calumny. He explained that helost his post for refusing to bow, not to the portrait, but to thesignature of the Emperor, the signature appended to that famousImperial rescript on education which is appointed to be read inschools. Uchimura is very willing, he said, to show the respect whichloyal Japanese are at all times ready to manifest to the Emperor, andhe would certainly bow before the portrait of His Majesty; but in theproposal that reverence should be paid to the Imperial autograph hethought he saw the demands of a "Kaiserism"--his word, he speaksvigorous English--which was foreign to the Japanese conception oftheir sovereign, which would be inimical to the Emperor's influenceand would be bad for the nation. [101] But journalism is one of the most powerful influences for good, and some of the best brains of the country is represented in it. Papers like the _Jiji, Asahi, Nichi Nichi_, and the Osaka papers runin conjunction with them have altogether a circulation approaching twomillions. [102] For statistics of forests, see Appendix XXXII. [103] A severe shook occurs on an average about every six years. Theeminent seismologist, Professor Omori, told me that he does not expectan earthquake of a dangerous sort for a generation. [104] The _Oriental Economist_, a Japanese publication, in the autumnof 1921 suggested the abandonment of all the extensions to the Empireon the score that they had not been a benefit to Japan, and that shewas in no way dependent on them. See also Appendix XXXIII. [105] See Appendix XXXIV. [106] What of the old story which I have heard from Uchimura andothers of the Confucian missionary to certain head hunters of Formosa?After many years of labour among them they promised to give up headhunting if they might take just one more head. At last the good manyielded, and told them that a Chinaman in a red robe was comingtowards the village the next day and his head might be taken. On themorrow the men lay in wait for the stranger, sprang on him and cut offhis head, only to find that it was the head of their belovedmissionary. Struck with remorse and realising the evil of head taking, the tribe gave up head hunting for ever. CHAPTER XI THE IDEA OF A GAP Bold is the donkey driver, O Khedive, and bold is the Khedive whodares to say what he will believe, not knowing in any wise the mind ofAllah, not knowing in any wise his own heart. The "Japanese Carlyle" is getting grey. It seemed well to seek outsome young Japanese thinker and take his view of that "heathenism"concerning which Uchimura had delivered himself so unsparingly. Let mespeak of my first visit to my friend Yanagi. As a youth Yanagi was a lonely student. He took his own way toknowledge and religion. The famed General Nogi had been given by theEmperor the direction of the Peers' School, but even under suchdistinguished tutelage the stripling made his stand. His reading ledhim to write for the school magazine an anti-militarist article. Theveteran, as I once learned from a friend of Yanagi, promptly paradedthe school, boys and masters. He spoke of disloyal, immoral, subversive ideas, and bade the youthful disturber of the peace attendhim at his own house. When Yanagi stood before Nogi and was asked whathe had to say, he replied with the question, "Don't you feel painbecause of sending so many men to death before Port Arthur[107]?" Again I found my prophet in a cottage. It was a cottage overlookingrice fields and a lagoon. From the Japanese scene outdoors I passedindoors to a new Japan. Cezanne, Puvis de Chavannes, Beardsley, VanGogh, Henry Lamb, Augustus John, Matisse and Blake--Yanagi has writtena big book on Blake which is in a second edition--hung within sightof a grand piano and a fine collection of European music[108]. Chinese, Korean and Japanese pottery and paintings filled the placesin the dwelling not occupied by Western pictures and the Westernlibrary of a man well advanced with an interpretative history ofEastern and Western mysticism. An armful of books about Blake andBoehme, all Swedenborg, all Carlyle, all Emerson, all Whitman, allShelley, all Maeterlinck, all Francis Thompson, and all Tagore, andplenty of other complete editions; early Christian mystics; much ofWilliam Law, Bergson, Eucken, Caird, James, Haldane, Bertrand Russell, Jefferies, Havelock Ellis, Carpenter, Strindberg, "Æ, " Yeats, Syngeand Shaw; not a little poetry of the fashion of Vaughan, Traherne andCrashaw; a well-thumbed Emily Brontë; all the great Russian novelists;numbers of books on art and artists--it was an arresting collection tocome on in a Japanese hamlet, and odd to sit down beside it in orderto talk of "heathen. " "Yes, " said Yanagi--he speaks an English which reflects his widereading--"our young maid, on being shown the full moon the othernight, bowed her head. I find this natural instinct of some value. Ourpeople have much natural feeling towards Nature. If modern Japaneseart has degenerated it is because it does not sufficiently find outlife in things. The sough of the wind in the trees may have only aslight influence on character, but it is a vital influence. I do notlike, of course, the word 'heathendom' of which Uchimura seems sofond. I dearly admire Christ, but most of the Christianity of to-dayis not Christ. It is largely Paul. It is a mixture. It is not theclear, pure, original thing. Christians must reform their Christianitybefore it can satisfy us. In the East we now see clearly enough toseek only the best that the West can offer. " Yanagi said that the spontaneity and naturalness of Eastern religionsought to be recognised. "You will find Christians admiring WaltWhitman, but it is Whitman the democrat they admire, not Whitman theprophet of naturalness. " He spoke with appreciation of the Zen sectof Buddhists. Many of the Zen devotees were "noble and had a profoundidea. " He was unable to see "any difference at all" between the bestpart of Buddhism and the best part of Christianity. He said that hisown mysticism was based on science, art, religion and philosophy. "Mysincerest wish, " he declared, "is to produce a beautifulreconciliation of these four. As it is, too often scientists andphilosophers have no deep knowledge of religion or art, artists haveno deep knowledge of religion or science, and the religious have noidea of art. Surely the deepest religious idea is the deepest artisticand philosophic idea. Perhaps our scientists are in the poorest statejust now with no understanding of art or religion. Our scientists areimmersed in the problem of matter, our religious people in the problemof spirit, and our artists forget that in dealing with nature they aredealing with spirit as well as body. " Faced by force and science when Commander Perry came, Japan, in orderto save herself from foreign colonisation, had had to concentrate allher attention on force and science. She had concentrated her attentionwith signal success. But naturally she had had, in the process, toslacken her hold somewhat on the spiritual life. "Always remember how difficult the Japanese find it to know which wayto take. Their whole basis has been shaken and on the surface all hasbecome chaotic. Ten years hence it will be possible to take a justview. There is much reason for high hopes. For one thing, the burdenof old thought does not rest so heavily on us as might be supposed. Weare very free in many ways. In the matter of religion Japan is themost free nation in the world. If England were to become Buddhist itwould sound strange or exotic, but Japan is free to become what shemay. " "There may be a great difference between one of our temples andshrines and an English church, " Yanagi proceeded, "but I cannotbelieve in the gap which some people seem to see yawning between Eastand West. It is deplorable that the world should think that there issuch a complete difference between East and West. It is usually saidthat self-denial, asceticism, sacrifice, negation are opposed toself-affirmation, individualism, self-realisation; but I do notbelieve in such a gap. I wish to destroy the idea of a gap. It is anidea which was obtained analytically. The meeting of East and Westwill not be upon a bridge over a gap, but upon the destruction of theidea of a gap. "In future, religion cannot be limited by this or that sect or idea. Religion cannot be limited to Christianity, Buddhism, Confucianism orMahomedanism. Uchimura says that it is the essence of Christianitywhich has the power to rescue Japan from its chaotic state. But theessence of Buddhism can also contribute some important element to thefuture of Japan. The notion that the essence of Christianity and theessence of Buddhism are far apart is artificial and prejudiced. " One day some weeks later I walked with Yanagi on the hills. He said:"The weakest point in the Japanese character is the lack of the powerof questioning. We are repressed by our educational system. And somany things come here at one time that it makes confusion. What is sooften taken for a lack of originality in us is a state resulting froman immense importation of foreign ideas. They have been overpowering. Many of us have no clear ideas on life, society, sex and so on, andyou will find it difficult to get satisfactory answers to manyquestions which you will want to ask. " As to morality, it was dangerous to say "this or that is immoral. "Morality was often merely custom. Ordinary morality had scantauthority. Critics of Japanese morality should not forget that, in theopinion of Japanese, Western people were more erotic than they were. Western dancing--not to speak of Western women's evening costumes--wasundoubtedly more erotic than Japanese dancing. Again, the sexualcuriosity of foreigners seemed stronger than that manifested byJapanese. It was a well-known fact that the girls at many hotels andrestaurants had not a little to complain of from foreign men whomisjudged their naïve ways. It must be remembered that Japanese werefranker in sexual matters than Europeans and Americans. Sexualill-doing was not so much concealed as in Europe. A wrong impressionof Japanese morality was taken away by tourists whose guides showedthem, as in Paris, what they expected to see. "I wonder, " he said, "that Western visitors to Tokyo who talk of ourimmorality are not struck by the fact that in an Eastern capital aforeign lady may walk home at night and be practically safe from beingspoken to. The Japanese are undoubtedly a very kind people. They maybe unmoral, but they are not immoral. " "Most of our people do not understand liberty in the mental sexualrelations. Love is not free. In a very large proportion of cases, indeed, parents would oppose a match because a son or daughter hadfallen in love. And if it is difficult to marry for love it is noteasy to fall in love. [109] Society in which young men and young womenmeet is restricted; there are few opportunities of conversation. Without liberty towards women there can be no perfect sense ofresponsibility towards them. " What had been taught to women as the supreme virtue was the virtue ofsacrifice for father, husband, children. It was most important to letwomen know the significance of individualism. They were alwaysoffering themselves for others before they became themselves. But theidea of individuality was very little clearer to the Japanese man thanto the Japanese woman. People were too prone to wish to give 100 yenbefore they had 100 yen. The Japanese were the most devotional peoplein the world, but they hardly knew yet the things to be devoted to. Yanagi is a leading member of a small association of literary men, artists and students who graduated together from the Peers' School. They call themselves for no obvious reason the Shirakaba or SilverBirch Society. The intelligent and consistent efforts of these youngmen to introduce vital Western work in literature, philosophy, painting, sculpture, draughtsmanship and music, and the large measureof success they have attained is of some significance. Several membersof the group belong to the old Kuge families, that is the ancientnobility which surrounded the Emperor at Kyoto before theRestoration. Cut off for centuries from military and administrativeactivities by the dominance of the Shogunate Government, the Kugedevoted themselves to the arts and the refinements of life. For theexclusiveness of the past some of their descendants substituteartistic integrity. The Shirakaba has had for several years aremarkable magazine. Its editor and its publisher, its size, its priceand its date of publication are continually changed; it never makesany bid for popularity; it expresses its sentiments in a downright wayand it has always been anti-official: yet it survives and pays itsway. Beyond the magazine, the Society has had every year at least oneexhibition of what its members conceive to be significant modernEuropean work. The members have also supported a few Japanese artistsof outstanding sincerity. Through the Shirakaba the influence ofCezanne, Van Gogh, Rodin, Blake, Delacroix, Matisse, Augustus John, Beardsley, Courbet, Daumier, Maillol, Chavannes and Millet, particularly Cezanne, Van Gogh, Rodin and Blake, has been marked. TheSilver Birch group has never tired of extolling the great names ofRembrandt, Dürer, El Greco, Van Eyck, Goya, Leonardo, Michael Angelo, Tintoretto, Giotto and Mantegna[110]. While an ardent Young Japan has formed and dissolved many societies, movements and fashions, this Shirakaba group has held fast and hasgained friends by its sincerity, its vision and its audacity[111]. Rodin encouraged the Shirakaba efforts to reproduce the best Westernart by presenting it with three pieces of sculpture. "The intellectual man does no fighting, " Froude has written. Why donot Yanagi and his friends make a stand on public questions?"Because, " he said, "at the present stage of our development it isalmost impossible to take up a strong attitude, and because, importantthough political and social questions are, they are not, in ouropinion, of the first importance. To artists, philosophers, studentsof religion, such problems are secondary. More important problems are:What is the meaning of this world? What is God? What is the essence ofreligion? How can we best nourish ourselves so as to realise our ownpersonalities? Political and social problems are secondary for us atpresent; they are not related emotionally to our presentconditions[112]. For the East the Root, For the West the Fruit. "If we faced such problems directly we should probably make themprimary problems, as you do in Great Britain. Our present attitudedoes not prove, however, that we are cold to political and socialproblems. In fact, when we think of these terrible political andsocial questions they make us boil. But you will understand that inorder to have something to give to others, we must have thatsomething. We are seeking after that something. " Yanagi, continuing, spoke of the direct contribution which the newartistic movement in Japan, under the influence of modern Western art, was making to the solution of political and social questions[113]. Theinterest of the younger generation in Post Impressionism was "quitedisharmonious with the ordinary attitude towards militarism. "European art broke down barriers in the Japanese mind. When theyounger generation, nourished on higher ideals, grew up, it would bethe State, and there would be a more hopeful condition of affairs. People generally supposed that social questions were the mostpractical; but religious, artistic, philosophic questions were, in thetruest sense of the word, the most practical. Yanagi went on to tell of his devotion to Blake. He could notunderstand "why Englishmen are so cool to him. " He asked me how it wasthat there was no word about Blake in Andrew Lang's work on Englishliterature. "I cannot imagine, " he said, "why such an intelligent mancould not appreciate Blake. " Yanagi regarded Blake as "the artist ofimmense will, of immense desire, and a man in whom can be seen thataffirmative attitude towards life, exhibited later by Whitman. " Yanagispoke also of "Anglo-Saxon nobility, liberty, depth of character andhealthiness, " and of "a deep and noble character" in Englishliterature which he did not find elsewhere. Whitman, Emerson, Poe andWilliam James were "the crown of America. " As I close this chapter I recall Yanagi's library, in the service ofwhich, bettering Mark Pattison's example, two-thirds of its owner'sincome was for some time expended. I remember the thatched dwellingoverlooking the quiet reed-bound lagoon with its frosty sunrises, redmoonrises and apparitions of Fuji above the clouds seventy miles away. No Western visitor whom I took to Abiko failed to be moved by thatroom, designed by Yanagi himself in every detail, wherein East meetsWest in harmony. I have made note of his Western books but not of theclassics and strange mystic writings of Chinese and Korean priests inpiles of thin volumes in soft bindings of blue or brown. I have notmentioned a Rembrandt drawing and next to it the vigorous but restfulbrush lines of an artist priest of the century that brought Buddhismto Japan; severe little gilt-bronze figures of deities from China, alittle older; pottery figures of exquisite beauty from the tombs ofTang, a little later; Sung pottery, a dynasty farther on; Koraiceladons from Korean tombs of the same epoch; and whites and blue andwhites of Ming and Korean Richo. On the wall a black and yellow tigeris "burning bright" on a strip of blood-red silk tapestry woven on aChinese loom for a Taoist priest 500 years ago. Cimabue's portrait ofSt. Francis breathes over Yanagi's writing desk from one side, whilefrom the other Blake's amazing life mask looks down "with its Egyptianpower of form added to the intensity of Western individualism. " Theseare Yanagi's silent friends. His less quiet friends of the flesh havefelt that this room was a sanctuary and Yanagi a priest of eternalthings, but a priest without priestcraft, a priest living joyously inthe world. Above his desk is inscribed the line of Blake: Thou also, dwellest in eternity and Kepler's aspiration, "My wish is that I may perceive God whom Ifind everywhere in the external world in like manner within andwithout me. " FOOTNOTES: [107] One of the reasons assigned for the suicide of the General wasthoughts of his responsibility for the terrible slaughter in theassaults on Port Arthur. [108] Mrs. Yanagi is one of the best contraltos heard at the nownumerous Japanese concerts of Western music. [109] _Shinjū_, or suicide for love, the girl often being a geisha, iscommon. [110] "I am inclined to think, " wrote Yanagi in 1921, in a paper onKorean art, "that we have paid if anything rather too much attentionto European works while making little effort to pay attention to whatlies much nearer to us. " [111] POLICE STANDARDS. --The sale of one issue of the magazine wasprohibited by the police, who found a nude "antagonistic to theordinary standard of public morals. " The editors' answer nextmonth--the police standard being, "No front views"--was to publishhalf a dozen more nudes with their backs to the reader. [112] It will be remembered that this conversation took place in thesummer of 1915 at the outset of my investigation. Since then, as notedthroughout this book, economic questions have increasingly pressedthemselves forward. I may mention that in 1919 Yanagi wrote avigorous and moving protest against misgovernment in Korea. In arecent letter to me he says: "You know that I am going to establish aKorean Folk Art Society in Seoul. This is a big work, but I want to doit with all my power for love of Korea. I approach the solution of theKorean question by the way of Art. Politics can never solve thequestion. I want to use the gallery as a meeting-place of Koreans andJapanese. People cannot quarrel in beauty. This is my simple yetdefinite belief. " Yanagi's manifesto on his project made one think ofthe age when the great culture of China and India glowed across thestraits of Tsushima in the wake of early Buddhism. [113] A well-known member of the Shirakaba group started two years agoan "ideal village" among the mountains. It is an effort towards socialfreedom in which the police manifest a continuous interest. ACROSS JAPAN (TOKYO TO NIIGATA ANDBACK) CHAPTER XII TO THE HILLS (TOKYO, SAITAMA, TOCHIGI AND FUKUSHIMA) Nothing which concerns a _countryman_ is a matter of unconcern tome. --TERENCE During the month of July I went from one side of Japan to the other, starting from Tokyo, across the sea from which lies America, andcoming out at Niigata, across the sea from which lies Siberia. We first made a four hours' railway run through the great Kwanto plain(6, 000 square miles). Travelling is comfortable on such a trip, fortravellers take off their coats and waistcoats, and the train-boy--hehas the word "Boy" on his collar in English--brings fans and bedroomslippers. The fans, which on one side advertised "Hotels in Europeanstyle, directly managed by the Imperial Government Railway[114], "offered on the other a poem and a drawing. A poem addressed to a snailplayed with the idea of its giving its life to climbing Fuji. The poemwas composed by a poet who wrote many delightful _hokku_(seventeen-syllable poems), showing a humorous sympathy with thehumblest creatures. One poem is: Come and play with me, Thou orphan sparrow! Like Burns, Issa addressed a poem to a louse. As we climbed from the vicinity of the sea to higher lands someonerecalled the saying about saints living in the mountains and sages bythe sea. Speaking of religion, one man said that he had known ofpeople giving half their income to religious purposes. He alsomentioned that for some years his mother had gone to hear a sermon ina Japanese Christian church every Sunday, but she still served herBuddhist shrine. It was at an inn at the hot spring near the Mount Nasu volcano--theodour of the sulphurous hot water was everywhere in the district--thatI first enjoyed the attentions of the blind _amma_ (_masseur_ or_masseuse_), the call of whose plaintive pipe is heard every eveningin the smallest community. _Amma san_ rubbed and pommelled me for anhour for 28 sen. The _amma_ does not massage the skin, but worksthrough the _yukata_ (bath gown) of the patient. I had my massaging asI knelt with the other guests of the inn at an entertainment arrangedfor the benefit of residents. The entertainers, professional andnon-professional--the non-professionals were local farmers--knelt on alow platform or danced in front of it. They were extraordinarily able. A dramatic tale by one of the story-tellers was about a yokelish youngwrestler and a daimyo. Another described the woes and suicide of anold-time Court lady. The next day we started on foot on a seven miles' climb of thevolcano. Its lower slopes were covered with a variety of thatknee-high bamboo with a creeping root, which is so troublesome tofarmers when they break up new ground. One variety is said to blossomand fruit once in sixty years and then die. An ingenious professor hastraced mice plagues to this habit. In the year in which the bamboofruits the mice increase and multiply exceedingly. Suddenly their foodsupply gives out and they descend to the plains to live with thefarmers. At length we came in sight of the smoke and vapour of the volcano. Soon we were near the top, where the white trunks and branches of deadtrees and scrub, killed by falling ash or gusts of vapour, dotted anawesome desolation of calcined and fused stone and solidified mud. Atthe summit we looked down into the churning horror of the volcano'svat and at different spots saw the treacly sulphur pouring out, brilliant yellow with red streaks. The man to whom there first camethe idea of hell and a prisoned revengeful power must surely havelooked into a crater. In the throat of this crater there seethed andspluttered an ugliness that was scarlet, green, brown and yellow. Thesound of the steam blowing off was like the roar of the sea. The airwas stifling. It was very hot, and there was a high eerie wind. Adventurous men had built rude bulwarks of stone over some of theorifices, and in this way had compelled the volcano to furnish themwith sulphur free from dirt. The production of sulphur in Japan isvalued at close on three million yen. As we went on our journey we spoke of the sturdiness and cheeriness ofour chief carrier, who had told us that he was seventy. I asked him ifhe thought it fair that he should have to walk so far on a hot daywith so much to carry while we were empty-handed. He replied that itmight appear to be unjust, but that he was happy enough. He said thathe had lived long and seen many things, and he knew that to be richwas not always to be happy. He quoted the proverb, "Sunshine and ricemay be found everywhere, " and the poem which may be rendered, "If youlook at a water-fowl thoughtlessly you may imagine that she hasnothing to do but float quietly on the water, yet she is moving herfeet ceaselessly beneath the surface. " At the little hot spring inn where we next stayed, insect powder wason sale, not without reasonable hope of patronage by the guests. The_Asahi_ once facetiously reported that I had taken on a journey three_to_ (six pecks) of insect powder. The chief protector of the prudenttraveller in remote Japan is a giant pillowslip of cotton. He getsinto it and ties the strings together under his chin. The mats andfuton of old-fashioned hotels are full of fleas. The hard cylindricalJapanese pillow has no doubt its tenants also, but I never gotaccustomed to using it, and laid my head on a doubled-up kneelingcushion. A foot-high partition separated the men's hot bath from the women's. My cold bath in the morning I found I had to take unselfconsciously ata water-gush in front of the house. As the food was poor here, wewere glad of our tinned food and ship's biscuits. This was of coursein a remote part. Apart from ordinary Japanese food, there are usuallyavailable at the inns chicken, fish of some sort, eggs, omelettes andsoups. With a pot of jam or two and some powdered milk in one's bag, one can live fairly well. Fresh milk can now be got in unlikely placeson giving notice overnight. It is produced for invalids and children. If one makes no fuss, remembers one is a traveller who has resolved tosee rural Japan, and realises that the inn people will try to do theirbest, one will not fare so badly. On the railway one is well cateredfor by the provision of _bento_ (lunch) boxes, sold on the platformsof stations. These chip boxes contain rice (hot), cold omelette, coldfish or chicken and assorted pickles, and provide an appetising andinexpensive meal. Monkeys, bears and antelopes are shot in this district. One man spokeof a troop of eighty monkeys. In the high mountain regions there arestill people who escape the census and live a wild life. The recordsof a gipsy folk called Sanka have a history going back 700 or 800years. As we wound our way up and down the hill-sides we saw evidence of"fire-farming. " It is the simple method by which a small tract with afavourable aspect is cleared by fire and cultivated, and then, whenthe fertility is exhausted, abandoned. I was assured that afterfire-farming "tea springs up naturally, " and that though tea-drinkingmay have been introduced from China there could not be such largeareas of tea growing wild if tea were not indigenous. Most of our paths lay through woods and matted vegetation. I noticedthat trees were often felled in order that mushrooms might be grown onand around their trunks. There is a large consumption of thesetree-grown mushrooms in Japan and an export trade worth two and a halfmillion yen. [Illustration: CULTIVATION TO THE HILL-TOPS. ] An inscribed stone by our path was a reminder of the belief in"mountain maidens. " They have the undoubted merit of not being "sopeevish as fairies. " At another stone, before which was a pile ofsmall stones, a farmer told us that when a traveller threw a stoneon the heap he "left behind his tiredness. " [Illustration: IMPLEMENTS, MEASURES AND MACHINES, AND A BALE OF RICEThe photograph was taken in Aichi-ken. P. 73] In the first house we came to we found a young widow turning bowlswith power from a water-wheel. She could finish 400 bowls in a day andgot from one to five sen apiece. She said that she had often wished tosee a foreigner. Like nearly all the girls and women of the hills, shewore close-fitting blue cotton trousers. We descended to a kind of prairie which had a tree here and there androughly wooded hills on either side. This brought us to the problem ofthe wise method of dealing with the enormous wood-bearing areas of thecountry, the timber crop of which is so irregular in quality. Japanrequires many more scientifically planned forests. As coal is not indomestic use, however, large quantities of cheap wood are needed forburning and for charcoal making. The demand for hill pasture is alsoincreasing. How shall the claims of good timber, good firewood, goodcharcoal-making material and good pasture be reconciled? In the countythrough which we were passing--a county which, owing to its largeconsumption of wood fuel, needs relatively little charcoal--thecharcoal output was worth as much as 35, 000 yen a year. We saw "buckwheat in full bloom as white as snow, " as the Chinese poemsays. At a farmhouse there was a box fixed on a barn wall. It was forcommunications for the police from persons who desired to make theirsuggestions for the public welfare privately. Towards evening, when we had done about twenty miles, I managed totwist an ankle. Happily I had the chance of a ride. It was on the backof a dour-looking mare which was accompanied by her foal and tied by ahalter to the saddle of a led pack-horse which was carrying two largeboxes. Thus impressively I did several miles in descending darknessand across the rocky beds of two rivers. The horse of this district isa downcast-looking animal in spite of the fact that it is stalledunder the same roof as its owner and is thus able to share to someextent in his family life. At the town at which we at last arrived, the comfort of the hot bathwas enhanced by a sturdy lass of the inn who unasked and unannouncedcame and applied herself resolutely to scrubbing and knuckling ourbacks. The next day I went to the principal school. There were in the placethree primary schools, one with a branch for agricultural work. The"attendance" at the principal school, where there were 379 boys andgirls, was 98 per cent, for the boys and 94 per cent, for thegirls. [115] The buildings were most creditable to a small place fiftymiles from a railway station. The community had met the whole cost outof its official funds and by subscriptions. More than half theexpenditure of many a village is on education, which in Japan iscompulsory but not free. One cannot but be impressed by the pridewhich is taken in the local schools. The dominating man-made featureof the landscape is less frequently than might be supposed a temple ora shrine: where the picture which catches the eye is not the vastexpanse of the crops of the plain or the marvels of terracing for hillcrops, it is the long, low school building, set almost invariably onthe best possible site. The poorly paid men and women teachers areearnest and devoted, and their influence must be far-reaching. Theyare rewarded in part, no doubt, by the respect which pupils and thegeneral public give to the _sensei_ (teacher). [116] At the school Ivisited, the children, as is customary, swept and washed out theschoolrooms and kept the playground trim. Above one teacher's deskwere the following admonitions: Be obedient. Be decent. Be active. Be social. Be serious. "Be serious"!--graver small folk sit in no schools in the world. Here, as usual, corporal punishment was never given. I suggested to teachersall sorts of juvenile delinquencies, but their faith in thesufficiency of reprimands, of "standing out" and of detention afterschool hours was unshaken. A new wing, a beautiful piece of carpenter's work, had cost 4, 000 yen, a large sum in Japan, where wood and village labour are equally cheap. It was to be used chiefly for the gymnastics which are steadily addingto the stature of the Japanese people. At one end there was anopening, about 20 ft. Across and 5 ft. Deep, designed as an honourableplace for the portraits of the Emperor and Empress, which are solemnlyexposed to view on Imperial birthdays[117]. Apart from a local spirit of pride and emulation and a belief ineducation, one of the reasons for the building of new schools andadding to old ones is to be found in the recent extension of theperiod of compulsory attendance. It used to be from six to ten yearsof age; it is now from six to twelve. The visitor to Japan usuallyunder-estimates the ages of children because they are so small. Japanese boys grow suddenly from about fifteen to sixteen. In the whole of this county, with a population of 35, 000, there were, I learnt at the county offices, 22 elementary schools with 36 branchschools, 3 secondary schools and 17 winter schools. Within the samearea there were 46 Buddhist temples with about 60 priests, and 125Shinto shrines with 11 priests. The chief police officer, in chatting with me, mentioned that, out of71 charges of theft, only 47 were proceeded with. When charges werenot proceeded with it was either because restitution had been made orthe chief constable had exercised his discretion and dismissed theoffender with a reprimand. When transgressors are dismissed with areprimand an eye is kept on them for a year. As the Japanese are inconsiderable awe of their police, I have no doubt that, as wasexplained to me, those who have lapsed into evil-doing, but arereleased from custody with a warning, may "tremble and correct theirconduct. " In the whole county in a year 14, 400 admonitions were givenat 14 police stations. The noteworthy thing in the criminalstatistics is the small proportion of crime against women andchildren. The fact that the county was in a remote part of Japan may be held, perhaps, to account for the fact that there were in it, I was assured, only 14 geisha and 8 women known to be of immoral character. All ofthem were living in the town and they were said to be chieflypatronised by commercial travellers and imported labourers. I was toldthat there were pre-nuptial relations between many young men and youngwomen. Two undoubted authorities in the district agreed that theycould not answer for the chastity of any young men before marriage orof "as many as 10 per cent. " of the young women. In an effort to savethe reputation of their daughters, fathers sometimes registerillegitimate children as the offspring of themselves and their wives. Or when an unmarried girl is about to have a child her father may callthe neighbours to a feast and announce to them the marriage of hisdaughter to her lover. The figures for illegitimate births arevitiated by the fact that in Japan children are recorded asillegitimate who are born to people who have omitted to register theirotherwise respectable unions. [118] In the county in which I was travelling I was assured that half thestill births might be put down to immoral relations and half toimperfect nourishment or overworking of the mother. In this districtgirls marry from 17 or 18, men from 18 to 30. The town was full of country people who had come to see the festival. One feature of it was the performance of plays on four ancient wheeledstages of a simplicity in construction that would have delightedWilliam Poel. Formerly these plays were given by the local youths; nowprofessional actors are employed. The different acts of the historicaldramas which were performed were divided into half a dozen scenes, andwhen one of these scenes had been enacted the stage was wheeledfarther along the street. At the conclusion of each scene some threedozen small boys, all wearing the white-and-black speckled cottonkimono and German caps which are the common wear of lads throughoutJapan, would swarm up on the stage, and, with fans waved downwards, would yell at the pitch of their voices an ancient jingle, whichseemed to signify "Push, push, push and go on!" This was addressed toa score or so of young men who with loud shouts hauled the heavystage-wagon along the street. The performances on the four movingtheatres went on simultaneously and sometimes the cars passed oneanother. The performances were given on the eve and on the day andthrough the night of the festival. The acting was amazingly good, considering the July heat and the cramped conditions in which theactors worked. Happy boys sat at the back of the scenes fanning theplayers. Our kindly and voluble landlady was not satisfied with thenumber of times the stages stopped before her inn. She loudlythreatened the youths who were dragging them that she would reclaimsome properties she had lent and tell her dead husband of theiringratitude! At one of the booths which had been opened for the festival by astrolling company there were women actors, contrary to the conventionof the Japanese stage on which men enact female rôles and in doing souse a special falsetto. Some of these actresses performed men's parts. At every performance in a Japanese theatre, as I have alreadymentioned, a policeman is provided with a chair on a special platform, or in an otherwise favourable position, so that he can view and ifnecessary censor what is going on. The constable at this particularplay was kind enough to offer me his seat. The rest of the audiencewas content with the floor. The poor little company of players broughtto their work both ability and an artistic conscience, but they had todo everything in the rudest way. They were in no way embarrassed bythe attendants frequently trimming the inferior oil lamps on thestage. A little girl on the floor, entranced by the performance on thestage, or curious about some detail of it, ran forward and laid herchin on the boards and studied the actors at leisure. The folk in thefront row of the gallery dangled their naked legs for coolness. One of my friends asked me how we managed in the West to identify thepeople who wanted to leave the theatre between the acts. I explainedthat as our performances did not last from early afternoon untilnearly midnight it was rare for anyone to wish to leave a theatreuntil the play was over. At a Japanese playhouse, however, a portionof the audience may be disposed to go home at some stage of theproceedings and return later. The careful manager of a small theatreidentifies these patrons by impressing a small stamp on the palms oftheir hands. From the theatre we went to the travelling shows. They charged 2 sen. We were shown a mermaid, peepshows, a snake, an unhappy bear, threedoleful monkeys and some stuffed animals which may or may not have hadin life an uncommon number of legs. There was a barefaced imposture bya young and pretty show-woman who insisted that two marmots in her lapwere the offspring of a girl. "Look, " she cried, "at two sisters, thedaughters of one mother. See their hands!" And she held up their paws. She rounded off the fraud by feeding the creatures with condensedmilk. As I returned to the inn from these Elizabethan scenes I noticed thatI was preceded in the crowd by a spectacled policeman who carried apaper lantern. Although, as I have explained, the stage plays given inthe street were continued all night, only one arrest was made. Theprisoner was a drunkard who proved to be a medicine seller butdescribed himself as a journalist. I went to see the clean wooden cellwhere topers are confined until they are sober. It had a very lowdoor, so that culprits might be compelled to enter and leave humbly ontheir knees. We had begun our festival day at six in the morning by attending acelebration at the Shinto shrine. "Although it is no longer necessary, perhaps, to attend the ceremony in a special kind of _geta_, " said ourlandlady, "it would be as well if you observed the old rule not toattend without taking a bath in the early morning. "[119] At the ancient shrine the townspeople whose turn it was to attend theannual function had assembled in ceremonial costumes. One man wore hishair tied up in the fashion of the old prints. The plaintive strainsof old instruments made the strange appeal of all folk music. Adecorous procession was headed by the piebald pony of the shrine. Youths and maidens carried aloft tubs of rice, vegetables, fish and_saké_. These were received by the chief priest. He carefully placed astrip of cloth before his mouth and nose[120] and addressed the chiefdeity, all heads being bowed. Then the priest placed the offerings inthe darkened interior of the shrine. There was a cheery naturalness inall the proceedings. A few small children in gay holiday dress ranfreely among the worshippers and encountered indulgent smiles. When anend had been made of offering food and drink the priest within theshrine read a second message to the deity. Again all heads were bowed. His thin voice was heard in the morning quiet, interrupted only by achild's cry, the twittering of birds and the wind rustling thecryptomeria, dark against the blue of the hills. After the ceremony the food and drink which had been brought by thepeople were consumed by the priests and the country folk in a largeroom of the chief priest's house. We were given ceremonial _saké_ towhich rice had been added and as mementoes little cakes and driedfish. Not so long ago the presence of a foreigner would have beenunwelcome at such a ceremony as we had witnessed: the fear of"contagion of foreigners" extended even to people from anotherprefecture. To-day the amiable priest placed in our hands for a fewmoments a small Buddha supposed to be six centuries old. Before the festival the priest had observed certain taboos for eightdays. He had avoided meeting persons in mourning and his food had beencooked at a specially prepared fire. He had been careful not to touchother persons, particularly women; he had bathed several times dailyin cold water and he had said many prayers. The heads of the householdin the community whose turn it was to attend at the shrine were alsosupposed to have observed some of the same taboos. Only those personsmight make offerings at the shrine whose fathers and mothers wereliving. [121] Formerly portions of the offerings of rice and _saké_ atthe shrine were solemnly given to a young girl. In this district, when we discussed the influences which made formoral or non-material improvement, everyone put the school first. Thencame home training. In this part of the world the Buddhist priest wastoo often indifferent; the Shinto priest worked at his farm. Oneperson well qualified to express an opinion said that a "wise andbenevolent" chief constable could exercise a good moral influence. Others believed in public opinion. A policeman said, "The first thingis for people to have food and clothes; without such primarysatisfaction it is very difficult to expect them to be moral. " Inconsidering the influence of the police and the schoolmaster it is notwithout interest to remember that a chief of police and the head of aschool receive about the same salary. Assistant teachers and plainconstables are also on an equality. I found the salary of theadministrative head of one county, the _gunchō_, to be only 2, 000 yena year. I was told that in the prefecture we were passing through there wereno fewer than 360 co-operative societies. The credit branches had acapital of two million yen; the purchase and sale branches showed aturnover of three million yen. In time of famine, due to too low atemperature for the rice or to floods which drown the crop, co-operation had proved its value. The prefectures north of Tokyofacing the Pacific are the chief victims of famine, for near Sendaithe warm current from the south turns off towards America. I was toldthat the number of persons who actually die as the result of faminehas been "exaggerated. " The number in 1905 was "not more than ahundred. " These unfortunates were infants "and infirm people whosuffered from lack of suitable nourishment. " Every year thedevelopment of railway and steam communications makes easier the taskof relieving famine sufferers. [122] In the old days people were oftenfound dead who had money but were unable to get food for it. As Japanis a long island with varying climates there is never generalscarcity. FOOTNOTES: [114] For statistics of railways, see Appendix XXXV. [115] The percentage of children "attending" school for the whole ofJapan is officially reported in 1918 as: cities, 98. 18 per cent. ;villages, 99. 23 per cent. ; but this does not mean daily attendance. [116] Since 1919 the salaries of elementary school teachers have beenraised to 26, 16 and 15 yen per month, according to grade. [117] Only last year (1921) another schoolmaster lost his life in anendeavour to save the Emperor's portrait from his burning school. [118] See Appendix XXXVI. [119] A hot bath is ordinarily obtainable only in the afternoon andevening in most Japanese hotels. In the morning people are contentmerely with rinsing their hands and face. [120] In addressing a superior, many Japanese still draw in theirbreath from time to time audibly. [121] That is, persons who might be considered not to have failed intheir filial duties. [122] After the failure of the 1918-19 crop in India, 600, 000 personswere in receipt of famine relief. CHAPTER XIII THE DWELLERS IN THE HILLS(FUKUSHIMA) I didn't visit this place in the hope of seeing fine prospects--my studyis man. --BORROW Before I left the town I had a chat with a landowner who turned histenants' rent rice into _saké_. He was of the fifth generation ofbrewers. He said that in his childhood drunken men often lay about thestreet; now, he said, drunken men were only to be seen on festivaldays. There had been a remarkable development in the trade in flavouredaerated waters, "lemonade" and "cider champagne" chiefly. I foundthese beverages on sale in the remotest places, for the Japanese havethe knack of tying a number of bottles together with rope, which makesthem easily transportable. The new lager beers, which are advertisedeverywhere, have also affected the consumption of _saké_. [123] _Saké_is usually compared with sherry. It is drunk mulled. At a banquet, lasting five or six hours or longer, a man "strong in _saké_" mayconceivably drink ten _go_ (a _go_ is about one-third of a pint)before achieving drunkenness, but most people would be affected bythree _go_. Some of the topers who boast of the quantity of _saké_they can consume--I have heard of men declaring that they could drinktwenty _go_--are cheated late in the evening by the waiting-maids. Thelittle _saké_ bottles are opaque, and it is easy to remove them forrefilling before they are quite empty. The brewer, who was a firm adherent of the Jishu sect of Buddhists, was accustomed to burn incense with his family at the domestic shrineevery morning. But this was not the habit of all the adherents of hisdenomination. As to the moral advancement of the neighbourhood, hisgrandfather "tried very earnestly to improve the district by means ofreligion, but without result. " He himself attached most value toeducation and after that to young men's associations. As we left the town we passed a "woman priest" who was walking toNikko, eighty miles away. Portraits of dead people, entrusted to herby their relatives for conveyance to distant shrines, were hung roundher body. As the route became more and more hilly I realised how accurate isthat representation of hills in Japanese art which seems odd beforeone has been in Japan: the landscape stands out as if seen in a flashof lightning. Three things by the way were arresting: the number of shrines, mostlydedicated to the fox god; the rice suspended round the farm buildingsor drying on racks; and the masses of evening primroses, called inJapan "moon-seeing flowers. " A feature of every village was one or more barred wooden shedscontaining fire-extinguishing apparatus, often provided and worked bythe young men's association. Sometimes a piece of ground was describedto me as "the training ground of the fire defenders. " The nightpatrols of the village were young fellows chosen in turn by theconstable from the fire-prevention parties, made up by the youths ofthe village. There stood up in every village a high perpendicularladder with a bell or wooden clapper at the top to give the alarm. Theemblem of the fire brigade, a pole with white paper streamersattached, was sometimes distinguished by a yellow paper streamerawarded by the prefecture. On a sweltering July day it was difficult to realise that the villageswe passed through, now half hidden in foliage, might be under 7 ft. Ofsnow in winter. In travelling in this hillier region one has an extra_kurumaya_, who pushes behind or acts as brakeman. At the "place of the seven peaks" we found a stone dedicated to theworship of the stars which form the Plough. Again and again I noticedshrines which had before them two tall trees, one larger than theother, called "man and wife. " It was explained to me that "therecannot be a more sacred place than where husband and wife standtogether. " A small tract of cryptomeria on the lower slopes of a hillbelonged to the school. The children had planted it in honour of themarriage of the Emperor when he was Crown Prince. Often the burial-grounds, the stones of which are seldom more thanabout 2 ft. High by 6 ins. Wide, are on narrow strips of roadsidewaste. (The coffin is commonly square, and the body is placed in it inthe kneeling position so often assumed in life. ) Here, as elsewhere, there seemed to be rice fields in every spot where rice fields couldpossibly be made. On approaching a village the traveller is flattered by receiving thebows of small girls and boys who range themselves in threes and foursto perform their act of courtesy. I was told that the children aretaught at school to bow to foreigners. I remember that in the remotervillages of Holland the stranger also received the bows of youngpeople. On the house of the headman of one village were displayed charms forprotection from fire, theft and epidemic. We spoke of weather signs, and he quoted a proverb, "Never rely on the glory of the morning or onthe smile of your mother-in-law. " We had before us a week's travel by _kuruma_. Otherwise we should haveliked to have brought away specimens of the wooden utensils of some ofthe villages. The travelling woodworker whom we often encountered--hehas to travel about in order to reach new sources of wood supply--hasbeen despised because of his unsettled habits, but I was told thatthere was a special deity to look after him. In the town we had leftthere was delightful woodwork, but most of the draper's stuff waspitiful trash made after what was supposed to be foreign fashions. Imay also mention the large collection of blood-and-thunder storiesupon Western models which were piled up in the stationers' shops. As we walked up into the hills--the _kuruma_ men were sent by aneasier route--we passed plenty of sweet chestnuts and saw largemasses of blue single hydrangea and white and pink spirea. We came onthe ruined huts of those who had burnt a bit of hillside and takenfrom it a few crops of buckwheat. The charred trunks of trees stood upamong the green undergrowth that had invaded the patches. There was agreat deal of plantain and a _kurumaya_ mentioned that sometimes whenchildren found a dead frog they buried it in leaves of that plant. Japanese children are also in the habit of angling for frogs with apiece of plantain. The frogs seize the plantain and are jerked ashore. We took our lunch on a hill top. It had been a stiff climb and wemarvelled at the expense to which a poor county must be put for themaintenance of roads which so often hang on cliff sides or spantorrents. The great piles of wood accumulated at the summit turned thetalk to "silent trade. " In "silent trade" people on one side of a hilltraded with people on the other side without meeting. The productswere taken to the hill top and left there, usually in a rough shedbuilt to protect the goods from rain. The exchange might be on theprinciple of barter or of cash payment. But the amount of goods givenin exchange or the cash payment made was left to honour. "Silenttrade" still continues in certain parts of Japan. Sometimes the priceexpected for goods is written up in the shed. "Silent trade"originated because of fears of infectious disease; it survives becauseit is more convenient for one who has goods to sell or to buy totravel up and down one side of a mountain than up and down two sides. As we proceeded on our way we were once more struck by theextraordinary wealth of wood. Here is a country where every householdis burning wood and charcoal daily, a country where not only thehouses but most of the things in common use are made of wood; andthere seems to be no end to the trees that remain. It is little wonderthat in many parts there has been and is improvident use of wood. Happily every year the regulation of timber areas and wise plantingmake progress. But for many square miles of hillside I saw there is nofitting word but jungle. At the small ramshackle hot-spring inns of the remote hills theguests are mostly country folk. Many of them carefully bring their ownrice and _miso_, and are put up at a cost of about 10 sen a day. Inthe passage ways one finds rough boxes about 4 ft. Square full of woodash in the centre of which charcoal may be burned and kettles boiled. We were in a region where there is snow from the middle of November tothe middle of April. For two-thirds of December and January the snowis never less than 2 ft. Deep. The attendance of the children at oneschool during the winter was 95 per cent. For boys and 90 per cent. For girls. (See note, p. 112. ) My _kurumaya_ pointed to a mountain top where, he said, there werenearly three acres of beautiful flowers. The rice fields in the hillswere suffering from lack of water and a deputation of villagers hadgone ten miles into the mountains to pray for rain. It is wonderful atwhat altitudes rice fields are contrived. I noted some at 2, 500 ft. Inlooking down from a place where the cliff road hung out over the riverthat flowed a hundred feet below I noticed a stone image lying on itsback in the water. It may have come there by accident, but the duckingof such a figure in order to procure rain is not unknown. At an inn I asked one of the greybeards who courteously visited us ifthere would be much competition for his seat when he retired from thevillage assembly. He thought that there would be several candidates. In the town from which we had set out on our journey through thehighlands a doctor had spent 500 yen in trying to get on the assembly. The tea at this resting place was poor and someone quoted the proverb, "Even the devil was once eighteen and bad tea has its tolerable firstcup. " On going to the village office I found that for a population of2, 000 there were, in addition to the village shrine, sixteen othershrines and three Buddhist temples. Against fire there were four firepumps and 155 "fire defenders. " A dozen of the young men of thevillage were serving in the army, four were home on furlough, six wereinvalided and forty were of the reserve. As many as thirty-seven hadmedals. The doctors were two in number and the midwives three. Therewas a sanitary committee of twenty-three members. The revenue of thevillage was 5, 740 yen. It had a fund of 740 yen "against time offamine. " The taxes paid were 2, 330 yen for State tax, 2, 460 yen forprefectural tax and 4, 350 yen for village tax. The village possessedtwo co-operative societies, a young men's association, a Buddhistyoung men's association, a Buddhist young women's association, asociety for the development of knowledge, a society of the graduatesof the primary school, two thrift organisations, a society for"promoting knowledge and virtue, " and an association the members ofwhich "aimed at becoming distinguished. " There were in the villageninety subscribers to the Red Cross and two dozen members of thenational Patriotic Women's Association. In the county through which we were moving there was gold, silver andcopper mining. [124] Out of its population of 36, 000 only 632 wereentitled to vote for an M. P. We rested at a school where the motto was, "Even in this good reign Ipray because I wish to make our country more glorious. " There wereportraits of four deceased local celebrities and of Peter the Great, Franklin, Lincoln, Commander Perry and Bismarck. Illustrated wallcharts showed how to sit on a school seat, how to identify poisonousplants and how to conform to the requirements of etiquette. Thefollowing admonitions were also displayed--a copy of them is given toeach child, who is expected to read the twelve counsels every morningbefore coming to school: 1. --Do your own work and don't rely on others to do it. 2. --Be ardent when you learn or play. 3. --Endeavour to do away with your bad habits and cultivate good ones. 4. --Never tell a lie and be careful when you speak. 5. --Do what you think right in your heart and at the same time have good manners. 6. --Overcome difficulties and never hold back from hard work. 7. --Do not make appointments which you are uncertain to keep. 8. --Do not carelessly lend or borrow. 9. --Do not pass by another's difficulties and do not give another much trouble. 10. --Be careful about things belonging to the public as well as about things belonging to yourself. 11. --Keep the outside and inside of the school clean and also take care of waste paper. 12. --Never play with a grumbling spirit. There was stuck on the roofs of many houses a rod with a piece ofwhite paper attached, a charm against fire. One house so provided wasnext door to the fire station. Frequently we passed a children's_jizō_ or Buddha, comically decked in the hat and miscellaneousgarments of youngsters whose grateful mothers believed them to havebeen cured by the power of the deity. Speaking of clothes, it was the hottest July weather and the naturalgarment was at most a loin cloth. The women wore a piece of red orcoloured cotton from their waist to their knees. The backs of the menand women who were working in the open were protected by a flappingricestraw mat or by an armful of green stuff. The boys under ten or sowere naked and so were many little girls. But the influence of theWesternising period ideas of what was "decent" in the presence offoreigners survives. So, whenever a policeman was near, people of allages were to be seen huddling on their kimonos. I was sorry for amerry group of boys and girls aged 12 or 13 who in that torridweather[125] were bathing at an ideal spot in the river and suddenlycaught sight of a policeman. It is deplorable that a consciousness ofnakedness should be cultivated when nakedness is natural, traditionaland hygienic. (Even in the schools the girls are taught to make theirkimonos meet at the neck--with a pin![126]--much higher than they usedto be worn. ) It is only fair to bear in mind, however, that somehurrying on of clothes by villagers is done out of respect to thepassing superior, before whom it is impolite to appear withoutpermission half dressed or wearing other than the usual clothing. At a hot spring we found many patrons because, as I was told, "Ox-dayis very suitable for bathing. " The old pre-Meiji days of the week weretwelve: Rat-, Ox-, Tiger-, Hare-, Dragon-, Snake-, Horse-, Sheep-, Monkey-, Fowl-, Dog-and Boar-day. When the Western seven days of theweek were adopted they were rendered into Japanese as: Sun, Moon, Fire, Water, Wood, Metal and Earth, followed by the word meaning staror planet and day. For instance, Sunday is _Nichi_ (Sun) _yo_ (star)_bi_ (day), and Monday, _Getsu_ (Moon) _yo_ (planet) _bi_ (day), or_Nichi-yo-bi_ and _Getsu-yo-bi_. For brevity the _bi_ is often droppedoff. The headman of a village we passed through told me that the occasionof my coming was the first on which English had been heard in thoseparts. Talking about the people of his village, he said that there hadbeen four divorces in the year. Once in four or five years a child wasborn within a few months of marriage. In the whole county there hadbeen among 310 young men examined for the army only four cases of"disgraceful disease. " There was no immoral woman in the 75-miles-longvalley. Elsewhere in the county many young men were in debt, but inthe headman's village no youth was without a savings-bank book. Andthe local men-folk "did not use women's savings as in some places. " One shrine we passed seemed to be dedicated to the moon. Another wasintended to propitiate the horsefly. Several villages had boxesfastened on posts for the reception of broken glass. As we approachedone village I saw an inscription put up by the young men'sassociation, "Good Crops and Prosperity to the Village. " When we cameto the next village the schoolmaster was responsible for aninscription, "Peace to the World and Safety to the State. " In otherplaces I found young men's society notice boards giving informationabout the area of land in a village, how it was cropped, the kind ofcrops, the area of forest, lists of famous places, etc. [Illustration: MOVABLE STAGE AT A FESTIVAL FIFTY MILES FROM A RAILWAY. P. 114] [Illustration: FARMHOUSE AT WHICH MR. UCHIMURA PREACHED. P. 94] In the gorges we rode over many suspension bridges and crossed thebackbone of Japan in unforgettable scenes of romantic beauty. Fromthe craggy paths of our highlands, amid a wealth not only of gorgeousflowers and greenery but of great velvety butterflies, we saw thefar-off snow-clad Japanese Alps. [Illustration: TENANT FARMERS' HOUSES, p. 37] [Illustration: AUTHOR AT THE "SPIRIT MEETING. " p. 36] [Illustration: SOME PERFORMERS AT THE "SPIRIT MEETING. " p. 36] At one of the schools where we lunched I noticed that the large wallmaps were of Siam and Malaya, Borneo, Australia and China (two). Theportraits were of Florence Nightingale, Lincoln, Napoleon and Christas the Good Shepherd, the last named being "a present from a believerfriend of the schoolmaster. "[127] This school closed at noon from July10 to July 31, and had twenty days' vacation in August and anothertwenty days in the rice-planting and busy sericultural season. Thesewing-room of the school was used in winter as a dormitory for boyswho lived at a distance. Accommodation for girls was provided in thevillage. The children brought their rice with them. The products ofthe school farm were also eaten by the boarding pupils. It wasestimated that the cost of maintaining the girls was 10 sen a day. Three-fourths of this expense was borne by the village. The regularityand strictness of the dormitory management were found to have anexcellent effect. At the winter school, an adjunct of the day school, there was an attendance of a score of youths and sixty girls. Speaking of a place where we stayed for the night, one who had a wideknowledge of rural Japan said that he did not think that there was alonelier spot where farming was carried on. There was no market orfair for 80 or 90 miles and the little groups of houses were 2 or 3miles apart. In this district, it was explained, "the rich are not sorich and the poor are not so poor. " We passed somewhere a fine shrine for the welfare of horses. At acertain festival hundreds of horses are driven down there to gallopround and round the sacred buildings. Thousands of people attend thisfestival, but it was declared that no one was ever hurt by the horses. The poetical names of country inns would make an interestingcollection. I remember that it was at "the inn of cold spring water"that the waiting-maid had never seen cow's milk. She proved to be thedaughter of the host and wore a gold ring by way of marking the fact. This girl told us that on the banks of the river there was only onehouse in 70 miles. The village was having the usual holiday tocelebrate the end of the toilsome sericultural season. On our way to the next village we met two far-travelled young womenselling the dried seaweed which, in many varieties, figures in theJapanese dietary. [128] (There are shops which sell nothing butprepared seaweeds. ) A notice board there informed us that the road wasmaintained at the cost of the local young men's society. As we were onfoot we felt grateful, for the road was well kept. We passed for milesover planking hung on the cliff side or on roadway carried onembankments. On the suspended pathways there was now and then a plankloose or broken, and there was no rail between the pedestrian and thetorrent dashing below. Where there was embanked roadway it was almostalways uphill and downhill and it frequently swung sharply round thecorner of a cliff. As the river increased in volume we saw many raftsof timber shooting the rapids. At one place twenty-six raftsmen hadbeen drowned. The remnants of two bridges showed the force of thefloods. In this region the _kurumaya_ were hard put to it at times and once a_kuruma_ broke down. Its owner cheerfully detached its broken axle andwent off with it at a trot ten miles or so to a blacksmith. Later hetraversed the ten miles once more to refit his _kuruma_, afterwardscoming on fifteen more miles to our inn. The endurance and cheerinessof the _kurumaya_ were surprising. It was usually in face of theirprotests that we got out to ease them while going uphill. Everymorning they wanted to arrange to go farther than we thoughtreasonable. Each man had not only his passenger but his passenger'sheavy bag. One day we did thirty-six miles over rough roads. The_kurumaya_ proposed to cover fifty. They showed spirit, good natureand loyalty. The character of their conversation is worth mentioning. At one point they were discussing the plays we had witnessed, at othertimes the scenery, local legends, the best routes and the crops, material condition and disposition of the villagers. Our _kurumaya_compared very favourably indeed with men of an equal social class athome. Their manners were perfect. They stayed at the same inns as wedid--once in the next room--and behaved admirably. Every evening themen washed their white cotton shorts and jackets--their whole costumeexcept for a wide-brimmed sun hat and straw _waraji_. Tied to the axleof each _kuruma_ were several pairs of _waraji_, for on the rough hillroads this simple form of footgear soon wears out. Discarded _waraji_are to be seen on every roadside in Japan. The inscriptions on some of the wayside stones we passed had beenwritten by priests so ignorant that the wording was either ridiculousor almost without meaning. But there was no difficulty in decipheringan inscription on a stone which declared that it had been erected by acompany of Buddhists who claimed to have repeated the holy name ofAmida 2, 000, 000 times. (The idea is that salvation may be obtained bythe repetition of the phrase _Namu Amida Butsu_. ) A small stone set upon a rock in the middle of paddy fields intimated that at that spot"people gathered to see the moon one night every month. " A third stonewas dedicated to the monkey as the messenger of a certain god, just asthe fox is regarded as the messenger of Inari. We saw during our journey large numbers of _kiri_ (Paulownia) used formaking _geta_ and bride's chests. Some farmers seem to plant _kiri_trees at the birth of a daughter so as to have wood for her weddingchest or money for her outfit[129]. _Kiri_ seems to be increasinglygrown. On the other hand in the same districts lacquer trees were nowseldom planted. The farmers complained that they were cheated by thecollectors of lacquer who come round to cut the trees. The age ofcutting was given me as the eighth or ninth year, but poor farmerssometimes allowed a young tree to be cut. A tree may be cut once ayear for three or four years. After that it is useless even for fuel, owing to the smell it gives off, and is often left standing. The oldscarred trunks, sometimes headless, suggested the tattooed faces andbodies of Maori veterans. As lacquer is poisonous to the skin the woodcalls for careful handling. I saw one of the itinerant lacquercollectors, his hands wrapped in cotton, operating on a tree. During a particularly hot run we had the good fortune to come on asoda-water spring from which we all drank freely. A factory erected totap the spring was in ruins. Evidently the cost of carriage wasprohibitive. In these hills the rice was planted farther apart than is usual sothat the sun might warm the water. Here as elsewhere _daikon_ werehung up to dry on walls and trees, and looked like giant tallowcandles. Below a bridge, which marked the village boundary, flags hadbeen flung down by way of keeping off epidemics. Evil spirits werewarded off by special dances. The porch of a little tea-house where we rested was covered withgrapes. Soon after leaving it we reached our destination for thenight, a small town of houses of several storeys which clustered on ahillside under the shadow of a Zen temple. Meat and eggs wereforbidden to the town, but as the residents were all Zen Buddhists therestriction was no hardship. There was no cow in the place, butcondensed milk was allowed. A man at the inn told me that he knew often Shinto shrines which forbade the use of chickens and eggs in theirlocalities. The view from the temple, perched high on its rock abovethe wide riverway, was exceptionally fine. Parties of boys and girlsof thirteen paid visits to this temple "because thirteen is known as aperilous age. " The people of the vegetarian town, instead of feedingon the fish in the river, fed them. I saw a shoal of fish being givenscraps at the water edge. As we went on our way and spoke of the bad roads it was suggested thatin the old days roads were purposely left uphill and downhill in orderthat the advance of enemies might be hindered. We came to adilapidated tea-house kept by an ugly old woman who showed a touchingfondness for a cat and a dog. From her shack we had a view of avolcano which had destroyed two villages a few years before. Ourhostess, who made much of us, said that the catastrophe had beenpreceded by "horrible da-da-da-bang" sounds and lightnings, and thatit was accompanied by "thunderbolts and heavy thick smoke. " The oldwoman had beheld "soil boiling and cracking. " Along our route we had more evidences of "fire farming. " The procedurewas to sow buckwheat the first year and rape and millet the secondyear. In the cryptomeria forests there was a variety which, when cut, sprouts from the ground and makes a new growth like an elm. One cropwe saw was ginseng, protected by low structures covered by matting. At length we heard the distant sound of a locomotive whistle. We wereapproaching the newly opened railway which was to take us the shortrun to the sea. Soon we were in a rather unkempt village which hadhardly recovered from its surprise at finding that it had a railwaystation. We paid our _kurumaya_ the sum contracted for and somethingover for their faithful service and for their long return run, andhaving exchanged bows and cordial greetings, we left for a time theglorified perambulators which a foreign missionary is supposed to haveintroduced half a century ago. (The Japanese claim the honour of"inventing" the jinrikisha. ) FOOTNOTES: [123] See Appendix XXXVII. [124] See Appendix XXXVIII. [125] In Tokyo one may sleep night after night in summer with nocovering but the thinnest loose cotton kimono and have an electric fangoing within the mosquito curtain, and still feel the heat. [126] The kimono has no button, hook, tie, or fastening of any kind, and is kept in place by the waist string and _obi_. [127] It is an illustration of the difficulty of using a foreignsymbolism that it is unlikely that a single child in the school hadever seen a shepherd or a sheep. [128] In 1918 the value of seaweed was returned at 13, 600, 000 yen. [129] In fifteen years a _kiri_ tree may be about 20 ft. High and 3ft. In circumference and be worth 30 yen. _Kiri_ trees to the value of3 million yen were felled in 1918. CHAPTER XIV SHRINES AND POETRY (NIIGATA AND TOYAMA) Sir, I am talking of the mass of the people. --JOHNSON The railway made its way through snow stockades and through manytunnels which pierced cryptomeria-clad hills. Eventually we descendedto the wonderful Kambara plains, a sea of emerald rice. Fourteenmillion bushels of rice are produced on the flats of Niigataprefecture, which grows more rice than any other. The rice, grownunder 800 different names, is officially graded into half a dozenqualities. The problem of the high country we had come from was how tokeep its paddy fields from drying up; the problem of Niigata ischiefly to keep the water in its fields at a sufficiently low level. Almost every available square yard of the prefecture is paddy. At Gosen there were depressing-looking weaving sheds, but the BlackCountry created by the oil fields farther on was in even more strikingcontrast with the beautiful region we had left. The petroleum yieldwas 65 million gallons, and the smell of the oil went with us to thecapital city. Niigata has a dark reputation for exporting farmers' daughters toother parts of Japan, but I have also heard that the percentage ofattendance made by the children at the primary schools of theprefecture is higher than anywhere else. Like Amsterdam, Niigata is acity of bridges. There must be 200 of them. The big timber bridgeacross the estuary is nearly half a mile long. One finds in Niigata aManchester-like spirit of business enterprise. Our hotel wasexcellent. Because they speak with all sorts of people and hear a great deal ofconversation the blind _amma_ are full of interesting gossip. A clever_amma_ who ran his knuckles up and down my back said that farm land agood way from Niigata was sold at from 200 yen to 300 yen andsometimes at 400 yen per quarter acre. [130] Prefectural officials whocalled on me explained that drainage operations on a large scale werebeing completed. The water of which the low land was relieved would beused to extend farming in the hills. An effort was also being made todevelop stock-keeping in the uplands. It was proposed "to supply everyfarmer with a scheme for increasing his live stock. " The optimisticauthorities were particularly attracted by the notion of keepingsheep. The plan was to arrange for co-operation in hill pasturing andin wool and meat production. Mutton was as yet unknown, however, inNiigata. (The mutton eaten by foreigners in Japan usually comes fromShanghai. ) I went into the country to a little place where the natural gas fromthe soil was used by the farmers for lighting and cooking. I heardtalk in this village and in others of the influence of the local armyreservists' society. "Young men on returning from their army serviceare always influential. They are much respected by the youths and aretalkative indeed in the village assembly. " As our host was the village headman he kindly brought the assemblytogether to meet me. I asked the assembled fathers about two stoneserected in the village. Somebody had kindled a fire of rice screeningsnear one of them and it had been scorched. On the other stone a kimonohad been hung to dry. The explanation was that the stones weremonuments not shrines, and that the people who had set them up hadleft the district. The stones were no doubt respected while the donorslived. It was not uncommon for a pilgrim to a shrine to erect amemorial on his return home. In this village fifty Shinto shrines of the fifth class had beenclosed under the influence of the Home Office. They were shrines whichhad no offering from the village to support them. They had only a fewworshippers. All the remaining shrines were of the fifth class butone, and it was of the fourth class. In the county there was asecond-class shrine and in the whole prefecture there were two orthree first-class shrines. The villagers had agreed among themselveswhich of their own shrines should be made an end of. A shrine whichwas dispensed with was burnt. The stone steps approaching it were alsoremoved. Burning was not sacrilege but purification. On the closing ofa shrine there might be complaints on the part of some old man orwoman, but the majority of people approved. One Shinto shrine guardianlived at the fourth-class shrine and conducted a ceremony at thesixteen fifth-class shrines. Of the twenty Buddhist temples in thevillage (300 families cultivating an average of a _chō_ apiece), twelve were Hokke, five Shingon, two Shinshu and one Zen. All thepriests were married. [131] I have used the phrase "Buddhist temple" loosely and may do so again, for it conveys an idea which "Buddhist church" does not. A temple(_dō_) is properly an edifice in which a Buddha is enshrined. Thisbuilding is not for services or burial ceremonies or anniversaryofferings for departed souls. It may or may not have a guardian(_domori_). He is never a priest with a shaven head. A Buddhist church(_tera_) is a place where adherents go as anniversaries come round orfor sermons. It possesses a priest. There is a considerable differencein the style of Buddhist edifices according to their denomination--Zenbuildings are particularly plain--but all are more elaborate thanShinto shrines. A large Shinto shrine is called _yashiro_ (house of god); a small one_hokora_. A _hokora_ is transportable. Originally it was and in someplaces it still is a perishable wooden shrine thatched with reed orgrass straw which is renewed at the spring and autumn festivals. Itmay be less than two feet high and may be made of stone or wood. Butit cannot be regarded as a building. Inside there are _gohei_ (uprightsticks with paper streamers). In a rich man's house a _hokora_ may beseven or eight feet high or bigger than the smallest _yashiro_, andmay be embellished with colour and metal. Returning to Buddhism, if a priest has a son he may be succeeded byhim. But many Buddhist priests marry late and have no children. Ortheir children do not want to be priests. So the priest adopts asuccessor. Sometimes he maintains an orphan as acolyte or coadjutor. During the day this assistant goes to school. In the evenings andduring holidays he is taught to become a priest. When theprimary-school education is finished the lad may be sent by hispatron, if he is well enough off, to a school of his sect at Kyoto orTokyo. My travelling companion spoke of the infiltration of new ideas in townand country. "A mixing is taking place in the heart and head ofeverybody who is not a bigot. But I don't know that some kinds ofChristianity are to do much for us. I heard the other day of aJapanese Presbyterian who was preaching with zest about hell fire. Generally speaking, our old men are looking to the past and our youngmen are aspiring, but not all. Some are content if they can liveuncriticised by their neighbours. When they become old they may beginto think of a future life and visit temples. But as young men theirthoughts are fully occupied by things of this world. " In the office of the headman whom I mentioned a page or so back, therewas behind his chair a _kakemono_ which read, "Reflecting andExamining One's Inner Spirit. " We passed a night in the old house ofthis headman, who was a poet and a country gentleman of a delightfultype. Being an eldest son he had married young, and his relations withhis eldest boy, a frank and clever lad, were pleasant to see. Thegarden, instead of being shut in by a wall with a tiled coping or by apalisade of bamboo stems in the ordinary way, was open towards therice fields, a scene of restful beauty. As our _kuruma_ drew near thehouse, the steward appeared, a broom in his hand. Running for a shortdistance before us until we entered the courtyard, he symbolicallyswept the ground according to old custom. After a delightful hot bathand an elaborate supper, which my fellow traveller afterwards assuredme had meant a week's work for the women of the household--snappingturtle and choice bamboo shoots were among the honourable dishes--wegathered at the open side of the room overlooking the garden. Fireflies glowed in the paddies and in the garden two stone lanternshad been lighted. One of them, which had a crescent-shaped opening cutin it, gleamed like the moon; the other, which had a small serratedopening, represented a star. I paid a visit to the local agricultural co-operative store which didbusiness under the motto, "Faith is the Mother of all Virtue. " Morethan half the money taken at the store was for artificial manures. Next came purchases of imported rice, for, like the Danish peasantswho export their butter and eat margarine, the local peasants soldtheir own rice and bought the Saigon variety. The society sold in ayear a considerable quantity of _saké_. Stretched over the doorway ofthe building in which the goods of the society were stored were therope and paper streamers which are seen before Shinto shrines andconsecrated places. The society had a large flag post for weathersignals, a white flag for a fine day, a red one for cloudy weather anda blue one for rain. I brought away from this village a calendar of agricultural operationswith poems or mottoes for each month, in the collection of which Isuspect the poet had a hand: _January_: Future of the day determined in the morning. _February_: The voice of one reading a farming book coming from the snow-covered window. _March_: Grafting these young trees, thinking of the days of my grandchildren. _April_: Digging the soil of the paddy field, sincerity concentrated on the edge of the mattock. _May_: Returning home with the dim moonlight glinting on the edges of our mattocks. _June_: Boundless wealth stored up by gracious heaven: dig it out with your mattock, take it away with your sickle. _July_: Weeding the paddy field[132] in a happiness and contentment which townspeople do not know. _August_: Standing peasant worthier than resting rich man. _September_: Ears of rice bend their heads as they ripen. (An allusion to wisdom and meekness. ) _October_: White steam coming out of a manure house on an autumn morning. _November_: Moon clear and bright above neatly divided paddy fields. _December_: All the members of the family smiling and celebrating the year's end, piling up many bales of rice. In this district I first noticed cotton. It is sown in June and ispicked from time to time between early September and early November. Cotton has been grown for centuries in Japan, but nowadays it isproduced for household weaving only, the needs of the factories beingmet by foreign imports. The plant has a beautiful yellow flower with adark brown eye. In one village I asked how many people smoked. The answer was 60 percent. Of the men and 10 per cent. Of the women. In the same village, which did not seem particularly well off, I was told that 200 dailypapers might be taken among 1, 300 families. Eighty per cent. Of thelocal papers were dailies and cost 35 sen a month. Tokyo papers cost45 or 50 sen a month. I visited a school, half of which was in a building adjoining a templeand half in the temple itself. In the same county there were two otherschools housed in temples. The small Shinto shrine in this temple heldthe Imperial Rescript on education. On one side of it was an uglyAmerican clock and on the other a thermometer. In the temple (Zen) twoTokyo University students were staying in ideal conditions forvacation study. I saw at one place a very tired, unslept-looking peasant with a smallclosed tub carried over his shoulder by means of a pole. On the tubwas tied a white streamer, such as is supplied at a Shinto shrine, anda branch of _sakaki_ (_Eurya ochnacea_, the sacred tree). Thetraveller was the delegate of his village. He had been to a mountainshrine in the next prefecture and the tub held the water he had gotthere. The idea is that if he succeeds in making the journey homewithout stopping anywhere his efforts will result in rain coming downat his village. If he should stop at any place to rest or sleep, andthere should be the slightest drip from his tub there, then the rainwill be procured not for his own village but for the community inwhich he has tarried. So our voyager had walked not only for a wholeday but through the night. I heard of a rain delegate who had staminaenough to keep walking for three or four days without sleeping. Another way of obtaining rain has principally to do with tugging at arock with a straw rope. Then there is the plan already referred to oftying straw ropes to a stone image and flinging it into the river, saying, "If you don't give us rain you will stay there; if you do giveus rain you shall come out. " There is also the method of payingsomeone liberally to throw the split open head of an ox into the deeppool of a waterfall. "Then the water god being much angry, " said myinformant, "he send his dragon to that village, so storm and rain comenecessarily. " Yet another plan is for the villagers simply to ascendto a particular mountain top crying, "Give us rain! Give us rain!"While dealing with these magic arts I may reproduce the followingrendering of a printed "fortune" which I received from a rural shrine:"Wish to agree but now somewhat difficult. Wait patiently for a while. Do nothing wrong. Wait for the spring to come. Everything will becompleted and will become better. Endeavouring to accomplish it soonwill be fruitless. " It was a student of agricultural conditions, in Toyama who gossiped tome of the large expenditure by farmers of that prefecture on themarriage of their daughters. "It is not so costly as the boys'education and it procures a good reception for the girl fromfather-and mother-in-law. The pinch comes when there is a second andthird daughter, for the average balance in hand of a peasantproprietor in this prefecture at the end of the year is only 48 yen. Borrowing is necessary and I heard of one bankruptcy. The Governortried to stop the custom but it is too old. They say Toyama peoplespend more proportionately than the people in other prefectures. Ingeneral they do not keep a horse or ox. I heard of young farmersstealing each other's crops. Parents are very severe upon a daughterwho becomes ill-famed, for when they seek a husband for her they mustspend more. So mostly daughters keep their purity before marriage. ButI know parts of Japan where a large number of the girls have ceased tobe virtuous. Concerning the priests, those of Toyama are the worst. Apeasant proprietor with seven of a family and a balance at the end ofthe year of 100 yen must pay 30 to 40 yen to the temple. Some prieststhreaten the farmer, saying that if he does not pay as much as isimposed on him by the collector an inferior Buddha will go past hisdoor. Priests want to keep farmers foolish as long as they can. " FOOTNOTES: [130] For prices of land, see Appendix LIV. [131] There are about 116, 000 Shinto shrines of all grades and 14, 000priests, and 71, 000 temples and 51, 000 priests. There are about adozen Shinto sects and about thirty Buddhist sects and sub-sects. [132] It is done by wading in leech-infested water under a burning sunand pulling out the weeds by hand and pushing them down into thesludge. CHAPTER XV THE NUN'S CELL (NAGANO) It is one more incitement to a man to do well. --BOSWELL Eighty per cent. Of Nagano is slope. Hence its dependence onsericulture. The low stone-strewn roofs of the houses, the railwaysnow shelters and the zig-zag track which the train takes, hint at theclimatic conditions in winter time. Despite the snow--ski-ing has beenpractised for some years--the summer climate of Nagano has beencompared with that of Champagne and there is one vineyard of 60, 000vines. I was invited to join a circle of administrators who were discussingrural morality and religion. One man said that there was not 20 percent. Of the villages in which the priests were "active for socialdevelopment. " Another speaker of experience declared that "the fourpillars of an agricultural village" were "the _sonchō_ (headman), theschoolmaster, the policeman and the most influential villager. " Hewent on: "In Europe religion does many things for the support anddevelopment of morality, but we look to education, for it aims not atonly developing intelligence and giving knowledge, but at teachingvirtue and honesty. But there is something beyond that. Thousands ofour soldiers died willingly in the Russian war. There must have beensomething at the bottom of their hearts. That something is a certainsentiment which penetrates deeply the characters of our countrymen. Our morality and customs have it in their foundations. This spirit is_Yamato damashii_ (Japanese spirit). It appeared among our warriors as_bushido_ (the way of the soldier), but it is not the monopoly ofsoldiers. Every Japanese has some of this spirit. It is the moralbackbone of Japan. " "I should like to say, " another speaker declared, "that I read manyEuropean and American books, but I remain Japanese. Mr. Uchimura seesthe darkest side of Buddhism and Mr. Lafcadio Hearn expected too muchfrom it. 