Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: theyare listed at the end of the text. Original page numbers are shown as {99}. 

THE

FAITH OF ISLAM:

BY

THE REV. EDWARD SELL, FELLOW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS. 

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TRÜBNER & CO. , LONDON. ADDISON & CO. , MADRAS. 1880. 

_All rights reserved. _

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MADRAS:PRINTED BY ADDISON AND CO. , MOUNT ROAD. 

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PREFACE. 

The following pages embody a study of Islám during a residence of fifteenyears in India, the greater part of which time I have been in dailyintercourse with Musalmáns. I have given in the footnotes the authoritiesfrom which I quote. I was not able to procure in Madras a copy of theArabic edition of Ibn Khaldoun's great work, but the French translation byBaron M. De Slane, to which I so frequently refer, is thoroughly reliable. The quotations from the Qurán are made from Rodwell's translation. Theoriginal has been consulted when necessary. 

A few slight and occasional errors in transliteration have occurred, suchas Sulát for Salát, Munkar for Munkir, &c. , but in no case is the meaningaffected. 

In some words, such as Khalíf, Khalífate, and Omar, I have retained theanglicised form instead of using the more correct terms, Khalífa, Khiláfat, 'Umr. The letter Q has been used to distinguish the Káf-i-Karashat from theKáf-i-Tází. 

E. S. 

 MADRAS, _December 1st, 1880. _

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CONTENTS. 

Introduction. ... PAGE ix

CHAPTER I. 

THE FOUNDATIONS OF ISLÁM. 

The Qurán--Its revelation--Miraculous nature--Arrangement of Qurán--Osmán'srecension. The Sunnat--The authority of Sunnat--Tradition--Bid'at orinnovation--Shía'h Traditions. Ijmá'--Ijtihád--Four orthodox Imáms, Hanífa, Málik, Sháfa'í and Hanbal. Qíás--Established by the earlyMujtahidín--Sterility of Islám ... PAGE 1

Note to Chapter I. Ijtihád ... PAGE 32

CHAPTER II. 

EXEGESIS OF THE QURÁN AND THE TRADITIONS. 

Inspiration--The seven readings--Work of a Commentator--Words and Sentencesof the Qurán--Use of the words--Deductions of arguments from theQurán--Divisions of the Qurán--Abrogation--Creation of the Qurán--Hadís orTradition--Collections of Traditions--Classification of Traditions ... PAGE37

CHAPTER III. 

THE SECTS OF ISLÁM. 

The Shía'hs--The Imámat--Khárigites--Núr-i-Muhammadí--Imám--Ismá, ílians andImámites--Ghair-i-Mahdís--Dá, irí--Mahmúdíah--Khalífate--Súfíism--PersianPoetry--Darwíshes--Omar Khayyám--Wahhábís--their rise--spread inIndia--doctrines and influence ... PAGE 73

Note to Chapter III. Wahhábíism ... PAGE 114

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CHAPTER IV. 

THE CREED OF ISLÁM

Imán--God--Attributes of God--Discussions on the nature of God--The rise ofthe Mutazilites--The Sifátíans--Mushábihites--Names of God--Creation of theQurán. Angels--Recording Angels--Hárút and Márút--Munkir and Nakír--Jinn. The Books--Abrogation--Tahríf. The Prophets--Rank and inspiration ofprophets--Nabí and Rasúl--Sinlessness of prophets--TheAnbiya-ulul-'Azm--Miracles of prophets--The Mi'ráj. The Resurrection andthe last day--The Trumpets--Descent of thebooks--Balances--Bridge--Al-A'ráf--Al-Barzakh--Intercession ofMuhammad--Heaven--Hell. The Predestination of good andevil--Jabríans--Qadríans--Ash'aríans--Free-will--Apostacy ... PAGE 116

Note to Chapter IV. Muslim Philosophy ... PAGE 181

CHAPTER V. 

THE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF ISLÁM. 

Farz, wájib, sunnat, mustahab and mubáh actions--Harám or unlawful acts. Tashahhud. Salát--Wazú--Ghusl--Tayammum--Namáz--Farz, sunnat, witr and naflrak'ats--Appointed hours of prayer--Friday Namáz and sermon--Namáz on ajourney and in time of war--Namáz in Ramazán, during an eclipse and in timeof drought--Funeral service--Its ritual and prayers. Fasting--Its time andnature. Zakát--Nisáb--Proportion of property to be given asalms--Recipients of the Zakát. The Hajj--Farz, sunnat, wájib and mustahabduties connected with the Hajj--Time for the Hajj--Arrival of the Hájí atMecca--Tawáf--Ceremonies of the Hajj--Conclusion of the Hajj--Formal natureof Islám ... PAGE 187

Note to Chapter V. Fatvá on the Namáz ... PAGE 233

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CHAPTER VI. 

THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLÁM. 

Muharram--'Áshúr Khána--Marsiya--Wáqi'a Khán--'Alams--Ceremonies of the'Áshúrá--Fátihas for 'Alí, for Hasan and Husain--Akhir-i-chár Shamba--BáráWafát--Jashn-i-milád-i-Sharif--Ásár-i-Sharíf--Shab Barát--Ramazán and'Íd-ul-Fitr--'Itikáf--Sadqa--Sermon on the 'Íd-ul-Fitr--Baqr-'Íd or'Íd-uz-Zuhá--Sermon on the 'Íd-uz-Zuhá--The Qurbán or Sacrifice--Festivalof Madár--Festival of Sálár Mas'úd Ghází--Festival of Khája Khizr--Feast ofPír Dastgír Sáhib--Festival of Qádir Walí Sáhib ... PAGE 237

Index of Technical Terms ... PAGE 265

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INTRODUCTION. 

It is necessary to enter into some explanation as regards the contents ofthis work. It does not fall in with its plan to enter into an accounteither of the life of Muhammad or of the wide and rapid spread of thesystem founded by him. The first has been done by able writers in England, France and Germany. I could add nothing new to this portion of the subject, nor throw new light upon it. The political growth of Muslim nations hasalso been set forth in various ways. 

It seems to me that the more important study at this time is that of thereligious system which has grown out of the Prophet's teaching, and of itseffect upon the individual and the community. What the Church in hermissionary enterprise has to deal with, what European Governments in thepolitical world have to do with is Islám as it is, and as it now influencesthose who rule and those who are ruled under it. 

I have, therefore, tried to show from authentic sources, and from apractical knowledge of it, what the Faith of Islám really is, and how itinfluences men and nations in the present day. I think that recent Fatvásdelivered by the 'Ulamá in Constantinople show how firmly a Muslim State isbound in the fetters of an unchangeable Law, whilst the present practice oforthodox Muslims all the world {x} over is a constant carrying out of theprecepts given in the Qurán and the Sunnat, and an illustration of theprinciples I have shown to belong to Islám. On this subject it is not toomuch to say that there is, except amongst Oriental scholars, muchmisconception. 

Again, much that is written on Islám is written either in ignorantprejudice, or from an ideal standpoint. To understand it aright, one shouldknow its literature and live amongst its people. I have tried faithfully toprove every statement I have made; and if, now and again, I have quotedEuropean authors, it is only by way of illustration. I rest my caseentirely upon Musalmán authorities themselves. Still more, I haveascertained from living witnesses that the principles I have tried to showas existing in Islám, are really at work now and are as potent as at anyprevious period. 

I have thus traced up from the very foundations the rise and development ofthe system, seeking wherever possible to link the past with the present. Inorder not to interfere with this unity of plan, I have had to leave manysubjects untouched, such as those connected with the civil law, withslavery, divorce, jihád or religious wars, &c. A good digest of MuhammadanLaw[1] will give all necessary information on these points. The basis ofthe Law which determines these questions is what I have described in myfirst chapter. Ijtihád, for example, rules quite as effectually in aquestion of domestic {xi} economy or political jurisprudence as on pointsof dogma. It was not, therefore, necessary for me to go into details onthese points. 

When I have drawn any conclusion from data which Muhammadan literature, andthe present practice of Muslims have afforded me, I have striven to givewhat seems to me a just and right one. Still, I gladly take thisopportunity of stating that I have found many Muslims better than theircreed, men with whom it is a pleasure to associate, and whom I respect formany virtues and esteem as friends. I judge the system, not any individualin it. 

In India, there are a number of enlightened Muhammadans, ornaments tonative society, useful servants of the State, men who show a laudable zealin all social reforms, so far as is consistent with a reputation fororthodoxy. Their number is far too few, and they do not, in many cases, represent orthodox Islám, nor do I believe their counterpart would be foundamongst the 'Ulamá of a Muslim State. The fact is that the wave ofscepticism which has passed over Europe has not left the East untouched. Hindu and Muslim alike have felt its influence, but to judge of either theone system or the other from the very liberal utterances of a few men whoexpound their views before English audiences is to yield oneself up todelusion on the subject. 

Islám in India has also felt the influence of contact with other races andcreeds, though, theologically speaking, the Imán and the Dín, the faith andthe practice, are unchanged, and remain as I have {xii} described them inchapters four and five. If Islám in India has lost some of its originalfierceness, it has also adopted many superstitious practices, such as thoseagainst which the Wahhábís protest. The great mass of the Musalmán peopleare quite as superstitious, if not more so, than their heathen neighbours. Still the manliness, the suavity of manner, the deep learning, after anoriental fashion, of many Indian Musalmáns render them a very attractivepeople. It is true there is a darker side--much bigotry, pride of race, scorn of other creeds, and, speaking generally, a tendency to inertness. Itis thus that in Bengal, Madras and perhaps in other places, they havefallen far behind the Hindus in educational status, and in the number ofappointments they hold in the Government service. Indeed, this subject is aserious one and deserves the special attention of the Indian Government. InBengal the proportion of Musalmáns to Hindus in the upper ranks of theUncovenanted Civil Service in 1871 was 77 to 341. In the year 1880 it haddeclined to 53 to 451. The state of affairs in Madras is equally bad. Yetan intelligent Muslim, as a rule, makes a good official. 

Looking at the subject from a wider stand-point, I think the Church hashardly yet realised how great a barrier this system of Islám is to heronward march in the East. Surely special men with special training arerequired for such an enterprise as that of encountering Islám in its ownstrongholds. No better pioneers of the Christian {xiii} faith could befound in the East than men won from the Crescent to the Cross. 

All who are engaged in such an enterprise will perhaps find some help inthis volume, and I am not without hope that it may also throw some light onthe political questions of the day. 

{1}

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THE FAITH OF ISLÁM. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE FOUNDATIONS OF ISLÁM. 

The creed of Islám, "Lá-iláha-il-lal-láhu wa Muhammad-ur-Rasúl-Ulláh, "(There is no deity but God, and Muhammad is the Apostle of God) is veryshort, but the system itself is a very dogmatic one. Such statements as:"The Qurán is an all-embracing and sufficient code, regulating everything, ""The Qurán contains the _entire_ code of Islám--that is, it is not a bookof religious precepts merely, but it governs all that a Muslim does, " "TheQurán contains the whole religion of Muhammad, " "The Qurán which containsthe whole Gospel of Islám" are not simply misleading, they are erroneous. So far from the Qurán alone being the _sole_ rule of faith and practice toMuslims, there is not one single sect amongst them whose faith and practiceis based on it alone. No one among them disputes its authority or casts anydoubt upon its genuineness. Its voice is supreme in all that it concerns, but its exegesis, the whole system of legal jurisprudence and oftheological science, is largely founded on the Traditions. Amongst theorthodox Musalmáns, the foundations of the Faith are four in number, theQurán, Sunnat, Ijmá' and Qíás. The fact that all the sects do not agreewith the orthodox--the Sunnís--in this matter illustrates another importantfact in Islám--the want of unity amongst its followers. {2}

1. THE QURÁN. --The question of the inspiration will be fully discussed, andan account of the laws of the exegesis of the Qurán will be given in thenext chapter. It is sufficient now to state that this book is held in thehighest veneration by Muslims of every sect. When being read it is kept ona stand elevated above the floor, and no one must read or touch it withoutfirst making a legal ablution. [2] It is not translated unless there is themost urgent necessity, and even then the Arabic text is printed with thetranslation. It is said that God chose the sacred month of Ramazán in whichto give all the revelations which in the form of books have been vouchsafedto mankind. Thus on the first night of that month the books of Abraham camedown from heaven; on the sixth the books of Moses; on the thirteenth theInjíl, or Gospel, and on the twenty-seventh the Qurán. On that night, theLaylut-ul-Qadr, or "night of power, " the whole Qurán is said to havedescended to the lowest of the seven heavens, from whence it was broughtpiecemeal to Muhammad as occasion required. [3] "Verily we have caused it(the Qurán) to descend on the night of power. " (Súra xcvii. 1. ) That nightis called the blessed night, the night better than a thousand months, thenight when angels came down by the permission of their Lord, the nightwhich bringeth peace and blessings till the rosy dawn. Twice on that nightin the solitude of the cave of Hira the voice called, twice though pressedsore "as if a fearful weight had been laid upon him, " the prophet struggled{3} against its influence. The third time he heard the words:--

 "Recite thou, in the name of thy Lord who created-- Created man from clots of blood. " (Súra xcvi. 5. )

"When the voice had ceased to speak, telling how from minutest beginningsman had been called into existence, and lifted up by understanding andknowledge of the Lord, who is most beneficent, and who by the pen hadrevealed that which man did not know, Muhammad woke up from his trance andfelt as if "a book had been written in his heart. " He was much alarmed. Tradition records that he went hastily to his wife and said--"O Khadíja!what has happened to me!" He lay down and she watched by him. When herecovered from his paroxysm, he said "O Khadíja! he of whom one would nothave believed (_i. E. _, himself) has become either a soothsayer (káhin) ormad. " She replied, "God is my protection, O Ab-ul-kásim. He will surely notlet such a thing happen unto thee, for thou speakest the truth, dost notreturn evil for evil, keepest faith, art of a good life and art kind to thyrelatives and friends, and neither art thou a talker abroad in the bazaars. What has befallen thee? Hast thou seen aught terrible?" Muhammad replied"Yes. " And he told her what he had seen. Whereupon she answered andsaid:--"Rejoice, O dear husband and be of good cheer. He in whose handsstands Khadíja's life, is my witness that thou wilt be the Prophet of thispeople. "[4] The next Súra, the 74th, was revealed at Mecca, after whichthere seems to have been an intermission, called the Fatrah. It was duringthis time that the Prophet gained some knowledge of the contents of theJewish and the Christian Scriptures. 

Gabriel is believed to have been the medium of communication. This fact, however, is only once stated in the Qurán:--"Say, whoso is the enemy ofGabriel--For he it is {4} who by God's leave hath caused the Qurán todescend on thy heart" (Súra ii. 91. ) This Súra was revealed some yearsafter the Prophet's flight to Madína. The other references to therevelation of the Qurán are:--"Verily from the Lord of the worlds hath thisbook come down; the Faithful Spirit (Rúh-ul-Ámín) hath come down with it"(Súra xxvi. 192. ) "The Qurán is no other than a revelation revealed to him, one terrible in power (Shadíd-ul-Quá) taught it him. " (Súra liii. 5. ) Theselatter passages do not state clearly that Gabriel was the medium ofcommunication, but the belief that he was is almost, if not entirely, universal, and the Commentators say that the terms "Rúh-ul-Ámín" and"Shadíd-ul-Quá" refer to no other angel or spirit. The use of the word"taught" in the last Súra quoted, and the following expression in Súralxxv. 18. "When we have _recited it_, then follow thou the recital, " showthat the Qurán is entirely an objective revelation and that Muhammad wasonly a passive medium of communication. The Muhammadan historian, IbnKhaldoun, says on this point:--"Of all the divine books the Qurán is theonly one of which the text, words and phrases have been communicated to aprophet by an audible voice. It is otherwise with the Pentateuch, theGospel and the other divine books: the prophets received them under theform of ideas. "[5] This expresses the universal belief on this point--abelief which reveals the essentially mechanical nature of Islám. 