'So mysterious, ' Hearn said, but it is not so mysterious tous. We must be grateful to him for seeing something of the essence ofour life. Sometimes, however, we may be ashamed of his beautifyingsentences. I am a modern man, but I am not ashamed when my wife iswith child to pray that it may be healthy and wise. It is possible forus Japanese to worship some god somewhere without knowing why. Thepoet says, 'I do not know the reason of it, but tears fall down frommy eyes in reverence and gratitude. ' I suppose this is naturaltheology. The proverb says, 'Even the head of a sardine is somethingif believed in. ' I attach more importance to a man's attitude tosomething higher than himself than to the thing which is revered byhim. Whether a man goes to Nara and Kyoto or to a Roman Catholic or aMethodist church he can come home very purified in heart. " "Some foreigners have thought well to call us 'half civilised, '" thespeaker went on. "Can it be that uncivilised is something distastefulto or not understood by Europeans and Americans? We have the ambitionto erect some system of Eastern civilisation. It is possible that wemay have it in our minds to call some things in Europe 'halfcivilised. ' Surely the barbarians are usually the people other thanourselves. When the townsman goes to the country he says the peopleare savages. But the countryman finds his fellow-savages quite decentpeople. " "Some time ago, " broke in a professor, "I read a novel by René Bazinand I could not but think how much alike were our peasants and thepeasants of the West. " The previous speaker resumed: "The other day a foreigner laughed in mypresence at our old art of incense burning and actually said that wewere deficient in the sense of smell. I told him that fifty years agoour samurai class, in excusing their anti-foreign manifestations, said they could not endure the smell of foreigners, and that to thisday our peasants may be heard to say of Western people, 'They smell;they smell of butter and fat. '" In the city of Nagano early in the morning I went to a large Buddhisttemple where the authorities had kindly given me special facilities tosee the treasures--alas! all in a wooden structure. A strange thingwas the preservation untouched of the room in which the Emperor Meijirested thirty years ago. May oblivion be one day granted to that awfulchenille table cover and those appalling chairs which outrage thebeautiful woodwork and the golden _tatami_ of a great building! At theentrance of the temple priests in a kind of open office were readingthe newspaper, playing _gō_ or smoking. More pleasing was the sight ofmatting spread right round the temple below its eaves, in order thatweary pilgrims might sleep there, and the spectacle of travel-stainedwomen tranquilly sleeping or suckling their infants before the shrineitself. There is a pitch dark underground passage below the floorround the foundations of the great Buddha, and if the circuit be madeand the lock communicating with the entrance door to the sacred figurebe fortunately touched on the way, paradise, peasants believe, isassured. I made the circuit a few moments after an old woman and foundthe lock, and on returning to the temple with the rustic dame kneltwith her before the shrine as the curtain which veils the big Buddhawas withdrawn. The face of one wooden figure in the temple had beenworn, like that of many another in Japan, with the stroking that ithad received from the ailing faithful. [Illustration: IN A BUDDHIST NUNNERY. P. 142] [Illustration: GRASS-CUTTING TOOLS COMPARED WITH A WESTERN SCYTHE. P. 367] I had the privilege of visiting the adjoining nunnery. As I wasspecially favoured by a general admission, I asked to be permitted tosee some nuns' cells. They showed a Buddhist advance on Western ideas. The word "cells" was a misnomer for beautiful little flower-adornedrooms of a cheerful Japanese house. The fragile, wistful nun who wasso kind as to speak with me had a consecrated expression. Her dresswas white, and over it was brocade in a perfect combination of greenand cream. Her head was shaven; her hands, which continually toldher beads, were hidden. Religious services are conducted and sermonsare delivered here and in other nunneries by the nuns themselves. Icould not but be sorry for some girl children who had become nuns ontheir relatives' or guardians' decision. Adult newcomers are given amonth in which, if they wish, they may repent them of their vows; butwhat of the children? The head of this nunnery was a member of theImperial family. The institution, like the temple from which I hadjust come, stores thousands of wooden tablets to the memory of thedead. There are many little receptacles in which the hair, the teethor the photographs of believers are preserved. I found that both atthe nunnery and the temple a practical interest was being shown in thereformation of ex-criminals. [Illustration: THE CHILD-COLLECTORS OF VILLAGERS' SAVINGS. P. 230] [Illustration: NUNS PHOTOGRAPHED IN A "CELL" BY THE AUTHOR. P. 142] [Illustration: STUDENTS' STUDY AT AN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. P. 50] While in the highlands of Nagano I spent a night at Karuizawa, a hillresort at which tired missionaries and their families, not only fromall parts of Japan but from China, gather in the summer months beyondthe reach of the mosquito. [133] I stayed in the summer cottage of mytravelling companion's brother-in-law. The family consisted of areserved, cultivated man with a pretty wife of what I have heard aforeigner call "the maternal, domestic type. " In their owlishnessnewcomers to the country are inclined to commiserate all Japanesehousewives as the "slaves of their husbands. " They would have beensadly wrong in such thoughts about this happy wife and mother. Theeldest boy, a wholesome-looking lad, had just passed through themiddle school on his way to the university, and spoke to me in simpleEnglish with that air of responsibility which the eldest son so soonacquires in Japan. His brothers and sisters enjoyed a happy relationwith him and with each other. The whole family was merry, unselfishand, in the best sense of the word, educated. As we knelt on our_zabuton_ we refreshed ourselves with tea and the fine view of theactive volcano, Asama, and chatted on schools, holidays, books, thecountry and religion. After a while, a little to my surprise, themother in her sweet voice gravely said that if I would not mind at allshe would like very much to ask me two questions. The first was, "Arethe people who go to the Christian church here all Christians?" andthe second, "Are Christians as affectionate as Japanese?" Karuizawa, which is full of ill-nourished, scabby-headed, "bubbly-nosed"[134] Japanese children, is an impoverished place on oneof the ancient highways. We took ourselves along the road until wereached at a slightly higher altitude the decayed village of Oiwaké. When the railway came near it finished the work of desolation whichthe cessation of the daimyos' progresses to Yedo (now Tokyo) had begunhalf a century ago. In the days of the Shogun three-quarters of the300 houses were inns. Now two-thirds of the houses have becomeuninhabitable, or have been sold, taken down and rebuilt elsewhere. The Shinto shrines are neglected and some are unroofed, the Zen templeis impoverished, the school is comfortless and a thousand tombstonesin the ancient burying ground among the trees are half hidden in mossand undergrowth. The farm rents now charged in Oiwaké had not been changed for thirty, forty or fifty years. In the old inn there was a Shinto shrine, about12 ft. Long by nearly 2 ft. Deep, with latticed sliding doors. Itcontained a dusty collection of charms and memorials dating back forgenerations. Outside in the garden at the spring I found an irregularrow of half a dozen rather dejected-looking little stone _hokora_about a foot high. Some had faded _gohei_ thrust into them, but fromthe others the clipped paper strips had blown away. At the foot of thegarden I discovered a somewhat elaborate wooden shrine in adilapidated state. "Few country people, " someone said to me, "know whois enshrined at such a place. " It is generally thought that theseshrines are dedicated to the fox. But the foxes are merely themessengers of the shrine, as is shown by the figures of crouching orsquatting foxes at either side. A well-known professor lately arrivedat the conviction that the god worshipped at such shrines is the godof agriculture. He went so far as to recommend the faculty ofagriculture at Tokyo university to have a shrine erected within itswalls to this divinity, but the suggestion was not adopted. In the course of another chat with the old host of the inn he referredto the time, close on half a century ago, when 3, 000 hungry peasantsmarched through the district demanding rice. They did no harm. "Theywere satisfied when they were given food; the peasants at that timewere heavily oppressed. " To-day the people round about look as if theywere oppressed by the ghosts of old-time tyrants. But there is"something that doth linger" of self-respect. When we left on our wayto Tokyo I gave the man who brought our bags a mile in a barrow to thestation 40 sen. He returned 10 sen, saying that 30 sen was enough. FOOTNOTES: [133] Although, as has been seen, the rural problems underinvestigation in this book are inextricably bound up with religion, limits of space make it necessary to reserve for another volume theconsideration of the large and complex question of missionary work. [134] As to the "bubbly-nosed callant, " to quote the description givenof young Smollett, nasal unpleasantness seems to be popularly regardedas a sign of health. The constant sight of it is one of the minordiscomforts of travel. IN AND OUT OF THE SILK PREFECTURE[135] CHAPTER XVI PROBLEMS BEHIND THE PICTURESQUE (SAITAMA, GUMMA, NAGANO AND YAMANASHI) A foreigner who comes among us without prejudice may speak hismind freely. --GOLDSMITH I went back to Nagano to visit the silk industrial regions. My routelay through the prefectures of Saitama and Gumma. I left Tokyo on thelast day of June. Many farmers were threshing their barley. On thedry-land patches, where the grain crop had been harvested, soya bean, sown between the rows of grain long before harvest, was becomingbushier now that it was no longer overshadowed. Maize in most placeswas about a foot high, but where it had been sown early was alreadytwice that height. The sweet potato had been planted out from itsnursery bed for weeks. Here and there were small crops of tea whichhad been severely picked for its second crop. I noticed melons, cucumbers and squashes, and patches of the serviceable burdock. Manypaddy farmers had water areas devoted to lotus, but the big floatingleaves were not yet illumined by the mysterious beauty of thehoney-scented flowers. In order to imagine the scene on the rice flats, the reader must notthink of the glistering paddy fields[136] as stretching in an unbrokenmonotonous series over the plain. Occasionally a rocky patch, outcropping from the paddy tract, made a little island of wood. Sometimes it was a sacred grove in which one caught a glimpse of aShinto shrine or the head stones of the dead. Sometimes there was alittle clump of cropped tree greenery which kept a farmhouse cool insummer and, at another time of the year, sheltered from the wind. Fewhouseholders were too poor or too busy to be without their littlepatch of flowers. Before the train climbed out of the Kwanto plain temperature of notfar below 100° F. The planting of rice seemed to be almost an enviableoccupation. The peasant had his great umbrella-shaped straw hat, sometimes an armful of green stuff tied on his back, and a deliciousfeeling of being up to the knees in water or mud on a hot day-onerecalled the mud baths of the West-when the alternative was walking ona dusty road, digging on the sun-baked upland or perspiring in a houseor the train. With the rise in the level a few mulberries began to appear andgradually they occupied a large part of the holdings. Sometimes themulberries were cultivated as shoots from a stump a little aboveground level, and sometimes as a kind of small standard. As mulberryculture increased, the silk factories' whitewashed cocoon stores andthe tall red and black iron chimneys of the factories themselvesbecame more numerous. It is a pity that the silk factory is not alwaysso innocent-looking inside as the pure white exterior of its storesmight suggest. It is certain that the overworked girl operatives, sitting at their steaming basins, drawing the silk from the soakedcocoons, were glad to find the weather conditions such that they couldhave the sides of their reeling sheds removed. At many of the railway stations there were stacks of large, round, flat bean cakes, for the farmer feeds his "cake" to his fields direct, not through the medium of cattle. Although a paddy receives lessagreeable nutritive materials than bean cake, the extensive use ofthis cake must be comforting to a little school of rural reformers inthe West. These ardent vegetarians have refused to listen to theallegation that vegetarianism was impossible because withoutmeat-eating there would be no cattle and therefore no nitrogen for thefields. It was not only the bean cakes at the stations which caught myattention but the extensive use of lime. Square miles of paddy fieldwere white with powdered lime, scattered before the planting of therice, an operation which in the higher altitudes would not be finisheduntil well on in July. A contented and prosperous countryside was no doubt the impressionreflected to many passengers in the train that sunny day. But I knewhow closely pressed the farmers had been by the rise in prices of manythings that they had got into the way of needing. I had learnt, too, the part that superstition[137] as well as simple faith played in thelives of the country folk. When, however, I pondered the way in whichthe rural districts had been increasingly invaded by factories rununder the commercial sanctions of our eighteen-forties, I asked myselfwhether there might not be superstitions of the economic world as wellas of religious and social life. I heard a Japanese speak of being well treated at inns in the old daysfor 20 sen a night. It should be remembered, however, that there is asystem not only of tipping inn servants but of tipping the inn. Thegift to the inn is called _chadai_ and guests are expected to offer asum which has some relation to their position and means and the foodand treatment they expect. I have stayed at inns where I have paid asmuch _chadai_ as bill. To pay 50 per cent. Of the bill as _chadai_ iscommon. The idea behind _chadai_ is that the inn-keeper charges onlyhis out-of-pocket expenses and that therefore the guest naturallydesires to requite him. In acknowledgment of _chadai_ the inn-keeperbrings a gift to the guest at his departure--fans, pottery, towels, picture postcards, fruit or slabs of stiff acidulated fruit jelly (inone inn of grapes and in another of plums) laid between strips ofmaize leaf. The right time to give _chadai_ is on entering the hotel, after the "welcome tea. " In handing money to any person in Japan, except a porter or a _kurumaya_, the cash or notes are wrapped inpaper. On the journey from the city of Nagano to Matsumoto, wonderful viewswere unfolded of terraced rice fields, and, above these, of terracedfields of mulberry. How many hundred feet high the terraces rose asthe train climbed the hills I do not know, but I have had no morevivid impression of the triumphs of agricultural hydraulicengineering. We were seven minutes in passing through one tunnel at ahigh elevation. I spoke in the train with a man who had a dozen _chō_ under grapes, 20per cent. Being European varieties and 80 per cent. American. He saidthat some of the people in his district were "very poor. " Some farmershad made money in sericulture too quickly for it to do them good. Hevolunteered the opinion, in contrast with the statement made to meduring our journey to Niigata, that the people of the plains weremorally superior to the people of the mountains. The reason he gavewas that "there are many recreations in the plains whereas in themountains there is only one. " In most of the mountain villages he knewthree-quarters of the young men had relations with women, mostly withthe girls of the village or the adjoining village. He would not makethe same charge against more than ten per cent. Of the young men ofthe plains, and "it is after all with teahouse girls. " He thought thatthere were "too many temples and too many sects, so the priests arestarved. " An itinerant agricultural instructor in sericulture who joined in ourconversation was not much concerned by the plight of the priests. "Thecauses of goodness in our people, " he said, "are family tradition andhome training. Candidly, we believe our morals are not so bad on thewhole. We are now putting most stress on economic development. How tomaintain their families is the question that troubles people most. With that question unsolved it is preaching to a horse to preachmorality. We can always find high ideals and good leaders wheneconomic conditions improve. The development of morality is our finalaim, but it is encouraged for six years at the primary school. Thechild learns that if it does bad things it will be laughed at anddespised by the neighbours and scolded by its parents. We are busywith the betterment of economic conditions and questions aboutmorality and religion puzzle us. " When I reached Matsumoto I met a rural dignitary who deplored theincreasing tendency of city men to invest in rural property. "Sometimes when a peasant sells his land he sets up as amoney-lender. " I was told that nearly every village had a sericulturalco-operative association, which bought manures, mulberry trees andsilk-worm eggs, dried cocoons and hatched eggs for its members andspent money on the destruction of rats. Of recent years the countyagricultural association had given 5 yen per _tan_ to farmers whoplanted improved sorts of mulberry. About half the farmers in thecounty had manure houses. Some 800 farmers in the county kept alabourer. I went to see a _gunchō_ and read on his wall: "Do not get angry. Work! Do not be in a hurry, yet do not be lazy. " "These being myfaults, " he explained, "I specially wrote them out. " There was also onhis wall a _kakemono_ reading: "At twenty I found that even a plainhouseholder may influence the future of his province; at thirty thathe may influence the future of his nation; at forty that he mayinfluence the future of the whole world. " Below this stirringsentiment was a portrait of the writer, a samurai scholar, from aphotograph taken with a camera which he had made himself. He lived inthe last period of the Shogunate and studied Dutch books. He waskilled by an assassin at the instance, it was believed, of the Shogun. One of the noteworthy things of Matsumoto was the agriculturalassociation's market. Another piece of organisation in that part ofthe world was fourteen institutes where girls were instructed in thework of silk factory hands. The teachers' salaries were paid by thefactories. So were also the expenses of the silk experts of the localauthorities. On the day I left the city the daily paper contained anannouncement of lectures on hygiene to women on three successive days, "the chief of police to be present. " This paper was demanding theexemption of students from the bicycle tax, the rate of which variesin different prefectures. A young man was brought to see me who was specialising in musk melons. He said that the Japanese are gradually getting out of theirpartiality for unripe fruit. On our way to the Suwas we saw many wretched dwellings. The featureof the landscape was the silk factories' tall iron chimneys, ordinarily black though sometimes red, white or blue. It is not commonly understood that Japanese lads by the time they"graduate" from the middle school into the higher school have had someelementary military training. A higher-school youth knows how tohandle a rifle and has fired twice at a target. At Kami Suwa theproblem of how middle-class boys should procure economical lodgingwhile attending their classes had been solved by self-help. Anex-scholar of twenty had managed to borrow 4, 000 yen and had proceededto build on a hillside a dormitory accommodating thirty-six boarders. Lads did the work of levelling the ground and digging the well. Thefrugal lines on which the lodging-house was conducted by the ladsthemselves may be judged from the fact that 5 yen a month coveredeverything. Breakfast consisted of rice, _miso_ soup and pickles. Cooking and the emptying of the _benjo_[138] were done by the lads inturn. A kitchen garden was run by common effort. Among the manynotices on the walls was one giving the names of the residents whoshowed up at 5 o'clock in the morning for a cold bath and fencing. Ialso saw the following instruction written by the founder of thehouse, which is read aloud every morning by each resident in turn: Be independent and pure and strive to make your characters morebeautiful. Expand your thought. Help each other to accomplish yourambitions. Be active and steady and do not lose your self-control. Befaithful to friends and righteous and polite. Be silent and keeporder. Do not be luxurious (_sic_). Keep everything clean. Payattention to sanitation. Do not neglect physical exercises. Bediligent and develop your intelligence. The borrower of the 4, 000 yen with which the institution was builtmanaged to pay it back within seven years with interest, out of thesubscriptions of residents and ex-residents. An agricultural authority whom I met spoke of "farming familiesliving from hand to mouth and their land slipping into the possessionof landlords"; also of a fifth of the peasants in the prefecture beingtenants. A young novelist who had been wandering about the Suwadistrict had been impressed by the grim realities of life in poorfarmers' homes and cited facts on which he based a low view of ruralmorality. Suwa Lake lies more than 3, 500 ft. Above sea level and in winter iscovered with skaters. The country round about is remarkableagriculturally for the fact that many farmers are able to lead intotheir paddies not only warm water from the hot springs but water fromammonia springs, so economising considerably in their expenditure onmanure. A simple windmill for lifting the fertilising water is soldfor only 4 yen. We went to Kōfu, the capital of Yamanashi prefecture, through manymountain tunnels and ravines. Entrancing is the just word for thisregion in the vicinity of the Alps. But joy in the beauty throughwhich we passed is tinged for the student of rural life by thoughts ofthe highlander's difficulties in getting a living in spots where quietstreams may become in a few hours ungovernable torrents. I rememberglimpses of grapes and persimmons, of parties of middle-school boystramping out their holiday--every inn reduces its terms for them--andof half a dozen peasant girls bathing in a shaded stream. But therewere less pleasing scenes: hills deforested and paddies wrecked by awaste of stones and gravel flung over them in time of flood. Here andthere the indomitable farmers, counting on the good behaviour of theriver for a season or two, were endeavouring, with enormous labour, toresume possession of what had been their own. The spectacleillustrated at once their spirit and their industry and their need ofland. At night we slept at Kōfu at "the inn of greeting peaks. " In themorning a Governor with imagination told me of the prefecture'sgallant enterprises in afforestation and river embanking atexpenditures which were almost crippling. FOOTNOTES: [135] The three leading silk prefectures are in order: Nagano, Fukushima and Gumma. [136] At this time of the year, when the rice plants are small, thewater in the paddies is still conspicuous. [137] An old Japan hand once counselled me that "the thing to find outin sociological enquiries is not people's religions but theirsuperstitions. " [138] See Appendix IV. CHAPTER XVII THE BIRTH, BRIDAL AND DEATH OF THE SILK-WORM (NAGANO) The mulberry leaf knoweth not that it shall be silk. --_Arab proverb_ One acre in every dozen in Japan produces mulberry leaves for feedingthe silk-worms which two million farming families--more than a thirdof the farming families of the country--painstakingly rear. But the mulberry is not the only mark of a sericultural district. Itsmark may be seen in the tall chimneys of the factories and in thestructure of the farmers' houses. Breeders of silk-worms are oftenwell enough off to have tiled instead of thatched roofs; they havefrequently two storeys to their dwellings; and they have almost alwaysa roof ventilator so that the vitiated air from the _hibachi_-heatedsilk-worm chambers may be carried off. Yet another sign of sericulturebeing a part of the agricultural activities of a district is itsprosperity. Silk-worms produce the most valuable of all Japaneseexports. Japan sends abroad more raw silk than any other country. [139] It is in the middle of the country that sericulture chiefly nourishes. The smallest output of raw silk is from the most northerly prefectureand from the prefecture in the extreme south-west of the mainland. Buthuman aptitude plays its part as well as climate. The Japanese hand isa wonderful piece of mechanism--look at the hands of the next Japaneseyou meet--and in sericulture its delicate touch is used to the utmostadvantage. The gains of sericulture are not made without correspondingsacrifices. Silk-worm raising is infinitely laborious. The constantpicking of leaves, the bringing of them home and the chopping andsupplying of these leaves to the smallest of all live stock and themaintenance of a proper temperature in the rearing-chamber day andnight mean unending work. The silk-worms may not be fed less than fouror five times in the day; in their early life they are fed seven oreight times. This is the feeding system for spring caterpillars. Summer and autumn breeds must have two or three more meals. The menand women who attend to them, particularly the women, are worn out bythe end of the season. "The women have only three hours' rest in thetwenty-four hours, " I remember someone saying. "They never loose their_obi_. " When the caterpillars emerge from the tiny, pin-head-like eggs of thesilk-worm moth they are minute creatures. Therefore the mulberryleaves are chopped very fine indeed. They are chopped less and lessfine as the silk-worms grow, until finally whole leaves and leavesadhering to the shoots are given. Some rearers are skilful enough tosupply from the very beginning leaves or leaves still on the shoots. The caterpillars live in bamboo trays or "beds" on racks. In the houseof one farmer I found caterpillars about three-quarters of an inchlong occupying fifteen trays. When the silk-worms grew larger theywould occupy two hundred trays. The eggs, when not produced on the farm, are bought adhering to cardsabout a foot square. There are usually marked on these cardstwenty-eight circles about 2 ins. In diameter. Each circle is coveredwith eggs. The eggs come to be arranged in these convenient circlesbecause, as will be explained later on, the moths have been induced tolay within bottomless round tins placed on the circles on the cards. The eggs are sticky when laid and therefore adhere. In a year35, 000, 000 cards, containing about a billion eggs, are produced onsome 10, 000 egg-raising farms. The eggs--they are called "seed"--are hatched in the spring (end ofApril--as soon as the first leaves of the mulberry are available--tothe middle of May), summer (June and July) and autumn (August andOctober). It takes from three to seven days--according totemperature--for the "seed" to hatch, and from twenty to thirty-twodays--according to temperature--for the silk-worms to reach maturity. Half the hatching is done in spring. In one farmer's house I visitedin the spring season I found that he had hatched fifty cards of"seed. " From the birth of the caterpillars to the formation of cocoonsthe casualties must be reckoned at ten per cent. Daily. Not more thaneighty-five per cent. Of the cocoons which are produced are of goodquality. The remainder are misshapen or contain dead chrysalises. Asthere are more than a thousand breeds of silk-worm, all cocoons arenot of the same shape and colour. Some are oval; some are shaped likea monkey nut. Most are white but some are yellow and others yellowtinted. In the whole world of stock raising there is nothing more remarkablethan the birth of silk-worm moths. The cocoons on the racks in thefarmer's loft are covered by sheets of newspaper in which a number ofround holes about three-quarters of an inch in diameter have been cut. When the moths emerge from their cocoons they seek these openingstowards the light and creep through to the upper side of thenewspaper. For newly born things they come up through these openingswith astonishing ardour. In body and wings the moths are flour white. White garments are suitable for the babe, the bride and the dead, andthe moth perfected in the cocoon is arrayed not only for its birth butfor bridal and death, which come upon it in swift succession. The maleas well as the female is in white and is distinguishable by beingsomewhat smaller in size. On the newspaper the few males who have notfound partners are executing wild dances, their wings whirring thewhile at a mad pace. When from time to time they cease dancing theyhaunt the holes in the paper through which the newly born mothsemerge. When a female appears a male instantly rushes towards her, orrather the two creatures rush towards one another, and they are atonce locked in a fast embrace. Immediately their wings cease toflutter, the only commotion on the newspaper being made by the unmatedmales. In a hatching-room these males on the stacks of trays are sonumerous that the place is filled with the sound of the whirring oftheir wings. The down flies from their wings to such an extent thatone continually sneezes. The spectacle of the stacks of trays coveredby these ecstatic moths is remarkable, but still more remarkable isthe thrilling sense of the power of the life-force in a supposedly lowform of consciousness. The wonder of the scene is missed, no doubt, by most of those who arehabituated to it. From time to time weary, stolid-looking girls or oldwomen lift down the trays and run their hands over them in order topick up superfluous male moths. Sometimes the male moths are walkingabout the newspaper, sometimes they are torn callously from theembrace of their mates. The fate of the male moths is to be flung intoa basket where they stay until the next day, when perhaps some of themmay be mated again. The novice is impressed not only by theruthlessness of this treatment but by the way in which the whole loftis littered by male moths which have fallen or have been flung on thefloor and are being trampled on. The female moths, when their partners have been removed, are takendownstairs in newspapers in order to be put into the little tinreceptacles where the eggs are to be laid. On a tray there are spreadout a number of egg cards with, as before mentioned, twenty-eightprinted circles on each of them. On these circles are placed thetwenty-eight half-inch-high bottomless enclosures of tin. Some onetakes up a handful of moths and scatters them over the tins. Some ofthe moths fall neatly into a tin apiece. Others are helped into thelittle enclosures in which, to do them credit, they are only toowilling to take up their quarters. The curious thing is the way inwhich each moth settles down within her ring. Indeed from the momentof her emergence from the cocoon until now she has never used herwings to fly. Nor did the male moth seem to wish to fly. The sexesconcentrate their whole attention on mating. After that the femalethinks of nothing but laying eggs. Almost immediately after she isplaced within her little tin she begins to deposit eggs, and within afew hours the circle of the card is covered. Food is given neither to the females nor to the males. Those which arenot kept in reserve for possible use on the second day are flung outof doors. When the female moth has deposited her eggs she also isdestroyed. [140] The _shoji_ of the breeding and egg-laying roomspermit only of a diffused light. The discarded moths are cast out intothe brilliant sunshine where they are eaten by poultry or are left todie and serve as manure. Sericulture is always a risky business. There is first the risk of afall in prices. Just before I reached Japan prices were so low thatmany people despaired of being able to continue the business, andshortly after I left there was a crisis in the silk trade in whichnumbers of silk factories failed. At the time I was last in asilk-worm farmer's house cocoons were worth from 5 to 6 yen per _kwan_of 8-1/4 lbs. From 8 to 10 _kwan_ of cocoons could be expected from asingle egg card. Eggs were considered to be at a high price when theywere more than 2 yen per card. The risks of the farmer are increasedwhen he launches out and buys mulberry leaves to supplement thoseproduced on his own land. Sometimes the price of leaves is so highthat farmers throw away some of their silk-worms. The risks run by theman who grows mulberries beyond his own leaf requirements on thechance of selling are also considerable. Beyond the risk of falling prices or of a short mulberry crop there isin sericulture the risk of disease. One advantage of the system inwhich the eggs are laid in circles on the cards instead of all overthem is that if any disease should be detected the affected areas canbe easily cut out with a knife and destroyed. Disease is so serious amatter that silk-worm breeding, as contrasted with silk-worm raising, is restricted to those who have obtained licences. The silk-wormbreeder is not only licensed. His silkworms, cocoons and mother mothsare all in turn officially examined. Breeding "seeds" were laid oneyear by about 33, 000, 000 odd moths; common "seeds" by about948, 000, 000. Of recent years enormous progress has been made in combating disease. I have spoken of how a silk-worm district may be recognised by thestructure of the farmhouses and the prosperity of the farmers, butanother striking sign of sericulture is the trays and mats lying inthe sun in front of farmers' dwellings or on the hot stones of theriver banks in order to get thoroughly purified from germs. It isillustrative of the progress that has been made under scientificinfluence, that whereas twenty years ago a sericulturist would reckonon losing his silk-worm harvest completely once in five years, such aloss is now rare. Scientific instructors have their difficulties inJapan as in the rural districts of other countries, but the peoplerespect authority, and they are accustomed to accept instruction givenin the form of directions. Also the Japanese have an unending interestin the new thing. Further, there is a continual desire to excel forthe national advantage and in emulation of the foreigner. The advancein scientific knowledge in the rural districts is remarkable, becauseit is in such contrast with the primitive lives of the country people. Picture the surprise of British or American farmers were they broughtface to face with thermometers, electric light and a working knowledgeof bacteriology in the houses of peasants in breech clouts. It was while I was trying to learn something of the sericulturalindustry that I had the opportunity of visiting a noteworthyinstitution. It is noteworthy, among other reasons, because I seldommet a foreigner in Japan who knew of its existence. It is the greatUeda Sericultural College in the prefecture of Nagano. I was strucknot only by its extent but by its systematised efficiency. On a levelwith the director's eyes was a motto in large lettering, "Be diligent. Develop your virtues. " [Illustration: TEACHERS OF A VILLAGE SCHOOL, p. 124. ] [Illustration: GIRLS CARRYING BALES OF RICE, p. 136] [Illustration: SERICULTURAL SCHOOL STUDENTS, p. 158] The Institute devotes itself to mulberries, silk-worms and silkmanufacture. There are 200 students, as many as it will hold. Theyoung men become teachers of sericulture, advisers in mills andexperts of co-operative sericultural societies. The institution, inaddition to the fees it receives and its earnings from its ownproducts, some 33, 000 yen in all, has an annual Government subsidy ofabout 114, 000 yen. There are other sericultural colleges doing similarwork in Tokyo and Kyoto, and there is also in the capital the ImperialSericultural Experiment Station (with a staff of 87), where I sawall sorts of research work in progress. This experiment station hashalf a dozen branches scattered up and down the silk districts. [Illustration: SOME OF THE SILK FACTORIES IN KAMISUWA. P. 161] [Illustration: VILLAGE ASSEMBLY-ROOM. P. 133] At Ueda I went through corridors and rooms, sterilised thrice a year, to visit professors engaged in a variety of enquiries. One professorhad turned into a kind of beef tea the pupæ thrown away when thecocoons are unwound; another had made from the residual oil two orthree kinds of soap. The usual thing at a silk factory is for thepupæ, which are exposed to view when the silk is unrolled from thescalded cocoons, to lie about in horrid heaps until they are sold asmanure or carp food. The professor declared that his product was equalto a third of the total weight of the pupæ utilised, and was sure thatit could be sold at a fifteenth of the price of Western beef essences. The Director of the College had tried the product with his breakfastfor a fortnight and avowed that during the experiment he was never soperky. It was a pleasure to look into the well-kept dormitories of thestudents, where there was evidence, in books, pictures and athleticmaterial, of a strenuous life. The young men are made fit not only by_judō_, fencing, archery, tennis and general athletics, but by beingsent up the mountains on Sundays. The men are kept so hard that at theopen fencing contest twice a year the visitors are usually beaten. Thedirector quoted to me Roosevelt's "Sweat and be saved. " From men we went to machines and mulberries. I inspected all sorts ofhot chambers for killing cocoons. I saw, in rooms draped in blackvelvet like the pictured scenes at a beheading, silk testing forlustre and colour. I gazed with respect on many kinds of winding andweaving machinery. Then, going out into the experiment fields, Istrode through more varieties of mulberry than I had imagined toexist. There are supposed to be 500 sorts in the country but many areno doubt duplicates. The varieties differ so much in shape and textureof leaf that the novice would not take some of them for mulberries. It was held that it would not be difficult to increase the mulberryarea in Japan by another quarter of a million acres. The yield ofleaves might be raised by 3, 300 lbs. Per acre if the right sort ofbushes were always grown and the right sort of treatment were given tothem and to the soil. As to the additional labour needed for anextended sericulture, the annual increase in the population of Japanwould provide it. I was told that "the technics of sericulture aresure to improve. " It would be easy to raise the yield 2 _kwan_ per eggcard for the whole country. Within a seven-year period the productionof cocoons per egg card had become 20 per cent. Better. The talk wasof doubling the present yield of cocoons. The "proper encouragement"needed for doubling the production of cocoons was more technicalinstruction and more co-operative societies. There had been acontinual rise in the world's demand for silk and there was no need tofear "artificial silk. " "People who buy it often come to appreciatenatural silk. " And I read in an official publication that "the climateof Japan is suitable for the cultivation of mulberry trees fromsouth-west Formosa to Hokkaido in the north. " FOOTNOTES: [139] For statistics of sericulture, see Appendix XXXIX. [140] She is examined microscopically in order to make sure that shewas not affected by infectious disease. CHAPTER XVIII "GIRL COLLECTORS" AND FACTORIES (NAGANO AND YAMANASHI) At your return show the truth. --FROISSART I visited factories in more than one prefecture. At the firstfactory--it employed about 1, 000 girls and 200 men--work began at 4. 30a. M. , breakfast was at 5 and the next meal at 10. 30. The stoppages foreating were for a few minutes only. A cake was handed to each girl ather machine at 3. Suppertime came after work was finished at 7. [141]No money was paid the first year. The second year the wages might be 3or 4 yen a month. The statement was made that at the end of her fiveyears' term a girl might have 300 yen, but that this sum was notwithin the reach of all. [142] The girls were driven at top speed by aflag system in which one bay competed with another and was paidaccording to its earnings. Owing to the heat the flushed girlsprobably looked better in health than they really were. They were fatin the face, but this could not be regarded as an indication of theirgeneral well-being. It was admitted that some girls left throughillness. Employees returned to their homes for January and February, when the factory was closed down; there was also three days' holidayin June. In the dormitory I noticed that each girl had the space ofone mat only (6 ft. By 3 ft. ). Twenty-two girls slept in eachdormitory. The men connected with this factory were low-looking andshifty-eyed. An agricultural expert who was well acquainted with the conditions ofsilk manufacture and of the district and was in a disinterestedposition told me after my visit to this factory how the foremenscoured the country for girl labour during January and February. Thesuccess of the _kemban_ or girl collector was due to the poverty ofthe people, who were glad "to be relieved of the cost of a daughter'sfood. " Occasionally the _kemban_ had sub-agents. The mill proprietorswere in competition for skilled girls, and money was given by a_kemban_ intent on stealing another factory's hand. The novices had no contract. The contract of a skilled girl providedthat she should serve at the factory for a specified period and thatif she failed to do so, she should pay back twenty times the 5 yen orwhatever sum had been advanced to her. Obviously 100 yen would be aprohibitive sum for a peasant's daughter to find. The amount of theworkers' pay was not specified in the contract. The document wasplainly one-sided and would be regarded in an English court as againstpublic policy and unenforceable. Married women might take an infantwith them to the factory. In more than one factory I saw severalthin-faced babies. The effect of factory life on girls, a man who knew the countrysidewell told me, was "not good. " The girls had weakened constitutions asthe result of their factory life and when they married had fewer thanthe normal number of children. The general result of factory life wasdegeneration. The girls "corrupted their villages. " The custom was, I understood, that the girls were kept on the factorypremises except when they could allege urgent business in town. Butthey were allowed out on the three nights of the _Bon_ festival. Itwas rare that priests visited the factories and there were no shrinesthere. The girls had sometimes "lessons" given them and occasionallystory-tellers or gramophone owners amused them. The food supplied bysome factories was not at all adequate and the girls had to spendtheir money at the factory tuck-shops. "Most proprietors, " I was told, "endeavour to make part of their staff permanent by acting asmiddlemen to arrange marriages between female and male workers. " Theinfants of married workers were "looked after by the youngestapprentices. " In another place I saw over a factory which employed about 160 girls, who were worked from 5:30 a. M. To 6:40 p. M. With twenty minutes foreach meal. If a girl "broke her contract" it was the custom to sendher name to other factories so that she could not get work again. Theforemen at this establishment seemed decent men. One who had no financial interest in the silk industry but knew thedistrict in which this second factory stood said that "many girls"came home in trouble. The peasants did not like "the spoiling of theirdaughters, " but were "captured in their poverty by the idea of themoney to be gained. " Undoubtedly the factory life was pictured inglowing colours by the _kemban_. In a third factory there were more than 200 girls and only 15 men. Theproprietor and manager seemed good fellows. I was assured that it wasforbidden for men workers to enter the women's quarters, but onentering the dormitory I came on a man and woman scuffling. The girlsof this factory and in others had running below their feet an ironpipe which was filled with steam in cold weather. On some days inJuly, the month in which I visited this factory, I noticed from thetemperature record sheet that the heat had reached 94 degrees in thesteamy spinning bays, where, unless the weather be damp, it wasimpossible, because of spinning conditions, to admit fresh air. I sawa complaint box for the workers. As in other factories, there was acertain provision of boiled water and ample bathing accommodation. Hotbaths were taken every night in summer and every other night inwinter. Here, as elsewhere, though many of the girls were pale andanaemic, all were clean in their persons, which is more than can besaid of all Western factory hands. Work began at 4 a. M. And went onuntil 7 p. M. From 10 to 15 minutes were allowed for meals. The winterhours were from 6 a. M. To 9 p. M. In this factory, as in others, there was a system of tallies, showingto all the workers the ranking of the girls for payment. The standardwage seemed to be 20 sen a day, and the average to which it wasbrought by good work 30 sen. There were thirty or more girls who haddeductions from their 20 sen. Apprentices were shown as working at aloss. Once or twice a month a story-teller came to entertain the girlsand every fortnight a teacher gave them instruction. When I asked if apriest came I was told that "in this district the families are not soreligious, so the girls are not so pious. " Two doctors visited thefactory, one of them daily. Counting all causes, 5 per cent. Of thegirls returned home. The owner of the factory, a man in good physicaltraining and with an alert and kindly face, said the industrysucceeded in his district because the employers "exerted themselves"and the girls "worked with the devotion of soldiers. " I thought of amotto written by the Empress, which I had seen at Ueda, "It is my wishthat the girls whose service it is to spin silk shall be alwaysdiligent. " Behind the desk of this factory proprietor hung the motto, "Cultivate virtues and be righteous. " The fourth factory I saw seemed to be staffed entirely withapprentices who were turned over to other factories in their thirdyear. The girls appeared to have to sleep three girls to two mats. Inthe event of fire the dormitory would be a death-trap. I was told thatthere was an entertainment or a "lecture on character" once a week. The motto on the walls of this factory was, "Learning right ways meansloving mankind. " I went over the factory which belonged to the largest concern in Japanand had 10, 000 hands. The girls were looked after in well-ventilateddormitories by ten old women who slept during the day and kept watchat night. There was a fire escape. All sorts of things were on sale atwholesale prices at the factory shop, but for any good reason an exitticket was given to town. The dining-room was excellent. There was ahospital in this factory and the nurse in the dispensary summarised atmy request the ailments of the 35 girls who were lying downcomfortably: stomachic, 12; colds, 7; fingers hurt by the hot water ofthe cocoon-soaking basins, 5; female affections, 4; nervous, 2; eyes, rheumatism, nose, lungs and kidneys, 1 each. The average wages in thisfactory worked out at 60 yen for 9 months. The hour of beginning workwas 4:30 at the earliest. The factory stopped at sunset, the latesthour being 6:30. I was assured that of the girls who did not getmarried 70 per cent. Renewed their contracts. A large enclosed openspace was available in which the girls might stroll before going tobed. The motto of the establishment was, "I hear the voice of springunder the shadow of the trees. " In reference to the new factorylegislation the manager said that the hours of labour were so longthat it would be some time before 10 hours a day would beinitiated. [143] This factory and its branches were started thirtyyears ago by a man who was originally a factory worker. Although nowvery rich he had "always refused to be photographed and had notavailed himself of an opportunity of entering the House of Peers. " I visited several factories the girls working at which did not live indormitories but outside. At a winding and hanking factory which wasairy and well lighted the hours were from 6 to 6. At a factory wherethe hours were from 4:30 to 7 some reelers had been fined. JapaneseChristian pastors sometimes came to see the girls, and on the wall ofthe recreation room there were paper _gohei_ hung up by a Shintopriest. I got the impression that the girls in the factories at Kōfu inYamanashi prefecture were not driven so hard as those at the factoriesin the Suwas in Nagano. Someone said: "However the Suwa people mayexploit their girls, we are able, working shorter hours and givingmore entertainments, to produce better silk, for the simple reasonthat the girls are in better condition. We can get from 5 to 10 percent. More for our silk. " A factory manager said that it would bebetter if the girls had a regular holiday once a week, but one firmcould not act alone. (The factories are working seven days a week, except for festival days and public holidays. ) With regard to the _kemban_, I was told in Yamanashi that many girlswent to the factories "unwillingly by the instructions of theirparents. " It was also stated that the money paid to girls or theirparents on their engagement was not properly a gratuity but anadvance. I heard that the police keep a special watch on _kemban_. They would not do this without good reason. FOOTNOTES: [141] The times stated are those given to me in the factories. Thequestion of overtime is referred to later in the Chapter. [142] Again the reader must be reminded of the rise in wages andprices (estimated on p. Xxv). During the recent period of inflation, silk rose to 3, 000 yen per picul and fell to 1, 300 or 1, 400 yen. Therehave been great fluctuations in the wages of factory girls. At themost flourishing period as much as 25 yen per head was paid torecruiters of girls. In this Chapter, however, it is best to recordexactly what I saw and heard. [143] On the day on which I re-read this for the printers, I notice inan American paper that one of the largest employers of labour in theUnited States has just stated that he did not see his way to abolishthe twelve-hours' day. CHAPTER XIX "FRIEND-LOVE-SOCIETY'S" GRIM TALE The psychology of behaviour teaches us that [a country's] failures andsemi-failures are likely to continue until there is a far morewidespread appreciation of the importance of studying the forces whichgovern behaviour. --SAXBY I I do not think that some of the factory proprietors are conscious thatthey are taking undue advantage of their employees. These men are justaverage persons at the ante-Shaftesbury stage of responsibilitytowards labour. [144] Their case is that the girls are pitifully poorand that the factories supply work at the ruling market rates for thework of the pitifully poor. Said one factory owner to me genially:"Peasant families are accustomed to work from daylight to dark. In thesilk-worm feeding season they have almost no time for sleep. Peasantpeople are trained to long hours. Lazy people might suffer from thelong hours of the factory, but the factory girls are not lazy. " It hardly needs to be pointed out that there is all the differencebetween a long day at the varied work of a farm, even in the tryingsilk-worm season, and a long day, for nine or ten months on end, sitting still, with the briefest intervals for food, in the din andheat of a factory. Such a life must be debilitating. When it is addedthat in most factories, in the short period between supper and sleep, and again during the night, the girls are closely crowded, no furtherexplanation is wanted of the origin of the tuberculosis which is soprevalent in the villages which supply factory labour. [145] There isno question that in the scanty moments the girls do have for an airingmost of them are immured within the compounds of their factories. Alarge proportion of the many thousands of factory girls[146] who areto be mothers of a new generation in the villages are passing years oftheir lives in conditions which are bad for them physically andmorally. It must not be forgotten that very many of the girls go tothe factories before they are fully grown. On the question ofmorality, evidence from disinterested quarters left no doubt on mymind that the _morale_ of the girls was lowered by factory life. TheLancashire factory girl goes home every evening and she has herSaturday afternoon and her Sunday, her church or chapel, her societiesand clubs, her amusements and her sweetheart. Her Japanese sister hasnone of this natural life and she has infinitely worse conditions oflabour. It is only fair to remember, however, that the Japanese factory girlcomes from a distance. She has no relatives or friends in the town inwhich she is working. But the plea that she would get into trouble ifshe were allowed her liberty without control of any sort does notexcuse her present treatment. If the factories offered decentconditions of life not a few of the companies would get at their doorsmost of the labour they need and many of the girls would live at home. If the factories insist on having cheap rural labour then they shoulddo their duty by it. The girls should have reasonable working hours, proper sleeping accommodation and proper opportunities inside andoutside the factories for recreation and moral and mental improvement. It is idle to suggest that fair treatment of this sort is impossible. It is perfectly possible. The factory proprietors are no worse than many other people intent onmoney making. But the silk industry, as I saw it, was exploiting, consciously or unconsciously, not only the poverty of its girlemployees but their strength, morality, deftness[147] and remarkableschool training in earnestness and obedience. Several times I heardthe unenlightened argument that, if there were a certain sacrifice ofhealth and well-being, a rapidly increasing population made thesacrifice possible; that, as silk was the most valuable product inJapan, and it was imperative for the development and security of theEmpire that its economic position should be strengthened, thesacrifice must be made. Nothing need be said of such a hopelesslyout-of-date and nationally indefensible attitude except this: that itis doubtful whether any considerable proportion of the peopleconnected with the silk industry have felt themselves speciallycharged with a mission to strengthen the economic condition of theircountry. They have simply availed themselves of a favourableopportunity to make money. That opportunity was presented by the cheaplabour available in farmers' daughters unprotected by effective tradeunions, by properly administered factory laws or by public opinion. II[148] The enterprise, the efficiency and the profits shown by thesericultural industry have been remarkable, and not a few of thecapitalists connected with it are personally public-spirited. But manywell-wishers of Japan, native-born and foreign, cannot help wonderingwhat is the real as compared with the seeming return of the industryto a nation the strength of which is in its reservoir of rustic healthand willingness. It is significant of the extent to which thefactories are working with cheap labour that, in a country in whichthere are more men than women, [149] there was in about 20, 000factories 58 per cent. Of female labour. If I stress the fact offemale employment it is because in Japan nearly every womaneventually marries. Enfeebled women must therefore hand onenfeeblement to the next generation. [150] The Japanese, in their present factory system, as in otherdevelopments, insist on making for themselves all the mistakes that wehave made and are now ashamed of. In judging the Japanese let usremember that all our industrial exploitation of women[151] was not, as we like to believe, an affair as far off as the opening nineteenthcentury. I do not forget as a young man filling a newspaper posterwith the title of an article which recounted from my own observationthe woes of women chain makers who, with bared breasts and theirinfants sprawling in the small coals, slaved in domestic smithies fora pittance. And as I write it is announced that the head of the UnitedStates Steel Corporation says that "there is no necessity for tradeunions, " which are, in his opinion, "inimical to the best interests ofthe employers and the public. " That is precisely the view of mostJapanese factory proprietaries. The trade union is not illegal in Japan, but its teeth have been drawn(1) by the enactment that "those who, with the object of causing astrike, seduce or incite others" shall be sentenced to imprisonmentfrom one to six months with a fine of from 3 to 30 yen; (2) by thepower given to the police (_a_) to detain suspected persons for asuccession of twenty-four hour periods, and (_b_) summarily to closepublic meetings, and (3) by the franchise being so narrow that fewtrade unionists have votes. During the six years of the War there wereas many as 141, 000 strikers, but a not uncommon method of theseworkers was merely to absent themselves from work, to refrain fromworking while in the factory, or to "ca' canny. " Nevertheless 633 ofthem were arrested. When I attended in Tokyo a gathering of members ofthe leading labour organisation in Japan it was discreetly namedYu-ai-kai (Friend-Love-Society, i. E. Friendly Society). Now it isboldly called the Confederation of Japanese Labour. A SocialistLeague[152] and several labour publications exist. Workers assemble tosee moving pictures of labour demonstrations, and a labour meeting hasdefied the police in attendance by singing the whole of the "Song ofRevolution. " But crippled as the unions are under the law againststrikes and by the poverty of the workers, they find it difficult toattain the financial strength necessary for effective action. Manyworkers are trade unionists when they are striking but their tradeunionism lapses when the strike is over, for then the unions seem tohave small reason for existing. The head of the Federation of Labourlately announced that the number of trade unionists was only 100, 000, or half what it was during the recent big strikes and it is doubtfulwhether, even including the 7, 000 members of the Seamen's Union, thereare in Japan more than 50, 000 contributing members of the differentunions. But this 50, 000 may be regarded as staunch. The poverty-stricken unions certainly afford no real protection to thegirl workers, who form indeed a very small proportion of theirmembers. And the Factory Law does little for them. A Japanese friendwho knows the labour situation well writes to me: "According to the Factory Law, which came into force in the autumn of1916, 'factory employers are not allowed to let women work more thantwelve hours in a day. ' (Article III, section 1. ) But if necessary, 'the competent Minister is entitled to extend this limitation tofourteen hours. ' (Section 2. ) As to night work the law says that'factory employers are not allowed to let women work from 10 p. M. To 4a. M. ' (Article IV. ) If, however, there are necessary reasons, 'theemployers can be exempted from the obligation of the Article IV. '(Article V. ) Article IX says that 'the employers are forbidden to letwomen engage in dangerous work. ' But whether work is dangerous or notis determined by 'the competent Minister' (Article XI), who may or maynot be well informed. There is also Article XII, 'The competentMinister can limit or prohibit the work of women about to havechildren' and within three weeks after confinement. But anyone whoenters factories may see women with pale faces because they work toosoon after their confinement. "I cannot tell you how far these provisions are enforced. I can onlysay that I have not yet heard of employers being punished forviolating the Factory Law. Can it be supposed that employers are sohonest as never to violate the Factory Law? As to working hours, insome factories they may work less than fourteen hours as the lawindicates. In others they may work more, because 'there are necessaryreasons. ' This is especially true of the factories in the countryparts. As 200 inspectors have been appointed, the authorities must bynow know the actual situation pretty well. " Dr. Kuwata, a former member of the Upper House, with whom I frequentlydiscussed the labour situation, declares the Factory Law to be"palpably imperfect and primitive. " At the end of 1917 there were, according to official figures, 99, 000 female factory operatives underfifteen years of age and 2, 400 under twelve. Some 20, 000 of thesechildren were employed in silk factories. What protection have they?Before passing this page for the press I have shown it to awell-informed Japanese friend and he says that he has never seen anynewspaper report of a prosecution under the Factory Law. Obviously aFactory Law under which no one is ever prosecuted is notoperative. [153] It is excellent that Japan has sent a large permanent delegation toSwitzerland to establish a system of liaison with the InternationalLabour Office of the League of Nations. This company of young men willkeep the Japanese Government well informed. There is undoubtedly inJapan, under Western influence, a steady development of sensitivenessto working-class conditions and a rapid growth of modern socialideas. But the Government and the Diet will not step out far inadvance of general opinion, the most will naturally be made by theauthorities and trade interests of bad factory conditions on theContinent of Europe and in some industries in the United States, andthe majority of a public which has been carefully nurtured in thebelief that a profitable industrialism is the great desideratum forJapan will not be restive. Real factory reform is not to be expecteduntil an enlightened view is taken by Japanese in general of theexploitation of girls for any purpose. It is not in commercial humannature, Eastern or Western, that factory directors and shareholdersshould forgo without a struggle the advantage of possessing cheaperand more subjected labour than their foreign rivals. Some influencemay be exerted in the right direction by the fact that those who areprofiting by cheap and docile labour may themselves be undersoldbefore long by cheaper and still more docile labour in China. [154] Andin 1922 Japan is under an obligation, accepted at the WashingtonLabour Conference, to stop women working more than eleven hours a dayand to abolish night work. Meantime the labour movement makesprogress. It is significant that many of its leaders are under theinfluence of "direct action" ideas. They hope little from a Dietelected on a narrow franchise and supported by a strong Governmentmachine backed by the Conservative farmer vote. Although, however, there does not seem to be as yet a junction between the labourmovement and the unions of the tenant farmers, who have their owninterests alone in view, the future may present unexpecteddevelopments. As I write, the labour movement is conducting a trial ofstrength with the great Mitsubishi and Kawasaki enterprises and ispresenting a stronger front than it has yet done. This Chapter would give an unfair impression of the relations ofcapital and labour in Japan if it included no reference to thewell-intentioned efforts made by several large employers to improvethe conditions of working-class life and labour. Sometimes they havefollowed the example of philanthropic firms in Great Britain andAmerica. As often as not they have been inspired by old Japanese ideasof a master's responsibilities. Many leading industrials have believedand still believe that by the conservation and development of oldideas of paternalism and loyalty the trade-union stage of industrialdevelopment may be avoided. This conviction was expressed to me by, among others, Mr. Matsukata, of the famous Kawasaki concern, who hasmade generous contributions to "welfare" work. My own brief experienceas an employer in Japan made me acquainted with some canons in therelationship of employer and employed which have lost their authorityin the West. Given wisdom on the part of masters, the prolongedbitterness which has marked the industrial development of the Westneed not be repeated in Japan, but whether that wisdom will bedisplayed in time is doubtful. The Japanese commercial world has beencommendably quick to learn in many directions in the West. It will bea serious reflection on the intelligence of the country if the lessonsof the industrial acerbities of Europe and the United States shouldnot be grasped. Meantime it is a duty which the foreign observer owesto Japan to speak quite plainly of attempts as silly as they areuseless[155] to obscure the lamentable condition of a large proportionof Japanese workers, to hide the immense profits which have been madeby their employers and to pretend that factory laws have only to beplaced on the statute book in order to be enforced. But if he behonest he must also recognise the handicap of specially costlyequipment[156] and of unskilled labour and inexperience under whichthe Japanese business world is competing for the place in foreigntrade to which it has a just claim. Such conditions do not in theleast excuse inhumanity, but they help to explain it. FOOTNOTES: [144] It is a chastening exercise to read before proceeding with thisChapter an extract from Spencer Walpole's _History of England_, vol. Iii, p. 317, under the year 1832: "The manufacturing industries of thecountry were collected into a few centres. In one sense the personsemployed had their reward: the manufacturers gave them wages. Inanother sense their change of occupation brought them nothing butevil. Forced to dwell in a crowded alley, occupying at night a houseconstructed in neglect of every known sanitary law, employed in thedaytime in an unhealthy atmosphere and frequently on a dangerousoccupation, with no education available for his children, with noreasonable recreation, with the sky shrouded by the smoke of anadjoining capital, with the face of nature hidden by a brick wall, neglected by an overworked clergyman, regarded as a mere machine by anavaricious employer, the factory operative turned to the public house, the prize ring or the cockpit. " [145] See Appendix XL. [146] Number of factory workers, a million and a half, of whom 800, 000are females. For statistics of women workers, see Appendix XLI. [147] The Minister of Commerce has himself stated that thesericultural industry is rooted in the dexterity of the Japanesecountrywoman. [148] This section of the Chapter was written in 1921. [149] In Japan in 1918 there were, per 1, 000, 505. 2 men to 494. 8women. [150] Of the workers under the age of fifteen in the 20, 000 factories, 82 per cent. Were girls. The statistics in this paragraph were issuedby the Ministry of Commerce in 1917. [151] For sketches of women and children (with a chain between theirlegs) harnessed to coal wagons in the pits, see _ParliamentaryPapers_, vol. Xv, 1842. "There is a factory system grown up in Englandthe most horrible that imagination can conceive, " wrote Sir WilliamNapier to Lady Hester Stanhope two years after Queen Victoria'saccession. "They are hells where hundreds of children are killedyearly in protracted torture. " In Torrens's _Memoirs of the Queen'sFirst Prime Minister_, one reads: "Melbourne had a Bill drawn whichwith some difficulty he persuaded the Cabinet to sanction, prohibitingthe employment of children _under 9 in any except silk mills_. " [152] More than 200 books on Socialism were published in 1920. [153] For a declaration by Dr. Kuwata concerning bad food and"defiance of hygienic rules, " see Appendix XLII. [154] See Appendix XLIII. [155] See Appendix XLII. [156] In a pre-War publication of the United States Department ofCommerce it was stated that the cost of cotton mills per spindle is inEngland _32s. _, in the United States _44s. _, in Germany _52s. _, and inJapan _100s. _ [Illustration: ARCHERY AT AN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. P. 158] [Illustration: CULTIVATION OF THE HILLSIDE. P. 148] [Illustration: RAILWAY STATION "BENTO" BOX (OPEN) AND POT OF TEA WITHCUP. P. 110 The _bento_ box provides rice, meat, fish, omelette andassorted pickles; also paper napkin and _hashi_ (chop-sticks) and(between them) a toothpick. ] FROM TOKYO TO THE NORTH BY THEWEST COAST CHAPTER XX "THE GARDEN WHERE VIRTUES ARE CULTIVATED" (FUKUSHIMA AND YAMAGATA) BOSWELL: If you should advise me to go to Japan I believe I should. JOHNSON: Why yes, Sir, I am serious. In one of my journeys I went from Tokyo to the extreme north of Japan, travelling up the west coast and down the east. Fukushimaprefecture--in which is Shirakawa, famous for a horse fair which lastsa week--encourages the eating of barley, for on the northern half ofthe east coast of Japan there is no warm current and the rice crop maybe lost in a cold season. "Officials of the prefecture and county, "someone said to me, "take barley themselves; enthusiastic _gunchō_take it gladly. " The prefectural station, by selecting the best varieties of rice forsowing, had effected a 10 per cent. Improvement in yield. In eachcounty an official "agricultural encourager" had been appointed. Thelectures given at the experiment station were attended by 18, 000persons. The studious who listen to the lectures had formed anassociation that provided at the station a fine building where supper, bed, breakfast and lunch cost 30 sen. It contained a model of the Iseshrine with a motto in the handwriting of a well-known Tokyoagricultural professor, "Difficulties Polish You. " "Some villagers, " said a local authority, "want to make the Buddhisttemple the centre of the development of village life. In severalplaces agricultural products are exhibited at Shinto shrines. Farmersoffer them out of a kind of piety, but the products are afterwardscriticised from a technical point of view. This is done on theinitiative of the villagers encouraged by the prefecture. " Hereabouts the winter work of the people, in addition to basket, ropeand mat making, was paper making and smoothing out the wrinkles oftobacco. [157] A considerable number of people had emigrated to SouthAmerica. The principal need of the villages, it was stated, was moneyat less than the current rate of 20 per cent. In one place I found afactory built on the side of a daimyo's castle. I was told of crops of _konnyaku_ which had made one man the secondrichest person in the prefecture and had therefore qualified him formembership in the House of Peers. (The House includes one member fromeach prefecture as the representative of the highest taxpayers of thatprefecture. ) During my journeys I picked up many odds and ends of information bywalking through the trains and having chats with country people. I wasalso helped by county and prefectural agricultural officials who, having learnt of my movements, were kind enough to join me in thetrain for an hour or so. One head of an agricultural school which wasfull up with students told me that there were already in Fukushima twoprefectural and five county agricultural schools. Our train, half freight with a locomotive at each end, went over thebackbone of Japan through the usual series of snow shelters andtunnels. Having surmounted the heights we slid down into Yamagata. Ishould properly write Yamagataken, which we cannot translateYamagatashire, for a _ken_ (prefecture) is made up of counties. Thereare eleven counties in Yamagataken. Almost any sort of dwelling looks tolerable in August, but many of thehouses that first caught our attention must be lamentable shelters inwinter. Some farmers, I learnt, were "in a very bad condition. " Wedropped from a silk and rice plateau and then to a region where themain crop was rice. The bare hills to be seen in our descent were anappalling spectacle when it was realised how close was their relationto the disastrous floods of the prefecture. A man in the train hadlost 10, 000 yen by floods, a large sum in rural Japan. In two yearsthe prefecture had spent in river-bank repairs nearly a million yen. Aflood some years ago did damage to the amount of 20 million yen. Theprefecture had a debt of 60 million yen, chiefly due to havoc wroughtby its big river. A yearly sum was spent on afforestation in additionto what was laid out by the State and by private individuals. Aforestry association was trying to raise half a million yen for treeplanting. But the flooding of the plains was not the only watertrouble of the Yamagatans. In one district they had a stream whichcontained solutions of compounds of sulphuric acid so strong thatcrops fail for three years on ground watered from it. In other partsof the prefecture, however, farmers had the advantage, enjoyed in manyparts of Japan, of being able to water from ammonia water springs. Hereabouts I first noticed the device common to many districts ofhaving on the roof of a cottage a water barrel, tub or cistern, readyto be emptied on the shingle roof when sparks fly from a burningdwelling. Sometimes the wooden water receptacles are wrapped roundwith straw. In the prefectural city of Yamagata I heard of a primary school whichhad a farm and made a profit, also of four landowners who had engagedan agricultural expert for the instruction of their tenants. "A verycertain crop" round about the city was grapes. Some 25, 000 personsyearly visited the prefectural 12 _-chō_ experiment station, whichwithin a year had distributed to farmers 7, 600 cyanided fruit treesand 80 bushels of special seed rice. Near the experiment station was a crematorium of ugly brick andgalvanised iron belonging to the city of Yamagata at which 1, 000bodies were burnt in a year in furnaces heated with pine blocks. Aselection might be made from four rates ranging from 35 sen to 5 yen. The most expensive rate was for folk who arrived in Western-stylecoffins. The experiment station had another institution at its doors. This hadto do not with the dead but with the living. Its name was "The Gardenwhere Virtues are Cultivated. " The director of it was the father ofthe agricultural expert of the prefecture. The garden, which was not agarden, was a home for bad boys, or rather for thirty bad boys and onebad girl. The bad girl--the director, being a man of humanity, commonsense and courage, thought it most necessary that there should be atleast one bad girl--acted as maidservant to the director. The bad boys"maided" themselves and the school. The lads were such as had falleninto the hands of the police. They were being reformed in a somewhatoriginal way by a somewhat original director. Early in the day they had their cold bath, which was itself a breakwith Japanese custom, for, though most Japanese have a nightly hotbath, they are content with a basin wash in the morning. Then the boys"cleaned school. " Next they were marched up one by one to a mirror andrequired to take a good look at themselves, in order, no doubt, to seejust how bad they were. After this they were called on to "give thanksto the Emperor and their ancestors. " Finally came a half-hour lectureon "morality. " It was considered that by this time the boys wereentitled to their breakfast. For open-air labour they were sent to theexperiment station, but they had manual work also in their own school, where, among other things, they "made useful things out of waste, " theincome from which went to their families. On Sundays the master, though he must be nearer sixty than fifty, fenced with every one ofthe thirty boys in turn--no ordinary task, for Japanese fencing callsnot only for an eye and a hand, but for a muscular back. Somewholesome-looking young fellows, members of a young men's association, served as volunteer masters and lived in the bare fashion that was sogood for the boys. The director did not believe that bad boys were hopeless. He said thatnot only the boys but their parents were better for the work done in"The Garden where Virtues are Cultivated. " He seemed to have become asort of consulting expert to primary school-masters who were at a lossto know how to manage bad boys. Chastisement, as is well known, isunusual in Japanese schools. The director of the human _hortusinclusus_ confessed to me that though two of his boys whom he hadcaught fighting might not have been separated without, in the Westernphrase, "feeling the weight of his hand, " his heaviest punishment onother difficult occasions was the moxa. The moxa brings us back to real horticulture. Moxa is _mogusa_ ormugwort. _Mogusa_ means "burning herb. " The moxa is a greattherapeutic agent in the Far East. A bit of the dried herb is laid onthe skin and set fire to as a sort of blister. From the application ofthe moxa as a cure for physical ills to its application for the cureof bad boys is a natural step. One sees by the scars on the backs ofnot a few Japanese that in their youth either their health or theircharacters left something to be desired. The moxa, then, is the rod inpickle in "The Garden where Virtues are Cultivated. " But I think it isnot brought out often. A wrestling ring in a mass of sand thrown downin a yard, a harmonium, a blackboard for the boys to work their willon, doors labelled "The Room of Patience, " "The Room of Honesty, " "TheRoom of Cleanliness" and "The Room of Good Arrangement, " not to speakof a rabbit loping about the school premises--these and some othertouches in the management of the school spoke of an even strongerinfluence toward well-doing than the moxa. But even if the moxa shouldfail, the attention of the boys could always be drawn to thecrematorium. One who knew the rural districts discoursed to me in this wise: "Thebest men are not numerous, but neither are the worst. I doubt whetherthe desire to enjoy life is as strong in the Japanese as in the peopleof the West. Most farmers would no doubt be happy with materialcomfort. Pressed as they have been by material needs, they have notime to think. When they are easier, they may get something beyond thephysical. At present we must regard their material welfare as the mosturgent thing. " But a man standing by, who was also a countryman, strongly dissented. "Religion, " he said, "is not only important butfundamental. " I have been received by more than one prefectural governor at eight inthe morning. His Excellency of Yamagata sets a good example by risingat five and by going to bed at nine. He told me that he thought thefarmer's chief lack was cheap money. Low interest and a long termmight convert into arable 25, 000 acres of barren land in hisprefecture. In the old days, as I knew, the farmers drove tunnelsconsiderable distances for irrigation, but with modern engineeringbetter results would be possible if money were available. As to themisdeeds of the rivers, it might almost be said that every village wasfeeling the need of embanking and of going to the source of loss byplanting trees in the hills. Beautiful forests of feudal period hadbeen wasted in the early days of Meiji and the result was now plain. But attention had to be given to the minds as well as the pockets ofthe villagers. Families that were once reasonably content were nowdiscontented. A livelihood was harder to get, taxation was heavier andthere was an increase in needs. Country people imagined townspeople tobe comfortably off, "not realising how they were tormented. " Villagersenvied townsmen their amusements. Some prefectures had forbidden the_Bon_ dance and had supplied nothing in its place. It was easy to seewhy farmers no longer applied themselves so closely to their callingand were wavering in their allegiance to country life. Healthfulamusements were necessary for those whose minds were not muchdeveloped. Also, country people should be taught the true character oftown life, and that agriculture, though it might not yield the profitof commerce and industry, ensured a reasonably happy life in healthfulplaces where physical strength could be enjoyed. The right kind ofvillage libraries should be encouraged. Music might perhaps be forcedinto competition with _saké_. A mental awakening by education was the final solution of the ruralproblem, the Governor thought. Religion was also important for thedevelopment of the village. Believers not under the eyes of otherswould avoid wrong-doing because watched by heaven. Lectures onagriculture and sanitation had a good influence when delivered bypriests. Temples were often schools before the era of Meiji and sopriests were socially active. Under the new dispensation the work wastaken out of their hands. So they had come to care little for theaffairs of the world. But they were influential and the prefecture hadasked for their help. The merits of many priests might not beconspicuous, but the number of them who were active was increasing andthe villagers deferred to them if they took any step. The most hopeful thing in the villages was the awakening of the youngmen: they were becoming "sincere, " a favourite Japanese word. For themost part the credit societies were not efficient, but in one countycredit societies had lessened the business of the banks. The best wayto furnish capital to farmers was out of the capital of their fellowfarmers. Possibly the girls of the villages were not making the same advance asthe boys. They did not go to their field labour willingly. Sometimeswhen a woman was asked by a neighbour on the road, "Have you beenworking on the farm?" she would answer, "No, I have been to thetemple. " The host of women's papers had a bad effect. With regard tothe _habutae_ (silk goods) factories, there was a bright side, forthey gave work to the girls in winter, when they were idle "andtherefore poor and sometimes immoral. " On the other hand, factorygirls tended to become vain and thriftless and the stay-at-home girlswere inclined to imitate them. FOOTNOTES: [157] See Appendix XLV. CHAPTER XXI THE "TANOMOSHI" (YAMAGATA) Society is kept in animation by the customary and by sentiment. --MEREDITH Six feet of snow is common on the line on which we travelled inYamagata prefecture, and washouts are not infrequent. A train has beenstopped for a week by snow. It was difficult to think of snow when onesaw groups of pilgrims with their flopping sun-mats on their backs. The shrines on three local mountain tops are visited by 20, 000 peopleyearly. We bought at railway stations different sorts of gelatinous fruitpreparations. Most places in Japan have a speciality in the form of afood or a curiosity that can be bought by travellers. In the great Shonai plain, which extends through three counties, thereare no fewer than 82, 500 acres of rice and the unending crops were asight to see. A great deal of the paddy land has been adjusted. In onecounty there is the largest adjusted area in Japan, 20, 000 acres. Whenone raises one's eyes from the waving fields of illimitable rice, thedominating feature of the landscape is Mount Chokai with his Augustsnow cap. The three-storey hotel at which we stayed had been taken to pieces andtransported twenty miles. Such removal of houses to a more convenientor, in the case of an hotel, a more profitable site, is not uncommon. I sometimes patronised at Omori a large hotel on a little hill halfwaybetween Yokohama and Tokyo, which had formerly been the prefecturalbuilding at Kanagawa. In the hotel in which I was now staying I wasinterested in the "Notice" in my room: 1. A spitting-pot is provided. [Usually of bamboo or porcelain. ] 2. No towels are lent for fear of _trachoma_. [158] [The traveller inJapan carries his own towels, but a towel is a common gift on aguest's departure in acknowledgment of his tea money. ] 3. There is a table of rates. Guests are requested to say in whichthey desire to be reckoned. [To the hotel proprietor, landlord ormanager when the visit of courtesy is paid on the guest's arrival. Otherwise a judgment is formed from the guest's clothes, demeanour andbaggage. ] 4. Please lock up your valuables or let us keep them. [There are nolocks on Japanese doors. ] 5. Railroad, _kuruma_, box-sledge or automobile charges onapplication. [The box-sledge shows what the country is like inwinter. ] In conversations about local conditions I was told that "landowners ofthe middle grade" were suffering from "trying to keep up theirposition. " I remembered the song which may be rendered: Would that my daughter Were married to a middle farmer. With two _chō_ of farm And a _tan_ in the wood. No borrowing; no lending; Both ends meeting. Visiting the temple by turns-- Someone must stay at home. Going to Heaven sooner or later. What a happy life! What a happy life! Tenants were rather well off because their standard of living waslower than that of owners. Economic conditions were improving inYamagata, but in the adjoining prefecture of Miyagi on the easterncoast of Japan "whole villages" had gone to Hokkaido. Some poorfarmers were spending only 5 sen a day on food, the rest of what theyate coming entirely from their own holdings. Some farmers said, "Ifyou calculate our income, we are certainly unable to make a living, but in some way or other we are able, " which is what some smallholders in many countries would say. I was told that a labourer's 5 _tan_ could be cultivated by workinghalf days. Generally more was earned by labouring than could be gainedfrom a small patch of land. But for half the year labourer's work wasnot obtainable. My informant found small tenant labourers "well off"if both husband and wife had wages: "they are able to buy a bottle of_saké_ in the evening. " Their position was better than that of a smallpeasant proprietor. One in a thousand of the families in a specified county slept instraw. I heard of the payment of 20 to 25 per cent. To pawnbrokerlenders. But there is another way of borrowing. The plan of the _kō_ may beadopted. A _kō_--it is odd that it should so closely resemble ourabbreviation "Co. "--is simple and effective. If a man is badly off orwants to undertake something beyond his financial resources, and hisfriends decide to help him, they may proceed by forming a _kō_. A _kō_is composed of a number of people who agree to subscribe a certain summonthly and to divide the proceeds monthly by ballot, beginning bygiving the first month's receipts to the person to succour whom the_kō_ was formed. Suppose that the subscription be fixed at a yen amonth and that there are fifty subscribers. Then the beneficiary--whopays in his yen with the rest--gets 50 yen on the occasion of thefirst ingathering. Every month afterwards a member who is lucky in theballot gets 50 yen. The monthly paying in and paying out continue forfifty months and all the subscribers duly get their money back, withthe advantage of having had a little excitement and having done aneighbourly action. But the _kō_, or _tanomoshi_, as I ought to call it, is not always theinnocent organisation I have described. There is a _tanomoshi_ systemunder which, after member A, the beneficiary, has received the firstmonth's subscriptions, the other members are open to receive bids fortheir shares. That is to say that, when the time comes round for thesecond paying out of 50 yen, member F, who happens to have become asmuch in need of ready money as A was, offers, if the month's moneys behanded over to him, to distribute among the members sums up to 20 yen. July and December, when most people need ready money, are months inwhich a hard-up member of a _tanomoshi_ may sometimes offer todistribute as much as 50 per cent. Of what he receives. The result ofsuch bidding for shares is that well-to-do members of a _tanomoshi_, who are the last to draw their 50 yen, receive in addition to it allthe extra payments made by impoverished members who took their sharesearlier. Benevolence in a _tanomoshi_ is not seldom a mask for avaricethat the law against usury cannot touch. In truth, the only virtuouspart of a _tanomoshi_ may be the first sharing out to the person inwhose interest it was supposed to be started. It should be added, however, that there is a sort of _tanomoshi_ which has no particularbeneficiary and is merely a kind of co-operative credit society. Inone place I heard of a _tanomoshi_ that maintained a large fund forthe relief of orphans and the sick. In many villages there were private or co-operative godowns for thestorage of rice against fire, rats and damp. Though the farmer whosends rice to such a store receives a receipt, it is not legally amarketable document. Hence an improvement on this simple storage plan. I visited the premises of a company that could store more than 500, 000bushels of rice, and I found purification by carbon bisulphide goingon. The receipts given by this company--"certificated" for largequantities and "tickets" for small--certify not only the quantity butthe quality of the rice, and are readily cashed. The storehouse ownerswork under a licence, and they have the advantage that the buyer ofthe receipts of non-licensed stores is not protected by the courts. In the office of the company were samples of eleven market qualitiesof rice, and before them, by way of showing respect to the great foodstaple, was set the _gohei_ of cut white paper seen in Shintoshrines. Outside the office, girl porters carried the bales of rice toand fro. Close to the store was a river in which some of the dusty, perspiring porters were washing and cooling themselves with asimplicity to which Western civilisation is not yet equal. Oppositethem men were fishing by casting in draw nets from the shore just asin biblical pictures the apostles are represented as doing. The company has a rice market where farmers were putting theirbusiness in the dealers' hands. Each dealer has to deposit 5, 000 yenwith the State. The dealer who buys rice from a farmer has betterpolishing machinery than the farmer possesses. Therefore he can givethe rice a more uniform appearance. By decreasing the weight of therice during the polishing he gives it he is also able to lessen thesum payable for carriage and he has the value of the offal. In order to visit farmers I rode some distance into the country. [159]The village, which was of the Zen sect, was at work cleaning out andstraightening the stream which, as is usual in many villages, ranthrough the middle of it. I was impressed during my visit not only bythe readiness and intelligence with which my questions were answeredbut by the good humour with which a stranger's inquiries concerningpersonal matters was received. I had another thought, that I might nothave found a group of Western farmers so well informed about theirfinancial position as these simple, primitively clad men. Our _kuruma_ route to and from the village had been through one greattract of well-adjusted rice fields. Adjustment was not difficult inthis region because half the land belongs to the Homma family, whichhas given much study to the art of land-holding. For two centuries theclan by charging moderate rents and studying the interests of itstenants has maintained happy relations with them. For many years a plan has been in operation by which 200 one-_tan_paddy-fields are cultivated by the agents or managers of the estate, by tenants selected by their fellow tenants for merit, by tenantschosen by the landlord for diligence and by others picked out becauseof their interest in agriculture. In order to increase the zest ofcompetition the cultivators are divided into a black and a whitecompany. The names of those who raise the most and best rice arepublished in the order of their success, farm implements aredistributed as prizes, the clever cultivators are invited to thelandlord's New Year entertainment to the agents and managers, and atthat feast "places of distinction are given. " There is also a system of rewarding the best five-years averages. Acompetition takes place between what are called "dress fields" becausethose who get the best results from them receive a ceremonial dressbearing the inscription, "Prosperity and Welfare. " The honour ofwearing these robes in the presence of their landlord at his annualfeast is valued by these simple countrymen. Through the introduction by the landlord of horse labour andploughs--implements with which the farmers were formerlyunacquainted--second cropping of part of the paddies has becomepossible. There is an elaborate system of "progressive reduction" and"average reduction" of rents in a bad season, by which, it wasexplained, "the industrious tenant enjoys a larger reduction than anidle one. " "Tenants are grouped in fives, which help one another intheir work and in cases of misfortune. " In their agreement with theirlandlord, tenants promise that "wrong-doing shall be mutuallyreprimanded and counsel shall be given one to another. " "Again, if atenant falls ill, has his house burnt or meets with misfortune, assistance shall be given by his fellows. " During the war with Russiathe following instructions were issued: Those enlisted in the army shall render their service at the cost oftheir lives. Those who stay at home shall do their best, complying with theprinciples laid down by the Minister of Agriculture. Relatives of soldiers at the front shall be helped and sympathisedwith. All shall subscribe to war bonds as much as possible. All shall practise thrift and economy in accordance with their socialstanding. Musical entertainments shall be given up for two years. Methods proved to be effective in cultivation shall be reported. In the warm, cloudy days insects multiply rapidly. Think of yourbrothers at the front, struggling against one of the mighty militarypowers of the world, and be ashamed to be vanquished by hordes ofinsects or masses of vegetable growth in your fields. For the purposeof destroying insects an ample supply of oil is to be had at theexperimental farm, as during last year; and payment therefor may bedeferred until after harvest. A communication to agents and managers says: "Comport yourselves in away suitable to the dignity of an agent of the clan. Bear in mind theprivileges and favours you enjoy, and exert yourselves to requitethese favours. Respect the name and the coat-of-arms of the clan. " Inthe neighbourhood there are about a hundred families bearing the nameof Homma. FOOTNOTES: [158] In the three years 1916-18 the percentage of conscriptssuffering from trachoma was 15. 8. [159] For farmers' budgets, see Appendix XIII (end). BACK AGAIN BY THE EAST COAST CHAPTER XXII "BON" SONGS AND THE SILENT PRIEST (YAMAGATA, AKITA, [160] AOMORI, IWATE, MIYAGI, FUKUSHIMAAND IBARAKI) The worst of our education is that it looks askance, looks over itsshoulder at sex. --R. L. S. A village headman, encountered in the train just as we were leavingYamagata prefecture, gave me some insight into the life of his littlecommunity. The fathers of two-score families were shopkeepers andtradesmen--- that is, tradesmen in the old meaning of the word. Therewere also a few labourers. About two hundred and fifty families ownedland and some of them rented additional tracts. Another sixty weresimply tenants. The poorer farmers were also labourers or artisans. Most of them were "comfortable enough. " There were, however, half adozen people in the village who were helped from village funds. Of themiddle-grade farmers "it might be said that they do not become richeror poorer. " The headman had formed a society which sent its members to visitprefectures more developed agriculturally. This society had engaged aninstructor from without the prefecture and he had taught horse tillageand the management of upland fields and had made model paddies. Fivestallions had been obtained and a simple adjustment of paddy-land hadbeen brought about. As a result the rice yield had risen. This headman had also had addresses delivered in the village for thefirst time. Further, after buying a number of books, he had visitedall the villagers in turn and shown them the books and had said toeach of them, "I wish you to buy a book and, after reading it, to giveit to the library. " "And, " he told me, "none of them objected. " Soon avaluable library came into existence. This admirable functionary felt some satisfaction at having been ableto abate the custom according to which the young men, with the tacitpermission of their parents, had gone into the neighbouring town afterharvest "to visit the immoral women. " "They used to spend as much as 5yen, " said our headman. He had started worthier forms of after-harvestrelaxation, and "the cost of the amusement days is now only 50 or 60sen. " When we got on the main line again and pursued our way farther north, it was through even stouter snow shelters and through many tunnels. Not a few miserable dwellings were to be seen as we passed into Akitaprefecture. We broke our journey after some hours' travelling to staythe night at a rather primitive hot spring inn four or five miles upin the hills. A slight rain was falling. Four passengers at a timemade the ascent to the hotel, squatting on a mat in an oldcontractor's wagon, pushed along roughly laid rails by two perspiringyouths in rain-cloaks of bark strips. At the inn, on going to thebath, I found therein a miscellaneous collection of people of bothsexes from grandparents to grandchildren. One bather enlivened us byperformances on the flute, which, if a musical instrument must beplayed in a bath, seems as suitable as any. In this rambling inn therewere many farmers who, by preparing their own food and doing forthemselves generally, were holiday-making at bedrock prices. As it was the _Bon_ season, when the spirits of the dead are supposedto return, I was a witness of the method adopted to help the ghosts tofind their old homes. At the top of a 30 or 40 ft. Pole a lantern isfixed with a pulley. Fastened up beside the lantern is a bunch ofgreen stuff, cryptomeria in many cases. The lantern is lighted eachevening for a week. Having heard a good deal about the suppression of_Bon_ dances and songs I was interested when a fellow-guest begantalking about them. He had seen many _Bon_ dances and had heard many_Bon_ songs. There can be no doubt that there has been someunenlightened interference with the _Bon_ gathering. The countrypeople seem to be suffering from the determination of officialdom tomake an end of everything in country as well as town that may beconsidered "uncivilised" by any foreigner, however ill instructed. Intowns the sexes are not accustomed to meet, but country people mustwork together; therefore they find it natural to dance and singtogether. As to the _Bon_ songs, it is common sense that expressionswhich may be regarded as outrageous and indecent in a drawing-room maynot be so terrible on a hilltop among rustics used to very plainspeech and to easy recognition of natural facts that are veiled fromtownspeople. My chance acquaintance at the inn recited a number of_Bon_ songs and next morning brought me some more that he hadremembered and had been kind enough to write down. They merelyestablished the fact that bucolic wit is as elemental in Japan as inother lands. Most of the songs had a Rabelaisian touch, some werenasty, but nearly all had wit. The following is an entirely harmlessexample: Mr. Potato of the Countryside Got his new European suit. But a potato is still a potato. He took one and a half _rin_[161] out of his bag And bought _amé_[162] and licked at it. Here are three others: Tip-toe, tip-toe, Creaks the floor. Girl made prayer, Dreading ghost. But 'twas her lover Who stealthily came. Dancer, dancer, Do not laugh at me. My dance is very bad, But I only began last year. How thin a thin-legged man may be If he does not take his _miso_ soup. [163] The quality of these dramatic songs will be entirely missed if thereader does not bear in mind the mimetic skill of the amateur Japanesedancer and his power as a contortionist. Clever dancers often usetheir powers in a humorous pretence of clumsiness. Of the freer sortof songs I may quote two: Never buy vegetables in Third Street, [164] You'll lose 30 sen and your nose. Onions from a basket hanging in the _benjo_[165] Were cooked in _miso_[166] and given to a blind man, But that chap was greatly delighted. Some of the other songs may be described, I suppose, as obscene, ifobscene be, as the dictionary says, "something which delicacy, purityand decency forbid to be exposed"; but "delicacy, purity and decency"must be considered in relation to climate, work and social usage. Whatone feels about some critics of _Bon_ songs and dances is that theyneed a course of _The Golden Bough_. Such an illustration as _Bon_songs furnish of the moral and mental conditions from which countryfolk must raise themselves is of value if rural sociology is a realthing. There is far too much theorising about the countryman and thecountrywoman, far too much idealising of them and far too much ratingof them as clods. If country people of all lands are free-spoken letus be neither hypercritical nor hypocritical. A big gap seems to yawnbetween the paddy-field peasant in his breech clout and the immaculateclubman, but what difference is there between the savour of theaverage _Bon_ song and of many a smoking-room jest which is not to thecredit of the peasant? At an inn in Naganoken a Japanese artist onholiday showed me his sketch book. Among his drawings was arepresentation of a shrine festival which he had witnessed in a remotevillage. A festival car was being pushed by a knot of youths and byabout an equal number of young women and all of them were nude. But noenlightened person believes that either decency or morals depends onclothing, or would expect to find more essential indecency andimmorality in that village than in a modern city. What one wouldexpect to find would be marriages between physically well-developedmen and women. How the race moves on is shown in the famous tale of a saintly Zenpriest which I first heard in that little hill inn but was afterwardsto see in dramatic form on the stage of a Tokyo theatre. An unmarriedgirl in the village in which the priest's temple was situated wasabout to have a child. She would not confess to her angry father thename of her lover. At last she attributed her condition to the greatlyhonoured priest. Her father was astonished but he was also glad thathis daughter was in the favour of so eminent a man. So he went to thepriest and said that he brought him good tidings: the girl whom he haddeigned to notice was about to have a child. The father went on toexpress at length his sense of obligation to the priest for the honourdone to his family. All the priest said in reply was, _So desuka_? (Isthat so?) Soon after the birth of the child the girl besought herfather to marry her to a certain young farmer. The father, proud ofthe association with the priest, refused. Finally the girl told herparent that it was not the priest but the young farmer who was thefather of her child. The parent was aghast and chagrined as herecalled the terms in which he had addressed the saintly man. Hebetook himself at once to the temple and expressed in many words hisfeelings of shame and deep contrition. The priest heard him out, butall he said was, _So desuka_? Yamagata signifies "shape of a mountain" and Akita means "autumn ricefield. " Although Akita prefecture is mountainous there is a greaterproportion of level land in it than in Yamagata. I find "Rice, rice, rice" written in my notebook. An agricultural expert gave me tounderstand that fifteen per cent. Of the farmers were probably livingon rents or on the dividends of silk factories, that 55 or 60 percent. Were of the middle grade with an annual income of 300 yen, that25 or 30 per cent. Had about 150 yen--the lowest sum on which a familycould be supported--and that there were 3 or 4 per cent. Of farmlabourers who earned less than 150 yen. There had been much paddyadjustment and the prefecture was spending 300, 000 yen a year for theencouragement of adjustment and the opening of new paddies. In thecase of newly opened fields, tenants had contracts, but ordinarytenancies were by word of mouth generation after generation. A greatdeal of agricultural instruction was given by the prefecture, thecounties and the villages, and in 30 years the rice crop had beendoubled although the area had remained about the same. In order tosecure help in the work of rural amelioration a gathering of Buddhistpriests and another of Shinto priests had been lectured to at theprefectural office. Nearly 300, 000 yen had been spent in twelve monthson afforestation. The following year a special effort was to be madeto spend 500, 000 yen. A society raised young trees and sold them atcheap rates to farmers. Every young men's association in theprefecture had land and had planted trees. It was in Akita that Ifirst saw peat in Japan. There are said to be 7, 000 acres of it in thecountry. The prefecture of Aomori forms the northern tip of the mainland. Apartfrom its enormous forest area and the railroad stacks of sawn lumber, what caught my eye were the apple orchards and the number of farmerson horseback or seated in wagons. Who that has been in Japan has not amemory of narrow winding roads along which men and women and youngpeople are pulling and pushing carts? Here many farming folk rode. Iwas told that Akita produced apples and potatoes to the value of amillion yen each and that there were ten co-operative apple societies. Much of the fruit went to Russia. Having passed through the city of Aomori we started to come down theeast coast. An agricultural authority said that the net profit of adry farm, that is a farm without any paddy, was almost negligible. Because of low prices, cattle keeping had decreased to half what itused to be. (The only cattle I saw from the train were on the roadwith harness on their backs. ) Only 18 yen could be got for atwo-year-old; the Aomori cattle were indeed the cheapest in Japan. Theexpert added, "There are no buyers; only robbers. " But the dealers were not the only robbers. Boats came from Hokkaidoand stole cattle from the prefecture to the number of a hundred ayear. Sometimes horses were taken too, but horse thefts were rare"because you cannot kill a horse and sell it for meat. " The averageprice of a two-year-old not thus illicitly vended was 70 yen. (It wasa little less in the next prefecture of Iwate and in Hokkaido. ) Halfof the stallions belonging to the "Bureau of Horse Politics" of theMinistry of Agriculture were bought in Aomori. The farmers by the lake that we passed on our way south were describedas "very poor, " for their soil was barren and their climate bad. Theircrops were only a third of what could be raised in another part of theprefecture. The agriculture of all the prefectures through which I nowjourneyed south to Tokyo suffer from the cold temperature of the sea. The east-coast temperature drops in winter to 7 degrees belowfreezing. [167] "Living is more and more difficult, " said someone tome. "The number of tenants increases because farmers get into debt andhave to sell their land. Millet and buckwheat are much eaten. Althoughthe temperature is 5 per cent. Colder in Hokkaido, the people do worsehere because our soil is barren and there is no profitable winteroccupation like lumbering. Only 10 per cent. Of the rural populationsave anything. In bad times 65 per cent. Of the families get intodebt. " At Morioka in Iwate prefecture I visited the excellent higheragricultural college, where there were 300 students. The competitionfor places, as at every educational institution in Japan, was keen. The number who sat at the last entrance examinations--the average agewas twenty--was 317, of whom only 80 got in. There were 15 professorsand 10 assistants. The charge to students was 300 yen for a year often months. The annual cost of the college to the Government was70, 000 yen. Of the foreign volumes among the 20, 000 books in thelibrary 50 per cent. Were German, 30 per cent. English and 20 percent. American. An apiary of a single skep in a roped-off enclosure was anillustration of unfamiliarity with bees. It seemed strange to findthat in this up-to-date and efficient institution the biggestimplement for cutting grass which was in use, a sickle of course, hada blade no longer than 8 inches. Hung up at the back of a shed Inoticed a rusty scythe. When I tried to show what it could do it wassuggested that the implement was "too heavy, too difficult and toodangerous. " Iwate is the poorest of the northern prefectures, for bad weather sooften comes when the rice is in flower. As many as 40 per cent. Of thepeople were just making ends meet. Another 40 per cent. Were alwaysdogged by poverty. Millet was the food of 10 per cent. Of the farmers;millet, salted vegetables and bean soup were the meagre diet of 5 percent; the staple food of the remainder was barley and rice. There arefew temples in Iwate compared with the rest of Japan. "Education ismore backward than in other prefectures, " someone said. "The farmersare not able. Too much _saké_ is drunk. " Farmers come in to Morioka tosell charcoal and wood and I saw some of them turning into the _saké_shops. There was talk in praise of millet. Though low socially in the dietaryof Japan, it has merits. It withstands cold and even salt spray. Itripens earlier than rice and so may sometimes be harvested before aspell of bad weather. It yields well, it will store for some time, itstaste is "little inferior to rice and better than that of barley" andit contains more protein than rice. It is cooked after slightpolishing and the straw provides fodder. "In the north-east, wheremillet is most eaten, " I was told, "there are people who are 5 ft. 10ins. To 6 ft. And there are many wrestlers. " The seeds in the handsomeheavy ears of millet are about the size of the letter O in thefootnote type of this book. In the train a farmer who knew the prefecture spoke of _Bon_ songsand dances: "The result of the action against them was not good. Themeeting of young men and women at the _Bon_ gatherings was in theirminds half the year in prospect and half in retrospect. Bearing inmind the condition of the people, even the worst _Bon_ songs are notobjectionable. But when the people become educated some songs will beobjectionable. " Visitors to a poor prefecture like Miyagi must be surprised to see somuch adjusted paddy. There is more adjusted paddy in Miyagi than inany other prefecture. Some 90, 000 acres have been taken in hand and alarge amount of money has been spent. The work has been carried outlargely by way of giving wages to farmers during famine. A new tunnelbrought water to 6, 000 acres. "The bad climate of Miyagi cannot bemended, " I was told; "all that can be done is to seek for the earliestvarieties of rice, to sow early, to work as diligently as possible andto deal with floods by embanking the rivers and by tree planting. " Asmany as 7, 000 people go from Miyagi to Hokkaido in a year. It seems topoint to a certain amount of fecklessness that 15 per cent. Of themreturn. One man I spoke with during my journey south gave a vivid impressionof the influence of young men's associations. "Before they started, "said he, "the young men spent their time in singing indecent songs, ingambling, in talking foolishly, and twice or thrice a year inimmorality. A young widow has sometimes been at fault; theparents-in-law need her help and village sentiment is against herremarriage. The suppression of _Bon_ dances has done more harm thangood by keeping out of sight what used to be said and doneopenly[168]. Two or three priests are active in this prefecture. Wherethe Shinshu sect is strong you will find little divorce. But theinfluence of Buddhism has been stationary in recent years. There issome action by missionaries of the Japanese Christian church, but thenumber of Christians among real rustics is very small. " At Sendai it was pleasant to see a prefectural office--or most ofit--housed in a Japanese building instead of a dreadful edifice "inWestern style. " In feudal times the building was a school. Portraitsof daimyos and famous scholars of the Sendai clan surround theGovernor's room, and adjoining it is the _tatami_-covered apartment inwhich the daimyo used to sit when he was present at the examinations. Among the portraits is one of a retainer which was painted in Rome, where he had been sent on a mission of inquiry. [Illustration: A SCARECROW. --A SKETCH BY PROFESSOR NASU. ] In his scarecrow-making the Japanese farmer seems to have great faithin the Western-style cap, felt hat, or even umbrella, if he can gethold of one. Ordinarily, the bogey man has a bow with the arrowstrung. Occasionally a farmer seeks to scare birds by means ofclappers which he places in the hands of a child or an old man whosits in a rough shelter raised high enough to overtop the rice. Nowand then there is a clapper connected with a string to the farm-house. I have also seen a row of bamboos carried across a paddy field with asquare piece of wood hanging loosely against each one. A ropeconnecting all the bamboos with one another was carried to theroadway, and now and then a passer-by of a benevolent disposition, orwith nothing better to do, or, it may be, standing in some degree ofrelationship to the paddy-field proprietor, gave the rope a tug. Thenall the bamboos bent, and as they smartly straightened themselvescaused the clappers to give forth a sound sufficiently agitating tosparrow pillagers in several paddies. On leaving Miyagi we were once more in Fukushima, with notes on whichthis account of a trip to the north of Japan and back again began. This time, instead of journeying by routes through the centre of theprefecture, as in coming north, or as in the visit paid to Fukushimain the Tokyo-to-Niigata journey, I travelled along the sea coast. Whenwe had passed through Fukushima we were in Ibaraki, a characteristicfeature of which is swamps. Drainage operations have been going onsince the time of the Shogunate. There is in this prefecture thebiggest production of beans in Japan, and we have come far enoughsouth to see tea frequently. In the lower half of the prefecture weare in the great Kwanto plain, the prefectures in which are mostconveniently surveyed from Tokyo. FOOTNOTES: [160] Some Yamagata notes and those relating to Akita are convenientlyincluded in this Chapter, but these two prefectures are on the westcoast. [161] A _rin_ is the tenth part of a sen, which in its turn is afarthing. [162] A kind of barley sugar. [163] Bean soup. [164] A street in Akita in which many prostitutes live. [165] Closet. [166] Bean paste. [167] The warm black current from the south flows up the east and westcoasts. Some distance north of Tokyo, the east-coast current meets thecold Oyashiro current from Kamchatka, and is turned off towardsAmerica. [168] See _A Free Farmer in a Free State_, pp. 173-4, for an accountof the custom in Zeeland by which peasants preserved themselves fromthe calamity of childless marriage. CHAPTER XXIII A MIDNIGHT TALK True religion is a relation, accordant with reason and knowledge, whichman establishes with the infinite life surrounding him, and it is such asbinds his life to that infinity, and guides his conduct. --TOLSTOY One of the most instructive experiences I had during my rural journeysoccurred one night when I was staying at a country inn. At a late hourI was told that the Governor of the prefecture was in a room overhead. I had called on him a few days before in his prefectural capital. Hewas a large daimyo-like figure, dignified and courteous, but seeminglyimpenetrable. There was no depth in our talk. His aloof anduncommunicative manner was deterring, but by this time I had learntthe elementary lesson of unending patience and freedom from hastyjudgment that is the first step to an advance in knowledge of anotherrace. I felt that I should like to know more about the man inside thisExcellency. No one had told me anything of his life. Now that he was in the same inn with me it was Japanese good mannersto pay him a visit. So I went upstairs with my travelling companion, telling him on the way that we should not remain more than fiveminutes. We were wearing our bath kimonos. The Governor was also athis ease in one of these garments. He was kneeling at a low tablereading. We knelt at the other side, spoke on general topics, askedone or two questions and began to take our leave. On this the Governorsaid that he would like very much to ask me in turn some questions. Wespoke together until one in the morning, his Excellency continuallyexpressing his unwillingness for us to go. He spoke rapidly and withsuch earnestness that I was balked of understanding what he saidsentence by sentence. The next day my companion wrote out a summaryof what the Governor had said and I had tried to say in reply. As abrief report of a talk of three hours' duration it is plainlyimperfect. The artless account is of some interest, however, becauseit furnishes an impression at once of an engaging simplicity andsincerity in the Japanese character and of the pressure of Westernideas. _Governor_: "There have died lately my mother, my wife and one of mydaughters. Some of my officials come to me and ask what consolation Iam getting. What do I feel at first when such things happen? Am Icontent under such misfortune? I feel that I should be happy if Icould believe something and tell it to them. I am tormented by theconflict of my scientific and religious feelings. How is the relationof science and religion in your mind? Are you tormented or are youcomposed and peaceful even when meeting such misfortune as mine?" _Myself_: "It is certain that it is not well to torment ourselves, forgrief is loss. [169] As to science, it did not drive away religion. Science seeks after truth in all matters, but there are truths whichare to be searched out through our feeling, conscience and instinct. Religion has to do with these truths. It is quite good for religion ifall superstition, dogma and ignorance are cleared away by science. Concerning a future life, we are hampered in our thinking by ourtraditions, prejudices, deep ignorance and poor mental strength andtraining; and much energy is needed in the world for present service. Some have thought of an immortality which is that a man's sincereinfluence, his unselfish manifestations, those things which are theessence of a man's existence, will live on; in other words, that thebest of a life is immortal; but not in the way of ghosts. As to thememory, example and achievement of the dead it is sure that we areaided by them. " _Governor_: "If we sacrifice ourselves for the public good it is thebest that we can do in this world. But are you composed at the sadnews concerning the _Lusitania_? If you think that event was directedby divine destiny then you can be composed and may not complain. " _Myself_: "Such an accident may only be by divine destiny in the sensethat everything in this world, the saddest misery, the greatestmisfortunes, are suffered in the development of mankind, so that eventhis War is unquestionably for the final betterment of the wholeworld. " _Governor_: "Please say what is God. " _Myself_: "'If I could tell you what God is, I should be God myself. 'Many of my own countrymen have been taught that God is 'Spirit, infinite, eternal, unchangeable in His Being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness and truth. ' There are those who would say that Godmay be the total developing or bettering energy, and that we are allpart of God. Some people have a more personal conception of God, thesum of all goodness. May not his Excellency consider the peasant'sidea of a Governor of a prefecture? The peasant's idea of a Governoris greater than that of any particular Governor. His Excellency's goodworks are not done by himself alone, but by all the good energiesinherent in the Governorship. Those energies are unseen but real. TheJapanese army and navy triumphed by the virtue of the Emperor--by thevirtue of ideas. " _Governor_: "The thought of _Sensei_[170] is quite Oriental. " _Myself_: "All religions are from Asia. " _Governor_: "This world where stars move, flowers blossom and decay, spring and autumn come, and people are born and die is too full ofmystery, but I can feel some intelligence working through it thoughincomprehensible. " _Myself_: "Alas, people will try to explain thatincomprehensibleness. " _Governor_: "What you have said is what I have been accepting to thisday. It satisfies my reason, but I feel in my heart something lacking. I seek for a warmer interpretation of the world, for a more heartfeltrelation with cosmos. Several of my officials themselves lost theirdear children recently. They cannot with heart and brain accept theirloss, and they ask my direction. " _Myself_: "In the New Testament one thing is taught, God is Love. Wecan be composed if we feel that God is love. The Gospel of John is themost tender story in the world. " _Governor_: "It may be difficult for all people to come to the samepoint and agree altogether. We must solve a great problem byourselves. " _Myself_: "We have opportunities of doing some good works in thislife. Therefore we must go on till we die and we must be content atbeing able to do something good, directly or indirectly, in howeversmall measure. 'Earth is not as thou ne'er hadst been, ' wrote anEnglishwoman poet of great scientific ability[171] who died while yeta young woman. " _Governor_: "I think of Napoleon dying tormented on St. Helena, andthe peaceful attitude of Socrates though being poisoned by enemies. But Socrates had done many good things, yet he was poisoned. " _Myself_: "Socrates had done what he could for his country and theworld, yet by his brave death he could add one thing more. "[172] The Governor said that he "got comfort from our talk, " but this didnot perfectly reassure me. The next evening, however, I found aparboiled Governor alone in the bath and he greeted me very warmly. Without our interpreter we could say nothing that mattered, but wewere glad of this further meeting in the friendly hot water. It seemedthat our midnight talk would be memorable to both of us. It is convenient to copy out here the following dicta on religion andmorals which were delivered to me at various times during my journeys: A. "The weakest deterrent influence among us is, 'It is wrong. ' Astronger deterrent influence is, 'Heaven will punish you. ' Thestrongest deterrent influence of all is, 'Everybody will laugh atyou. '" B. "In Japan all religions have been turned into sentiment oræstheticism. " C. (_after speaking appreciatively of the ideas animating manyJapanese Christians_): "All the same I do not feel quite safe abouttrusting the future of Japan to those people. " D. "We Japanese have never been spiritually gifted. We are neithermeditative and reflective like the Hindus nor individualistic like theAnglo-Saxons. Nevertheless, like all mankind we have spiritualyearnings. They will be best stirred by impulses from without. " E. (_in answer to my enquiry whether a Quakerism which compromised onwar, as John Brights male descendants had done, might not gain manyadherents in Japan_): "Other sects may have a smaller ultimate chancethan Quakerism. One mistake made by the Quakers was in going to workfirst among the poorer classes. The Quakers ought to have begun withthe intellectual classes, for every movement in Japan is from thetop. " F. "You will notice what a number of the gods of Japan are deifiedmen. There is a good side to the earth earthy, but many Japanese seemunable to worship anything higher than human beings. The readiest keyto the religious feeling of the Japanese is the religious life of theGreeks. The more I study the Greeks the more I see our resemblance tothem in many ways, in all ways, perhaps, except two, our lack ofphilosophy and our lack of physical comeliness. " G. "As to uncomeliness there are several Japanese types. The refinedtype is surely attractive. If many Japanese noses seem to be tooshort, foreigners' noses seem to us to be too long. The results ofintermarriage between Western people and Japanese who are of equalsocial and educational status and of good physique should be closelywatched. " H. "In our schools an hour or two a week is reserved for culture, butthe true spirit of culture is lacking. The Imperial Rescript oneducation is very good moral doctrine, but the real life's aim of manyof us is to be well off, to have an automobile, to become a Baron orto extend the Empire. We do not ask ourselves, 'For what reason?'" I. "I conduct certain classes which the clerks of my bank must attend. The teaching I give is based on Confucian, Christian and Buddhistprinciples. I try to make the young men more manful. I constantly urgeupon them that 'you must be a man before you can be a clerk. '" J. (_a septuagenarian ex-daimyo_): "Confucianism is the basis of mylife, but twice a month I serve at my Shinto shrine and I conduct aBuddhist service in my house morning and evening. It is necessary tomake the profession that Buddha saves us. I do not believe inparadise. It is paradise if when I die I have a peaceful mind due to afeeling that I have done my duty in life and that my sons are not badmen. Unless I am peaceful on my deathbed I cannot perish but muststruggle on. Therefore my sons must be good. I myself strove to befilial and I have always said to my sons, 'Fathers may not be fathersbut sons must be sons. '" K. (_the preceding speaker's son expressing his opinion on anotheroccasion_): "My father as a Confucian is kind to people negatively. Wewant to be kind positively because it is right to be kind. As tofilial obedience, even fathers may err; we are righteous if we areright. My father is a Shintoist because it is our national custom. Hewants to respect his ancestors in a wide sense and he desires thatJapan, his family and his crops may be protected. " L. "I wish foreigners had a juster idea about 'idols'. There is adifference between frequenters of the temples believing the figures tobe holy and believing them to be gods. Every morning my mother servesbefore her shrine of Buddha but she does not believe our Buddha to beGod. She would not soil or irreverently handle our Buddha, but it isonly holy as a symbol, as an image of a holy being. My mother has saidto me, 'Buddha is our father. He looks after us always; I cannot butthank him. If there be after life Buddha will lead me to Paradise. There is no reason to beg a favour. ' My mother is composed andpeaceful. All through her life she has met calamities and troublesserenely. I admire her very much. She is a good example of howBuddha's influence makes one peaceful and spiritual. But suchreligious experience may not be grasped from the outside byforeigners. " M. "When I am in a temple or at a shrine I realise its value inconcentrating attention. The daily domestic service before the shrinein the house also ensures some religious life daily. Many of mycountrymen no doubt regard religion as superstition; they know littleof spiritual life. For some of them patriotism or humanitariansentiments or eagerness to seek after scientific truth takes the placeof religion. Most men think that they can never comprehend the cosmosand say, 'We may believe only what we can prove. Let us follow notafter preachers but after truth. ' I believe with your Westernphilosophers who say that the cosmos is not perfect but that it ismoving towards perfection. Many think that this War shows that thecosmos is not perfect. Spiritual life is living according to one'spurest consciousness. But what is of first importance is our actions. It is not enough merely to strive after moral development. One muststrive after economic and social development. Some religious peoplethink only of the spiritual life and have no sympathy with economics. The labours of such religious people must be of small value. " In later Chapters the views of other thoughtful Japanese are noteddown as they were communicated to me. FOOTNOTES: [169] "The strength that is given at such times arises not fromignoring loss or persuading oneself that the thing is not that _is_, but from the resolute setting of the face to the East and the takingof one step forwards. Anything that detaches one, that makes one turnfrom the past and look simply at what one has to do, brings with itnew strength and new intensity of interest. "--HALDANE. [170] Teacher, instructor, master, or a polite way of saying"You"--the usual title by which I was addressed. [171] Constance Naden. [172] "The _Phaedo_ was bought for us by the death ofSocrates. "--QUILLER COUCH. [Illustration: THE BLIND HEADMAN AND HIS COLLECTING-BAG. P. 229] [Illustration: MR. YANAGHITA IN HIS CORONATION CEREMONY ROBES. P. Xv] [Illustration: PORTABLE APPARATUS FOR RAISING WATER. P. 216] [Illustration: VILLAGE SCHOOL WITH PORTRAIT OF FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE. P. 127] [Illustration: RIVER-BEDS IN THE SUMMER From which may be imaginedthe power of the water in time of flood. P. 92] THE ISLAND OF SHIKOKU CHAPTER XXIV LANDLORDS, PRIESTS AND "BASHA"(TOKUSHIMA, KOCHI AND KAGAWA) The most capital article, the character of the inhabitants. --TYTLER In travelling southwards I noticed between Kyoto and Osaka that farmswere being irrigated from wells in the primitive way by means of theweighted swinging pole and bucket. Along the coast to the south, indeed as far as Hiroshima, there have been great gains from the sea, and in the neighbourhood of Kobe there are three parallel roads whichmark successive recoveries of land. Before crossing the Inland Sea atOkayama to Shikoku (area about 1, 000 square miles) I visited one ofthe new settlements on recovered land. The labour available from afamily was reckoned as equal to that of two men, and as much as 4 to 5_chō_ was allotted to each house. It will be seen how much larger isthis area--5 _chō_ is 12-1/2 acres--than the average Japanese farmingfamily must be content with, a little less than 3 acres. The companysupplied houses, seeds, manures, etc. , and after all expenses were metthe workers were allowed 25 per cent, of the net income of theirsummer crop and 35 per cent, of the net income of their second crop. The cultivation was directed by the company. There had been 300applications for the last twenty houses built. An experiment stationwas maintained, and a campaign against a rice borer had been ofbenefit to the amount of about 10, 000 yen. I found the company'swinnowing machine discharging its chaff into the furnace of therice-drying apparatus. One of the experts of the company came with me for some distance inthe train in order to discuss some of his problems. He thoughtagricultural work could be done in less back-breaking ways. He wanteda small threshing machine which would be suitable not only forthreshing small quantities of rice or corn but for easy conveyancealong the narrow and easily damaged paths between the rice fields. Ifhe had such a machine he would like to improve it so that it would layout the threshed straw evenly, so making the straw more valuable forthe many uses to which it is put. He wished to see a machine inventedfor planting out rice seedlings and another contrivance devised fordrying wheat. The company's rice-drying machine handled 200 _koku_ ofrice a day, but there were difficulties in drying wheat. (In manyplaces I noticed the farmers drying their corn by the primitive methodof singeing it and thus spoiling it. )[173] On the Inland Sea, aboard the smart little steamer of the GovernmentRailways, my companion spoke of the extent to which sea-faring men, aconservative class, had abandoned the use of the single square sailwhich one sees in Japanese prints; the little vessels had beenre-rigged in Western fashion. But many superstitions had survived theabolished square sails. The mother of my fellow-traveller once toldhim that, when she crossed the Inland Sea in an old-style ship and astorm arose, the shipmaster earnestly addressed the passengers inthese words, "Somebody here must be unclean; if so, please tell meopenly. " The title of the book my companion was reading was _TheHistory of the Southern Savage_. Who was the "Southern Savage"? Theword is _namban_, the name given to the early Portuguese and Spanishvoyagers to Japan. (The Dutch were called _komojin_, red-haired men. )In looking through the official railway guide on the boat I saw thatthere was a list of specially favourable places for viewing the moon. An M. P. Passenger told me that the average cost of getting returned tothe Diet was 10, 000 yen[174]. The difficulties of communication in Shikoku are so considerable thatI was compelled to leave the two prefectures of Tokushima and Kochiunvisited. Kochi is without a yard of railway line. In the prefectureof Ehime most of my journey had to be made by _kuruma_. Communicationbetween the four prefectures of Shikoku--the one in which I landed wasKagawa--is largely conducted by coasting steamers and sailing craft. An interesting thing in Kochi is the area by the sea in which twocrops of rice are grown in the year. Tokushima holds a leading placein the production of indigo. At one place in the hills the adventuroushave the satisfaction of crossing a river by means of suspensionbridges made of vine branches. The streets of Takamatsu, the capital of Kagawa, are many of them sonarrow that the shopkeepers on either side have joint sun screenswhich they draw right across the thoroughfares. Here I found the cartshauled by a smallish breed of cow. The placid animals are handier in anarrow place and less expensive than horses. They are shod, like theirdrivers, in _waraji_. In Shikoku the cow or ox is generally used inthe paddies instead of the horse. "It is slower but strong and canplough deep, " one agricultural expert said. "It eats cheaper food thanthe horse, which moves too fast in a small paddy. Cows and oxen areprobably not working for more than seventy-five or eighty days in theyear. " At Takamatsu I had the opportunity of visiting a daimyo's castle. Iwas impressed by its strength not only because of the wide moats butbecause of the series of earthen fortifications faced with cyclopeanstonework through which an invading force must wind its way. There waswithin the walls a surprisingly large drilling ground for troops andalso an extensive drug garden. The present owner of the castleproposed to build here a library and a museum for the town. I was gladof the opportunity to ascend one of the high pagoda-like towers sofamiliar in Japanese paintings. I was disillusioned. Instead offinding myself in beautiful rooms for the enjoyment of marvellousviews and sea breezes I had to clamber over the roughest cob-webbedtimbers. One storey was connected with another by a stair of rudeplanking. Such pagodas were built only for their military value aslookouts and for their delightful appearance from the outside. The town now enjoyed as a park of more than ten acres the grounds of asubsidiary residence of the daimyo. The magnificent trees, with lakes, rivulets and hills fashioned with infinite art, [175] and thebackground of natural hill and woodland, made in all a possessionwhich exhibited the delectable possibilities of Japanese gardening. Anoccasional electric light amid the trees gave an effect in the eveningin which Japanese delight. Some of the old carp which dashed up to thebridges when they heard our footsteps seemed to be not far short of 3ft. Long. Except for a small patch of sugar cane in Shidzuoka--it is grownpractically on the sea beach where it is visible from the express--thevisitor to Japan may never see sugar cane until Shikoku is reached. The value of the crop in the whole island is about 800, 000 yen. Thetall cane is conspicuous alongside the more diminutive rice. In thisprefecture an experiment is being made in growing olives. Kagawa is remarkable in having had until lately 30, 000 pond reservoirsfor the irrigation of rice fields. Under the new system of rice-fieldadjustment many of the ponds are joined together. Because in Shikokuflat tracts of land or tracts that can be made flat are limited innumber the farmers have to be content with small pieces of land. Theaverage area of farm in Kagawa outside the mountainous region is lessthan two acres. When the farms are near the sea, as they commonly are, the agriculturists may also be fishermen. The number of place names ending in _ji_ (temple) proclaims the formerflourishing condition of Buddhism. Shikoku is a great resort ofwhite-clothed pilgrims. Sometimes it is a solitary man whom one seeson the road, sometimes a company of men, occasionally a family. Notseldom the pilgrim or his companion is manifestly suffering from someaffection which the pilgrimage is to cure. In the old days it was notunusual to send the victim of "the shameful disease" or of anincurable ailment on a pilgrimage from shrine to shrine or temple totemple. He was not expected to return. In Shikoku there areeighty-eight temples to Buddha and the founder of the Shingon sect, and it is estimated that it would mean a 760 miles' journey to visitthem all. We went off our route at one point where my companion wished to visita gorgeous shrine. A guidebook said that people flocked there "by themillion, " but what I was told was that last year's attendance was80, 000. The street leading to the approach to the shrine was in aseries of steps. On either side were the usual shops with piled-upmementoes in great variety and of no little ingenuity, and also, onspikes, little stacks of _rin_--the old copper coin with a square holethrough the middle--into which the economical devotee takes care toexchange a few sen. We climbed to the shrine when twilight was comingon. At the point where the series of street steps ended there began anew series of about a thousand steps belonging to the shrine. Athousand granite steps may be tiring after a hot day's travel in a_kuruma_. All the way up to the shrine there were granite pillarsalmost brand new, first short ones, then taller, then taller still, and after these a few which topped the tallest. They wereconspicuously inscribed with the names of donors to the shrine. Asmall pillar was priced at 10 yen. What the big, bigger and biggestcost I do not know. I turned from the pillars to the stone lanterns. "They burn cedar wood, I believe, " said my companion. But soonafterwards I saw a man working at them with a length of electric-lightwire. The great shrine was impressive in the twilight. There was a platformnear, and from it we looked down from the tree-covered heights throughthe growing darkness. Where the lights of the town twinkled there wasa subsidiary shrine. A bare-headed, kimono-clad sailor stepped forwardnear us and bowed his head to some semblance of deity down there. Various fishermen had brought the anchors of their ships and the oarsof their boats to show forth their thankfulness for safety at sea. Inthe murkiness I was just able to pick out the outlines of a bronzehorse which stands at the shrine, "as a sort of scape-goat, " mycompanion explained. "It is probably Buddhist, " he said; "but you cannever be sure; these priests embellish the history of their templesso. " It was at the inn in the evening that someone told me that in the townwhich is dependent on the shrine there were "a hundred prostitutes, thirty geisha and some waitresses. " Late at night I had a visit from aman in a position of great responsibility in the prefecture. He was ata loss to know what could be done for morality. "Religion is notpowerful, " he said, "the schools do not reach grown-up people, theyoung men's societies are weak, many sects and new moralities areattacking our people, and there are many cheap books of a low class. " Next day I laid this view before a group of landlords. They did notreply for a little and my skilful interpreter said, "they are thinkingdeeply. " At length one of them delivered himself to this effect:"Landowners hereabouts are mostly of a base sort. They always considerthings from a material and personal point of view. But if they areattacked and made to act more for the public good it may have aneffect on rural conditions which are now low. " I enquired about the new sects of Buddhism and Shintoism, for therehad been pointed out to me in some villages "houses of new religions. ""New religions in many varieties are coming into the villages, " I wastold, "and extravagant though they may be are influencing people. Theadherents seem to be moral and modest, and they pay their taxespromptly. There is a so-called Shinto sect which was started twentyyears ago by an ignorant woman. It has believers in every part ofJapan. It is rather communistic. "[176] None of the landlords whotalked with me believed in the possibility of a "revival of Buddhism. "One of them noted that "people educated in the early part of Meiji aremost materialistic. It is a sorrowful circumstance that the officialsask only materialistic questions of the villagers. " I asked one of the landlords about his tenants. He said that his"largest tenant" had no more than 1. 3 _tan_ of paddy. It was explainedthat "tenants are obedient to the landowner in this prefecture. " Underthe system of official rewards which exists in Japan, 1, 086 persons inthe prefecture had been "rewarded" by a kind of certificate of meritand nine with money--to the total value of 26 yen. When I drew attention to the fact that the manufacture of _saké_ and_soy_ seemed to be frequently in the hands of landowners it wasexplained to me that formerly this was their industry exclusively. Even now "whereas an ordinary shop-keeper is required by etiquette tosay 'Thank you' to his customer, a purchaser of _saké_ or _soy_ says'Thank you' to the shop-keeper. " The flower arrangement in my room in the inn consisted of an effectivecombination of _hagi_ (_Lespedeza bicolor_, a leguminous plantwhich is grown for cattle and has been a favourite subject of Japanesepoetry), a cabbage, a rose, a begonia and leaf and a fir branch. A landowner I chatted with in the train showed me that it was aserious matter to receive the distinction of growing the millet foruse at the Coronation. One of his friends who was growing 5 _sh=o_, the actual value of which might be 50 or 60 sen, was spending on itfirst and last about 3, 000 yen. I enquired about the diversions of landowners. It is easy, of course, to have an inaccurate impression of the extent of their leisure. Onlyabout 1 per cent, have more than 25 acres. [177] Therefore most ofthese men are either farmers themselves or must spend a great deal oftime looking after their tenants. Still, some landowners are able totake things rather easily. The landowners I interrogated marvelled atthe open-air habits of English landed proprietors. They were greatlysurprised when I told them of a countess who is a grandmother butthinks nothing of a canter before breakfast. The mark of being welloff was often to stay indoors or at any rate within garden walls, which necessarily enclose a very small area. (Hence the fact that oneobject of Japanese gardening is to suggest a much larger space thanexists. ) A good deal of time is spent "in appreciating fine arts. "Ceremonial tea drinking still claims no small amount of attention. (Inmany gardens and in the grounds of hotels of any pretensions one comeson the ostentatiously humble chamber for _Cha-no-yu_. ) No doubt thereis among many landowners a considerable amount of drinking ofsomething stronger than tea, and not a few men sacrifice freely toVenus. Perhaps the greatest claimant of all on the time of those whohave time to spare is the game of _go_, which is said to be moredifficult than chess. One cannot but remark the comparatively palefaces of many landowners. As we went along by the coast it was pointed out to me that it wasfrom this neighbourhood that some of the most indomitable of theold-time pirates set sail on their expeditions to ravage the Chinesecoast. They visited that coast all the way from Vladivostock, nowRussian (and like to be Japanese), to Saigon, now French. There aremany Chinese books discussing effectual methods of repelling thepirates. In an official Japanese work I once noticed, in theenumeration of Japanese rights in Taiwan (Formosa), the naïve claimthat long ago it was visited by Japanese pirates! The Japanesefisherman is still an intrepid person, and in villages which have anadmixture of fishing folk the seafarers, from their habit of followingold customs and taking their own way generally, are the constantsubject of rural reformers' laments. I spent some time in a typical inland village. The very last availableyard of land was utilised. The cottages stood on plots buttressed bystone, and only the well-to-do had a yard or garden; paddy came rightup to the foundations. Now that the rice was high no division showedbetween the different paddy holdings. I noticed here that the round, carefully concreted manure tank which each farmer possessed had areinforced concrete hood. I asked a landowner who was in a comfortableposition what societies there were in his village. He mentioned asociety "to console old people and reward virtue. " Then there was thesociety of householders, such as is mentioned in Confucius, which metin the spring and autumn, and ate and drank and discussed localtopics "with open heart. " There were sometimes quarrels due to_saké_. Indeed, some villagers seemed to save up their differencesuntil the householders' meeting at its _saké_ stage. At householders'meetings where there was no _saké_ peace appeared to prevail. Thehouseholders' meeting was a kind of informal village assembly. Thatassembly itself ordinarily met twice a year. There were in thevillage, in addition to the householders' organisation, the usualreservists' association, the young men's society and agriculturalassociation. As to _kō_, from philanthropic motives my informant was amember of no fewer than ten. My host told me that he spent a good deal of time in playing _go_, butin the shooting season (October 15 to April 15) he made trips to thehills and shot pheasants, hares, pigeons and deer. In the garden ofhis house two gardeners were stretched along the branches of a pinetree, nimbly and industriously picking out the shoots in order to getthat bare appearance which has no doubt puzzled many a Western studentof Japanese tree pictures. Each man's ladder--two lengths of bamboowith rungs tied on with string--was carefully leant against a polelaid from the ground through the branches. Many of the well-cared-fortrees in the gardens and public places of Japan pass the winter inneat wrappings of straw. I visited a farm-house and found the farmer making baskets. When I wasexamining the winnowing machine my companion reminded me smilinglythat when he was a boy he was warned never to turn the wheel of thewinnowing machine when the contrivance had no grain in it or a demonmight come out. There was a properly protected tank of liquid manureand a well-roofed manure house. The family bath in an open shed was ofa sort I had not seen before, a kind of copper with a step up to it. Straw rope about three-quarters of an inch in diameter was being madeby the farmer's son, a day's work being 40 yds. At another farm awoman showed me the working of a rough loom with which she could in aday make a score of mats worth in all 60 sen. From the farmer's houseI went to the room of the young men's association and looked over itslibrary. I was impressed by the high level of civilisation which thisvillage seemed to exhibit in essentials. When we continued our journey we saw two portable water wheels bymeans of which water was being lifted into a paddy. Each wheel wasworked by a man who continually ascended the floats. The two men wereable to leave their wheels in turn for a rest, for a third man wasstretched on the ground in readiness for his spell. It seems that aman can keep on the water tread-mill for an hour. The two wheelstogether were lifting an amazing amount of water at a great rate. Whenthe pumping is finished one of these light water wheels is easilycarried home on a man's shoulders. Farther on I saw in a dry river bed a man sieving gravel in aningenious way. The trouble in sieving gravel is that if the sieve befilled to its capacity the shaking soon becomes tiring. This man had asquare sieve which when lying on the ground was attached at one sideby two ropes to a firmly fixed tripod of poles. When the sieve wasfilled the labourer lifted it far enough away from the tripod for itto be swinging on one side. Therefore when he shook the sieve hesustained a portion only of its weight. As we rode along I was told that the largest taxpayer in the county"does not live in idleness but does many good works. " The next largesttaxpayer "labours every day in the field. " When I enquired as to therecreations of moneyed men I was told "travelling, _go_ and poemwriting. " As we rode by the sea a trustworthy informant pointed out to me anislet where he said the young men have the young women in common and"give permission for them to marry. " There is a house in which thegirls live together at a particular time and are then free from theattentions of the youths. Children born are brought up in the familiesof the mothers but there is some infanticide. In another little islandoff the coast there are only two classes of people, the seniors andthe juniors. Any person senior to any other "may give him orders andcall him by his second name. " (The surname comes first in Japanesenames. ) Our route led us along the track of the new railway line which waspenetrating from Kagawa into Ehime. Not for the first time on myjourneys was I told of the corrupting influence exerted on thecountryside by the imported "navvies, " if our Western name may beapplied to men who in figure and dress look so little like the bigfellows who do the same kind of work in England. Although thesenavvies were a rough lot and our ancient _basha_ (a kind offour-wheeled covered carriage) was a thing for mirth, we met with noincivility as we picked our way among them for a mile or two. I was awitness indeed of a creditable incident. A handcart full of earth wasbeing taken along the edge of the roadway, with one man in the shaftsand another pushing behind. Suddenly a wheel slipped over the side ofthe roadway, the cart was canted on its axle, the man in the shaftsreceived a jolt and the cargo was shot out. Had our sort of navviesbeen concerned there would have been words of heat and colour. TheJapanese laughed. The reference to our venerable _basha_ reminds me of a well-knownstory which was once told me by a Japanese as a specimen of Japanesehumour. A _basha_, I may explain, has rather the appearance of avehicle which was evolved by a Japanese of an economical turn afterhearing a description of an omnibus from a foreigner who spoke verylittle Japanese and had not been home for forty years. The body of thevehicle is just high enough and the seats just wide enough forJapanese. So the foreigner continually bumps the roof, and when he isnot bumping the roof he has much too narrow a seat to sit on. Sometimes the _basha_ has springs of a sort and sometimes it has none. But springs would avail little on the rural roads by which many_basha_ travel. The only tolerable place for Mr. Foreigner in a_basha_ is one of the top corner seats behind the driver, for thetraveller may there throw an arm round one of the uprights whichsupport the roof. If at an unusually hard bump he should lose his holdhe is saved from being cast on the floor by the responsive bodies ofhis polite and sympathetic fellow-travellers who are embedded betweenhim and the door. The tale goes that a tourist who was serving histerm in a _basha_ was perplexed to find that the passengers werecharged, some first-, some second-and some third-class fare. While heclung to his upright and shook with every lurch of the conveyance thisproblem of unequal fares obsessed him. It was like the persistent"punch-in-the-presence-of-the-passengare. " What possible advantage, hepondered, could he as first class be getting over the second and thesecond class over the third? At length at a steep part of the road thevehicle stopped. The driver came round, opened the door, and bowingpolitely said: "Honourable first-class passengers will graciouslycondescend to keep their seats. Second-class passengers will be goodenough to favour us by walking. Third-class passengers will kindlycome out and push. " And push they did, no doubt, kimonos rolled upthighwards, with good humour, sprightliness and cheerful grunts, as isthe way with willing workers in Japan. FOOTNOTES: [173] At Anjo agricultural experiment station I saw eighteen kinds ofsmall threshing machines at from 13 to 18 yen. There were huskingmachines of three sorts. A rice thresher was equal to dealing with thecrop of one _tan_, estimated at 2 _koku_ 4 _to_, in three hours. [174] See Appendix XLVI. [175] It is quite possible that the trees had also come into theirpositions artificially. There are no more skilful tree movers than theJapanese. [176] It has recently come into collision with the authorities. Another sect with Shinto ideas was also started by a woman. [177] See Appendix XLVII. CHAPTER XXV "SPECIAL TRIBES" (EHIME) A frank basis of reality. --Meredith In the prefecture of Ehime our journey was still by _basha_ or_kuruma_ and near the sea. The first man we talked with was a _gunchō_who said that "more than half the villages contained a strongcharacter who can lead. " He told us of one of the new religions whichtaught its adherents to do some good deed secretly. The people whoaccepted this religion mended roads, cleaned out ponds and madeofferings at the graves of persons whose names were forgotten. I thinkit was this man who used the phrase, "There is a shortage ofreligions. " I had not before noticed wax trees. They are slighter than appletrees, but often occupy about the same space as the old-fashionedstandard apple. The clusters of berries have some resemblance toelderberries and would turn black if they were not picked green. [178]Occasionally we saw fine camphor trees. Alas, owing to the high priceof camphor, some beautiful specimens near shrines, where they were asimposing as cryptomeria, had been sacrificed. I began to observe the dreadful destruction wrought in the early earstage of rice not by cold but by wind. The wind knocks the plantsagainst one another and the friction generates enough heat to arrestfurther development. The crops affected in this way were grey inpatches and looked as if hot water had been sprayed over them. In onecounty the loss was put as high as 90 per cent. Happily farmersgenerally sow several sorts of rice. Therefore paddies come into earat different times. The heads of millet and the threshed grain of other upland crops weredrying on mats by the roadside, for in the areas where land is so muchin demand there is no other space available. Sesame, not unlikesnapdragon gone to seed, only stronger in build, was set against thehouses. On the growing crops on the uplands dead stalks and choppedstraw were being used as mulch. I noticed that implements seemed always to be well housed and to beput away clean. Handcarts, boats and the stacks of poles used inmaking frameworks for drying rice were protected from the weather bybeing thatched over. We continued to see many white-clad pilgrims and everywhere touringstudents, as often afoot as on bicycles. I noted from the registers atmany village offices that the number of young men who married beforeperforming their military service seemed to be decreasing. In onecommunity, where there were two priests, one Tendai and the otherShingon, neither seemed to count for much. One was very poor, andcultivated a small patch near his temple; the other had a little morethan a _chō_. The custom was for the farmers to present to theirtemple from 5 to 10 _shō_ of rice from the harvest. In connection with the question of improved implements I noticed thata reasonably efficient winnowing machine in use by a comfortably-offtenant was forty-nine years old--that is, that it dated back to thetime of the Shogun. The secondary industry of this farmer wasdwarf-plant growing. He had also a loom for cotton-cloth making. Therewere in his house, in addition to a Buddhist shrine, two Shintoshrines. After leaving this man I visited an ex-teacher who had losthis post at fifty, no doubt through being unable to keep step withmodern educational requirements. He had on his wall the lithograph ofPestalozzi and the children which I saw in many school-houses. On taking the road again I was told that the local landlords had helda meeting in view of the losses of tenants through wind. Most hadagreed to forgo rents and to help with artificial manure for nextyear. I found taro being grown in paddies or under irrigation. Notonly the tubers of the taro but its finer stalks are eaten. I sawgourds cut into long lengths narrower than apple rings and put out todry. I also noticed orange trees a century old which were stillproducing fruit. Boys were driving iron hoops--the native hoop was ofbamboo--and one of the hoop drivers wore a piece of red cloth stitchedon his shoulder, which indicated that he was head of his class. Onemissed a dog bounding and barking after the hoop drivers. Sometimes atthe doors of houses I noticed dogs of the lap-dog type which one seesin paintings or of the wolf type to which the native outdoor dogbelongs. The cats were as ugly as the dogs and no plumper or happierlooking. When I patted a dog or stroked a cat the act attractedattention. We saw a good deal of _hinoki_ (ground cypress), the wood of which isstill used at Shinto festivals for making fire by friction. We were able to visit an Eta village or rather _oaza_. Whether the Etaare largely the descendants of captives of an early era or of a lowclass of people who on the introduction of Buddhism in the seventh oreighth century were ostracised because of their association withanimal eating, animal slaughter, working in leather and grave diggingis in dispute. No doubt they have absorbed a certain number offugitives from higher grades of the population, broken samurai, ne'er-do-weels and criminals. The situation as the foreigner discoversit is that all over Japan there are hamlets of what are called"special tribes. " In 1876, when distinctions between them and Japanesegenerally were officially abolished, the total number was given asabout a million. Most of these peculiar people, perhaps three-quartersof them, are known as Eta. But whether they are known as Eta or Shuku, or by some other name, ordinary Japanese do not care to eat with them, marry with them or even talk with them. In the past Eta have oftenbeen prosperous, and many are prosperous to-day, but a large numberare still restricted to earning a living as butchers and skin andleather workers, and grave diggers. The members of these "specialtribes, " believing themselves to be despised without cause, usuallymake some effort to hide the fact that they are Eta. Shuku seem to be living principally in hamlets of a score or so ofhouses in the vicinity of Osaka, Kyoto and Nara, and are oftentravelling players, or, like some Eta, skilled in making tools andmusical instruments. There seems to be a half Shuku or intermarriedclass. Many prostitutes are said to be Shuku or Eta. I was told thatmost of the girls in the prostitutes' houses of Shimane prefecture arefrom "special tribes, " and that they are "preferred by theproprietors" because, as I was gravely informed, "they do not weary oftheir profession and are therefore more acceptable to customers. " Asprostitutes are frequently married by their patrons, it is believedthat not a few women from "special villages" are taken to wife withouttheir origin being known. Unwitting marriage with an Eta woman haslong been a common motif in fiction and folk story. Many members ofthe "special tribes" go to Hokkaido and there pass into the generalbody of the population. The folk of this class are "despised, " I wastold by a responsible Japanese, "not so much for themselves as forwhat their fathers and grandfathers did. " The country peopleundoubtedly treat them more harshly than the townspeople, but a man ofthe "special tribes" is often employed as a watchman of fields orforests. I was warned that it was judicious to avoid using the wordEta or Shuku in the presence of common people lest one might beaddressing by chance a member of the "special tribes. " Except that the houses of the village we were visiting looked possiblya trifle more primitive than those of the non-Eta population outsidethe _oaza_, I did not discern anything different from what I sawelsewhere. The people were of the Shinshu sect; there was no Shintoshrine. At the public room I noticed the gymnastic apparatus of the"fire defenders. " The hamlet was traditionally 300 years old and onefamily was still recognised as chief. According to the constable, whoeagerly imparted the information, the crops were larger than those ofneighbouring villages "because the people, male and female, are alwaysdiligent. " The man who was brought forward as the representative of the villagewas an ex-soldier and seemed a quiet, able and self-respecting but sadhuman being. His house and holding were in excellent order. None ofhis neighbours smiled on us. Some I thought went indoors needlessly; afew came as near to glowering as can be expected in Japan. I got theimpression that the people were cared for but were conscious of being"hauden doon" or kept at arm's length. [179] Our next stop was for a rest in a fine garden, the effect of which wasspoilt in one place by a distressing life-size statue of the owner'sfather. When we took to our _kuruma_ again we passed through a villageat the approaches to which thick straw ropes such as are seen atshrines had been stretched across the road. Charms were attached. Theobject was to keep off an epidemic. The indigo leaves drying on mats in front of some of the cottages werea delight to the eye. There were also mats covered with cotton whichlooked like fluffy cocoons. On the telegraph wires, the poles of whichall over Japan take short cuts through the paddies, swallows clusteredas in England, but it is to the South Seas, not to Africa, that theJapanese swallow migrates. When the telegraph was a newer feature ofthe Japanese landscape than it is now swallows on the wires were afavourite subject for young painters. We crossed a dry river bed of considerable width at a place where thecurrent had made an excavation in the gravel, rocks and earth severalyards deep. It was an impressive illustration of the power of a heavyflood. I found in one mountainous county that only about a sixth of the areawas under cultivation. A responsible man said: "This is a county ofthe biggest landlords and the smallest tenants. Too many landownersare thinking of themselves, so there arise sometimes severe conflicts. Some 4, 000 tenants have gone to Hokkaido. " The conversation got roundto the young men's societies and I was told a story of how an Etavillage threatened by floods had been saved by the young men of theneighbouring non-Eta village working all night at a weakenedembankment. Some days later an Eta deputation came to the village and"with tears in their eyes gave thanks for what had been done. " Thecomment of a Japanese friend was: "In the present state of Japanhypocrisy may be valuable. The boys and the Eta were at leastexercising themselves in virtue. " Four villages in this county have among them eight fish nurseries, thearea of salt water enclosed being roughly 120 acres. I looked intoseveral cottages where paper making was going on. [180] I also went into two cotton mills. In both there were girls who werenot more than eleven or twelve. "They are exempted from school bynational regulation because of the poverty of their parents, "[181] Iwas told. As we passed the open shop fronts of the village barbers I saw that asoften as not a woman was shaving the customer or using the patentclippers on him. We looked at a big dam which an enterprising landowner wasconstructing. Three hundred women were consolidating the earthwork bymeans of round, flat blocks of granite about twice the size of acurling stone. Round each block was a groove in which was a leatherbelt with a number of rings threaded on it. To each ring a rope wasattached. When these ropes were extended the granite block became thehub of a wheel of which the ropes were the spokes. A number of womenand girls took ropes apiece and jerked them simultaneously, whereuponthe granite block rose in the air to the level of the rope pullers'heads. It was then allowed to fall with a thud. After each thud thepullers moved along a foot so that the block should drop on a freshspot. The gangs hauling at the rammers worked to the tune of aplaintive ditty which went slowly so as to give them plenty ofbreathing time. It was something like this: Weep not, Do not lament, This world is as the wheel of a car. If we live long, We may meet again on the road. None of the sturdy earth thumpers seemed to be overworked in thebracing air of the dam top, and they certainly looked picturesque withtheir white and blue towels round their heads. Indeed, with all thesinging and movement, not to speak of the refreshment stalls, thescene was not unlike a fair. When we got back to the road again wepassed through a well-watered rice district which was equal to theproduction of heavy crops. Only three years before it had been coveredby a thick forest in which it was not uncommon for robbers to lurk. The transformation had been brought about by the construction of a damin the hills somewhat similar to the one we had just visited. I could not but notice in this district the considerable areas givenup to grave-plots. No crematoria seemed to be in use. There had been anewspaper proposal that in areas where the population was very largein proportion to the land available for cultivation the dead should betaken out to sea. Where land is scarce one sees various expedientspractised so that every square foot shall be cropped. I repeatedlyfound stacks of straw or sticks standing not on the land but on arough bridge thrown for the purpose over a drainage ditch. In thisdistrict land had been recovered from the sea. FOOTNOTES: [178] For an account of a vegetable wax factory, see Appendix XLVIII. [179] For further particulars of Eta in Japan and America, seeAppendix XLIX. [180] See Appendix L. [181] In 1918 net profits of 33 million yen were made by cottonfactories. The factories are anticipating sharp competition fromChina. CHAPTER XXVI THE STORY OF THE BLIND HEADMAN (EHIME) The thing to do is to rise humorously above one's body which is theveritable rebel, not one's mind. --MEREDITH It is delightful to find so many things made of copper. Copper, notiron, is in Japan the most valuable mineral product after coal. [182]But there are drawbacks to a successful copper industry. Several timesas I came along by the coast I heard how the farmers' crops had beendamaged by the fumes of a copper refinery. "There are four copperrefineries in Japan, who fighted very much with the farmers, " it wasexplained. The Department of Agriculture is also the Department ofCommerce and "it was embarrassed by those battles. " The upshot wasthat one refinery moved to an island, another rebuilt its chimney andthe two others agreed to pay compensation because it was cheaper thanto install a new system. The refinery which had removed to an islandseven miles off the coast I had been traversing had had to paycompensation as well as remove. I saw an apparatus that it had put upamong rice fields to aid it in determining how often the wind wascarrying its fumes there. The compensation which this refinery waspaying yearly amounted to as much as 75, 000 yen. It had also beencompelled to buy up 500 _chō_ of the complaining farmers' land. Whenwe ascended by _basha_ into the mountains we looked down on a coppermine in a ravine through which the river tumbled. The man who hadopened the original road over the pass had had the beautiful idea ofplanting cherry trees along it so that the traveller might enjoy thebeauty of their blossoms in spring and their foliage and outlines therest of the year. The trees had attained noble proportions when therefinery started work and very soon killed most of them. They lookedas if they had been struck by lightning. Some miles farther on, wherever on the mountain-side a little tractcould be held up by walling, the chance of getting land forcultivation had been eagerly seized. It would be difficult to give animpression of the patient endeavour and skilful culture represented bythe farming on these isolated terraces held up by Galloway dykes. Elsewhere the heights were tree-clad. In places, where the trees hadbeen destroyed by forest fires or had been cleared, amazingly largeareas had been closely cut over for forage. One great eminence was awonderful sight with its whole side smoothed by the sickles ofindomitable forage collectors. In some spots "fire farming" had beenor was still being practised. Here and there the cultivation of theshrubs grown for the production of paper-making bark had displaced"fire farming. " I saw patches of millet and sweet potato which fromthe road seemed almost inaccessible. On the admirable main road we passed many pack ponies carrying immensepieces of timber. Speaking of timber, the economical method ofpreserving wood by charring is widely practised in Japan. Thepalisades around houses and gardens and even the boards of which thewalls or the lower part of the walls of dwellings are constructed areoften charred. The effect is not cheerful. What does have a cheerfuland trim effect is a thing constantly under one's notice, the habit ofkeeping carefully swept the unpaved earth enclosed by a house andbuildings as well as the path or roadway to them. This carefulsweeping is usually regarded as the special work of old people. Evenold ladies in families of rank in Tokyo take pleasure in their dailytask of sweeping. When we had crossed the pass and descended on the other side and taken_kuruma_ we soon came to a wide but absolutely dry river bed. The highembankments on either side and the width of the river bed, which, walking behind our _kuruma_, it took us exactly four minutes tocross, afforded yet another object lesson in the severity of thefloods that afflict the country. The rock-and rubble-choked conditionof the rivers inclines the traveller to severe judgments on the Stateand the prefectures for not getting on faster with the work ofafforestation; but it is only fair to note that in many placeshillsides were pointed out to me which, bare a generation ago, are nowcovered with trees. Within a distance of twenty-five miles hillplantations were producing fruit to a yearly value of half a millionyen. As for the cultivation on either side of the roadway, along whichour _kurumaya_ were trotting us, I could not see a weed anywhere. A favourite rural recreation in Ehime, as in Shimane on the mainland, is bull fighting. It is not, however, fighting with bulls but betweenbulls: the sport has the redeeming feature that the animals are notturned loose on one another but are held all the time by their ownersby means of the rope attached to the nose ring. The rope is grippedquite close to the bull's head. The result of this measure of controlis, it was averred, that a contest resolves itself into a struggle todecide not which bull can fight better but which animal can pushharder with his head. That the bulls are occasionally injured therecan be no doubt. The contests are said to last from fifteen to twentyminutes and are decided by one of the combatants turning tail. Thereis a good deal of gambling on the issue. In another prefecture ofShikoku the rustics enjoy struggles between muzzled dogs. A taste forthis sport is also cultivated in Akita. A certain amount of dog andcock fighting goes on in Tokyo. At an inn there was an evident desire to do us honour by providing aspecial dinner. One bowl contained transparent fish soup. Lying at thebottom was a glassy eye staring up balefully at me. (The head, especially the eye, of a fish is reckoned the daintiest morsel. ) Therewas a relish consisting of grapes in mustard. A third dish presentedan entire squid. I passed honourable dishes numbers two and three anddrank the fish soup through clenched teeth and with averted gaze. I interrogated several chief constables on the absence of assaults onwomen from the lists of crimes in the rural statistics I hadcollected. Various explanations were offered to me: if there werecases of assault they were kept secret for the credit of the woman'sfamily; no prosecution could be instituted except at the instance ofthe woman, or, if married, the woman's husband; women did not go outmuch alone; the number of cases was not in fact as large as might beimagined, because the people were well behaved. An official who hadhad police experience in the north of Japan declared that the southwas more "moral and more civilised and had higher tastes. " In Ehime, for example, there was very little illegitimacy and fewer childrenstill-born than in any other prefecture. Nevertheless four offencesagainst women had occurred in villages in Ehime within the precedingtwelve months. One of the most interesting stories of rural regeneration I heard wastold me by a blind man who had become headman of his village at thetime of the war with Russia. His life had been indecorous and he hadgradually lost his sight, and he took the headmanship with the wish tomake some atonement for his careless years. This is his story: "Although I thought it important to advance the economic condition ofthe village it was still more important to promote friendship. As theinterests of landowners and tenants was the same it was necessary tobring about an understanding. I began by asking landowners tocontribute a proportion of the crops to make a fund. I was blamed byonly fourteen out of two hundred. But the landowners who did blame meblamed me severely, so much so that my family[183] were uneasy. I wentfrom door to door with a bag collecting rice as the priests do. Myeccentric behaviour was reported in the papers. The anxiety of myhousehold and relatives grew. My children were told at the school thattheir father was a beggar. During the first harvest in which Icollected I gathered about 40 _koku_ (about 200 bushels). In thefourth year a hundred tenants came in a deputation to me. They said:'This gathering of rice is for our benefit. But you gather from thelandowners only. So please let us contribute every year. Some of uswill collect among ourselves and bring the rice to you, so giving youno trouble. ' I was very pleased with that. But I did not express mypleasure. I scolded them. I said: 'Your plan is good but you thinkonly of yourselves. You do not give the landowners their due. When youbring your rent to them you choose inferior rice. It is a bad custom. 'I advised them to treat their landowners with justice and achieveindependence in the relation of tenant and landowner. They were movedby my earnestness. "In the next year the tenants exerted themselves and the landownerswere pleased with them. Thus the relation of landlord and tenantbecame better. The landowners in their turn became desirous of showinga friendly feeling toward the tenants. Some landlords came to me andsaid, 'If you wish for any money in order to be of service to thetenants we will lend it to you without interest. ' I received somemoney. I lent money to tenants to buy manure and cattle, to attackinsect pests, to provide protection against wind and flood and to helpto build new dwellings nearer their work. By these means the tenantswere encouraged and their welfare was promoted. The landlords werealso happier, for the rice was better and the land improved. Thelandlords found that their happiness came from the tenants. There wasgood feeling between them. The landlords began to help the tenantsdirectly and indirectly. Roads and bridges and many aids tocultivation were furnished by the landlords. A body of landlords wasconstituted for these purposes and it collected money. My idea wasrealised that the way of teaching the villages is to let landlords andtenants realise that their interests agree and they will become morefriendly. " The co-operative credit society which the blind headman establishednot only buys and sells for its members in the ordinary way but hiresland for division among the humbler cultivators. One of thedepartments of the society's work is the collection of villagers'savings. They are gathered every Sunday by school-children. One lad, Ifound from his book, had collected on a particular Sunday 5 seneach--5 sen is a penny--from two houses and 10 sen each from anothertwo dwellings. The next Sunday he had received 5 sen from one house, 10 sen from two houses, 30 sen and 50 sen from others and a whole yenfrom the last house on his list. The subscriber gets no receipt butsees the lad enter in his book the amount handed over to him, and thenext Sunday he sees the stamp of the bank against the sum. Some 390householders out of the 497 in the village hand over savings to theboy and girl collectors, whose energy is stimulated with 1 per cent. On the sums they gather. In five years the Sunday collections haveamassed 60, 000 yen. The previous year had been marked by a bad harvestand large sums had been drawn out of the bank, but there was still asum of 14, 000 yen in hand. In this village there had been issued one of the economic and moraldiaries mentioned in an earlier chapter. The diary of this village hastwo spaces for every day--that is, the economic space and the moralspace. The owner of this book had to do two good deeds daily, oneeconomic and the other moral, and he had to enter them up. Further, hehad to hand in the book at the end of the year to the earnest villageagricultural and moral expert who devised the diary and carefullytabulates the results of twelve months' economic and moral endeavour. One might think that the scheme would break down at the handing in ofthe diary stage, but I was assured that there were good reasons forbelieving that a considerable proportion of the 440 persons who hadtaken out diaries would return them. There is an old custom by which Buddhist believers, in companies of adozen or so, meet to eat and drink together. As a good deal is eatenand drunk the gatherings are costly. Our blind headman met thedifficulty of expense in his village by getting the companies ofbelievers to cultivate together in their spare time about three acresof land. His object was to associate religion and agriculture and soto dignify farming in the eyes of young men. He also wished to providean object lesson in the results of good cultivation. The profitsproved to be, as he anticipated, so considerable as to leave a balanceafter defraying the cost of the social gathering. The headmanprevailed on the cultivators to keep accurate accounts and they madeplain some unexpected truths: as for example, that a _tan_ of paddydid not need the labour of a man for more than twenty-three days often hours, and that the net income from such an area was a little morethan 16 yen, and that thus the return for a day's labour was 73 sen. It was demonstrated, therefore, that labour was recompensed very well, and that instead of farming being "the most unprofitable ofindustries"--for in Japan as in the West there are sinners against thelight who say this--it was reasonably profitable. But if rice called for only twenty-three days' labour per_tan_--nearly all the farmers' land was paddy--and the whole holdingnumbered only a few _tan_, it was also plain that there were many daysin the year when the farmer was not fully employed. From this it waseasy to proceed to the conviction that the available time should beutilised either in secondary employments, or in, say, draining, whichwould reduce the quantity of manure needed on the land. So the farmersbegan to think about drainage and the means of economising labour. They began to realise how time was wasted owing to most farmersworking not only scattered, but irregularly shaped pieces of land. Sothe rice lands were adjusted, and everybody was found to have a triflemore land than he held before, and the fields were better watered andmore easily cultivated. Only from sixteen to seventeen days' labourinstead of twenty-three were now needed per _tan_[184] and the cropswere increased. There is now no exodus from this progressive village. Concerning his blindness the headman said that it was more profitablefor him to hear than to see, for by sight "energy might be diverted. "He had recited in every prefecture his personal experience of ruralreform. He asserted that while conditions varied in every prefecture, there was, generally speaking, labour on the land for no more than 200days in the year. He deplored the disappearance of some homeemployments. He did not approve of the condition of things in thenorth where women worked as much in the fields as their husbands andbrothers. Women were "so backward and conservative. " The biggestobstacles to agricultural progress were old women. To introduce asecondary industry was to take women from the fields. I spoke with an agricultural expert, one of whose dicta was that"students at normal schools who come from town families are not soclever as students from farmers' families. " He told me that 10, 000young men in his county had sworn "to act in the way most fitting toyouths of a military state [sic], to buy and use national products asfar as possible and so to promote national industry. " What was wrong with some farming, according to an official of a countyagricultural association whom I met later, was that the farmerscultivated too intensively. They used too much "artificial. " Aprefectural official, speaking of the possibility of extending thecultivated area in Japan, said that in Ehime there were 6, 000 _chō_which might be made into paddies if money were available. As toafforestation, 100, 000 yen a year, exclusive of salaries, was spent inthe prefecture. As a final piece of statistics he mentioned thatwhereas ten years before pears were grown only in a certain island ofthe prefecture, the production of a single county was now valued athalf a million yen yearly. I spent a night at a hot spring. It is said that the volume of wateris decreasing. What a situation for a town which lives on a hot springif the hot-water supply should suddenly stop! I heard of anotherhot-spring resort at which the water is gradually cooling: it iswarmed up by secret piping. I have not troubled my readers with many stories of the jostling ofpast and present, but I noticed in an electric street car at Matsuyamaa peasant trying to light his pipe with flint and tinder. As he didnot succeed a fellow-passenger offered him a match. He was so inexpertwith it that he still failed to get a light and he had to be handed acigarette stump. In riding down to the port in the street car I borrowed for a fewmoments a schoolboy's English reader. It seemed rather mawkish. A bookof Japanese history which I was also allowed to look at was full ofreproductions of autographs of distinguished men. "They make theimpression very strong, " I was told. FOOTNOTES: [182] See Appendix XXXVIII. [183] That is, not only his household but his relatives. [184] Adding to the 17 days' labour for the rice crop, 13 days' labourfor the succeeding barley crop, the total was 30 days' labour per_tan_ against the general Japan average of 39 days per _tan_. THE SOUTH-WEST OF JAPAN CHAPTER XXVII UP-COUNTRY ORATORY (YAMAGUCHI) I have confidence, which began with hope and strengthens withexperience, that humanity is gaining in the stores of mind. --MEREDITH The main street of an Inland Sea island we visited was 4 ft. Wide. Because it was the eve of a festival the old folk were at home"observing their taboo. " The islander who had been the first among theinhabitants to visit a foreign country was only fifty. The localpoliceman made us a gift of pears when we left. At another primitive island querns were in use and "ordinary families"were "only beginning to indulge in tombstones. " In contrast with this, the constable told us that a small condensed-milk factory had beenstarted. (This constable was a fine, dignified-looking fellow, but sopoor that his toes were showing through his blue cloth _tabi_. ) Thecondensed-milk factory must have been responsible for some surprisesto the cows when they were first milked in its interests. I heard atale of the first milking of an elderly cow. She had ploughed paddies, carried hay and other things and had drawn a cart. But it took fivemen and a woman to persuade her that to be milked into a clay pot wasa reasonable thing. The third island we explored lies in such a situation in the InlandSea that sailing ships used to be glad to shelter under it whilewaiting for a favourable wind. Someone had the evil thought ofproviding it with prostitutes, and, until steam began to take theplace of sails, the number of these women established in the islandwas large. Even now, although the whole population numbers only ahundred families, there are thirty women of bad character. These poorcreatures were conspicuous because of their bright clothing anddewomanised look. A scrutiny of the islanders old and young yieldedthe impression that the whole place was suffering from its peculiartraffic. There were two houses, one for registering the women and theother for investigating their state of health, and the purpose of thebuildings was bluntly proclaimed on the nameboards at their doors. When we got out to sea again the newest Japanese battleship doing hertrials was pointed out to me, but I was more interested in a largefishing boat running before the wind. A sturdy woman was at the helmand her naked young family was sprawling about the craft. Someone spoke of villagers of the mainland "failing to realise thatthey now possessed the privilege of self-government. " I was remindedof the pleasant way of the headman of a village assembly in theLoochoos, Japan's oldest outlying possession. He assembles or used toassemble his colleagues in his courtyard and appear there with a draftof proposed legislation. They bowed and departed and the Bill hadbecome an Act. Although we were already within the territorial waters of Hiroshimaprefecture, we determined not to make the mainland at once but to staythe night at the famous island which is called both Miyajima (shrineisland) and Itsukushima (taboo island), and is considered to be one ofthe three most noteworthy sights in Japan. Photographs and drawings ofthe shrine with its red colonnades on piles by the shore and its bigred _torii_ standing in the sea are as familiar as representations ofFuji. It used to be the custom to prevent as far as possible birthsand deaths occurring on the island. Even now, funerals, dogs andkuruma are prohibited. The iron lanterns of the shrine and galleriesand a hundred more in the pine tree-studded approaches are undoubtedly"a most magnificent spectacle at full tide on a moonless night"; butwhat of the subservience to the profitable foreign tourist seen inthis shrine notice?