The Qurán thus revealed is now looked upon as the standing miracle ofIslám. Other divine books, it is admitted, were revelations received underthe form of ideas, but the Qurán is far superior to them all for the actualtext was revealed to the ear of the prophet. Thus we read in Súra lxxv. 16-19:--

{5}

 "Move not thy tongue in haste to follow and master this revelation; For we will see to the collecting and recital of it; _But when we have recited it_, then follow thou the recital; And verily it shall be ours to make it clear to thee. "

The Qurán is, then, believed to be a miraculous revelation of divineeloquence, as regards both _form_ and _substance_, arrangement of words, and its revelation of sacred things. It is asserted that eachwell-accredited prophet performed miracles in that particular department ofhuman skill or science most flourishing in his age. Thus in the days ofMoses magic exercised a wide influence, but all the magicians of Pharaoh'scourt had to submit to the superior skill of the Hebrew prophet. In thedays of Jesus the science of medicine flourished. Men possessed great skillin the art of healing; but no physician could equal the skill of Jesus, whonot only healed the sick, but raised the dead. In the days of Muhammad thespecial and most striking feature of the age was the wonderful power of theArabs in the art of poetry. Muhammad-ud-Damiri says:--"Wisdom hath alightedon three things--the brain of the Franks, the hands of the Chinese and thetongue of the Arabs. " They were unrivalled for their eloquence, for theskill with which they arranged their material and gave expression to theirthoughts. It is in this very particular that superior excellence is claimedfor the Qurán. [6] It is to the Muhammadan mind a sure evidence of itsmiraculous origin that it should excel in this respect. Muslims say thatmiracles have followed the revelations given to other prophets in order toconfirm the divine message. In this case the Qurán is both a revelation anda miracle. {6} Muhammad himself said:--"Each prophet has received manifestsigns which carried conviction to men: but that which I have received isthe revelation. So I hope to have a larger following on the day ofresurrection than any other prophet has. " Ibn Khaldoun says that "by thisthe Prophet means that such a wonderful miracle as the Qurán, which is alsoa revelation, should carry conviction to a very large number. "[7] To aMuslim the fact is quite clear, and so to him the Qurán is far superior toall the preceding books. Muhammad is said to have convinced a rival, Lebid, a poet-laureate, of the truth of his mission by reciting to him a portionof the now second Súra. "Unquestionably it is one of the very grandestspecimens of Koranic or Arabic diction.... But even descriptions of thiskind, grand as they be, are not sufficient to kindle and preserve theenthusiasm and the faith and the hope of a nation like the Arabs.... Thepoets before him had sung of valour and generosity, of love and strife andrevenge ... Of early graves, upon which weeps the morning cloud, and of thefleeting nature of life which comes and goes as the waves of the desertsands, as the tents of a caravan, as a flower that shoots up and dies away. Or they shoot their bitter arrows of satire right into the enemy's ownsoul. Muhammad sang of none of these. No love-minstrelsy his, not the joysof the world, nor sword, nor camel, nor jealousy, nor human vengeance, notthe glories of tribe or ancestor. He preached Islám. " The very fiercenesswith which this is done, the swearing such as Arab orator, proficientthough he may have been in the art, had never made, the dogmatic certaintywith which the Prophet proclaimed his message have tended, equally with thepassionate grandeur of his utterances, to hold the Muslim world spell-boundto the letter and imbued with all the narrowness of the book. 

So sacred is the text supposed to be that only the {7} Companions[8] of theProphet are deemed worthy of being commentators on it. The work of learneddivines since then has been to learn the Qurán by heart and to master thetraditions, with the writings of the earliest commentators thereon. Therevelation itself is never made a subject of investigation or tried by theordinary rules of criticism. If only the Isnád, or chain of authorities forany interpretation, is good, that interpretation is unhesitatingly acceptedas the correct one. It is a fundamental article of belief that no otherbook in the world can possibly approach near to it in thought orexpression. It deals with positive precepts rather than with principles. Its decrees are held to be binding not in the spirit merely but in the veryletter on all men, at all times and under every circumstance of life. Thisfollows as a natural consequence from the belief in its eternal nature. 

The various portions recited by the Prophet during the twenty-three yearsof his prophetical career were committed to writing by some of hisfollowers, or treasured up in their memories. As the recital of the Quránformed a part of every act of public worship, and as such recital was anact of great religious merit, every Muslim tried to remember as much as hecould. He who could do so best was entitled to the highest honour, and wasoften the recipient of a substantial reward. [9] The Arab love for poetryfacilitated the exercise of this faculty. When the Prophet died therevelation ceased. There was no distinct copy of the whole, nothing to showwhat was of transitory importance, what of permanent value. There isnothing which proves that the Prophet took any special care of anyportions. There seems to have been no definite order in which, when thebook was {8} compiled, the various Súras were arranged, for the Qurán, asit now exists, is utterly devoid of all historical or logical sequence. Fora year after the Prophet's death nothing seems to have been done; but thenthe battle of Yemana took place in which a very large number of the bestQurán reciters were slain. Omar took fright at this, and addressing theKhalíf Abu Bakr, said, "The slaughter may again wax hot amongst therepeaters of the Qurán in other fields of battle, and much may be losttherefrom. Now, therefore, my advice is that thou shouldest give speedyorders for the collection of the Qurán. " Abu Bakr agreed, and said to Zeidwho had been an amanuensis of the Prophet:--"Thou art a young man, andwise, against whom no one amongst us can cast an imputation; and thou wertwont to write down the inspired revelations of the Prophet of the Lord, wherefore now search out the Qurán and bring it all together. " Zeid beingat length pressed to undertake the task proceeded to gather the Qurántogether from "date leaves, and tablets of white stone, and from the heartsof men. " In course of time it was all compiled in the order in which thebook is now arranged. This was the authorized text for some twenty-threeyears after the death of Muhammad. Owing, however, either to differentmodes of recitation, or to differences of expression in the sources fromwhich Zeid's first recension was made, a variety of different readingscrept into the copies in use. The Faithful became alarmed and the KhalífOsmán was persuaded to put a stop to such a danger. He appointed Zeid withthree of the leading men of the Quraish as assistants to go over the wholework again. A careful recension was made of the whole book which was thenassimilated to the Meccan dialect, the purest in Arabia. After this allother copies of the Qurán were burnt by order of the Khalíf, and newtranscripts were made of the revised edition which was now the onlyauthorised copy. As it is a fundamental tenet of Islám that the Qurán isincorruptible and absolutely free {9} from error, no little difficulty hasbeen felt in explaining the need of Osmán's new and revised edition and ofthe circumstances under which it took place; but as usual a Tradition hasbeen handed down which makes it lawful to read the Qurán in seven dialects. The book in its present form may be accepted as a genuine reproduction ofAbu Bakr's edition with authoritative corrections. We may rest assured thatwe have in the Qurán now in use the record of what Muhammad said. It thusbecomes a fundamental basis of Islám. It was a common practice of the earlyMuslims when speaking of the Prophet to say:--"His character is the Qurán. "When people curious to know details of the life of their beloved masterasked 'Áyesha, one of his widows, about him, she used to reply:--"Thou hastthe Qurán, art thou not an Arab and readest the Arab tongue? Why dost thouask me, for the Prophet's disposition is no other than the Qurán?"

Whether Muhammad would have arranged the Qurán as we now have it is asubject on which it is impossible to form an opinion. There are Traditionswhich seem to show that he had some doubts as to its completeness. I givethe following account on the authority of M. Caussin de Percival. WhenMuhammad felt his end draw near he said:--"Bring ink and paper: I wish towrite to you a book to preserve you always from error. " But it was toolate. He could not write or dictate and so he said:--"May the Qurán alwaysbe your guide. Perform what it commands you: avoid what it prohibits. " Thegenuineness of the first part of this Tradition is, I think, very doubtful, the latter is quite in accordance with the Prophet's claim for histeaching. The letter of the book became, as Muhammad intended it shouldbecome, a despotic influence in the Muslim world, a barrier to freethinkingon the part of all the orthodox, an obstacle to innovation in allspheres--political, social, intellectual and moral. There are many topicsconnected with it which can be better explained in the next chapter. All{10} that has now to be here stated is that the Qurán is the firstfoundation of Islám. It is an error to suppose it is the only one: an errorwhich more than anything else has led persons away from the only positionin which they could obtain a true idea of the great system of Islám. 

The Shía'hs maintain, without good reason, that the following versesfavourable to the claims of 'Alí and of the Shía'h faction were omitted inOsmán's recension. 

 "O Believers! believe in the two lights. (Muhammad and 'Alí). 

 'Alí is of the number of the pious, we shall give him his right in the day of judgment; we shall not pass over those who wish to deceive him. We have honoured him above all this family. He and his family are very patient. Their enemy[10] is the chief of sinners. 

 We have announced to thee a race of just men, men[11] who will not oppose our orders. My mercy and peace are on them living[12] or dead. 