-- _Zori_ (straw sandals), _geta_ (wooden pattens) and all footgear_except shoes and boots_ are forbidden. One is attracted by the idea of listening to music and watching danceswhich came from afar in the seventh or eighth centuries, but thebusiness-like tariff, Ordinary music, 12 sen to 5 yen, Special music and dance, 10 yen and upwards, Lighting all lanterns, 9 yen, is calculated to take one out of the atmosphere of Hearn's dreams. Thedeities of the shrine get along as best they can with the raucoussirens of the tourist steamers, the din of the motor boats and theboom of the big guns which are hidden at the back of the island andmake of Miyajima and its vicinity "a strategic zone" in whichphotography, sketching or the too assiduous use of a notebook isforbidden. Alas, I had myself arrived in a steamer which blew itssiren loudly, and in the morning I crossed from the holy isle to themainland in a motor launch. The name of Yamaguchi prefecture, which is at the extreme end of themainland and has the sea to the south, the east and the north, is notso familiar as the name of its port, Shimoneseki. It was mentioned tome that the farmers of Yamaguchi worked a smaller number of days thanin Ehime, possibly only a hundred in the year. The comment of mycompanion, who had visited a great deal of rural Japan, was that 150full days' work was the average for the whole country. [185] I was told that here as elsewhere there was an unsound tendency toturn sericulture from a secondary into a primary industry. "Expertsare not always expert, " confessed an official. "Our farmers have hadbitter experience. Experts come who have learnt only from books or inother districts, so they give unsuitable counsel. Then they leave theprefecture for other posts before the results of their unwisdom areapparent. " The same official told me of a "little famine" in one county which hadimprudently concentrated its attention on the production of grapefruit to the annual value of about a million yen. When a storm cameone spring there was almost a total loss. "The river and the sea werecovered with fruit, fishing was interfered with, and the county towncomplained of the smell of the rotting fruit. " It seems that many ofthe suffering orange growers were samurai who found fruit farming amore gentlemanly pursuit than the management of paddies. Like ruralamateurs everywhere, "some of them would do better if they knew moreabout the working of the land. " Rice was being assailed by a pest which survived in the straw stackand had done damage in the prefecture to the amount of 30, 000 yen. In this prefecture and two others during our tour my companiondelivered addresses to farmers under the auspices of the NationalAgricultural Association. The burden of his talk was their duty asagriculturists in the new conditions which were opening for thenation. His three audiences numbered about 700, 1, 000 and 1, 500. Theywere composed largely of picked men. At the first gathering theaudience squatted; at the next chairs were provided; at the thirdthere were school forms with backs. What I particularly noticed wasthe easy-going way in which the meetings were conducted. No gatheringbegan exactly at the time announced, although one of the audiences hadbeen encouraged to be in time by the promise of a gift of mottoes tothe first hundred arrivals. At each meeting the Governor of theprefecture was the first speaker. At one meeting the Governor arrivedabout 8. 30 a. M. , made his speech and departed. When my friend had beenintroduced to various people in the anteroom, had drunk tea and hadsmoked and chatted a little, he was taken to the platform half an houror three quarters after the conclusion of the Governor's speech. Nothing had happened at the meeting in the interval. The idea was thatthe wait would help the audience's digestion of the speech it had hadand the speech it was going to have. There was no formal introductionof the orator. He just mounted the platform and spoke for two hours. [Illustration: SCHOOL SHRINE FOR EMPEROR'S PORTRAIT. P. 113] [Illustration: THE AUTHOR ADDRESSING, THROUGH AN INTERPRETER, LAFCADIOHEARN DEATH-DAY MEETING AT MATSUE. P. 253] At the second meeting the Governor awaited our arrival but "wenton" alone. The star speaker meanwhile refreshed himself in theanteroom with tea, tobacco and conversation as before. In a fewminutes the Governor, having done his turn, rejoined us, and my friendproceeded to the meeting to deliver his speech, the Governor takinghis departure. [Illustration: A PEASANT PROPRIETOR'S HOUSE. P. 378] [Illustration: GRAVESTONES REASSEMBLED AFTER PADDY ADJUSTMENT. P. 72] At the third meeting the Governor and the speaker of the day did enterthe hall together, but before the Governor had finished hisintroductory harangue my companion took himself off to the anteroom torefresh himself with a cigar and a chat. When the Governor concludedand returned to the anteroom there was conversation for a few minutes, and then my friend and his Excellency went into the meeting together. This time the Governor stayed to the end. In his three speeches my friend said many moving things and hisaudiences were appreciative. But no one presumed to interrupt withapplause. At the end, however, there was a hearty round ofhand-clapping, now a general custom at public gatherings. On theconclusion of each of his addresses the orator stepped down from theplatform and made off to the hall, for no one dreamt of askingquestions. When he was gone an official expressed the thanks of theaudience and there was another round of applause. Then everybodyconnected with the arrangement of the meeting gathered in the anteroomand one after the other made appreciative speeches and bows. Imarvelled at the orator's toughness. Before he went on the platform hehad been pestered with unending introductions and beset byconversation. But I do not know that my friend felt any strain. Nordid the fashion in which the speakers wandered on and off theplatform, and thus, according to our notions, did their utmost to dampthe enthusiasm of the meetings, seem to have any such effect. Once inan oculist's consulting clinic in Tokyo I was struck by the fact thatwhen water was squirted into the eyes of a succession of patients ofboth sexes and various ages, they did not wince as Western peoplewould have done. I was told that school fees go up a little when the price of rice ishigh; also of the "negatively good" effects of young men'sassociations. During the period of our tour efforts were being made tosystematise these organisations. The Department of Agriculture wanteda farmer at the head of each society, the War Office an ex-soldier. There can be no doubt that the militarists have been doing their bestto give the societies the mental attitude of the army. In the country we were entering, the horse had taken the place of theox as the beast of burden. Two men of some authority in the prefectureagreed that it was difficult to think of tracts in the south-west thatwould be suitable for cattle grazing. There was certainly no "square_ri_ where the price of land was low enough to keep sheep. " As tocattle breeding and forestry, one of them must give way. It wasnecessary to keep immense areas under evergreen wood for the defenceof the country against floods. With regard to the areas available forafforestation, for cattle keeping and for cultivation respectively, itwas necessary to be on one's guard against "experts" who were disposedto claim all available land for their specialties. When we took to an automobile for the first stage of our long journeythrough Yamaguchi and Shimane--the railway came no farther than thecity of Yamaguchi--I noticed that just as the bridges are oftenwithout parapets, the roads winding round the cliffs were, as inFukushima, unprotected by wall or rail. This was due, no doubt, toconsiderations of economy, to a widely diffused sense ofresponsibility which makes people look after their own safety, andalso, in some degree, to stout Japanese nerves. That our driver'snerves were sound enough was shown by the speed at which he drove theheavy car round sharp corners and down slippery descents where weshould have dropped a few hundred feet had we gone over. At our first stopping-place I saw a photograph showing a Shinshupriest engaged with the girl pupils of a Buddhist school in treeplanting. Our talk here was about the low incomes on which peoplecontrive to live. A little more than a quarter of a century ago thefamily of a friend of mine, now of high rank, was living in a countytown on 5 yen a month! There were two adults and three children. Rentwas 1. 20 yen and rice came to 1. 80 yen. Even to-day an ex-Minister mayhave only 1, 500 yen a year. Many ex-Governors are living quietly invillages. We went to call upon one of them who was getting greatsatisfaction out of his few _tan_. Among other things he told us wasthat there were five doctors and one midwife in the community. Thesedoctors do not possess a Tokyo qualification. They have qualified bybeing taught by their fathers or by some other practitioner, and theyare entitled to practise in their own village and in, perhaps, aneighbouring one. It was thoughtless of me, after inquiring about the doctors, to askabout the gravedigger. I was told that when there was no member of a"special tribe" available it was the duty of neighbours to dig graves. A community's displeasure was marked by neighbours refraining fromhelping to dig an unpopular person's grave. (One might have expectedto hear that such a grave would be dug with alacrity. ) Families whichhad run counter to public opinion had had to "apologise" before theycould get neighbourly help at the burial of their dead. Only one family in the village, I learnt from the headman, was beinghelped from public funds. This family consisted of an old man and hisdaughter, who, owing to the attendance her father required, could notgo out to work. The village provided a small house and three pints ofrice daily. The headman in his private capacity gave the girl, withthe assistance of some friends, straw rope-making to do and paid asomewhat higher price than is usual. Of last year's births in the village 10 per cent. Had been legally and5 per cent. Actually illegitimate. Four or five births had occurred afew months after marriage. We ate our lunch in the headman's room in the village office. Hangingfrom the ceiling was a sealed envelope to be opened on receipt of atelegram. Some member of the village staff always slept in that room. The envelope contained instructions to be acted upon if mobilisationtook place. When we had gone on some distance I stopped to watch a farmer's wifeand daughter threshing in a barn by pulling the rice through a row ofsteel teeth, the simple form of threshing implement which is seen inslightly different patterns all over Japan. (It is the successor of acontrivance of bamboo stakes. ) The women told me that one person couldthresh fourteen bushels a day. The implement cost 2-1/2 yen fromtravelling vendors but only 1-1/2 yen from the co-operative society. While we talked the farmer appeared. I apologised to him forunwittingly stepping on the threshold of the barn--that is, thegrooved timber in which the sliding doors run. It is considered to bean insult to the head of the house to tread on the threshold as insome way "standing on the householder's head. " This man had a bamboo plantation, and he told me, in reply to aquestion, that the bamboo would shoot up at the rate of more than afoot in twenty-four hours. (During the month in which this is dictatedI have measured the growth of a shoot of a Dorothy Perkins climber andfind that it averages about quarter of an inch in twenty-four hours. ) FOOTNOTES: [185] See Appendix XII. CHAPTER XXVIII MEN, DOGS AND SWEET POTATOES (SHIMANE) Nothing but omniscience could suffice to answer all the questionsimplicitly raised. --J. G. FRAZER When we descended from the hills we were in Shimane, a long, narrow, coastwise prefecture through which one travels over a succession ofheights to the capital, Matsue, situated at the far end. Two-thirds ofthe journey must be made on foot and by _kuruma_. [186] Some talk bythe way was about the farmers going five or six miles daily to thehills to cut grass for their "cattle, " the average number of cattleper farmer being 1. 3 hereabouts. It seemed strange to see buckwheat atthe flowering stage reached by the crops seen in Fukushima severalmonths before. The explanation was that buckwheat is sown both inspring and autumn. In the old days notable samurai, fugitives from Tokyo, had keptthemselves secluded in the rooms we occupied at Yamaguchi. In Shimanewe had small plain low-ceiled rooms in which daimyos had beenaccommodated. Not here alone had I evidences of the simplicity of thelife of Old Japan. I was wakened in the morning by the voice of a woman earnestlypraying. She stood in the yard of the house opposite and faced firstin one direction and then in another. A friend of mine once stayedovernight at an inn on the river at Kyoto. In the morning he sawseveral men and a considerable number of women praying by thewaterside. They were the keepers and inmates of houses of ill-fame. The old Shinto idea was that prayers might be made anywhere at othertimes than festivals, for the god was at the shrine at festivals only. Nowadays some old men go to the shrine every morning, just as many oldwomen are seen at the Buddhist temples daily. Half the visitors to aShinto shrine, an educated man assured me, may pray, but in the caseof the other half the "worship" is "no more than a motion of respect. "My friend told me that when he prayed at a shrine his prayer was forhis children's or his parents' health. At a county town I found a library of 4, 000 volumes, largely aninheritance from the feudal regime. Wherever I went I could not butnote the cluster of readers at the open fronts of bookshops. [187] On our second day's journey in Shimane I had a _kuruma_ with woodenwheels, and in the hills the day after we passed a man kneeling in a_kago_, the old-fashioned litter. When we took to a _basha_ wediscovered that, owing to the roughness of the road, we had a driverfor each of our two horses. We had also an agile lad who hung on firstto one part and then another of the vehicle and seemed to be essentialin some way to its successful management. The head of the hatlesschief driver was shaved absolutely smooth. It was a rare thing for a foreigner to pass this way. My companionfrequently told me that he had difficulty in understanding what peoplesaid. We saw an extinct volcano called "Green Field Mountain. " There was nota tree on it and it was said never to have possessed any. The wholesurface was closely cut, the patches cut at different periods showingup in rectangular strips of varying shades. Wherever the hills weretreeless and too steep for cultivation they were carefully cut forfodder. In cultivable places houses were standing on the minimum ofground. More than once we had a view of a characteristic piece ofscenery, a dashing stream seen through a clump of bamboo. When our basha stopped for the feeding of the horses, they had a tubof mixture composed of boiled naked barley, rice chaff, chopped strawand chopped green stuff. I noticed near the inn a doll in a tree. Ithad been put there by children who believe that they can secure by sodoing a fine day for an outing. When we started again we met with acompany of strolling players: a man, his wife and two girls, all withclever faces. We also saw several peasant anglers fishing or goinghome with their catch. A licence available from July to December cost50 sen. At a shop I made a note of its signs, the usual strips of white woodabout 8 ins. By 3, nailed up perpendicularly, with the inscriptionswritten in black. One sign was the announcement of the name andaddress of the householder, which must be shown on every Japanesehouse. A second stated that the place was licensed as a shop, a thirdthat the householder's wife was licensed to keep an inn, a fourth thatthe householder was a cocoon merchant, a fifth that he was a member ofthe co-operative credit society, a sixth that he belonged to the RedCross Society, a seventh that his wife was a member of the PatrioticWomen's Society, [188] the eighth, ninth and tenth that the shopkeeperwas an adherent of a certain Shinto shrine, a member of a Shintoorganisation and had visited three shrines and made donations to them. An eleventh board proclaimed that he was of the Zen sect of Buddhism. Finally, there was a box in which was stored the charms from variousshrines. We passed a company of villagers working on the road for the localauthority. The labourers were chiefly old people and they were takingtheir task very easily. Farther along the road men and women wereworking singly. It seemed that the labourers belonged to familieswhich, instead of paying rates, did a bit of roadmending. The work wasdone when they had time to spare. For some time we had been in a part of the country in which the ridgesof the houses were of tiles. At an earlier stage of our journey theyhad been either of straw or of earth with flowers or shrubs growing init. The shiny, red-brown tiles give place elsewhere to aslate-coloured variety. The surface of all of these tiles is sosmooth that they are unlikely to change their hard tint for years. Meanwhile they give the villages a look of newness. Their use isspreading rapidly. Shiny though the tiles may be, one cannot butadmire the neat way in which they interlock. One day when I wonderedabout the cost involved in recovering roofs with these tiles, a womanworker who overheard me promptly said that, reckoning tiles andlabour, the cost was 60 or 70 sen per 22 tiles. In the old days tiledporticoes were forbidden to the commonalty. They were allowed only todaimyos who also used exclusively the arm rests which every visitor toan inn may now command. Besides arm rests I have frequently hadkneeling cushions of the white brocade formerly used only for the_zabuton_ of Buddhist priests. In the county through which we were passing the fine water grass, called _i_, used for mat making, is grown on an area of about 78_chō_. It is sown in seed beds like rice and is transplanted intoinferior paddies in September. (The grass is better grown in Hiroshimaand Okayama. ) I saw a beautiful tree in red blossom. The name given to it is "monkeyslip, " because of the smoothness of its skin, which recalled the nameof that very different ornament of suburban gardens, "monkey puzzle. " During this journey we recovered something of the conditions ofold-time travel. There were chats by the way and conferences at theinn in the evening and in the morning concerning distances, the kindof vehicles available, the character of their drivers, the charges, the condition of the road, the probable weather and the places atwhich satisfactory accommodation might be had. What was different fromthe old days was that at every stopping-place but one we had electriclight. Part of our journey was done in a small motor bus lighted byelectricity. Like the automobile we had hired a day or two before, itwas driven--by two young men in blue cotton tights--at too high aspeed considering the narrowness and curliness of the roads by whichwe crossed the passes. The roads are kept in reasonably goodcondition, but they were made for hand cart and _kuruma_ traffic. We passed an island on which I was told there were a dozen houses. When a death occurs a beacon fire is made and a priest on the mainlandconducts a funeral ceremony. By the custom of the island it isforbidden to increase the number of the houses, so presumably severalfamilies live together. In the mountain communities of the mainland, where the number of houses is also restricted, it is usual for onlythe eldest brother to be allowed to marry. The children of youngerbrothers are brought up in the families of their mothers. We passed at one of the fishing hamlets the wreck of a Russian cruiserwhich came ashore after the battle of Tsushima. Two boat derricks fromthe cruiser served as gate posts at the entrance of the schoolplayground. A familiar sight on a country road is the itinerant medicine vendor. He or his employer believes in pushing business by means of animpressive outfit. One typical cure-all seller, who had his medicinesin a shiny bag slung over his shoulders, wore yellow shoes, cottondrawers, a frock coat, a peaked cap with three gold stripes, and amysterious badge. On his hands he had white cotton gloves and as hewalked he played a concertina. A common practice is to leave withhousewives a bag of medicines without charge. Next year another callis made, when the pills and what not which have been used are paid forand a new bag is exchanged for the old one. The use of dogs to help to draw _kuruma_ is forbidden in someprefectures, but in three stages of our journey in Shimane we had theaid of robust dogs. During this period, however, I saw, attached to_kuruma_ we passed, three dogs which did not seem up to their work. Dogs suffer when used for draught purposes because their chests arenot adapted for pulling and because the pads of their feet get tender. The animals we had were treated well. Each _kuruma_ had a cord, with ahook at the end, attached to it; and this hook was slipped into a ringon the dog's harness. The dogs were released when we went downhill andusually on the level. Several times during each run, when we came to astream or a pond or even a ditch, the dogs were released for a bathe. They invariably leapt into the water, drank moderately, and then, ifthe water was too shallow for swimming, sat down in it and then laydown. Sometimes a dog temporarily at liberty would find on his ownaccount a small water hole, and it was comical to see him taking asitz bath in it. When the sun was hot a dog would sometimes beretained on his cord when not pulling in order that he might trotalong in the shade below the _kuruma_. The dog of the _kuruma_following mine usually managed when pulling to take advantage of theshade thrown by my vehicle. A _kurumaya_ told me that he had given 8yen for his dog. Dogs were sometimes sold for from 10 to 15 yen. Thedifficulty was to get a dog that had good feet and would pull. Thedogs I saw were all mongrels with sometimes a retriever, bloodhound orGreat Dane strain. I made enquiries about another county town library. There were 18, 000volumes of which 300 consisted of European books and 600 of boundmagazines. The annual expenditure on books, and I presume magazines, was 600 yen. We passed a "special tribe" hamlet. Here the Eta were devotingthemselves to tanning and bamboo work. I was told of other "peculiarpeople" called Hachia, also of a hawker-beggar class which sells smallthings of brass or bamboo or travels with performing monkeys. Water from hot springs is piped long distances in water pipes made ofbamboo trunks, the ends of which are pushed into one another. A turnis secured by running two pipes at the angle required into a block ofwood which has been bored to fit. When we got down to the sand dunes there were windbreaks, 10 or 15 ft. High, made of closely planted pines cut flat at the top. Elsewhere Isaw such windbreaks 30 ft. High. On the telegraph wires there were bigspiders' webs about 4 ft. In diameter. As we sped through a village my attention was attracted by a funeralfeast. The pushed-back _shoji_ showed about a dozen men sitting in acircle eating and drinking. Women were waiting on them. At the back ofthe room, making part of the circle, was the square coffin covered bya white canopy. While passing a Buddhist temple I heard the sound of preaching. Itmight have been a voice from a church or chapel at home. Shortly afterwards I came on a memorial to the man who introduced thesweet potato into the locality 150 years before. This was the first ofmany sweet-potato memorials which I encountered in the prefecture andelsewhere. Sometimes there were offerings before the monuments. Occasionally the memorial took the form of a stone cut in the shape ofa potato. There is a great exportation of sweet potatoes--sliced anddried until they are brittle--to the north of Japan where the tubercannot be cultivated. [189] While we rested at the house of a friend of my companion we spoke ofemigration. There are four or five emigration companies, and it is aninteresting question just how much emigration is due to the initiativeof the emigrants themselves and how much to the activity of thecompanies. The chief reason which induces emigrants to go to SouthAmerica is that, under the contract system, they get twice as muchmoney as they would obtain, say, in Formosa. [190] Our host did not remember any foreigner visiting his village since hisboyhood, though it is on the main road. It took nearly four days for aTokyo newspaper to arrive. This region is so little known that when aresident mentioned it in Tokyo he was sometimes asked if it was inHokkaido. I was interested to see how many villages had erected monuments toyoung men who had won distinction away from home as wrestlers. I had often noticed bulls drawing carts and behaving as sedately asdonkeys, but it was new to see a bull tethered at the roadside withchildren playing round it. Why are the Japanese bulls so friendly? In the mountainous regions we passed through I saw several paddies nobigger than a hearthrug. At one spot a land crab scurried across theroad. It was red in colour and about 2-1/2 ins. Long. At a village office the headman's gossip was that priests had beenforbidden by the prefecture to interfere in elections. We lookedthrough the expenses of the village agricultural association. For alecture series 5 yen a month was being paid. Then there had been anexpenditure by way of subsidising a children's campaign againstinsects preying on rice. For ten of the little clusters of eggs onemay see on the backs of leaves 4 rin was paid, while for 10 moths thereward was 2 rin. The association spent a further 10 yen on helpingyoung people to attend lectures at a distance. The commune in whichthose things had been done numbered 3, 100 people. There had been twopolice offences during the year, but both offenders were strangers tothe locality. In a cutting which was being made for the new railway, girl labourerswere steering their trucks of soil down a half-mile descent andsinging as they made the exhilarating run. The building of a railwaythrough a closely cultivated and closely populated country involvesthe destruction of a large amount of fertile land and the rebuildingof many houses. The area of agricultural land taken during thepreceding and present reigns, not only for railways and railwaystations but for roads, barracks, schools and other public buildings, has been enormous. "The owner of land removed from cultivation mayseem to do well by turning his property into cash, " a man said to me. "He may also profit to some extent while the railway is building bythe jobs he is able to do for the contractor, with the assistance ofhis family and his horse or bull; but afterwards he has often to seekanother way of earning his living than farming. " We neared railhead on a market day and many folk in their best werewalking along the roads. Of fourteen umbrellas used as parasols tokeep off the sun that I counted one only was of the Japanese papersort; all the others were black silk on steel ribs in "foreign style"except for a crude embroidery on the silk. When we got into the town it was as much as our _kurumaya_ could do tomove through the dense crowd of rustics in front of booths and shops. Once more I was impressed by the imperturbability and naturalcourtesy of the people. At the station quite a number of farmers andtheir families had assembled, not to travel by the train but to see itstart. During the short journey by train I noticed lagoons in which fish wereartificially fed. At an agricultural experiment station in the placeat which we alighted there were two specimen windmills set up to showfarmers who were fortunate enough to have ammonia water on their landthe cheapest means of raising it for their paddies. The tendency hereas elsewhere was to apply too much of the ammonia water. All rubbishon this extensive experiment station was carefully burnt under coverin order to demonstrate the importance not only of getting all thepotash possible but of preserving it when obtained. Farmers who are without secondary industries are short of cash exceptat the times when barley, rice and cocoons are sold, and in certainplaces they seem to have taken to saving money on salt. An old mantold us with tears in his eyes how he had protested to his neighboursagainst the tendency to do without salt. An excuse for attempting tosave on salt, besides the economical one, was the size of the saltcubes. Neighbours clubbed together to buy a cube, and thus a family, when it had finished its share, had to wait until the neighbours haddisposed of theirs and market day came round. [191] I saw a monument erected to the memory of "a good farmer" who hadplanted a wood and developed irrigation. We made a stay at the spot where, on a forest-clad hill overlookingthe sea, there stands in utter simplicity the great shrine of Izumo. The customary collection of shops and hotels clustering at the townend of the avenue of _torii_ cannot impair the impression which ismade on the alien beholder by this shrine in the purest style ofShinto architecture. In the month in which we arrived at Izumo thedeities are believed to gather there. Before the shrine the Japanesevisitor makes his obeisance and his offering at the precise spot--fourplaces are marked--to which his rank permits him to advance. (Thisinscription may be read: "Common people at the doorway. ") Theestimate which an official gave me of the number of visitors lastyear, 40, 000, bore no relation to the "quarter of a million" of theguide book. But it had been a bad year for farmers. Forty-sevengeisha, who had reported the previous year that they had received35, 000 yen--there is no limit to what is tabulated in Japan--nowreported that they had gained only half that sum in twelve months, "the price of cocoons being so low that even well-to-do farmers couldnot come. " I noticed that there was a clock let into one of thegranite votive pillars of the avenue along which one walks from thetown to the shrine. As I glanced at the clock it happened that thesound of children's voices reached me from a primary school. Iwondered what time and modern education, which have brought suchchanges in Japan, might make of it all. FOOTNOTES: [186] The railway has now been extended in the direction of Yamaguchi. [187] See Appendix LI. [188] Protests have been made against the way in which the countrypeople are dunned for subscriptions to these semi-officialorganisations. A high agricultural authority has stated that in Naganothe farmers' taxes and subscriptions to the Red Cross and PatrioticWomen Societies are from 65 to 70 per cent. Of their expenditure asagainst 30 to 35 per cent. Spent on outlay other than food andclothing. [189] _Satsuma-imo_ is sweet potato. Our potato is called _jaga-imo_or _bareisho_. _Imo_ is the general name. [190] See Appendix LII. [191] The Salt Monopoly profits are estimated at 314, 204 yen for1920-21. CHAPTER XXIX FRIENDS OF LAFCADIO HEARN (SHIMANE, TOTTORI AND HYOGO) Those who suffer learn, those who love know. --MRS. HAVELOCK ELLIS At Matsue, with which the name of Lafcadio Hearn will always beassociated, I chanced to arrive on the anniversary of his death. Hislocal admirers were holding a memorial meeting. As a foreigner I washonoured with a request to attend. First, however, I had the chance ofvisiting Hearn's house. Matsue was the first place at which Hearnlived. He always remembered it and at last came back there to marry. Except that a pond has been filled up--no doubt to reduce the numberof mosquitoes--the garden of his house is little changed. The most interesting feature of the meeting was old pupils' gratefulrecollections of Hearn, the middle-school teacher. The gathering washeld in a room belonging to the town library in the prefecturalgrounds, but neither the Governor nor the mayor was present. Asympathetic speech was made by a chance visitor to the town, thesecretary-general to the House of Peers. He recalled the antagonismwhich the young men at Tokyo University, himself among them, felttowards the odd figure of Hearn--he had a terribly strained eye andwore a monocle--when he became a professor, and how very soon hegained the confidence and regard of the class. I had often wondered that there was no Japanese memorial to Hearn, andwhen I rose to speak I said so. I added that it was rare to meet aJapanese who had any understanding of how much Hearn had done informing the conception of Japan possessed by thousands of Europeansand Americans. The fault in so many books about Japan, I went on, wasnot that their "facts" were wrong. What was wrong was their authors'attitude of mind. I had heard Japanese say that Hearn was "toopoetical" and that some of his inferences were "inaccurate. " That wasas might be. What mattered was that the mental attitude of Hearn wasso largely right. He did not approach Japan as a mere "fact" collectoror as a superior person. What he brought to the country was thehumble, studious, imaginative, sympathetic attitude; and it was onlyby men and women of his rare type that peoples were interpreted one tothe other. In that free-and-easy way in which meetings are conducted in Japan itwas permissible for us to leave after another speech had been made. The proceedings were interrupted while the promoters of the gatheringshowed us a collection of books and memorials of Hearn, arranged undera large portrait, and accompanied us to the door of the hall. I do notrecall during the time I was in Japan any other public gathering inhonour of Hearn, and I met several prominent men who had either neverheard his name or knew nothing of the far-reaching influence of hisbooks. But some months after this Matsue meeting there was includedamong the Coronation honours a posthumous distinction forHearn--"fourth rank of the junior grade. "[192] During this journey I attended a dinner of officials and leadingagriculturists and had the odd sensation of making a shortafter-dinner speech on my knees. At such a dinner the guests kneel oncushions ranged round the four walls of the room, and each man has alow lacquer table to himself, and a geisha to wait on him. When thegeisha is not bringing in new dishes or replenishing the _saké_bottle, she kneels before the table and chatters entertainingly. Thegovernors of the feast visit the guests of honour and drink with them. In the same way a guest drinks with his neighbour and with hisattendant geisha. I have a vivid memory of a grave and elderlydignitary who at the merry stage of such a function capered the wholelength of the room with his kneeling-cushion balanced on the top ofhis head. There is a growing temperance movement in Japan but ateetotaller is still something of an oddity. My abstinence from _saké_was frequently supposed to be the result of a vow. Although the average geisha may be inane in her patter and have littlemore than conventional grace and charm, I have been waited on by girlswho added real mental celerity, wit and a power of skilful mimicry tothat elusive and seductive quality that accounts for the impregnableposition of their class. At one dinner impersonations in both thecomic and the tragic vein were given by a girl of unmistakable genius. Frequently a plain, elderly geisha will display unsuspected mimeticability. Alas, behind the merry laugh and sprightliness of the girlswho adorn a feast lurks a skeleton. One is haunted by thoughts of thefuture of a large proportion of these butterflies. No doubt mostforeigners generalise too freely in identifying the professions ofgeisha and _joro_. In the present organisation of society some geishaplay a legitimate rôle. They gain in the career for which they havelaboriously trained an outlet for the expression of artistic andsocial gifts which would have been denied them in domestic life. Atthe same time the degrading character of the life led by many geishacannot be doubted. Apart from every other consideration the temptationto drink is great. The opening of new avenues to feminine ability, theenlarged opportunities of education and self-respect and theincreasing opening for women on the stage--from which women have beenexcluded hitherto--must have their effect in turning the minds ofgirls of wit and originality to other means of earning a living thanthe morally and physically hazardous profession of the geisha. When we left Matsue by steamer on our way to Tottori prefecture I sawmiddle-school eights at practice. An agriculturist told me of thecustom of giving holidays to oxen and horses. The villagers carefullybrush their animals, decorate them and lead them to pastures where, tethered to rings attached to a long rope, "they may graze togetherpleasantly. " One of the islands we visited bore the name of the giantradish, Daikon, which is itself a corruption of the word for octopus. The island devoted itself mainly to the growing of peonies andginseng. The ginseng is largely exported to China and Korea, but thereis a certain consumption in Japan. Ginseng is sometimes chewed, but isgenerally soaked, the liquid being drunk. Ginseng is popularlysupposed to be an invigorant, and Japanese doctors in Korea havelately declared that it has some value. The root is costly, hence theproverb about eating ginseng and hanging oneself, i. E. Getting intodebt. In walking across the island I passed a forlorn little shrine. It wasmerely a rough shed with a wide shelf at the back, on which stood arow of worn and dusty figures, decked with the clothes of childrenwhose recovery was supposed to have been due to their influence. Itwas raining and the shelter was full of children playing in thecompany of an old crone with a baby on her back. Further on in thevillage I came across a new public bath. The price of admission wasone sen, children half price. A small port was pointed out to me as being open to foreign trade. Everybody is not aware that in Japan there is a restriction uponforeign shipping except at sixty specified places. [193] The reasongiven for the restriction is the unprofitableness of custom houses atsmall places. One day, perhaps, the world will wake up to theinconvenience and financial burden imposed by the custom-house systemof raising revenue. We stayed the night at a little place at the eastern extremity of theShimane promontory where there is a shrine and no cultivation of anysort is allowed "for fear of defilement. " Waste products are takenaway by boat. I marked a contrast between theoretical and practicalholiness. Our inn overlooked a special landing-place where, because a"sacred boat" from the shrine is launched there, a notice had been putup forbidding the throwing of rubbish into the sea. A few minutesafter the board had been pointed out to me I saw an old man cast aconsiderable mass of rubbish into the water not six feet away from it. When we visited the shrine three pilgrims were at their devotions. Thenext morning when our steamer left and the chief priest of the shrinewas bidding us adieu my attention was attracted by loud conversationin the second storey of an inn, the _shoji_ of which were open. Ourpilgrims, two of whom were bald, had spent the night at an inn of badcharacter and were now in the company of prostitutes in the sight ofall men. One pilgrim had a girl on his knee, another was himself on agirl's knee and a third had his arm round a girl's neck. In this"sacred" place of 2, 000 inhabitants there were forty "double license"girls, five being natives. A few years ago all the girls were natives. A "double license" girl means one who is licensed both as a geisha anda prostitute. The plan of issuing "double licenses" is adopted atKyoto and elsewhere. As to the pilgrims to whom I have referred, someone quoted to me the saying, "It is only half a pilgrimage goingto the shrine without seeing the girls. " Returning to the custom of launching a sacred boat it is not withoutsignificance that many Japanese deities have some connection with thesea. Even in the case of the deities of shrines a long way from thesea the ceremony of "going down to the sea" is sometimes observed. Sand and sea water are sent for in order to be mixed with the waterused to cleanse the car in which the figure of the deity is drawnthrough the streets. The social and financial position of tenants was illustrated by anincident at an inn. As the maid came from the country I asked her ifher father were a tenant or an owner. My companion interrupted to tellme that the question was not judiciously framed because the girl would"think it a disgrace to own that her father was a tenant. " The name ofa tenant used long ago to be "water drinker. " This waiting-maid was agood-looking and rather clever girl. I was dismayed when my friendtold me that she had said to him quite simply that she had thoughtsof becoming a _joro_. She thought it would be a "more interestinglife. " When we reached Tottori prefecture we found ourselves in a countrywhich grows more cotton than any other. Japanese cotton (grown onabout 400 _chō_) is unsuitable for manufacture into thread, butbecause of its elasticity is considered to be valuable for the paddingof winter clothing and for _futon_ and _zabuton_. Their softness ismaintained by daily sunning. At a county office I noted that the persons who were receiving reliefwere classified as follows: Illness, 26; cripples, 17; old age, 16;schoolboys, 12; infancy, 1. In the course of our journey a Shinto priest was pointed out to me asobserving the priestly taboo by refusing tea and cake. I noticed, however, that he smoked. I was told that when he was in Tokyo hepurified himself in the sea even in midwinter. I did not like hisappearance. Nor for the matter of that was I impressed by thecountenances of some Buddhist priests I encountered in the train fromtime to time. "Thinking always of money, " someone said. But every nowand again I saw fine priestly faces. I have noted down very little in regard to the crops and thecountryside in Tottori. Things seemed very much the same as I had seenin Shimane. At an agricultural show in the city of Tottori thevarieties of yam and taro were so numerous as to deceive the averageWesterner into believing that he was seeing the roots of differentkinds of plants. A feature of the show was a large realistic model ofa rice field with two life-size figures. In the evening I talked with two distinguished men until a late hour. "We are not a metaphysical people, " one of them said. "Nor were ourforefathers as religious as some students may suppose. Those who wentbefore us gave to the Buddhist shrine and even worshipped there, buttheir daily life and their religion had no close connection. We didnot define religion closely. Religion has phases according to thedegree of public instruction. Our religion has had more to do withpropitiation and good fortune than with morality. If you had come herea century ago you would have been unable to find even then religionafter another pattern. If it be said that a man must be religious inorder to be good the person who says so does not look about him. I amnot afraid to say that our people are good as a result of longtraining in good behaviour. Their good character is due to the samecauses as the freedom from rowdiness which may be marked in ourcrowds. " "What is wanted in the villages, " said the other personage, "is onegood personality in each. " I said that the young men's associationseemed to me to be often a dull thing, chiefly indeed a mechanism bymeans of which serious persons in a village got the young men to workovertime. "Yes, " was the response, "the old men make the young fellowswork. " The first speaker said that there had been three watchwords for therural districts. "There was Industrialisation and Increase ofProduction. There was Public Spirit and Public Welfare. There was TheShinto Shrine the Centre of the Village. We have a certain conceptionof a model village, but perhaps some hypocrisy may mingle with it. They say that the village with well-kept Buddhist and Shinto shrinesis generally a good village. " "In other words, " I ventured, "the village where there is somenon-material feeling. " The rejoinder was: "Western religion is too high, and, I fear, inapplicable to our life. It may be that we are too easily contented. But there are nearly 60 millions of us. I do not know that we feel aneed or have a vacant place for religion. There is certainly not muchhope for an increase of the influence of Buddhism. " As we went along in the train I was told that on a sixth of the ricearea in Tottori there had been a loss of 70 per cent. By wind. When aman's harvest loss exceeds this percentage he is not liable for ratesand taxes. A passenger told me about "nursery pasture. " This is apatch of grass in the hills to which a farmer sends his ox to bepastured in common with the oxen of other farmers under the care of asingle herdsman. It is from cattle keeping on this modest scale thatthe present beef requirements of the country are largely met. [194] Although the opinions expressed to me by Governors of prefectureshave been frequently recorded in these pages, I have not felt atliberty to identify more than one of the Excellencies who were goodenough to express their views to me. A friend who knew many Governorsoffered me the following criticism, which I thought just: "They aretoo practical and too much absorbed in administration to be able tothink. Often they read very little after leaving the university. Theyhave seldom anything to tell you about other than ordinary things, andthey seldom show their hearts. You cannot learn much from Governorswho have nothing original to say or are fearful or live in their frockcoats or do not mean to show half their minds or are practising theold official trick of talking round and round and always evading thepoint. One fault of Governors is that they are being continuallytransferred from prefecture to prefecture. You have no doubt yourselfnoticed how often Governors were new to their prefectures. But withall the faults that our Governors have, there are not a few able, goodand kind men among them and they are not recruited from Parliament butmust be members of the Civil Service. One of the most common words inour political life is _genshitsu_, 'responsibility for one's ownwords. ' If Governors fear to assume the responsibility of their ownviews they are only of a part with a great deal of the officialworld. " We turned away from the northern sea coast and struck south in orderto cross Japan to the Inland Sea en route for Kobe and Tokyo. As we came through Hyogo prefecture my companion pointed to hill afterhill which had been afforested since his youth. One of the thingswhich interested me was the number and the tameness of the kites whichwere catching frogs in the paddies. Before I left Hyogo I had the advantage of a chat with one who formany years past had thought about the rural situation in Japangenerally. He spoke of "the late Professor King's idealising of theJapanese farmer's condition. " He went on: "While King laid stress onthe ability to be self-supporting on a small area he ignored theextent to which many rural people are underfed. The change in theMeiji era has been a gradual transference from ownership to tenancy. Many so-called representative farmers have been able to add field tofield until they have secured a substantial property and have ceasedto be farmers. An extension of tenancy is to be deplored, not onlybecause it takes away from the farmer a feeling of independence and ofincentive, but because it creates a parasitic class which in Japan isperhaps even more parasitic than in the West. A landowner in the Westalmost invariably realises that he has certain duties. In Japan alandowner's duties to his neighbourhood and to the State are oftenimperfectly understood. "On the other hand the position of the farmer has been very muchimproved socially. A great deal of pity bestowed by the casual foreignvisitor is wasted. The farmer is accustomed to extremes of heat andcold and to a bare living and poor shelter. And after all there is agreat deal of happiness in the villages. It is hardly possible to takea day's _kuruma_ ride without coming on a festival somewhere, anddrunkenness has undoubtedly diminished. " I spoke with an old resident about the agricultural advance in theprefecture. "In fifteen years, " he said, "our agricultural productionhas doubled. As to the non-material condition of the people, generallyspeaking the villagers are very shallow in their religion. Not so longago officials used to laugh at religion, but I don't know that some ofthem are not now changing their point of view. Some of us have thoughtthat, just as we made a Japanese Buddhism, we might make a JapaneseChristianity which would not conflict with our ideas. " FOOTNOTES: [192] This is, I am officially informed, the highest rank everbestowed on a foreigner; but then Hearn was naturalised. In 1921 anappreciation of "Koizumi Yakumo" was included by the Department ofEducation in a middle-school textbook. Curiously enough, the fact thatHearn married a Japanese is overlooked. Owing to the fact that Hearnbought land in Tokyo which has appreciated in value his family is incomfortable circumstances. [193] Coastwise traffic is also forbidden to foreign vessels, as istraffic between France and Algeria to other than French vessels. [194] See Appendix LIII. TWO MONTHS IN TEMPLE CHAPTER XXX THE LIFE OF THE PEASANTS AND THEIR PRIESTS (NAGANO) The condition of the lower orders is the true mark. --JOHNSON The Buddhist temple in which I lived for about two months stands onhigh ground in a village lying about 2, 500 ft. Above sea-level in theprefecture of Nagano and does not seem to have been visited byforeigners. It is reached by a road which is little better than atrack. No _kuruma_ are to be found in the district, but there are afew light two-wheeled lorries. Practically all the traffic is onhorseback or on foot. There is a view of the Japanese Alps and ofFuji. Running through the village[195] is a river. Most of the summer it maybe crossed by stepping stones, but the width of the rocky bed givessome notion of the volume of water which pours down after rains and onthe melting of the snow. Two or three miles up from the village aconsiderable amount of water is drawn off into two channels which havebeen dug, one on either side of the river, at a gentler slope thanthat at which the stream flows. The rapid fall of the river isindicated by the fact that these channels reach the village more than100 ft. Above the level at which the river itself enters it. Thechannels, cut as they have been through sharply sloping banks packedwith boulders and big stones, and strengthened throughout by banking, in order to cope as far as possible with the torrents which rage downthe hillside in winter, represent a vast amount of communal labour. Bythe side of each channel the excavated earth and stones have been usedto make a path for pack horses. The water which comes down thesechannels serves not only for the ordinary uses of the village but forirrigating the rice fields and for driving the many water wheels, theplashing and groaning of which are heard night and day. [Illustration: THE BUDDHIST TEMPLE (WITH SHINTO SHRINE ON THE LEFT)IN WHICH THIS CHAPTER WAS WRITTEN] The whole area of the _oaza_ is officially recorded as 800 _chō_, butthe real area may be double, or even more than that. About 40 percent. Is cultivated either as paddy or as dry land. The remaining 60per cent. , from which 18 _chō_ may be deducted for house land, isunder grass and wood. Half of this grass and woodland belongs to the_oaza_ and half to private persons. The grass is mostly couch grassand weeds. In places there is a certain amount of clover and vetch. Ofthe 200 families, numbering about 1, 700 people, less than a dozen aretenants. Of the others, a third cultivate their own land and hiresome more. The remaining two-thirds cultivate their own land and hirenone. The outstanding crop beyond rice is mulberry. A considerableamount of millet and buckwheat is also grown. The village is obviously well off. The signs are: successfulsericulture, the large quantity of rice eaten, the number ofwell-looking horses (the millet seems to be grown largely for them, but they also receive beans and wheat boiled), the fact that noattempt is made to collect the considerable amount of horse manure onthe roads, the cared-for appearance of the temple and shrines, thealmost complete absence of tea-houses, the ease with which new landmay be obtained and the contented look of the people. One does not expect to find in a remote and wholly Buddhist villagemany other animals than horses, and in this community the additionallive stock consists of ten goats (kept for giving milk for invalids), two pigs and a number of poultry. A working horse over four years wasworth 150 yen. The value of land[196] is to be considered in relationto local standards of value. It is doubtful if the priest, who seemedto be comfortably off, is in receipt of more than 250 yen a year. Themidwife, who belongs to the oldest family and has been trained inTokyo, gets from 2 to 2-1/2 yen per case. As new land is alwaysavailable on the hillsides there is very little emigration to thetowns, but twenty girls are working in the factories in the bigsilk-reeling centre twelve miles off. The hillside land which is ownedby the village is not sold but rented to those who want it. To makenew paddies is primarily a question of having enough capital withwhich to buy the artificial manure required for the crops. I was given to understand that no one in the village was poor enoughto need public help, but that the school fees of twelve children werepaid by the community. This is a system peculiar to Nagano, which is aprogressive prefecture vying with other prefectures to increase thepercentage of school attendance. One of the signs of the well-offcharacter of the village which appears when one is able to investigatea little is that the place is a favourite haunt of beggars, who, I amtold--every calling is organised--have made it over to the lessfortunate members of their fraternity. The village has enough money tospend to make it worth while for tradesmen from a distance to opentemporary shops every _Bon_ season and at the New Year festival. A manin an average position may lay out 200 yen on his daughter's wedding. A farmer who knew his fellow-villagers' position pretty closely saidhe thought that the position of tenant farmers was "rather well. " Inthe whole village there might be seventy or eighty householders whohad some debt, but it was justifiable. In an ordinary year about 150farmers would have something to lay by after their twelve months'work. Perhaps fifty farmers, if the price of rice or of cocoons werelow, might be unable to save; but ordinarily they would have somethingin their pockets. About half the farmers are engaged in sericulture--Inoticed cocoons offered at the shrine. The other half sell theirmulberry leaf crop to their neighbours. The village, which is perhaps400 years old, is increasing in population by about forty every year. The family which is said to have founded the village is still largelyrepresented in it. [Illustration: FIRE ENGINE AND PRIMITIVE FIGURES] The village has as many as six fire engines, which can be moved abouteither on wheels or on runners according to the weather, and as manylook-out ladders and fire-alarm bells. The young men's association hasno fewer than half a dozen buildings, the property of the village. Five of them are little more than sheds and seem to be used on wetdays as nurseries and playrooms for children. The sixth is thevillage theatre, playing at which appears to have been abandoned forsome years. Travelling players give their shows where they will. Thetheatre stands in a space encircled by large trees opposite the chiefshrine of the village. There is also here a smaller shrine (fox god)and some tombstones. [Illustration: YOUNG MEN'S CLUB ROOM] Before the chief shrine are two large leaden lanterns. At the base ofthese a considerable strip of metal has been torn away. This unusualdestruction by village lads caused me to make enquiry. I found thatthe boys had merely enlarged a hole made by adults. The destructionhad been wrought in order to remove the inscription on the lanterns. It was said that the local donor had meanly omitted to make thecustomary gift to the shrine to cover the small expense of lightingthe lanterns on the occasion of festivals. It was the feeling of thevillagers, therefore, that he should not be allowed to blazon his namein connection with a shabby gift. [Illustration: MEMORIAL STONES] There is a ceremony about half a dozen times a year at the chiefshrine, which is about a century old. The Shinto priest, who seemed tobe a genuine antiquary, was of opinion that the structure inside theshrine might have been built two hundred years ago. In addition tothis chief shrine and the small shrine near it, there are two othershrines in the village, one in the temple yard (god of happiness) andthe other (horse god) in an open space of its own. [Illustration: ROOF PROTECTED AGAINST STORMS BY STONES] But perhaps the most remarkable thing about the non-material life ofthis village is the fact that it contains no fewer than 400 carvedstones of a more or less religious character. A few are Buddhist; someare memorials to priests or teachers; several bear that representationof a man and a woman facing one another (p. 265) which is one of theoldest mystic emblems; the majority are devoted apparently to thehorse god. Every man who loses a horse erects a stone. There are twopersons in the village who can carve these stones at a cost of about 2yen. Some stones which are painted red are dedicated to the fire god. The 400 stones of which I am speaking do not include grave stones. These are seen everywhere, many of them just by the wayside. Nearlyevery family buries in its own ground. Some burial places with stonesof many forms dating back for a long period of years are extremelyimpressive. At the _Bon_ season the grass on every burying ground iscarefully cut. All the shop-keepers seem to own their own houses and all but threehave some land. There are three _saké_ shops, two of which sell otherthings than _saké_, two general shops, two cake and sweet shops, twotobacco shops, a lantern shop and a barber. There are eightcarpenters, four stonecutters, five plasterers and wall builders, fivewoodcutters, two roof makers, two horse shoers, and in the winter ablacksmith. (The cost of putting on four shoes is 60 sen. ) All theseartisans own their own houses and all have land. As to the health of the village there are two doctors who come everyother day. One was qualified at Chiba and the other at Sendai. Theymake no charge for advice and the price of medicine is only 10 senunless the materials are expensive. I suppose they may receivepresents. They also probably have a piece of land. There is noveterinary surgeon, but one is to be found in the village whichcomposes the other half of the commune. A physician who had been born in the village and was staying for a fewdays with the Buddhist priest who was my host, thought that 90 percent. Of the villagers ate no meat whatever and that only 50 or 60 percent. Ate fish, and then only ceremonially, that is at particulartimes in the year when it is the custom in Japan to eat fish. Thevillagers who did eat meat or fish did not take it oftener than twiceor thrice a month. The canned meat and canned fish in theshops--Japanese brands--were used almost entirely for guests. Thedoctor expressed the opinion of most Japanese that "people who do noteat meat are better tempered and can endure more. " I have heardJapanese say that "foreigners are short-tempered because they eat somuch meat. " We spoke of the considerable consumption of pickles, highly salted orfermented. For example, in the ordinary 25-sen _bento_ (lunch) boxthere are three or four different kinds of pickles. The doctor saidthat pickles were not only a means of taking salt and so appetisers tohelp the rice down, but digestives; fermented pickles supplieddiastase which enabled the stomach to deal promptly with the largequantities of rice swallowed. I asked for the doctor's opinion as to the prevalence of tumours, displacements and cancer among women who labour in the fields and haveto bring up children and do all the housework of a peasant's dwelling. The doctor replied that he was disposed to think that cases of theailments I spoke of were not numerous. Cancer was certainly rare. Heknew that in Japan rickets, goitre and gout were all less common thanin the West. He expressed the opinion that childbirth was easier thanin the West. It was a delight to see the fine carriage of the womenand girls astride on the high saddles of the horses. [197] Both sexesin the district wear over their kimonos blue cotton trousers, something like a plumber's overall only tighter in the legs. The womenare certainly strong. One day I saw a woman carrying uphill on herback two wooden doors about 6 ft. By 5 ft. 6 ins. An old woman I meton the road volunteered her view that women were "stronger" than men. She was very much concerned to know how foreigners could live withouteating rice. She said--and this is characteristically Japanese--thatshe envied me being able to travel all over the world. [Illustration: OFF TO THE UPLAND FIELDS] The Buddhist temple is built wholly of wood and the roof is thatched. Whenever there was an earthquake the timbers seemed to crackle ratherthan creak. The temple is relatively new and seems to have been builtwith materials given by the villagers and by means of a gift of 1, 000yen. The workmanship was local and a good deal of it was faulty. Thismay have been due to lack of experience, but it is more likely thatthe cause was limited funds. The plan and proportions of the buildingare excellent and the carving is first-rate. The right of"presentation to the living" is in the hands of the village. Thepriest and his family live in a large house on one side of the temple. On the other side is a small Shinto shrine to which the priest seemsto give such attention as is necessary. The temple is Shingon. Thereis a sermon once a year only, or "when some famous man comes. " Theactual temple in which the priest, who showed me a fine collection ofrobes, conducts his services is between forty and fifty mats in area. Behind it is the room in which the _ihai_ or tablets of the dead arearranged. This part of the building is covered on the outside withplaster in the manner of a _kura_ (godown) so as to be fire-proof. Oneither side of the actual temple are rooms very much as in a spaciousprivate house. There are two of eighteen and fifteen mats, two oftwelve and ten mats and two small ones. There is also a wide covered_engawa_ (verandah) in front and at the sides. A small kitchen andwhat the auctioneers call the usual offices complete the building. Right round the temple there is a nice garden which keeps the priest'sman, a picturesque, sweet-tempered, guileless old fellow, occupiedmuch of his time. The priest conducted a service twice a day, at 5:30in the morning and at 7:30 in the evening. When he fell ill and had tobe carried in a litter to the nearest town for an operation, we missedhis beautiful chanting and expert sounding of the deep-toned gong ofthe sanctuary. The great bell in the court-yard was struck by thepriest's boy at sundown. The priest kept the old rule against meat. Heand his wife would not eat even cake or biscuits because they fearedthat there might be milk and butter in them. The couple were very kindto us and we enjoyed a delightfully quiet life in the lofty sunnytemple rooms. I should judge that _Otera San_ (Mr. Temple) wasrespected in the village. His wife was a bustling woman of suchsweetness and simplicity of nature as can only be found in a farvalley. I have mentioned that the total incomings of the priest are probablyabout 250 yen. He receives no salary but has his house free. He must"discuss about anything wanted in the temple. " I do not suppose he hadto ask anybody whether he might lodge us or not. He receivesconsiderable gifts of rice, perhaps to the value of 120 yen, at anyrate enough for the whole year. He has also the rent of the "glebe, "which consists of 12 _tan_ of paddy, 2 _tan_ of dry field and 10 _tan_of woodland. Then there are the gifts which are made to him atfunerals and for the services he conducts at the villagers' houses onthe days of the dead. One day during the _Bon_ season every householdsent a little girl or boy with a present to the priest. In returnthese small visitors were given sweets. During the _Bon_ season somevery old men of the village came and worshipped at the Shinto shrineand were entertained with _saké_ by the priest on the _engawa_ of histemple. The amount in the collecting box in front of the little Shintoshrine in the temple yard, largely in _rin_, would not be more than 10or 15 sen in the year. Most of the contributions are in the form ofpinches of rice. The priest may give 10 yen a year to his man whoworks about the temple and his house and accompanies him to funeralsand to the memorial services at the villagers' dwellings; but thisservitor, like his master, no doubt receives presents. The Shinto priest is probably not so well off as the Buddhist priest. The village makes a small payment to him twice a year. At New Year 3yen in all may be flung in the collecting box at the shrine, but thepriest has presents made to him when he goes to see ailing folk andwhen he officiates at the building of a new house. Most people whenthey are ill seem to send for the Shinto priest. But he explained tome that he does not expect a sick man to "worship only. " He isaccustomed to say to the people, "Doctor first, god second, " fromwhich I was to conclude, one who heard told me, that the priest was"rather a civilised man. " The Shinto priest had succeeded a relativein his position. The village had found its Buddhist priest in aneighbouring district. The Buddhist priest told me that every year 150 or 160 men and womenmade a pilgrimage to a famous shrine some few miles off. The customwas for every house to be represented in the pilgrimage. Half a dozenpeople in the year might go on personal pilgrimages and fifty or somight visit a little shrine on a neighbouring mountain. FOOTNOTES: [195] The village consists of about 270 houses. It is joinedadministratively to another village, about two miles off, in order toform a _mura_ (commune). The village I am about to describe is an_oaza_ (large hamlet), which is made up in its turn of two _aza_(small hamlets). These aza are themselves divided into six _kumi_(companies), which are again sub-divided, in the case of the largest, into four. [196] See Appendix LIV. [197] The horses wear basket-work muzzles to prevent them nibbling thecrops. By way of compensation for these encumbrances they have headtassels and belly cloths to keep off the flies. CHAPTER XXXI "BON" SEASON SCENES (NAGANO) As moderns we have no direct affinity; as individuals we have a capacityfor personal sympathy. --MATTHEW ARNOLD I had the good fortune to be in the village during the _Bon_ season. The idea is that the spirits which are visiting their old homes remainbetween the 11th and 14th of August. The 11th is called _mukae bon_and the 14th _okuri bon_. (_Mukae_ means going to meet; _okuri_ to seeoff. ) On the 11th the villagers burned a piece of flax plant in frontof their houses. That night the priest said a special prayer in thetemple and used the cymbals in addition to the ordinary gong and drum. The prayer seemed peculiarly sad. Before the shrines in their housesthe villagers placed offerings. One was a horse made out of acucumber, the legs being bits of flax twig and the tail and mane thehair-like substance from maize cobs. There were also offerings of realand artificial flowers and of grapes. In one house I visited I saw_geta_, _waraji_, kimonos, pumpkins, caramels and pencils. Strings ofbuck-wheat macaroni were laid over twigs of flax set in a vase. The_ihai_ (name-plates of the dead) seemed to be displayed moreprominently than usual. (They are kept in a kind of small oratorycalled _ihaido_, and after a time several names are collected on asingle plate. ) _Mochi_ (rice-flour dumpling) is eaten at this time. Onthe 12th and 14th the priest called at each house for two or threeminutes. I asked if the villagers really believed that their dead returned atthe _Bon_ season. The answer was, "Only the old men and young childrenbelieve that the dead actually come, but the young men and youngwomen, when they see the burning of the flax-plant and the otherthings that are done, think of the dead; they remember them solemnlyat this time. " And I think it was so. The stranger to a Japanesehouse, in which there is not only a Shinto shelf but a Buddhistshrine--where the name plates of the dead for several generations aretreasured--cannot but feel that, when all allowances are made for thedulling influences of use and wont, the plan is a means of taking theminds of the household beyond the daily round. The fact that there isa certain familiarity with the things of the shrine and of the Shintoshelf, just as there is a certain freedom at the public shrines and inthe temple, does not destroy the impression. When a man has taken meto his little graveyard I have been struck by the lack of thatlugubriousness which Western people commonly associate with what issacred. The Japanese conception of reverence is somewhat differentfrom our own. As to sorrow, the idea is, as is well known, that it isthe height of bad manners to trouble strangers with a display of whatin many cases is largely a selfish grief. A manservant smiled when hetold me of his only son's death. On my offering sympathy the tears randown his face. [Illustration: FARMER'S WIFE] When the _Bon_ season ended on the fourteenth all the flowers anddecorations of the domestic shrines were taken early in the morning tothe bridge over the diminished river and flung down. The idea isperhaps that they are carried away to the sea. (As a matter of factthere was so little water that almost everything flung in from thebridge remained in sight for weeks until there was a storm. ) When theflowers and decorations had been cast from the bridge the people wentoff to worship at the graves. Many coloured streamers of paper, written on by the priest, were flying there. The _Bon_ dances took place five nights running in the open spacebetween the Shinto shrine and the old barn theatre. Nothing could havebeen duller. The line from _Ruddigore_ came to mind, "This is one ofour blameless dances. " The first night the performers were evidentlyshy and the girls would hardly come forward. Things warmed up a littlemore each night and on the last night of all there was a certainanimation; but even then the movement, the song and the whole schemeof the dance seemed to be lacking in vigour. What happened was that anumber of lads gradually formed themselves into a ring, which gotlarger or smaller as the girls joined it or waited outside. The girlsbunched together all the time. None of the dancers ever took hands. The so-called dancing consisted of a raising of both arms--the girlshad fans in their hands--and a simple attitudinising. The lads allclapped their hands together in time, but in a half-hearted kind ofway; the girls struck the palms of their left hands with their fans. The boys were in clean working dress. Some had towels wound roundtheir heads, some wore caps and others hats. The girls were got up inall their best clothes with fine _obi_ and white aprons. The music wasdirge-like. It was not at all what Western people understand to besinging. The performers emitted notes in a kind of falsetto, and thesefive or six notes were repeated over and over and over again. The onlyword I can think of which approximately describes what I heard, but itseems harsh, is the Northern word, yowling. First the lads yowled andthen the girls responded with a slightly more musical repetition ofthe same sounds. For all the notice the boys appeared to take of thegirls they might not have been present. The lads and lasses were nodoubt fully conscious, however, of each other's presence. The dancingtook place on the nights of the full moon. But it was cloudy, and, owing to the big surrounding trees, the performance was often dimlylit. To me the dancing was depressing, but that is not to say that thedancers found it so. Dancing began at eight o'clock and went on tillmidnight. "They would not be fit for their work next day if theydanced later, " a sober-minded adult explained. This was only onesuggestion among many that the dance has been devitalised under therespectabilising influence of the policeman and village elders who hadforgotten their youth. To the onlooker it did not seem to matter verymuch whether the dance, as it is now, continues or not. Occasionallyone had an impression that it had once been a folk dance of vigour andsignificance. But the present-day performance might have beenconceived and presented by a P. S. A. All this is true when the dance iscontrasted with an English West-country dance or a dance in Scotlandat Hallowe'en. But it must be remembered that the _Bon_ dance duringthe first nights is in the nature of a lament for the dead. There issomething haunting in the strange little refrain, though it isdifficult to hum or whistle it. Perhaps the whole festival is toointimately racial to be fully understood by a stranger. By the end ofthe festival, on the night of merrymaking in honour of the villageguardian spirit, things were livelier. Some of the lads had evidentlyhad _saké_ and even the girls had lost their demureness. [Illustration: MOTHER AND CHILD] After the Buddhist _Bon_ season was over it was the turn of Shinto, and the village children were paraded before the shrine. A number ofShinto priests in the neighbourhood took a leading part in making thecustomary offerings and the local priest read a longish address to theguardian spirit of the village. Respectful correctness rather thandevoutness is the phrase which one would ordinarily be disposed toapply to the ceremonies at a Shinto shrine, but the local priest wasreverential. The ceremonies of the day evidently meant a great deal tohim. The children paid a well-drilled attention. They also sang thenational anthem and a special song for the day under the leadership ofthe school teacher, who played on a portable harmonium which soundedas portable harmoniums usually sound. The whole proceedings wore asemi-official look. Happily there was nothing semi-official about the wrestling to whichwe were invited later in the day. A special little platform had beenput up for us. The ring was made on rice chaff and earth. Thewrestlers squatted in two parties at opposite sides of the ring. Theydid not wear the straw girdles of the professionals. Each man had awisp of cotton cloth tied round his waist and between his legs. One ofthe best things about the wrestling was the formal introduction of thecompetitors. A weazened little man with a tucked-up cotton kimono andbare legs, but with the address and dignity of a "Nō" player, proclaimed the names and styles--it seems that the wrestlers have afancy to be known by the names of mountains and rivers--in a fashionwhich recalled the tournament. There was also another personage, witha Dan Leno-like face and an extraordinary gift of contorting his legs, who played the buffoon, and gyrated round the dignified M. C. , whoremained unmoved while the audience laughed. It was evidently theright thing for the prizes--they were awarded at the end of eachbout--to be presented as comically as possible; and some of theShakespearean humours which appealed so powerfully to the groundlingsat the Globe were enacted as if neither space nor time intervenedbetween us and the Elizabethans. The bouts were not so fast as professional wrestlers are accustomedto, but they were none the less exciting. The result was invariably insome doubt and often entirely unexpected. The usual rule was that hewho threw his man twice was the winner. In some events, immediately awrestler had been thrown, a succession of other contestants rushed atthe victor, one after the other, without allowing him time even tostraighten his back. Some of the competitors were poorly developed butthe lankiest and skinniest were often excellent wrestlers. At aninterval in the wrestling the committee flung hard peaches towrestlers and spectators. I wanted to make some little acknowledgmentof the kindness of the young men's association in providing us withour little platform, and it was suggested that autographed fans atabout a penny three-farthings apiece for about forty wrestlers wouldbe acceptable. This gift was announced on a long streamer. The funnyman of the ring also made a speech of welcome. I may add that theyoung men's association had fitted up on the way to the scene of thewrestling a number of special lanterns which bore efforts in Englishby a student home for the holidays. I was told that the people of the village were "honest, independentand earnest, " and I am disposed to think that this may be true of mostof them. As to honesty, we had the satisfaction of living without anythought of _dorobo_ (robbers). It is a great comfort to be able atnight to leave open most of the _shoji_ and not to have to pull outthe _amado_ (wooden shutters) from their case. The nature of ourpossessions was well known not only in the village but throughout thedistrict, for there was seldom a day on which a knot of grown-ups orchildren did not come to peer into our rooms. The inspection wasaccompanied by many polite bows and friendly smiles. On a festival daythe crowd occasionally reached about fifty. There were formerly several teahouses in the village, but under theinfluence of the young men's association all houses of entertainmentbut two had been closed. These two had become "inns. " In one of thesethe girl attendant was the proprietor's daughter; in the other therewas a solitary waitress. One of the abolished teahouses had takenitself two miles away, where possibly it still had visitors. Thereseemed to be two public baths in the village, both belonging toprivate persons. The charge was 1 sen for adults and 5 _rin_ forchildren. At one of the baths I noticed separate doors for men andwomen; in the bath itself the division between the sexes was about twofeet high. The smallest subdivision of the village is called _kumi_ or company. Each of these has a kind of manager who is elected on a limitedsuffrage. The managers of the _kumi_, it was explained, are "likediplomatists if something is wanted against another village. " The_kumi_ also seems to have some corporate life. There is once a month asemi-social, semi-religious meeting at each member's house in turn. The persons who attend lay before the house shrine 3 or 5 sen each ora small quantity of rice for the feast. The master of the houseprovides the sauce or pickles. I heard also of a kind of _kō_ called_mujin_, a word which has also the meaning of "inexhaustible. " By suchagencies as these money is collected for people who are poor or formen who want help in their business or who need to go on a journey. We have seen that the village is by every token well off. What are itstroubles? Undoubtedly the people work hard. I imagine, however, thatthere are very many districts where the people work much harder. Theforeigner is too apt to confuse working hard with workingcontinuously. Whether outdoors or indoors, whether at a handicraft orat business, an Oriental gives the impression of having no notion ofgetting his work done and being finished with it. The working daylasts all day and part of the night. Whether much more is done in thetime than in the shorter Western day may be doubted. During the briefsilk-worm season many of the women of the village in which I stayedare afoot for a long day and for part of the night, but the winterbrings relief from the strain of all sorts of work. Owing to the snowit is practically impossible to do any work out of doors in January, February and March. The snow may stop work even in December. Here, then, is a natural holiday. Whether with their men indoors the womenhave much of a holiday is uncertain. But indoors should not be takentoo exactly. There is some hunting in the winter. Deer come within twomiles and hares are easily got. Well-off though the village is, there is a strong desire to increaseincomes. The people are working harder than they have done in the pastbecause the cost of living has risen. An attempt is to be made toincrease secondary employments. Corporately, the village is said topossess 10, 000 yen in cash in addition to its land. It is said thatthis money is lent out to some of the more influential people. Whatthe security is and how safe the monetary resources of a villageloaned out in this way may be I do not know, but there is obviouslysome risk and I gathered that some anxiety existed. The people of the village, like a large proportion of the populationof the prefecture, are distinctly progressive. Nagano is full of whatsomeone called "a new rural type" of men who read and delight in goingto lectures. Lectures are a great institution in Nagano. For theselectures country people tramp into a county town in their _waraji_carrying their _bento_. To these rustics a lecture is a lecture. Afriend of mine who is given to lecturing spoke on one occasion forseven hours. It is true that he divided the lecture between two daysand allowed himself a half hour's rest in the middle of each three anda half hours' section. He started with an audience of 500. On thefirst day at the end of the second part of the lecture it was noticedthat the audience had decreased by about 70. On the second day about100 people in all wearied in well-doing. But it was the townsfolk, notthe country people, who left. [Illustration: A CRADLE] I found upon enquiry that in the village in which I had been livingthere had been one arrest only during the previous year. The chargewas one of theft. Half a dozen other people had got into trouble buttheir arrests had been "postponed. " Two of these six delinquents had"caused fire accidentally, " two had been guilty of petty theft, andthe remaining two had sold things of small value which did not belongto them. During the twelve months there had been no charges ofimmorality and no gambling. Perhaps, however, there may have beenpolice admonitions. It seemed to have been a long time since there hadbeen a case of what we should call illegitimacy or of a child beingborn in the first months of a young couple's marriage. Someonementioned, however, that the girls who went to the silk factorieswere, as a consequence of their life there, "debased morally andphysically. " A notable thing in the village was four fires, two the month before wearrived and two while we were there. They were suspected to have beenthe work of a person of weak intellect. (As in our own villages half acentury ago, there is in every community at least one "natural. ") Onthe night of the first fire we were awakened about 3 a. M. By shouting, by the clanging of the fire bell and by the booming of the great bellin the temple yard. The fire was about four houses away. It was astill night and the flames and sparks went straight up. As thepossibility of the wind shifting and the fire spreading could not beentirely excluded we quickly got our more important possessions on the_engawa_--at least a young maidservant did so. The continualexperience which the Japanese have of fires makes them self-possessedon these occasions, and this girl had _futon_, bags, etc. , neatly tiedin big _furoshiki_ (wrapping cloths) in the shortest possible time. Itwas only when she was satisfied that our belongings were in readinessfor easy removal that she went to look after her own. Thematter-of-fact, fore-sighted, neat way in which she got to work wasadmirable. With great kindness one of the elders of the village camehurriedly to the temple, evidently thinking we should feel alarmed, and cried out, "_Yoroshii, Yoroshii_" ("All right"). [Illustration: FIRE ALARM AND OBSERVATION POST] As I stood before the blaze what struck me most was the orderlinessand quiet of the crowd and the way in which whatever help was neededwas at once forthcoming without fuss. The fire brigades were workingin an orderly way and everything was so well managed that the sceneseemed almost as if it were being rehearsed for a cinema. Onedifference between what I saw and what would be seen at home at a firewas that the scene was well lighted from the front, for the members ofthe fire brigades carried huge lanterns on high poles. From the massof old wet reed in the roadway I judged that the first act of thefiremen had been to use their long hooks to denude the roof of theburning house of its thatch, which in the lightest wind is sodangerous to surrounding dwellings. Nobody in the village is insured, but the neighbours seem to meet about a third of the loss caused by afire. It is an illustration of local values that a larger subscriptionthan 2 yen would not be accepted from me. In connection with this firesomeone mentioned to me that incendiarism is specially prevalent insome prefectures, while in others the use of the knife is the usualmeans of wiping out scores. The phrase used by a person who threatensarson is, "I will make the red worm creep into your roof. " During the winter there is too much drinking--"generally by poormen"--but there is said to be less of this than formerly. Some peoplestop their newspaper in the summer and resume taking it during thegreater leisure of the winter. It has been noted, among other smallmatters, that the local vocabulary has expanded during the pastfifteen years. During our stay the young midwife, who was going toAmerica to join her husband, was eager to give her service in thekitchen for the chance of improving her English. We also gave help inthe evenings thrice a week to one of the school teachers who hadmanaged to obtain a fair reading knowledge of English. The earnestnesswith which these two people studied was touching. While I was in thevillage the young men's association began the issue of a magazine. Lithographic ink was brought to me so that I might contribute inautograph as well as in translation. The association, which receives10 yen a year from the village, cultivates several plots of paddy anddry land. The bigger schoolboys drilled with imitation rifles, imitation bayonets and imitation cartridges. I felt that I should knowmore about the villagers if I could learn, like Synge, their topics ofconversation when no stranger was present. One day while strollingwith a friend I asked him what was being said by two girls who wereworking among the mulberries and were hidden from us by a hedge(hedges only occur round mulberry plots). He told me that one wasenhancing to her companion the tremendous dignity of the Crown Princeby exaggerating grotesquely the size of the house he lived in, whichreminded me of the servant who told her friend that "Queen Victoriawas so rich that she had a piano in her kitchen. " Generally theconversational topics of the villagers seemed to be people and prices. Undoubtedly, I was told, the subjects which were most popular, "because they provoked hilarity, " were family discords and sexualquestions. One man with whom I spoke about the morality of the villagesaid cautiously, "They say there are some moneylenders here. " IN AND OUT OF THE TEA PREFECTURE CHAPTER XXXII PROGRESS OF SORTS (SHIDZUOKA AND KANAGAWA) I am not of those who look for perfection amongst the ruralpopulation. --BORROW The torrents that foam down the slopes of Fuji are a cheap source ofelectricity, and, though the guide book may not stress the fact, it ispossible that the first glimpse of the unutterable splendours of thesacred mountain may be gained in the neighbourhood of a cotton, paperor silk factory. The farmers welcomed the factories when they foundthat factory contributions to local rates eased the burden of theagricultural population. The farmers also realised that to thefactories were due electric light, the telephone, better roads andmore railway stations. The farmers are undoubtedly better off. Theyare so well off indeed that the district can afford an agriculturalexpert of its own, children may be seen wearing shoes instead of_geta_, and the agriculturists themselves occasionally sport coats cutafter a supposedly Western fashion. But the people, it was insisted, have become a little "sly, " and girls return from the factories lessdesirable members of the community. Mention of these matters led an agricultural authority whom I metduring my trip in Shidzuoka to deliver himself on the general questionof the condition of the farmer in Japan. He expressed the opinion that10 per cent. Of the farmers were in a "wretched condition. " Bigholdings--if any holdings in Japan can be called big--were gettingbigger; it was an urgent question how to secure the position of theowners of the small and the medium-sized classes of holding. The factthat many rural families were in debt, not for seed or manure but forfood spoke for itself. The amounts might seem trivial in Western eyes, but when the average income was only 350 yen a year a debt of 80 yenwas a serious matter; and 80 yen was the average debt of farmingfamilies in the prefecture of Shidzuoka. No one could say that thefarmers were lazy: they were working hard according to their lights. They were working too hard, perhaps, on the limited food they got. There could be no doubt that the physical condition of the countrymanwas being lowered. Again, there was the fact of the rural exodus--the phrase soundedstrangely in the middle of a Japanese sentence. As to the causes, thefirst unquestionably was that the farmer had not enough land on whichto make a living. If the farmer could have 5 acres or thereabouts hewould be well off. But the average area per farmer in the prefecturein which we were travelling was a little less than 2-1/2 acres. Hightaxes were another cause of the farmer's present condition. Then ayear's living would be mortgaged for the expenses of a marriageceremony. At a funeral, too, the neighbours came to eat and drink. They took charge of the kitchen and even ordered in food. (After aJapanese feast the guests are given at their departure the food thatis left over. ) Further, some farmers wasted their substance on theambitions of local politics. Again, conscripts who had gone off to thearmy hatless and wearing straw shoes came home hatted and sometimesbooted. Military service deprived farmers of labour, and their boyswhile away asked their parents for money. Conscription pressed moreheavily on the poor because the sons of well-to-do people continuedtheir education to the middle school, and attendance at a middleschool entitled a young man to reduction of military service to oneyear only. [198] The countryside was suffering from the way in which importance wasincreasingly attached to industry and commerce. Many M. P. S were of theagricultural class, but they were chiefly landlords, and they wereoften shareholders and directors of industrial companies. There wasvery little real Parliamentary representation of the farming class andit had not yet found literary expression. There were signs, however, that some landlords were realising that industry and agriculture werenot of equal importance. But the farmers were slow to move. Thetraditions of the Tokugawa epoch survived, making action difficult. Finally, there was the drawback to rural development which exists inthe family system. But that, as Mr. Pickwick said, comprises by itselfa difficult study of no inconsiderable magnitude, and we must returnto it on another occasion. In one of my excursions I went over a large agricultural school, theboast of which was that of all the youths who had passed through it, twenty only had deserted the land. I met the present scholars marchingwith military tread, mattocks on shoulders, to the school paddies. I noticed schoolgirls wearing a wooden tablet. It was a good-conductbadge. If a girl was not wearing it on reaching home her parents knewthat her teacher had retained it because of some fault; if she was notwearing it at school her teacher knew that her parents had kept itback for a similar reason. The girls when they come to school haveoften baby brothers or sisters tied on their backs. Otherwise thegirls would have to stay at home in order to look after them. I askeda schoolmaster what happened when children were kept at home. He saidthat when a child had been absent a week he called twice on theparents in order to remonstrate. If there was no result he reportedthe matter to the village authorities, who administered two warnings. Failing the return of the truant a report was made by the villageauthorities to the county authorities. They summoned the father toappear before them. This meant loss of time and the cost of thejourney. Should the parent choose to continue defiant he was fined 5to 10 yen for disobedience to authority and up to 30 yen for notsending his child to school. I found that a local philanthropic association had provided thespeaker's school with a supply of large oil-paper-covered umbrellas sothat children who had come unprovided could go home on a rainy daywithout a parent, elder brother or sister having to leave work tobring an umbrella to school. In the playground of this school there was a low platform before whichthe children assembled every morning. The headmaster, standing on theplatform, gravely saluted the children and the children as gravelyresponded. The scholars also bowed in the direction of Tokyo, in thecentre of which is the Emperor's palace. An inscription hanging in theschool was, "Exert yourself to kill harmful insects. " In anotherschool there was a portrait of a former teacher who had covered thewalls of the school with water-colours of local scenery. I noticed inthe playground of a third school a flower-covered cairn and aninscribed slab to the memory of a deceased master. Every schoolpossesses equipment taken from the enemy during the Russo-Japanesewar, usually a shell, a rifle and bayonet and an entrenching spade. In this prefecture I heard of young men's associations' efforts todiscourage "cheek binding, " which is the wearing of the head towel insuch a way as to disguise the face and so enable the cheek binder todo, if he be so minded, things he might not do if he wererecognisable. One day I made my headquarters in a town that had just been rebuiltafter a fire. Within four hours the blaze aided by a strong wind hadconsumed 1, 700 houses and caused the deaths of nine persons. Thedestruction of so many dwellings is wrought by bits of paper orthatch, or the light pieces of wood from the _shoji_, which arecarried aflame by the wind, setting fire to several housessimultaneously. Beside street gutters I came across little stone _jizō_, thecheerful-looking guardian deities of the children playing near; butthey looked as incongruous in the position they occupied as did asmall shrine which was standing in the shadow of a gasometer. I heard of contracts under which girls served as nurse girls inprivate families. A poor farmer may enter into a contract when hisgirl is five for her to go into service at eight. He receives cash inanticipation of the fulfilment of the contract. I was assured by a man competent to speak on the matter that acertain small town was notorious for receiving boys who had beenstolen as small children from their homes in the hills. Up to 30 yenmight be given for a boy. There might be a dozen of such unfortunatesin the place. Happily many of the children obtained by this "slavesystem, " as my informant called it, ran away as soon as they were oldenough to realise how they had been treated. I visited a well-known rural reformer in the village which he and hisfather had improved under the precepts of Ninomiya. The hillside hadbeen covered with tea, orange trees and mulberry; the community hadnot only got out of debt but had come to own land beyond itsboundaries; gambling, drunkenness and immorality, it was averred, had"disappeared"; there were larger and better crops; and "the habit ofenjoying nature" had increased. The amusements of the village werewrestling, fencing, _jūjitstu_, and the festivals. I heard here a story of how a bridge which was often injured by storeswas as often mysteriously repaired. On a watch being kept it was foundthat the good work was done by a villager who had been scrupulous tokeep secret his labours for the public welfare. Another tale was of apoor man who bought an elaborate shrine and brought it to his humbledwelling. On his neighbours suggesting that a finer house were afitter resting-place for such a shrine, the man replied: "I do notthink so. My shrine is the place of my parents and ancestors, and maybe fine. But the place in which the shrine stands is my place; it neednot be fine. " In travelling the roads notices are often seen on official-lookingboards with pent roofs. But all of these notices are not official; oneI copied was the advertisement of a shrine which declared itself to beunrivalled for toothache. The horses on the roads are sometimesprotected from the sun by a kind of oblong sail, which works on aswivel attached to the harness. Black velvety butterflies as big aswrens flit about. (There are twice as many butterflies and moths inJapan as at home. ) Snakes, ordinarily of harmless varieties, arefrequently seen, dead or alive. Many of the people one passes are smoking, usually the little brasspipe used both by men and women, which, like some of the earliestEnglish pipes, does not hold more tobacco than will provide a fewdraws. The pipe is usually charged twice or thrice in succession. Onenotices an immense amount of cigarette smoking, which cannot bewithout ill effect. There is a law forbidding smoking below the age oftwenty. It is not always enforced, but when enforced there is aconfiscation of smoking materials and a fining of the parents. Thevoices of many middle-aged women and some young ones are raucous owingto excessive smoking of pipes or cigarettes. I looked into a school and saw the wall inscription, "Penmanship islike pulling a cart uphill. There must be no haste and no stopping. "Here, as in so many places, I saw the well-worn cover and much-thumbedpages of _Self Help_. I may add a fact which would be in its place ina new edition of Smiles's _Character_. As a simple opening toconversation I often asked if a man had been in Europe or America. Hisanswer, if he had not travelled, was never "No. " It was always "Notyet. " In these country schools most of the songs are set to Western tunes. Such airs as "Ye Banks and Braes, " "Auld Lang Syne, " "Annie Laurie, ""Home, Sweet Home" and "The Last Rose of Summer" are utilised for thesongs not only of school children but of university students. Few ofthe singers have any notion that the music was not written in theirown land. A Japanese friend told me that all the airs I mentioned"seem tender and touching to us, " and I remember a Japaneseagricultural expert saying, "Reading those poems of Burns, I believefirmly that our hearts can vibrate with yours. " As I have denied myself the pleasure of dwelling on Japanese scenicbeauties, I may not pause to bear witness to the faery delights ofcherry blossom which I enjoyed everywhere during this journey. But Imay record two cherry-blossom poems I gathered by the way. The firstis, "Why do you wear such a long sword, you who have come only to seethe cherry blossoms?" The second is, "Why fasten your horse to thecherry tree which is in full bloom, when the petals would fall off ifthe horse reared?" A Japanese once told me that a foreigner hadgreatly surprised him by asking if the cherry trees bore much fruit. Orange as well as tea culture is a feature of the agricultural life ofthe prefecture. As in California and South Africa, ladybirds have beenreared in large numbers in order to destroy scale. I saw at theexperiment station miserable orange trees encaged for producing scalefor the breeding ladybirds. The insects are distributed from thestation chiefly as larvae. They are sent through the post about ahundred at a time in boxes. The ladybird, which has, I believe, eightgenerations a year, and as an adult lives some twenty days, lays from200 to 250 eggs, 150 of the larvae from which may survive. Alas forthe released ladybirds of Shidzuoka! Scale is said to be disappearingso quickly that they are having but a hard life of it. In the neighbouring prefecture of Kanagawa I paid a visit to agentleman who, with his brother, had devoted himself extensively tofruit and flower growing. Their produce was sent the twenty-six hours'journey by road to Tokyo, where four shops were maintained. Aconsiderable quantity of foreign pears had been produced on thepalmette verrier system. The branches of the extensively grown nativepear are everywhere tied to an overhead framework which completelycovers in the land on which the trees stand. This method was adoptedin order to cope with high winds and at the same time to arrestgrowth, for in the damp soil in which Japanese pears are rooted, thebranches would be too sappy. Foreign pears are not more generallycultivated because they come to the market in competition withoranges, and the Japanese have not yet learnt to buy ripe pears. Thenative pear looks rather like an enormous russet apple but it is ashard as a turnip, and, though it is refreshing because of itswateriness, has little flavour. Progress is being made with peachesand apricots. Figs are common but inferior. A fine native fruit, whenwell grown, is the _biwa_ or loquat. And homage must be paid to thebest persimmons, which yield place only to oranges andtangerines. [199] In the north the apples are good, but most orchardsare badly in need of spraying. Experiments have been made with dates. Flowers have a weaker scent than in Europe. A rose called the"thousand _ri_"--a _ri_ is two and a half miles--has only a slightperfume two and a half inches away, and then only when pulled. I metwith no heather--it is to be seen in Saghalien, which has severalthings in common with Scotland--but found masses of sweet-scentedthyme. One of the horticulturists to whom I have referred was something of anAlpinist and was married to a Swiss lady. They had several children. Ialso met an American lady who had had great experience of fruitgrowing in California, had married a Japanese farmer there, and hadcome to live with him in a remote part of his native country. Fromsuch alliances as these there may come some day a woman's impressionsof the life and work of women and girls on the farms and in thefactories of rural Japan. Many a visitor to the country districts musthave marked the dumbness of the women folk. Women were often presentat the conversations I had in country places, but they seldom put in aword. I was received one day at the house of a man who is well knownas a rural philanthropist--he has indeed written two or threebrochures on the problems of the country districts--but when he, myfriend and I sat at table his wife was on her knees facing us tworooms off. Every instructed person knows that there is a beautifulside to the self-suppression of the Japanese woman--many movingstories might be told--and that the "subservience" is more apparentthan real. But there is certainly unmerited suffering. The men andwomen of the Far East seem to be gentler and simpler, however, thanthe vehement and demonstrative folk of the West, and conditions whichappear to the foreign observer to be unjust and unbearable cannot beeasily and accurately interpreted in Western terms. At present manywomen who are conscious of the situation of their sex see no means ofimprovement by their own efforts. But the development of the women'smovement is proceeding in some directions at a surprising pace. Manyyoung men are sincerely desirous to do their part in bringing aboutgreater freedom. They realise what is undoubtedly true that not a fewthings which urgently need changing in Japan must be changed by menand women working together. Money has always been forthcoming, officially, semi-officially andprivately, for sending to America and Europe numbers of intelligentyoung men and women. So disciplined and studious are most of theseyoung people that their country has had back with interest every yenof the funds so wisely provided. We have much to learn from Japanesemethods in this matter of well-considered post-graduate foreigntravel. [200] FOOTNOTES: [198] See Appendix LXIII. [199] See Appendix LV. [200] See Appendix LVI. CHAPTER XXXIII GREEN TEA AND BLACK (SHIDZUOKA) Things I would know but am forbidBy time and briefness. LAURENCE BINYON More than half of the tea grown in Japan comes from the hillycoast-wise prefecture of Shidzuoka through which every travellerpasses on his journey from Kobe or Kyoto to Tokyo. He sees a terracedcultivation of tea and fruit carried up to the skyline. But there ismore tea on the hills than the passenger in the train imagines. Whenviewed from below much of the tea looks like scrub. In various partsof southern Japan patches of tea may be noticed growing on littleislands in the paddies, but tea is a hill plant and it is on the sidesof hills and on the plateaus at the top of them that the plantationsare to be found. Tea looks not unlike privet and grows or is made to grow like box to aheight which can be conveniently picked over. The rows of neat-lookingplants are half a dozen feet apart. The first picking may take placewhen the bush is three or four years old. Bushes may last forty, fiftyor even a hundred years, but the ordinary life of tea is betweentwenty and thirty. A bush is usually cut back every ten years or so. Agood deal depends on the pruning. After each picking the bushes arecut over with the shears just as we trim box. These trimmings may beused to make an inferior tea for farmhouse consumption, or they may beutilised in the manufacture of caffeine or theine--the two productsare indistinguishable. Usually the bushes are cut round-topped, butoccasionally they are roof-shaped and sometimes they are like giantgreen toadstools. The characteristic feature of a tea district beyond the rows of teabushes is the chimney piping of the farmhouses which manufacture theirown tea. (The word manufacture is used in the original sense, forfarmhouse tea is hand-made. ) In a country where the houses arechimneyless these galvanised iron chimneys are conspicuous. The picking of the tea seems to be done almost entirely by women andchildren. The pickers are supposed to take only the three leaves atthe tips. But the pickers mostly take bigger pieces, for the somewhathigher price given for good picking is not enough to secure three-leafstuff only. It is not absolutely necessary, however, that the leavesgathered should be all of such a choice sort. Women and girls come from a distance to pick tea. Picking is regardedas "polite labour by the daughters of the higher middle class offarmers. " It has also the attraction that farmers' sons have a way ofvisiting tea gardens in order to "pick up wives. " The girls certainlygive would-be husbands every chance of seeing what they can do, forthey are at work for a long day, often of from twelve to fourteenhours. In such a day it is possible, I was told, to pick 50, 80 oreven 100 lbs. Of leaves. One man put the rate as from 50 to 120 piecesa minute. Four pounds of leaves make a pound of tea. In one district the first picking may take place during the firstthree weeks of May. In colder districts it is proceeding until the endof the month. The second season is from the end of June until thebeginning of July. The third is in August. The bushes, after producingtheir three crops of leaves, bear in November their seeds, which areabout three-quarters of an inch in diameter and are worth about a sena pound. Oil is pressed from them. Good tea depends on climate and soil, careful cutting over and goodmanuring. In some places I saw soya bean being grown between the rowsas green manuring. Like so many other crops, tea is or ought to besprayed. The northern limit of tea is Niigata, where the bushes mustbe protected from the snow, which may fall in that prefecture to agreat depth. The region in which tea cannot be grown is that in whichthe temperature falls below zero for two months. Tea is not grown, asin India and Ceylon, by tea planters, but in small areas and as aside-line at that. I never saw a plantation of more than five acres. Most areas are much smaller. The chief reason for this is that tea islargely manufactured on the day on which it is picked and the capacityof a farmer's tea manufacturing equipment is limited. In Shidzuokanearly a quarter of the tea is hand rolled and three-quarters made bymachinery. Elsewhere in Japan half the crop may be hand rolled. When leaves are sold to factors the transactions take place in boothsopened by them in the tea districts. It is a busy scene in the regionof the cottage factories. One is on a wide plateau covered almostentirely with rows of tea plants. Here and there are parties ofchattering pickers, their heads protected by the national towel. Against the blue hilltops on the horizon stand out the cottages of thefarmers with chimney-pipes smoking, the booths of the dealers, and, inevery patch of tea, the thatched roof over the precious sunken pot ofliquid manure by which the tea bushes have so often benefited. On theroad one passes women with baskets on their backs, like Scotchfish-wives with their creels, men carrying two baskets suspended froma pole across one shoulder, or a man and his wife hauling a barrow, all heavy-laden with newly picked leaves. Small horse-drawn wagonscarry the manufactured tea in big, well-tied, pink paper bales. On thewhole, although the labour is hard it seemed a better life having todo with the fragrant tea than with the rice of the sludge ponds in thevalley below. [Illustration: RACK FOR DRYING RICE. P. 77] [Illustration: VILLAGE CREMATORIUM. P. 48] [Illustration: DOG HELPING TO PULL JINRIKISHA] [Illustration: AUTHOR, MR. YAMASAKI AND YOUNGEST INHABITANTS, p. 309] The tea produced in Japan is principally green tea. Most of this is ofthe kind called _sencha--cha_ means tea. An inferior article made outof older and tougher leaves is called _bancha_. The custom is for themaid who serves _bancha_ to heat the leaves over the charcoal firejust before infusing. This gives it an agreeable roasted flavour. Itis often served in a darker shade of porcelain than is used forordinary tea. There are also the finer teas, _kikicha_ (powdered tea)and _gyokuro_ (jewelled dewdrops), which is the best kind of _sencha_. Black tea was being made experimentally when I first arrived in Japan. Brick tea (pressed to the consistency and weight of wood) may be greenor black. Most of the exported tea, other than brick tea, goes toAmerica. [Illustration: "TORII" AT FOX-GOD SHRINE. P. 325] [Illustration: RECORD OF GIFTS TO A TEMPLE. P. 311] It is unnecessary to state that the Japanese tea-tray does not includea sugar basin, cream jug or spoons. It does include, however, a squatoval jug into which the hot water from the kettle is poured in orderto lower the temperature below boiling point. Boiling water wouldbring out a bitter flavour from the tea. Made with water just belowboiling point the tea is deliciously soft, even oily, and has aflavour and aroma which cream and sugar would ruin. It is certainlyrefreshing, and, when drunk newly infused, relatively harmless. _Bancha_ is made with hotter water than other tea. The handleless cupshold about half of what our teacups contain. [201] Tea is not the onlyplant used for making "tea. " One drinks in some parts infusions ofcherry, plum or peach blossom. The processes of tea manufacture in farmers' outhouses and infactories are described in school-books, and I need not transcribe myimpressions. [202] But I may note that some of the money the tea farmerearns for the country is spent in his interests. There is in Shidzuokaa well-directed prefectural experiment station which exercises itselfover problems of tea production. Every tea grower and tea dealer inthe prefecture must belong to the prefectural tea guild. He must alsobelong to his county tea guild. The rules of the guilds--there is acentral guild in Tokyo--have the force of law. Evil doers in the teaindustry have their product confiscated. Tea dealers who do not carrytheir guild membership card are fined. It is not difficult to discovercolouring in tea if it is rubbed on white paper. The Government's partin subduing tea colouring was to seize all the dye stuff it could layhold of which could be used for colouring tea. The future of green tea depends almost entirely on the demand fromthe growing population of Japan, but a taste for the "foreign style"black tea--with condensed milk--is spreading. The cheap labour ofIndia and China and the big plantations and factories of India havediminished the Japanese green tea trade and the effort to produceblack tea is also met by foreign competition. I was told that Chinatea receives much sunshine while growing, and that there was most hopefor Japanese black tea when made from leaves grown in the extremesouth. There is a difference between the Chinese and the Japanese teaplant and it cannot be got over by importing Chinese plants, for theclimate of Japan simply Japanises the imported sort. I found in the United States that green tea is bought, as it is nodoubt sold in Shidzuoka, on appearance. American housewives werepaying for an appearance that matters little in an article that is notto be looked at but soaked. Not only is much extra labour required forsifting the leaf several times in order to obtain a good appearance, but the bulk is reduced from 5 to 10 per cent. The drinking quality ofthe tea also suffers, for the largest leaf has usually the best cupquality. If teas were bought for cup quality only they might be atleast from 5 to 10 per cent. Cheaper. FOOTNOTES: [201] At many stations one used to have handed into the carriage forless than a penny a pot of tea and a cup--you are entitled to keepboth pot and cup if you like. The tea-seller's kettle of water is kepthot with charcoal. Tea is freshly infused in each customer's pot. [202] For statistics and theine percentages, see Appendix LVII. EXCURSIONS FROM TOKYO CHAPTER XXXIV A COUNTRY DOCTOR AND HIS NEIGHBOURS (CHIBA) What was yet wanting must be sought by fortuitous and unguidedexcursions and gleaned as industry should find or chance shouldoffer. --JOHNSON When I first went to Chiba, the peninsular prefecture lying across thebay from Tokyo, many carriages in the trains were heated by iron_hibachi_[203]with pieces of old carpet thrown over them. It is on theChiba trains that the recruits of that section of the army which hasto do with the operation of the railways learn their business. It isin part of Chiba--and also in a district in Tokyo prefecture--that theearliest rice is grown. Chiba also contains more poultry than anyother prefecture. [204] It has the further distinction of having triedto issue truthful crop statistics. [205] Wherever one goes in Japan one is impressed by the large consumptionof fish--fresh, dried, and salted. Thin slices of raw fish make one ofthe tasty dishes at a Japanese meal. The foreigner, forgetting theWestern relish for oysters and clams, is repelled by this raw fish, but a liking for it seems to be quickly acquired. In Tokyo the slicesof raw fish are cut from the meaty bonito (tunny), but _tai_ (bream)is also used. Bonito also provides the long narrow steaks, dried to amahogany-like hardness, which are known as _katsubushi_. This_katsubushi_ keeps indefinitely and is grated or shaved with a kindof plane and used much as the Western cook employs Parmesan cheese. I heard a man in Chiba combating very strongly the idea of there beinga connection between leprosy and fish eating. As to leprosy, it isdoubtful if the belief expressed by the Chinese name for the disease, "heavenly punishment, " has disappeared. There are at least 24, 000lepers in Japan, and as a well-known Japanese work of referencecasually remarks, "the hospitals can at present accommodate only 5 percent. Of them. " I could not but compare the undulating countryside, on which so vastan amount of labour had been expended, with what it would have beenunder European treatment and the influence of an Europeanclimate--possibly picturesque pasture with high hedges. The congeriesof rice fields was fringed, where the water supply had given out, withupland cultivation. On the low mud walls which separated the paddiesbeans grew except at a boundary corner, where a tea or mulberry bushserved as a landmark. In looking down or up the little valleys one sawhow completely the houses had been brushed aside to the foot of thelow hills so that no land cultivable as paddies should be wasted. Thisintensely developed countryside was not however ideal land. It wasoften much too sandy. Not a few paddies had to depend to some extenton the water they could catch for themselves. A naturally draughty andhungry land was yielding crops by a laborious manurial improvement ofits physical and chemical condition, by wonders being wrought in ruralhydraulics and by unending industry in cultivation and pettyengineering. It might be supposed that beauty had gone from the countryside. Someof what the land agents call the amenities of the district hadcertainly disappeared. There seemed to be nowhere for the pedestrianto sit down in order to refresh himself with those rural sights andsounds which exhilarate the spirit. But this marvellously delved, methodised and trimmed countryside had a character and a stimulus ofits own. It reflected the energy and persistence that had subdued it. I saw nothing ugly. The tidied rice plots, shaped at every possiblecurve and angle, and eloquent of centuries of unremitting toil; theupland beyond them, worked to a skilled perfection of finish; thenesting houses which nowhere offended the eye; the big still pondscontrived by the rude forefathers of the hamlet for water storage orthe succour of the rice in the hottest weather; the low hilltops greenwith pine because cultivation could not ascend so far, and hiding hereand there a Shinto sanctuary: such a countryside was satisfying in itsown way. In Chiba, as in other prefectures, one is impressed by the way inwhich the exertions of many generations have resulted in the levellingof wide areas and even the complete removal of small hills. In manyplaces one can still see low hills in process of demolition. In Tokyoitself several small hills have been carried off in recent years. I was in Chiba several times and I remember to have noticed one winterday with what considered roughness the paddies had been dug in orderto receive from frost and sun the benefits which are as good as amanuring. Some notion of the strength of the weather forces at workmay be gathered from the fact that, though I was walking without anovercoat and was glad to shade my eyes by pulling down the brim of myhat, the frost of the two previous nights had produced ice on thepaddies an inch thick. Sometimes at the irrigation reservoirs one may see notice boardsannouncing that these water areas are stocked with _koi_ (carp). Thisfish is also kept in the paddies. The carp are put in as yearlings ortwo-year-olds, when the paddies are flooded, and a score out of everyhundred come out in the autumn--assuming the happiest conditions--teninches or so long. Carp culture flourishes in the sericulturedistricts, where the pupæ which remain when the cocoons are unwoundare thrown to the fish; but pupæ fed carp have a flavour whichdiminishes their value. Indeed paddy-field fish, which on the wholemust have a rather troubled existence, do not bring the price of rivercarp. Other fish than carp, eels for instance, are also kept inpaddies. [206] I visited a vigorous personality who was at once a landowner andrural oculist, as his father and grandfather had been before him. Hehad graduated at Tokyo and had kept himself abreast of Germanspecialist literature. There was accommodation for about a hundredpatients in the buildings attached to his house. He believed in theefficacy in eye cases of "the air of the rice fields, " not to speak ofthe shrine which overlooks the patients' quarters. As the number ofblind people in Japan is appalling, [207] it was interesting to hearthe opinion that the chief causes were gonorrhœa, inadequate attentionat birth, insufficient nourishment in childhood and nervousdisease--all more or less preventible. Nearly a quarter of my host'spatients had had their eyes wounded by rice-stem points while stoopingin the paddies. As the people are hurt in the busy season they oftenput off coming for help until it is too late. The landowner-oculist's premises were lighted by natural gas from adepth of 900 ft. According to a fellow-guest, who happened to be anexpert in this matter, natural gas is to be had all over Japan. [208] The room in which I slept belonged to a part of the house which was ofgreat age, but by my _futon_ there was laid an electric torch. A pleasant thing during my visit was the presence of a dozenintelligent, kindly students who early in the evening came and kneltin a semicircle round us, "in order to profit by our talk. " One ofthem, a son of the house, an athlete (and now, after travelling inEurope, his father's successor), did all sorts of services for meduring my stay, in the simple-hearted fashion that shows such anattractive side of the Japanese character. One question asked by thestudents was, "For what reasons does _Sensei_ believe that theinfluence of women in public life would be good?" Another enquiry was, "Which are the best London and Paris papers?" These lads could hardlyhope to get through the university before they were twenty-five ortwenty-six. Yet, compared with our undergraduates, they had verylittle time for general reading, discussions and outdoor sports. Iremember a man of some experience in the educational world saying tome, "Our students do not read enough apart from their studies; it istheir misfortune. " They have not only the burden of having to learnnearly several thousand ideographs, [209] three scripts and Japaneseand Chinese pronunciation. They have to acquire Western languages, which, owing to their absolute dissimilarity from Orientaltongues--for example, the word for "I" is _watakushi_--must be learntentirely from memory. It is not that the Japanese student does notbegin early as well as leave off late. A professor once said to me, "For some little time after I first went to school I was still fedfrom the bosom of my mother. " In some ways it is no doubt a source ofstrength for Japan that her men can spend from their earliest years tothe age of twenty-six on the acquirement of knowledge andself-discipline--the privileges of the student class and thegenerosity of their families and friends and the public at large areremarkable--but the disadvantages are plain. No sight seems strangerto a new arrival in Japan than that of so many men in their middle orlate twenties still wearing the conspicuous kimono and German bandsmancap of the student. To return to our host, he told us that tenants were "getting clever. "They were paying their rent in "worse and worse qualities of rice. "The landlords "encouraged" their tenants with gifts of tools, clothesor saké in order that they might bring them the best rice, but thetenants evidently thought it paid better to forgo these benefits andmarket their best rice. This raises the question whether rent oughtnowadays to be paid in kind. Rural opinion as a whole is in favour ofcontinuing in the old way, but there is a clear-headed if smallsection of rural reformers which is for rent being paid in cash. One thing I found in my notes of my talk with the landowner-oculist Ihesitated to transcribe without confirmation. Speaking of the physiqueof the people, he had said that few farmers could carry the weightstheir fathers and grandfathers could move about. But later on a highagricultural authority mentioned to me that it had been foundnecessary to reduce the weight of a bale of rice from 19 to 18_kwamme_ and then to 15--1 _kwamme_ is 8. 26 lbs. In the _oaza_ in which I was staying there were eighty families. Seventy were tenants. Under a savings arrangement initiated by myhost, the hamlet, including its five peasant proprietors, was saving120 yen a month. On the other hand, more than half the tenants were indebt "in connection with family excesses, " such as weddings, birthsand burials. But there might be unknown savings. I should state thatthe villagers seemed contented enough. For some reason or other I was particularly struck by the sturdinessof the small girls. This was interesting because Chiba had for long anevil reputation for infanticide, and under a system of infanticide inthe Far East it would be supposed--I have heard this view stoutlyquestioned--that more girls die than boys. The landowner-oculist wasof opinion that in stating the causes of the low economic condition ofhis tenants the abating of infanticide must be put first. People nolonger restricted themselves to three of a family. The average areaavailable locally was only 6 _tan_ of paddy and 1. 2 _tan_ of dry land. In a one-crop district in which there was work for only a part of theyear this area was obviously insufficient and there was not enough dryland for mulberries. Then taxation was now 2-1/2 yen per bale of rice(_hyō_). A third of the rice went in rent. I tried to find out what the _oaza_ might be spending on religion. TheShinto priest seemed to get 5 sen a month per family, which as thereare eighty families would be 48 yen yearly. The Buddhist priest hadland attached to his temple and money was given him at burials and atthe _Bon_ season. The _oaza_ might spend 100 yen a year to send fivepilgrims as far away as Yamagata, on the other side of Japan. Thepriests did not seem to count for much. "Their only concern with thepublic, " I was informed, "is to be succoured by it. They are livingvery painfully. The Buddhist priests have to send money to their sectat Kyoto. " In one of my strolls I passed the Shinto priest carrying arice basket and looking, as my companion said, "just like any otherman. " At a shrine I saw a number of bowls hung up. A hole cut in thebottom of each seemed a pathetic symbol of need, material orspiritual. The keeper of the teahouse in the _oaza_ had been given a small sum byour host to take himself off, but in the village of which the _oaza_formed a part there were two teahouses, where ten times as much wasspent as was laid out on religion. No one had ever heard of a case ofillegitimacy in the _oaza_ but there had been in the twelve monthsthree cases which pointed to abortion. It was five years since therehad been an arrest. The young men's association helped twice a yearfamilies whose boys had been conscripted. According to what I was told in various quarters, some landowners inChiba did a certain amount of public work but most devoted themselvesto indoor trivialities. The fact that two banks had recently broken atthe next town, one for a quarter of a million yen, and that alandowner had lost a total of 30, 000 yen in these smashes, seemed toshow that there was a certain amount of money somewhere in thedistrict. No one appeared to "waste time on politics. " In ten years"there had been one or two politicians, " but "one member of Parliamentset a wholesome example by losing a great deal of money in politics. "As to local politics, election to the prefectural assembly seemed tocost about 500 yen. Membership of the village assembly might mean "acup of _saké_ apiece to the electors. " I was assured that this hamlet was above the economic level of thecounty. The belief was expressed that it could maintain that positionfor three or four years. "I do not feel so much anxiety about thepresent condition of the people, " my host said; "they are passiveenough: but as to the future it is a difficult and almost insolublequestion. " "The condition of our rural life is the most difficult question inJapan, " said a fellow guest. In one of the farmers' houses a girl, with the assistance of ayounger brother, was weaving rough matting for baling up artificialmanure. Near them two Minorcas were laying in open boxes. In thisfamily there were seven children, "three or four of whom can work. "The hired land was 8 _tan_ of paddy and 2-1/2 of dry. There wasnothing to the good at the end of the year. Indeed rice had had to beborrowed from the landlord. The family was therefore working merely tokeep itself alive. But it looked cheerful enough. Looking cheerful is, however, a Japanese habit. The conditions of life here were what manyWesterners would consider intolerable. But it was not Westerners butOrientals who were concerned, and what one had to try to guess was howfar the conditions were satisfactory to Eastern imaginations andrequirements. The people at every house I visited--as it happened tobe a holiday the mending of clothing and implements seemed to be inorder--were plainly getting enjoyment from the warm sunshine. Undoubtedly the long spells of sunshine in the comparatively idleperiod of the year make hard conditions of life more endurable. In a very small house which was little more than a shelter, the fatherand mother of a tenant were living. It is not uncommon for oldpeasants to build a dwelling for themselves when they get nearly pastwork, or sometimes after the eldest son marries. I found a 1-_chō_ peasant proprietor playing _go_ and rather the worsefor saké, though it was early in the morning. A 3-_chō_ proprietor wasliving in a good-sized house which had a courtyard and an imposinggateway. On the thatch of one house I noticed a small straw horse perhaps twofeet long. On July 7 such a horse is taken by young people to thehills, where a bale of grass is tied on its back. On the reappearanceof the figure at the house, dishes of the ceremonial red rice and ofthe ordinary food of the family are set before it. "The offering ofother than horse food indicates, " it was explained, "that the desireis to keep the straw animal as a little deity. " Finally the horse isflung on the roof. I went some distance to visit an _oaza_ of twenty families. It wasdescribed to me as "well off and peaceful. " Alas, one peasantproprietor had gone to Tokyo, where he had made money, and on hisreturn had built his second son a house with Tokyo labour instead ofwith the labour of his neighbours. So the _oaza_ was "excited withbitter inward animosity. " Like our own hamlets, these _oaza_ in thesunshine, seemingly so peaceful, whisper nothing to townsfolk of theirbickerings and feuds. One of the thatched mud houses I came to was at once a primitiveco-operative sale-and-purchase society and the clubhouse of the oldpeople of the _oaza_. The rent the old folk received from the societywas enough to maintain the building. The oldsters gather from time totime in order to eat, drink and make merry with gossip and dancing. Dancing is a possibility for old people because it is swaying, slidingand attitudinising, with an occasional stamp of the foot, rather thanhopping and whirling. One of the best amateur dances I have seen wasperformed by a grandsire. Such clubhouses, places for the comfort ofthe ageing and aged, are found in many villages. Young people are notadmitted. The subscription to this particular clubhouse was 2 yen and3 _sho_ of saké on joining and 2 yen a year. As we went on our way there was pointed out to me a house the owner ofwhich had sold half a _tan_ of land for 120 yen and was drinkingsteadily. He had tried to make money by opening an open-air villagetheatre which owing to rain had been a failure. I visited an _oaza_ where all the land belonged to the man I calledupon. He assured me that most of his tenants "made ends meet. " Theremainder had a deficiency at the end of the year due to "lack of willto save" and to their "lack of capital which caused them to payinterest to manure dealers. " A co-operative society had just beenstarted. In looking at a map of the village to which some of these _oaza_belonged I noticed many holdings tinted a special colour. These werecalled "jump land. " They consisted of land subdued from the wild bystrangers. The properties were regarded as belonging to the _oaza_ inwhich their cultivators lived. I walked through a bit of woodland which had formerly been held incommon and had been divided up, amid felicitations no doubt, at therate of half a tan each to every family. But the well-to-do peoplesoon got hold of their poorer neighbours' portions. In a roughish tract I came on burial grounds. One portion was setapart for the eight families which recognised the chief landlord astheir head. The graves of lowlier folk seemed to occur anywhere. Eachgrave was covered by a pyramidal mound of sandy earth with a piece oftwig stuck in it. Sometimes a tree had been planted and had grown. Achild's grave had some tiny bowls of food and a clay doll before alittle headstone. By way of shelter for these offerings there was hungon the headstone a peasant's wide straw hat. A large beehive-shapedbamboo basket over another grave was a reminder of the time when agrave needed such protection in order to save the body from wildanimals. I saw at a distance in the midst of paddies two tree-covered mounds, alarge one and a small one. They looked like the grave mounds I hadseen in China, but it was suggested that they were probably on an oldfrontier line and marked spots at which ceremonies for scaring offdisease were performed. In one place I found the people planting plum trees in order to meettheir communal taxation. It was reckoned that the yield of one treewhen it came into full bearing would defray the taxes of amoderate-sized family. An open space in a wood was pointed out to me as the spot on whichdead horses were formerly thrown to the dogs and birds. Nowadaysnotice was given to the Eta that a dead horse was to be cast away, andthey came and, after skinning the animal, buried the body. Fartheroff, on the high road, I saw an 8 ft. High monument to a local steedthat had died in Manchuria. One of my further visits to Chiba was in the spring. The paddies, which had been fallow since November, were under water; but much ofthe stubble had been turned over with the long-bladed mattock. Theseed beds from which the rice is transplanted to the paddies were avivid green. On the high ground I saw good clean crops of barley andwheat, beans and peas, on soil of very moderate quality. The name of Funabashi at a station reminded me of a Japanese friendhaving told me that it was "famous for a shrine and a very immoralplace. " But I afterwards heard that the keeper of that shrine, "actingfrom conscientious motives, gave up his lucrative post and died a poorman. " It is said of one of the most sacred places in Japan that it isalso the "most immoral. " Kyoto which contains nine hundred shrines isalso supposed to harbour several thousand women of bad character. I passed a place where 25, 000 Russian prisoners had been detained. There was an old peasant there who told his son that he could notunderstand why so many Japanese went abroad at such great cost to seethe different peoples of the world. If they would only stay at home, he said, they would see them all in turn, for first there had been theChinese prisoners, then the Russians and now there were the Germans. In the uplands it was peaceful and restful to walk through the shadylanes between the tree-studded homesteads or along the road passingbetween plots of mulberry, tea, vegetables or grain, cultivated withthe care given to plants in a garden. In the herbage by the roadside, but not among the crops I need hardly say, I noticed dandelions, sowthistles, Scots thistles, plantains and some other familiar weeds. In the paddies some men wore only a narrow band of red cotton betweentheir legs joined to a waist string, which, though convenient wear inpaddies, was comically conspicuous. I recall a friend's story of alittle foreign girl of seven who stayed with her mother in a Japanesehamlet and struck up a friendship with a kindly old peasant. One hotsummer day the child came home carrying all her scanty garments overher arm, and covered with mud to the waist. In answer to her mother'senquiries the child said, "Well, mother, Ito San has all his clothesoff, and I could not go into the paddy to help him with mine on. " I visited an elementary school which was little more than a shed. Theroofing was of bark and the paper-covered window shutters were of theroughest. It said much for the stamina of the children that they couldsit there in bleak weather. An attempt had been made to shut off theclasses from one another by pieces of thin cotton sheeting fastened toa string. But such essential furniture, from a hygienic point of view, as benches with backs had been provided, for it is considered by thenational educational authorities that kneeling in the Japanese manneris inimical to physical development. I noticed, also, that when thechildren sang they had been taught to place their hands on their hipsin order that their chests might benefit from the vocal exercise. Theearnestness and kindliness of the men and women teachers were evident. All the teachers came to school bare-foot on _geta_. [210] The sea was not far off and we went to the beach where there wasnothing between us and America. My companion and I were carried overshallows on the backs of fishermen, wonderful bronze-coloured figures. Above high-water mark heaps of small fish were drying. They were to beturned into oil and fish-waste manure. I saw an earthenware vase witha hole in the bottom like a flowerpot and found that it was used, witha rope attached to the rim, for catching octopus. When the octopuscomes across such a vase on the sea bottom he regards it as a shelterconstructed on exactly the right principles and takes up his abodetherein. He is easily captured, for he refuses to let go his vase whenit is brought to the surface. Indeed the only way to dislodge him isto pour hot water through the hole in the bottom of his upturnedtenement. FOOTNOTES: [203] The Japanese firepot, which is made of wood or porcelain as wellas metal, contains pieces of charcoal smouldering in wood ash. [204] I saw poultry of the table breeds which we call Indian Game orMalay; the Japanese call them Siamese. [205] See Appendix LVIII. [206] In 1918 carp was produced to the value of a million and a halfyen and eels to the value of nearly a million. [207] See Appendix LIX. [208] See Appendix LX. [209] To cite a word already used in these pages, there are half adozen words spelt _ko_ and as many as fourteen spelt _kō_, but allhave a different ideograph. When the prolongation of the educationalcourse by the ideographs is dwelt on, it is wholesome for us toremember Professor Gilbert Murray's declaration that "English spellingentails a loss of one year in the child's school time. " Otherauthorities have considered the loss to be much more. [210] For statistics of stamina, heights and weights of children, seeAppendix LXI. CHAPTER XXXV THE HUSBANDMAN, THE WRESTLER AND THE CARPENTER (SAITAMA, GUMMA AND TOKYO) We are here to search the wounds of the realm, not to skim themover. --BACON One day in the third week of October when the roads were sprinkledwith fallen leaves I made an excursion into the Kwanto plain andpassed from the prefecture of Tokyo into that of Saitama. [211] Theweather now made it necessary for Japanese to wear double kimonos. During the middle of the day, however, I was glad to walk with myjacket over my arm, and many little boys and girls were running aboutnaked. The region visited had a naturally well-drained dark soil, composed of river silt, of volcanic dust and of humus from buriedvegetation, and it went down to a depth beyond the need of the longest_daikon_ (giant radish). Sweet potatoes and taro were still on theground, and large areas, worked to a perfect tilth, had been sown orwere in course of preparation for winter wheat and barley; but themost conspicuous crop was _daikon_. There were miles and miles of itat all sorts of stages from newly transplanted rows to roots ready forpulling. There is _daikon_ production up to the value of about amillion yen. In addition to the roots sent into Tokyo, there is alarge export trade in _daikon_ salted in casks. I came into a district where there was a system of alternate grain andwood crops. The rotation was barley and wheat for three or four years, then fuel wood for about fifteen. The tendency was to lengthen thecorn period in the rotation. The women even as near Tokyo as this wore blue cotton trousers likethe men. One farm-house I entered was a century old but it had notbeen more than forty years on its present site. It had beentransported three miles. I was once more impressed by the low standardof living. If by this time I had not been getting to know something ofthe ways of the farmers I should have found it difficult to credit thefact that a household I visited was worth ten thousand yen. Sweet potatoes are here much the most important crop. They werebringing the farmer in Tokyo a little over a yen the 82 lbs. Bale. Theconsumer was paying double that. Not a few of the farmers werecultivating as much as 5 _chō_ or even 8 _chō_, for there was littlepaddy. Even then, I was told, "it's a very hard life for a third ofthe farmers. " The reason was that there was no remunerative winteremployment. Before the Buddhist temple, where there was preaching twice a year, were rows of little stone figures, many of which had lost their heads. The heads were in much demand among gamblers who value them asmascots. Among some mulberry plots belonging to different owners I sawa little wooden shrine, evidently for the general good. It was there, it was explained, "not because of belief but of custom. " The eveningwas drawing in and Fuji showed itself blue and mystical above the darkgreenery of the country. As I gazed a sweet-sounding gong was struckthrice in the temple. Three times a day there is heard this summons toother thoughts than those of the common task. [Illustration: 1. INSIDE THE "SHOJI. " p. 35] [Illustration: 2. AUTOMATIC RICE POLISHER. P. 263] [Illustration: 3. THE AUTHOR (AND THE KODAK HOLDER) IN THE CRATER OF AVOLCANO. P. 108] My companion entered into conversation with a decent middle-agedpedestrian, neatly but poorly dressed, and found that he was a man whohad formerly pulled his _kuruma_ in Tokyo. The man had found the workof a _kurumaya_ too much for him and had withdrawn to his village toopen a tiny shop. But he had been taken ill and had been removed tohospital. When he came out he found that his wife was in poverty andthat his eldest son had been summoned to serve in the army. Now hiswife had become ill and he was on his way to a distant relative to askhim to take charge of a small child and to help him with a littlemoney to start some petty business. My companion gave him a yen anddeplored the fact that poor people should fail to take advantage ofthe law releasing from service a son required for the support of aparent. They failed occasionally to find friends to represent theircase to the authorities. [Illustration: A WAYSIDE MONUMENT. P. 39] [Illustration: THE GIANT RADISH OR "DAIKON, " WHICH IS USED AS APICKLE. P. 309] While waiting at the station we talked with another old man. He hadcome to see his daughter whose husband had been called up for twoyears' service. She was living of course with her parents-in-law. Hesaid that his daughter would have no difficulty in keeping the farmgoing during the young man's absence, but his being away was "a greatloss. " The old man, who squatted at our feet as he spoke, went on to tell usabout a young man of his village who had served his term in the navybut thought of remaining for another term. "Gran'fer" thought it agood opening for him; he would not only get his living and clothesbut--and this is characteristic--"see the world and send backinteresting letters. " The ancient was specially interested in thesailor, he said, because his wife had "given milk" to the adventurerwhen an infant. It is difficult to enter a village which has not its pillar or itsslab to the memory of a youth or youths who perished in the Russian orChinese wars. [212] But in the severe struggle with Russia the villagesdid more than give their sons and build memorials to them when theywere killed. They tried, in the words of an official circular of thattime, "to preserve the spirit of independence in the hearts of therelieved and to avoid the abuses of giving out ready money. " There wasthe secret ploughing society of the young men of a village in Gummaprefecture. "Either at night or when nobody knew these young men wentout and ploughed for those who were at the front. " In one prefecturethe school children helped in working soldiers' farms. In villages inOsaka and Hyogo prefectures there was given to soldiers' families themonopoly of selling _tofu_, matches and other articles. Some of thesocieties which laboured in war time were the Women's One HeartSociety, the Women's Chivalrous Society, the National Backing Societyand the Nursing Place of Young Children of those Serving at the Front. In the train we talked of the hardiness induced by not being the slaveof clothing. When it rains _kuruma_ men and workmen habitually roll uptheir kimonos round their loins, or if they are wearing trousers, takethem off. [213] Of course no Japanese believes in catching cold throughgetting his feet wet. This is a condition which is continuallyexperienced, for the cotton _tabi_ are wet through at every shower. Some years back it was not uncommon in walking along the sea-beach atnight to find fishermen sleeping out on the sand. An old man told methat it used to be the custom in his sea-shore hamlet for all membersof a family to sleep on the beach except fathers, mothers and infants. On my return from the country I found myself in a company of earnestrural reformers who were discussing a plan of State colonisation forthe inhabitants of some villages where everything had been lost in avolcanic eruption. Families had been given a tract of forest land, 15yen for a cottage, 45 yen for tools and implements and the cost offood for ten months (reckoned at 8 sen per adult and 7 sen per childper day). During the evening I was shown the figure of a goddess offarming venerated by the afflicted folk. The deity was representedstanding on bales of rice, with a bowl of rice in her left hand and abig serving spoon in her right. The gathering discussed the question of rural morality. As to therelations of the young men and women of the villages, to which therehas necessarily been frequent references in these pages, the readermust always bear in mind the way in which the sexes are normally keptapart under the influence of tradition. In nothing does this Japanesecountryside differ more noticeably from our own than in the fact thatjoyous young couples are never seen arming each other along the roadof an evening. Thousands of allusions in our rural songs and poetry, innumerable scenes in our genre pictures, speak of blissful hours ofwhich Japan gives no sign. There is no courting; there are in thepublic view no "random fits of dallin'. " An unmarried young man andyoung woman do not walk and talk together. A young man and woman whowere together of an evening would be suspected of immorality. Evenwhen married they would not think of linking arms on the road. I was abeholder of a family reunion at a railway station in which a youngwife met her young husband returned from abroad. There were merelyrepeated bows and many smiles. The view taken of kissing in Japan isshown by the fact that an issue of a Tokyo periodical was prohibitedby the police because it contained an allusion to it. We are helped tounderstand the Japanese standpoint a little if we remember howrepugnant to English and American ideas is the Continental custom ofmen kissing one another. Kissing is understood by the Japanese to be asexual act, as is shown by their word for it. Early in November in the neighbourhood of Tokyo, where three crops aretaken in the year and sometimes four or five, I found between the rowsof growing winter barley two lines of green stuff which would becleared off as the barley rose. The barley was sown in clumps of twodozen or even thirty plants, each clump being about a foot apart, andliberally treated with liquid manure. In Saitama 100 bushels per acrehas been produced by a good farmer. The clump method of sowing isbelieved to afford greater protection against the weather. (Outsidethe volcanic-soil area ordinary sowing in rows is common. ) Thevolcanic soil, as one sees in spots where excavations have been made, is originally light yellow. The humus introduced by the liberalapplications of manure has made it black. I came upon a hollow in some low hills, studded with trees andoverlooking Tokyo Bay, which had been secured for the building of anelaborate series of temples at a cost of three million yen. Acres ofgrounds were being laid out with genius. The buildings were of thatbeautiful simplicity which marks the edifices of the Zen sect. Theconstruction was in the hands of some of the cleverest mastercraftsmen in Japan. The work was to be spread over four years. A greathoarding displayed thousands of wooden tablets bearing the names andthe amounts of the subscriptions of the faithful. In one of thecompleted temples a kindly priest was preaching. He added to the forceof his gestures by the use of a fan. He was being attentively listenedto by an intelligent-looking congregation. I caught the injunctionthat in the attainment of goodness aspiration was little worth withoutwill. The method of announcing subscriptions on hoardings was also adoptedoutside the new primary school near by. The subscriptions were from ahundred yen to one yen. The charge to scholars at this school, Ifound, was 10 sen per month during the first compulsory six years and30 sen during the next two years. Just after Christmas I walked again into the country. There were milesof dreary brown paddies with the stubble in puddles. On the non-paddyland there was the refreshing green of young corn which seemed greatlyto enjoy being treated as a garden plant in a deep exquisitely workedsoil with never a weed in an acre. But children were kept from schoolbecause their parents could not get along without their help. Many ofthe school teachers seemed as poor as the farmers. As I passed thefarm-houses in the evening they seemed bleak and uninviting. In thefire hole[214] of every house, however, there was a generous blaze andthe bath tub out-of-doors was steaming for the customary evening hotdip in the opening. In my host's house I noticed an old painting of a forked _daikon_. Such malformed roots used to be presented to shrines by women desirousof having children. In the office of one village I visited I was permitted to examine thedossiers of some of the inhabitants. Among a host of other particularsabout a certain person's origin and condition I read that he was aminor when his father died, that such and such a person acted as hisguardian, that the guardianship ended on such and such a date, andthat his widowed mother had a child nine years after her husband'sdeath. In not a few places I found that the tiny shrines of hamlets (_aza_)had been taken away and grouped together at a communal shrine with thenotion of promoting local solidarity. At one such combination ofshrines I saw notice boards intimating that "tramps, pedlars, wandering priests and other carriers of subscription lists andproselytisers" were not received in the village. It was explained thata community was sometimes all of one faith: "therefore it does notwant to be disturbed by tactless preachers of other beliefs. " At an inn there was a middle-aged widow who served there as waitressin the summer but in the winter returned to Tokyo, where she employeda number of girls in making _haori_ tassels. (She gave them board andlodging and clothes for two years, and, after that period, wages. [215]) Remembering what I had written down about courting, Iasked for her mature judgment on our rural custom of "walking out. "She was amused, but, in that way the Japanese have of trying to lookat a Western custom on its merits, she said, after consideration, thatthere was much to be said for the plan. "In Japan, " she declared, "youcannot know a husband's character until you are married. On the whole, I wish I had been a man. " In order to catch our train we had to leavethis inn the moment our meal was finished, although the widow quotedto us the adage, "Rest after a meal even if your parents are dead. " On a morning in May I went into the country to visit a friend who wastaking a holiday in a ramshackle inn 4, 000 ft. Up Mount Akagi. Icontinually heard the note of the _kakkō_ (cuckoo). On the higherparts of the mountain there were azaleas at every yard, some quitesmall but others 12 or even 15 ft. High. Many had been grazed bycattle. Big cryptomeria were plentiful part of the way up, but at thetop there were no trees but diminutive oaks, birches and pines, stunted and lichen covered, the topmost branches broken off by theterrific blasts which from time to time sweep along the top of theextinct volcano. One of the products of rural Japan is the wrestler. _Sumo_, which isgoing on in every school and college of the country, exhibits itsperfect flower twice a year in the January and May ten-days-longtournaments in the capital. The immense rotunda of the wrestlers'association suggests a rather rickety Albert Hall and holds 13, 000people. [216] On the day I went in I paid 2 yen and had only standingroom. Everybody knows the more than Herculean proportions of thewrestlers in comparison with the rest of their countrymen. Therigorous training, Gargantuan feeding and somewhat severe disciplineof the wrestlers enable them to grow beyond the average stature and toa girth, protected by enormously developed abdominal muscles, whichreinforces strength with great weight. [217] I had often the opportunity at a railway station or in a train towitness the easy carriage and magnificent pride of these massive, good-tempered men. There is not in the world, probably, a moreremarkable illustration than they afford of what superior physicaltraining and superior feeding can do. At first sight, indeed, thesegigantic creatures seem to belong to a different race. It is no wonderthat they should be so commonly proteges of the rich anddistinguished. When an eminent wrestler retired in the year in which Ifirst saw a good wrestling bout the ceremony of cutting his hair--for, like Samson, the wrestler wears his hair long--was performed by apersonage who combined the dignities of an admiral and a peer. Thereis nothing of the bruiser in the looks of the smooth-faced wrestlers. Many, however, are the bruises to their bodies and to theirself-esteem which they receive in their disciplinary progress from thecontests of their native villages through all the grades of theirprofession to the highest rank. Their sexual morality is commonly ofthe lowest. In my own hamlet at home in England I have seen the shoemaker, tailorand carpenter successively pass away; the only craftsman left is thesmith. In Japan the hereditary craftsman survives for a while. Iwatched in my house one day the labours of such a worker. He was notarrayed in a Sunday suit fallen to the greasy bagginess of everydaywear, topped by a soiled collar. He appeared in a blue cottonjacket-length kimono and tight-fitting trousers of the same stuff, andboth garments, which were washed at least once a week, were admirablyfitted to their wearer's work. Almost the same rig was worn by our ownmedieval and pre-medieval workmen. The carpenter had on the back ofhis coat the name of his master or guild in decorative Chinesecharacters in white. There are nowadays in the cities many inferiorworkers, but all the men who came to my house worked with rapidity andconcentration, hardly ever lifting their eyes from their jobs. Thedexterity of the Japanese workman is seldom exaggerated. To hisdexterity he adds the considerable advantage of having more than twohands, for he uses his feet together or singly. His supple big toesare a great possession. We have lost the use of ours, but the Japaneseartisan, accustomed from his youth to _tabi_ with a special divisionfor the big toe, and to _geta_, which can be well managed only whenthe big toe is lissom, uses his toes as naturally as a monkey, withhis paws and mouth full of nuts, gives a few to his feet to hold. Thefirst sight of a foot holding a tool is uncanny. The pitiful thing is that a modest, polite, cheerful, industrious, skilful, and in the best sense of the word artistic hereditarycraftsmanship is proving only too easy a prey to the new industrialsystem. It is a sad reflection that the country which, owing to herlong period of seclusion, had the opportunity of applying to all thethings of common life so remarkable a skill and artistry, should be solittle conscious of the pace at which her industrial rake's progressis proceeding, so insensible to the degree to which she is prodigallysacrificing that which, when it is lost to her, can never berecovered. It is no doubt true that when our own handicrafts weredying we also were insensitive. But because the Middle Ages in Englandencountered the industrial system gradually we suffered our loss moreslowly than Japan is doing. Because, too, we never had in ourbustling history the long periods of immunity from home and foreignstrife by which Japanese craftsmanship profited so wonderfully, we maynot have had such large stores of precious skill and taste to squanderas New Japan, the spendthrift of Old Japan's riches, is unthinkinglycasting away. It is at Christmas at home that we have in the Christmas tree ourreminder of the country. It is on New Year's Day that in Japan a pinetree is set up on either side of the front gate, but there are threebamboos with it, and the four trunks are all beautifully boundtogether with rope. If the ground be too hard for the trees to bestuck in the ground, they are kept upright by having a dozen heavypieces of wood, not unlike fire logs, neatly bound round them. Thepines may be about 10 ft. High, the bamboo about 15 ft. To the treesare affixed the white paper _gohei_. Over the doorway itself is anarrangement of straw, an orange, a lobster, dried cuttlefish and more_gohei_. A less expensive display consists of a sprig of pine andbamboo. Poor people have to be content with a yard-high pine branchwith a French nail through it at either side of their doorway. I havebeen ruralist enough to harbour thoughts of the extent to which thewoods are raided for all this New Year forestry. Some prefectures, inthe sincerity of their devotion to afforestation, forbid the New Yeardestruction of pine trees. I remember the gay and elaborate dressing of the horses during the NewYear holidays. I saw one driver of a wagon who was not content withtying streamers on every part of his horse where streamers could betied: he had also decorated himself, even to the extent of having hadhis head cropped to a special pattern, tracts of hair and bare scalpalternating. It was pleasant to learn that a fine chrysanthemum show arranged in anopen space in Tokyo was free to the public. Some plants, by means ofgrafting, bore flowers of half a dozen different varieties. Severalplants had been wondrously trained into the form of _kuruma_, etc. Nota few of the varieties exhibited were, according to our ideas, atrocious in colouring, but many were beautiful and all were marvelsof cultivation. Even greater manipulative and horticultural skill wasrepresented in the chrysanthemums I saw at the Imperial garden party. A chief of a department of the Ministry of Agriculture told me thatfrom a chrysanthemum growing in the ground it was possible to have athousand blooms. In a Japanese room the timber upright alongside the _tokonoma_ isalways a tree trunk in the rough. If it be cherry it has its bark on. The contrast with the finely finished wood of the rest of the room isarresting. It is said that the use of the unplaned upright is not morethan three or four hundred years old and that it had its origin in_Cha-no-yu_ affectations of simplicity. I was visited one evening by an agricultural official who had returnedfrom a visit to Great Britain. He spoke of the "lonelyism" of our besthotels. In a Japanese hotel of the same class one's room is so simpleand the view of the garden is so refreshing that, with the beautifulflower arrangement indoors, the frequent change of _kakemono_, theserving of one's meals in a different set of lacquer and porcelaineach day and the willing and smiling service always within the call ofa hand clap, there comes a sense of restfulness and peace. Thedrawback which the Western man experiences is the lack of any means ofresting his back but by lying down and the inability to read for longwhile resting an elbow on an arm rest which is too low for him. [218] AJapanese often reads kneeling before a table. Here I am reminded to say that the development of the desire for booksand newspapers in the rural districts is a noticeable thing, if onlybecause it is new. It is not so long ago that reading was consideredto be an occupation for old men and women and for children. Thesamurai had few books and the farmers fewer still. But the idea ofcombining cultivation and culture was not unknown. I have heard arural student humbly quote the old saying, _Sei-kō U-doku_(literally, "Fine weather--farming--Rainy weather--reading"). I have a rural note of one of my visits to the _Nō_. [219] One farcebrought on an inferior priest of a sect which is now extinct butsurely deserves to be remembered for its encouragement of mountainclimbing. This "mountain climber, " as he was called, was hungry andclimbed a farmer's tree in order to steal persimmons. (The actor goton a stool, obligingly steadied by a supposedly invisible attendant, and pretended to clamber up a corner post of the stage. ) While he waseating the persimmons he was discovered by their owner. The farmer wasa man of humour and said that he thought that "that must be a crow inthe tree. " So the poor priest tried to caw. "No, " said the farmer, "itis surely a monkey. " So the priest began to scratch after the mannerof monkeys. "But perhaps, " the farmer went on, "it is really a kite. "The priest flapped his arms--and fell. The farmer thought that he hadthe priest at his mercy. But the priest, rubbing his beads together, put a spell on him and escaped. The word _Nō_ is written with anideograph which means ability, but _Nō_ also stands foragriculture. [220] FOOTNOTES: [211] The Kwanto plain (73 by 96 miles) includes most of Tokyo andSaitama prefecture, and also the larger part of Kanagawa and Chiba andparts of Ibaraki, Gumma and Tochigi. [212] The characters on these slabs are beautifully written. They haveusually been penned by distinguished men. [213] The Japanese man wears below his kimono or trousers a pair ofbathing shorts. Peasants frequently wear in the fields nothing but alittle cotton bag and string. [214] Poor households ordinarily use, instead of movable _hibachi_, abig square box in an opening in the floor and resting on the earth. [215] When I was in Tokyo, tradesmen's messenger boys received onlytheir food, lodging and clothing and an occasional present, with helpno doubt in starting a linked business when they were out of theirtime. Now such youths, as a development of the labour movement, are ona wage basis and receive 20 yen a month. [216] The place has since been burnt down. A bigger building has beenerected. [217] See Appendix LXII. [218] There is also the occasional whiff of the _benjo_; but, as anagricultural expert said, "It is not a bad thing that a people whichis increasingly under the influence of industrialism should becompelled to give a thought to agriculture. " There are Europeancountries famous for their farming whose sanitary experts areevidently similarly minded. [219] The fact that Dr. Waley's scholarly book is the third work onthe _Nō_ to be published in England in recent years is evidence that aknowledge of a form of lyrical drama of rare artistry is graduallyextending in the West. [220] Hence the names of the two national agricultural organisations, Teikoku Nōkai, that is the Imperial Agricultural Society, and DaiNippon Nōkai, that is the Great Japan Agricultural Society. CHAPTER XXXVI "THEY FEEL THE MERCY OF THE SUN" (GUMMA, KANAGAWA AND CHIBA) I find the consolation of life in things with which Governments cannotinterfere, in the light and beauty the earth puts forth for her children. If the universe has any meaning, it exists for the purposes of soul. --Æ One December night there walked into my house a professor ofagricultural politics, clad in tweeds and an overcoat, and with him aman who wore only a cotton kimono and a single under-garment. Thesunburnt forehead of this man showed that he was not in the habit ofwearing a hat. There is a smiling Japanese face which to manyforeigners is merely irritating. It is not less irritating when, asoften happens, it displays bad teeth ostentatiously gold-stopped. Thisman's smile was sincere and he had beautiful teeth. His hands werenervous and thin, his bearing was natural and his voice gentle. Here, evidently, was an altruist, perhaps a zealot, probably a celibate. Hewas introduced as a rural religionist from Gumma prefecture set onreforming his countrymen. It is important to know the strength of thereforming power which Japan is itself generating: here was a man whofor eight years had lived a life of poverty in remote regions and hadshaped his life by three heroes, "St. Francis, Tolstoy and Kropotkin. "He believed that the way to influence people was "to work with them. "He lived on his dole as a junior teacher in an elementary school. Hisfood, which he cooked himself, was chiefly rice and _miso_. He hadbeen a vegetarian for ten years. He was twenty-nine. He said that as far as the people of his village--largely peasantproprietors who hired additional land--were concerned, "It is happyfor them if they end the year without debt. " I asked how the men inthe village who owned land but did not work it spent their time. Thereply was: "They are chattering of many things, very trivial things, and they disturb the village. They drink too much and they haveconcubines or women elsewhere. " "If an ordinary peasant went to the next town to see women there, " thespeaker continued, "young men of the village would go and give him agood knock. In former times 'waitresses' were highly spoken of in thevillage, but not now. There are some young men who may go at night toa house where there are young girls in the family and open the door. Sometimes they bring cucumbers. Cucumbers are symbols. Some do thisout of fun and some sincerely to express their feelings. If the youngmen who do such a thing do it out of fun they are given a good knockby members of that house when discovered. If they are sincere themembers of the family will smile. There are in our village of 6, 000inhabitants only four illegitimate children. " As to the influences exerted for the betterment of the people thefollower of St. Francis was convinced that "when Buddhist influence, Shintoism, Confucianism and the good customs of our race are all mixedtogether so that you cannot discern one from the other we have someliving power. " His own religion was "that of St. Francis combined withBuddhism. " Speaking generally of rural people my visitor said: "They are fallinginto miserable conditions, are in effect spending what was accumulatedby their ancestors. Their houses are not so practical and cost more. They think they live better but their physical condition is notbetter. The number who cannot earn much is increasing. " I was told ofa growing habit among village boys of running off to Tokyo withouttheir parents' permission. And bands of girls came to the district tohelp in the silk-worm season "often without their parents' approval. " Many villagers consulted my visitor on all sorts of subjects until hehad almost no leisure. Some wanted counsel about the future of theirchildren, some desired advice about the family debt, some wanted toknow how to put an end to quarrels and some asked "how a man will beable to be easy-minded. " The ordinary result of the primary schoolsystem was "a mass of many informations in young brains and theycannot tell wisdom from knowledge. The result is that they arediscontented with their hard lot. They grow up wishing to rob eachother within the bounds of the law. They want to live comfortablywithout hard work. Good customs which were the crystallisation of theexperience of our race are dying away. " My visitor had met an old woman on the road clad miserably. She earnedas a labourer on a farm, beside her board and lodging, 25 sen daily. Of this sum she handed to a fellow-villager whom she trusted 20 sen. He gave away many clothes to the poor and her contribution was usedwith the money he expended. "If, " said she, "one shall give to God asmall thing in darkness then it is accepted to its full value, but, ifit be known, it is accepted only at a small value. " She was "contentand quite happy. " This woman and many others in the district had a primitive kind ofreligion. They observed the days called "waiting for the sun" and"waiting for the moon. " "The same-minded people gather. The one mostdeeply experienced tells something to those assembled and they beginto be imbued with the same spirit. It is some kind of transformedworship of the sun god. They feel the mercy of the sun. They do notworship the heavenly bodies but as the symbol of the mercifuluniverse. These people take meals together several times in a year. They talk not only on spiritual but on common things and about thenews in the papers. It may seem to a stranger that what they talk isfoolish, but they have a wonderful power to attract the essential outof those trifles. " "The fundamental power which made Japan what it is, " the speaker wenton with animation, "is not institutions and statesmen, but thoseprimitive religious acts. The people strongly resembling the old womanI spoke of may be only 1 per cent. , but almost all villagers areimbued with such religious notions and feel thankfulness, and on rareoccasions a latent sentiment springs from their hearts. Their religionmay be connected with Buddhism or Shintoism; it is not Buddhism orShintoism, however, but a primitive belief which in its manifestationvaries much in different villages. For example, in one village thegood deeds of an ancient sage are told. The time when that priestlived and particulars about him are getting dimmer and dimmer, but hisinfluence is still considerable. Though many people are worshipped innational and prefectural shrines the influence of those enshrined issmall compared with the influence of a man or woman of the past whowas not much celebrated but was thought to be good by the rusticpeople. "Think of the way in which the memory of the maid-servant Otake isworshipped by the peasants through one-half of Japan. That was a piousand illuminated person who worked very hard. As her _uta_ (poem) says, 'Though hands and feet are very busy at work, still I can praise andfollow God always because my mind and heart are not occupied byworldly things. ' She ate poor food and gave her own food to beggars. So when a countryman wastes the bounty of nature he is stillreprimanded by the example of that maid-servant. She is more respectedthan many great men. " My visitor thought a religious revival might happen under theleadership of a Christian or of a Buddhist, or of a man who "unitedBuddhism and Christianity" or "developed the primitive form of faithamong the lower people. " He thought there were "already men in thecountry who might be these leaders. " He said that much might happen inten years. "Materialism is prevalent everywhere, but people will beginto feel difficulties in following their materialism. When they cannotgo any further with it they will begin to be awakened. " And then this young man who sincerely desires to do something with hislife and has at any rate made a beginning went his way. Up and downJapan I met several single-hearted men not unlike him. One day I made an excursion from Tokyo and came on an extraordinaryavenue of small wooden red painted _torii_, gimcracky things made outof what a carpenter would call "two by two stuff. " By the time I gotto the shrine to which the _torii_ led I must have passed a thousandof these erections. In one spot there was a stack of _torii_ lying ontheir sides. The shrine was in honour of the fox god and there was acurious story behind it. Twenty years before a man interested in the"development" of the district had caused it to be given out thatfoxes, the messengers of the god Inari, had been seen on this spot inthe vicinity of a humble shrine to that divinity. The farmers werecontinually questioned about the matter. It was suggested that the godwas manifesting his presence. In the end more and more worshipperscame, and, with the liberal assistance of the speculator, a fine newshrine was erected in place of the shabby one. His hand was also seenin the building of a big burrow--of concrete--for the comfort of thegod's messenger. The top of the burrow also furnished an excellentview of the surrounding district, and teahouses were built in thevicinity. Indeed in a year or two quite a village of teahouses cameinto existence. The place, which was on the sea-coast, had become akind of Southend or Coney Island, and attracted thousands of visitors. A large proportion of these teahouses would have great difficulty inestablishing a claim to respectability. Numbers of lamps which crowdedthe space before the shrine were the gifts of women of bad characterand the inscriptions on these gifts bore the _addresses andprofession_ of the donors. The final irony was the provision of a tramservice for the convenience of those who wished to worship at anotheraltar than that of the fox god. Although most of the visitors foundthe chief attraction of the place in the teahouses, [221] they werenone the less devout. Every visitor to the teahouses worshipped at theshrine. What do those who bow their heads and throw their Coppers in thetreasury pray for? "Well-being to my family and prosperity to mybusiness" was, I was told, a common form of invocation. Even among nota few reasonably well educated people there is a conviction thatprayers made at the altar of the fox god are peculiarly efficacious. Kanzō Uchimura, who accompanied me on this trip, improved the occasionby saying in his vigorous English: "You in the West have somedifficulty, no doubt, in understanding the fierceness of theindignation with which Old Testament prophets denounce heathen gods. When you behold such an exhibition as this you may be helped tounderstand. Here is impurity under divine protection, and this placemay fairly be called a fashionable shrine. The visitor to Japan oftenvaunts himself on being broadminded. He regards heathendom as onlyanother sect and he desires to be respectful to it. But I want to showyou that it is not a case of only another sect but often a case ofgross and demoralising superstition and priestly countenancing ofimmorality. Heaven forbid that I should deny the beauty of the idea ofthe foxes being the messengers of divinity or that I should suggestthat some religious feelings may not inspire and some religiousfeeling may not reward the sincere devotion of the countryman to hisfox god, but how much does it amount to in sum?" I thought of what Uchimura had said when one day, in the course of awalk with his critic, Yanagi (Chapter XI), I was shown a shrinepitifully bedizened by the _waraji_ (straw sandals) and _ema_[222] ofa thousand or more pilgrims who were suffering or had recovered fromsyphilis. [223] During our conversation Yanagi said: "Shintoism is not of course areligion at all. It draws great strength from the national instinctfor cleanliness manifested by people living in a hot climate. Thereligion of poor people is largely custom; I complain of educatedpeople not that they are sceptical but that they are not scepticalenough. They simply don't care. According to Mr. Uchimura, there isonly one way to God and that is through Christianity. But there aremany ways. A personal religion like Christianity is more effectivethan Buddhism, but it does not follow that Christianity is better thanBuddhism. I find I get to like Mr. Uchimura more and more and hisviews less and less. It is not his theoretical Christianity but hiscourageous spirit which attracts. He is a courageous man and we havevery great need of morally courageous men. Although Christianity isimpossible without Christ, Buddhism is possible without Buddha. Avariety of religions is not harmful, and we have to take note of theChristian temperament and the Buddhistic temperament. Orientals canonly be appealed to by an Oriental religion. Christianity is anOriental religion no doubt, but it has been Westernised. It mustalways be borne in mind that Buddhistic literature is in a speciallanguage and that it is difficult for most people to get a generalview of Buddhism. " In further talk the speaker said that in Japan the individual had notbeen separated from the mass. But it was difficult to exaggerate theswiftness of the national development. The newer Russian writers were"certainly as well known in England, possibly better known. " As toTolstoy alone, there were at least fifty books about him. But it hadto be admitted that, generally speaking, the Japanese developmentthough rapid had not gone deep. In painting there was dexterity andtechnique but few men knew where they were going. Their work was"surface beautiful. " They had not passed the stage of Zorn. We spoke of conscription and I said that it had not escaped myattention that many young men showed an increasing desire to avoidmilitary service. From a single person I had heard of youths who hadescaped by looking ill--through a week's fasting--by impairing theireyesight by wearing strong glasses for a few weeks, by contriving tobe examined in a fishing village where the standard of physique washigh, or by shamming Socialist. [224] Many Japanese bearuncomplainingly the heavy burden of the military system. But theothers are to be reckoned with. Said one of these to me: "We Japanese are not inherently a warlikepeople and have no desire to be militarists; but we are suffering fromGerman influence not only in the army but through the middle-agedlegal, scientific and administrative classes who were largely educatedin Germany or influenced by German teaching. This German influence mayhave been held in check to some extent, perhaps, by the artisticworld, which has certainly not been German, except in relation tomusic, and after all that is the best part of Germany. Many youngpeople have taken their ideas largely from Russia; more from theUnited States and Great Britain. But Germany will always make herappeal on account of her reputation with us for system, order, industry, depth of knowledge, persistence and nationalism. " On the family system, the study of which was more than once urged uponme in connection with the rural problem, this statement was made to meby an agricultural expert: "I will tell you the story of an officialwhose salary was that of a Governor. His father was a farmer. Thefarmer borrowed money to educate his son. When the son became anofficial he paid the money back, but on the small salaries he receivedthis repayment was a strain. Then two brothers came to his housefrequently for money, and when they received it spent it in ridiculousways. This begging has gone on for nine years. My friend has to livenot like an Excellency but like a _gunchō_. He cannot treat his wifeand children fairly. But of the money he gives to his brothers hesays, 'It is my family expense. '" I also heard this story: "A married B. B died without having anychildren. A next married B's sister, C. Then, because of the necessityof having a male heir for the maintenance of his family, and becausehe thought it was unlikely that his wife C would have children as herdead sister B had had none, he adopted his wife's younger brother, D. But the wife C did have children. Consequently, not only is A's wifehis sister-in-law and his eldest 'son' his wife's brother, but hischildren are his eldest 'son's' nephews. The eldest of these children, E, is legally the younger son. He says, 'I am glad that instead of anuncle I have an elder brother. I am much attached to him and he isattached to me. I am not sorry to be younger instead of elder brother, for when my father dies my adopted brother will become head of thefamily and he must then bring up his younger brothers and sisters, manage the family fortunes, bear the family troubles and keep all thecousins and uncles in good humour by inviting them occasionally and atother times by visiting them and giving them presents. '[225] "It is obvious that our family system, for speaking in criticism ofwhich officials have been dismissed from their posts, puts too muchstress on the family and too little on the individual. The family isthe unit of society. Any member of it is only a fraction of that unit. For the sake of the family every member of it must sacrifice almosteverything. [226] Sometimes the development of the individual characterand individual initiative is checked by the family system. An eldestson is often required to follow his father's calling irrespective ofhis tastes. Nowadays some eldest sons go abroad, but their departureattracts attention and you seldom find such a thing happening amongfarmers. The family system, by which all is subordinated to family, isconvenient to farmers for it means increased labour and economy ofliving. Sometimes there may be two married sons living at home andthen there is often strife. Generally speaking, the family system atone and the same time keeps young men from striking out in the worldand compels their early marriage so that the helping hands to thefamily may be more numerous. The family system concentrates theattention on the family and not on society. There is no energy leftfor society. "Again, the family system gives too much power to relatives and leadsto disagreeable interference. In the case of a marriage being proposedbetween family A and family B, the families related to A or B who willbe brought into closer connection by the marriage may object. On theother hand, the family system has the advantage that the relatives whointerfere may also be looked upon for help. Not a few people are allfor maintaining the family system. But the spirit of individualism isentering into some families and here and there children are beginningto claim their rights and to act against relatives' wishes. One hearsof farmers sending boys, even elder sons, to the towns, and for theirequipment borrowing from the prefectural agricultural bank instead ofspending on the development of their business. " At a Christmas-day luncheon I met four students of rural problems, twoof whom were peers, one a governor of an important prefecture, and afourth a high official in the agricultural world. One man, speaking ofthe family system, said "the success of agriculture depends on it. ""In my opinion, " someone remarked, "the foundation of the familysystem is common production and common consumption, so when thesethings go there must be a gradual disappearance of the family system. ""No, " came the rejoinder, "the only enemy of the family system isWestern influence. " "Yes, " the fourth speaker added, "an enemy whoseblows have told. " Someone suggested that the Japanese rural emigrant always hoped toreturn home, that is if he could return with dignity--does not theproverb speak of the desirability of returning home in good clothes?One of the company said that he had seen in Kyushu rows ofwhite-washed slated houses which had been erected by returnedemigrants. "But they were successful prostitutes. Often, however, these girls invest their money unwisely and have to go abroad again. " Everybody at table agreed that there was in the villages a slow ifsteady slackening of "the power of the landlord, of the authoritiesand of religion, " and a development of a desire and a demand forbetter conditions of life. One who proclaimed himself a conservativeurged that changes of form were too readily confounded with changes ofspirit. The change in thought in Japan, he said, was slow, and someoccurrences might be easily misjudged. I said that that very day I hadheard from my house the drone of an aeroplane prevail over the soundof a temple bell, happening to speak of _The Golden Bough_, I asked myneighbour, who had read it, if to a Japanese who got its penetratingview some things could ever be the same again. He answered frankly, "There are things in our life which are too near to criticise. Do youknow that there are parts of Japan where folklore is still beingmade?" I was invited one evening to dinner to meet a dozen men conspicuous inthe agricultural world. Priests were apologised for because most ofthem were "very poor men and also poorly educated. " Very few had beeneven to a middle school. Many priests read Chinese scriptures aloudbut they did not understand what they were reading. One man reported that an old farmer had said to him that paddy-fieldlabour was harder than dry-land labour, but young men did not go offto Tokyo because of the severity of the work; they went away becauseof "the bondage of rural life. " How much has the economic stress affected old convictions? How generaland how eager is the Japanese resolution to Westernise farther? Noneof the rural sociologists had given any thought apparently to a newfactor in the rural problem: the way in which compulsory militaryservice, in taking farmers' sons to the cities as soldiers andbluejackets, is giving them an acquaintance with neo-Malthusianism. InTokyo and other large cities certain articles are prominentlyadvertised on the hoardings. It is of some importance to consider whatwill be the effect of this knowledge in competition with the nationalappreciation of large families. [227] Is it likely that an intensely"practical" people, which has bolted so much of European and American"civilisation, " will be wholly uninfluenced by the Western practice oflimitation of offspring? What is to-day the actual strength of thesocial needs which have produced the large Japanese family?