 As to those who walk in their way, my mercy is on them; they will certainly gain the mansions of Paradise. "

2. THE SUNNAT. --The second foundation of Islám is based on the Hadís(plural Ahádís) or Tradition. Commands from God given in the Qurán arecalled 'farz' and 'wájib. ' A command given by the Prophet or an example setby him is called 'sunnat, ' a word meaning a rule. It is then technicallyapplied to the basis of religious faith and practice, which is founded ontraditional accounts of the sayings and acts of Muhammad. [13] It is thebelief common to all Musalmáns, that the Prophet in all that he _did_, andin all that he _said_, was supernaturally guided, and that his words andacts are to all time and to all his followers a divine rule of faith andpractice. "We should know that God Almighty has given commands andprohibitions to his {11} servants, either by means of the Qurán, or by themouth of His Prophet. "[14] Al-Ghazáli, a most distinguished theologian, writes:--"Neither is the faith according to His will, complete by thetestimony to the Unity alone, that is, by simply saying, 'There is but oneGod, ' without the addition of the further testimony to the Apostle, thatis, the statement, 'Muhammad is the apostle of God. '" This belief in theProphet must extend to all that he has said concerning the present and thefuture life, for, says the same author, "A man's faith is not accepted tillhe is fully persuaded of those things which the Prophet hath affirmed shallbe after death. "

It is often said that the Wahhábís reject Tradition. In the ordinary senseof the word Tradition they may; but in Muslim Theology the term Hadís, which we translate Tradition, has a special meaning. It is applied only tothe sayings of the Prophet, not to those of some uninspired divine orteacher. The Wahhábís reject the Traditions handed down by men who livedafter the time of the Companions, but the Hadís, embodying the sayings ofthe Prophet, they, in common with _all_ Muslim sects, hold to be aninspired revelation of God's will to men. It would be as reasonable to saythat Protestants reject the four Gospels as to say that the Wahhábís rejectTradition. [15] An orthodox Muslim places the Gospels in the same rank asthe Hadís, that is, he looks upon them as a record of what Jesus said anddid handed down to us by His Companions. "In the same way as other Prophetsreceived their books under the form of ideas, so our Prophet has in thesame way received a great number of communications which are found in thecollections of the {12} Traditions (Ahádís). [16] This shows that the Sunnatmust be placed on a level with the Jewish and Christian Scriptures; whilstthe Qurán is a revelation superior to them all. To no sect of Musalmáns isthe Qurán alone the rule of faith. The Shía'hs, it is true, reject theSunnat, but they have in their own collection of Traditions an exactequivalent. 

The nature of the inspiration of the Sunnat and its authoritative value arequestions of the first importance, whether Islám is viewed from atheological or a political stand-point. 

"Muhammad said that seventy-three sects would arise, of whom only one wouldbe worthy of Paradise. The Companions inquired which sect would be sohighly favoured. The Prophet replied:--'The one which remains firm in myway and in that of my friends. ' It is certain that this must refer to theAhl-i-Sunnat wa Jamá'at. " (Sunnís. )[17]

It is laid down as a preliminary religious duty that obedience should berendered to the Sunnat of the Prophet. Thus in the fourth Súra of the Quránit is written: "O true believers! obey God and obey the apostle. " "We havenot sent any apostle but that he might be obeyed by the permission of God. "From these and similar passages the following doctrine is deduced: "It isplain that the Prophet (on whom and on whose descendants be the mercy andpeace of God!) is free from sin in what he ordered to be done, and in whathe prohibited, in all his words and acts; for were it otherwise how couldobedience rendered to him be accounted as obedience paid to God?"[18]Believers are exhorted to render obedience to God by witnessing to Hisdivinity, and to the Prophet by bearing witness to his prophetship; this isa sign of love, and love is the cause of nearness to God. The Prophethimself is reported to have {13} said, "Obey me that God may regard you asfriends. " From this statement the conclusion is drawn that "the love of God(to man) is conditional on obedience to the Prophet. " Belief in andobedience to the Prophet are essential elements of the true faith, and hewho possesses not both of these is in error. [19]

In order to show the necessity of this obedience, God is said to haveappointed Muhammad as the Mediator between Himself and man. In a lowersense, believers are to follow the "Sunnat" of the four Khalífs, Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán, and 'Alí, who are true guides to men. 

To the Muslim all that the Prophet did was perfectly in accord with thewill of God. Moral laws have a different application when applied to him. His jealousy, his cruelty to the Jewish tribes, his indulgence inlicentiousness, his bold assertion of equality with God as regards hiscommands, his every act and word, are sinless, and a guide to men as longas the world shall last. It is easy for an apologist for Muhammad to saythat this is an accretion, something which engrafted itself on to a simplersystem. It is no such thing. It is rather one of the essential parts of thesystem. Let Muhammad be his own witness:--"He who loves not my Sunnat isnot my follower. " "He who revives my Sunnat revives me, and will be with mein Paradise. " "He who in distress holds fast to the Sunnat will receive thereward of a hundred martyrs. " As might be expected, the setting up of hisown acts and words as an infallible and unvarying rule of faith accountsmore than anything else for the immobility of the Muhammadan world, for itmust be always remembered that in Islám Church and State are one. The Arabproverb, "Al mulk wa dín tawáminí"--country and religion are twins--is thepopular form of expressing the unity of Church and State. {14} To the mindof the Musalmán the rule of the one is the rule of the other, --a truthsometimes forgotten by politicians who look hopefully on the reform ofTurkey or the regeneration of the House of Osmán. The Sunnat as much as theQurán covers all law, whether political, social, moral, or religious. Amodern writer who has an intimate acquaintance with Islám says:--"If Islámis to be a power for good in the future, it is imperatively necessary tocut off the social system from the religion. The difficulty lies in theclose connection between the religious and social ordinances in the Kurán, the two are so intermingled that it is hard to see how they can bedisentangled without destroying both. " I believe this to be impossible, andthe case becomes still more hopeless when we remember that the same remarkwould apply to the Sunnat. To forget this is to go astray, for Ibn Khaldoundistinctly speaks of "the Law derived from the Qurán and the Sunnat, " ofthe "maxims of Musalmán Law based on the text of the Qurán and the teachingof the Traditions. "[20]

The Prophet had a great dread of all innovation. The technical term foranything new is "bida't, " and of it, it is said: "Bida't is the changer ofSunnat. " In other words, if men seek after things new, if fresh forms ofthought arise, and the changing condition of society demands new modes ofexpression for the Faith, or new laws to regulate the community, if ininternals or externals, any new thing (bida't) is introduced, it is to beshunned. The law as revealed in the Qurán and the Sunnat is perfect. Everything not in accordance with the precepts therein contained isinnovation, and all innovation is heresy. Meanwhile some {15} "bida't" isallowable, such as the teaching of etymology and syntax, the establishmentof schools, guest-houses, &c. , which things did not exist in the time ofthe Prophet; but it is distinctly and clearly laid down that compliancewith the least Sunnat (_i. E. _ the obeying the least of the orders of theProphet, however trivial) is far better than doing some new thing, howeveradvantageous and desirable it may be. 

There are many stories which illustrate the importance the Companions ofthe Prophet attached to Sunnat. "The Khalíf Omar looked towards the blackstone at Mecca, and said, 'By God, I know that thou art only a stone, andcanst grant no benefit, canst do no harm. If I had not known that theProphet kissed thee, I would not have done so, but on account of that I doit. '" Abdullah-Ibn-'Umr was seen riding his camel round and round a certainplace. In answer to an inquiry as to his reason for so doing he said: "Iknow not, only I have seen the Prophet do so here. " Ahmad-Ibn-Hanbal, oneof the four great Imáms, and the founder of the Hanbalí school ofinterpretation, is said to have been appointed on account of the care withwhich he observed the Sunnat. One day when sitting in an assembly he aloneof all present observed some formal custom authorised by the practice ofthe Prophet. Gabriel at once appeared and informed him that now, and onaccount of his act, he was appointed an Imám. [21] In short, it isdistinctly laid down that the best of all works is the following of thepractice of Muhammad. The essence of religion has been stated by a learnedtheologian to consist of three things: first, to follow the Prophet inmorals and in acts; secondly, to eat only lawful food; thirdly, to besincere in all actions. 

{16}

The Sunnat is now known to Musalmáns through the collections of Traditionsgathered together by the men whose names they now bear. The whole arecalled Sihah-Sittah, or "six correct books. " Not one of these collectorsflourished until the third century of the Hijra, and so, as may be easilysupposed, their work has not passed unchallenged. There is by no means anabsolute consensus of opinion among the Sunnís as to the exact value ofeach Tradition, yet all admit that a 'genuine Tradition' must be obeyed. Whether the Prophet spoke what in the Traditions is recorded as spoken byhim under the influence of the highest kind of inspiration is, as will beshown in the next chapter, a disputed point; but it matters little. Whatever may have been the degree, it was according to Muslim belief a realinspiration, and thus his every act and word became a law as binding uponhis followers as the example of Christ is upon Christians. 