[228]Whatever middle-aged Japanese may think, the matter is not in theirhands, but in the hands of the younger generation. Most Westerneconomists would no doubt argue that if fewer babies arrived in Japanthere would not be so many farmers' boys and university graduates benton emigrating. Without the voluntary limitation of families, however, the number ofchildren born is likely to be diminished by the increased cost ofliving and by the postponement of marriage. I know Japanese men whowere married before they were twenty; the younger generation of myfriends is marrying nearer thirty. [229] There is reason to believe that the population has not increased ofrecent years at the old rate. [230] A responsible authority expressedthe opinion to me that the necessities of the population are unlikelyto overtake the means of production in the near future. [231] The Japanese are intensely practical, but they have, as we have seen, another side. If that other side is not "spiritual, " in the sense inwhich the word is largely used in the West, it is at least regardfulof other considerations than the "practical. " It is with thoughts ofthat vital side of the national character that I recall a story toldme by Dr. Nitobe of the last days of the Forty-seven Ronin. It is wellauthenticated. When the Ronin had slain their dead lord's persecutorand had given themselves up to the authorities, they were found worthyof death. But the Shogun was in some anxiety as to what might justlybe done. He sent privily to a famous abbot saying that it was at alltimes the duty of the Shogun to condemn to death men who had committedmurder. Yet it was the privilege of a priest to ask for mercy, and inthe matter of the lives of the Ronin the Shogun would not be unwillingto listen to a plea for mercy. The abbot answered that he sympathiseddeeply with the Ronin, but because he so sympathised with them he wasunwilling to take any steps which might hinder the carrying out of thesentence. It was true, he said, that there were old men among theRonin, but many, of them were young men--one was only fifteen--and ithad to be borne in mind that if they escaped death at the hands of thelaw it was hardly likely that during the whole course of theirafter-lives they could hope to escape committing sin of some sort oranother. At the moment they had reached a pinnacle of nobility whichthey could never pass and it was a thing to be desired for them thatthey should die now, when they would live to all posterity as heroes. The happiest fate for the Ronin was a righteous death, and as theiradmiring sympathiser the abbot expressed his unwillingness to doanything which might have the effect of saving them from so gloriousan end. FOOTNOTES: [221] Someone said to me, "I have in mind one village where there is apoorly cared-for school and a score of teahouses giving employment tonearly two hundred people. " [222] "Small boards with crude designs painted on them. They may beprayers, thank-offerings or protective charms. A shrine where manythanks _ema_ have been left is clearly that of a god ready to hear andanswer prayer. Worshippers flock to the place and the accumulation ofpainted boards--whether prayers or thanks--increases. "--FREDERICKSTARR, _Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. Xlviii. [223] The percentage in conscripts in 1918 was 2. 2 per cent, against2. 5 per cent, in 1917 and 2. 7 per cent, in 1916. ("Not less than 10per cent. Of the population of our large towns are infected withsyphilis and a much larger proportion with gonorrhœa. "--SIR JAMESCRICHTON-BROWNE. ) The figures for the general population of Japan mustbe higher. [224] See Appendix LXIII. [225] It sometimes happens that an adopted son is dismissed with "asufficient monetary compensation" when a real son is born. [226] I met a fine ex-daimyo, who after the Restoration had served asa prefectural governor. He was so generous in giving money to publicobjects in his prefecture that his family compelled him to resignoffice. [227] See Appendix XXX. [228] It is only within the last quarter of a century that theauthorities have taken a stand against infanticide. There is notraditional dislike of an artificial diminution of progeny, for manyof the fathers and grandfathers of the present generation practisedit. Methods of procuring abortion were also common. A certain planthas a well-known reputation as an abortifacient. A young peer and hiswife are now conducting a campaign on behalf of smaller families, andthe discussion has advanced far enough for a magazine to invite Dr. Havelock Ellis to express his views. [229] According to the 1918 figures the ages at which men and womenmarried were as follows per 1, 000: before 20, m. 37. 6, w. 259. 0;20-25, m. 304. 9, w. 434. 8; 26-30, m. 347. 9, w. 159. 4; 31-35, m. 145. 1, w. 67. 3; 36-40, m. 70. 0, w. 37. 1; 41-45, m. 41. 8, w. 21. 4; 46-50, m. 22. 8, w. 10. 5; 51-55, m. 14. 7, w. 6. 0; 56-60, m. 7. 3, w. 2. 5; 61 andupwards, m. 7. 9, w. 2. [230] See Appendix XXX. [231] See Appendices XXV and LXXX; also page 363 for the reasonsoperating against emigration. Mr. J. Russell Kennedy, ofKokusai-Reuter, declared (1921) that it was "a myth that Japan mustfind an outlet for surplus population; Japan has plenty of room withinher own border, " that is, including Korea and Formosa as well asHokkaido in Japan. Mr. S. Yoshida, Secretary of the Japanese Embassyin London, in an address also delivered in 1921, stressed the value ofthe fishing-grounds and the mercantile marine as openings for anincreased population. "The resources of the sea, " he said, "give Japanmore room for her population than appears. " REFLECTIONS IN HOKKAIDO CHAPTER XXXVII COLONIAL JAPAN AND ITS UN-JAPANESE WAYS Above all, this is not concerned with poetry. --WILFRED OWEN When the traveller stands at the northern end of the mainland[232] ofJapan he is five hundred miles from Tokyo. In the north of Hokkaido heis a thousand miles away. Hokkaido, the most northerly and the secondbiggest of the four islands into which Japan is divided, is curiouslyAmerican. The wide straight streets of the capital, Sapporo, [233] laidout at right angles, the rough buggies with the farmer and his wiferiding together, the wooden houses with stove stacks, and, instead ofpaper-covered _shoji_, window panes: these things are seen nowhereelse in Japan and came straight from America. It was certainly fromAmerica that the farmers had their cries of "Whoa. " One of the bestauthorities on Hokkaido has declared that the administrative andagricultural instructors whom America sent there from about the timeof the Franco-Prussian war "gave Japan a fairer, kindlier conceptionof America than all her study of American history. " In Old Japan there is always something which speaks of the centuriesthat are gone; in Sapporo there is nothing that matters which is fiftyyears old. One of the most remarkable facts in the agriculturalhistory of Japan is that a country with a teeming population and anintensive farming should have left entirely undeveloped to so late aperiod as the early seventies a great island of 35, 000 square mileswhich lies within sight of its shores. The wonder is that an attempton Yezo[234] was not made by the Russians, who, but for the vigorousaction of a British naval commander, would undoubtedly have takenpossession of the island of Tsushima, 700 miles farther south andmidway between Japan and Korea. Up to the time of the fall of theShogun the revenue of the lords of Yezo was got by taxing the harvestof the sea and the precarious gains of hunters. The Imperial Rescriptcarried by the army which was sent against certain adherents of theShogun who had fled there said: "We intend to take steps to reclaimand people the island. "[235] It is doubtful if at that period thepopulation was more than 60, 000[236] (including Ainu). [237] When Count Kuroda was put at the head of the Colonial Government hewent over to America and secured as his adviser-in-chief the chief ofthe Agricultural Department at Washington. Stock, seeds, fruit trees, implements and machinery, railway engines, buildings, practicallyeverything was American in the early days of Hokkaido. During aten-year period, in which forty-five American instructors were sentfor, five Russians, four Britons, four Germans, three Dutchmen and aFrenchman were also imported. [238] Governor Kuroda had a million yen placed at his disposal for ten yearsin succession, and a million yen was a big sum in those days. Beforelong there were flour mills, breweries, beet-sugar factories, canningplants, lead and coal mining and silk manufacturing and an experimentin soldier colonisation which owed something to Russian experiments inCossack farming. An agricultural school grew into a large agriculturalcollege; and this agricultural college has lately become theUniversity of Hokkaido, with nearly a thousand students. [239] How muchof a pioneer Sapporo College was may be gathered from the fact thatwhen I was in Hokkaido 67 out of the 140 men who were members of thefaculty had been themselves taught there. Dean Sato (Japan's firstexchange lecturer to American universities), Dr. Nitobe (JapaneseSecretary of the League of Nations) and Kanzō Uchimura were among thefirst students. There have always been American professors atSapporo--its first president came from Massachusetts--and theprofessorship of English has always been held by an American. The 50 acres of elm-studded land in which the University buildingsstand are a surprise, for the elm grows nowhere else in Japan butHokkaido. [240] The extent of the University's landed possessions isalso unexpected. There are two training farms of 185 and 260 acresrespectively, beautifully kept botanic gardens, a tract of 15, 000acres on which there are already more than a thousand tenants, and300, 000 acres of forests in Hokkaido, Saghalien and Korea. Four orfive times as many students as can be admitted offer themselves atSapporo. There is in Hokkaido an agricultural and rural life conceived for acountry where stock may be kept and a farmer does not need to practisethe superintensive farming of Old Japan. At the first University farmI looked over it was clear that not only American but Swedish, Germanand Swiss farming practice had had its influence. No longer was thefarmer content with mattocks, hoes and flails. A silo dominated thescene, and maize, eaten from the cob in Old Japan, was a crop forstock. [241] I also noticed crops of oats and rye. I arrived in Hokkaido in the last week of August in a linen suit andwas glad to put on a woollen one. By September 29 it was snowing. Snow-shoes were shown among the products of the island at theprefectural exhibition. Canadians have likened the climate of Hokkaidoto that of Manitoba. Hokkaido is on the line of the Great Lakes, butthe cold current from the North makes comparisons of this sortineffective. It is only in southern Hokkaido that apples will grow. Thirty years ago wolves and bear were shot two miles from Sapporo andbear may still be found within ten miles. The sea fisheries of Hokkaido are valuable but agriculture andforestry are greater money makers. Even without forestry agricultureis well ahead of factory industry, which is also eclipsed by mining. Industry is aided by the presence of coal. Among manufactures, brewingstands out even more conspicuously than wood-pulp making or canning. One of the three best-known beers in Japan comes from Hokkaido. [242]In contrast with the situation in Old Japan, where the land is halfpaddy and half upland, there is in Hokkaido only a ninth of thecultivated land under rice. [243] When I was in Hokkaido there were600, 000 _chō_ under cultivation, a hundred and fifty times more thanthere were in 1873. The line marking the northern or rather thenorth-eastern limit of rice shows roughly a third of the island on thenorthern and eastern coasts to be at present beyond the skill of ricegrowers. There is always uncertainty with the rice crop in Hokkaido. As the growing period is short, half the rice is not transplanted butsown direct in the paddies. A bad crop is expected once in sevenyears. In such a season there is no yield and even the straw is notgood. Immigrants get 5 _chō_, but if they are without capital they first goto work as tenants. There are contractors in the towns who supplylabourers to farmers and factories at busy times. When newcomers havecapital and are keen on rice growing and are families working withouthired labour, they are strongly recommended not to devote more than2-1\2 _chō_ to rice--from 3 to 5 _chō_ are the absolute limit--against1-1\2 or 2 _chō_ to other crops. When the holder of a 5-_chō_ holdingprospers he buys a second farm and more horses and implements, andhires labour for the busy period. But 10 or 15 _chō_ is considered asmuch as can be worked in this way. If the area is more than 10 or 15_chō_ it is difficult to get labour in the busy season, for it is thebusy season for everybody. Labourers from a distance can be got onlyat an unprofitable rate. It is first the lack of capital and then thelack of labour which prevents the farmer extending his holding. [244]The limit of practical mixed farming is 30 _chō_. (Stock farming isfor milk rather than for meat, and more than one condensed-milkfactory is in operation. ) Even in Hokkaido large farming, as it isunderstood in Great Britain and America, is not easy to find. [245] On my journey north from Sapporo the first thing which brought home tome the colonial character of the agriculture was the tree stumpssticking up in the paddies. The second was the extent to which therivers were still uncontrolled. The longest river in Japan, 260 mileslong, is in Hokkaido. There was obviously a vast moorland area in needof draining. Peat--there are 300, 000 _chō_ of it--may be a standbywhen the waste of timber that is going on brings about a shortage offuel other than coal. From poor peat soil, which was growing oats, buckwheat and millet, we passed to land capable of producing rice, andsaw ploughing with horses. One region had been opened for only twentyyears, but already the farmers had cultivated the hillsides in theassiduous fashion of Old Japan. From Ashigawa we made some excursions in a prim _basha_ to placeswhich were always several miles farther on than they were supposed tobe and were usually reached by tracks covered with stones from 6 to 9ins. Long and having ruts a foot deep. We visited a large estate with 350 tenants who were mostly working2-1/2 _chō_, though some had twice as much. Nearly all of thesetenants appeared to have one or two horses, although the estatemanager had advised them to use oxen or cows as more economicaldraught animals. When I remembered the distance the farmers were fromthe town and the state of the roads, and noticed the satisfactionwhich the men we passed displayed in being able to ride, it was easyto believe that the possession of a horse might have its value as ameans of social progress. During the last ten years half the tenantshad made enough to enable them to buy farms. The tenants on thisestate had two temples and one shrine. [246] I visited a fifteen-years-old co-operative alcohol factory with acapital of 300, 000 yen. Of its materials 80 per cent. Seemed to bepotato starch waste and 20 per cent. Maize. The product was 6, 000 or7, 000 _koku_ of alcohol. The dividend was 8 per cent. On the waste alarge number of pigs was fed. The animals were kept in pens withboarded floors within a small area, and I was not surprised to learnthat three or four died every month. Starch making, which produces thewaste used by the alcohol factory, is managed on quite a small scale. An outfit may cost no more than 30 or 50 yen. I went over a smallpeppermint-making plant. Most of the peppermint raised in Japan--itreaches a value of 2 million yen--is grown in Hokkaido. One day in the eastern part of the island I met in a small hotel, which was run by a man and his wife who had been in America, severalold farmers who had obviously made money. They declared that formerlyonly 20 per cent. Of the colonists succeeded, but now the proportionwas more than 65 per cent. I imagine that they meant by success thatthe colonists did really well, for it was added that it was rare inthat district for people to return to Old Japan. One of the companysaid that not more than 5 per cent. Returned. "Land is too expensiveat home, " he continued; "when a Japanese comes here and gets some, heworks hard. " A good man, they said, should make, after four or fiveyears, 70 to 100 yen clear profit in a year. I rather suspect that the men I talked with had made some of theirmoney by advancing funds to their neighbours on mortgage. They allseemed to own several farms. When I asked how religion prospered inHokkaido they said with a smile, "There are many things to do here, sothere is no spare time for religion as in our native places. " There isa larger proportion of Christians in Hokkaido than on the mainland. One village of a thousand inhabitants contained two churches and aSalvation Army barracks. It was reputed, also, to have eight or ten"waitresses" and five saké shops. It is said that a good deal of_shochu_, which is stronger than saké, is drunk. The roughest _basha_ ride I made was to a place seven miles fromrailhead in the extreme north-east. Such roads as we adventured by arelittle more than tracks with ditches on either side. The journey back, because there were no horses to ride, we made in a narrow butextraordinarily heavy farm wagon with wheels a foot wide and drawn bya stallion. Shortly after starting there was a terrific thunderstormwhich soaked us and hastened uncomfortably the pace of the animal inthe shafts. When the worst of the downpour was over, and we had facedthe prospect of slithering about the wagon for the rest of thejourney, for the stallion had decided to hurry, a farmer's wife askedus for a lift and clambered in with agility. My companion and I werethen sitting in a soggy state with our backs against the wagon frontand our legs outstretched resignedly. The cheery farmer's wife, whowas wet too, plopped down between us and, as the bumps came, grippedone of my legs with much good fellowship. She was a godsend by reasonof her plumpness, for we were now wedged so tight that we no longerrocked and pitched about the wagon at each jolt. And no doubt we driedmore quickly. Providence had indeed been good to us, for shortlyafterwards we passed, lying on its side in a _spruit_, the _basha_that had carried us on our outward journey. We were three hours in all in the wagon. Our passenger told us thather husband had several farms and that they were very comfortably offand very glad that they had come to Hokkaido. When the farmer's wifehad to alight a mile from our destination we chose to walk. Bad roadsare a serious problem for the Hokkaido farmer. In one district, onlyfifteen miles from the capital, they are so bad that rice is at halfthe price it makes in Sapporo. It is unfortunate that the roads are attheir worst in autumn and spring when the farmer wants to transporthis produce. I visited the 700-acre settlement which Mr. Tomeoka has opened inconnection with his Tokyo institution for the reclamation of youngwastrels. His formula is, "Feed them well, work them hard and givethem enough sleep. " Among the volumes on his shelves there were threebooks about Tolstoy and another three, one English, one American andone German, all bearing the same title, _The Social Question_. Needless to say that _Self-Help_ had its place. I liked Mr. Tomeoka's idea of an open-air chapel on a tree-shadedheight from which there was a fine view. It reminded me of the viewfrom an open space on rising ground near the famous Danish rural highschool of Askov, from which, on Sundays, parties of excursionists usedto look down enviously on Slesvig and irritate the Germans by singingDanish national songs. Mr. Tomeoka believed in better houses andbetter food for farmers and in money raised by means of the _kō_--"therules and regulations of co-operative societies are too complicatedfor farmers to understand. " I saw the huts of some settlers who had weathered their first Hokkaidowinter. Buckwheat, scratched in in open spaces among the trees, wasthe chief crop. The huts consisted of one room. Most of the floor wasraised above the ground and covered with rough straw matting. In thecentre of the platform was the usual fire-hole. The walls were mattingand brushwood. I was assured that "the snow and good fires, for whichthere is unlimited fuel, keep the huts warm. " The railway winds through high hills and makes sharp curves and steepascents and descents. There are tracts of rolling country under roughgrass. Sometimes these areas have been cleared by forest firesstarted by lightning. Wide spaces are a great change from the sceneryof closely farmed Japan. The thing that makes the hillsides differentfrom our wilder English and Scottish hillsides is that there areneither sheep nor cattle on them. When the culpable destruction of timber in Hokkaido is added to whathas been lost by forest fires, due to lightning or to accident--oneconflagration was more than 200 acres in extent--it is easy to realisethat the rivers are bringing far more water and detritus from thehills than they ought to do and are preparing flood problems withwhich it will cost millions to cope when the country gets more closelysettled. It is deplorable that, apart from needless burning on thehillsides, the farmers have not been dissuaded from completelyclearing their arable land of trees. On many holdings there is noteven a clump left to shelter the farmhouse and buildings. In not a fewdistricts the colonists have created treeless plains. In place afterplace the once beautiful countryside is now ugly and depressing. FOOTNOTES: [232] The word used by people in Hokkaido for the main island, Hondoor Honshu (_Hon_, main; _do_ or _shu_, land), is _Naichi_ (interior). [233] From Aomori on the mainland to Hakodate in Hokkaido is a50-miles sea trip. Then comes a long night journey to Sapporo, duringwhich one passes between two active volcanoes. The sea trip is 50miles because a large part of the route taken by the steamer isthrough Aomori Bay. The nearest part of Hokkaido to the mainland is alittle less than the distance between Dover and Calais. [234] Foreigners sometimes confound Yezo (Hokkaido) with Yedo, the oldname for Tokyo. [235] A sixth of Hokkaido still belongs to the Imperial Household. In1918 it decided to sell forest and other land (parts of Japan notstated) to the value of 100 million yen. In 1917 the Imperial estateswere estimated at 18-3/4 million chō of forest and 22-1/4 million chōof "plains, " that is tracts which are not timbered nor cultivated norbuilt on. [236] In 1919 it was 2, 137, 700. [237] Considerations of space compel the holding over of a chapter onthe Ainu for another volume. [238] Of the 96 foreign instructors in institutions "under the directcontrol" of the Tokyo Department of Education in 1917-18, there were27 British, 22 German, 19 American and 12 French. [239] Hokkaido is one of five Imperial universities. There are inaddition several well-known private universities. [240] Grouse are also to be found in Hokkaido, but no pheasants and nomonkeys. The deep Tsugaru Strait marks an ancient geological divisionbetween Hokkaido and the mainland. [241] It is sometimes eaten, ground to a rough meal, with rice. Theargument is that maize is two thirds the price of rice and more easilydigested. [242] See Appendix XXXVII. [243] The latest figures for Hokkaido show only a tenth. [244] For farmers' incomes, see Appendix XIII. [245] For sizes of farms, see Appendix LXIV. [246] For a tenant's contract, see Appendix LXV. CHAPTER XXXVIII SHALL THE JAPANESE EAT BREAD AND MEAT? _Bon yori shoko_ (Proof, not argument) One day in Tokyo I heard a Japanese who was looking at a photograph ofa British woman War-worker feeding pigs ask if the animals were sheep. Sheep are so rare in Japan that an old ram has been exhibited at acountry fair as a lion. In contrast with Western agriculture based onlive stock we have in Japan an agriculture based on rice. [247] But asection of the Japanese agricultural world turns its eyes longingly tomixed farming, and so, when I returned to Sapporo from my trip to thenorth of Hokkaido, I was taken to see a Government stock farm--with asmoking volcano in the background. Hokkaido has four other officialfarms, one belonging to the Government and one for raising horses forthe army. I was shown, in addition to horses, Ayrshire, Holstein andBrown Swiss cattle, Berkshire and Yorkshire pigs and Southdown andShropshire sheep in good buildings. I noticed two self-binders and ahay loader and I beheld for the first time in Japan a dairymaid andcollies--one was of a useless show type. The extent to which the knack of looking after animals and a likingfor them can be developed is an interesting question. Experts instock-keeping with generations of experience behind them will agreethat it is on the answer to this question that the success ornon-success of the Japanese in animal industry in no small measuredepends. I have a note of a discussion on the general treatment of domesticanimals in Japan in the course of which it was admitted that they were"certainly not treated as well as in most parts of Europe, or as inChina. " One reason given was that "most sects believe in thereincarnation of the wicked in the form of animals. " The freedom whichdogs enjoyed in English houses seemed strange; my friends no doubtforgot that Western houses have no _tatami_ to be preserved. It wascontended, however, that cavalry soldiers "often weep on parting fromtheir horses" and that "people with knowledge of animals are fond ofthem. " I have myself seen farmers' wives in tears at a horse fair whenthe foals they had reared were to be sold and the animals in theirtimidity nuzzled them. Westerners who are familiar with the exquisiteand humoursome studies of animal, bird and insect life by Japaneseartists of the past and present day, [248] are in no doubt that suchwork was prompted by real knowledge and love of the "lower creation. "The Japanese have a keen appreciation of the "song" of an amazingvariety of "musical" insects--there are 20, 000 kinds of insects. It isan appreciation not vouchsafed to the foreigner whose nerves areracked by the insistent bizz of the _semi_ or cicada--there are 38kinds of cicada. Everyone will recall Hearn's chapter on the trade in"singing insects. " One of my hosts in Aichi had two tiny cages which each contained oneof these creatures. The cages were hung from the eaves. In the eveningwhen the stone lantern in the garden was lit, and it was desired togive an illusion of greater coolness after a hot day a servant wassent up to the roof to pour down a tubful of water in order to producethe dripping sound of rain; and this at once set the caged insectschirping. The sensitive foreigner is distressed by the way in which newly bornpuppies and kittens are thrown out to die because their Buddhistowners are too scrupulous to kill them. The stranger's feelings arealso worked on by the unhappy demeanour and uncared-for look of dogsand cats. On chancing to enter in a Japanese city an English homewhere there were three dogs I could not but mark how they contrastedin bearing and appearance with the generality of the animals I hadseen. Yet these dogs were all mongrel foundlings which had beenabandoned near my friend's house or dropped into her garden. No doubtmost Japanese dogs suffer from having too much rice--and polished atthat--and practically no bones. An excuse for the neglect of cats isthat they scratch woodwork and _tatami_ and insist on carrying theirfood into the best room. Horses are often overloaded and mercilessly driven on hillyroads. [249] On the other hand, carters lead their horses. It might beadded that the coolies who haul and push handcarts bearing enormousloads never spare themselves. I was told more than once of people whohad been too tenderhearted to make an end of old horses. I also heardof hens which had been allowed to live on until they died of old age. In some mountain communities it is the custom, when a chicken must bekilled for a visitor's meal, for an exchange of birds to be made witha neighbour in order that the killing may not be too painful for theowner. [250] Except in hotels and stores in Tokyo and the cities which cater forforeigners, one seldom sees such an animal product as cheese. On theGovernment farm I found excellent cheese and butter being made. Untravelled Japanese have the dislike of the smell of cheese thatWestern people have of the stench of boiling _daikon_. Nor is cheesethe only alien food with which the ordinary Japanese has a difficulty. The smell of mutton is repugnant to him and he has yet to acquire ataste for milk. The demand for milk is increasing, however. The guidebooks are quite out of date. Nearly all the milk ordinarily sold forforeigners and invalids is supplied sterilised in bottles. On theplatforms of the larger railway stations bottles of milk are vendedfrom a copper container holding hot water. In places where I have beenable to obtain bread I have usually had no difficulty in getting milk. (The word for bread, _pan_, has been in the language since the comingof the Portuguese, and all over Japan one finds sponge cake, _kasutera_, a word from the Spanish. ) Butter in country hotels isusually rancid, for the reason, I imagine, that it is carelesslyhandled and kept too long and that few Japanese know the taste of goodbutter. The development of a liking for bread and butter is obviouslyone of the conditions of the establishment of a successful animalindustry. Condensed milk is sold in large quantities, but chiefly tosupplement infants' supplies and to make sweetstuff. The 1919production was estimated at 57 million tins. One argument for an animal industry is that with an increasingpopulation the fish supply will not go so far as it has done. It issaid that fish are not to be found in as large quantities as formerly. Another argument is that the national imports include many products ofanimal industry which might be advantageously produced at home. Notonly is more milk, condensed and fresh, being consumed: with theadoption of foreign clothes in professional and business life and inthe army and navy, more and more wool is being worn[251] and more andmore leather is needed for the boots which are being substituted for_geta_ and also for service requirements. It is contended that for theemancipation of Japanese agriculture from the _petite culture_ stageit is essential that a larger number of draught oxen and horses shallbe used. It is equally important, it is suggested, that more manureshall be made on the farms, so that a limit shall be placed on theoutlay on imported fertilisers. Finally there are those who urge thatthe Japanese should be better fed and that better feeding can only bebrought about by an increased consumption of animal products. [252] The possibilities of outdoor stock keeping in Hokkaido are limited bythe fact that snow lies from November to the middle of February and inthe north of the island to the end of March. A high agriculturalauthority did not think that the number of cattle in all Japan couldbe raised to more than two million within twenty years. [253] In the management of sheep--there were about 5, 000 in the wholecountry when I was in Hokkaido--there has been failure after failure, but it is held that the prospects for sheep in Hokkaido are promising. (The question is discussed in the next Chapter. ) At present, owing tothe lack of a market for mutton, pigs, which used to be kept in thedays before Buddhism exerted its influence, seem more attractive toexperimenting farmers than sheep. No one has proposed that sheepshould be kept in ones and twos for milking as in Holland. [254] Whenmilk is needed it is said that goats, of which there are more than90, 000 in Japan, are desirable stock, but I doubt whether more than500 of these goats are milked. [255] They are kept to produce meat. Some people hope that those who eat goat's flesh will come to realisethe superiority of mutton. The case for pigs is that sweet potatoes and squash can be fed tothem, that they produce frequent litters, that pork is more and moreappreciated, and that there are 300, 000 of them in the countryalready. Some confident experts who have possibly been influenced bythe large consumption of pork in China argue that pork may becomeequally popular in Japan. There are two bacon factories not far fromTokyo. As in other countries, the argument for doing away with foreignimports is pushed in Japan to ridiculous lengths. Japan, which aimsabove all at being an exporting country, cannot attain her desirewithout receiving imports to pay for her exports. [256] Thephysiological argument for an animal industry is unconvincing. TheJapanese have a long dietetic history as vegetarians who eat a littlefish and a few eggs. There exists in Japan an exceptionally ingeniousvariety of nitrogenous foods derived from the vegetable kingdom, andthe Japanese have become accustomed to digest vegetable protein. [257]It might be suggested, with some show of reason, that in this matterof the adoption of a meat dietary the Japanese are once more under theinfluence of foreign ideas which are a little out of date. [258] InEurope and America there is evidence of a decreasing meat consumptionamong educated people, and medical papers are full of counsels todiminish the amount of meat consumed. There is also in the West anincreasing sensitiveness to the horrors inflicted on animals intransportation by rail and steamer, and if an animal industry wereestablished in Japan there would certainly be a great deal oftransportation by rail and steamer from the breeding to the rearingdistricts, and from these districts to the slaughtering centres. Ifthe present advocacy of an animal industry for Japan should triumphover the reluctance to take animal life inculcated by Buddhism it ishardly likely to be regarded in the West as a forward step in theethical evolution of the Japanese. [259] I had the good fortune to meet in Sapporo a man who has made aspecial study of the food of the Japanese people, Professor Morimotoof the University. He said that he had no doubt that when the Japanesebegan to eat bread instead of rice they would develop a taste for meatas well as butter. With great kindness he placed at my disposalstatistics which he afterwards expanded in a thesis for Johns HopkinsUniversity. He had investigated the dietary of the families of 200tenants of the University farms. Reduced to terms of men per day theresult was: Sen. Sen. Rice (1. 95 _go_) 4. 2 Vegetables 2. 2(Naked) barley (3. 45 _go_) 3. 3 Pickles[260] . 6Fish 1. 0 Saké . 08_Miso_ . 7 Sugar . 02_Shoyu_ (soy) . 03 ------ 12. 13 Or at Tokyo prices, 14. 3 sen. On averaging, in terms of per man perday, the food and drink consumption of all Japan, Professor Morimotofound the result to be: Sen. Sen. Grain 6. 60 Fruits . 40Legumes . 39 Sugar . 53Vegetables 2. 00 Salt . 20Fish and seaweeds . 54 Tea . 10Beef and veal . 10 } AlcoholicOther animal food . 03 } liquor 1. 50Chicken . 03 } . 33 Tobacco . 45Eggs . 13 }Milk . 04 } ----- 13. 04[261] The Professor compares with these totals the 34. 4 sen and 39. 3 sen perday which seem to represent the cost of the food of the rank and filein the navy and army, and three standards of diet issued by theofficial Bureau of Hygiene providing for expenditures of 32. 1 sen, 33sen and 44. 4 sen respectively. (All the prices I have cited are dated1915. ) Beef and pork as well as fish are used in the army and navy. The navy also uses bread. Professor Morimoto estimates that a Japanese may be fairly expected toconsume only 80 per cent. Of what a foreigner needs, for the averageweight of Japanese is only 13 _kwan_ 830 _momme_ to the European's 17_kwan_ 20 _momme_. My personal impression, which I give merely for what it is worth, forI have made no investigation of the subject, is that, though Japanesemay thrive on meagre fare, they eat large quantities of food whentheir resources permit of indulgence. The common ailment seems to be"stomach ache. " This may be due to eating at irregular hours, to anunbalanced dietary, to the eating of undercooked viands or tooccasional over-eating, or to all of these causes. [262] Undoubtedlythere is much room for dietetic reform. Professor Morimoto had come to the conclusion "that there isunder-feeding, largely due to a bad choice of foods, that the relationof the nutritive value of foods to their cost is insufficientlystudied and that cooking can be improved. " It is of course an oldcriticism of the Japanese table that food is either imperfectly cookedor prepared too much with a view to appearance. The Professor'sfinding was that the Japanese need the addition of meat and bread totheir dietary. As far as meat is concerned he did not convince me. Letme quote him on the soy bean: "It is a remarkably good substitute formeat. It is very low in price but its nutritive value is very high. The essential element of _miso_, _tofu_ and _shoyu_ is soy bean. "Bread is another matter. The Japanese Navy, presumably because it mayfind itself far from Japan, has accustomed its sailors to eat bread, and a case can certainly be made out for the general population notrelying on rice as a grain food. But, as the large quantities ofbarley eaten show, there is no such reliance now. Morimoto urged thatwhile there might be no difference in the nutritive value of wheat andrice, rice as usually eaten induced "abnormal distension of thestomach and poor nutrition. " Again, wheat was a world crop, [263]whereas rice, owing to the Japanese objection to foreign rice, was alocal crop. If the Japanese were users of wheat as well as of ricethey would not have to pay so much for food, when, on the failure ofthe rice crop in considerable parts of Japan, the price of rice washigh. "The consumption is about 10 million bushels more than theproduction. " Further, rice was more costly in cultivation than wheat, and its production could not be increased so as to keep pace with theincrease in population. The yield, which was 46 million _koku_ in1904, was only 50 millions in 1912; and 65 millions in 1927 seemed anexcessive estimate. In 1912 the importation of rice was 2 million_koku_. But on all these points the reader should take note of thedata on page 84 and in Appendices XXIV and XXV. The Professor's concluding point against rice was that it wasexpensive to prepare. The washing of the rice in a succession ofwaters and the cleaning of the sticky pot in which it was cooked andof the equally sticky tub in which it was served took a great deal oftime. Then in order to cook rice properly--and the Japanese havebecome connoisseurs--the exact proportion of water must be gauged. Thesupplies of rice to be cooked were so considerable that the name ofthe servant lass was "girl to boil the rice. " But when bread was usedinstead of rice, said the Professor jubilantly, a baking twice a weekwould do. Why, an hour a day might be saved, which in twenty yearswould be 73, 000 hours, or a whole year, and, reckoning women's labouras worth 5 sen an hour, that would be a saving of 565 yen! FOOTNOTES: [247] For statistics of cultivated area and live stock, see AppendixLXVI. [248] One thinks of Takeuchi Seiho who lives in Kyoto, ofToba Sojo (11th century) for monkeys, frogs and bullocks, and in theTokugawa period of Okio for dogs and carp, of Jakchū for fowls andbirds, of Hasegawa Tohaku and Sosen for monkeys, of Kawanabe Kyosaifor crows, and of Kesai and Hokusai for birds, fish and insects. [249] Nevertheless it is well not to be hasty in judgment. On the dayon which this footnote was written, April 7, 1921, I find thefollowing items in the _Daily Mail_. On page 4 the Attorney-Generalregrets that the law tolerates the "cruel practice" by which 30pigeons were killed or injured at a certain pigeon-shootingcompetition and expresses inability to bring in legislation. On page5, col. 2, an M. P. Is reported as mentioning a case in which a puppyhad been kicked to death and as asking the Home Secretary whether thelaw imposing imprisonment for a short term could not be strengthened. On the same page, col. 5, a railway porter is reported as having beenfined for flinging three small calves into a farm cart by the tails. [250] For poultry statistics, see Appendix LXVII. [251] Before the extensive use of _yofuku_ (foreign clothes) the dressof Japanese men and women was entirely of cotton and silk or of cottononly. Much of the material from which _yofuku_ are made is no doubtcotton. [252] See Appendix LXVIII [253] The number of cattle, which was 1, 342, 587 in 1916, was only1, 307, 120 in 1918. See also Appendix LXVI. [254] For photographs and particulars of the milk sheep, see my _FreeFarmer in a Free State_. [255] The value of the well-bred and well-cared-for goat as a milk andmanure producer is underestimated. The problem of keeping goats insuch a way that they shall not be destructive and shall yield themaximum of manure is discussed in my _Case for the Goat_. [256] This question as it affects an agricultural country is discussedin _A Free Farmer in a Free State_. [257] There is a consensus of scientific opinion that "non-meateating" races such as the Japanese have longer alimentary tracts thanflesh-eating Europeans. It is difficult to be precise on the subject, an eminent Western surgeon tells me, for bowels are as contractile asworms, which at one minute measure 100 units in length and the nextminute have shortened to 30. So much depends on the state at death. [258] On the other hand, the Japanese have taken up many new things atthe point which we in the West have only recently reached. They beginto produce milk and supply it, not in the milkman's pail, but insterilised bottles. They abandon candles and lamps and, practicallyskipping gas, adopt electric light or power. The capital invested inelectric enterprises in 1919 was about 700 million yen or seven timesthat invested in gas. [259] There is one blameless form of stock keeping which is developingin Hokkaido. Bees, which have still to make their way in Old Japan, are now 6, 000 hives strong in the northern island, though a start wasmade only six or seven years ago. [260] It is illustrative of the extent to which pickle isconsumed in Japan that a family in Sapporo was found to have eaten nofewer than 283 _daikon_ in a year. [261] The reader must put away the impression which this tablegives of a varied dietary. Few Japanese have such a range of food. Theaverage man habitually lives on rice, bean products (_tofu_, beanjelly and _miso_, soft bean cheese), pickles, vegetables, tea, alittle fish and sometimes eggs. People of narrow means see little ofeggs and not much fish, unless it be _katsubushi_. [262] The watering of vegetables with liquid manure, the usualpractice of the Japanese farmer, and the pollution of the paddies makesalads and insufficiently cooked green stuff dangerous and many watersupplies of questionable purity. Great efforts have been made toprovide safe tap water from the hills. Intestinal parasites arecommon. The build of the Japanese makes for strength, but in the urbanareas there is much absence from work on the plea of ill-health. Bothin Japan and in England I have been struck by the fact that when Imade an excursion with an urban Japanese he often tired before I did, and on none of these trips was I in anything like first-classcondition. [263] Many Japanese look forward to a great production of wheat on thenorth-eastern Asiatic mainland under Japanese auspices. In consideringimports of wheat it should be remembered that some of it is used insoy and macaroni. CHAPTER XXXIX MUST THE JAPANESE MAKE THEIR OWN "YOFUKU"?[264] "God damn all foreigners!"_--Interrupter at one of Mr. Gladstone'searly meetings at Oxford_ When I was in Hokkaido sheep were being experimented with at differentplaces on the mainland, investigators and sheep buyers had gone off toAustralia, New Zealand and South America, and a Tokyo Sheep Bureau oftwo dozen officials had been established. Great hopes were built on afew hundred sheep in Hokkaido. [265] But I noticed that Government farmsheep were under cover on a warm September day. Also I heard oftrouble with two well-known sheep ailments. There was talknevertheless of the day when there would be a million sheep inHokkaido, perhaps three millions. On the mainland I also met highofficials and enthusiastic prefectural governors who dreamed dreams ofsheep farming in Old Japan, where land is costly, farms small, agriculture intensive, grazing ground to seek, and farmlandnecessarily damp. This sheep keeping is conceived as one animal orperhaps two on a holding as rather unhappy by-products. The notion isthat the wool and manure of a sheep would meet the expense of its keepand that the mutton would be profit. Hopes of an extension of sheepbreeding resting on such a basis seem to be extravagant. One highauthority told me that it would take twenty or thirty years to developsheep keeping. The sheep at present in Japan are not living in natural conditions. They feed on cultivated crops. Sheep could hardly live a week onnatural Japanese pasture. The wild herbage is full of the sharp bamboograss. In the summer much of the eatable herbage dries up. Not onlymust sheep endure the summer heat and insects; they must survive thetrying rainy season. But they must do more than merely endure andsurvive. In order to produce good wool it is necessary that they shallbe in good condition. The hair of one's head immediately shows theeffect of imperfect nutrition or unhealthy conditions, and it is thesame with the wool on the back of the sheep. It is said that the quality of the wool on the sheep kept in Japandepreciates. However this may be, it is plain that sheep breeding mustbe conducted on a large scale in order to produce wool in commercialquantities and of even quality. Some notion of the land normallyrequired for sheep may be estimated from the fact that Australianpasture carries no more than four sheep per acre. [266] An improvement of Japanese herbage sufficient to fit it for sheepwould be a heavy task even in small areas. It is not only the herbagebut the rocks below it which are all wrong for sheep, if we are tojudge by the geological formations on which sheep flourish in theWest. If the sheep were put on cultivated land[267] or placed on strawas I saw them in Hokkaido there would be serious risks of foot rot. Nodoubt there would also be insect pests to control. If Japan set upsheep keeping she would no doubt have to devise her own special breedof sheep, for the well-known Western breeds are artificial products. Probably the experiments which are being made in China with sheep atan earlier stage of development are proceeding on the right lines. Ihave already spoken of the fact that a Japanese taste for mutton hasyet to be cultivated. This is a formidable list of difficulties confronting the newGovernmental Sheep Bureau. No doubt much may be done by a largeexpenditure of money and much patience. The Japanese have wroughtmarvels before by spending money and having a large stock of patience. Account must also be taken of the spirit reflected in the speech madeto me by a Japanese friend when I read the foregoing paragraph tohim: "But we are keen to try. If there were no necessity to prepare forwar, when we must have wool for soldiers, sailors and officials, wemight rely on Australia and elsewhere and hope to improve the inferiorand dirty Chinese wool. But thinking of the disease prevailing inNorthern Manchuria and of service needs, we want to try sheep keepingwith some subsidy in Hokkaido and on the mainland in Northern Aomoriwhere there is much dry wild land and the farmers are oftenmiserable--there are villages where the people do not wash. We mightprovide some of the wool needed by Japan. We have practically met ourneeds in sugar, though of course our needs are small compared withEngland and America. " Let us turn from the sheep problem to the factory problem. What arethe difficulties of the woollen industry? In the first place, as wehave seen, there is no home supply of wool worth mentioning. Further, there is the intricacy of woollen manufacture. Cotton machinery hasbeen brought to such a pitch of perfection for every operation andthere are in existence so many technical manuals for every departmentof cotton manufacture that a certain standardisation of output is notdifficult. The problem of woollen manufacture is much morecomplicated. The output cannot be similarly standardised, and thereare many directions in which originality, self-reliance and experiencecome into play decisively. In the woollen districts of Great Britain the operatives are peoplewho have been in the trade all their lives, whose parents andgrandparents have been in the trade before them. There is not only anhereditary aptitude but an hereditary interest. There is not only anindividual interest but an interest of the whole community. Thewelfare of a town or city is wrapped up in the woollen industry. Thisis not so in Japan. The mill workers in the Tokyo prefecture, forexample, come from remote parts of Japan, and the girls--andthree-quarters of the employees of the woollen industry are girls--aremerely on a three-years contract. The girls arrive absolutelyinexperienced. Even in England it is considered that it takes two orthree years to make a worker skilful. Within the three-years periodfor which the Japanese mill girls or their parents contract, as manyas 30 per cent. Leave the mills and, appalling fact, from 20 to 25 percent. Die. [268] Not more than 10 per cent. Renew their three-yearscontract. Therefore there is, at present at any rate, little realskilled labour in the factories. Another difficulty is the absence ofskilful wool sorters. Even before the War a good wool sorter commandedin England from £3 to £4 a week. One of the things which hampers theJapanese woollen industry is the prevalence of illness at thefactories. They must have, in consequence, about 25 per cent. Morelabour than is needed. Generally one would say that the industry at its present stage is notonly weak on the labour side, [269] but, where it is efficient, isskilful rather in imitation than in original design. Everythingproduced is an imitation of foreign designs. That is not an unnaturalstate of things, however, at the commencement of a new industry. With regard to the old complaint of Japanese goods failing to come upto sample, the shortcoming is often due not to intentional dishonestybut simply to inability to produce a uniform product. In one factoryan order had to be filled by bringing together work from 300 differentplaces. The first delivery of the cloth produced for the Russian armywas like the sample, but the later deliveries, though of excellentmaterial, were not, for the simple reason that the precise rawmaterials for the required blending did not exist in Japan. One of the marvels of the industry is the high prices obtained inJapan. The best winter serge was selling in England before the War at8s. A yard. The Japanese price for winter serge was from 5 to 6 yen. Before the War it was possible to import cloth at 50 per cent. Lessthan the local rates. Nevertheless there seemed to be a market foreverything. Japanese cloth lacks finish but it is made out of goodmaterials and will wear. The factories are compelled to use a betterquality of material in order to get anywhere near the appearance ofimported goods. A foreign manufacturer, "owing to his skill inmanufacture, " as it was once explained to me, may produce a cloth of acertain quality containing only 10 per cent. New wool: the Japanesemanufacturer, in order to produce a comparable article must use 30 percent. New wool. Obviously this means that the Japanese factory mustcharge higher prices. In considering the position of the industry it is natural to ask howit would be affected if the Japanese factories were able to draw morelargely upon Manchuria for wool. The answer is that the sheep inManchuria at present yield what is called "China" wool, which issuitable only for blankets and coarse cloth. To some who feel a sympathy for Japan in her present stage ofindustrial development and are inclined to take long views it may seema pity that she should contemplate making such a radical change in hernational habits as is represented by the demand for woollen materialsand for meat. Japanese dress, easy, hygienic and artistic though itis, and admirably suited for wearing in Japanese dwellings, is illadapted for modern business life, not to speak of factory conditions. But it has not yet been demonstrated that Japan is under the necessityof substituting, to so large an extent as she evidently contemplatesdoing, woollen for cotton and silk clothing, and Western clothing forher own characteristic raiment. [270] The cotton padded garment and bedcover are both warm and clean. It is odd that this new demand on thepart of Japan for woollen material should coincide with movements inEurope and America to utilise more cotton, for underclothing at anyrate. There is undoubtedly a hygienic case of a certain force againstwool. The same is true of meat. It may well be that the dietary ofmany Japanese has not been sufficiently nutritious, but much of themeat-eating which is now being indulged in seems to be due more to anaping of foreign ways than to physical requirements. The more meatJapan eats and the more she dresses herself in wool the more sheplaces herself under the control of the foreigner. [271] Whateverdegree of success may attend sheep breeding within the limits imposedupon it by physical conditions in Japan, the raw material of thewoollen industry must be mostly a foreign product. As far as meat isconcerned, it is difficult to believe that while the agriculture ofJapan is based upon rice production there is room for the productionof meat on a large scale. If the meat and wool are to be produced inManchuria and Mongolia we shall see what we shall see. Thesignificance of the experiment of the Manchuria Railway Company since1913 in crossing merino and Mongolian sheep and the work which isbeing done on the sheep runs of Baron Okura in Mongolia cannot beoverlooked. Ten years hence it will be interesting to examineindustrially and socially the position of the woollen industry[272]and the animal industry in Japan and on the mainland, and the net gainthat the country has made. FOOTNOTES: [264] _Yofuku_ means foreign clothes. [265] In 1920 there were 8, 219 sheep in Japan, including 945 inHokkaido. [266] A sheep produces about 7 lbs. Of wool in the year. But this isthe unscoured weight. In Japan, an expert assured me, it would notreach more than 56 to 60 per cent. When scoured. [267] "To-day sheep cannot, be kept on arable to leave any reward tothe farmer. "--_Country Life_, August 20, 1921. [268] See Appendix LXIX. [269] See Appendix LXX. [270] An immense amount of silk is used in Japanese men's clothing. The kimono, except the cheaper summer kind and the bath kimono_(yukata)_, which are cotton, is silk. So are the _hakama_ (dividedskirt) and the _haori_ (overcoat). Japanese women's clothes arelargely silk. The dress of working people is cotton, but even theyhave some silk clothing. [271] "By degrees they proceeded to all the stimulations of banquetingwhich was indeed part of their bondage. "--Tacitus on the Britons underRoman influence. [272] The industry has already made on the London market an impressionof competence in some directions. For production and exports, seeAppendix LXX. CHAPTER XL THE PROBLEMS OF JAPAN Concerning these things, they are not to be delivered but from muchintercourse and discussion. --PLATO Emigrants do not willingly seek a climate worse than their own. Thisis one of the reasons why the development of Hokkaido has not beenswifter. The island is not much farther from the mainland thanShikoku, but it is near, not the richest and warmest part of themainland, but the poorest and the coldest. If we imagine anotherScotland lying off Cape Wrath, at the distance of Ireland fromScotland, and with a climate corresponding to the northerly situationof such a supposititious island, we may realise how remoteness andclimatic limitations have hindered the progress of Hokkaido. "Our mode of living is not suited to the colder climate, " anagricultural professor said to me. "Poor emigrants do not have moneyenough to build houses with stoves and properly fitting windows. " To what extent the modified farming methods rendered necessary by theHokkaido climate have had a deterring effect on would-be settlers I donot know. It has never been demonstrated that the Japanese farmerprefers arduous amphibious labour to the dry-land farming in whichmost of the world's land workers are engaged; but the cultivation ofpaddy or a large proportion of paddy is his traditional way offarming. Rice culture also means to him the production of the cropwhich, when weather conditions favour, is more profitable than anyother. In Hokkaido, as we have seen, the remunerative kind ofagriculture is mixed farming, and, in a large part of the country, rice cannot be grown at all. Against objections to Hokkaido on theground of the strangeness of its farming may probably be set, however, the cheapness of land there. An undoubted hindrance to the colonisation of Hokkaido has been landscandals and land grabbing. Many of what the late Lord Salisburycalled the "best bits" are in the hands of big proprietors orproprietaries. Some large landowners no doubt show public spirit. Buttheir class has contrived to keep farmers from getting access to agreat deal of land which, because of its quality and nearness topracticable roads and the railway, might have been worked to the bestadvantage. In various parts of Japan I heard complaints. "The landsystem in Hokkaido, " one man in Aichi said to me, "is so queer thatland cannot be got by the families needing it, I mean good land. "Again in Shikoku I was assured that "the most desirable parts of theHokkaido are in the hands of capitalists who welcome tenants only. " Inmore than one part of northern Japan I was told of emigrants toHokkaido who had "returned dissatisfied. " A charge made against thelarge holder of Hokkaido land is that he is an absentee and a city manwho lacks the knowledge and the inclination to devote the necessarycapital to the development of his estate. Of late the rise in thevalue of timber has induced not a few proprietors to interestthemselves much more in stripping their land of trees than indeveloping its agricultural possibilities. The development of Hokkaido may also have been slowed down to someextent by a lower level of education among the people than iscustomary on most of the mainland, by a rougher and less skilfulfarming than is common in Old Japan and by the existence of a residuumwhich would rather "deal" or "let George do it" or cheat the Ainu thanfollow the laborious colonial life. But no cause has been more potentthan a lack of money in the public treasury. I was told that for fiveyears in succession Tokyo had cut down the Hokkaido budget. Necessarypublic work and schemes for development have been repeatedly stopped. At a time when the interests of Hokkaido demand more farmers and thereis a general complaint of lack of labour, at a time when there arepersistent pleas for oversea expansion, there are in Japan twice orthrice as many people applying for land in the island as are grantedentry. The blunt truth is that the State has felt itself compelled tospend so much on military and naval expansion that the claims ofHokkaido for the wherewithal for better roads, more railway line andbetter credit have often been put aside. [273] One thing is certain, that slow progress in the development ofHokkaido gives an opening to the critics of Japan who doubt whetherher need for expansion beyond her own territory is as pressing as isrepresented by some writers. However this may be, Hokkaido is statedto take only a tenth of the overplus of the population of Old Japan. The number of emigrants in 1913 was no larger than the number in 1906. A usual view in Hokkaido is that the island can hold twice as manypeople as it now contains. "When 3, 625, 000 acres are brought intocultivation, " says an official publication, "Hokkaido will be ableeasily to maintain 5, 000, 000 inhabitants on her own products. " Very much of what has been achieved in Hokkaido has been done underthe stimulating influence of the Agricultural College, now theUniversity. The northern climate seems to be conducive to mentalvigour in both professors and students. If in moving about Hokkaidoone is conscious of a somewhat materialistic view of progress it maybe remembered that an absorption in "getting on" is characteristic ofcolonists and their advisers everywhere. It is not high ideals of lifebut bitter experience of inability to make a living on the mainlandwhich has brought immigrants to Hokkaido. As time goes on, the ruraland industrial development may have a less sordid look. [274] Atpresent the visitor who lacks time to penetrate into the fastnessesof Hokkaido and enjoy its natural beauties brings away the unhappyimpression which is presented by a view of man's first assault on thewild. But he must still be glad to have seen this distant part of Japan. Hefinds there something stimulating and free which seems to be absentfrom the older mainland. It is possible that when Hokkaido shall haveworked out her destiny she may not be without her influence on thedevelopment of Old Japan. Those of the settlers who are reasonablywell equipped in character, wits and health are not only making theliving which they failed to obtain at home; they are testing somenational canons of agriculture. Face to face with strangers and withnew conditions, these immigrants are also examining some ideals ofsocial life and conduct which, old though they are, may not beperfectly adapted to the new age into which Japan has forced herself. One evening in Hokkaido I saw a lone cottage in the hills. At its doorwas the tall pole on which at the _Bon_ season the lantern is hung toguide the hovering soul of that member of the family who has diedduring the year. The settler's lantern, steadily burning high abovehis hut, was an emblem of faith that man does not live by gain alonewhich the hardest toil cannot quench. In whatever guise it may expressitself, it is the best hope for Hokkaido and Japan. During my stay in the island I had an opportunity of meeting some ofthe most influential men from the Governor downwards; also severalinteresting visitors from the mainland. We often found ourselvesgetting away from Hokkaido's problems to the general problems of rurallife. Of the good influences at work in the village, the first I was oncemore assured, was "popular education and school ethics, a realinfluence and blessing. " The second was "the disciplinary training ofthe army for regularity of conduct. " ("The influence of officers ontheir young soldiers is good, and they give them or provide them withlectures on agricultural subjects and allow them time to go incompanies to experimental farms. ") Someone spoke of "the influence of the religion of the past. " "Thereligion of the past!" exclaimed an elderly man; "in half a dozenprefectures it may be that religion is a rural force, but elsewhere inthe Empire there is a lack of any moral code that takes deep root inthe head. After all Christians are more trustworthy than peopledrinking and playing with geisha. " On the other hand a prominent Christian said: "There is a weakness inour Christians, generally speaking. There is an absence of a soundfaith. The native churches have no strong influence on rural life. There is often a certain priggishness and pride in things foreign insaying, 'I am a Christian. '" Another man spoke in this wise: "I have been impressed by some of thefollowing of Uchimura. They seem ardent and real. But I have also beenattracted by strength of character in members of various sects ofChristians. The theology and phraseology of these men may be curious, may be in many respects behind the times, but their religion had abeautiful aspect. [275] Many of our people have got something ofChristian ethics, but are no church-goers. Some Japanese try tocombine Christian principles with old Japanese virtues; others withsome soul supporting Buddhistic ideas. We must have Christianity ifonly to supply a great lack in our conception of personality. Peoplewho have accepted Christianity show so much more personality and somuch more interest in social reform. " When we returned to agricultural conditions, one who spoke withauthority said: "In Old Japan the agricultural system has becomedwarfed. The individual cannot raise the standard of living nor cancrops be substantially increased. The whole economy is too small. [276]The people are too close on the ground. They must spread out tonorth-eastern Japan, to Hokkaido, Korea and Manchuria. The populationof Korea could be greatly increased. There is an immense opening inManchuria, which is four or five times the area of the Japanese Empireand sparsely populated. There is also Mongolia. "[277] "But in Korea, " one who had been there said, "there are the Koreans, an able if backward people, to be considered--they will increase withthe spread of our sanitary methods among a population which wasreduced by a primitive hygiene and by maladministration. And as to ourpeople going to the mainland of Asia, we do not really like to gowhere rice is not the agricultural staple, and we prefer a warmcountry. In Formosa, where it is warm, we are faced by the competitionof the Chinese at a lower standard of life. [278] The perfect placesfor Japanese are California, New Zealand and Australia, but theAmericans and Australasians won't have us. I do not complain; we donot allow Chinese labour in Japan. But we think that we might have hadAustralasia or New Zealand if we had not been secluded from the worldby the Tokugawa régime, and so allowed you British to get there first. It is not strange that some of our dreamers should grudge you yourplace there, should cherish ideas of expansion by walking in yourfootsteps. But it is wisdom to realise that we cannot do to-day whatmight have been done centuries ago or make history repeat itself forour benefit. It is wiser to seek to reduce the amount ofmisapprehension, prejudice and--shall I say?--national feeling inJapan and America and Australasia, and try to procure ultimateaccommodation for us all in that way. But not too much reduce, perhaps, for, in the present posture of the world, nationalistfeeling and--we do not want premature inter-marriage--racial feelingare still valuable to mankind. " A speaker who followed said: "Remember to our credit how our areaunder cultivation in Old Japan continually increases. [279] Bear inmind, too, what good use we have made of the land we have been able toget under cultivation--so many thousand more _chō_ of crops than thereare _chō_ of land, due, of course, to the two or three crops a yearsystem in many areas. "[280] "As for the situation the emigrants[281] leave behind them in OldJapan, " resumed the first speaker, "the experiment should be tried ofputting ten or so of tiny holdings[282] under one control, and anattempt should be made to see what improved implements and furtherco-operation[283] can effect. I suppose the thing most needed on themainland is working capital at a moderate rate. Think of 900 millionyen of farmers' debt, much of it at 12 per cent. And some of it at 20per cent. ! I do not reckon the millions of prefectural, county andvillage debt. Of what value is it to raise the rice crop to 3 or 4_koku_ per _tan_ (60 or 80 bushels per acre)[284] if the moneylenderprofits most? The farmers of Old Japan are undoubtedly losing land tothe moneyed people. [285] Every year the number of farmers owning theirown land decreases[286] and the number of tenants increases and morecountry people go to the towns. [287] And, as an official statementsays, 'the physical condition of the army conscripts from the ruraldistricts is always superior to that of the conscripts of the urbandistricts. '" Some Western criticism of Japanese agriculture cannot beoverlooked. [288] Criticism is naturally invited by (1) Japanesedevotion to what is in Western eyes an exotic crop--but owing toexceptional water supplies, favourable climatic conditions andacquired skill in cultivation, the best crop for all but the extremenorth-east of Japan;[289] (2) the small portions in which much of thatcrop is grown--of necessity; (3) the primitive implements--notill-adapted, however, to a primitive cultural system; (4) thenon-utilisation of animal or mechanical power in a large part of thecountry--due as much to physical conditions as to lack of cheapcapital; (5) what is spoken of as "the never-ending toil"--againstwhich must be set the figures I have quoted showing the number offarmers who do not work on an average more than 4 or 5 days a week;and (6) the moderate total production compared with the number ofproducers--which must be considered in reference to the object ofJapanese agriculture and in relation to a lower standard of living. Japanese agriculture, as we have seen, has shortcomings, many of whichare being steadily met; but with all its shortcomings it does succeedin providing, for a vast population per square _ri_, subsistence inconditions which are in the main endurable and might be easily madebetter. Paddy adjustment has clearly shown that paddies above the average sizeare more economically worked than small ones, but these adjustedpaddies are on the plains and a large proportion of Japanese paddieshave had to be made on uneven or hilly ground where physicalconditions make it impossible for these rice fields to be anythingelse than small and irregular. Japanese agriculture is what it is andmust largely remain what it is because Japan is geologically andclimatically what it is, and because the social development of a largepart of Japan is what it is. Comparisons with rice culture in Texas, California and Italy are usually made in forgetfulness of the factthat the rice fields there are generally on level fertile areas, inAmerica sometimes on virgin soil. In Japan rice culture extends topoor unfavourable land because the people want to have riceeverywhere. [290] The Japanese have cultivated the same paddies forcenturies, Some American rice land is thrown out of cultivation aftera few years. In fertile localities the Japanese get twice the averagecrop. It must also be remembered that Japanese paddies often producetwo crops, a crop of rice and an after-crop. Japanese technicians arewell acquainted with Texan, Californian and Italian rice culture, andJapanese have tried rice production both in California and Texas. "They talk of Texan and Italian rice culture, " said one man who hadbeen abroad on a mission of agricultural investigation, "but I foundthe comparative cost of rice production greater in Texas than inJapan. Some Japanese farmers who went to Texas were overcome by weedsbecause of dear labour. In Italian paddies, also, I saw many moreweeds than in ours. It is rational, of course, for Americans andItalians to use improved machinery, for they have expensive labourconditions, but we have cheap labour. The Texans have large paddiesbecause their land is cheap, but ours is dear. In these big paddiesthe water cannot be kept at two or three inches, as with us. It isnecessarily five inches or so, too deep, and the soil temperaturefalls and they lose on the crops what they gain by the use ofmachinery. Further, it must be remembered that we are not producingour rice for export. It is a special kind for ourselves, which welike;[291] but foreigners would just as soon have any other sort. Wehave no call, therefore, to develop our rice culture in the samedegree as our sericulture, which rests mainly on a valuable overseatrade. " "On this general question of improvement of implements and methods, "said another member of our company, "we must use machinery andcombine farming management when industrial progress drives us to it;but why try to do it before we are compelled? Concerning horses, thedifficulty which some farmers have in using them is the difficulty offeeding them economically. Concerning cereals, our consumption is notless than that of Germany, but Germany imports more than twice thecereals we do, so there would seem to be something to be said for oursystem. " [Illustration: CUTTING GRASS] "Some revolutionising of Japanese farming is necessary, in combinedthreshing, for instance, " the expert who had opened our discussionsaid. "This combined threshing is now seen in several districts, andcombined threshing will be extended. But there is the objection to thethreshing machine that it breaks the straw and thus spoils it forfarmers' secondary industries. It should not be impossible to inventsome way of avoiding this, but the threshing machine is also too heavyfor narrow roads between paddies. It is difficult to deliver the cropsto the machine in sufficient bulk. Necessity may show us ways, butsmall threshing machines are not so economical. Of course we must havemuch more co-operative buying of rural requirements, and certainlythere is room in some places for the Western scythe made smaller, butour people, as you have seen, are dexterous with their extremelysharp, short sickle, and fodder is often cut on rather difficultslopes, from which it is not easy to descend loaded, with a scythe. Some foreigners who speak so positively about machinery for paddies, and for, I suppose, the sloping uplands to which our arable farming isrelegated, do not really grasp the physical conditions of ouragriculture. And they are always forgetting the warm dankness of ourclimate. They forget, too, that implements for hand use are moreefficient than machinery, and, if labour be cheap, more economical. They forget above all that we are of necessity a small-holdingscountry. " Is it such a bad thing to be a small-holdings country? Does the rurallife of countries which are pre-eminently small-holding, like Denmarkand Holland, compare so unfavourably with that of England? I wonderhow much money has been sunk--most of it lost--during the past quarterof a century in attempts to increase small holdings in England. "Because we have much remote, wild, uncultivated land, " the speaker Ihave interrupted continued, "that is not to say that most of it, oftenat a high elevation, or sloping, or poor in quality, as well asremote, can be profitably broken up for paddies. Much of this land canbe and ought to be utilised in one fashion or another, but we havefound some experiments in this direction unprofitable, even when ricewas dear. But it may be said, Why break up this wild land intopaddies? Why not have nice grassy slopes for cattle as in Switzerland?But our experts have tried in vain to get grass established. The heavyrains and the heat enable the bamboo grass to overcome the new foddergrass we have sown. The first year the fodder grass grows nicely, butthe second year the bamboo grass conquers. In Hokkaido and Saghalienwe are conquering bamboo grass with fodder grass. The advice to go inlargely for fruit ignores the fact of our steamy damp climate, whichencourages sappy growth, disease and those insects which are sonumerous in Japan. We cannot do much more than grow for homeconsumption. " "The advice to draw the cultivation of our small farms under groupcontrol has not always been profitable when followed by landlords, "one who had not yet spoken remarked. "They have not always made morewhen they farmed themselves than when they let their land. All theworld over, land workers do better for themselves than for others. Proposals further to capitalise farming which, with a rural exodusalready going on, would have the effect of driving people off the landwho are employed on it healthily and with benefit to the socialorganism, do not seem to offer a more satisfactory situation forJapan. No country has shown itself less afraid of business combinationthan Japan, and the world owes as much to industry as to agriculture, and I am not in the least afraid of machinery and capital; butproduction is not our final aim. Production is to serve us; we are notto serve production. If people can live in self-respect on the landthey are better off in many ways than if they are engaged in industryin some of its modern developments. " "The world is also better off, " my interpreter in his notes records meas saying when I was pressed to state my opinion. "The day will comewhen the uselessness and waste of a certain proportion of industry andcommerce will be realised, when the saving power of an export andimport trade in unnecessary things will be questioned and when thecultivator of the ground will be restored to the place in socialprecedence he held in Old Japan. With him will rank the other realproducers in art, literature and science, industry and commerce. Theindustrialisation of the West and its capitalistic system have notbeen so perfectly successful in their social results for it to becertain that Japan should be hurried more quickly in the industrialand capitalistic direction than she is travelling already. [292] If shetakes time over her development, the final results may be better forher and for the world. I have not noticed that Japanese rural peoplewho have departed from a simple way of life through the acquirement ofmany farms or the receipt of factory dividends have become worthier. On the question of the alleged over-population of rural Japan, oneJapanese investigator has suggested to me that as many as 20 percent. Could be advantageously spared from agricultural labour. But hewas not himself an agriculturist or an ex-agriculturist. He was noteven a rural resident. Further, he conceived his 20 per cent. Asentering rural rather than urban industry. "A great deal of afforestation and better use of a large proportion offorest land, much more co-operation for borrowing and buying, improvedimplements where improved implements can be profitably used, animaland mechanical power where they can be employed to advantage, paddyadjustment to the limit of the practical, more intelligent manuring, awider use of better seeds, [293] the bringing in of new land which iscapable of yielding a profit when an adequate expenditure is made uponit, a mental and physical education which is ever improving--allthese, joined to better ways of life generally, are obvious avenues ofimprovement, in Northern Japan particularly, not to speak ofHokkaido. [294] But it is not so much the details of improvement thatseem urgently to need attention. It is the general principles. I havebeen assured again and again by prefectural governors and agriculturalexperts--and in talking to a foreigner they would hardly be likely toexaggerate--that considered plans for the prevention of disastrousfloods, for the breaking up of new land, for the provision of loansand for the development of public intelligence and well-being werehindered in their areas by lack of money alone. The degree to whichrural improvements, with which the best interests of Japan now and inthe future are bound up, may have been arrested and may still bearrested by erroneous conceptions of national progress and of the endsto which public energy and public funds[295] may be wisely devoted isa matter for patriotic reflection. [296] No impression I have gainedin Japan is sharper than an impression of ardent patriotism. For goodor ill, patriotism is the outstanding Japanese virtue. What somepatriots here and elsewhere do not seem to realise, however, is what aquiet, homely, everyday thing true patriotism is. The Japanese, withso many talents, so many natural and fortuitous advantages, and withopportunities, such as no other nation has enjoyed, of being able toprofit by the social, economic and international experience of Statesthat have bought their experience dearly and have much to rue, cannotfairly expect to be lightly judged by contemporaries or by history. Ifthe course taken by Japan towards national greatness is at timesuncertain, it is due no doubt to the fascinations of manywill-o'-the-wisps. There can be one basis only for the enlightenedjudgment of the world on the Japanese people: the degree to which theyare able to distinguish the true from the mediocre and the resolutionand common-sense with which they take their own way. " "Our rural problems, " a sober-minded young professor added, after oneof those pauses which are usual in conversations in Japan, "is not atechnical problem, not even an economic problem. It is, as you haverealised, a sociological problem. It is bound up with the mentalattitude of our people--and with the mental attitude of the wholeworld. " FOOTNOTES: [273] A high authority assured me that 100 million yen (pre-Warfigures) could be laid out to advantage. A Japanese economist'scomment was: "Why not touch on the extraordinary proportion of landowned by the Imperial Household and also by the State for militarypurposes?" [274] In driving through what seemed to be one of the best streets inSapporo, I noticed that some exceptionally large houses were thedwellings of the registered prostitutes. Each house had a largeground-floor window. Before it was a barrier about a yard high whichcleared the ground, leaving a space of about another yard. Such of thepublic as were interested were able, therefore, to peer in withoutbeing identified from the street, for only their legs and feet werevisible. In Tokyo and elsewhere this exhibition of girls to the publichas ceased. The place of the girls is taken by enlarged framedphotographs. I found on enquiry that the Sapporo houses are so wellorganised as to have their proprietors' association. At a little townlike Obihiro an edifice was pointed out to me containing fifty or morewomen. [275] The classification is 101, 671 Protestants, 75, 983 RomanCatholics and 36, 265 Greek Church. [276] "'Spade farming' is an apt designation of the system of farmingor rather of cultivation, for little is done in the way of raisingstock. "--PROFESSOR YOKOI. [277] See Appendix XXX. [278] But surely the basic reason against a large emigration offarmers and artisans to Formosa, or to Manchuria, Mongolia or Korea, with the intention of working at their callings, is that the standardof living is lower there? The chief attraction of America andAustralasia is that the standard of living is higher. The question ofover-population must be considered in relation to the facts inAppendices XXV, XXX and LXXX, and on page 331. It is not establishedthat the Japanese have now, or are likely to have in the near future, a pressing need to emigrate. [279] See Appendix LXXII. [280] See Appendix LXXIII. [281] See Appendix LXXIV. [282] Between 1909 and 1918 the average area of holdings rose from1. 03 to 1. 09 _chō_ or from 2. 52 to 2. 67 acres or 1. 02 to 1. 08hectares. [283] There were in 1919 some 13, 000 co-operative societies of allsorts. The number increases about 500 a year. [284] For rise in production per _tan_, see Appendix LXXV. [285] See Appendix LXXVI. [286] See Appendix LXXVII. [287] See Appendix LXXVIII. [288] See, for example, C. V. Sale in the _Transactions of the Societyof Arts_, 1907, and J. M. McCaleb in the _Transactions of the AsiaticSociety of Japan_, 1916. [289] For the question, is rice the right crop for Japan? See AppendixLXXIX. [290] Dr. Yahagi in an address delivered in Italy pointed out to hisaudience that Japan had 15 times as large an area under rice as Italyand that, while the Italian harvest ranged between 42 and 83hectolitres per hectare, the Japanese ranged between 55 and 130. Thearea under rice in the United States in 1920 was 1, 337, 000 acres andthe yield 53, 710, 000 bushels. The area under rice has steadilyincreased since 1913, when it was only 25, 744, 000 bushels. [291] A well-informed Japanese who read this Chapter doubted theability of his countrymen to distinguish between native and Korean, Californian or Texan rice. Saigon is another matter. See AppendixXXIV. [292] "Some of our statesmen, " notes a Japanese reader of thisChapter, "are carried away by ideas of an industrial El Dorado. " Suchmen have no understanding of the relation of rural Japan to thenational welfare. They are as blind guides as the Japanese who, caughtby the glamour of the West, threw away the artistic treasures of theirforefathers and pulled down beautiful temples and _yashiki_. Japan hasmuch to gain from a wise and just industrial system, but not a littleof the present industrialisation is an exploitation of cheap labour, adestruction of craftsmanship and social obligation, and an attempt tocut out the foreigner by the production of rubbish. [293] The chairman of Rothamsted declares as I write that the standardof English farming could be raised 50 per cent. Hall and Voelcker haveestimated that 20 million tons of farmyard manure made in the UnitedKingdom is wasted through avoidable causes. [294] For a discussion of the question of inner colonisation versusforeign expansion, see Appendix LXXX. [295] For figures bearing on the relative importance of agriculture, commerce and industry, see Appendix LXXXI. For armaments, see AppendixXXXIII. [296] There are many Britons who now reflect that millions which havegone into Mesopotamia might have been better spent by the Ministriesof Health and Education. The blessing of her sun-warmed days; Her sea-spun cloak of wet; Her pointing valleys, veiled in haze, Where field and wood have met; When we have gone our differing ways These we shall not forget. L. T. , in _The New East_. APPENDICES The sermon was bad enough, but the appendix was abominable. --MR. BOWDLER. THE INCOME OF A MINISTER OF STATE FROM THE LAND[I]. The speaker beganby inheriting 3 _chō_ (7-1/2 acres). He farmed a _chō_ of rice fieldand about a third of a _chō_ of dry land. With rent from the part helet, with gains from the part he farmed and with interest on 2, 000 yenspare capital, he had at end of the year a balance of 370 yen. Withthe money gained from year to year more and more land was bought. Atthe time of his talk with me he owned 8 _chō_. His net income, afterdeducting cost of living, was 1, 200 yen (including 500 yen from theland that was let). In the future, when he farmed 7 _chō_ (15-1/2acres), he believed that his balance would be 4, 500 yen, which is thesalary of a Governor! Or was, until the rise in prices when Governors'salaries were raised about another 1, 000 yen, with an additionalallowance of from 600 to 400 yen in the case of some prefectures. Seealso Appendix III. "GETA" [II]. The _geta_ is a flat piece of hard wood, about the lengthof the foot but a little wider, with two stumpy pieces fastenedtransversely below it. The foot maintains an uncertain and, in thecase of a novice whose big toe has not been accustomed to separationfrom its fellows, a painful hold by means of a toe strap of thick ropeor cotton. To persons unused from childhood to the special toe gripand scuffle of the _geta_, it seems odd to associate with thisdifficult clattering footgear the idea of "luxury. " But no pains arespared by the _geta_ makers in choosing fine woods and pretty cords. BUDGETS OF LARGE PROPERTY OWNERS [III]. Two landlords, A and B, kindlyallowed me to look into their budgets: A yen80 _chō_ of rural land 320, 00020 _chō_ of rural land 60, 00020, 000 _tsubo_ of city land 130, 000Negotiable instruments 150, 000Dwelling and furniture 150, 000 _______ Total property 810, 000 ======= EXPENDITURE OF PAST YEAR yenHouse 2, 100Food and drink 1, 350Clothing 1, 000Social intercourse 1, 500Public benefit 800Miscellaneous 1, 000Taxes 5, 000 ______ 12, 750 ====== B owns 62 _chō_ 4 _tan_ and receives in rent 623 _koku_ 7 _to_. Membersof family, 11; servants, 8. EXPENDITURE OF PAST YEAR yenHouse 519Food and drink (18 sen each per day for members of family; 13 sen each for servants) 1, 102Fuel 156Light 36Clothing 770Education (3 middle-school boys at 20 yen per month; 3 primary-school boys and girls at 2 yen) 312Social intercourse 120Amusements (journey, 100 yen; summer trip, 231; others, 50) 381Miscellaneous (servants, 480 yen; medicine, 150; other things, 150) 780Donations 300Taxes 3, 976 ______ 8, 451 ====== THE "BENJO" [IV]. I never noticed a case in which earth was throwninto the domestic closet tub according to Dr. Poore's system. I havecome across attempts to use deodorisers, but the application of agermicide is inhibited because of the injury which would be caused tothe crops. Farmers are chary about removing night soil which has beentreated even with a deodoriser. I ventured to suggest more than oncethat Japanese science should be equal to evolving a deodoriser towhich the farmer, who in Japan seems to be so easily directed, couldhave no objection. The drawback to using Dr. Poore's system is thatthe added earth would greatly increase the weight of the substance tobe removed. There would be the same objection to the use of _hibachi_ash (charcoal ash), but there is not enough produced to have anysensible effect. The truth is that there is no lively interest in thequestion of getting rid of the stink for everyone has becomeaccustomed to it. The odour from the _benjo_--the politer word is_habakari_--which is always indoors, though at the end of the _engawa_(verandah), often penetrates the house. (_Engawa_ [edge or border] isthe passage which faces to the open; _roka_ is a passage inside ahouse between two rooms or sometimes a bridgelike passage in the open, connecting two separate buildings or parts of a house. ) Emptying dayis particularly trying. This much must be said, however, that thefarmers' tubs are washed, scrubbed and sunned after every journey andhave close-fitting lids. And primitive though the _benjo_ is, it isscrupulously clean. Also, if it is always more or less smelly, it iscontrived on sound hygienic principles. There is no seat requiring anunnatural position. The user squats over an opening in the floor about2 ft. Long by 6 ins. Wide. This opening is encased by a simpleporcelain fitting with a hood at the end facing the user. The top ofthe tub is some distance below the floor. In peasants' houses there isno porcelain fitting. Manure is so valuable in Japan that farmerswhose land adjoins the road often build a _benjo_ for the use ofpassers-by. Although the traveller in Japan has much to endure fromthe unpleasant odour due to the thrifty utilisation of excreta, theJapanese deserve credit for the fact that their countryside is neverfouled in the disgusting fashion which proves many of our rural folkto be behind the primitive standard of civilisation set up inDeuteronomy (chap, xxiii. 