The Shía'hs do not acknowledge the Sihah-Sittah, the six correct books ofthe Sunnís, but it by no means follows that they reject Tradition. Theyhave five books of Traditions, the earliest of which was compiled by AbuJa'far Muhammad A. H. 329, or a century later than the Sahíh-i-Bukhárí, themost trustworthy of the Sunní set. Thus all Musalmán sects accept the firstand second ground of the faith--the Qurán and the Sunnat--as the inspiredwill of God; the Shía'hs substituting in the place of the Traditions onwhich the Sunnat is based, a collection of their own. What it is importantto maintain is this, that the Qurán alone is to no Musalmán anall-sufficient guide. 

3. IJMÁ'. --The third foundation of the Faith is called Ijmá', a wordsignifying to be collected or assembled. Technically it means the unanimousconsent of the leading theologians, or what in Christian theology would becalled the "unanimous consent of the Fathers. " Practically it is acollection of the opinions of the Companions, the Tábi'ín and theTaba-i-Tábi'ín. "The Law, " says Ibn Khaldoun {17} "is grounded on thegeneral accord of the Companions and their followers. " The election of AbuBakr to the Khalifate is called Ijmá'-i-Ummat, the unanimous consent of thewhole sect. The Companions of the Prophet had special knowledge of thevarious circumstances under which special revelations had been made; theyalone knew which verses of the Qurán abrogated others, and which verseswere thus abrogated. The knowledge of these matters and many other detailsthey handed on to their successors, the Tábi'ín, who passed the informationon to their followers, the Taba-i-Tábi'ín. Some Muslims, the Wahhábís forexample, accept only the Ijmá' of the Companions; and by all sects that isplaced in the first rank as regards authority; others accept that of the'Fugitives' who dwelt at Madína; and there are some amongst the orthodoxwho allow, as a matter of theory, that Ijmá' may be collected at any time, but that practically it is not done because there are now no Mujtahidín. The highest rank a Muslim Theologian could reach was that of a Mujtahid, orone who could make an Ijtihád, a word which, derived from the same root asJihád (a Crescentade), means in its technical sense a logical deduction. Itis defined as the "attaining to a certain degree of authority in searchinginto the principles of jurisprudence. " The origin of Ijtihád was asfollows:--Muhammad wished to send a man named Mu'áz to Yaman to receivesome money collected for alms, which he was then to distribute to the poor. On appointing him he said: "O Mu'áz, by what rule will you act?" Hereplied, "by the Law of the Qurán. " "But if you find no direction therein?""Then I will act according to the Sunnat of the Prophet. " "But what if thatfails?" "Then I will make an Ijtihád and act on that. " The Prophet raisedhis hands and said, "Praise be to God who guides the messenger of HisProphet in what He pleases. "[22] This is considered a proof of theauthority of Ijtihád for the Prophet clearly sanctioned it. 

{18}

When the Prophet was alive men could go to him with their doubts and fears:an infallible authority was always present ready to give an inspireddirection. The Khalífs who succeeded the Prophet had only to administer theLaw according to the opinions which they knew Muhammad had held. They werebusily engaged in carrying on the work of conquest; they neither attemptedany new legislation, nor did they depart from the practice of him whom theyrevered. "In the first days of Islám, the knowledge of the Law was purelyTraditional. In forming their judgments they had no recourse either tospeculation, to private opinion, or to arguments founded upon analogy. "[23]However, as the Empire grew, new conditions of life arose, giving rise toquestions, concerning which Muhammad had given no explicit direction. Thisnecessitated the use of Ijtihád. During the Khalifates of Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Alí--the Khulafa-i-Ráshidín, or the Khalífs who could guide menin the right way, the custom was for the Faithful to consult them as to thecourse of action to be pursued under some new development of circumstances;for they knew as none other did the Prophet's sayings and deeds, they couldrecall to their memories a saying or an act from which a decision could bededuced. In this way all Muslims could feel that in following theirjudgments and guidance they were walking in the right path. But after thedeath of 'Alí, the fourth Khalíf, civil war and hostile factions imperilledthe continuance of the Faith in its purity. At Madína, where Muhammad'scareer as a recognised Prophet was best known, devout men commenced tolearn by heart the Qurán, the Sunnat, and the analogical judgments(Ijtihád) of the four Khalífs. These men were looked up to as authorities, and their decisions were afterwards known as the 'Customs of Madína. '

It is not difficult to see that a system, which sought to regulate alldepartments of life, all developments of men's ideas and energies by theSunnat and analogical deductions {19} therefrom, was one which not onlygave every temptation a system could give to the manufacture of Tradition, but one which would soon become too cumbersome to be of practical use. Hence, it was absolutely necessary to systematize all this incoherent massof Tradition, of judgments given by Khalífs and Mujtahidín. This gave riseto the systems of jurisprudence, founded by the four orthodox Imáms, to oneor other of which all Muslims, except the Shía'hs, belong. These Imáms, AbuHanífa, Ibn Málik, As-Sháfi'i and Ibn Hanbal were all Mujtahidín of thehighest rank. After them it is the orthodox belief that there has been noMujtahid. Thus in a standard theological book much used in India it iswritten: "Ijmá' is this, that it is not lawful to follow any other than thefour Imáms. " "In these days the Qází must make no order, the Muftí give nofatvá (_i. E. _ a legal decision), contrary to the opinion of the fourImáms. " "To follow any other is not lawful. " So far then as orthodoxy isconcerned, change and progress are impossible. 

Imám Abu Hanífa was born at Basra (A. H. 80), but he spent the greater partof his life at Kúfa. He was the founder and teacher of the body of legistsknown as 'the jurists of Irák. ' His system differs considerably from thatof the Imám Málik who, living at Madína, confined himself chiefly toTradition as the basis of his judgments. Madína was full of the memories ofthe sayings and acts of the Prophet; Kúfa, the home of Hanífa, on thecontrary, was not founded till after the Prophet's death and so possessednone of his memories. Islám there came into contact with other races ofmen, but from them it had nothing to learn. If these men became Muslims, well and good: if not, the one law for them as for the Faithful was theteaching of Muhammad. Various texts of the Qurán are adduced to prove thecorrectness of this position. "For to thee have we sent down the book whichcleareth up every thing. " (Súra xvi. 91) "Nothing have we passed over inthe book. " (Súra vi. {20} 38. ) "Neither is there a grain in the darkness ofthe earth nor a thing green or sere, but it is noted in a distinctwriting. " (Súra vi. 59). These texts were held to prove that all law wasprovided for by anticipation in the Qurán. If a verse could not be foundbearing on any given question, analogical deduction was resorted to. Thus:"He it is who created _for you_ all that is on earth. " (Súra ii. 27). According to the Hanifite jurists, this is a deed of gift which annuls allother rights of property. The 'you' refers to Muslims. The earth[24] may beclassified under three heads:--(1) land which never had an owner; (2) landwhich had an owner and has been abandoned; (3) the person and property ofthe Infidels. From the last division the same legists deduce the lawfulnessof slavery, piracy and constant war against the unbelievers. To return toAbu Hanífa. He admitted very few Traditions as authoritative in his system, which claims to be a logical development from the Qurán. "The merit oflogical fearlessness cannot be denied to it. The wants and wishes of men, the previous history of a country--all those considerations, in fact, whichare held in the West to be the governing principles of legislation, are setaside by the legists of Irák as being of no account whatever. Legislationis not a science inductive and experimental, but logical anddeductive. "[25]

Imám Ibn Málik was born at Madína (A. H. 93) and his system of jurisprudenceis founded, as might be expected from his connection with the sacred city, on the "Customs of Madína. " His business was to arrange and systematize theTraditions current in Madína, and to form out of them and the "Customs" asystem of jurisprudence embracing the whole sphere of life. The treatisecomposed by him was called the "Muwatta" or "The Beaten Path. " The greaterpart of its contents are legal maxims and opinions {21} delivered by theCompanions. His system of jurisprudence, therefore, has been described ashistorical and traditional. In an elegy on his death by Abu Muhammad Ja'farit is said: "His Traditions were of the greatest authority; his gravity wasimpressive; and when he delivered them, all his auditors were plunged inadmiration. "[26] The Traditions were his great delight. "I delight, " saidhe, "in testifying my profound respect for the sayings of the Prophet ofGod, and I never repeat one unless I feel myself in a state of perfectpurity, "[27] (_i. E. _, after performing a legal ablution. ) As deathapproached, his one fear was lest he should have exercised his privatejudgment in delivering any legal opinion. In his last illness a friend wentto visit him, and enquiring why he wept, received the following answer:"Why should I not weep, and who has more right to weep than I? By Allah! Iwish I had been flogged and reflogged for every question of law on which Ipronounced an opinion founded on my own private judgment. "[28]

Imám As-Sháfa'í, a member of the Quraish tribe, was born A. H. 150. Hepassed his youth at Mecca but finally settled in Cairo where he died (A. H. 204). Ibn Khallikan relates of him that he was unrivalled for his knowledgeof the Qurán, the Sunnat, and the sayings of the Companions. "Never, " saidImám Ibn Hanbal, "have I passed a night without praying for God's mercy andblessing upon As-Sháfi'í. " "Whosoever pretends, " said Abu Thaur, "that hesaw the like of As-Sháfi'í for learning is a liar. " Having carefullystudied the systems of the two preceding Imáms he then proceeded on aneclectic system to form his own. It was a reaction against the system ofAbu Hanífa. As-Sháfi'í follows rather the traditional plan of Ibn Málik. The Hanifite will be satisfied if, in the absence of a clear and a directstatement, he finds one {22} passage in the Qurán, or one Tradition fromwhich the required judgment may be deduced. The Sháfi'ite in the samecircumstances, if Tradition is the source of his deduction, will require aconsiderable number of Traditions from which to make it. 