13). The Western rural sociologist is notinclined to criticise the sanitary methods of Japan. He is tooconscious of the neglect in the West to study thoroughly the gravequestion of sewage disposal in relation to the needs of our crops andthe cost of nitrogenous fertilisers. See also Appendix XX. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS [V]. In Mr. Yamasaki's school there was dormitoryaccommodation for 200 youths, some 40 lived in teachers' houses, another 15 were in lodgings, and 45 came daily from their parents'homes. Lads were admitted from 14 to 16 and the course was for 3years. The students worked 30 hours weekly indoors and the rest oftheir time outside. Upper and lower grade agricultural schools number280 with 23, 000 students. In addition there are 7, 908 agriculturalcontinuation schools with more than 430, 000 pupils. The ratio ofilliteracy in Japan for men of conscription age (that is, excludingold people and young people), which had been over 5 per cent. Up to1911, was reported to be only 2 per cent. In 1917. CRIME [VI]. In 1916 the chief offences in Japan were: Dealt with at police station 445, 502Gambling and lotteries 81, 649Larceny 81, 063Fraud and usurpation 49, 772Assaults 19, 022Robbery 10, 383Arson 9, 533Accidental assaults 3, 277Obscenity 2, 796Wilful injury 2, 032Murder 1, 886Abortion 1, 252Abduction 907Rioting 813Official disgrace 481Military and naval 387Desertion 315Forgery 307Coining 206 PROSTITUTES [VII]. The chief of police was good enough to let me havea copy of the form to be filled up by girls desiring to enter thehouses in the prefecture. It is under nine heads: 1. The reason foradopting the profession. 2. Age. 3. Permission of head of household. If permission is not forthcoming, reason why. 4. If a minor, proof ofpermission. 5. House at which the girl is going to "work. " 6. Homeaddress. 7. Former means of getting a living. 8. Whether prostitutebefore. If so, particulars. 9. Other details. When I was in Japan there were reputed to be about 50, 000 _joro_(prostitutes), about half that number of geisha and about 35, 000"waitresses. " PHILANTHROPIC AGENCIES [VIII]. In 1917 the number of paupers, trampsand foundlings relieved by the State did not exceed 10, 000. The numberof institutions was 730 (of which 40 were run by foreigners), with theexpenditure of about 5-1/2 million yen. CHANGES IN RURAL STATUS [IX]. It seemed that during 47 years 18tenants had become peasant proprietors, 14 peasant proprietors hadbecome landowners (that is men who make their living by letting landrather than by working it), 8 tenants had stepped straightway into theposition of landowners, 7 landowners had fallen to the grade ofpeasant proprietors and 7 more to that of tenants, while 114householders had changed their callings or had gone to Hokkaido. HOURS OF WORK PER DAY [X]. One of these villages showed that duringJanuary and February it worked 6 hours, during March and April 8hours, from May to August 12-1/2 hours, during September and October9-1/2 hours, and during November and December 9 hours. There was afurther record of labour at night. In January and February it workedfrom 6:30 p. M. To 10 p. M. , during March and April and September andOctober from 8 p. M. To 10 p. M. And in November and December from 7p. M. To 10 p. M. As in the period from May to August inclusive the dayworking hours were from 5 a. M. To 7:30 p. M. , there then was no nightlabour. DILIGENT PEOPLE AND OTHERS [XI]. The adults of the village wereclassified as follows: Diligent people, men 294, women 260; averageworkers, men 270, women 236; other people, men 242, women 191. Onesupposes that, in considering the women's activities, all that wasestimated was the number of hours spent in agricultural work or inremunerative employment in the evening. FARM AREAS AND DAYS WORKED IN THE YEAR [XII]. The informationconcerned three typical peasant proprietors, A, B and C, living in thesame county. The areas of their land are given in _tan_: --------------------------------------------------------------------- |Where farming |Paddy |Dry |Homestead |Rented |Children |Parents |---------------------------------------------------------------------A |In hills |6 |3 |1 | -- |3 |2 |B |On plain |6. 6 |2. 6 |. 5 |2 paddy |3 |2 |C |Near town |6 |4 |1 | -- |3 |- |--------------------------------------------------------------------- Next we are told the number of days that not only A, B and C but theirwives and their parents worked and did not work during the year: -------------------------------------------------------------------- | |Domestic |National | |Remaining |Agriculture |Work |Holidays & |Illness |Days | | |Festivals | |-------------------------------------------------------------------- {A |254 | 28 |25 | 6 |52Husbands {B |239 | 37 |25 | - |64 {C |231 | 49 |19 | 2 |64 | | | | | {A |239 | 54 | 7 | - |64Wives {B |150 |128 |26 | - |64 {C |141 |174 | 9 | - |41 | | | | | {A |144 | 47 |85 |18 |72Fathers {B |205 | 69 |40 | - |51 {C | - | - | - | - | - | | | | | {A | 15 |324 | 6 | - |20Mothers {B | 82 |220 |23 | - |41 {C | - | - | - | - | --------------------------------------------------------------------- It will be seen that men only were ill! [See next page. ] For average of hours worked elsewhere, see page 232 and page 237. FARMERS' EARNINGS AND SPENDINGS [XIII]. If the reader should feel thatthe following details are lacking in comprehensiveness ordefiniteness, he should understand that reports of a national andauthoritative character on the economic condition of the farmer werenot available. There existed certain reports of the Ministry ofAgriculture, but they were subjected to criticism. The NationalAgricultural Association had set on foot an elaborate enquiry as tothe condition of the "middle farmer, " but it was suggested that toomuch reliance was placed on arithmetical calculations and too littleon known facts. I have had to rely, therefore, on official and privateinvestigations made in various prefectures and villages, and I give aselection for what they are worth. Of the general condition of theagricultural population the reader is offered the impressions recordedin my different Chapters. INCOMES AND EXPENDITURES OF PEASANT PROPRIETORS. -- The incomes and expenditures of the three households referred to inAppendix XII were: ----------------------------------------- |Income |Expenditure |Balance in hand----------------------------------------- |yen |yen |yen A |477 |449 |28 B |915 |838 |77 C |971 |703 |68----------------------------------------- HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES. --The household expenditures of the threefamilies were, in yen: ------------------------------------------- |A |B |C------------------------------------------- |yen |yen |yenFood |192. 76 |216. 64 |189. 57House | 2. 32 | 2. 24 | 1. 20Clothes | 18. 72 | 15. 16 | 10. 08Fuel | 12. 72 | 13. 53 | 21. 00Tools and furniture | 10. 97 |160. 18 | 1. 66Social intercourse | 9. 58 | -- | 6. 05Education | 1. 56 | -- | 4. 15Amusement | 3. 30 | 2. 03 | 18. 00Unforeseen | 7. 85 | 13. 72 | 22. 33Miscellaneous | 6. 43 | 7. 71 | 11. 15 |-------|-------|------ |266. 21 |431. 21 |285. 19------------------------------------------- It will be observed that the expenditure of B under theheading of furniture, 160 yen, is out of all proportion with theexpenditures of A and C, 10 yen and 1 yen respectively. Thisis due to the fact that B had to provide a bride's chest for adaughter. A balance sheet given me by a peasant proprietor in Aichi(5_tan_ of two-crop paddy and 5 _tan_ of upland) showed a balancein hand of 27 yen. An agricultural expert said to me, "The peasant proprietorsare the backbone of the country, but the condition of the backboneis not good. The peasant proprietors can make ends meetonly by secondary employments. " The expert showed me averagefigures for 18 farmers for 1891, 1900 and 1909. The averageland of these men was a little over a _chō_ of paddy and 5 _tan_ ofupland and some woodland. They had spent 39, 63 and 86yen on artificial manures as against 100, 153 and 204 yen onfood. The balance at the end of the year for the three yearsrespectively was 27, 40 and 29 yen. "The figures reflect thegeneral condition, " I was told. INCOMES AND EXPENDITURES OF TENANTS. --I may also note thecircumstances of the largest and of the smallest tenant in an Aichivillage I visited. The largest tenant family showed a balance in hand, 93 yen; the smallest tenant, 23 yen. The accounts of 16 tenants for 1891 showed an average sum of 3 yen inhand at the end of the year, for 1900 a loss of 5 yen and for 1909 again of 1 yen. These men had an average of 9 _tan_ of paddy and 2_tan_ of upland. The man who gave me the data said that in thenorth-east of Japan "the condition of the tenants is miserable--eatingalmost cattle food. " The only bright spot for tenants was that, ascompared with peasant proprietors, they were free to change theirholdings and even their business. INCOMES OF TENANTS AND PEASANT PROPRIETORS (SHIDZUOKA). --One tenant, who pays 159 yen in rent and taxes, shows a total income of 374 yenand an expenditure of 538 yen, with a _net loss of 164 yen_. "Farmersof this class, " notes the local expert on the memorandum he gave me, "are becoming poorer every year. " This tenant spent 2 yen on medicineand 5 yen on tobacco. ("Nothing else for enjoyment, " pencils theexpert. ) In addition to parents, a man, a woman and a girl of thefamily worked. Food cost 321 yen (cost of fish and meat, 4-1/2 yen)and clothing 34 yen. In a "model village, " where "the farmers are always diligent, " asmall tenant's income was 508 yen and expenditure 527 yen; _loss_, 19_yen_. Clothes cost 95 yen and food 190 yen. (Cost of fish and meat, 4-3/4 yen. ) There was an expenditure on medicine of 1-1/2 yen and ontobacco and _saké_ ("only enjoyment") 10 yen. Twenty per cent, of the farmers, I was told, "lead a middle-class lifeand occupy a somewhat rational area of land. " The budgets often ofthese men, who own their own land, show a _balance of 85 yen_. "Ifthey were tenants they would not be in such a good condition. " "Wethink the farmer ought to have 2 _chō_. " BUDGETS OF FARMERS ON THE LAND OF THE HOMMA CLAN, YAMAGATA (page186). --A tenant had 3 _chō_ of paddy and a small piece of vegetableland. There lived with him his wife, two sons and the widow and childof the eldest son. After paying his rent he had 30 _koku_ of riceleft. The cost of production and taxes, 100 yen or a little more, hadto come out of that. This tenant had a debt of 250 yen. A sturdy wagoner with a sturdy horse lived with his wife and threechildren and his old mother. He hired 1 _chō_ for 28 _koku_ of riceand his crop was 40 _koku_. He spent 30 yen on manure and 4 yen wentin taxes. A middle-grade farmer owned a house and a little more than 1 _chō_ andrented 3 _chō_ of paddy and a patch for vegetables. His rent was about38 _koku_. He spent 100 yen on manure and 128 yen for taxes, templedues and regulation of the paddy. He employed at 2-1/2 _koku_ a manwho lived with the family, also temporary labour for 48 days. His cropmight be 100 _koku_ or more. He had no debt. A third man was above the middle grade of farmer. His taxes were 240yen and his manure bill 130 yen. His payment for paddy-fieldregulation, to continue for ten years, was 60 yen. He had threelabourers and he also hired extra labour for 100 days. He had threeunmarried sons of 40, 29 and 25. There were 260 yen of pensions inrespect of the war service of one son and the death of another. INCOME OF PEASANT PROPRIETORS (HOKKAIDO). --The following statisticsfor the whole of Hokkaido are based on the experience of peasantproprietors. The 2-1/2 _chō_ men are rice farmers--rice farming meansfarming with rice as the principal crop. The 5-_chō_ men are engagedin mixed farming: -----------------------------------------------------------------------Farmer's|Income | Income | Total | Cost of |Cost of |Total |Balance. Area | from |from Other| |Cultivation|Living |Outlay| |Farming| Work | | | | |----------------------------------------------------------------------- | yen | yen | yen | yen | yen | yen | yen2-1/2 | | | | | | |chō | 366 | 43 | 409 | 107 | 276 | 382 | 27 | | | | | | |5 chō | 441 | 33 | 474 | 119 | 301 | 423 | 52----------------------------------------------------------------------- It will be seen that mixed farming is the more profitable. Income of Tenants (Hokkaido). --Professor Takaoka was kind enough togive me the following summaries of balance sheets of tenants ofcollege lands in different parts of Hokkaido in 1915. (In all casesthe accounts have been debited with wages for the farmer's family. ) Five _chō_. Income, 447 yen; _net return, 37 yen_. (Rye, wheat, oats, corn, soy, potatoes, grass, flax, buckwheat and rape. One horse and afew hens. ) Five _chō_. Income, 763 yen; _net return, 58 yen_. (Rye, wheat, oats, rape, soy, potatoes, corn, grass, flax and onions. Three cows, onehorse. ) Ten _chō_. Income, 1, 015 yen; _net return, 122 yen_. (Same crops withtwo cows and one horse and some hired labour. ) Five _chō_ (peppermint on 3 _chō_). Income, 882 yen; _net return_, 93_yen_. Three _chō_. Income, 1, 195 yen; _net return, 332 yen_. (Vegetablefarming. 206 yen paid for labour. ) Thirty _chō_. Income, 1, 979 yen; _net return, 61 yen_. (Mixed farming;632 yen paid for labour. ) Model _5-chō_ farm without rice. Made 604 yen, and 107 yen _netreturn_, farm capital being 1, 487 yen. (208 yen allowed for labour, interest 128 yen, amortisation 27 yen, and taxes 13 yen. ) Milk farmer, 12 _chō_ and 90 cattle. Income, 12, 280 yen; _net returnof 3, 641 yen_. 2, 120 _chō_ (1, 235 forest, 402 pasture, 110 artificial grass and 42crops; 111 cattle). Income, 66, 205 yen; _net return, 1, 011 yen_. (Milkand meat farming. ) Average income and expenditure of 200 tenants of University land whosebudgets Professor Morimoto (see Chapter XXXIV) investigated: yenCrops 451. 66Wages earned 61. 33Horses 20. 09Poultry and eggs . 96Pigs . 85Manure (animal, 35 _kwan_; human, 14 _koku_) 24. 50Other income 29. 64 ------ 589. 03 yenCultivation, etc. 206. 32Cost of living 303. 33 ------ 509. 65 ------Profit 79. 38 ====== The returns of capital yielded the following averages: yenTenant right in respect of 5-16 _chō_ 750. 82Buildings (32. 2 _tsubo_) 195. 95Clothing 162. 82Horse (average 1. 23) 108. 48Furniture 58. 47Implements 51. 23Poultry (average 2. 58) 1. 15Pigs (average . 12) . 87 -------- Total 1, 329. 79 ======== VALUE OF NEW PADDY [XIV]. More delicious rice could be got, I wastold, from well-fertilised barren land than from naturally fertileland. The first year the new paddy yielded per _tan_ an average of 1. 2_koku_, the second 1. 6, the third 2, and this fourth year the yieldwould have been 2. 3 had it not been for damage by storm. AREAS AND CROPS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF RICE [XV]. In 1919 there wasgrown of paddy rice 2, 984, 750 _chō_ (2, 729, 639 ordinary, 255, 111glutinous) and of upland rice 141, 365 _chō_. Total, 3, 126, 115 _chō_. The yield (husked, uncleaned) was of paddy 61, 343, 403 _koku_(ordinary, 56, 438, 005; glutinous, 4, 905, 398); of upland, 1, 839, 312. Total, 63, 182, 715 _koku_; value, 2, 352, 145, 519 yen. In 1877 the area is reputed to have been 1, 940, 000 _chō_ with a yieldof 24, 450, 000 _koku_ and in 1882 2, 580, 000 _chō_ with a yield of30, 692, 000 _koku_. The average of the five years 1910-14 was 3, 033, 000_chō_ with a yield of 57, 006, 000 _koku_; of the five years 1915-19, 3, 081, 867 _chō_ with a yield of 94, 817, 431 _koku_. In a prefecture in south-western Japan I found that 2 _koku_ 5 _to_(or 2-1/2 _koku_, there being 10 _to_ in a _koku_) per _tan_ wascommon and that from 3 _koku_ to 3 _koku_ 5 _to_ was reached. "A goodyield for 1 _tan_, " says an eminent authority, "is 3 _koku_, or on thebest fields even 4 _koku_. " The average yield in _koku_ per _tan_ forthe whole country has been (paddy-field rice only): 1882, 1. 19;1894-8, 1. 38; 1899-1903, 1. 44; 1904-8, 1. 57; 1909-13, 1. 63; 1914-18, 1. 86; 1919, 1. 99; 1920, 2. 05 (ordinary, 2. 06; glutinous, 1. 92). Uplandrice in 1920, 1. 30 as against 1. 02 in 1909. All these figures are forhusked, uncleaned rice. BARLEY AND WHEAT CROPS [XVI]. The following table (average of fiveyears, 1913-17) shows the yields per _tan_ of the two sorts of barleyand of wheat and the average yield all three together in comparisonwith the rice yield (all quantities husked): _go_ _go_Barley 1, 672 | All three together 1, 307Naked barley 1, 172 | Rice 1, 808Wheat 1, 073 | Naked barley is grown as an upland crop, as are ordinary barley andwheat; but it is more largely grown as a second crop in paddies thaneither barley or wheat. The barleys are chiefly used for human foodwith or without rice. Wheat is eaten in macaroni, sweetstuffs andbread. It is also used in considerable quantities in the manufactureof soy, the chief ingredient of which is beans. There was imported inthe year 1920 wheat to the value of 28-1/2 million yen, and flour tothe value of 3-1/4 million yen. Macaroni is largely made of buckwheatas well as of wheat. The other grain crop is millet, which is eaten bythe poorest farmers. In 1918, as against 60 million _koku_ of rice, there were grown 5 million _koku_ of beans and peas. The crops ofbarley were 17 million, of wheat 6 million, of millet 3-1/4 million, and of buckwheat 3/4 million. More than a million _kwan_ of sweetpotatoes were produced and nearly half a million of "Irish" potatoes. (The figures for barley and wheat are for 1919. ) COST AND PRICE OF RICE [XVII]. The annual figures (from Aichi) for theyears 1894 to 1915 (page 384) show the cost of producing a _tan_ ofrice, that is the summer crop. The amounts per _tan_ are calculated onthe basis of the expenses of a tenant who is cropping 8 _tan_. Thetotals for the winter crop are also given. The figures which appear onthe opposite page were described to me by the farmer concerned as"compiled on the basis of investigations by the chairman of thevillage agricultural association and by its managers and still furtherproved and quite trustworthy. " It will be seen that the value of thewinter crop is low; a secondary employment is usually a better thingfor the farmer. In one or two places there is a sen or so differencein the additions which may have been made by the transcriber from theJapanese original. The difference in amounts of rent is due todifference in fields rented and also to reduction allowed owing to badcrops. The difference in the income from crops is usually due todestruction by hail or wind. COST AND PRICE OF RICE (see page 383) |Year| |Yield in| |_koku_| | |Reserved for Rent| | |and Seeds (_koku_)| | | |Market Price per| | | |_koku_ (yen)| | | | |Gross Income including| | | | |Straw and Chaff, | | | | |not usually sold (yen)| | | | | |Manures (yen)| | | | | | |Taxes and Amortisation| | | | | | |of Implements (sen)| | | | | | | |Total Outlay (yen)| | | | | | | | |Net Income from Summer| | | | | | | | |Crop of Rice (yen)| | | | | | | | | |Days of Labour on| | | | | | | | | |Summer Crop of Rice| | | | | | | | | | |Net Income from| | | | | | | | | | |Winter Crop (?Barley)| | | | | | | | | | | |Total Net| | | | | | | | | | | |Income from| | | | | | | | | | | |both Crops. |------|------|------|-------|-------|-----|----|------|-------|------|-------|-------|| 1894 | 2. 23 | 1. 05 | 7. 66 | 9. 81 | 2 | 21 | 2. 21 | 7. 60 | 2. 5 | 2. 51 | 10. 11 || 1895 | 2. 13 | 1. 05 | 8. 09 | 8. 71 | 2 | 21 | 2. 26 | 6. 45 | 21. 5 | 2. 48 | 8. 92 || 1896 | 1. 53 | . 80 | 8. 67 | 6. 89 | 2. 4 | 22 | 2. 58 | 4. 31 | 21. 5 | 3. 38 | 7. 69 || 1897 | 1. 88 | 1. 05 | 11. 53 | 10. 63 | 2. 9 | 23 | 3. 13 | 7. 50 | 21. 5 | 5. 22 | 12. 72 || 1898 | 2. 39 | 1. 05 | 14. 62 | 21. 13 | 3. 2 | 25 | 3. 40 | 17. 73 | 21. 5 | 5. 50 | 23. 23 || 1899 | 1. 75 | . 88 | 12. 05 | 11. 48 | 3. 8 | 30 | 4. 11 | 7. 37 | 21 | 2. 22 | 9. 99 || 1900 | 2. 14 | 1. 05 | 11. 11 | 13. 24 | 4. 1 | 31 | 4. 40 | 8. 84 | 21 | 4. 22 | 13. 06 || 1901 | 2. 10 | 1. 05 | 10. 53 | 12. 06 | 4 | 32 | 4. 35 | 7. 71 | 21 | 3. 87 | 11. 58 || 1902 | 1. 86 | . 99 | 12. 99 | 12. 40 | 3. 1 | 38 | 3. 51 | 8. 89 | 21 | 4. 11 | 13 || 1903 | 2. 06 | 1. 04 | 12. 50 | 13. 85 | 3. 4 | 49 | 3. 79 | 10. 05 | 21 | 6 | 16. 85 || 1904 | 2. 24 | 1. 03 | 12. 20 | 16 | 2. 6 | 53 | 3. 11 | 9. 89 | 21 | 6. 06 | 15. 95 || 1905 | 1. 77 | . 99 | 13. 42 | 11. 60 | 2. 1 | 46 | 2. 55 | 9. 05 | 21 | 6. 67 | 15. 71 || 1906 | 1. 96 | 1. 05 | 15. 15 | 15 09 | 4 | 56 | 4. 61 | 10. 49 | 21 | 5. 79 | 16. 27 || 1907 | 1. 98 | 1. 14 | 16. 39 | 16. 69 | 4. 4 | 42 | 4. 83 | 11. 84 | 21 | 8. 60 | 20. 43 || 1908 | 2. 21 | 1. 14 | 14. 29 | 16. 80 | 5. 1 | 42 | 5. 54 | 11. 26 | 21 | 10. 79 | 22. 05 || 1909 | 2. 27 | 1. 14 | 11. 63 | 14. 39 | 3. 7 | 99 | 4. 64 | 9. 75 | 21 | 11. 49 | 21. 24 || 1910 | 2. 02 | 1. 14 | 14. 09 | 13. 37 | 4. 5 | 80 | 5. 27 | 8. 51 | 21 | 12. 41 | 20. 91 || 1911 | 2. 22 | 1. 14 | 16. 67 | 19. 72 | 4. 4 | 78 | 5. 13 | 14. 59 | 21 | 13. 49 | 28. 08 || 1912 | 2. 02 | . 90 | 21. 74 | 26. 48 | 5. 9 | 75 | 6. 60 | 19. 88 | 21. 5 | 3. 73 | 23. 6 || 1913 | 2. 31 | 1. 14 | 20. 83 | 24. 67 | 6. 5 | 79 | 7. 30 | 17. 37 | 21. 5 | 12. 62 | 30 || 1914 | 2. 48 | 1. 14 | 12. 50 | 18. 29 | 5. 8 | 78 | 6. 53 | 11. 75 | 21. 5 | 11. 54 | 23. 30 || 1915 | 2. 36 | 1. 20 | 11. 77 | 14. 91 | 5. 8 | 82 | 6. 67 | 8. 24 | 21. 5 | 9. 67 | 18. 91 | This table may be supplemented by the following prices for(unpolished) rice in Tokyo: 1916, 13 yen 76 sen; 1917, 19 yen 84 sen;1918, 32 yen 75 sen; 1919, 45 yen 99 sen. In the spring of 1921 the League for the Prevention of Sales of Riceat a Sacrifice proposed that rice should not be sold under 35 yen per_koku_. The price passed the figure of 35 yen in July 1918. At thetime the League's proposals were made the Ministry of Agriculture wasquoted as stating that the cost of producing rice "is now 40 yen per_koku_. " The accuracy of the figures on which the Ministry's estimatesare made is frequently called in question. CULTIVATED AREA IN JAPAN AND GREAT BRITAIN [XVIII]. In 1919 there werein Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales, the Isle of Man and theChannel Islands) 15, 808, 000 acres of arable, 15, 910, 000 of pasture and13, 647, 000 of grazing, or a total of 45, 365, 000 acres out of a totalarea of 56, 990, 000 acres. In Japan there were 15, 044, 202 acres ofpaddy and of cultivated upland, 46, 958, 000 acres of forest and8, 773, 000 acres of waste; total 70, 775, 000, out of 90, 880, 000 acres. The area of the United Kingdom without Ireland is 56, 990, 080 acres;that of Japan Proper, 75, 988, 378 acres. The population of the UnitedKingdom without Ireland (in 1911) was 41, 126, 000, and of Japan Proper(in 1911) 51, 435, 000. (See also Appendix XXX. ) HUMAN LABOUR _v_. CATTLE POWER [XIX]. The Department of Agriculturestated in 1921 that "from 200 to 300, sometimes more than 500 days'labour [of one man] are required to grow a _chō_ of rice. " The area ofpaddy which is ploughed by horse or cattle power was 61. 89 per cent. The area of upland so cultivated was only 38. 97 per cent. The "averageyear's work of the ordinary adult farmer" was put at 200 days. TheDepartment estimated an average man's day's work (10 hours) asfollows: ---------------------------------------------------------------------Nature of Work | Tools used |Output by one | | Man per Day--------------------------------------------------------------------- | |hectareTillage of paddy |_Kuwa_ (mattock) | 0. 06 " " " |_Fumi-guwa_ (heavy spade) | 0. 1-0. 15Transplanting rice |Hand work | 0. 07-0. 1Weeding |Sickle and weeding tools | 0. 1Cutting the rice crop |Sickle | 0. 1-0. 15Mowing grass |Sickle (long handle) | 0. 5 " " |Scythe | 0. 5--------------------------------------------------------------------- But I have never seen a scythe in use in Japan! MANURE [XX]. The value of the manure used in Japan in a year has beenestimated at about 220 million yen, but for the three years ending1916 it averaged 241 millions, as follows: Produced or obtained by the Farmer | Purchased yen | yenCompost 63, 500, 000 | Bean cake 32, 000, 000Human waste 54, 000, 000 | Mixed 17, 000, 000Green manure 9, 600, 000 | Miscellaneous 16, 000, 000Rice chaff 5, 000, 000 | Sulphate of ammonia 15, 000, 000 | Superphosphate 12, 000, 000 | Fish waste 12, 000, 000 Dr. Sato puts the artificial manure used per _tan_ at a sixth of thatof Belgium and a quarter of that of Great Britain and Germany. Seealso Appendix IV. An agricultural expert once said to me, "Japanesefarmer he keep five head of stock, his own family. " SOWING OF RICE [XXI]. A common seeding time is the eighty-eighth dayof the year according to the old calendar, say May 1 or 2. Transplanting is very usual at the end of May or early in June. InKagawa, Shikoku, I found that rice was sown at the beginning of May oreven at the end of April, the transplanting being done in mid-June. The harvest was obtained 10 per cent. About September 10th, 30 percent. In October and 60 per cent. About the beginning of November. Thewinter crop of naked barley was sown in the first quarter of Decemberand was harvested late in May or early in June, so there was just timefor the rice planting in mid-June. In Kochi the first crop is sown about March 15, the seedlings are putout in mid-May and the harvest is ready about August 10. The secondcrop, which has been sown in June, is ready with its seedlings fromAugust 13 to August 15, and the harvest arrives about November 1 and2. The first crop may yield about 3 _koku_, the second 1-1/2 _koku_. A good deal depends in raising a big crop on a good seed bed. This isgot by reducing the quantity of seed used and by applying manurewisely. Whereas formerly as much as from 5 to 7 _go_ of seed was sownper _tsubo_, the biggest crops are now got from 1 _go_. The Japanese names of the most widely grown varieties are Shinriki, Aikoku, Omachi, Chikusei and Sekitori. At an experiment station Icopied the names of the varieties on exhibition there: Banzai, Patriotism, Japanese Embroidery, Good-looking, Early Power of God, Bamboo, Small Embroidery, Power of God, Mutual Virtue, Yellow Bamboo, Late White, Power of God (glutinous), Silver Rice Cake and EternalRice Field. There are several thousand _chō_ in the vicinity of Tokyo where, owingto the low temperature of the marshy soil, the seed is sown direct inthe paddies, not broadcast but at regular intervals and in thrice orfour times the normal quantities. RATE OF PLANTING [XXII]. I have been told that an adult who has theseedlings brought to his or her hand can stick in a thousand an hour. The early varieties may be set in clumps of seven or eight plants;middle-growth sorts may contain from five to six; the latest kind mayinclude only three or four. The number of clumps planted may be 42 per_tsubo_, which, as a _tsubo_ is nearly four square yards, is about tenper square yard. The clumps are put in their places by being pushedinto the mud. A straight line is kept by means of a rope. The successof the crop depends in no small degree on skilful planting. HOW MUCH RICE DOES A JAPANESE EAT? [XXIII]. The daily consumption ofrice per head, counting young and old, is nearly 3 _go_. (A _go_ isroughly a third of a pint. ) A sturdy labourer will consume at least 5_go_ in a day, and sometimes 7 or even 10 _go_. The allowance forsoldiers is 6 _go_. These quantities represent the rice uncooked. Inrecent years more and more rice has been eaten by those who formerlyate barley or mainly barley. And some who once ate a good deal ofmillet and _hiye_ are now eating a certain amount of rice. Theaverage annual consumption per head of the Japanese population (Koreaand Formosa excluded from the calculation) was: 1888-93, 948 _go_;1908-13, 1, 037 _go_; 1913-18, 1, 050 _go_. The averages of 25 years(1888-1912) were: production, 42, 756, 584 _koku_; consumption, 44, 410, 725 _koku_; deficit, 1, 984, 970 _koku_; population, 45, 140, 094;per head, 0. 980 _koku_. In 1921 the Department of Agriculture, estimating a population of 55, 960, 000 (see Appendix XXX) and an annualconsumption per head of 1. 1 _koku_ per year, put the nationalconsumption for a year at about 61, 550, 000 _koku_. See also AppendixXXVI. IMPORTED AND EXPORTED RICE [XXIV]. "Good rice" is imported from Koreaand Formosa. The objection is to "Rangoon" rice. But most of theimported rice does not come from Rangoon but from Saigon. The figuresfor 1919 were in yen: China, 283, 011; British India, 1, 012, 979;Kwantung, 15, 053, 977; Siam, 29, 367, 430; French Indo-China, 116, 313, 525; other countries, 39, 918; total, 162, 070, 840. The exportsin 1919 were in yen: China, 1, 354; Australia, 6, 570; Asiatic Russia, 165, 463; Kwantung, 213, 633; British America, 356, 600; United States, 476, 756; Hawaii, 3, 046, 598; other countries, 60, 707--all obviously inthe main for Japanese consumption. The total imports and exports werein _koku_ and yen over a period of years: -------------------------------------------------------- | Imports | Exports | Year |-----------------------|-----------|-----------| | _Koku_ |Value (yen)| _Koku_ |Value (yen)|-------------------------------------------------------- 1909 | 1, 325, 243 | 13, 585, 817| 422, 513 | 5, 867, 290 | 1910 | 918, 627 | 8, 644, 439| 429, 251 | 5, 900, 477 | 1911 | 1, 719, 566 | 11, 721, 085| 216, 198 | 3, 940, 541 | 1912 | 2, 234, 437 | 30, 193, 481| 208, 423 | 4, 367, 824 | 1913 | 3, 637, 269 | 48, 472, 304| 204, 002 | 4, 372, 979 | 1914 | 2, 022, 644 | 24, 823, 933| 260, 738 | 4, 974, 108 | 1915 | 457, 606 | 4, 886, 125| 662, 629 | 9, 676, 969 | 1916 | 309, 158 | 3, 087, 616| 686, 479 |11, 197, 356 | 1917 | 564, 376 | 6, 513, 373| 769, 129 |14, 662, 546 | 1918 | 4, 647, 168 | 89, 755, 678| 264, 565 | 8, 321, 965 | 1919 | 4, 642, 382 |162, 070, 840| 95, 219 | 4, 327, 690 | 1920 | 471, 083 | 18, 059, 194| 116, 249 | 5, 897, 675 |-------------------------------------------------------- The twenty-five years' average (1888-1912) of excess of importover export was 1, 339, 493 _koku_. See also Appendix XXVIII. INCREASE OF RICE YIELD AND OF POPULATION [XXV]. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- | | |Percentage | | Percentage | 1882 | 1913 | of | 1918 | of | | |Increase | |Increase[*]-----------------------------------------------------------------------Population |36, 700, 000 |53, 362, 000 | 45 |66, 851, 000 | 55Rice crop |30, 692, 000 |50, 222, 000 | 63 |53, 893, 000 | 75 (_koku_) | | | | |----------------------------------------------------------------------- * 1882-1918. The degree to which the increase in production willbe maintained is of course a matter for discussion. As far as rice isconcerned, it must be borne in mind that there is an increasingconsumption per head. FARMERS' DIET [XXVI]. It is officially stated in 1921 that "the commonfarm diet consists of a mixture of cooked rice and barley as theprincipal food with vegetables and occasionally fish. " The barley iswhat is known as naked barley. Ordinary barley is eaten in northernJapan, but two-thirds of the barley eaten elsewhere is the wheat-likenaked barley, which cannot be grown in Fukushima and the north. Thehusking of ordinary barley is hard work. The young men do it duringthe night when it is cool. They keep on until cock-crow. Their songsand the sound of their mallets make a memorable impression as onepasses through a village on a moonlight night. Another substitute forrice beyond millet is _hiye_ (panic grass). In the south it isregarded as a weed of the paddies, but in the north many _tan_ areplanted with this heavy-yielding small grain. TAXATION [XXVII]. Before 1906 national taxation was 2. 5 per cent. Ofthe legal price of land. In 1900 it was 3. 3 per cent. , in 1904 5. 5 percent. , in 1911 4. 7 per cent, and in 1915 4. 5 per cent. But localtaxation increased in greater proportion. FLAVOUR OF RICE AND PRICE FLUCTUATIONS [XXVIII]. Japanese rice has afatty flavour which the people of Japan like. Therefore the nativerice commands a higher price in Japan than Chinese or Indian rice. With the exception of a small quantity exported to Japanese abroad, Japanese rice is consumed in Japan. The supply of it and the demandfor it are exclusively a Japanese affair. Naturally, when the cropfails the price soars, and when there is a superabundant harvest theprice comes down to the level of foreign rice. Here is the secret ofthe enormous fluctuations in the price of Japanese rice with whichthe authorities have so often endeavoured to cope. The Government granary plan is the third big effort of authority tomanage rice prices. The Okuma Government, under the administration ofwhich rice went down to 14 yen per _koku_, had a Commission to raiseprices. The Terauchi Ministry, at a time when prices rose, touching 55yen, had a Commission to bring prices down. AREA AND CLIMATE [XXIX]. Japan Proper comprises a main island, threeother large islands in sight of the main island, andarchipelagos--4, 000 islets have been counted. The main island, Honshu, with Shikoku behind it, lies off the coast of Korea; the next largestand northernmost island, Hokkaido, off the coast of Siberia, and theremaining sizeable island and the southernmost, Kyushu, off the coastof China over against the mouth of the Yangtse. The area of thisterritory, that is of Japan before the acquirement of Formosa, Korea, southern Saghalien and part of Manchuria, is about 142, 000 squaremiles in area, which is that of Great Britain in possession not of oneWales but of four, or nearly 1 per cent. Of the area of Asia. Butthere are several million more people in Japan than there areinhabitants of Great Britain and thrice as many as there are Britonsin Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and India. (See alsoAppendix XXX. ) Japan, which lies between the latitudes of Cairo andthe Crimea, may be said to consist of mountains, of which fifty areactive volcanoes, with some land, either hilly or boggy, at the footof them. It is nowhere more than 200 miles across and in one place isonly 50. A note on the ocean currents which exercise an influence onagriculture will be found on page 195. The protection afforded to theeastern prefectures by mountain ranges is obvious. Generally thesummer temperature of Japan is higher and the winter temperature islower than is recorded in Europe and America within the samelatitudes. "The mild climate and abundant rainfall, " says the Department ofAgriculture, "stimulate a luxuriant forest development throughout thecountry which in turn provides ample fountain heads for rivers. Therivers and streams run in all directions, affording opportunity forirrigation all over the country. The insular position of the countryrenders its humidity high and its rainfall abundant when compared withContinental countries. The rainy season prevails during the months ofJune and July, making this season risky for the harvest of wheat andbarley; on the other hand it affords a beneficent irrigation supply topaddy-grown rice, which is the most important crop. The characteristicfeature of the climate in the greater part of the islands is thefrequency of storms in the months of August and September. As theflowers of the rice plant commence to bloom during the same period, these late summer storms cause much damage. " The weather in Tokyo in 1918 was as follows: ------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Jan. |Feb. |Mar. |Apl. | May|June|July|Aug. |Sept. |Oct. |Nov. |Dec. -------------------------------------------------------------------------Rain and | | | | | | | | | | | | snow (mm. )| 10| 65| 163| 108| 123| 149| 82| 78| 202| 135| 142| 80Temp. (C. ) | 1. 6| 3. 6| 6. 7|11. 7|16. 7|20. 2|26. 0|26. 0| 22. 6|16. 0|10. 4|3. 9------------------------------------------------------------------------- The varied climate of Japan is indicated by the following statisticsfor centres as far distant as Nagasaki in the extreme south-west andSapporo in Hokkaido: --------------------------------------------------------------------- |Nagasaki| Kyoto |Tokyo | Niigata | Aomori | Sapporo----------------|--------|-------|------|---------|--------|--------- Days of rain or| | | | | | snow | 179 | 176 | 144 | 218 | 229 | 216 Average | | | | | | temp. (C. ) | 14. 9 | 13. 6 | 13. 8 | 12. 5 | 9. 4 | 7. 3 Maximum | 36. 7 | 37. 2 | 36. 6 | 39. 1 | 36. 0 | 33. 4 Minimum | _5. 6_ | _11. 9_| _8. 1_| _9. 7_ | _19. 0_ | _25. 6_--------------------------------------------------------------------- The italicised temperatures are below zero. Average dates of lastfrost: Tokyo, April 6; Nagoya, April 13; Matsumoto, May 17. POPULATION OF JAPAN, MANCHURIA AND MONGOLIA [XXX]. The population ofthe Empire according to the 1920 census was 77, 005, 510, which includedKorea, 17, 284, 207; Formosa, 3, 654, 398; Saghalien, 105, 765; and SouthManchuria (that is, the Kwantung Peninsula), 80, 000. In Old Japan(Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu with the near islands, and Loo-choos andBonins) there were 53, 602, 043, and in Hokkaido (including Kuriles)2, 359, 097. Tokyo is the largest city, 2, 173, 000, followed by Osaka, 1, 252, 000. Kobe and Kyoto have a little more than half a million; Nagoya andYokohama four hundred thousand apiece. Ten other cities have a hundredthousand odd. In the following table the populations and areas of Japan, GreatBritain and the United States are compared: ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Country | Area | Population | Population | | | per sq. Mile------------------------------------------------------------------------Japan (excluding Korea, Formosa | | | and Saghalien) | 142, 000 | 55, 961, 140 | 394 | | (1920) |British Isles | 121, 636 | 47, 306, 664[*] | 388 | | (1921) |United States (excluding Alaska | | | and oversea possessions) |3, 000, 000| 105, 683, 108 | 35 | | (1920) |------------------------------------------------------------------------ * Ireland taken at 1911 census figures. Japan's 394 per square mile is lowered by the population of Hokkaido(2, 359, 097), which is only 66 per square mile. The population of thethree chief Japanese islands is: Honshu, the mainland (41, 806, 930), 471; Shikoku (3, 066, 890), 423; and Kyushu (8, 729, 088), 511. (Thesefigures are for 1920. ) "As regards density per square kilometre, "writes an official of the Imperial Bureau of Statistics in the _JapanYear-book_, with the figures antecedent to the 1920 census before him, "it is calculated at 140 for Japan and this compares as follows withBelgium (1910) 252, England and Wales (1911) 239, Holland (1909) 171, Italy (1911) 121, Germany (1910) 120 and France 44. When comparison ismade on the basis of habitable area Japan may be considered to surpassall as to density, for while in Japan it constitutes only 19 per cent, of the total area, the ratio is as high as 74 for Belgium, 73 forEngland and Wales, 67 for Holland, 76 for Italy, 65 for Germany and 70for France. " The Professor of Agricultural Science at Tokyo Universitysays: "The area under cultivation, even in the densely populatedparts, is comparatively smaller than in any other country. " In a statement issued in 1921 the Department of Agriculture reckonedthe population at 145 per square kilometre and recorded the mean rateof increase "in recent years" as 12. 06 per 1, 000. It stated that thedensity of the rural population was 44 per square kilometre or 9. 42per hectare of arable, in other words that the density "is higherthan that of France, Belgium, Switzerland and some other countrieswhere the agriculture is marked by fairly intensive methods. " Mr. Nikaido, of the Bureau of Statistics, writes in the _Japan Year-book_that the annual increase of Japan's population was 14. 78 per 1, 000 for1909-13 and 12. 06 for 1914-18, "a rate greater than in any civilisedcountry, with the exception of Germany and Rumania in the pre-Waryears. " The birth rate is high, but so is the mortality. The death rate ofminors is thrice that of Germany and Great Britain. Here theincreasing industrialisation of the country is no doubt playing itspart. The ratio of still births has steadily risen since the eighties. The ratio of births, other than still births, per 1, 000 of population, which in 1889-93 was 28. 6, increased by 1909-13 to 33. 7; but the deathrate fell only from 21. 1 to 20. 6. The ratio of unmarried, 63. 22 in1893, was 66. 22 in 1918. The following figures for Japan Proper are printed by the _Financialand Economic Annual_, issued by the Department of Finance: ---------------------------------------------------------Year. | Total. |Annual Increase |Average Increase per | |of Population. |1, 000 Inhabitants. --------------------------------------------------------- 1910 | 50, 716, 600 | -- | 14. 09} 1911 | 51, 435, 400 |718, 800 | 14. 17} 1912 | 52, 167, 000 |731, 600 | 14. 22} 14. 21 1913 | 52, 911, 800 |744, 800 | 14. 28} 1914 | 53, 668, 600 |756, 800 | 14. 30} | | | 1915 | 54, 448, 200 |779, 600 | 14. 53} 1916 | 55, 235, 000 |786, 800 | 14. 45} 1917 | 56, 035, 100 |800, 100 | 14. 49} 14. 50 1918 | 56, 851, 300 |816, 200 | 14. 57} 1919 | 57, 673, 938 |822, 638 | 14. 47} 1920 | 55, 961, 140 | -- | ----------------------------------------------------------- It will be seen that for the year 1920 there was a big drop. Thepopulation of 55, 961, 140 for the year 1920 is the actual population asreturned by the census; the figures of the preceding years are"based, " it is explained to me, "on the local registrars' entries. Thenational census has demonstrated that the figures were larger than theactual number of inhabitants, the discrepancies being partly due toerroneous and duplicate registration and partly to the exodus ofpersons to the colonies or foreign countries whilst retaining theirlegal domiciles at home. But the table serves to show the rate ofincrease. " A million and three-quarters is a substantial figure, however, to account for in this way. It would seem reasonable tosuppose that the increased cost of living, marriage at a later agethan formerly and increased mortality due directly or indirectly tothe factory system have arrested the rate of increase of thepopulation in recent years. For trustworthy figures of the Japanesepopulation we must await the next census and compare its figures withthose of the 1920 census, the first to be taken scientifically. A considerable part of Japan is uninhabitable. Of how much of theBritish Isles can this be said? The fact that there are in Japan fiftymore or less active volcanoes, about a thousand hot springs and twodozen mountains between 12, 000 and 8, 000 ft. High speaks for itself. Ben Nevis is only 4, 400, Snowdon only 3, 500 ft. The population of Korea in 1920 (17, 284, 207) was 239 per square mile. According to _Whitaker_ for 1921 the population of Manchuria (11millions) is 30 per square mile, and of Mongolia (3 millions) 2. 8. SMALL FARMS DECREASING [XXXI]. ------------------------------------------------------Year |Below 5 |Over 5 |Over 5 |Over 2 |Over 3 |Over 5 |_tan_ |_tan_ |_chō_ |_chō_ |_chō_ |_chō_------------------------------------------------------1908 |37. 28 |32. 61 |19. 51 |6. 44 |3. 01 |1. 151912 |37. 14 |33. 25 |19. 61 |5. 96 |2. 83 |1. 211918 |35. 54 |33. 30 |20. 70 |6. 33 |2. 82 |1. 311919 |35. 36 |33. 18 |20. 68 |6. 21 |2. 83 |1. 74---------------------------------------------------- See also Appendix XLVII. FORESTS [XXXII]. The following figures for 1918 show, in thousand_chō_, the ownership of forests (bared tracts in brackets): Crown, 1, 303 (89); State, 7, 288 (392); prefectures, cities, towns andvillages, 2, 894 (1, 383); temples and shrines, 111 (15); 7, 186 (1, 630);total, 18, 782 (3, 509). The largest yield is from sugi (cryptomeria), pine and _hinoki_ (_Charmae-cyparis obtusa_). ARMAMENTS [XXXIII]. 1, 505 million yen of the national debt is forarmaments and military purposes against 923 million yen forreproductive undertakings (railways, harbours, drainage, roads, steelworks, mining, telephones, etc. ), 143 million for exploitation ofFormosa, Korea and Saghalien, 123 million for financial adjustmentand 98 million for feudal pensions and feudal debt. Of the expenditurefor 1920-1, 846 million, some 395 million were for the army and navy. During a period of 130 years the United States Government has spentnearly four-fifths of its revenue on war or objects related to war. LANDOWNING AND FARMING [XXXIV]. Before the Restoration the farmerswere the tenants of the daimyos' vassals, the samurai, or of thedaimyos direct. When the daimyos gave up their lands the Crown madethe farmers the owners of the land they occupied. Its legal value wasassessed and the national land tax was fixed at 3 per cent, and thelocal tax at 1 per cent. Various adjustments have since taken place. The Japanese Constitutional Labour Party has insisted in acommunication to the International Labour Conference at Geneva thatJapanese tenant farmers are not properly called farmers but that theyare "labourers pure and simple. " See Appendix LXXVI. STATE RAILWAYS [XXXV]. The railways, which were nationalised in 1907, extended in 1919 to 6, 000 miles. There were also nearly 2, 000 miles oflight railways (in addition to 1, 368 of electric street cars). Most ofthe lines are single track. The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in. The Governmenthas proposed gradually to electrify the whole system. ILLEGITIMACY [XXXVI]. In Japan illegitimacy is a question not ofmorals but of law. That is to say, it is a question of registration. If a husband omits to register his marriage he is not legally married. Thus it is possible for there to be born to a married pair a childwhich is technically illegitimate. If the child should die at an earlyage it is equally possible for it to appear on the official records asillegitimate. A birth must be registered within a fortnight. It may bethought perhaps that it is practicable for the father to register hismarriage after the birth of the child and within the time allowed forregistration. It is possible but it is not always easy. An applicationfor the registration of the marriage of a man under twenty-five mustbear the signature of his parents and the signature of two persons whotestify that the required consent has been regularly obtained. In theevent of a man's father having "retired, " the signature of the head ofthe family must be secured. If a man is over twenty-five, then thesignatures of his parents or of any two relatives will suffice. Nowsuppose that a man is living at a distance from his birthplace orsuppose that the head of his family is travelling. Plainly, there maybe a difficulty in securing a certificate in time. Therefore, because, as has been explained, no moral obloquy attaches to unregisteredmarriage or to unregistered or legally illegitimate children, registration is often put off. When a man removes from one place toanother and thereupon registers, it may be that his marriage and hischildren may be illegitimate in one place and legitimate in another. There is a difference between actual and legal domicile. A man mayhave his domicile in Tokyo but his citizen rights in his nativevillage. SAKÉ AND BEER [XXXVII]. Saké is sold in 1 or 2 _go_ bottles at from 10to 25 sen for 2 _go_. As it is cheaper to buy the liquor unbottledmost people have it brought home in the original brewery tub. Thereare five sorts of _saké_: _seishu_ (refined), _dakushu_ (unrefined ormuddy), _shirozake_ (white _saké_), _mirin_ (sweet _saké_) and_shōchū_ (distilled _saké_). _Saké_ may contain from 10 to 14 percent. Of alcohol; _shōchū_ is stronger; _mirin_ has been described asa liqueur. Japanese beers contain from 1 to 2 per cent. Less alcoholthan English beers and only about a quarter of the alcohol in _saké_. More than four-fifths of it is sold in bottles. Beer is replacing_saké_ to some extent, but owing to the increase in the population ofJapan the total consumption of _saké_ (about 4, 000, 000 _koku_) remainspractically the same. In 1919 beer and _saké_ were exported to thevalue of 7, 200, 000 and 4, 500, 000 yen respectively. MINERAL PRODUCTION [XXXVIII]. In 1919 the production was as follows:gold, 1, 938, 711 _momme_, value 9, 681, 494 yen; silver, 42, 822, 160_momme_, value 11, 131, 861 yen; copper, 130, 737, 861 _kin_, value67, 581, 475 yen; iron, steel and iron pyrites, 169, 545, 050 _kwan_, thevalue of the steel being 72, 666, 867 yen; coal, 31, 271, 093 metric tons, value 442, 540, 941 yen. JAPAN AS SILK PRODUCER [XXXIX], In exportation of silk, Japan, whichin 1919 had under sericulture 8. 6 of her total cultivated area and17. 1 per cent, of her upland, passed Italy in 1901 and China in 1910. Her exportation is now twice that of China. In production her total isthrice that of Italy. France is a long way behind Italy. Theproduction of China is an unknown quantity. As to the advantages and drawbacks of Japan for sericulture theDepartment of Agriculture wrote in 1921: "Japan is not favourablyplaced, inasmuch as atmospheric changes are often very violent, andthe air becomes damp in the silk-culture seasons. This is especiallythe case in the season of spring silkworms, for the cold is severe atthe beginning and the air becomes excessively damp as the rainy seasonsets in. The intense heat in July and August, too, is very trying forthe summer and autumn breeds. Compared with France and Italy, Japanseems to be heavily handicapped, but the abundance of mulberry leavesall over the land and the comparatively rich margin of spare labouramong the farmers have proved great advantages. " The length of the sericultural season ranges from 54 days in spring to31 or 32 days in autumn, but there are variations according toweather, methods and seed. The season begins with the incubationperiod. Then follows the rearing. Last is the period in which thecaterpillars mount the little straw stacks provided for them in orderthat they may wind themselves into cocoons. I do not enter into thetechnics of the retardation and stimulation of seed in order to delayor to hasten the hatch according to the movements of the market. Hydrochloric and sulphuric-acid baths and electricity are used asstimulants; storage in "wind holes" is practised to defer hatching. Cocoons are reckoned both by the _kwan_ of 8-1/4 lbs. And by the_koku_ of approximately 5 bushels. The cocoon production in 1918worked out at about 16-1/2 bushels per acre of mulberry or 18 bushelsper family engaged in sericulture. About 34 million bushels of cocoonsare produced. In 1919 the production was 270, 800, 000 kilos. Theaverage production of a _tambu_ of mulberry field was 1. 356 _koku_. In1919 a _koku_ was worth on the average 106. 81 yen (including doubleand waste cocoons). The cost of producing cocoons rose from 4. 105 yenper _kwamme_ in 1916 to 11. 284 yen in 1920. The daily wages oflabourers employed by the farmers rose from 62 sen for men and 47 senfor women in 1910 to 1 yen 93 sen for men and 1 yen 44 sen for womenin 1920. With the slump, the price of cocoons fell below the cost ofproduction and there was trouble in several districts when wages weredue. The labourers engaged for the silk seasons of 1916 numbered341, 577, of whom 30, 000 came from other than their employers'prefectures. These people migrate from the early to the late districtsand so manage to provide themselves with work during a considerableperiod. As many as 5-1/2 per cent, of the persons engaged in theindustry are labourers. Many employment agencies are engaged insupplying labour. It has been estimated that the labour of 19. 8 persons (200 perhectare) is needed for a _tambu_ of mulberry field. The silkwormshatched from a card of eggs (laid by 100 moths) are supposed to callfor the labour of 49. 2 persons (1, 456 per kilo, 2. 204 lbs. ) The production of _cocoons_ rose from 0. 866 _koku_ per card in 1914 to1. 105 in 1918, or from 4, 412, 000 to 6, 832, 000. More than three-quarters of the raw silk produced used to be exported. Now, with the increase of factories in Japan (the figures are for1918), only 67 per cent, goes abroad, the bulk of it to the UnitedStates, which obtained from Japan, in 1917-18, 75 per cent. , and in1919, it has been stated, 90 per cent, of its total supply. About 28per cent, of the world's consumption is supplied by Japan. Whereas in1915 the output of raw silk was 5, 460, 000 _kwan_ valued at 217, 746, 000yen, it was in 1918 7, 891, 000 _kwan_ valued at 546, 543, 000 yen. Whilein 1915-16 the percentage of Japanese exporters to foreign exporterswas 64-4, it had risen in 1919-20 to 77. 5. Against 450 _chō_ ofmulberries in 1914 there were in 1918 508, 993 _chō_. The total exportof raw silk and silk textiles to all countries in 1920 was 382 and 158million yen respectively. In 1919, 96 per cent. Of the raw silk Japanexported went to the United States and 46 out of 101 million yens'worth of exported silk textiles (habutal). Japan's whole trade withthe United States is worth 880 million yen a year. But the proportionof basins in the factories steadily increases. There are nearly fivethousand factories, big and little. A well-informed correspondentwrites to me: "You know of course of the big organisation subsidisedby the Government to control prices and not to make too much silk. Thetruth is the silk interest became too powerful and the Government isnot a free agent. " TUBERCULOSIS [XL]. Phthisis and tuberculosis sweep off 22 per cent, and bronchitis and inflammation of the lungs 18 per cent. , or togethermore than a third of the population. See also Appendix LXIX. WOMEN WORKERS [XLI]. In addition to women and girls working inagriculture, in the mines, in the factories and & trades there aresaid to be 1, 200, 000 in business and the public services. Teachersnumber about 52, 000, nurses 33, 000, midwives 28, 000 and doctors 700. FACTORY FOOD AND "DEFIANCE OF HYGIENIC RULES" [XLII]. Dr. Kuwata saysin the _Japan Year-book_ (1920-1) that "in cotton mills wheremachinery is run day and night it is not uncommon when business isbrisk to put operatives to 18 hours' work. In such cases holidays aregiven only fortnightly or are entirely withheld. The silk factories inNaganoken generally put their operatives to 14 or 16 hours' work andin only a small portion are the hours 13. " Summarising a report of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, hesays of the factory workers: "The bulk of workers are female and arechiefly fed with boiled rice in 43 per cent. Of the factories. Inother factories the staple food is poor, the rice being mixed withcheaper barley, millet or sweet potato in the proportion of from 20 to50 per cent. In most cases subsidiary dishes consist of vegetables, meat or beans being supplied on an average only eight times a month. Dormitories are in defiance of hygienic rules. In most cases only halfto 1 _tsubo_ (4 square yards) are allotted to one person. " See alsoAppendix LXIX. CHINESE COMPETITION WITH JAPAN [XLIII]. The _Jiji_ called attention inthe spring of 1921 to the way in which spinning mills in China were anincreasing menace to Japanese industry. There were in China 810, 000spindles under Chinese management, 250, 000 under European and 340, 000under Japanese, a total of 1, 430, 000, which will shortly be increasedto 1, 150, 000 against 3, 000, 000 in Japan only 1, 800, 000 of which are atwork. The 1919 return was: China, 1, 530, 000; Japan, 3, 200, 000. HOODWINKING THE FOREIGNER [XLIV] In the _Manchester Guardian_ JapanNumber, June 9, 1921, the managing director of a leading spinningcompany, in a page and a half article, states that among the reasonswhy a large capitalisation is needed by Japanese factories, beyond thefact of higher cost of machinery, is the "special protection neededfor Japanese operatives and the special consideration given by thespinners to the happiness and welfare of their operatives. " When willJapanese believe their best friends when they tell them that suchattempts to hoodwink the foreigner achieve no result but to coverthemselves with ridicule? TOBACCO [XLV]. In 1918-19 there was produced on 24, 439 _chō_10, 308, 089 _kwan_ of tobacco. During the same period 9, 681, 274 _kwan_were taken by the Government, which paid 19, 114, 803 yen or 1. 974 per_kwan_. In 1919 there was imported leaf tobacco to the value of5, 288, 918 yen. Cigarettes to the value of 589, 744 yen were exported. The profits of the Tobacco Monopoly, estimated at 71 millions for1919-20, were estimated at 88 millions for 1920-1. ELECTORAL OFFENCES [XLVI]. There were candidates at the 1920 electionwho spent 50, 000 yen. It is not uncommon for the number of personscharged with election offences to reach four figures. Thequalification for a vote (law of 1918) is the payment of 3 yen ofnational tax. Under the old law there were about 25 voters per 1, 000inhabitants; now there are 54. SMALLNESS OF ESTATES [XLVII]. The number of men holding from 5 to 10_chō_ was, in 1919, 121, 141 and between 10 and 50 _chō_, 45, 978. Thenumber holding 50 _chō_ (125 acres) and upwards was only 4, 226, and400 or so of these were in Hokkaido. See also Appendix XXXI. VEGETABLE WAX MAKING [XLVIII]. The wax-tree berries are flailed andthen pounded. Next comes boiling. The mush obtained is put into a bagand that bag into a wooden press. The result is wax in its firststate. A reboiling follows and then--the discovery of the method wasmade by a wax manufacturer while washing his hands--a slow dropping ofthe wax into water. What is taken out of the water is wax in a flakedstate. It is dried, melted and poured into moulds. The best berriesyield 13 per cent. Of fine wax. The variety of wax grown was _oro_(yellow wax). There is another variety. The sort I saw is grafted atthree years with its own variety. The fruitful period lasts for aquarter of a century. Roughly, the yield is 100 _kwan_ per _tan_. Formerly, wax was made from wild trees. NAMES FOR ETA [XLIX]. Eta (great defilement) is an offensive name. Thephrase _tokushu buraku_ (special villages), applied to Eta hamlets, isalso objected to. _Heimin_ is the official name, but the Eta aregenerally termed _shin heimin_ (new common people), which is againregarded as invidiously distinguishing them. The name _chihō_ is nowofficially proposed for Eta villages. The fact that many Eta havemade large sums during the war has somewhat improved the position oftheir class. Some Eta are well satisfied with their name and freelyacknowledge their origin. Year by year intermarriage increases inJapan. A Home Department official has been quoted as saying that in1918 as many as 450 marriages were registered between Eta and ordinaryJapanese. The population of the village I visited, 1, 900 in 300 families, wasgetting its living as follows: farming 682, trade 185, industry 31, day labour 97, travelling players 180, not reported 180. TheParliamentary voters were 10, prefectural 17, county 19 and village57. There were 98 ex-soldiers in the community and one man was amember of the local education committee. The birth rate was above thelocal average. The crimes committed during the year were: theft 2, gambling 2, assault 1, police offences 3. Of the 300 families only onewas destitute, and it had been taken care of by the young women'ssociety. A considerable proportion of the early emigrants to America were Eta. It is now recognised that it was a short-sighted policy on the part ofthe authorities to allow them to go. PAPER MAKING [L]. A paper-making outfit may cost from 60 to 70 yenonly. The shrubs grown to produce bark for paper making are _kōzo_(the paper mulberry), _mitsumata_ (_Edgworthia chrysantha_) and_gampi_ (_Wilkstroemia sikokiana_). Someone has also hit on the ideaof turning the bark of the ordinary mulberry to use in paper making. LIBRARIES, THE PRESS AND THE CENSORSHIP [LI]. There are 1, 200libraries in the country with 4 million books and 8 million visitorsin the year. About 47, 000 books are published in a year, of which lessthan half, probably, are original works. From one to two hundred aretranslations, usually condensed translations. The largest number dealwith politics. There are about 3, 000 newspapers and periodicals. In1917 some 1, 200 issues of newspapers and periodicals attracted theattention of the censor and the sale of 600 books was prohibited. Somesixty foreign books were stopped. JAPANESE IN BRAZIL [LII]. Emigration to South America has latterlybeen arrested through the rise in wages at home. During the past fouryears an average of about 3, 000 families has gone every twelve monthsto Brazil, where about a quarter of a million acres are owned andleased by Japanese. The Japanese Government spends 100, 000 yen a yearon giving a grant of 50 yen to each emigrating family up to 2, 000 innumber, through the Overseas Colonisation Company. The BrazilianGovernment also offers a gratuity. CATTLE KEEPING IN SOUTH-WESTERN JAPAN [LIII]. Tajima, the old provincewhich comprises about four counties in Tottori, is a large supplier of"Kobe beef, " but it is a cattle-feeding not a grazing district. Thenumber of cattle in Hyogo is double the cattle population of Tottori, but no cattle keeper has more than a score of beasts. The usual thingis for farmers to have two or three apiece. Some of the "Kobe beef"comes from the prefectures of Hiroshima and Okayama. It is in thenorth of Japan, where the people are not so thick on the ground andcultivation is less intense, that cattle production has its bestchance. VALUE OF LAND [LIV]. The value of land in the hill-village in which Istayed necessarily varied, but the average price of paddy was given meas 250 yen per _tan_. Dry land was half that. Open hill land, that isthe so-called grass land, might be worth 120 yen. The rise in valueswhich has taken place is illustrated by the following table offarm-land values per _tan_ in 1919, published by the Bank of Japan: ------------------------------------------------------------ | Paddy | Upland------------------------------------------------------------ |Good |Ordinary|Bad |Good |Ordinary|Bad------------------------------------------------------------Hokkaido |231 |158 |95 |115 |62 |26 {North } |802 |579 |366 |477 |295 |170Honshu {Tokyo } |863 |607 |406 |673 |442 |272(main {middle} |1, 226 |834 |523 |875 |565 |313island){west } |1, 226 |840 |525 |727 |443 |244Shikoku |1, 120 |784 |470 |752 |450 |225Kyushu |960 |652 |416 |538 |300 |175----------------------------------------------------------- FRUIT PRODUCTION [LV]. The Japanese when they do not eat meat do notfeel the need of fruit which is experienced in the West. But there isnow a steady increase in the fruit crops. For 1918 the figures were(in thousands of _kwan_): persimmons, 43, 620; pears, 27, 730; oranges, 73, 660; peaches, 12, 810; apples, 6, 695; grapes, 6, 240; plums (largelyused pickled), 6, 190. JAPANESE STUDENTS ABROAD [LVI]. During 1921 more than 200 youngprofessors or candidates for professorships were sent to Europe andAmerica by the Ministry of Education. Probably another 300 werestudying on funds (£450 for a year plus fares is the grant which ismade by the Ministry of Education) supplied by the Ministries ofAgriculture, of Railways and of the Army and Navy (often supplemented, no doubt, by money furnished by their families). If to these studentsare added those sent by independent Universities, institutions, corporations and private firms, the total cannot be fewer than 1, 000. The students stay from six months to two or three years, and when theyreturn others take their places. Counting diplomatists, business men, tourists and students there are, of course, more Japanese in GreatBritain than there are British in Japan. There are fifteen hundredJapanese in London alone. TEA PRODUCTION [LVII]. Every prefecture but Aomori produces some tea, but very little is grown in the prefectures of the extreme north. Thelargest producers are in order: Shidzuoka, Miye, Nara, Kyoto, Kumamoto, Gifu, Kagoshima, Shiga, Saitama, Osaka and Ibariki. In 1919Shidzuoka produced 4 million _kwan_, valued at nearly 13 million yen. But the statistics of tea production are unsatisfactory. Much tea isproduced and sold locally which is unreported. A great deal of this isof inferior quality and produced from half-wild bushes. The 1919figures are: area, 48, 843 _chō_; number of factories, 1, 122, 164; greentea--_sencha_, 7, 205, 886 _kwan_; _bancha_, 2, 580, 035 _kwan; gyokuro_, 75, 826 _kwan_; black, 50, 756 _kwan_; others, 234, 868 _kwan_; _sencha_dust, 249, 862 _kwan_; other dust, 486 _kwan_. Total, 10, 397, 719_kwan_; value, 33, 377, 460 yen. There was exported green tea (panfired), 12, 420, 000 yen; green tea (basket fired), 4, 575, 000 yen;others, 1, 405, 000 yen. Of this there went to the United Statesconsignments to the value of 15, 600, 000 yen and to Canada of 1, 700, 000yen. In 1918 the export to America was 50, 000 tons; in 1919, 30, 000;and in 1920, 23, 000; and a further decline is expected in 1921. Thetotal exports, which were, in 1909, 62 per cent, of the production, were, in 1918, only 57 per cent, and, in 1919, 37 per cent. THEINE PERCENTAGES. --The following percentages of theine in black andgreen tea were furnished me by the Department of Agriculture: --------------------------------------------------- |Green |Green |Black |Oolong |(Basket Fired) |(Pan Fired) | |---------------------------------------------------Theine |2. 81 |2. 22 |2. 26 |2. 35Tannin |15. 08 |14. 29 |7. 32 |16. 15--------------------------------------------------- Theine or caffeine is a feathery-looking substance which resemblesthe material of a silk-worm's cocoon. There is more theine or caffeinein tea leaves than in coffee. MISTAKES IN CROP STATISTICS [LVIII]. Generally speaking, it may besaid that cereals are under-estimated and cocoons over-estimated. Cereals may be 20 per cent. Under-estimated. The under-estimation mayno doubt be traced back to the time when taxation was on the basis ofthe grain yield. OCCUPATIONS FOR THE BLIND [LIX]. A third of the 70, 000 sightless are_amma_, about a quarter as many practise acupuncture and theapplication of the moxa, while nearly the same number are musicians orstorytellers. The blind have petitioned the Diet to restrict thecalling of _amma_ to men and women who have lost their sight. WELL SINKING FOR GAS [LX]. The presence of gas, which is odourless, isbetrayed by the discoloration of the water from which it emanates andby bubbles. HEALTH, HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN [LXI]. In 1917-18 theconstitutions of 1, 193, 000 elementary school boys were reported as 53per cent. Robust, 48 per cent. Medium and 4 per cent. Weak. Theconstitutions of 1, 016, 000 elementary school girls were reported 49per cent. Robust, 48 per cent. Medium and 3 per cent. Weak. Just aswomen are often underfed in Japan, girls may frequently be less wellfed than boys. Elementary school boys of 16 averaged 4. 84 _shaku_ inheight and 10. 85 _kwan_ in weight. The average height and weight of512 elementary school girls of the same age were 4. 71 _shaku_ and10. 83 _kwan_. HEIGHT AND WEIGHT OF WRESTLERS [LXII]. In a list of ten famouswrestlers the tallest is stated to be 6. 30 _shaku_ (a _shaku_ is 11. 93inches) and the heaviest as 33. 2 _kwan_ (a _kwan_ is 8. 267 lbs. ). Theaverage height and weight of these men work out at 5. 84 _shaku_ and28. 4 _kwan_. By way of comparison it may be mentioned that thepercentage of conscripts in 1918 over 5. 5 _shaku_ was 2. 58 per cent. The average weight of Japanese is recorded as 13 _kwan_ 830 _momme_. EXEMPTION FROM AND AVOIDANCE OF CONSCRIPTION [LXIII]. The age is 20and the service two years (with four years in reserve and ten yearsdepot service). The only son of a parent over 60 unable to supporthimself or herself is released. Middle school boys' service ispostponed till they are 25. Students at higher schools anduniversities need not serve till 26 or 27. The service of young menabroad (i. E. Elsewhere than China) is similarly postponed. (If stillabroad at 37, they are entered in territorial army list and exempted. )Young men of education equal to that of middle-school graduates canvolunteer for a year and pay 100 yen barracks expenses and be passedout with the rank of non-commissioned officers and be liablethereafter for only two terms of three months in territorial army. There are about half a million youths liable to conscription annually. To this number is to be added about 100, 000 postponed cases. (In 1917, 47, 324 students, 32, 263 abroad, 15, 920 whereabouts unknown, 5, 069 ill, 3, 147 criminal causes, 2, 477 absentees, family reasons or crime. )Evasions in 1917: convicted, 234; suspected, 1, 582. There are twoconscription insurance companies with policies issued for 69 millionyen. In one place charms against being conscripted are sold--at ashrine. Desertions in 1916 (7 per cent, officers) 956, of which 258received more than "light punishment. " The conscripts suffering fromtrachoma were 15. 3 per cent. And from venereal diseases 2. 2 per cent. Heights (1918): under 5 _shaku_, 10. 95 per cent. ; 5-5. 3 _shaku_, 53. 34per cent. ; 5. 3-5. 5 _shaku_, 33. 13 per cent. ; above 5. 5 _shaku_, 2. 58per cent. In these four classes there was a decrease in height in thefirst two of . 39 per cent. And . 57 per cent. Respectively and anincrease in the second two of . 80 per cent. And 15 per cent. Respectively. HOKKAIDO HOLDINGS [LXIV]. There are only 28 holdings of more than1, 000 _chō_, 62 of over 500 _chō_, 161 over 100 _chō_ and 80 over 50_chō_. These large holdings are used for cattle breeding alone. Thereare no more than 620 holdings over 20 _chō_ and only 6, 756 over 10. The number over 5 _chō_ is 51, 877, and over 2 _chō_ 62, 015. Under thearea of 2 _chō_ there are as many as 40, 928. Few of the largestholdings are worked as single farms. They are let in sections totenants. CLAUSES IN A TENANT'S CONTRACT [LXV]. (1) The tenant must make atleast 1 _chō_ of paddy every year. (2) Rent rice must be the best ofthe harvest, but the tenant may pay in money. (3) In the followingcases the owner will give orders to the tenants: (_a_) If tenants donot use enough manure, (_b_) If there is disease of plants or insectpests, (_c_) If the tenant neglects to mend the road or othernecessary work is neglected. (4) The owner will dismiss a tenant:(_a_) If the tenant does not pay his rent without reason, (_b_) Ifthe tenant is neglectful of his work or is idle, (_c_) If the tenantis not obedient to the owner and does not keep this contractfaithfully. (_d_) If the tenant is punished by the law. (5) Whentenants leave without permission of absence more than twenty days theowner can treat as he will crops or buildings. (6) In the followingcases the tenant must provide two labourers to the owner: mendingroad, drainage canal or bridges; mending water gate and irrigationcanal; when necessary public works must be undertaken. CULTIVATED AREA AND LIVESTOCK [LXVI]. The area of cultivated land inJapan (counting paddy and arable) was, in 1919, 15, 179, 721 acres(6, 071, 888 _chō_). The number of animals kept for tillage purposes was1, 199, 970 horses and 1, 036, 020 homed cattle. The total number ofhorses in the country was only 1, 510, 626 and of horned cattle, excluding 207, 891 returned as "calving" and 12, 761 as "deaths, "1, 307, 120. Sheep, 4, 546; goats, 91, 777; swine, 398, 155. The number ofhorned cattle slaughtered in the year was 226, 108. Some 86, 800 horseswere also slaughtered. In Great Britain (arable, pasture and grazingarea, 63 million acres) there were, in 1919, 11 million cattle, 25million sheep, 3 million pigs and 1-3/4 million horses. EGGS AND POULTRY [LXVII]. Even with the assistance of a tariff onChinese eggs and of a Government poultry yard, which distributes birdsand sittings at cost price, there were in 1919 14, 105, 085 fowls and11, 278, 783 chickens. There was an importation of 3-1/2 million "fresh"eggs. MEAT CONSUMPTION [LXVIII]. The present meat consumption by Japanese isuncertain, for there were in 1920[A] 3, 579 foreign residents and22, 104 visitors, and there is an exportation of ham and tinned andpotted foods. The number of animals slaughtered in 1918 was: cattleand calves, 226, 108; horses, 86, 800; sheep and goats, 9, 587; swine, 327, 074. Someone said to me that "the nutritious flesh of the horseshould not be neglected, for the farmer is able to digest tough food. " [Footnote A: In 1921 as many as 24, 000 foreigners landed in nine months. ] TUBERCULOSIS IN THE MILLS [LXIX]. When we remember early andmid-Victorian conditions in English mills and the conditions of thesweat shops in New York and other American cities (vide "SusanLenox"), we shall be less inclined to take a harsh view of industrialJapan during a period of transition. But it is to the interest of thewoollen industry no less than that of its workers that the fact shouldbe stated that a competent authority has alleged that 50 per cent. Ofthe employees in the mills suffer from consumption and that many girlssleep ten in a room of only ten-mat size. Improvements have been madelately under the influence of legislation and enlightenedself-interest--the president of the largest company is a man offoresight and public spirit--but when I was in Japan, as I recorded inthe _New East_ at the time, girls of 13 and 14 were working 11-hourday and night shifts in some mills. WOOLLEN FACTORIES [LXX]. In the Japanese woollen factory the cost ofthe hands is low individually, but expensive collectively. An expertsuggested that it takes half a dozen of the unskilled girls to do thework of an English mill-girl. It is much the same with male labour. "An English worker may be expected to produce work equal to the outputof four Japanese hands. " Labour for heads of departments is alsodifficult to get. There are textile schools and probably a hundred menare graduated yearly. But the men are not all fitted for the jobswhich are vacant. Therefore, one finds a man acting as an engineerwho, because of his lack of technical experience, is unable toexercise sufficient control over the men in his charge. A curiosity ofthe industry is the high wages which many men of this sort command. They are really being paid better for inferior work than skilled menin England. The capital of the factories in 1918 was 46-1/2 millionyen with 32-3/4 million paid up. Before the War the companies made 8per cent, as against the 2-1/2 per cent, which contents the Englishmanufacturer, who has often side lines to help his profits. There wasmore than 100 million yen invested in the woollen textile business, manufacturing and retail. The industry did well during the War bysupplies of cloth to Russia and of yarn and muslin to countries whichordinarily are able to supply themselves. In 1918 the production(woollen fabrics and mixtures) was valued at 85 million yen (muslin, 32; cloth, 21; serges, 19; blankets, 3; flannel, 1; others, 8). Theimports of wool were 60 million and of yarn 251, 000. In 1919 thefigures were 61 million and 710, 000 respectively. In 1920 the exportswere: woollen or worsted yarns, 1, 437, 926 yen; woollen cloth andserges, 3, 019, 382 yen; blankets, 1, 024, 540 yen; other woollens, 548, 922 yen. The Nippon Wool Weaving Company, which in 1921distributed a 20 per cent, ordinary and 20 per cent. Extraordinarydividend, has 15 foreign experts. POPULATION OF HOKKAIDO [LXXI]. In 1869, 58, 467; has risen as follows: Year Population 1874 174, 3681884 276, 4141894 616, 6501904 1, 233, 6691914 1, 869, 5821919 2, 137, 7001920 2, 359, 097 EXTENSION OF CROP-BEARING AREA OF JAPAN [LXXII]. There is normallyadded to the crop-bearing area about 53, 000 _chō_ (132, 000 acres) ayear. From the new crop-bearing area every year is deducted the lossof arable land from floods, the extension of cities and towns andrailways and the building of factories and institutions. This isreckoned at nearly 8, 000 _chō_ in the year. One computation is thatthere are 2 million _chō_ (5 million acres) available for addition tothe crop-bearing area, of which 1 million _chō_ would be convertibleinto paddies. A decision was taken by the Government in 1919 to bring250, 000 _chō_ under cultivation within nine years from that date, andby 1920 some 20, 000 _chō_ had been reclaimed. Persons who reclaim morethan 5 _chō_ receive 6 per cent, of their expenditure. The increase in the area of cultivation has been as follows (in_chō_): |Year |Paddy |Upland Farm |Total |--------------------------------------------------|1905 |2, 841, 471 |2, 540, 906 |5, 382, 378 ||1906 |2, 849, 288 |2, 551, 170 |5, 400, 459 ||1907 |2, 858, 628 |2, 639, 680 |5, 498, 309 ||1908 |2, 882, 426 |2, 684, 531 |5, 566, 958 ||1909 |2, 902, 899 |2, 777, 453 |5, 680, 352 ||1910 |2, 910, 970 |2, 804, 434 |5, 715, 405 ||1911 |2, 923, 520 |2, 836, 002 |5, 759, 522 ||1912 |2, 939, 445 |2, 880, 301 |5, 819, 756 ||1913 |2, 953, 947 |2, 902, 445 |5, 856, 392 ||1914 |2, 961, 639 |2, 916, 569 |5, 878, 208 ||1915 |2, 974, 042 |2, 948, 075 |5, 922, 118 ||1916 |2, 987, 579 |2, 971, 800 |5, 959, 379 ||1917 |3, 005, 679 |3, 012, 685 |6, 018, 364 ||1918 |3, 011, 000 |3, 070, 000 |6, 081, 000 ||1919 |3, 021, 879 |3, 050, 008 |6, 071, 887 | Whereas the percentage of cultivated land to uncultivated was in 190914. 6 per cent. , it was in 1918 15. 6 per cent. USE TO WHICH THE LAND IS PUT [LXXIII]. Here are the details of thedivision of the land in 1909 and 1918: Division of the Land | Years | Area in _chō_ | Percentage of | | in 000 's | Total Area------------------------|--------|----------------|--------------Total area | 1909 | 38, 847 | 100. 0 | 1918 | 38, 864 | 100. 0 | | |Paddy fields | 1909 | 2, 903 | 7. 5 | 1918 | 3, 011 | 7. 7 | | |Upland fields | 1909 | 2, 777 | 7. 1 | | 3, 070 | 7. 9 | | |Total arable as above | 1909 | 5, 680 | 14. 6 | 1918 | 6, 081 | 15. 6 | | |Meadows and pastures | 1909 | 39 | 0. 1 | 1918 | 43 | 0. 1 | | |Grass lands and heather | 1909 | 1, 941 | 5. 0(excluding pastures) | 1918 | 3, 509 | 9. 0 | | |Forests | 1909 | 22, 072 | 56. 8 | 1918 | 18, 783 | 48. 3 | | |Dwellings, factories, | 1909 | 9, 115 | 23. 5roads, railways, | 1918 | 10, 448 | 27. 0institutions, etc. | | |------------------------|--------|----------------|-------------- Crop | Chō | Yield-----------------------------------------------------------Rice (1919) | 3, 104, 611 | 60, 818, 163 _koku_; | | value, 2, 891, 397, 063 yen | |Mulberry (1918) | 508, 993 | 6, 832, 000 _koku_; | | raw silk, 7, 891, 000 _kwan_; | | value, 546, 543, 000 yen | |Tea (1919) | 48, 843 | 10, 397, 719 _kwan_ | | value, 33, 377, 460 yen | |Barley (1919) | 534, 279 | 9, 664, 000 _koku_ | |Naked Barley (1919) | 646, 362 | 7, 995, 000 _koku_ | |Wheat (1919) | 548, 508 | 5, 611, 000 _koku_ | |Soy Bean (1918) | 432, 207 | 3, 451, 320 _koku_ | |Other Beans (1918) | -- | 1, 237, 000 _koku_ | |Peas (1918) | -- | 536, 000 _koku_ | |Millets (1918) | -- | 2, 903, 000 _koku_ | |Buckwheat (1918) | 136, 313 | 852, 000 _koku_ | |Sweet Potato (1918) | 314, 012 | 918, 328, 000 _kwan_ | |Irish Potato (1918) | 132, 090 | 323, 930, 000 _kwan_ | |Rape Seed (1918) | 116, 300 | 856, 880 _kwan_ | |Sugar Cane (1918) | 29, 367 | 316, 745, 596 _kwan_ | |Indigo (1918) | 5, 570 | 2, 717, 757 _kwan_ | |Hemp (1918) | 11, 821 | 2, 564, 114 _kwan_ | |Cotton (1918) | 2, 930 | 681, 021 _kwan_----------------------------------------------------------- Radish (1917), 576, 746, 000 _kwan_; taro (1917), 159, 168, 000 _kwan_;burdock (1917), 43, 424, 000 _kwan_; turnip (1917), 41, 527, 000 _kwan_;onion (1917), 37, 601, 000 _kwan_; carrot (1917), 26, 976, 000 _kwan_;cabbage (1917); 19, 951, 000 _kwan_; wax-tree seed (1918), 13, 761, 000_kwan_; rush for matting, (1918), 10, 442, 000 _kwan_; flax (1918), 17, 300, 000 _kwan_; ginger (1918), 8, 189, 000 _kwan_; paper mulberry(1918), 6, 964, 000 _kwan_; peppermint (1918), 3, 380, 000 _kwan_; lily(1917), 682, 000 _kwan_; chillies (1918), 441, 000 _kwan_. EMIGRANTS AND RESIDENTS ABROAD (LXXIV). The latest official figures asto Japanese resident abroad, supplied in 1921 and probably gathered in1920, are: AsiaChina 200, 740Kwantung 79, 307Tsingtao 23, 555Philippines 11, 156Strait Settlements 10, 828Russian Asia 7, 028Dutch India 4, 436Hongkong 3, 083India 1, 278Burma 680Indo-China 371 EuropeEngland 1, 638Germany 409Holland 375France 342Switzerland 87Italy 34Belgium 12Sweden 10 North AmericaU. S. A. 115, 186Hawaii 112, 221Canada 17, 716Mexico 2, 198Panama 225 South AmericaBrazil 34, 258Peru 10, 102Argentine 1, 958Chile 484Bolivia 145 AfricaSouth Africa 38Egypt 35 OceaniaAustralia 5, 274South Seas 3, 399 Total 648, 915 (The comparable return for 1918 was 493, 845. ) It has been suggestedthat these official statistics are incomplete; 7, 000 as the number ofJapanese in Russian territory seems low. Even during the War, in 1917, passports were issued to 62, 000 Japanese going abroad. Of these, according to the _Japan Year-book_, 23, 000 were made out for Siberia. Professor Shiga has stated that "no small number" of Japanese leavetheir country as stowaways. RISE IN PRODUCTION PER "TAN" OF PADDY [LXXV]. The 3 or 4 _koku_ isreached in favourable circumstances only. The average is far belowthis, but it rises, as shown in Appendix XV. Between 1887 and 1915 the area under barley and wheat rose from1, 591, 000 _chō_ to 1, 812, 000 _chō_, the yield from 15, 822, 000 _koku_to 23, 781, 000 _koku_ and the yield per _tan_ from . 994 _koku_ to1. 313. Between 1882 and 1914 the increase in the crops of the threevarieties of millet averaged . 515 _koku_ per _tan_. The increasedyield of soy beans was . 229 _koku_ per _tan_, of sweet potatoes 138_kwamme_ per _tan_ and of Irish potatoes 138 _kwamme_. LABOURERS [LXXVI]. When hired labour is required on farms it issupplied either by relatives and neighbours or by the surplus labourof strangers who are small farmers or members of a small farmer'sfamily. According to the Department of Agriculture: "Ordinary fixedemployees are upon an equal social footing. Apprentice labourers arevery numerous. No working class holds a special social position assuch. This is the greatest point of difference between the Japaneseagricultural labour situation and that of Europe. " The number oflabourers in October 1920 was: | Day | Seasonal| All the | | |year round| Total---------------------------|-----------|---------|----------|---------Labourers living { male | 119, 676 | 52, 007 | 49, 110 | 220, 793solely on wages, { female | 80, 870 | 42, 193 | 23, 862 | 146, 925agricultural and { | | | |other { | 200, 546 | 94, 200 | 72, 972 | 367, 718 | | | | | | | |Labourers who are { male | 949, 266 | 407, 596 | 188, 369 | 1, 546, 231labourers part { female | 646, 720 | 405, 131 | 116, 152 | 1, 168, 003of their time | | | | | 1, 595, 986 | 813, 727 | 304, 521 | 2, 714, 234 | | | | Total . . . . . | 1, 796, 532 | 907, 927 | 377, 493 | 3, 081, 952----------------------------------------------------------------------- In addition to the total of 3, 081, 952 "there are 32, 973 agriculturallabourers who are boys and girls under 14. " DECREASE OF FARMERS TILLING THEIR OWN LAND [LXXVII]. In 1914 thenumber of farmers owning their own land was 1, 731, 247; in 1919 it hadfallen to 1, 700, 747. In 1914 the number of tenants was 1, 520, 476; in1919 it had increased to 1, 545, 639. That is, there were 30, 500 fewerlandowners and 25, 163 more tenants. During the period between 1914 and1919 the number of farmers (landowners and tenants) increased 30, 293. While from 1909 to 1914 the percentage of landowners fell from 33. 27to 31. 73, the percentage of tenant farmers rose from 27. 69 to 27. 87and the percentage of persons partly owner and partly tenant from39. 04 to 40. 40. See Appendix XXXIV. RURAL AND URBAN POPULATIONS [LXXVIII]. The following table shows thepercentage of the population living in communes under 5, 000 and 10, 000inhabitants in 1913 and 1918: Year | Percentage of Population living in | Percentage of Families | Communities | engaged in Agricultural |------------------------------------| to Total Families in | under 5, 000 | under 10, 000 | Japan Proper------|---------------|--------------------|------------------------ 1913 | 50. 44 | 72. 39 | 57. 6 1918 | 46. 23 | 67. 71 | 52. 3------|---------------|--------------------|------------------------ | -4. 21 | -4. 68 | -5. 3-------------------------------------------------------------------- These figures clearly indicate the decrease of the rural population. To take 10, 000 inhabitants as the demarcation line between urban andrural population is probably less correct than to take a demarcationline of 7, 500 inhabitants. A mean of the two percentages ofpopulations living in communities under 5, 000 and under 10, 000inhabitants shows 61. 41 per cent, in 1913 and 56. 97 per cent, in 1918, a decrease of 4. 44 per cent. The variation between this result and thepreceding one has a simple explanation. About 30 per cent, of thefamilies engaged in agriculture carry on their farming as an accessorybusiness. Teachers, priests and mechanics may all have patches ofland. On the other hand, a small number of people have no land. Therefore, the percentage of the rural population is only slightlyhigher than that of the families engaged in agriculture. In 1918 therewere 5, 476, 784 farming families (to 10, 460, 440 total families or 52. 3per cent. ), and if we multiply by 5-1/3--the average number of personsper family in Japan is 5. 317 (1918)--to find the population dependenton agriculture, the number is 29, 209, 514. The total population ofJapan in 1918 was 55, 667, 711. The Department of Agriculture has statedthat on the basis of the census of 1918 the number of persons inhouseholds engaged in agriculture was 52 per cent. Of the population. According to one set of statistics the percentage of farming familiesto non-farming families fell from 64 per cent, in 1904 to 60. 3 percent. In 1910 and 56 in 1914. We shall probably not be far wrong insupposing the rural population to be at present about 55 per cent, ofthe population. The percentage of persons actually working on thefarms is another matter. As has been seen, some 30 per cent, of the5-1/2 million farming families are engaged in agriculture as asecondary business only. It may be, therefore, that the 5-1/2 millionfamilies do not actually yield more than 10 million effective farmhands. IS RICE THE RIGHT CROP FOR JAPAN [LXXIX]. Mr. Katsuro Hara, of theCollege of Literature, Kyoto University, asks, "Is Japan speciallyadapted for the production of rice?" and answers: "Southern Japan isof course not unfit. But rice does not conform to the climate ofnorthern Japan. This explains the reason why there have been repeatedfamines. By the choice of this uncertain kind of crop as the principalfoodstuff the Japanese have been obliged to acquiesce in acomparatively enhanced cost of living. The tardiness of civilisationmay be perhaps partly attributed to this fact. Why did our forefathersprefer rice to other cereals? Was a choice made in Japan? If thechoice was made in this country the unwisdom of the choice and of thechoosers is now very patent. " Along with this expression of opinion may be set the followingfigures, showing the total production of rice and of other grain cropsduring the past six years, in thousands of _koku_: ---------|----------|---------------|--------|-------------|-------- Year | Barley | Naked Barley | Wheat | Barley and | Rice | | | | Wheat |---------|----------|---------------|--------|-------------|-------- 1915 | 10, 253 | 8, 296 | 5, 231 | 23, 781 | 55, 924 1916 | 9, 559 | 7, 921 | 5, 869 | 23, 350 | 58, 442 1917 | 9, 169 | 8, 197 | 6, 786 | 24, 155 | 54, 658 1918 | 8, 368 | 7, 777 | 6, 431 | 22, 576 | 54, 699 1919 | 9, 664 | 7, 995 | 5, 611 | 23, 271 | 60, 818---------|----------|---------------|--------|-------------|-------- From 1910 to 1919 the areas under barleys and wheat were, in _chō_, 1, 771, 655-1, 729, 148, and under rice 2, 949, 440-3, 104, 611. INNER COLONISATION _v_. FOREIGN EXPANSION [LXXX]. _An Introduction tothe History of Japan_ (1921), written by an Imperial Universityprofessor and published by the Yamato Society, the members of whichinclude some of the most distinguished men in Japan, says: "It isdoubtful whether the backwardness of the north can be solelyattributed to its climatic inferiority. Even in the depth of winterthe cold in the northern provinces cannot be said to be moreunbearable than that of the Scandinavian countries or of north-easternGermany. The principal cause of the retardation of progress innorthern Japan lies rather in the fact that it is comparativelyrecently exploited.... The northern provinces might have become farmore populous, civilised and prosperous than we see them now. Unfortunately for the north, just at the most critical time in itsdevelopment the attention of the nation was compelled to turn frominner colonisation to foreign relations. The subsequent acquisition ofdominions oversea made the nation still more indifferent. " According to a report of the Hokkaido Government in 1921, the numberof immigrants during the latest three year period was 90, 000, and oneand a half million acres are available for cultivation andimprovement. AGRICULTURE _v_. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY [LXXXI]. There is supposed tobe more money invested in land than in commerce or industry. Comprehensive figures of a trustworthy kind establishing the relativeimportance of agriculture, commerce and industry are not readilyobtained. "This is a question, " writes a Japanese professor ofagriculture to me, "which we should like to study very much. "Industrial and commercial figures at the end of and immediately afterthe War are not of much use because of the inflation of that period. The annual value of agricultural production before the War was about1, 800 million yen; it must be by now about 2, 500 or 3, 000. In 1912, according to the Department of Finance, the debt of the agriculturalpopulation was 740 million yen. In 1916 the Japan Mortgage Bank andthe prefectural agricultural and industrial banks had togetheradvanced to agricultural organisations 110 millions and to otherborrowers 273 millions. In 1915 co-operative credit associations hadadvanced 45 millions to farmers and 11 millions to other borrowers. The paid-up capital of companies, was, in 1913, 1, 983 million, ofwhich 27 million was agricultural, and in 1916, 2, 434 million, ofwhich 31 million was agricultural. The reserves were, in 1913, 542million, of which 1 million was agricultural, and in 1916, 841million, of which 3 were agricultural. (For some reason or other, "fishing" is included under "agricultural. " On careful dissection Ifind that of the 45 million of investments credited to agriculture in1918, only 28 million are purely agricultural. ) The land tax isestimated to yield 73 million yen in 1920-1. It is 2-1/2 per cent. Onresidential land, 4. 5 per cent. On paddy and cultivated land--3. 2 percent, in Hokkaido--and 5. 5 per cent. On other land--4 per cent. InHokkaido. INDEX _This Index may be regarded as a Glossary inasmuch as every Japaneseword which occurs in the book will be found in it. The meaning isusually given on the page the number of which comes first. _ 132 (2) _signifies that there are two references on page 132 to thesubject indexed. _ _Such subjects as Agriculture, Hokkaido, Labour, Paddies, Rice andSericulture are indexed at length, but some matters which relate tothem and are of general interest appear in the body of the Index. _ Abbot and Ronin 333 Abiko 105 Ability 66 Abortion 65, 303; Abortifacient 332 Abroad, first, 235 Accommodation with the West 363 Acreage, see Agriculture Acting 115 (2), 320 Adjustment 85, 186, 194, 197, 210, 232, 365, 370, 380; Cost 72; Cottages 72; Graves 72; Method and Results 71-2; Statistics 72 Admonition, see Police, 54 Adoption 21, 328 Adulteration 356 Æ 99, 321 Aerated waters 119 Aeroplanes 31 Aestheticism 203 Affection, Question by a Japanese, 144 Affinity 272 Afforestation, see Deforestation, Floods, Tree planting; 23, 92-3, 97, 152, 177, 194, 197, 228, 233, 240, 260, 318, 370 Africa 410 Agriculture, see Adjustment, Animals under different names, Area, Cattle, Crops under different names, Cultivation, Farmers, Grain, Hokkaido, Implements under different names, Land new, Land available, Land utilised, Manure, Milk, Paddies, Peasant Proprietors, Tenants, Tools, Rice and other crops, Sericulture, Upland; Advantages 365, 367; Accessory business 412; American, proposed study of, vii; Arable 409, (British) 385; Areas 394, 400, quarter acre 89, one and a quarter acre to five acres 89, two 210, two and a half 9, 284, three 10, five 284, seven and a half 89, 373, ten 10, twelve and a half 207, fifteen 10, twenty-five 213, one _tan_ 232, five 184, six 302, eight 304, 383, twelve 270, fifteen and a half 373, one _chō_ 220, 304, 377 (3), 379, 380, 385, one and a half 379, two 380, two and a half, see Hokkaido, three 373, 380, four 10, four to four and a half 338, four to five 207, five 310, 337-8, seven 10, 338, 373, eight 310, 373, ten 28, ten to fifteen 28, 338, thirty 338, sixty-two 374; Associations against landlords 88; v. Armaments 93, 359; an Author on viii; Based on rice 343; Basis of nation ix, 92; Calendar of operations 136; Compared with British 390; Capitalisation 368-9; College 195; Criticism of 362, 365, (backbreaking) 75; v. Commerce and industry 180, 414; Commercial side 65; Company 207; Consolidation of holdings 364; Crop statistics errors 404; "Encourager" 176; Experiment station 158, 176-7, 207, 370; Experts 207, 283, (respect for) 54; Foundation and means to an end ix, 27; Foreign 365, 367; v. "Foreign relations" 414; and Family system 330; Faults of 65; like Gardening 307; God of 145; Goddess of 312; Helpful 180; Holdings, Consolidation of 368; How to teach 27; Grazing 240, (British) 385; Hydraulic engineering 149; Industry and Commerce 284; Implements 268; Improvement, Principles of 370; Land, how used, 408; Machinery 365, 367-8-9; in praise of 10; Methods 208; Limitations imposed on 365 (2), 367; Merits 365; National Agricultural Society 378; Night work 359; Number of families engaged in 412; Relations to national welfare 369, 370-1; Pasture 111, 409, (British) 385; Petite Culture 346; Production not final aim 367; Profitable 232, 373; Progress 261; Remedies 368-9, 370; Revolutionising 367; and Religion 231; Schools, see Schools, 176, 375; Shortcomings 365; Strikes 88; Students not leaving land 285; Subsistence provided by 365; Small farms decreasing 394; Tenants' Movement, see Landlords; Without rice 381 (2) Aichi 1-67, 84, 345 "Aiming at being Distinguished" 124 Ainu x, 25 Akagi 315 Akita 189, 190, 193 Alimentary tract, 348, 351 Allah 98 "All family smiling" 137 Alpinist 290 Alps, 127, 152, 262 _Amado_ 277 "A man's a man, " etc. 95 _Amé_ 191 America, see Hokkaido, 137, 141, 288, 290, 363 (2); Rice culture 365-6 _Amida_ xxx, 129 _Amma_ 108, 133 Ammonia water 177, 251 Amphibious labour 358 Amusements, see Farmers, 180, 287, 374, 378 Ancestors 19, 26, 33, 38 (3), 58, 61, 67, 94, 178 Anchors 211 Angelo, Michael, 103 Angling 245 Anglo-Japanese Alliance xv; Anglo-Saxons 203 Animals Bird artists 344; Buddhism and 59; Food, see Meat, 349; Industry 346, 348; Knack of looking after 343; Liking for 221, 343; Power 365, 370; Tillage 406 Anjo 57 Anniversaries 50 Antelopes 110 Anti-Landlord movement 37, 88 Ants 47 Aomori 189, 194, 195, 334, 354, 391 Aoyama 66 "A plain householder" 150 Apostle and artist 90 Appetiser 268 Apples, see Hokkaido, 194, 289, 402 Appointments 125; Tax 21 Apprentices 411 Apricots 289 Aqueduct 64 Archery 39, 40, 159 Architecture 198 Ardour 124 Area 65, 390; and Habitable compared with other countries 385, 392; per Family 42, 89 (2) Armaments 93, 97, 394; U. S. Expenditure 394 Armour 36, 40 Arm rest 246, 319 Army 202, 346, 350, 360 (2), 403; Discipline 361; and Farmer ix; Officers and Agriculture 362; Railway service 297 Arnold, Matthew, 24, 272 Arrests postponed 280 Arson 56, 280, 282 Art 99, 214, 369; Degenerated 99; and Farmer ix; Hills in 120; Korean 103; Influence of Western 103-4; Artists 99, 100; Sketches at festivals 193; Artistry 317; Artistic treasures 369; Artistic world 102-3-4-5, 328 Artificials, see Manure Artisans 317; with land and houses 268; see Farmers "_Asahi_" 90, 109 Asama, Mt. , 143 Asceticism 101 Asia, see West and East, 202; Residents in 410; Asiatic Mainland 351, 363; Asiatic Society of Japan 364 "Aspiring" young men 135 Assaults 282 Assentation 14 Associations against Landlords 88; for Economical agricultural Students 176; Spirit of 16 "At twenty I found" 150 Athletics, see under different names, 159 Attempts to deceive the West 174 Attitude for foreign student 254; of world, 371; to something higher; see Materialism, Spirituality Attorney-General, 345 Audience, 24 Australia, 127, 352-3, 363 (2), 388; Might have possessed, 363 Author Attitude towards Japan, xii; before domestic shrine, 33; Carried, 308; Chats in trains, 176; "Fortune", 138; First Englishman in place, 126; Governor and, 84; on Hearn, 254; Some Conclusions, see Hokkaido, 369; and Police, 53; Reception at Shinto Shrine, 45; Shinto address to, 46; Speeches, 6, 26, 31, 254; Tree planting, 45; Welcome, 22; at Wrestling match, 297 Authority Disobedience to, 285; Power going, 330 Autobiography of a Farmer-Egotist, 61 Autographs, 38, 324 Automobile, see Chauffeur, 205 Autumn, 214 "Average workers", 62, 377 Awakening, 324 Axholme, Isle of, 71 _Aza_ xxv, 15, 16, 262, 315 Azaleas, 316 Babies, 285 Backbreaking, 75, 208 Back to the Land, 88 Backwardness of North, see Japan, Northern Bacon, 347 Bacon, Lord, xii, 309 Bactericides, 60 "Bad tea has its tolerable, " etc. , 123 Bag and string, 312 Balls, Black and red, 19 Bamboo, 48, 318, 244, 248; Grass, 70, 108, 352, 368; and Mice, 108; Rate of growth, 242; Shoots, 136; Work, 248 _Bancha_, 294, 403 Bankruptcy, 138 Banks, 205, 303, 402, 414 Banqueting, 357 _Banzai_, 43 Barbers, 224, 267 Barefoot, 64 Bark strips, 190 Barley, 146, 175, 196, 307, 313 (3), 349, 351, 386, 389, 391, 409, 410; Big crop, 313; Husking, 389; Naked, 409; with and without Rice, 47, 80, 85, 383, 387; Production compared with Wheat, 413 Barons x, 204 Barriers ix, 104 Barter, 122 Barton, Sir E. , 9 _Basha_, see Hokkaido, 244; story, 217 Baskets, 177, 215 Baths x, 17, 50, 82, 109, 112, 116-7, 190, 203, 215, 256, 277, 314, 354; "A moral bath", 94; Bathing, 125, 152, 186 Battleship, 235 Bayonets, Imitation, 282 Bazin René, 141 Beans, see Soya, 147, 199, 307, 383, 409; Cake, 386 Beardsley, Aubrey, 98, 103 Bears, see Hokkaido, 110 Beauty, see Hokkaido, 104, 127, 298 "Be diligent", 158; "Be serious", 112 Beef, see Kobe beef, 259, 349, 350; Essence, 158 Beer, see Hokkaido, 119, 396 Bees, 196, 348 Beggars, 265, 324 Begonia, 213 Behaviour, Training in good, 259 Belgium, 386 Beliefs, see Customs, 310, 331; Believers, 63; Believer and ne'er do well, 5 Belly cloths, 269 _Benjo_, 151, 192, 374 Ben Nevis, 394 _Bento_ 110, 268, 279 Bergson, 99 _Beri beri_, 79 Berry, Sir G. , 9 Better living, 370; Better world, 90 _Bi_, 126 Bible, 95 Bicycles, 18, 150, 220 Binyon, L. , 292 Birches, 316 Birds, 25, 117, 344 Births, see Still; Celebration of, 302; Forbidden, 236; Rate, 392; Tax, 21 Biscuits, 270 _Biwa_, 289 Black and white company, 187 Black Country, 132 "Black saké", 79 Blacksmith, 264 Blake, William, 98, 103, 105-6 Blind, see _Amma_, 192, 300; Advantage of Blindness, 232; Blind guides, 369; Headman, 229 Blood and thunder stories 121 Boar day 126 Boasting 17 Boat, sacred, 257 Body 226 Boehme 99 Bog 390 "Bold is the donkey driver" 98 Bolting ideas 331 _Bon_ 180, 190, 265, 267, 271-2, 302, 361; Songs and dances 189, 190, 197 (2), 274 Bonins 391 Bonito 297 Books 159, 190, 319, 401; Cheap 212; Faults of many about Japan 254; Foreign 141, 196, 248; In demand 60; In a Village Library 60; Shops 244 Booths 115 Boots 236, 284, 346 Borneo 127 Borrow vi, 119, 283 Borrowing, see Credit, _Ko, Tanomoshi_; 125, 183 Boswell, 140, 175 Bottles, tied with rope, 119 Bowing 44 (2), 46, 83, 121, 286, 313 Bowels 348, 351 Bowls, Turning, 111; at shrine 303 Box for letters for Police 111 Boy Growth of 113; Labour 411; Tradesmen's 315; Reformation of 178; Running away 322; Stolen 286; "Boy San" 103 Brazil 401 Bread 80 (2), 346 (2), 350-1 (2), 383 Bream 297 Breath 117 Brewing, see Hokkaido, 119 Bribery 208, 400; 123, 303 Bride 21; Chest 129, 379 Bridges 128, 132, 240; Mysteriously repaired, 287; Suspension 209 Briefness 292 Bright, John, 203 Britons, see Hokkaido, 403 Broadmindedness 326 Brontë, E. , 99 Brothels 56, 222, 243 Brother, Eldest, 19, 329 Brotherly union 94-5 Buckwheat, see Hokkaido; 111, 122, 243, 264, 381, 409; "As white as snow" 111 Buddha 1, 3, 4, 5, 19, 26 (2), 51, 58 117, 125, 142, 205-6; Inferior 139; Heads 310. --Buddhism 19, 30, 42, 57 (2), 63 (3), 96, 101, 197, 205, 210, 212, 322, 324; and Animal life 59, 345, 347; behind the age 6; without Buddha 322, 327; and Christianity 59, 100-1, 324, 362; Definition of 93; Difficulty of getting a general view of 327, 321; England and 100; of old time 258; Too aristocratic 1 Buddhist 91, 96, 129; Gatherings 231; Influence 259; Literature 327, 331; Real 63; Sects, under names; Services 3, 205 (2), 270; Strict 30; Y. M. A. 124; Y. W. A. 124. --Buddhist Priests, see _Bon_; 1-7, 96, 113, 118, 134, 142, 194, 231, 240, 258, 264, 269, 270 (2)-1-2, 302, 314; Priest's man 270-1; Succession to 135; Wives 6, 270; Shrines 220, Value of 273; Temples, 113, 123, 134, 142, 176, 180, 211, 244, 249, 258-9, 269, 310, 327; Architecture 134, "Church" 134, New, 313, Sleeping in x; Two months in 262, Underground passage 142 Buffoon 276 Bugles 15-17 Bulls 18, 249, 250; Fighting 228 Burden of the Old 100 Burdock 48, 146, 410 Bureau of Horse Politics 195; of Hygiene 350 Burials, see Graves, 121, 267, 306; at Sea 225 Burnham, Lord, 9 Burns, Robert, 107, 288 _Bushido_ 25, 140 Businesses, linked, 315; "Business, My, " 326 Butter 142, 270, 346 Butterflies 127, 287 Cabbage 53, 213, 440 Caffeine 292, 403 Cairo 390 Calendar 136 California 290, 363, 365-6 Camphor trees 219 Canada 388 Cancer 268 Candles 340 Canning, see Hokkaido, 368; Canned meat and fish 268 Cape 267, 270 Capes 47 Cape Wrath 358 Capitalism 368-9 Caps 114, 301 Caramels 272 Carbon bisulphide 60 "Carelessness" 54 Carlyle, T. , 90-1, 94, 99 Carp, 39, 158, 210, 299 Carpenter 99, 267, 317 Carrier's conversation 109 Carrot 410 Carts 209; Push 194 Carving 269 "Case for the Goat, The, " 347 Cast 94 Cats 47, 131, 221, 345 Cattle, see Cow, Oxen, Bulls, Hokkaido; 23, 194-5, 230, 240, 243, 316, 347, 381, 406; Keeping 194, 259, 402; Thieves 195 Cedar wood 211 Cells 116, 143 Censorship 401 Census 393-4 Cereals 367, 404 Certificate of merit 213 Cezanne 98, 103 _Chadai_ 148 Chaff 386 Chainmakers 170 Chairman 24 Champagne 140 Changes, seeming, 331 _Cha-no-yu_ 31, 214, 319 Character 88, 151, 201, 203-4-5-6-7 258, 259, 269, 288, 290, 311, 317, 323, 331-2; Nature and 99; Weakness of 101; Wish to give before have anything 102; Chinese 39 Charcoal 111, 122-3, 196 Charitable Institutions 59, 376 Charms 41, 47, 121, 125, 223, 245 Charring 227 Chastity 114, 139, 149 Chauffeur 240, 246 Chavannes, Puvis de, 98, 103 Cheek-binding 286 Cheerfulness 304, 317 Cheese 345 Chemist, Distinguished, 10 Chenille 142 Cherries 295, 319; Poems 288; Refineries 226 Chestnuts 121 Chiba 268, 297, 309, 321 Chicken 110, 349 Chief Constable, Influence of, 118 _Chihō_ 400 Children 110, 112, 117, 203, 216, 323, 377; Childbirth 268; Ages of 113; Assaults on 229; British exploitation of 170; Charm to obtain 314; Contracts 286; Crimes against 114; Marriage 197; Politeness 121; Services for 130; and Temple 58; What will he become? 60; Workers, see Labour, 314 Chillies 41 Chimneys 147, 151 China 110, 127, 143, 214, 256, 306, 344, 347, 388, 390, 396-7, 404; War 85, 311; Chinaman in Formosa story 96; Tea 296; Relations with 91; Chinese competition 399; Labour 363; Prisoners 307; Scriptures not understood 331; Sheep and wool 353-4-5-6 _Cho_ xxiv; _Chō_ xxv Chokai, Mount, 182 Chopsticks 81 Chōsen, see Korea Christ 55, 95, 96, 127; Christianity, see Hokkaido, 96, 99, 101, 198, 205, 324; Christian, 99, 203, 362 (3); a Japanese question 144; and Buddhism 101, 108, 324, 327, 362; Conceptions 96, Early 91; Essence of 94 (2); Ethics of 362; Influence of 94; Japanese 83, 135, 261; and Personality 362; and Social reform 362; Temperament 327; Christmas 318; Churches 96, 362 Chrysanthemum 318 Cicada 344 Cider champagne 119 Cigarettes 82, 288, 400 Cimabue 106 Cities xxv; workers 87 Civilisation 96, 141, 216, 229 Clan 188 Classes 94, 251 Cleanliness 326, 354 Clerks 205 Climate, see Hokkaido, Weather; 88, 140, 195-6, 197, 198, 299, 309, 327, 358, 363, 365, 372, 390, 413 Cloak 47, 76 Clock 252 Clothing, see Farmers, 19, 30, 74, 125, 193, 307, 312, 317, 321, 323, 330, 346, 355-6-7, 374, 378, 380, 382; Advantages and Disadvantages of 356; Cotton and Silk v. Wool 356; Foreign 283, 346, 352 Clover 263 Clubhouse 305 Coal, see Hokkaido, 226, 396 Coasting steamers 209; coastwise traffic 256 Coat 47 Cobbett, William, ix Cockfighting 228 Coffin 121, 248 Cold 261; Catching 312 Collectors, Boy, 230 Colleges 158 Colony 207 Colouring 295 Comeliness 204 Comfort 201, 203; Bags 58 Comic interlude 84 Commerce, 414; Uselessness of some, 369; Commercial crash 87 Common good, Work for, 19; Common humanity 34; "Common people at the gateway" 252; Common purpose in mankind 56 Commune 268; Communal labour 263; Communistic 212 Communities under 5, 000 and 10, 000 population 412 Companies 414 Complaint boxes 18 Concentration 206, 317 Concrete 22, 214, 325 Concubines 95, 322 Conduct 200, 361 Coney Island 325 Confucianism 91, 96, 101, 205 (3), 214, 322 Confusion 101 Conscience 201 Conscription, see Soldiers, 19, 65, 123, 284, 311 (2), 327, 331, 364; Statistics 404 Conservative view 331 Consolation 201, 321 Constitutional Party 395 "Contagion of foreigners" 117 Contentment 7, 259, 264, 302, 323 Contracts 194, 286 Controversy 48 Conversation, Subjects of, 129, 282 Conviction 37, 331 Cooking 350 (2) Coolies 345 Co-operation, see Cocoons, Hokkaido, _Kō_, _Tanomoshi_, 7, 28-9 (2), 37 (2), 43, 47, 50, 58, 64, 85, 118, 124, 133, 136, 150, 185, 187, 194, 230, 305 (2), 364, 414; Capital for 48; More 370 Copper 92, 124, 226, 396 Coronation 21; Rice Ceremony 82; Millet 213 Corruption 208, 400 Cosmos 202, 206 Cottages, see Houses Cotton, 132, 137, 223, 258, 404; Clothing 346; Chinese competition 399; Factories 174; Industry 354; Loom 220; Factory Manager's _Manchester Guardian_ article 399; Silk v. Wool 366 Couch grass 265 Counsel 187 Countess 213 Country folk xiv, Countryman ix, xiv, 107, 141, 192, 233, 283, 302, 324, 331; Countryside 148, contrasted with Western 298, 313; County families and Country-house life 34 County Agricultural Association 150 (2) Courage, Moral, 327 Courbet 103 Court lady 108 Courtesy, see Politeness, 36 Cows, see Paddies; First milking 235; Oxen, 209, 235, 381 (2) Crab, Land, 249 Cradle 279 Craftsmanship 314, 317, 369 Crashaw 99 Crater 108-9 Credit, see Cheap money; Cooperation 181, 370, 414 Crematoria 48, 177 Crest, see _Mon_ Crime, see Police, 54, 279, 303; Charges not proceeded with 113; Table of crimes 376; Ex-criminals 143 Crimea 390 Crisis, Industrial and Commercial, 87 Crops 313, 380-1; see Agriculture, Paddies, Upland; Area devoted to each 408-9; Better 19, 370; Competitions to increase 58; Drying 208; Increase compared with area 364 Crow 320 Crowds 250, 259 Crown Prince 282 Cruelty to Animals 344-5 Cryptomeria 6, 40, 45, 61-2, 117, 121, 131-2, 190, 316, 394 Cuckoo 315 Cucumbers 146, 322 Cultivation, see Agriculture, Backbreaking, Cows, Harrowing, Hoes, Horses, Mattock, Paddy, Pony, Ploughing, Rice, Seed, Spade; Area compared with Great Britain 89; Area under 223; Doubling population 97; Increase of area 364, 414; Two or three crops 364; Japan and Great Britain 305; in relation to Stock 406; Methods to be reported 188; in proportion to Wild 408; Prizes 58; Too intensive 233; yearly increase of 408 Culture, see Education, 204 Curio Collectors 2 Curiosity 279 Currency xxiv Currents, Warm and Cold, 118, 175, 195 Customs 66, 182, 310, 322-3; Houses unprofitable 256, World realisation of cost and inconvenience 256 Cutting out the foreigner 369 Cuttle fish, see Squid, Octopus; 46, 318 Cyanide 177 Cymbals 272 "Daffin" 313 Dagger 40 _Daikon_ 23, 130, 309, 314, 345, 409 Daikon (island) 256 _Daily Mail_ 345 Daimyo 33, 39, 144, 176, 198, 205, 210, 246, 395; ex-Daimyo 329; Castle 209 _Dai Nippon Nōkai_ 320 _Dakushu_ 396 Dam 224-5 Damp 185, 289, 368, 372 Dancing, see _Bon_ Dances; 130, 237, 305; Western 101 Dandelions 307 Danish _Hojskōle_ 50 Dates 290 Daumier 103 Days, of the Dead, 271; of the week 126; Suitable 126; Worked 377-8; Dead 201, 219; Belief in return of 272; Days of the 271; Return 190; Tablets of, see _Ihai_; Memorials of, see Hair, Teeth, Portraits Dealers 195 Death Forbidden 236; Presents at 22; Rate 393; Minors 393 Debates 18 Debt, see Farmers; 66, 126, 195 (2), 265, 287, 302, 322-3, 364, 380, 414; for Food 284 "Decency" 125, 193 Deception of the West 174 Deer 215, 278 Defiled 45; Defilement 256 Deforestation, see Afforestation; 92, 152, 176, 180, 318 Deftness 169 Deified men 204 Deities and the Sea 257 Delacroix 102 _De la liberté du travail_ 8 Delay, Advantage of, xiii Democracy 38, 51, 99; and religion 2 Demon 215 Demonstrations 88 Demoralised men 26 _Dengaku_ 48 Denmark ix, 46, 368; see Danish Denudation of hills, see Deforestation, 92 "Depths of the people" 93 Derricks 248 "Despised foreign peasant" 96 Destiny 202 Deuteronomy 375 Development, Economic, 206; Moral 206; National 327; Social 206 "Devil-gon" 56 Diagrams 60 Diaries 18, 23, 231 Diastase 268 Dibbs, Sir G. , 9 Diet, see Food Dietetic reform 350 Difficulties 124-5; "Difficulties polish you" 176 Digestive 268 Dikes, Women's work on, 43 Diligence 151; "Diligent people" 62, 377 Diminishing return 65 Dinner 228, 254 Diplomacy, Farmer and, ix "Direct action" 173 Discipline 50 Discontent 323 Discussion 358 Disease 210, 350 "Disgraceful disease, " see Syphilis Dishonesty 354 Displacements 268 Distinguished man and demoralised man 26 Dividends, Effect of factory, 369 Divorce 126, 197 _Dō_ 134; _Do_ (land) 334 Doctors 123, 241, 268 (2), 399; "Doctor first, God second, " 271 Dogs 131, 221, 236, 344-5; Dog day 126; Fighting 228; for _kuruma_ 248 Doing good secretly 219, 323 Doll in tree 244 Domicile 396 _Domori_ 134 "Do not get angry" 150 Doorway inscription 47 _Dorobo_, see Robber Dossiers 314 "Double licence" 257 Dover and Calais 334 Dowries 138 Dragon Day 126 Drainage see Irrigation, Water; 97, 133, 199, 232 Drapers' stuff 121 Draughtsmanship 102 "Drawing water into one's own paddy" 48 Draw nets 186 Dreamers 363 Dress, see Clothing; Fields, 187; of Honour, 187 Drill 15, 50, 282 Drinking, see Drunkenness Drivers' hair cutting 318 Drought 132 Drowning 128 Drum 15, 17, 83, 272 Drunkenness 116, 119, 187, 261, 282, 305, 322; see Saké 2 Dürer 103 Dutch 208; Books 150 Dwarf trees, see Trees dwarfed; 52, 220 Dye 295 "Early riser may catch, " etc. 57 Early rising 57, 179 Early Rising Societies 14 _et seq_. Earnestness 168, 277, 308 Earth 126 "Earth is not as, " etc. 203 Earthquakes, see Volcanoes 23 East, see also West and East; Wants the best 99; East and West 141; Bridge 101; Inharmony 105; Supposed difference 100; Eastern, Faults of 96; Ideals 96 "Easy minded" 323 Economic conditions and development 149, 206; Economic questions 104; Economic superstition 148; Economy, see Thrift, 19; Economy too small 362 _Edgworthia chrysantha_, see _Mitsumata_Education, see Farmers, Genius, Hokkaido, Schools, 17, 26, 98, 120, 127, 140, 169, 194, 196, 204, 252, 361, 374, 378; Burden 65; Better 370; Competition for places 195; Ill result of 204, 301, 323; System, repressed by 101; Western 189 Eels 299 Eggs 85, 110, 130, 348-9, 406 Egoist's story 61 Ehime 201, 219, 226 Eights 255 Elder brothers 19, 329 Eldest son 143, 329 El Dorado 88 Electoral offences, see Bribery, Corruption Electricity 39; Among trees 210; and Fuji 283; Fan 125; Light 211; Torch 300 El Greco 103 Elizabethan scenes 116, 276 Ellis, Dr. Havelock, xiii, 1, 99, 332; Mrs. 253 _Ema_ 326 Embanking 93, 152, 197 Emerson, R. W. 99, 105 Emigration, see Hokkaido (Immigrants); 176, 249, 264, 330, 332 (2), 358, 360, 363, 401, 376, 413-4; Number of emigrants 410; No pressing need 363; Why emigrants do not go to mainland and Formosa 363 Emperor, see also Imperial train; 22, 46, 82, 121, 178, 202, 286; Etiquette 44; Portrait 90, 113; Respect for 44; Seeing 43 Empire, To extend the 205 Endurance 261 _Engawa_ 270, 271, 280, 375 England: and Buddhism 100; and Christianity 97; Greatness of 97; and Greek Philosophy 97; and Roman law 97 English (language) 126, 282, 297; Reader (book) 234; Speaking world and Japan xv "Enlarge people's ideas" 17 "Enlarging mind and heart" 11 Entertainers 108 Epidemics 121, 130, 223 Erotic West 101 Eruption, see Volcano "Essential out of trifles" 323 Estates, see Hokkaido; Smallness of 213, 400 _Eta_ 221, 223, 248, 307, 400; in America 401; Marriages 400 Ethical evolution 348 Etiquette, see Manners; 6, 19, 35, 39, 124, 148, 200, 213, 242, 273; in roadway 47 Europe 288, 410; Half civilised 141 European 141 _Eurya ochnacea_, 137 Evening primroses, 120 "Even in this good reign, " 124 "Even the devil was once, " etc. , 123 "Even the head of a sardine, " 141 Evolution, Ethical, 348 Excel, Desire to, 158 Excreta, see Manure; 375, 382, 386 Excursions, 18, 297 Exercise, 151 "Exert yourself to kill harmful insects, " 286 Exhibition, see Show; also Bural Life Exhibition; 58, 60 Ex-officials, 22; Ex-preacher, 220; Ex-Public Servants' Association, 22 Expansion, 360, 413-4; Suggested abandonment of oversea possessions, 93 Expenditure, see Farmers Experts, see Agricultural Experts; 27, 237, 240 Exports, 414; Some useless, 369 Eyesight, 327 Faces, Good will do, 26 Factories, see also Tuberculosis, 282; ante-Shaftesbury, 167; Bathing 163; Babies 162-3; Better treatment, more silk, 165; _Bon_, 162; British and American conditions, 406; Child workers, 172; Chimneys, 151; Compounds, 162; 164-5, 168 (2); Contracts, 162-3, 165; "Cost of a daughter's food, " 162; Dexterity, 169; Diet, see Parliament; Discharged workers, 88; Dividends and effect of, 193, 369; Dormitories, 162, 164 (2)-5, 168 (2), 399, 407; Education and Entertainment, 162, 164 (2)-5, 168; Earnestness 169; Effect of, 162-3, 181, 280, 283; Empress, 164; English parallels, 167-8, 170 (2); Fair treatment of Employees practicable, 168; Flag system, 161, 164; Food, 161-2-3 (2)-4, 168, 399; Foremen, 162-3, 165; Girls, 2, 85, 264; Government, 172-3; Health, 161-2-3-4 (2); Heat, 161; Holidays, 161, 165; Hours (thirteen, fourteen, sixteen, eighteen), 161, 163 (2)-4-5 (3), 167; Illness, 161-2-3-4, 168; Immorality, 163 (2); International Labour Office, 172; _Kemban_, see Recruiters, Köfu, 165; Kuwata, Dr. , 172; Labour cheap, 169 (2), 173; Labour docile, 173; Legislation, 165, 171; Married women, 162; Marriages, 163; Morale, 168; Mottoes, 164 (3)-5; Number of workers, 168; Obedience, 169; Parliament, 173 (2); Police 166; Pressure 161; Priests and Missionaries, 162, 165; Proprietors, 163 (2)-4-5, 167-8; Recruiters, 161-2-3, 166; Sleeping, see Dormitories; Suwa, 165; Switzerland, 172; Wages 161-2, 164-5, 167-8; Walpole's History, 167; Washington Conference, 173; Western responsibility, 173; "Worked like soldiers, " 164; and daimyo's castle, 176; and farmers, 282; Silk 147, 150, 161; Tea 403; Visits to, 161; Woollen, 354-5-6-7 Failures, A country's, due to, 167 Fairies, 110 Faith, 27, 97, 148; "Faith is the mother, " etc. , 136 Fame, Worldly, and good repute, 324 Familiarity, 273 Family, 61, 326; Discords, 282; "Excesses, " 302; Large, Appreciation of, 302, 331; Size of, see also Limitation of, 66, 331 (2), 377; Number in, 412; System, 285, 328-9, 330 Famines, 118, 124, 197, 237, 413 Fans, 115, 148, 314 Farmers, see also Adjustment, Agriculture, Area per family, Countryman, Debt, Heroic peasant, Labour, Paddy, Peasant Proprietors, Rice, Tenants, Work; Ability, 65; Aged mother, 3; and Adjustment, 71; and Artisan, 189; Attraction of towns, 180; and Copper companies, 92, 227; Egotist 61; and M. P. 92; and reading, 319; and thieving priest, 320; Attitude towards Science, 158; as poets 41; Autobiography, 8; Bondage 331; British, 370; Capital, 42; Character needed, 50; Children clever, 233; Clothing, 186; Condition, 18, 173, 189, 283-4-5, 265, 304, 310 (2), 314, 322, 354, 365, 378; Condition improved, 261; Condition of success, 10; Days working, 232 (3); (hand work, heavy spade, long-handled sickle, mattock, sickle, scythe, weeding 385-6;) Debts 42; Expenditure, 62, 381-2; Evicted by Railways, 250; Families 412; for and against Family system 330; Fishermen 210; Foreign sympathy excessive 261; Food 378, 380-1, 389; in sericultural districts 85; Future 303; Holidays, too small, Home, 61; 281; Good humour 186; Hours worked 278; Idealising of 260; Importance of Character, Education and Influences brought to bear on 85; Incomes too low 38; Lowest on which can live 194; of an M. P. And of a Minister of State 9-10; Increased expenditure 88; Intelligence of 186; Knowledge of financial position 186; Laboriousness 298; Lack of cash 251; Large, see Hokkaido; Limitations imposed by area, practice and physical conditions 88, 364 _et seq. _; Long hours, see Day's working, 167; Metayer system 207; Meeting of skilful 24; Middle 183, 189, 193, 378, 380; Mixed, see Hokkaido; Monument 251; Morality 66; No time to think 149, 179; Not able 196; Not inferior to a townsman 8; Pilgrimages 252; Pluck, industry and need of land 152; Poverty 176, 183, 195; Pressure on 148; Profit, see Hokkaido; Self-contained existence no longer 66; Selling land 10; Shall rent be paid in cash? 301; Small decreasing, large increasing, 89; Social precedence, 369; Spade 362; Stories 24-25; Temporary prosperity 87; Tenants' movement, see Landlords; Thatch for implements, 220; "Toil never ending" 365; Unrepresented in Parliament 285; Why better off 85; Why poor 65; Wives 30; Working days 237; Yosōgi's story 66 Farce 320 Fashions 19 Fasting 327 Fat 142 Father and son 8, 135, 205 (2); Father-in-law 138 Feast, name of, 34 Feeling 210; v. Statistics 1; Logic 29, 37 Feet 317; Wet 312 Fencing and Wrestling, see Wrestling; 14, 16, 159, 178, 287 Ferment 323 Fertiliser 42; Fertility 92 (2) Festivals 50, 114, 235, 261, 287, 377; Sketches at, 192 Feudal ideas 30; Pensions and debt 395; Régime 244 Field (Upland) 372 Figs 289 Filial duties 117, 205 (2) Filth, see Manure Fine arts 214 Fine days 245 Fines 285 Fir 213 Fire defenders and Fire extinguishing 22, 120, 123, 222, 281; Flies 136 Fire farming 110, 122, 227, 131 Fire God 267 Fire holes 314 Fires, see also Arson; 59, 93, 125-6, 185, 227, 280, 286, 342 Fish 81, 83, 110, 117 (2), 268, 297, 348-9 (2), 379, 380, 389; Ceremonial 46; Daintiest part 228; Eyes 228; Fed 130; Nurseries 224, 251; Soup 228; Supply 346; Waste 308, 386 Fisheries, see also Hokkaido; 43, 414 Fishermen 211, 214, 308; Farmers 210 Fishing 186, 332; Boat 235; Village 327 Flags 130, 136 Flail 78 Flax 272-3, 381 (2), 410 Fleas 109 "Flinging water at a frog's back" 48 Flint and tinder 233 Floods 92, 93, 118, 128, 152, 177, 180, 197, 223 (2), 227, 240, 370 Flowers 123, 127, 147, 272, 289, 290; Arrangement 53, 213, 319 Flute 190 Folklore being made 331 Food, see Farmers, Hokkaido; 34, 71, 196, 228, 261, 312, 324, 346, 374 (2), 389, 404; and Clothes 118; Five _sen_ a day 184; Japanese v. Foreign 350; Lack of 114; Production 367; Specialities 182; Tea and Rice 81; Rice and Pickle 81; Taken away by guests 284; Unbalanced 350; When travelling 110 Forage 227, 243-4, 367 Forces which govern behaviour 167 Foreign: Apeing Foreign 306, 362; Benevolence 376; Books 196; Emulation of 158; Fashions 121; Influence 97; Ideas overpowering 101; Pride in things foreign 362; Tourist 236; Under control 357 Foreigners 69, 80, 81, 111, 117, 141 (2), 146, 204, 217, 244, 249, 262, 269, 345, 352; Cutting them out 369; and idols 205; and Japanese, Closer relations with 95; and Waitresses 101; Hoodwinking 399; Ill-instructed 191; Immorality 56; Sexual curiosity 101; Short-tempered because of Meat-eating 268; Smell of 142 Forests, see Floods; 194, 240, 370, 390, 385, 394, 409 Forestry, see Hokkaido; Association 177 Formalin 60 Formosa, see Taiwan; 96, 214, 249, 390-1, 332, 363 (2) Fortunate days 126 "Fortune" 138 Forty-seven Ronin 333 Foster mother 311 Foundations of Japan in village ix, 92 Foundlings 376 Fowl day 126 Fox 33, 129, 144, 326; God 120, 266, 325-6 (2) France 397 (2); and Algeria 256 Franchise 38, 124, 170, 173, 400 Franklin, B. , 124 Frankness 146 Frazer, Sir J. G. , 243 Freedom, see Hokkaido; 273, 361 _Free Farmer in a Free State, A_, 197, 347-8 Free, Japan very, 100 Frockcoats 82, 259 Frogs 48 (2), 122, 260 Froissart 161 Frontier line 306 Frost 195, 391 Froude, J. A. , 103 Frugality 8, 151 Fruit, see Names of; 18, 85, 148, 177, 282, 289, 292, 307, 349, 368, 402; Disease 368; Growing 61; Jelly 148; Insects 368; Preparations 182; Unripe 150 _Fu_ xxv Fuel, see Charcoal, Coal, Wood; 374, 378 Fuji 107, 262, 310; and Electricity 283 Fukushima 107, 119, 175, 189, 199 Funabushi 307 Fundamental power 323 Funerals 22, 66, 270, 302; Forbidden 236; Feast 248 Furniture 382 _Furoshiki_ 280 Fusuma 36 _Futon_ 8, 31, 109, 258, 280, 300 "Future in the morning" 136; Future Life 201 _Gaku_ 4, 38-9, 51 Galloway dykes 227 Gambling 21, 197, 280, 287, 310 _Gampi_ 401 Gap between East and West 100 Gardens 135, 210, 213-4, 215, 222, 270, 313; Economic 12; "Garden where virtues, etc. " 177 Gas 348; Natural 133, 300, 404; Gasometer and shrine 286 Geisha 2, 19, 57, 96, 102, 114, 212, 252, 254, 257, 362 _Gemmai_ 79 Geniuses, Education of, 58 Genre pictures 313 _Genshitsu_ 259 Gentleness 19 Geology 365 Geomancy 72 German prisoners 307 Germany, see Hokkaido; 300-1, 328, 386, 413 _Geta_ 16, 18, 116, 236, 272, 308, 317, 346, 373 _Getsu-yo-bi_ 126 Gifu 61 Gillie 25 Ginger 410 _Ginseng_ 131, 256 Giotto 103 Girls, see School girls; 13-4, 181, 275, 407; Babies on backs 285; Exploitation 173; in hotels and restaurants 101; Labourers 250, 286, 322, 411; Porters 186; Primitive conditions 216; Sturdiness 302; Wages 315; Gipsies 110 Gladstone 352 Glamour of West 369 Glass, Box for broken, 126 Globe 276 "Glory of the Morning" 121 _Go_ (measure) 119; _Gō_ (chess) 142, 214-5 Goats 264, 321, 347, 406 Godown 185, 376 Gods 21, 80, 82, 202-3-4, 244, 251; of Agriculture 145; calling down 83; Christian view of 83; "God damn all foreigners" 352; of Fire 261; of Happiness 267; of Horses 26; "If one shall give to God" 323; Respect for 45; and Sea 257; "God second" 271; Sirens and guns 237 Gogh, Van, 98 _Gohai_ 134, 144, 185, 318 _Gohan_ 79 Goitre 268 Gold 124, 396; Story 5 _Golden Bough, The_, 192, 331 Goldsmith, Oliver, 146 Gong 272, 310 Gonorrhœa 300 Good: Doing 26; Fellowship 16; Humour 217; "Good people are not sufficiently precautious" 8; Resolutions, Black and red balls for, 19; "Good wives and good mothers" 19; Good Shepherd 127; Goodness, Causes of, 67, 149 Goods, not up to sample, 354 Gosen 132 Gospel 94, 97 Gourds 221 Government, Feeling towards, 63; Granary 86 Governors 21, 39, 84, 152, 179, 198, 200, 202-3, 238, 259, 328, 352, 361, 370, 373; Ex- 241 Goya 103 Graduation tax 21 "Grafting, Thinking, " 136 Grain 307, 349; and wood crops 309 Granary 86 Grandfather's story 43 Grapes 130, 140, 149, 152, 177, 272, 402; in mustard 228; Grapefruit 238 Grass, see Forage; 381 (3), 409; Land available 368; Hokkaido and Saghalien 368; Bamboo 352 Gratitude 26, 141 Gravel 25 Graves, see Burial grounds; 19, 58, 72, 225, 306; Stones 121, 144, 147, 219, 235, 267; Gravedigger 241; Unpopular persons 241 Great Britain xv, 328, 386 Greece 95-6, 204; Greek Church 362 Green, J. K. , 34 "Greenfield Mountain" 244 Grief 201, 273 Ground cypress 221 "Guid moral fowk" 63 Guilds 295, 317 Gumma 146, 309, 321 _Gun_ xxv; _Gunchō_ 51, 56, 118, 150, 175, 219, 328 Guns, sirens and gods, 237 Gutters 286 Gymnastics 113, 222 _Gyokuro_ 294, 403 _Habakari_ 375 Habits 124 Hachia 248 _Hagi_ 213 Hair 18, 19, 143, 224, 318, 353; Tied up 116 _Hakama_ 16, 356 _Hakumai_ 79 Haldane, Lord, 201 Half-civilised 141; dressed 126 Hall, Sir D. , viii, 370 Ham 406 Hamlets xxvi, 15, 16 Hand-claps 45-6, 319; Hands 153 Handicrafts, Japanese and British, 317 _Hantsukimai_ 79 _Haori_ 16, 315, 356 Happiness 109, 261; God of, 267 _Harakiri_, see _Seppuku_, 55 _Hara_ (prairie) 68 Hara, Professor, 413 (2) Hard work, or better, 64 Hare 278; Day 126 Harmoniums 276 Harp 83 Harvest, see Paddy, 50; Gods and, 83 Hasegawa, Tokaku, 344 _Hashi_ 81 Hata 68; _Hatake_ 68 Hats 74, 76, 83, 129, 198, 284 Hawaii 388 Hawker: beggar 248 Hayashi, Baron, xv Haze 392 Headhunters 96 Headman, see Blind Headman, 54, 56, 121, 126, 133, 140, 189, 241, 250; and Officials 21; Loochoos 236 Health, see Bureau of Hygiene, Invalids, Physique, Tuberculosis; 50, 53, 80, 180, 268, 308, 368, 375, 398, 404 Hearn, Lafcadio, viii, 141, 237, 253, 344 Hearts 25, 27 Heat, 125, 147, 261, 307 "Heathen" 96, 98, 99, 326 Heather 290 Heaven 23, 183; "Heavenly punishment" 298 Hebrew prophets 95 Height 17, 404-5 _Heimin_ 400 Hell 109 Hemp 409 Henley, W. E. , 40, 80 Hens, Pensions for, 345 "Here the Emperor beheld, " etc. 39 Herring blessed 82 _Hibachi_ 153, 297, 374 "Hided himself" 29 Highways, Ancient, 144 Hills 390; Artificial 210 Hills removed 299 Hindus 203 _Hinoki_ 221, 394 Hiroshima 207, 236, 402 History: Cannot be repeated 363; of England 167; of the "Southern Savage" 208 _Hiye_ 387, 389 Hoes, see Paddy Hokkaido xxv, 89 (2), 195, 197, 222-3, 249, 332, 363, 390; Agricultural college, 336; American supplies and influence 334(2)-5-6 (2); Apples 337; Ashigawa 338; Ainu 336; Alcohol factory 339; Askov 341; _Basha_ 338, 340; Bear 337; Beer 337; "Best bits" 359; Beauty 361; Brewing 335-6-7; Britons 336; Brothels 360; Buckwheat 338, 341; Budget cut down 359; Buggies 334; Canning 336-7; Cattle 343; Christians 340; Climate 337; Collies 343; Cooperation 339, 341; Countryside 342; Credit 360; Cossack farming 336; Dairymaid 343; Danish songs 341; Development, 335, 358-9, 360, 414; Drainage 338; Dutch 336; Education 359; Elms 336; Farms, Area, 239, 337-8; Mixed, milk, meat, 338, 343, 348; Profits 340, 380-1-2; Official farms 343, Farms, large, 338; "Feed them well" 341; Fisheries 335, 337; Floods 342; Flour mills 336; Food 341; Foreign practice 336; Forestry 337; Forest fires 342; French 336; "Getting on" 360; Germans 336, 341; Grouse 336; Immigrants 337, 339, 340, 341, 359; Grass 341; Hakadate 334; Hay 343; Horses 338, 341; Houses 334; Hunting 335; Huts 341; Imperial household 335-6, 360, Rescript 336; Immigration into island, 360, 414; Industry 337; Influence on Old Japan 334, 361; _Kō_ 341; Kuroda 336; Labour difficulties 337-8, Land scandals 359, Not available 360, System 359; Licensed Quarters, see Brothel; Manitoba 337; Maize 336-7; Milk 338; Millet 338; Mining 337; Moneylenders 340; Money wanted 359; Monkeys 336; Mortgage 340; Nitobe, Dr. , 336; Oats 337; Oxen 339; Peat 338; Peppermint 339; Pheasants 336; Pigs 339, 343; Population 335, 360, 414; Potato, see Starch; Prostitutes 360; Railway 341, 360; Religion 340; Residuum 341, 359; Rice 337-8, 341; Rivers 338, 342; Roads 338, 341, 360; Riding 339; Russians 335-6; Rye 337; Saké 340; Salisbury, Lord, 359; Salvation Army 340; Sapporo, 343-4 (2), 337-8, 391; Sato, Dr. , 336; Scenery 342; Self-binders 343; _Self-help_ 341; Sheep 343, 347, 352-3-4; Silo 336; Stock-keeping 343, 347; _shōchū_ 340; Shrine 339; Slesvig 341; Snow 341, 347; "Social question" 341; Soldier colony 336; "Sordid" 360; Stallion 340; Starch factory 339; Stimulating and free 361; Streets 334; Sugar-beet factories 336; Taxation 414; Temples 339; Tenants 339; Tolstoy 341; Tomeoka 341; Trees 338, 342; Uchimura 336; Ugliness 342; University 336, 360; Value of land 402; Volcanoes 334, 343, 390; Wagon storage 340; "Whoa" 334; Windows 334; Wolves 337; Wood pulp 337; Yezo 335 Hokke 134 _Hokku_ 107 _Hokora_ 134, 144 Hokusai 344 Holidays 128, 278, 377; Cheap 123, 190; To cattle 256 Holiness, Theoretical and practical, 256 Holland, see Dutch; ix, 121, 368 Hollyhocks 39 Home Office 24, 133, 345; Home training 149 Homma 186, 188, 380 _Hon_ 334 Hondo, see Honshu Honesty 140, 145, 277 "Honourable first-class passengers" 218 Honours, 187 Honshu 334, 390-1-2, 402 Hoops 221 Hopes for the future 361 Horses, see Hokkaido, Paddy; 61, 111, 139, 187, 189, 194-5, 209, 240, 262-3-4, 269, 287, 307, 345 (2), 346, 381 (3) -2 (2), 406; Bronze 212; Day 126; Difficulty of feeding 367; Dressing 318; Fair 175; Feed 244; Fondness for 344; Fly 126; God 267 (2), 304; Holidays for 256; Monuments to 167, 307; Power 385; Shows 268; Slaughtered 406; Shrine 127; Symbol 272, 304; Horseman's hair cutting 318 Hotels, see Inns, 107; Japanese and English 319; "Hotel for people of good intentions" 54 Hot spring 126, 190; Story 233 Houses, see Hokkaido; 66, 153, 207, 214, 261, 314, 322, 378; Beauties of 31, 35; Building 17; Courtesies 34-5; of ill fame, see Brothels; Miserable 176, 190; New forbidden 247; Simplicity 39; Transported 310; Western "taste" 34 "How I became a Christian" 91 Humanity 235; New conception of 94; Humanitarians 206 Humidity, see Climate Humour 217, 276 Humus 309, 313 Hunger 145 Hunting, see Hokkaido, 278 Husband and Wife 121 Huxley xiv Hydrangea 53, 122 Hydraulic works 52 Hygiene, see Health Hyogo 253, 260, 311, 402 Hypocrisy 224, 259 _I_ 246, 410 "I am the master of my fate" 41; "I remain Japanese" 141; "I hear the voice of Spring" 165 Ibaraki 189, 199, 309 Idea of a Gap 98; Old ideas 331 Ideographs 68, 301 Idleness, Correction of, 17, 19 "Idols" 142, 205 "If you look at a water fowl" 101; "If you should advise me" 175 _Ihai_ 143, 270, 272; _Ihaido_ 272-3 Illegitimacy 114, 229, 241, 280, 303, 322, 395 Illiteracy 375 Illness 187, 350, 377 Image, see Idols, 142, 205 Imitation, 24 Immorality, see Morality, Women, Primitive conditions; 2, 17, 101-2, 114, 126, 132, 139, 149, 193, 190, 191-2, 197, 201, 212, 214, 241, 280, 287, 307, 315, 322; Foreigners, 56; and Shrine, 325-6 Imperial Household, see Hokkaido; Garden Party, 319; Rescript 50-1, 90, 137, 204; Poem competition 40; Train 44 Imperturbability 251 Implements 364, 378, 382; Better, 365, 367, 370; Cared for, 220; Primitive, 365 Imports, Doing away with 347; Some useless 369 Impressions xiii, 27 Improvement, Principles of, 370 Inari 129, 325 Incendiarism, see Arson Incense 119, 141 "Incitement to do well" 140 Income of a Governor, 373; of a Minister of State 373; Small 240 Incomprehensibleness 202 Incongruity 137 Indecency 192, 197 Independence 151, 277, 311 India 388 Indigo 209, 223, 409 Individualism 101-2, 204, 327, 330 Indo-China 388 Indoors 213 Industry (quality) 297, 317 Industry, see Hokkaido, Factories, Sericulture; Alleged economic necessity for Sweating 169; "Industry and Increase of Production" 259; Cheap labour 169 (2), 173; Cotton factories 174; Chinese competition 173; and Commerce v. Agriculture 284, 414; Crash 87; Criticism 369; Destruction of Craftsmanship 317; Death rate 393; Deception of West 174; Docile Labour 169, 173; Employers' public spirit 173; Excuses for shortcomings 169; Exploiting 169 (2); El Dorado 369; Female labour 169, 399; Foreign competition 173-4; Handicap of 174; Indefensible attitude 169; Inexperienced labour 174; Inhumanity 174; Just claim 174; Mistakes imitating West 170; Net return to Japan 169; Number of workers 168; Profits 174; Rural v. Urban 369; Success of 169; Uselessness of some 369; Unskilled labour 174; Welfare work 174; Wellwishers' fears 169; Western lessons 174, 369; Wisdom, Will it be displayed? 174; Woollen, 354-5-6-7 Infanticide 66, 216, 302, 332 Infinity 200 Inflation xxiv, 414 Influence 201, 203, 321, 324; Influential villager 140 Inhalation 117 Inland Sea 207-8, 235 Inner colonisation, 307, 413-4 Inn 108-9-10, 116, 122-3, 127, 132, 144-5, 152, 190, 214, 228, 315; of Cold Spring Water 128; Entertainment 108; Notices in 183; Old days 148; Rates 148, 183; Restfulness 319; Transportation of 182 Inscriptions 47, 126, 129 Insects 20 (2), 188, 230, 250, 286, 344, 353, 368; Fondness for, 344; Insect powder 109 Instinct 201 Instructions 26, 151 Insurance 281 Intellectuals 103, 203 Intelligence 140, 151, 370 Intercourse 358 Interest, see Usury; 43, 66 Intermarriage 204, 252, 290, 364 International Labour Conference 395; Understanding, see West and East Interpreter 27 Intestines 348, 351 _Introduction to the History of Japan_, 413 Invalids 110, 346 Ireland 358 Iron 226, 396 Irrigation, see Water, Waterwheels, Wells; 25, 52, 180, 197, 207, 210, 262, 390-1 Ise Shrine 176 Islands 235 (3), 390; Beacon 247 Italy 365-6, 396-7 Ito San 307 Itsukushima 236 Iwate 189, 195-6 Izumo 251 _Jaga-imo_ 249 Jakchū, 344 James, William, 105 Japan, see Japanese; Anti-Ally campaign xi; Belief in, a substitute for religion, 63; Books, good and bad, on viii; and Germany xi; and Great Britain 89, 385, 390; Compared with Asia 390; Could support double the population 97; Course 371; Danger of Foreign colonisation 100; English-speaking world and xv; Free 100; Future, neither a technical nor an economic problem, 371; Forced into Materialism, 100; Great Britain and, xv; Mental attitude 371; New and Old 318; Northern 365, 370, 402, 413 (2), 414; Proper 385, 390; Thousand years ago 82; United States and xv; Width 390; Will o' the wisps 371; World opinion on ix Japanese: Advantages 371; Aestheticism and farmer ix; Closer relations with foreigners 95; Christian church 197; Common sense 371; Devotional 102; Essence of life 141; Family, a, 143; Ideas, old, 174; Judgment on 371; Kindness 102; Number in Great Britain 403; in London 403; Opportunities 371; Puzzled 100; "Japanese spirit, " see _Yamato damashii_, 140, 323; Talents 371; True v. Mediocre, 371 Jeffries, 99 _Ji_ 210 "_Jiji_" 90 _Jinrikisha_, see Kurumo; 46, 131 _Jishu_ 119 _Jizō_ 125, 286 John, Augustus 98, 103 Johns Hopkins 349 Johnson, Dr. , 132, 175, 262, 297 _Joro_, see Prostitutes; 56, 255, 258_Judō_ 50, 159 _Jūjitsu_ 50, 287 "Jump land" 305 Jungle 122 Kagawa 207, 209 _Kago_ 244 Kaiserism 90 _Kakemono_ 36, 39, 135, 150 (2), 319 _Kakkō_ 315 Kambara 132 Kamchatka 195 Kanagawa 182, 283, 309, 321 _Karakami_ 36 Karuizawa 143-4 _Kasutera_ 346 _Katsubushi_ 297, 349 Kawasaki, see Labour "Keeping up position" 183 _Ken_ xxvi, 176 Kennedy, J. Russell, 332 Kepler 106, 123, 344 Khedive 98 _Ki-ai_ 36 _Kikicha_ 294 Kimonos 15, 16, 84, 114, 125 (4), 200, 218, 269, 272, 301, 309, 312, 317, 321, 356; Respect for superiors 125 Kinai 71 Kindergarten 7 Kindness 102, 205, 307 King, Professor, vii, 260 _Kiri_ 129 Kissing 313 Kitchens of Hongwanji 63 Kites 260 Kittens, see Cats; 345 Kneeling 17, 308, 319 Knife 282 Knowledge 301, 328 _Kō_, see Hokkaido, _Tanomoshi_; 215, 278, 301 _Ko-aza_ xxvi Kobe 66, 71, 207, 260, 292, 392; "Kobe beef" 402 Kochi 207, 209, 386 Kōfu 152 _Koi_, see Carp Koizumi Yakumo 254 Kokusai-Reuter 332 _Komojin_ 208 _Konnyaku_ 48, 176 Korea 99, 103, 104, 256, 332, 336, 363 (2), 390 (2), 391, 394; Folk art 104; Secretary of Government 10 _Korai_ 105 _Kōri_ xxvi _Koto_ 34 _Kōzo_ 401 Kropotkin 321 _Kuge_ 102-3 _Kumi_ 262, 278 _Kura_, see Godown Kuriles 391 _Kuruma_ 46, 121 (2), 209, 243, 262, 310; in War time 51; Forbidden 236; Wooden wheels 244; _Kurumaya_ 120, 122-3, 128, 131, 148, 250; Story 310 Kusonoki Masashige 66-7 Kuwata, Dr. , 399 Kwanto 107, 147, 199, 309 Kwantung 388, 391 _Kyōgen_ 32 Kyosai, Kawanabe, 344 Kyōto xxvi, 63, 66, 82, 141, 207, 222, 243, 257, 292, 303, 307, 391-2; Hongwanji 2 Kyushu xii, 330, 390-1-2, 402 Labour, see Factories, Farmers, Land, Paternalism, Revolution; Socialism, 160; Arrests 171; Better directed 64; Ca'-canny 171; Cheap labour exploited 369; Child workers 170, 172, 224; Confederation of Japanese Labour 171; Labour contractors, see Hokkaido, Sericulture; Days in the Year, 62, 65 (2), 377; Employers' public spirit 173; English parallels 167, 170 (2); Factory law 165, 169, 171-2 (2), 224; Hours 62, 376-7, 378; Eleven 173, Twelve 170, Fourteen 171-2; Farmer's Co-operation, see Tenants' movement; "Friend-Love-Society" 171; Girls' labour 224; Imprisonment 170; Increased 26; Irregular 350; Given 17; Kawasaki 173-4; Matsukata 173-4; Mitsubishi 173; Night 48, 171; Police 170-1; Prosecutions 172; Publications 171; Public meetings 170; Public opinion 169, 172-3; Seaman's Union 171; Strikes, 88, 170; Tenants' Movement 173; Trade Unions 169, 170 (2) -1; Wages substituted for apprentice system 315; Women workers, see Silk (Factories) 171-2; _Yu-ai-kai_ 171; Labourers, see Girl labourers, 150, 184, 189, 194, 380-1, 395, 397, 411 Lacquer 39, 130, 319 Ladder for tree pruning 215 Ladybirds 289 Lamb, Henry, 98 Lamps 348 Land available, see Utilised, 97, 180, 233, 368, 408, 414; Covered by buildings, railways, etc. , 250, 409; City investments in, 150; under Cultivation 70; Divided up, result, 306; New 18, 24, 42-3, 62, 66, 85, 194, 207 (2), 225 (2), 264, 305, 370; Yearly 408; Government action, 408; Ownership decrease, 411; "of Plenteous ears" 68; Made over to farmers at Restoration 395; from the Sea, 41; held by Tradesmen and other, 412; Utilised, 214, 225, 227, 244; Value of, 64, 133, 240, 339, 402 Landlady and Players 115 Landless 412 Landlords, see also Tenants, Hokkaido, Homma; 193, 212, 223, 303, 305, 358, 376, 394; Area 29, 41, 213, 400; Absentees 38; Advice and gifts by 30 (2); Bad 58 (4); Budgets 41, 373; Boycotted 28; Competition for Farmers 186; Circuit of village 36; Cruel 38; Expert engaged 177; Diversions 213; Factory dividends 193; as Farmers, 213; Idle 322; and Farmers' wives 30; Garden parties 30; "Hided himself" 29; "Land master" 37; Parasitic 261; Poets 41; Power going from 36, 330; Rents and Reduction of 29, 37, 85, 220; Sharing system, 45; Storehouses, 28 (2); and Tenants, 23 29, 30, 31, 34, 37-8, 88, 94, 152, 229, 230, 301; Taxes 73; Tenant movement 37-8; Perspiration, 38; Reformation of village, 47; Uchimura 94; Usurers 38; Western and Japanese compared, 261 Landscape 120 Lanes 307 Lang, A. , 105 Language 301 Lanterns 19, 36, 58, 136, 190, 211, 237, 266-7 Lark 83 Laughter 217 Law, William, 99 Leaders 26, 51, 140 League of Nations, Japanese Secretary, 336 "Learning Meeting" 58; "Learning right ways, " etc. , 164 Lectures 150, 176, 180, 189, 250, 279 Leeches, see Paddy, 137 "Left behind his tiredness" 111 Legislation 236 Legumes 349 Lemonade 119 Lending, see Borrowing, _Kō, Tanomoshi_, 125, 183 Leonardo 103 Leprosy 5, 298 _Lespedeza bicolor_ 213 Letter in the temple 26 Letters, interesting, 311; Lettering, Western v. Eastern, 39 _Liberté du travail, De la_, 8 Libraries 23, 59, 60, 180, 190, 196, 215, 244, 248, 401 Licensed Quarters, see Brothels Life 101; Aim 205; Chaotic 100; Desire to enjoy 179; Significance of 90; Too near to Criticise 331 Lignite 47 Lighthouse, "At foot it is dark, " 67 Lighting 120 Lily 410 Lime 148 Lincoln 124, 127 Literature 369; Western 102 "Livestock, his family, " 386 Living, Bare, 261; Better 370; Cost of 278; Standard of 65, 85, 310, 240; "What men live by" 27; "Living Power" 322 Lizard story 5 Lobster 318 Locks 183 Locusts 20 Logic v. Feeling 29 Loin cloth 125, 307 London 64; Market 357 Lonely spot 127; "Lonelyism" 319 Loochoos 236, 391 Loquat 289 Lorries 621 Loss 201, 203 Lotus 48, 146 Louse 107 Love, Not easy to fall in, 102; Not free 102; Four loves 61 Loyalty 174 L. T. 372 Lubin, David, vii Lucky days 126 Lugubriousness, Absence of, 273 Lumbering, see Forests; 194-5 Lunacy, see "Natural" "Lusitania" 202 Luther 94 Luxury 2, 19, 151 Lying 124 Macaroni 272, 351, 381 McCaleb, J. M. , 364 _Machi_ xxv Mackintoshes 47 Maeterlinck 99 Magazines 18, 58, 282 Mahomedanism 101 Maid servant 324 Maillol 103 Maize, see Hokkaido, 146, 148, 272, 381 (2) Malaya 127 Mallets 359 _Manchester Guardian_ 339 Man 150; "Man and Wife" 121; Development 202; with a monument 41; Study of 119; Manfulness 205 Manchuria 21, 354, 356-7, 363 (2), 390, 394; Railway company 357 _Mangoku doshi_ 78 Mantles 74, 76 Manners, see Etiquette 17, 19 Manual labour 50 Mantegna 103 Manure, see _Benjo_; 230, 232-3, 259, 264, 298, 308, 313, 346, 352, 374, 380-2, 384, 386; Artificial 49, 85, 92, 136; Better manuring 370; Co-operation 49; Manure blessed 82; House 22, 137, 150, 215; Green 386; Liquid, for Vegetables, 350; "Livestock, his family, " 386; Odour 49; Students and 50; Tanks 214-5; "White steam rising" 137 Maples 25, 52 Market, No, 127 Marmots 166 Marriage, see Weddings, Unmarried; 11, 114-5, 138, 170, 193, 220, 247, 284, 293, 315, 330, 379, 380, 395, 400; Ages 332; Marrying for love, 102; Remarriage 197 "Marrow of Japan, The, " xv Masses 132 Mascots 310 Masters and men, 174, 315 Materialism 2, 27-8, 212, 324 Matisse 103 Mats, see _Tatami_, 177, 215, 270, 304 Matsue 243, 253-4 Matsukata, see Labour Matsumoto 148, 150, 391 Matter 100 Matthew, St. , 94 Mattocks, see Paddies; 97, 285, 385; Wealth and 136 Meadow 409 Meals 34, 323 Meanness punished 266 Meat 130, 133, 346, 348, 349, 350, 356-7, 368, 379, 380, 406; and Good Temper 268 Mechanical power 370, 412 Medals 123 Medicine 248, 268, 374, 379, 380 Meetings, see Public meetings; 63, 238, 254 Meiji, Emperor, 39, 142 Melbourne 167 Melons 146, 150 _Memoirs of the Queen's First Prime Minister_ 170 Memorial stones 41, 51-2, 67, 311; Services 271; Days 50 Mental attitude 254; nimbleness 17 Mercantile Marine 332; Farmer and ix Mercenary spirit 2, 12 Merciful universe 323; "Mercy of the sun" 321 Meredith 90, 182, 219, 226, 235 Merits 25 Mesopotamia 371 Metal 126; Mines story xi Metaphysical, Not, 258 Metayer system 45, 207 Methodist 141 Mice and bamboo 108 Middle Ages 84, 317 Middle School boys 151, 255, 284, 404 Middle men 38 Midwives 123, 241, 264, 282, 399 Migration 264, 364 Mikawa 84 Militarism 104, 233, 240, 328, 360; Military service, see Conscription, 220; Training 151, 282, 285 Milk, see Hokkaido; 110, 116, 128, 130, 150 (2), 235, 264, 345, 347-349, 381 (2); Foster mother 311 Millet, see Hokkaido 103, 131, 195-6 (2), 213, 219, 227, 264, 383, 389, 409, 411 Mimetic skill, 192 Minds, 27, 151, 226 Minerals, see also Hokkaido; 284, 396 Ming 106 Ministers and Ministries of Agriculture 24, 378, 385, 390, 397, 403, 411; of Health and Education (British) 371; of Finance 414; of Railways 403; of State, Income of, 373; Ministers, ex- 241 Mirror 178 _Mirin_ 396 Misapprehensions, International, 363 Miser 59 Misfortune 187, 201; and Religion, 63 _Miso_ 6, 81, 123, 151, 191-2, 196, 321, 349 (2), 350 Missionaries 7, 59, 143, 197 Mitsubishi, see Labour _Mitsumata_ 401 "Mixing in the heart" 135 Miyagi 189, 197 Miyajima 236 Mobilisation 241 _Mochi_ 69, 272 Modesty 317 _Mogusa_ 179 _Momi_ 79 _Mon_ 188 Monday 126 Money: Etiquette 148; Cheap 176, 184, 364; Need of 66, 370; Moneylenders, see Usury, 150, 282, 364; Money-sharing Club, see _Kō, tanomoshi_ Mongolia 357, 363 (2), 394 Monkey, see Hokkaido; 110, 129, 248; Monkey day 126; "Monkey slip" 246 Moon 126 (2), 129, 137, 208, 275; Bowing to 99; "Moon-seeing flowers" 120; Moonlight on mattocks 136; "Waiting for the Moon" 323 Morality, see Crime, Immorality, Police; 17, 20, 37, 50, 66, 95, 101-2, 140, 149, 152, 169, 179, 193, 203, 206, 229, 313; Anglo-Saxon sense of 95; Moral backbone 96, 141; "Moral bath" 94; Code, Lack of, 362; "Distrust of each other's morality the barrier" xii; Morality dependent on material well-being 118, 149; Quality of Eastern 95; "Not so bad" 149 Morimoto 349 Morioka 195-6 Morley, 14 Mosquitoes 50, 125, 143 "Mother, from the bosom of, " 301; Mother-in-law 121, 138 Motor bus 246; Launch 237 Mottoes 7, 39, 126, 135-6, 150, 158, 187, 288 Mounds 306 Mountains 70, 108, 159, 176, 390 (2), 394; "Mountain climbers" 320; Mountain maidens 110 Moxa, see _Mogusa_; 47, 179 M. P. , see Franchise; 124, 208, 285; Ashes of 92; and farmers 92 "Mr. Temple" 7, 270 M's, Seven, viii Mud baths 147 _Mujin_ 278 _Mukae bon_ 272 Mulberry 40, 61, 147, 149, 153, 158-9 (2), 160, 264-5, 282, 287, 298, 302, 307, 310; Area and Yield 153, 409; Paper 410; Proverb 153 Mulch 220 _Mura_ xxv, 262 Murdoch, James, Japanese and, viii Murray, Gilbert, 301 Mushrooms 110 Music 102, 116, 180, 188, 237, 328; Ancient 82; Instruments 222; Western 99 (2), 288 Mutton, see also Sheep; 133, 345, 347 Muzzles 269 Mysticism 99, 100, 267 "My wish is that I may perceive" 106 Naden, Constance, 203 Nagano 140, 146, 153, 262, 272, 399 Nagasaki 391 Nagoya 38, 391, 392 _Naichi_ 334 Naked children 309; Nakedness 115, 125, 193; Child story 307 _Namban_ 208 "Name, called by second, " 217 "_Namu Amida_, " etc. , 129 Napier, Sir W. , 170 Napoleon 127, 203 Nara 222 Nasu, Mount 108 Nasu, Professor S. , xv, xxiv Nation 8; National Agricultural Societies 238, 320; Backing Society 312; Defence 97; Feeling 363; Funds 371; Greatness, Sources of, 97; Products 233; Nationalism 204, 328; Nationalists 91 _Natsu mekan_ 238 Nature 287; and Character 99; Feeling towards 99; "Natural" 280; Naturalness 99 Naval Service 311 Navvies 21, 217 Navy 311, 346, 350-1, 360, 403; Farmer and ix "Needle in your head" 11 Negation 101 Neo-Malthusianism 331-2 Nerves 238, 240 Nets 186 New and modern ideas 37; New ideas 135; New and Old Japan 318; New Age 361; "New rural type" 79 _New East_ xii, 372, 406 News, see Notice boards, 323; Newspapers, see Press, 137, 249, 282, 300, 301, 319 New Testament 96, 203 New Year 265 New York 271, 318 New Zealand 352, 363 _Nichi_ 126 "_Nichi-Nichi_" 90 _Nichi-yo-bi_ 126 Nightingale, Florence, 127 Night-soil, see Manure Night-time 19 _Nihon no Shinzui_ xv Niigata 107, 132, 295, 391 Nikko 92, 120 Ninomiya 7, 8, 50, 60, 61, 287 Nirvana 205 Nitobe, Dr. , see Hokkaido; xv, 333 Nitrogen 147, 348 _Nō_ 32, 320 Nogi, General, 54, 98 Non-material feeling 259 Normal school 233 "Normal yield" 70 North America 410 North, backwardness of, see Japan, Northern North of Japan, see Japan, Northern Noses 144, 192, 204 Note-books 18 "Nothing which concerns a countryman, " etc. , 107 Notice boards for news 17, 126; Notices 287 "Not yet" 288 Novelist 152; Novelists, Russian, 99 _No wa kuni taihon nari_ 92 Nunnery 142; Nuns 140, 142, 143 Nursery pasture 259; Nurseries, see Paddies, Children drowned, 266; Nurses 58, 399; "Nursing-place for children of soldiers" 312 Nutrition poor, see Food Oaks 316 Oars 211 Oats 381 (2) _Oaza_ xxvi, 221, 263, 302, 304, 305 _Obi_ 15, 25 Obedience 169 Obscenity 192 Oceania 410 Octopus 46, 308 Oculist 239, 300 _Oden_ 48 Offerings 272 Officials 27, 51, 176, 212, 261; Official rewards 213 _Ohyakusho no Fufu_ ix Oil, see Petroleum; For insects 188 Oiwaké 144 Okayama 207, 402 Okio 344 Okuma, Prince, 390 _Okunitama no Miko no Kami_ 45, 46 Okura, Baron, 357 _Okuri bon_ 272 Old age 17, 19, 22, 43; Old farmer to his son 66; Old man and officials 51; Old men 135, 271; "Old Miss not frequent" 74; Old Japan 391; Old People's Clubhouse 305, Houses 304, Work 227 Old Testament 326 Olives 210 Omelette 110 Omori 93, 182 Onions 381 (2), 410 "Only half a pilgrimage, " etc. , 257 Open heart 215 Oranges 221, 287, 289 (2), 402 Order 328; "Orders, May give him, " etc. , 217 _Oriental Economist_ 93; Oriental religion for Orientals 327 Originality, supposed lack of 101 _Oro_ 400 Orphans 185 Osaka ix, xxv, 71, 90, 207, 222, 311, 392 Otake 324 _Otera San_ 7, 270 "Other people" 62, 377 _Otsu Yukimichi_ 46 Out-of-date ideas 348 Owen, Wilfrid, 334 Overloading 345 Over-population, see Population Overpowering foreign ideas 101 Overseas Colonisation Co. 402 Overwork 114 Oxen, see Cows, Cattle, Hokkaido, Holidays, Paddies; 18, 139, 346; Ox-day 126; Ox-drawn carts 18 Oyashiro current 195 Paddies, see Adjustment, Agriculture, Bull, Cow, Horse, Lime, Mattock, Plough, Pony, Rice, Straw, _Ta_, Windmills; 20, 66, 68-9, 70-1-2, 132, 264; Adjustment 182; Appearance 146, 298; Area, see Size, 385; Back breaking 75; Beauty 76; Blindness 300; At Christmas 314; Carp 299; Children drowned 75; Clothing 74; Cow 73, 77; Cultivated for centuries 366; Cultivation in sludge 73; Damaged crops 76-7; Discomfort 74; Drying 73, 77; Paddy v. Dry field labour 358; Floods 72, 76; Frost 299; Harrowing 73-4; Harvest 76-7; Hoes 75; Horse 73; _I_ 246; Insects 74-5-6; Italy 68; Labour 70-3 _et seq_. , 331, 358, 365; Labour required per _tan_ 232; Leeches 74; Mattock 73, see Mattock; Model 189, 258; Ox 72-3, 77; Ploughing 73, 385; Pony 73, 77; Pulling Fork 74; Rent, see Rent, 23, 73; Reservoirs 72, 210, 299; Scattered 71; Second crop 70, 73; Seed bed 74-5-6, 84; Shape 69, 70-1; Shinto streamers 75; Sickle 77; Size 70, 249, 365-6, 360 (2); Soil 70, 73; Sowing 74-5; Spade 73; in Spring 307; Straw 76; Stubble 73; Temperature raised 76; Transplanting 74-5 (3), 84; Two hundred and tenth day 76; U. S. A. 68; Value 214, 402, 408-9; Wet 76-7; Water, Ammonia, Depth, Warm, 70, 72, 152, 366; Wet Feet 73; Weeding 74-5(2); Wind 76; Women 74; Work of 147 Pagodas 209 Painting 102, 223, 286, 327 Palisades 227 _Pan_ 346 Panic grass, see _Hiye_ Paper 125, 148, 177, 227, 401 Paradise 205 (2) Parasites 261, 350 Parasol, see Umbrellas Parents 17, 102, 117, 149 Park 210 Parkes, Sir Henry, 9 Parliament 53; Cost of election 208; Farmers and ix Parmesan 298 Partiality 14 Party feeling, see Politics, 2 Past and Present 233 Paternalism 174 Patience 153 Patriotism 26, 206, 371; Patriotic Women's Society, 105, 124 Patronage 37 Pattison, Mark, 105 Paul, St. , 99 Paulownia 129 Paupers 376 Peace of the world 84; Peaceful mind 205 (2) Peaches 277, 289, 295, 402 Pears 31, 233, 235, 289, 402 Peas 307, 383, 409 Peasant, of East and West, 141; Heroic 51; Hungry 145; and Lucifer match 233; Monuments to 67; "Peasant Sage of Japan" 7 Peasant Proprietors, see Tenants; 138-9, 184, 189, 261, 264, 284, 321, 364, 376, 378-9, 380 (4), 411 Peat, see Hokkaido, 194 Pedlars 315 Peers, School, 55, 102; Qualifications for House of 176 Pencils 272 Pensions 380 Peonies 256 People, Condition of, 262 Peppermint 381, 410 Perfection 283 Perry, Commander, 100, 124 Persimmons x, 13, 45, 61 (2), 152, 289, 320, 402 Persistence 328 Personalities 104 Perspiration 38 Pestalozzi, 220 Peter the Great 124 Petroleum 132 _Phædo_ 203 Pheasants, see Hokkaido, 215 Philanthropy, see Charitable institutions; 41, 376 Philosophy 100, 102, 204, 206 Photographs xvi Physique 16, 171, 193, 204, 284, 302, 322, 350, 364 Piano 99 Pickles 81, 110, 159, 268, 349 Picture postcards 148 Pigeons 215 Pigs, see Hokkaido; 27, 264, 347, 382 (2), 406 Pilgrims 20, 133, 142, 182, 210-1, 220, 252, 271, 302; and Prostitutes, 257 Pillow 109; slip 109 Pine 215, 248, 299, 316, 318, 394 Pipes 288 Pirates 214 Pistol 56 Pitt 9 "Places of distinction" 187; "Place of the Seven Peaks" 120 Plains 70 Planet 126 Plans 18 Plantain 122, 307 Plasters 267 Plato 96, 358 Players 115, 124-5, 245, 266; Playrooms 260 Ploughing, see Agriculture, Hokkaido, Paddies; Worship of 61, 87, 120 Plums 295, 307, 405 Poe 105 Poel, William, 114 Poet 27, 40, 135; Poems, see Song, _Uta_; 20, 61, 107, 109, 111, 136, 141, 183, 216, 288, 324; Poetry 313, 334 Poisonous plants 124 Pole and bucket 207 Police, see Arrests, Cells, Crime, Postponed offences, Prisoners, Theft; 20, 43-4, 53-4, 113, 116, 125, 140, 150, 235, 280; Influence of 118; Letters for 111; Offences 250; Shirakaba 103; at Theatre 115 Politeness 19, 40, 217, 251, 277, 317 Politics, see Franchise, "Direct Action"; 103, 104, 303; Local 284, 303; Slander 2 Pomegranate 52-3 Ponds, cleaned out free, 219 Pony, see Paddies; 227; at Shrine 116 Poor, see Farmers, Relief; 57, 63, 67, 94, 145, 149, 278, 320, 323; Cannot remain poor 67; Flattery of 94 Poore, Dr. , 374 Population, see Birth and Death rates 160, 391; Census 393-4; Compared with Great Britain and U. S. A. 82, 385, 392; Cost of living and postponement of marriage 332 (2); Empire and its parts 391; Percentage Habitable compared with other Countries 392-3; How to support double 97; Increase of 89, 392-3-4; Increase compared with increase of Rice production 389; and Means of Production 332; Decrease of Rural 412; and Rural and Urban compared 412; Sexes 169; per square mile 392; per square kilometre compared with Belgium, England and Wales, Holland, Italy, Germany and France 392; Surplus 332, 360, 369, 413 Porcelain 39, 319 Pork 347, 350 Port Arthur 98; Ports, Open, 256 Porters 186 Porticoes 246 Portraits 38, 120, 143, 198 Portuguese 208, 346 Posterity 19 Post-impressionism 104 Potash 251 Potatoes 191, 194, 249; Irish 383, 409, 411; Sweet 146, 227, 309, 347, 381 (2), 383, 409, 411; Memorials 249 Pottery 99, 148 Poultry 7, 18, 39, 58, 264, 297, 304, 381-2 (2), 406; Pensions for 345 "Pouring water on a duck's back" 48 Poverty, see Poor Power, Fundamental, 323 Prairie 71, 111 Prayer 141, 243-4, 272, 326 Preaching 3, 4, 5, 249, 270, 310, 314-15 Prefecture xxv Prejudice 146, 363 Pre-nuptial relations, see Immorality Presents 218, 271 (2), 329 Press, see Newspapers; Brains and circulation of 90; Dread of 41 Prices xxiv, 13; Prices in this book xxiv, 87-8; Rise in Prices 87-8 Priests, see Buddhist priest, Shinto priest; 1, 20, 45, 57, 139, 140, 149 (2), 180-1, 197, 212, 220, 247, 331, 412; Dress 25; Priest-craft 93; at Elections 250; Good deeds 324; Ignorance 120; and Illegitimate child 193; Income 42; Influence, Character and Education 41; Silent 189; Speech by 25; Talk with 1, 51, 59; Thieving 320; Thrifty 62; Wandering 315 Priggishness 362 Primitive belief, 323-4 (2) Prisoners 307 Prize tax 21 Problems 95, 104 Prodigal 60 Production 26, 369, 414 Professors 42 Progress 63, 235, 279; Delayed by lack of money 97; Erroneous conception of 370; by means of horses 339 "Proof not argument" 343 Prospects 119 "Prosperity and welfare" 187 Prostitutes, see Hokkaido, Immorality; 56, 114, 132, 190, 192, 212, 222, 235, 243, 257, 325, 330, 376 "Protection for inoffensive people" 97 Protein, vegetable, 348-9 Protestants 362 Prothero, Sir G. W. , 9 Proverbs, see Mottoes; 48, 57-8-9, 67, 109, 121, 123, 136, 141, 256-7, 307, 315, 343 Pruning 215 P. S. A. 275 Psychology of behaviour 167 Public benefit 374; Energy 371; Funds 371; Good 22, 201-3; Health, see Health, Public; Public man, Farmers' and Author's view, 9-10-11; Meetings 24, 170, 238; "Public Spirit and Public Welfare" 259; Opinion 41, 118, 135, 149, 203; Welfare 125; Work 303 Pumping, see Water-wheels, 64 Pumpkins 272 Punishment 112, 178 Puppies 345 "Purified in heart" 141; Purification 134; Puritans 95; Purity 151 "Push, push, push, " 115 "Q" 203 Quaker 3, 6, 203 Quarrelling, see also Family discords; 54, 322 Queen Victoria 282 Querns 235 Questions 243, 303; difficulty of, 101; Questioning, lack of power of, 101 Rabbits 179 Race, Factories' effect on, 168-70; Method of gaining knowledge of another 200; Racial feeling 364 "Rael Christians" 63 Rafts 128 Railway 131-2, 144, 176, 182, 208-9, 217, 243, 250, 251, 395 Rain 74, 137, 190, 285, 312, 345, 390-1 (3); Rain making 123, 137-8; Ducked figure 123 Rake's progress 317 Ram 343 Rammer 224 Ranks 251, 254 Rape seed 131, 381 (2), 409 Rapids 128; Rapid work 317 Rats 150, 185; Rat day 126 Ravine 152 Reading 279, 319 Reality 219 "Realm, Wounds of the, " 309 Reclaimed land, see Land, new Recreation and Immorality 149 Red Cross 124, 245 "Red worm" 282 Reed-covered buildings 84 "Reflecting and Examining" 135 Reformers and Bible 95 Reformer "St. Francis" 321 "Regent" 38 Reid, Sir G. , 9 Reincarnation 344 Relief, see Kō, Poor, _Tanomoshi_; 189, 241, 258, 264, 311 Religion, see Hokkaido; 27, 63, 108, 120, 135, 140-1, 149, 179, 180, 200, 202, 203, 212, 258-9, 261, 302, 310, 323, 326, 327, 331, 362; and Agriculture 231; as Custom 327; "the Depths of the People" 93; Religious idea, the deepest 100; and Morality 259; Naturalness 99; New 212, 219; Primitive 323-4; Protecting Science 82; Reconciliation of 100; Revival 324; and Science 201; Not limited to Sects or Ideas 101; Substitutes for 63; and Taxation 212; Advantage of Variety 327; Western "too high" 259 Remarriage 197 Rembrandt 103, 105 Remoteness 127-8, 249 Rents, see Rice, Paddy; 23, 28-9, 38, 42, 73, 78, 86, 144, 186-7, 301-2 Reprimand, see Admonition, 187 Research work 158 Reservists 123, 133, 215 Residents abroad 410 Resolutions, see Good resolutions Respect 37, 40, 324 "Responsibility for one's words" 240, 259 "Best after a meal, " etc. 315 Restoration 395 Retainer 198 Reunion 313 Reverence 141, 273 "Revolution, Song of, " 171 Rewards 213 "_Ri_ away" 58 Rice, see Adjustment, Agriculture, Aqueduct, Barley, Hokkaido, Implements under their different names, Irrigation, Millet, Normal yield, Paddies, _Ta_, Tunnels, Water; 123, 127, 264, 268-9, 271, 321, 349, 389; Aeration of soil 20; America 365-6; Areas 132, 182, 193, 382-3 (2), 409; Agriculture based on 343; Air of rice fields 300; Altitude 123; "All members of family smiling" 137; Appearance 146, 298; Adjustment, see Adjustment, story 51; Compared with Barley and Wheat 70, 413; Barley substituted for 80, 85; Beauty of 76; _Beri beri_ 79; Bowl 80-1; Cakes 80; California 365-6; Ceremonies 50, 82; Certificates 185; Climate 197, 391; Collecting 229; Consumption 81, 86, 127, 351, 366, 387; Cooking 351; Crop 68, 70, 193, 209, 364-5, 387-8, 410; Cost of production 383; Cultivation 18, 19, 20; Daimyo's test 79; Dealers 78, 186; Deficit 388; Disease 207, 238; Distance apart 130; Dog's food 345; Drying 77, 120, 207-8; "Ears bend as ripen" 137; more Eaten 85; Emigration and 363; Etiquette, 81; Engineering 52; Everywhere paddies 121; Exports 86, 388; Flavour, see Saigon, Rangoon, California, 366, 382, 389; Flowering 196, 391; Foreign 81; Gemmai 79; "Girl to boil" 351; Goddess 312; Glutinous 69, 382-3; _Gohei_ 185; _Gohan_ 79; Government action 48, 86, 390; Granary, see Government action; _Hakumai_ 79; Hand mills 78; "Hanging ears" 76; _Hantsukimai_ 79; Harvest 76, 77, 86, 386; Heavy cropping power 70; Heroic peasants 51; Husking 77, 382-3; Imports 86, 136, 351, 388; Indigestion 81; Insects 74, 201, 250; Italy 365-6; Japanese v. Foreign production 366; Kew plants 70; Day's labour to produce 1 _chō_ 385; Land available 368; "Last straw" 77; League for Preventing Sales at a Sacrifice 384; Licences 185; Locusts 20; _Mangoku Doshi_ 78; Manure, see Manure, 20; Market 186; Mat for workers 125; _Momi_ 79; Names, see Varieties, 79, 387; and Oatmeal 81-2; Ordinary 382-3; "Paddy" 69; Opening a new Paddy 24; Phial of old 40; Polishing 78-9 (2), 186; Porters 186; Prefectures where most is grown 68; Prices 85 (2) -6 (2) -7, 351, 383-4, 389, 390; Profitable 358; Production 351, and population increased 84; Prizes at shows 9; Qualities, see Varieties, 185; Rangoon 388; Red 56; Rent rice, Inferiority of, see Rent, 23; Reservoirs 210; Respect for 185; Right crop for Japan? 413; Riots 87; Rotting 76; Saigon 366, 388; Salt water, Testing with, 30; School fees 239; Seasons 69; Seed 177, 208, 387; at Shrine 116 (2), 118; Soaking pond 74; Soft for Invalids 81; Song 83; Sowing 386, Direct 387; State 84; Statistics, see Appendix, 84, 86; Storehouses 48, 86, 185; at Table 80, 91; Tastiness 81; for Temple 220; Terraces 149; Texas 365-6; Threshing 77-8, 241; Tickets 185; Transplanting 20, 386-7; Tub 81; Two hundred and tenth day 76; Uncleaned 382-3; Unpolished 78; Upland 69 (2), 73, 383; U. S. Area and crop 366; Varieties, see Qualities, 69, 132; Weeding 20, 75; Weight of Bale 302; Wet 76, 77; Rice v. Wheat 351; Wind 20, 76, 219, 220, 259; Winnowing 78, 207; Yahagi, Dr. , 366; Yields 69, 175, 382-3; Compared with Increase of Population 389 "Rich are not so rich" 127; "Rich cannot remain rich" 67; Riches 58; "Richer after the fire" 59 Richo 106 Rickets 268 Riding, see Hokkaido; 194 Rifles 151, 282 _Rin_ 191, 211, 271 Ring 128 Riots 87 Rise in prices, see Prices Rivers, see Hokkaido; 72, 93, 262, 390; Beds, see Floods, 111 R. L. S. 189 Roads 122, 128, 130, 194, 219, 224, 240, 246, 287; Mending free, 219, for Rates, 245 Robbers 195, 225, 277 Robes 2, 270; of Honour 187 Rodin, 103 _Roka_ 375 Roman Catholics 141, 362; Rome 198 _Ronin_, Forty-seven, 333 _Ron yori shoko_ 343 Roof makers 268; Roofs 153 "Room of Patience" 179 Roosevelt 159 Rope, see Straw, 215; Making 177; Straw (Shinto) 223 Rose 213, 290; Rate of growth 242 Rosebery, Lord, 9 Rotation 309 Rothamsted 370 Route plans 18 Rubbish, Production of, 369 _Ruddigore_ 274 Running about 34 Rural, and urban population compared, 364, 412; "Bondage" 331; Districts' relation to national welfare 369, 370-1; Exodus 284; Life, Most difficult question in Japan, 303; Exhibition 60; Aim of Progress 27; Rake's progress 60; Sociology iv, ix, 85, 192 Rush, see _I_, 410 Russia, see Hokkaido; 194, 328; Cruiser 248; Novelists 99; Prisoners 307; War 85, 187, 286, 311; Writers 327 Rye 381 (2) Sacred boat 257; Grove 146; Sacredness of work 94 Sacrifice 101; for father, husband, children, 102 Sacrilege 134 Saddles 269 Sages 108 Saghalien 290, 336, 390-1 Saigon, see Rice Sailing craft 208-9; Ships 235 Sailors 211 Sails, Western for Japanese, 208 St. Francis 106, 321-2 Saints 107 Saitama 107, 146, 309, 313 _Sakaki_ 137 Saké, see Drunkenness; 18, 46, 57, 79, 116 (2), 118-9, 136, 180, 184, 213, 215, 254-5, 267, 271, 303, 305, 313, 349 (2), 380, 396 Salads dangerous 350 Sale, C. V. , xii, 364 Salt 36, 251, 268, 349 Salvation Army, see Hokkaido Samurai 25, 53, 92, 141, 238, 243, 319, 395; Scholar's kakemono 150 Sanitary Committee 123 Sanitation, Western 375 _Sanka_ 110 Sappy growth 368 Sato, Dr. , see Hokkaido; 386 Savages 141 Savings 302; Bank book 126; Collected 230 Saxby 167 Sayings, see Proverbs Scale 289 Scandinavia 413 Scapegoat 212 Scarecrows 198 Scenery 119, 152; Characteristic 244 Schools, see Children, Teachers, Schoolmasters; 15, 41, 113, 144, 212; Agricultural 50, 375; Influence of 57; Attendance 112, 123, 264; Barefoot drill 64; Boys 38; Boys' badges 221; Buildings 112-3; Care of 112; Children (Heights, weights and physique) 404; Cleaned by children 112; Compulsory attendance 113; Co-operative 30; Counsels 112, 124; Early age of attendance 301; Ethics 361; Farm 127, 177; Fees 239, 264, 314; For girls' 47; Girls' badge 285; Influence of 118; Masters, see Teachers, 20, 57, 61, 118, 140; Maps 127; Military relics 286; Morality 149; Mottoes 112, 124; Order 127; Poor 325; Portraits 124; Pride in 112; Punishments 112, 178; Rainy days 185; in temple 137; Truants 285; Shrines 113; Salutes 286; Spartan conditions 50, 307; Swedish drill 64; Training 169; Tree planting 121; Vacation for helping with crops 127; Winter arrangements 127 Science 369; and Religion 82, 201; and Farmers 158; Scientific truth 206; Scientists 100 Scolding 149 Scotland 290, 358 Scott San no Okusan (Mrs. Scott) v Screen over streets 209 Sculpture 102 Scythe 196, 367, 385 Sea 108, 332; Beach sleeping 312; Deities and 257; Gains from 207; Weed 43, 128, 349 Seals 25 Seats 124 Secondary Industries 23, 65, 195, 232, 251, 279, 310, 379, 385 Secret Ploughing Society 311 Sects, see under names of; 149, 212 Seeds, Better, 85, 370; "Seed" (silkworm eggs), see Sericulture Seiho, Takeuchi 344 _Sei-kō U-doku_ 310 _Seishu_ 396 Self affirmation 101; Command 280; Control 16, 151, 157, 193; Denial 101; Discipline 301; Government 236; Realisation 101, 124, 125; Respect 16, 369; Self supporting but underfed 261 _Self Help_, see Hokkaido; 60, 288 _Semi_ 344 Semi-official 276 _Sencha_ 294, 403 Sendai 118, 198, 268 Seniors and juniors 216 _Sensei_ 12, 202, 300 Sentiment 182, 203; Latent 324 _Seppuku_ 54-5, 333 Sericulture, see Factories (Silk), Industry, Silk (below); 140, 237, 264-5; Advantage to Farmers 85; Aptitude 153; Beef tea 158; Books for young men 22; Ceremonies 50; Cocoons 87, 150, 160, 404, (Co-operation 22, Killing 22, 159, Production and price 397, Retardation and Stimulation 397, Shape 155, Stores 147, Where most are produced 153;) Co-operation 160; Disease 157-8; Eggs 150, 153-4, 156-7, 160; Feeding 153; Girl Collectors 161; Hatching 154, 397-8; Hard work 153; How sericulture districts are distinguishable 153; Instruction, capacity for, 158; Japan's advantages and disadvantages 397; Licences 157; Losses 155; Mating 155-6; Microscopic examination 157; Moths 155-6-7; Mulberry 157, 397-8; Nagano 161; New thing 158; Prices 157; Purification 158; Pupæ 158; Rearing 154; Risks 157; Season 397; "Seed, " see Eggs; Prospects of, 160; Quick profits 149; Silkworms, 22, 89, 158, 278; Science 157-8; Soap 158; Students 158; Temperature 153; Wind holes 397; Yamanashi 161. --Silk 158, 160; Artificial 160; Clothing 346, 356; Consumption 398; Export 398; Government 398; Institutes 150; Japanese export compared with other countries 153, 396; Machinery 159; Prefectures in which grown 146; Production 398; Rise in prices 87; Testing 159; U. S. A. 398; World market 65 Sermons, see Preaching, 58 Servants 280, 374 Service 319; by hosts 31 Sesame 220 Sewing 127 Sex 101, 189, 274, 282 Sexes, see Bath, Bathing; 269, 315; Balance of 169; Curiosity 101; Kept apart 313; Ill-doing little concealed 101; Numbers of 74; Relations of 322; Relations, no liberty in, 102; Sex life and Japanese cults 97 Shakespearean scenes 31, 276 Shanghai 133 Sheep, see Hokkaido; 240, 343, 347, 352-3-4, 406; Bureau 352; Day 126; Milk 347 Shelley 99 _Shi_ xxvi Shidzuoka 25, 63, 210, 283, 292, 396 Shiga, Professor, 410 Shikoku 207, 358, 379, 390, 391-2, 402 Shimane 222, 243, 253 Shimoneseki 237 _Shin heimin_ 400 Shingon 134, 211, 220, 269 _Shinjū_ 102 Shinshu 2, 3, 134, 197, 222, 240 Shinto 12, 19, 83, 96, 205 (2), 322, 326; Architecture 251; Ceremonies 45, 79, 82, 117, 275; Deities 244; Festival 192, 221; Shintoists 91; Priests 82-3, 113, 118, 134, 194. 258, 266, 271, 302-3; Sects 134; Shelf, value of, 273; Shrines x, 16, 18, 22, 29, 45, 57, 75, 82, 94, 116, 123, 126, 130, 144 (2), 147, 186, 205, 220, 244, 251, 259, 263, 264, 266 (3), 269, 271, 299, 300: "The centre of the village" 259; Closing of 133-4; Produce at 177; Seed from 59 Shipping, Foreign, 256 Shirakaba 102 Shirakawa 175 Shrine, see Buddhist shrine, Shinto Shrine; 120 (8), 127, 138, 206, 211, 219, 236, 237, 245, 256, 324, 326; Advertisement of 287; and gasometer 286; and immorality 257, 307, 325-6; Bowls at, 203; Communal 315; Family 38-40; Mothers before 142, 287, 325 _Shōchū_ 396 Shoes, see Boots, 236, 283-4, 45 _Shogun_ 144, 150, 220, 333, 335 _Shōji_, see Hokkaido for Windows; 36, 248, 257, 277, 286 Shonai 182 Shooting 215 Shopkeepers 189, 213; Diligent 17; With land 267 Shorts, Bathing, 312 Shows, see Rural Life Exhibition; 9, 23, 58, 60, 103, 116, 258 _Shōyū_, see Soy _Shu_ 334 Shuku 222 Siam 127, 388 Siberia 388, 390, 410 Sick relief 185 Sickles, see Paddies; 196, 227, 363, 385 Sieve 216 "Sight of a good man enough" 24 Signs, Shop, 245 "Silent Trade" 122 Silver 124, 396 Silver Birch Society 102 _Si monumentum_ 31 Simplicity 50, 186; of living 38; in Old Japan 240, 243 Sincerity 20, 21, 124, 181; "On the edge of the mattock" 136 "Sinful man, I am, " 26 Singapore 57 Singing 17, 308 Sirens, guns and gods, 237 Sitting 124 Skating 152 Ski-ing 140 Skill 317; "Skill in manufacture" 356 "Slave system" 287; "Slaves of their husbands" 143 Sledge 183; on beach 312 Sleep 25 "Sly" 283 Smallholders' incomes 184; Smallholdings, see Farmer; and country 368; Condition of success 89; in Great Britain 368 Smells, see Manure; "They smell" 142 Smiling 288, 321 Smoking 137, 142, 258, 288 Smollett 80, 144 Snail 107 Snakes 287; Day 126 Snapping turtle 136 Snow, see Hokkaido; 120, 123, 132, 140, 182, 278, 391; Shelters 140, 176, 190 Snowdon 394 Soap 158 Social Conditions 88; Development 206, 365; Ideals 361; Intercourse 374, 378; Obligation exploited 369; Reform and Christianity 362; Question, see Hokkaido, 104; Status, changes in, 62, 376 Socialism 171, 328; League 171 Society 101, 182; Restrictions 102; Societies 214, 312; "For Aiming at being Distinguished" 124; "for Developing Knowledge" 124; "for Knowledge and Virtue" 124; for Rice cultivation by Schoolboys 19; for Visiting other Prefectures 189; of householders 214; of primary school graduates 124; to reward virtue 214; to console old people 214 Sociologist, A joy to 72; Rural 85 Socrates 203 Soda water 130_Sō desuka?_ 193 Soil 307; and farmers' character 25; Barren 195; Dark 309; Improvement of 298; Volcanic 309, 313-4 Sojo, Toba 344 Soldiers, see Conscripts; 18, 58, 187; farms 311 "Something that doth linger" 145 Son, see Eldest brother; Eldest, 329; and father 205 (2); Son's death 273; "Son tiller" 37 _Son_, xxvi, _-chō_ 140Song 224, 313; of insects 344; of Revolution 171; of rice planters 83; Western 288 Sorrow 273 Sosen 344 Soul 321 Soups 110 South America 176, 249, 352, 410; South Seas 223 Southend 329 _Soy_ 213, 349, 350, 381 (2), 383; Soya bean 146, 295, 409, 411 Spade, see Paddies; 385; Farming 362 Spanish 346; Spaniards 208 Sparrows 107, 199 Speaking 24, 238; Way of, to peasants, 94 Special tribes 221, 241, 248Speculation 2; Speculator and shrine 325 Speech, see Author, Lectures, Speaking; 26, 238, 279; Unnecessary 26 Spelling, English, 301 Spiders' big webs 248 Spirea 122 Spirit 50, 61, 67, 100; Spirits 130; Spirit meeting 36; of Japan 323; Spiritual betterment 95; Dryness 27; Spirituality 203, 206, 322-3, 361; Why slackened 100 Spitting pot 58, 183 Spontaneity 99 Spraying 290 Spring 214 Squashes 146, 347 Squid, see Cuttlefish, Octopus; 46, 228 Stage, movable, 115; Women on, 255 Standard of living, see Living standard; 365, 378-9, 380-1-2; and Emigration 363 "Standing on householder's head" 242 "Standing Peasant" 137 Stanhope, Lady Hester, 170 Starr, Dr. , 326 State Colonisation 312; Statesmen and Industrialism 369 Statistics, see Appendix; 62, 297; and Feeling 1; Mistakes in 404 Statues 45, 222 Stealing, see Thefts, Crime; Boys, 287 Steel 396 Steps 211 Sterilisation 159, 348 Steward's broom, 135 Still births 114, 393 Stockades 132 Stock-keeping, see Hokkaido, 133 Stomach-ache 350 (2), 351 Stones, cutters, 267; Memorial 133; Pile of 110 Storehouses 48, 86 Storeys 153 Storms 316, 391 Stoves 358 Strachey, J. St. Loe 9 Strategic zone 237 Straw, see Hats, Cloaks, Mantles; 73, 208, 367; Rope 65; Sleeping in 184; Wrappings for trees 215 Stream, Cleaning, 186 Streamers 136 Streets, Narrow, 209, 235 Strindberg 99 Stroking 142 Students 150, 152, 159, 195, 220, 300; Abroad 291, 402; Character 50; Grants to, 403; Guild 50; Holidays 137; Promises to one another 8; Sympathetic attitude 254 Sty 27 Subscriptions 281, 314 (2), 315 Subservience 231 Sugar 46, 210, 349 (2), 354, 409 Suicide 55; for love 102 Sulphate of ammonia 386; Sulphur 109; Sulphuric acid water 177 Summer 390 _Sumo_, see Wrestlers Sun, 126 (2), 372; God worship 323; Waiting for the, 323; Sunshine 76-7, 304; "and rice may be found, " etc. , 109; Sunday 126, 159 Sung 105 Superior person 254 Superphosphate 386 Superstition 41, 148 (3), 206, 208, 326 "Surface beautiful" 327 Suspension bridges 126 Suwas 151; Suwa Lake 152 Swallows 94, 223 Swamps 199 Swearing 48 Sweat and be saved 169 Swedenborg 99 Sweeping earth 31, 227; Symbolical 135 Sweethearts 302 Sweets 17, 19, 267, 346, 383; Shop girls 17 Swine, see PigsSwiss 290; Switzerland 368 Swords 36 Symbolism, Foreign, 127 Sympathy 272-3 Synge, J. M. , 99, 282 Syphilis, see Gonorrhœa, 126, 211, 326 System 328 _Ta_ 68 _Tabi_ 312, 317 Table, One long, 95 Tablets 314 (3) Tabu 117, 235-6, 258 Tacitus 357 Tagore 99 _Tai_ 297 Taiko, 66 _Taisho_ 39 Taiwan, see Formosa Tajima 402 Takamatsu 209 Takaoka, Professor, 381Talking foolishly 197; "Talking with my wife" 61; Talk 201 Taming 248 _Tan_, see Agriculture Tang 105 Tangerines 289 _Tanomoshi_ 62, 182, 185 Taoist 106 _Taro_ 48, 220, 258, 309, 409 Task, Summons from common, 310 _Tatami_, see Mats; 50, 142, 198, 345 Taxation 46, 65, 73, 85, 124, 176, 180, 284, 302, 307, 380, 389, 395, 404; Voluntary 21; Freedom from 43; and Religion 212; Largest taxpayer 216 Tea 42, 110, 123, 146, 199, 287, 298, 307, 349, 409; and cake 258; Experiment stations 295; Export 403; Growing and making 292; Prefectures 283, 403; Tea Ceremony, see _Cha-no-yu_; Houses 2, 19, 57, 130 (2), 149, 264, 277, 303, 325 Teachers, see Schools, Schoolmasters; 27, 112, 282, 308, 321, 399, 412 Technology xiii, 28 Teeth 143, 321 Teetotalism 255 _Teikoku Nōkai_ 320 Telegraph wire 223 Temper, Better without meat, 268 Temperance, see Teetotalism Temperature, see Heat; 195, 390-1 Temples, see Buddhist temples, Buddhism; 20, 31, 37, 45, 57-8 (2), 62, 149, 183, 196, 206, 210, 220, 263-4, 369; Bell 331; Dues 139, 380; Government attitude, 41; New, 41; Priest's house in 4; Services 3; Schools 137; "Temples, Shrines and English church" 100 Ten years hence, see Time; 100, 324, 357 Tenants, see Agriculture, Hokkaido, Farmers, Landlords; 37, 42, 152 (2), 189, 194-5, 213, 223, 258, 261, 263, 265, 283, 301-2, 364, 376, 411; as "Labourers" 88, 395; Condition of 207, 304-5, 379, 380 (3)-1; Contract 405; Common interests with landlord 229-30; Eating cattle food 379; Gifts to landlord 31; Movement against landlords, see Tenants' movement (Landlords); Rewarded 33, 187; Sly 28; Transference to Peasant Proprietorship 29-30 (2), 31 Tendai 220 Tenison xiv Tennis 159 _Tera_ 134 Terauchi 390 Terence 107 Terracing 149, 227 Texas 365-6 Thanks not to be accepted 26 Thatch 153, 281, 286 Theatre 115, 266, 305; and Police 53; Moving 115; Stamp on hands 115 Theft, see Crime; 113, 139, 195, 280 (2) Theine 292, 403 Theology 362; Natural 141 Thermometer 137 "They feel the mercy of the sun" 321 "Thirteen a perilous age" 130 Thistles 307 Thompson, Francis, 99 "Those who suffer learn, " etc. , 253 "Thou also dwellest, " 106 "Though hands and feet, " etc. , 324 Thought changes really slow 331 Threshing 208, 367; Machinery, 78 Threshold 242 Thrift 11, 12, 13, 30-1, 48, 50, 60-1, 124, 187 Thunderbolts 131 Thyme 290 Tidal waves 62, 93 Tidiness 19 Tiger-day 126 Tiles 153, 245 Timber 111, 122, 128, 194, 227 Time, see Ten years hence; 252, 292 Tintoretto 103 "Tipped with fire" 27 Tipping 145, 148 Toast 80 Tobacco 177, 267, 349, 379, 380, 400 Tochigi 107, 309 Toes 317 _Tōfu_ 81, 311, 349, 350 _Tokobashira_, see Tree in room _Tokonoma_ 32, 319 Tokugawa Iyesato, Prince, x; Tokugawa period 8, 285, 363 _Tokushu buraku_ 400 Tokushima 207, 209 Tokyo xxvi, 26, 38, 55, 66, 71-2, 102, 107, 144, 182, 227, 249, 260, 286, 289, 292, 299, 309, 313, 318, 322, 331, 334, 349, 387, 391 (2); Population 392; University 145 Tolstoy, see Hokkaido; 25, 27, 94, 200, 321, 327 Tombstones 72 "Too near to criticise" 331; "Too poetical" 254 Tools, see Paddies, Implememts; 174, 222, 301, 317 Top, Movement from, 30, 204 _Torii_ 236, 251, 325 Torrens 170 Tottori 253, 255, 402 Tourist steamers 237 Towels 16, 31, 148, 183, 286, 295 Town life, True character of, 180; Townsman envied 180; Townsman v. Countryman 233 Toyama 132, 138 _Toyo-ashiwara_, etc. , 68 _Trachoma_ 183, 405 Trade Unions, see Labour; U. S. And 170; Tradesmen 189; Tradesmen's boys 315 Tradition, Family, 149 Traherne, 99 Training, Home, 149 Tramps 315, 376 _Transactions of Society of Arts_, see Asiatic; 364 Translations 401 Travel, see Trips; 216, 269; Counsel 110; Old time 246; Postgraduate 29 Trees, see Varieties of, under names, 62, 147, 227, 316; Cutting down 13; Dwarfed 52; Homesteads studded 146, 307; in the house 319; Moving 210; Mushrooms 110; Planting, see Afforestation, 45, 67, 121, 240; in Room 319; Symbolical 12, 121; Pictures 215; Trimmed 77; in Winter 215 "Tremble and correct their conduct" 113 Trips 18 Troubler of Israel 90 Trousers 111, 269, 310, 312 Truth 161 Tsingtao 58 Tsushima 248, 335 Tuberculosis 398, 406 Tunnels 52, 132, 149, 152, 176, 190, 197 Tumours 268 Turnips 410 Twelve hours' day, U. S. And, 170 Types (Racial) 204 Typhoons 93 Tytler 207 Uchimura, Kanz=o, see also Hokkaido; 90-7, 99, 101, 141, 326-7, 362 Ueda Sericulture College 158-9 Umbrellas 198, 250, 285 Unclean 208 Undercooking 350 Underfeeding 350 Understanding, see West and East Uninhabitable, see also Area habitable; 394; compared with Great Britain 394 United States 328, 388; and British Interests in Far East xv; and Japan xv; Government xiv; and twelve hours' day 170; Steel Corporation 170 Universe 7, 321 Universities 300, 403 Unmarried 393 Unworldliness 28Upland, see also Rice; 372; _Hata_ 68; Area 385; Area ploughed by cattle 385; Profit of 194; Value of 402 Upper class reformers 30 Usury 38, 56, 176, 184, 185 _Uta_ 324 Utilisation of waste, see Waste; 48 Vacation, see Schools _Valerius_ 45 Valleys 372 Van Eyck 103 Van Gogh 103 Vaughan 99 Veal 349 Vegetable protein 348-9 Vegetables 18, 85, 307, 349 (2), 389; at Shrine 16, 83; Salted 196 Vegetarianism 57, 59, 130, 147, 270, 321, 348 Venus 214 Vetch 263 Veterinary surgeon 268 Views 119 Village activities 250; Association for promoting morality 20; Callings 189; Cleaning stream 186; Conditions 322; Discords 305; Founders 265; Funds 124, 279; Histories 57; Ideal 104; Improvement of 28; Library 59; Mobilisation 241; Meetings 20, 278; Model 259, 380; Number of Houses in 262; Office 314; Praised and rewarded 41; Reformed 47; Return to 88; Revenue 124; Signs of being well off 263-4; Signs of good 259; Tax free 21; Troubles 278; Unified by removal of graves 72; Wanted one good personality in 259; Villagers, not educated enough to understand, 26, 341; Savings 230; Taxes in work 245; Worthy 22 Village Agricultural Association 22-3, 30, 215, 250, 303, 380 Village assembly 123, 133, 215Villages, see Famine, Revenue, Sanitary Committee, Societies, Taxation; xxvi, 16, 18, 43, 134 Vine branches 209 Virtue, see Morality; 140; Supreme 120; Taught by hands 50 Vladivostok 214 Voelcker, Dr. , 370 "Voice of one, " etc. , 136Volcanic ash 70; Eruption grants 312; Soil 309, 313 Volcanoes, see Earthquakes, Hokkaido; 108, 131, 143, 316, 390, 394 Voters, see Franchise; 124, 400 Votive pillars 211; clock 252 Vow 255 Vulgar words 18 Waist string 307 Waitresses 212, 315, 322, 376; and Foreigners 101 Waley, A. , 320 "Walking out" 313, 315 Wall builders 267; Wall charts 124 Wallace, Robert, viii Wallas, Graham, 86 War 203, 311, 354, 414; and this book xxv, 87-8; Bonds 187; China 85; Counsels 187; Great War x, 206; Russia, see Russia, 21, 85, 91 _Waraji_ 15, 129, 209, 272, 279, 326 Washing 45, 317, 354; Washouts 182 Waste 70, 324, 385; of time xi; Planting of, see Afforestation; Utilisation of 48, 178 Wastrels, see Hokkaido _Watakushi_ 301 Watchword 259 Water 64, 126, 132-3, 262, 298-9, 390; Colours 286; Dangerous 108, 350; "Water drinker" 258; Hot piped 248; Pollution 350; On roof 177; Wheels 216, 263; Splashing quarrels 48; Works 52 Wax and trees 219, 400, 410 Weather, see Climate; 86, 136, 391 Weddings, see Marriages; 66, 265, 302, 332, 379; Tax 21 Weeds, see Paddies; 228, 263, 307, 314, 366, 385; "Weeding in happiness" 137 Week 126 "Weep not, " etc. , 224; Weeping 25 Weights 350, 404; Lifting 16; and Measures xxv Welcome tea 148 Well off 204, 264 (2), 370 Wells 27, 207 Wells, H. G. , viii West and East, Elemental things 6; Glamour 369; Importance of problem vii; Real barrier xiiWestern art 102; Costumes 101; Dancing 101; Civilisation 186; Eroticism 101; Ideas 201; Influence 174, 330, 369; Literature 102; Music 102; Painting 102; Philosophy 102; Sculpture 102; Thought 55 Wet, see Climate "What a happy life" 183 Wheat 307, 351 (2), 381 (2), 391, 409-10; Compared with Rice 351, 383; Imports 383 Whitman, Walt, 99 (2), 105 "Why do you wear, " etc. , 288; "Why fasten your horse, " etc. , 288 Widows 111, 197 Wild people 110 _Wilkstroemia Sikokiana_, see Gampi Will 19, 314 Windbreaks 248; Mills 152, 251; and Taxes 259 Windows 358 Winnowing 215, 220 Winter 278, 282, 390, 413; Crop 384-5-6 Wisdom or Riches 61 Wit 191 Wives, see Marriage, Wedding; 143; "Please teach her" 6 Women, see Farmers' wives, Nurses, Paddies, Porters, Teachers, Wives; 34, 205, 212; Barbers 224; British Exploitation of 170; Carriage of 268; Children on back 97; Women's Chivalrous Society 312; Clothing 125; Cooking 136; Crime against 114, 229; on dam and dyke 43, 224; Diseases 268; Exploitation of 173; Fisher women 235; Individualism 102; Influence of Christianity 94 (2), 95; Kindness 31; Labourers 323; Women's Movement 290; and Men 102, 169, 290; New openings for 255; Number of Workers 168-9, 399; One Heart Society 312; Overworked 114; Press 181; Praying 243; and Priest 4; Priest 120; Primitive conditions 216, 247; Obstacles to Agricultural progress 232; Public life 300; Same implements as husband 97; Savings not used by men 126; Story of old woman 323; Religious Association 58; Self-suppression 290; Strength 269; Suffering 181, 290; Trousers, see Trousers, 111; compared with Western 290; Western costumes 101; Wives, see Wives, 293; Work 278 Wood 110, 126, 196, 372; Cutters 267; Divided up, Result, 306; and Grain crops 309; Preservation 227; Quantity needed 111; Utensils 121; Wealth of 122; Workers 121; White (Shinto) 46, 83 Wool 133, 346, 352-3-4-5-6-7; v. Cotton and Silk 356; Woollen factories compared with English 354-7; Industry 354-5-6-7, 407 Woolman, John, vi Work, for common good 19; to Gain influence 321; Good 317; Hard 125, 284; "Make the young fellows" 259; Sacredness of 94; Workers 218, City 87-8; Workmen good 317 World, Attitude, 371; Better world 90, 202 Worship 141, 244, 271, 324, 326 "Would that my daughter, " etc. 183 "Wounds of the realm" 309 Wren 31 Wrens 287 Wrestlers 16, 28, 108, 179, 196, 249, 276, 316, 404 Wrist development 16 Writing 17, 288, 311; "Penmanship is like, " etc. , 288 Yahagi, Dr. , 366 Yam 258 Yamagata 175, 176, 182, 189, 193, 302, 380 Yamaguchi 235, 237 Yamanashi 146 Yamasaki, N. , 11, 17, 25, 37, 47, 51, 54, 63, 375 _Yamato damashii_ ix, 140 Yamato Society 413 Yanagi, M. , 98-106, 326-7; Mrs. 99 Yangtse 390 _Yashiki_ (mansion) 369 _Yashiro_ 134 Yeats, W. B. , 99 Yeddo, see Tokyo, Yezo; 144, 335 Yields, see Agriculture, Crops and names of Y. M. A. 7, 15 _et seq. _, 22, 23, 28, 46, 120 (2), 124, 126, 128, 178, 194, 197, 212, 215, 223, 239, 265, 286; Criticism of 259, 277 (2), 282, 303; Official action 240; Y. M. C. A. 15; Y. W. A. 19; Y. W. C. A. 15 _Yo_ 126 _Yofuku_, see Foreign clothes Yokohama 182, 392 Yokoi, Dr. , 362 _Yoroshii_ 280 Yoshida, S. , 332 Yosōgi 66 Young, Arthur, ix Young men 135, 181; and Women, see Sexes, 313; with a mission 324 _Yukata_ 108, 356 _Zabuton_ 34, 143, 246, 258 Zeeland 197 _Zen_ 11, 100, 130, 134, 144, 186, 193, 245, 313 Zig-zag tracks 140 _Zori_ 65, 236 Zorn 327 [Compiler's Notes The following typographical errors or inconsistencies were corrected:Page xv (Introduction), 315: The name Kanzō Uchimura did not have amacron over the o, but it did in the index and two other locationsin the text, and it was confirmed from another source, so the macronswere edited in. Page xv (Introduction): The term 'kōri' (division of a prefecture)did not have the macron, but it did in the index; also confirmedfrom another source, so put the macron character in. In four places, the term 'gunchō' (head of a county) did nothave a macron over the o, but in five other places, it did, so I have edited the word on pages 51, 52, and 56, and in the index. Page 55: Changed 'familar' to 'familiar'. Page 125: The term 'jizō' did not have a macron over the o, but it did in another location and in the index, so I edited it. Page 226: Changed 'instal' to 'install'. Page 315: The term 'kakkō' (cuckoo) did not have a macron over the o, but it did in the index, and I determined from anothersource that it should have the macron, so I edited it. Index: various hyphenated words did not have hyphens in the indexentries, edited in the hyphens. Index: Entry for 'Cimabue' should not have accented e (confirmedfrom another source) so corrected it. Index: Entry for 'furoshiki' had two i's at the end; confirmed withanother source it should only have one i at the end; corrected. Index: Entry for 'genshitsu' was mis-spelled, confirmed from anothersource, corrected. Index: Entry for phrase 'Getsu-yo-bi' was mis-spelled, obvious fromthe text in the book, so corrected. Index: phrase 'Okunitama-no-miko-no-kami mis-spelled, corrected. 'Index: entry for phrase 'Sei-kō U-doku' did not have a macron but inthe book it did, so edited the index entry. Index: entry for phrase 'Tokushu buraku' was mis-spelled, confirmedfrom another source, corrected. Index: entry for word 'yofuku' had macron over the o here, but notanywhere in the book, so it was made consistent by using a normal o. Index: The name 'Yosōgi' had the macron over the first o instead ofthe second one, inconsistent with the other index listing and thechapter text, so the index entry was corrected. The Chapter titledoes not use a macron at all, and has been left as printed. Index: Entry for 'Yukata' should not have a macron on the u - verifiedthis from another source, made correction. ]