Imám Ibn Hanbal was the last of the four Orthodox Imáms. He was born atBaghdád (A. H. 164). His system is a distinct return to Traditionalism. Helived at Baghdád during the reign of the Khalíf Mamun, when Orthodox Islámseemed in danger of being lost amid the rationalistic speculations, (thatis, from an Orthodox Muslim stand-point), and licentious practices of theCourt. The jurists most in favour at Court were followers of Abu Hanífa. They carried the principle of analogical deduction to dangerous lengths inorder to satisfy the latitudinarianism of the Khalíf. Human speculationseemed to be weakening all the essentials of the Faith. Ibn Hanbal met thedifficulty by discarding altogether the principle of analogical deduction. At the same time he saw that the Máliki system, founded as it was on the"Customs of Madína, " was ill-suited to meet the wants of a great andgrowing Empire. It needed to be supplemented. What better, what surerground could he go upon than the Traditions. These at least were inspired, and thus formed a safer foundation on which to build a system ofjurisprudence than the analogical deductions of Abu Hanífa did. The systemof Ibn Hanbal has almost ceased to exist. There is now no Muftí of thissect at Mecca, though the other three are represented there. Still hisinfluence is felt to this day in the importance he attached to Tradition. 

The distinction between the four Imáms has been put in this way. Abu Hanífaexercised his own judgment. Málik and Hanbal preferred authority andprecedent. As-Sháfi'í entirely repudiated reason. They differ, too, asregards the value of certain Traditions, but to each of them an authenticTradition is an incontestable authority. Their {23} opinion on points ofdoctrine and practice forms the third basis of the Faith. 

The Ijmá' of the four Imáms is a binding law upon all Sunnís. It might besupposed that as the growing needs of the Empire led to the formation ofthese schools of interpretation; so now the requirements of modern, socialand political life might be met by fresh Imáms making new analogicaldeductions. This is not the case. The orthodox belief is, that since thetime of the four Imáms there has been no Mujtahid who could do as they did. If circumstances should arise which absolutely require some decision to bearrived at, it must be given in full accordance with the 'mazhab, ' orschool of interpretation, to which the person framing the decisionbelongs. [29] This effectually prevents all change, and by excludinginnovation, whether good or bad, keeps Islám stationary. Legislation is nowpurely deductive. Nothing must be done contrary to the principles containedin the jurisprudence of the four Imáms. "Thus, in any Muhammadan Statelegislative reforms are simply impossible. There exists no initiative. TheSultán, or Khalíf can claim the allegiance of his people only so long as heremains the exact executor of the prescriptions of the Law. "

The question then as regards the politics of the "Eastern {24} Question" isnot whether Muhammad was a deceiver or self-deceived, an apostle or animpostor; whether the Qurán is on the whole good or bad; whether Arabia wasthe better or the worse for the change Muhammad wrought; but what Islám asa religious and political system has become and is, how it now works, whatOrthodox Muslims believe and how they act in that belief. The essence ofthat belief is, that the system as taught by Prophet, Khalífs and Imáms isabsolutely perfect. [30] Innovation is worse than a mistake. It is a crime, a sin. This completeness, this finality of his system of religion andpolity, is the very pride and glory of a true Muslim. To look for anincrease of light in the knowledge of his relation to God and the unseenworld, in the laws which regulate Islám on earth is to admit thatMuhammad's revelation was incomplete, and that admission no Muslim willmake. 

It has been stated on high authority that all that is required for thereform of Turkey is that the Qánúns or orders of the Sultán should take theplace of the Sharí'at or law of Islám. Precisely so; if this could be done, Turkey might be reformed; but Islám would cease to be the religion of theState. That the law as formulated by the Imám Abu Hanífa ill suits theconditions of modern life is more than probable; but it is the veryfunction of the Khalíf of Islám, {25} which the Sultán claims to be, tomaintain it. He is no Mujtahid, for such there are not now amongst theSunnís, to which sect the Turks belong. If through stress of circumstancessome new law must be made, orthodoxy demands that it should be strictly inaccordance with the opinions of the Imáms. The Shía'hs, in opposition tothe Sunnís, hold that there are still Mujtahidín, but this opinion arisesfrom their peculiar doctrine of the Imámat, a subject we shall discuss alittle later on. At first sight it would seem that if there can beMujtahidín who are now able to give authoritative opinions, there may besome hope of enlightened progress amongst Shía'h people--the Persians forexample. There is doubtless amongst them more religious unrest, moremysticism, more heresy, but they are no further on the road of progressthan their neighbours; and the apparent advantage of the presence of aMujtahid is quite nullified by the fact that all his decisions must bestrictly in accordance with the Qurán and the Sunnat, or rather with whatto the Shía'h stands in the place of the Sunnat. The Shía'h, as well as theSunní, must base all legislation on the fossilized system of the past, noton the living needs of the present. Precedent rules both with an iron sway. The Wahhábís reject all Ijmá' except that of the Companions, but that theyaccept; so when they are called the Puritans of Islám, it must beremembered that they accept as a rule of faith not only the Qurán, but theSunnat, and some Ijmá'. 

In order to make Ijmá' binding, it is necessary that the Mujtahidín shouldhave been unanimous in their opinion or in their practice. 

The whole subject of Ijtihád is one of the most important in connectionwith the possibility of reforms in a Muslim state. A modern Muhammadanwriter[31] seeking to show that Islám does possess a capacity for progressand that so far from being a hard and fast system, it is able to adaptitself to new circumstances, because the Prophet ushered in {26} "an age ofactive principles, " uses the story I have already related when describingthe origin of Ijtihád (Ante. P. 17) to prove the accuracy of his statement. He makes Mu'áz to say:--"I will look first to the Qurán, then to precedentsof the Prophet, and lastly rely upon my _own judgment_. " It is true thatIjtihád literally means 'great effort, ' it is true that the Companions andMujtahidín of the first class had the power of exercising their judgment indoubtful cases, and of deciding them according to their sense of thefitness of things, provided always, that their decision contravened no lawof the Qurán or the Sunnat; but this in no way proves that Islám has anycapacity for progress, or that "an age of active principles" was ushered inby Muhammad, or that his "words breathe energy and force, and infuse newlife into the dormant heart of humanity. " For, though the term Ijtihádmight, in reference to the men I have mentioned, be somewhat freelytranslated as "one's own judgment, " it can have no such meaning now. It isa purely technical term, and its use and only use now is to express the"referring of a difficult case to some analogy drawn from the Qurán and theSunnat. " But even were the meaning not thus restricted, even though itmeant now as it sometimes meant at first, "one's own judgment;" still SyedAmír 'Alí's position would remain to be proved for, since the days of thefour Imáms, the orthodox believe that there has been no Mujtahid of thefirst class, and to none but men of this rank has such power ever beenaccorded. Thus granting, for the sake of argument merely, that the Syed'stranslation is grammatically and technically correct, all that results fromit is that the "age of active principles" lasted only for two centuries. Ido not admit that there ever was such an age in Islám, and certainlyneither its theological development, nor its political growth negative theopposite assertion, _viz. _, that Muhammad gave precepts rather thanprinciples. The Turks are included in "the dormant heart of humanity, " butit is difficult to see what "energy and {27} force" is breathed, what "newlife is infused" into them by the "wonderful words" of the Prophet, or whatlasting good the "age of active principles" has produced. 

4. QÍÁS is the fourth foundation of Islám. The word literally meansreasoning, comparing. It is in common use in Hindustani and Persian in thesense of guessing, considering, &c. Technically, it means the analogicalreasoning of the learned with regard to the teaching of the Qurán, theSunnat and the Ijmá'. For example, the Qurán says:--"Honour thy father andthy mother and be not a cause of displeasure to them. " It is evident fromthis that disobedience to parents is prohibited, and prohibition impliespunishment if the order is disobeyed. Again, if the Qurán and the Sunnathold children responsible, according to their means, for the debts of theirfather, does it not follow that the elder ones ought to fulfil for theirparents all those obligations which for some reason or other the parentsmay not be able to perform, such as the pilgrimage to Mecca, &c. ATradition said to come from the Companions runs thus:--"One day, a womancame to the Prophet and said, 'my father died without making thePilgrimage. ' The Prophet said, 'If thy father had left a debt what wouldestthou do, ' 'I would pay the debt. ' 'Good, then pay this debt also. '" TheQurán forbids the use of Khamar, an intoxicating substance, and so it isargued that wine and opium are unlawful, though not forbidden by name. TheWahhábís would extend the prohibition to the use of tobacco. 

From cases such as these, many jurisconsults hold that the Mujtahidín ofthe earliest age established this fourth foundation of the faith which theycall Qíás. It is also called I'tibár-ul-Amsál, or "imitation of anexample. " The idea is taken from the verse: "Profit by this example, ye whoare men of insight" (Súra lix. 2). There are strict rules laid down whichregulate Qíás, of which the most important is, that in all cases it must bebased on the Qurán, the Sunnat, and the Ijmá'. In fact, the fundamentalidea of Islám {28} is that a perfect law has been given, even unto details, of social and political life. The teaching of Muhammad contains thesolution of every difficulty that can arise. Every law not provided by theProphet must be deduced analogically. This produces uniformity after afashion, but only because intellectual activity in higher pursuits ceasesand moral stagnation follows. Thus all who come within the range of thissystem are bound down to political servitude. Whatever in feeling orconviction goes beyond the limits of an out-worn set of laws is swept away. There is a wonderful family likeness in the decay of all Musalmán States, which seems to point to a common cause. All first principles are containedin the Qurán and the Sunnat; all that does not coincide with them must bewrong. They are above all criticism. 

Qíás, then, affords no hope of enlightened progress, removes no fetter ofthe past, for in it there must be no divergence in principle from alegislation imperfect in its relation to modern life and stationary in itsessence. [32] In the Niháyat-ul-Murád it is written:--"We are shut up tofollowing the four Imáms. " In the Tafsír-i-Ahmadí we read:--"To follow anyother than the four Imáms is unlawful. " An objector may say that suchrespect is like the reverence the heathen pay to their ancestors. To thisan answer is given in the preface to the Tarjuma-i-Sharh-i-Waqáyah. Thewriter there says that it is nothing of the kind. "The Mujtahidín are notthe source of the orders of the Law, but they are the medium by which weobtain the Law. Thus Imám Abu Hanífa said: 'We select first from the Qurán, then from the Traditions, then from the decrees of the Companions; we acton what the Companions agreed upon; where they doubt, we doubt. ' TheCommentator Jelál-ud-dín Mahlí says, 'The common people and others who have{29} not reached the rank of a Mujtahid, must follow one of the fourImáms. ' Then when he enters one Mazhab (sect) he must not change. Again, itmay be objected that God gave no order about the appointment of four Imáms. Now, it is recorded in a Tradition that the Prophet said, 'Follow the wayof the great company; whosoever departs from it will enter hell. ' TheFollowers of the Imáms are a great company. " It is moreover the unanimousopinion, the "Ijmá'-i-Ummat, " that the Imáms rightly occupy the positionaccorded to them. It is a great blessing, as we read in theTafsír-i-Ahmadí: "It is of the grace of God, that we are shut up to thesefour Imáms. God approves of this, and into this matter proofs andexplanations do not enter. " Should any one further object that, in the daysof the Prophet, there were no Mujtahidín, that each man acted on a "saying"as he heard it, that he did not confine his belief or conduct to thedeductions made by some "appointed Companion, " he may be answeredthus:--"For a long time after the death of the Prophet many Companions werealive, and consequently the Traditions then current were trustworthy; butnow it is not so, hence the need for the Imáms and their systems. "

These four foundations, --the QURÁN, the SUNNAT, IJMÁ' and QÍÁS--form inorthodox Muslim opinion and belief a perfect basis of a perfect religionand polity. They secure the permanence of the system, but they repress anintelligent growth. The bearing of all this on modern politics is veryplain. Take again the case of Turkey. The constitution of the Government istheocratic. The germs of freedom are wanting there as they have never beenwanting in any other country in Europe. The ruling power desires no change;originality of thought, independence of judgment is repressed. Nothing goodhas the Turk ever done for the world. [33] This rule has been one continueddisplay of brute {30} force unrelieved by any of the reflected glory whichshone for a while in Cordova and in Baghdád. No nation can possiblyprogress, the foundations of whose legal and theocratic system are what hasbeen described in this chapter. When brought into diplomatic and commercialintercourse with States possessing the energy and vigour of a national lifeand liberal constitution, Muslim kingdoms must, in the long run, fail andpass away. It has been well said that "Spain is the only instance of acountry once thoroughly infused with Roman civilisation which has beenactually severed from the empire; and even then the severance, though oflong duration, was but partial and temporary. After a struggle of nearlyeight centuries, the higher form of social organisation triumphed over thelower and the usurping power of Islám was expelled. " So it ought to be, andso indeed it must ever be, for despotism must give way to freedom; the lifelatent in the subject Christian communities must sooner or later cast offthe yoke of a barbarian rule, which even at its best is petrified and so isincapable of progress. However low a Christian community may have fallen, there is always the possibility of its rising again. A lofty ideal isplaced before it. All its most cherished beliefs point forward and upward. In Islám there is no regenerative power. Its golden age was in the past. When the work of conquest is done, when a Muhammadan nation has to live byindustry, intelligence and thrift, it always miserably fails. 

In this chapter which must now draw to a close, I have tried to prove fromauthentic and authoritative sources that {31} the Qurán alone is to noMuslim the sole guide of life. The fetters of a dogmatic system fastenalike around the individual and the community. Islám is sterile, it givesno new birth to the spirit of a man, leads him not in search of new formsof truth, and so it can give no real life, no lasting vitality to anation. [34]

{32}

 NOTE TO CHAPTER I. 

 IJTIHÁD. 

 Questions connected with Ijtihád are so important in Islám, that I think it well to give in the form of a note a fuller and more technical account of it, than I could do in the Chapter just concluded. This account which I shall now give is that of a learned Musalmán, and is, therefore, of the highest value. It consists of extracts from an article in the Journal Asiatique, Quatrième Série, tome, 15, on "Le Marche et les Progres de la Jurisprudence parmi les Sectes orthodoxes Musalmanes" by Mirza Kázim Beg, Professor in the University of St. Petersburg. It entirely supports all that has been said of the rigid character of Muhammadan Law, and of the immobility of systems founded thereon. 

 "Orthodox Musalmáns admit the following propositions as axioms. 

 1. God the only legislator has shown the way of felicity to the people whom He has chosen, and in order to enable them to walk in that way He has shown to them the precepts which are found, partly in the eternal Qurán, and partly in the sayings of the Prophet transmitted to posterity by the Companions and preserved in the Sunnat. That way is called the "Sharí'at. " The rules thereof are called Ahkám. 

 2. The Qurán and the Sunnat, which since their manifestation are the primitive sources of the orders of the Law, form two branches of study, _viz. _, Ilm-i-Tafsír, or the interpretation of the Qurán and Ilm-i-Hadís, or the study of Tradition. 

 3. All the orders of the Law have regard either to the actions (Dín), or to the belief (Imán) of the Mukallifs. [35]

 4. As the Qurán and the Sunnat are the principal sources from whence the precepts of the Sharí'at have been drawn, so the rules recognized as the principal elements of actual jurisprudence are the subject of Ilm-í-Fiqh, or the science of Law. 

 Fiqh in its root signifies conception, comprehension. Thus Muhammad prayed for Ibn Mas'úd: "May God make him {33} comprehend (Faqqihahu), and make him know the interpretation of the Qurán. " Muhammad in his quality of Judge and chief of the Believers decided, without appeal or contradiction, all the affairs of the people. His sayings served as a guide to the Companions. After the death of the Prophet the first Khalífs acted on the authority of the Traditions. Meanwhile the Qurán and the Sunnat, the principal elements of religion and legislation, became little by little the subject of controversy. It was then that men applied themselves vigorously to the task of learning by heart the Qurán and the Traditions, and then that jurisprudence became a separate science. No science had as yet been systematically taught, and the early Musalmáns did not possess books which would serve for such teaching. A change soon, however, took place. In the year in which the great jurisconsult of Syria died (A. H. 80) N'imán bin Sabit, surnamed Abu Hanífa was born. He is the most celebrated of the founders of the schools of jurisprudence, a science which ranks first in all Muslim seats of learning. Until that time and for thirty years later the Mufassirs, [36] the Muhaddis, [37] and the Fuqihá, [38] had all their knowledge by heart, and those who possessed good memories were highly esteemed. Many of them knew by heart the whole Qurán with the comments made on it by the Prophet and by the Companions; they also knew the Traditions and their explanations, and all the commands (Ahkám) which proceed from the Qurán, and the Sunnat. Such men enjoyed the right of Mujtahidín. They transmitted their knowledge to their scholars orally. It was not till towards the middle of the second century A. H. That treatises on the different branches of the Law were written, after which six schools (Mazhabs) of jurisprudence were formed. The founders, all Imáms of the first class, were Abu Hanífa, the Imám-i-A'zam or great Imám (A. H. 150), [39] Safian As-Sáurí (A. H. 161), Málik (A. H. 179), As-Sháfa'í (A. H. 204), Hanbal (A. H. 241) and Imám Dáúd Az-Zaharí (A. H. 270). The two sects founded by Sáurí and Zaharí became extinct in the eighth century of the Hijra. The other four still remain. These men venerated one another. The younger ones speak with great respect of the elder. Thus Sháfa'í said:--"No one in the world was so well versed in jurisprudence as Abu Hanífa was, and he who has read neither his works, nor those of his disciples knows nothing of jurisprudence. " Hanbal when sick wore a shirt which had belonged to Sháfa'í, in order that he might be cured of his malady; but all this {34} did not prevent them starting schools of their own, for the right of Ijtihád is granted to those who are real Mujtahidín. There are three degrees of Ijtihád. 

 1. Al-Ijtihád fi'l Shari': absolute independence in legislation

 2. Al-Ijtihád fi'l Mazhab: authority in the judicial systems founded by the Mujtahidín of the first class. 

 3. Al-Ijtihád fi'l Masáil: authority in cases which have not been decided by the authors of the four systems of jurisprudence. 

 The first is called a complete and absolute authority, the second relative, the third special. 

 THE FIRST DEGREE OF IJTIHÁD. 

 Absolute independence in legislation is the gift of God. He to whom it is given when seeking to discover the meaning of the Divine Law is not bound to follow any other teacher. He can use his own judgment. This gift was bestowed on the jurisconsults of the first, and to some in the second and third centuries. The Companions, however, who were closely connected with the Prophet, having transmitted immediately to their posterity the treasures of legislation, are looked upon as Mujtahidín of much higher authority than those of the second and third centuries. Thus Abu Hanífa says:--"That which comes to us from the Companions is on our head and eyes (_i. E. _, to be received with respect): as to that which comes from the Tábi'ín, they are men and we are men. "

 Since the time of the Tábi'ín this degree of Ijtihád has only been conferred on the six great Imáms. Theoretically any Muslim can attain to this degree, but it is one of the principles of jurisprudence that the confirmation of this rank is dependent on many conditions, and so no one now gains the honour. These conditions are:--

 1. The knowledge of the Qurán and all that is related to it; that is to say, a complete knowledge of Arabic literature, a profound acquaintance with the orders of the Qurán and all their sub-divisions, their relationship to each other and their connection with the orders of the Sunnat. The candidate should know when, and why each verse of the Qurán was written, he should have a perfect acquaintance with the literal meaning of the words, the speciality or generality of each clause, the abrogating and abrogated sentences. He should be able to make clear the meaning of the 'obscure' passages (Mutashábih), to discriminate between the literal and the allegorical, the universal and the particular. 

 2. He must know the Qurán by heart with all the Traditions and explanations. {35}

 3. He must have a perfect knowledge of the Traditions, or at least of three thousand of them. 

 He must know their source, history, object and their connection with the laws of the Qurán. He should know by heart the most important Traditions. 

 4. A pious and austere life. 

 5. A profound knowledge of all the sciences of the Law. 

 Should any one _now_ aspire to such a degree another condition would be added, _viz_:--

 6. A complete knowledge of the four schools of jurisprudence. 

 The obstacles, then, are almost insurmountable. On the one hand, there is the severity of the 'Ulamá, which requires from the candidate things almost impossible; on the other, there is the attachment of the 'Ulamá to their own Imáms, for should such a man arise no one is bound now to listen to him. Imám Hanbal said:--"Draw your knowledge from whence the Imáms drew theirs, and do not content yourself with following others for that is certainly blindness of sight". Thus the schools of the four Imáms remain intact after a thousand years have passed, and so the 'Ulamá recognise since the time of these Imáms no Mujtahíd of the first degree. Ibn Hanbal was the last. 

 The rights of the man who attained to this degree were very important. He was not bound to be a disciple of another, he was a mediator between the Law and his followers, for whom he established a system of legislation, without any one having the right to make any objection. He had the right to explain the Qurán, the Sunnat and the Ijmá' according as he understood them. He used the Prophet's words, whilst his disciples only used his. Should a disciple find some discrepancy between a decision of his own Imám and the Qurán or Traditions, he must abide by the decision of the Imám. The Law does not permit him to interpret after his own fashion. When once the disciple has entered the sect of one Imám he cannot leave it and join another. He loses the right of private judgment, for only a Mujtahid of the first class can dispute the decision of one of the Imáms. Theoretically such Mujtahidín may still arise; but, as we have already shown, practically they do not. 

 THE SECOND DEGREE OF IJTIHÁD. 

 This degree has been granted to the immediate disciples of the great Imáms who have elaborated the systems of their masters. They enjoyed the special consideration of the contemporary 'Ulamá, and of their respective Imáms who in some cases have allowed them {36} to retain their own opinion. ' The most famous of these men are the two disciples of Abu Hanífa, Abu Yúsuf and Muhammad bin al Hasan. In a secondary matter their opinion carries great weight. It is laid down as a rule that a Muftí may follow the unanimous opinion of these two even when it goes against that of Abu Hanífa. 

 THE THIRD DEGREE OF IJTIHÁD. 

 This is the degree of special independence. The candidates for it should have a perfect knowledge of all the branches of jurisprudence according to the four schools of the Arabic language and literature. They can solve cases which come before them, giving reasons for their judgment, or decide on cases which have not been settled by previous Mujtahidín; but in either case their decisions must always be in absolute accordance with the opinions of the Mujtahidín of the first and second classes, and with the principles which guided them. Many of these men attained great celebrity during their lifetime, but to most of them this rank is not accorded till after their death. Since Imám Qází Khán died (A. H. 592), no one has been recognised by the Sunnís as a Mujtahid even of the third class. 

 There are three other inferior classes of jurists, called Muqallidín, or followers of the Mujtahidín; but all that the highest in rank amongst them can do is to explain obscure passages in the writings of the older jurisconsults. By some of the 'Ulamá they are considered to be equal to the Mujtahidín of the third class. If there are several conflicting legal opinions on any point, they can select one opinion on which to base their decision. This a mere Qází cannot do. In such a case he would have to refer to those men, or to their writings for guidance. They seem to have written commentaries on the legal systems without originating anything new. The author of the Hidáyah, who lived at the end of the sixth century, was a Muqallid. 

 Such is Mirza Kázim Beg's account. The whole article, of which I have only given the main points, is worthy of the closest study. It shows how "the system, as a whole, rejects experience as a guide to deeper insight or wider knowledge; tramples upon the teaching of the past; pays no heed to differences of climate, character, or history; but regards itself as a body of absolute truth, one jot or tittle of which cannot be rejected without incurring the everlasting wrath of God. "[40]

{37}

 * * * * *

CHAPTER II. 

EXEGESIS OF THE QURÁN AND THE TRADITIONS. 

The following account of this branch of Muslim theology, technically called'Ilm-i-Usúl, may be introduced by a few remarks on the nature ofinspiration according to Islám, though that is not strictly speaking aportion of this study. 

There are two terms used to express different degrees of inspiration, Wahíand Ilhám. Wahí is the term applied to the inspiration of the Qurán, andimplies that the very words are the words of God. It is divided into WahíZáhir (external inspiration), and Wahí Bátin (internal inspiration). Thewhole book was prepared in heaven. Muhammad, instructed by Gabriel, issimply the medium through which the revelation of Wahí Záhir reaches man. The Wahí Qurán, _i. E. _, the highest form of inspiration, always came to theear of the Prophet through the instrumentality of Gabriel. In Muhammadantheology, this is the special work of Gabriel. Thus in the Traditions it isrelated that he appeared to Adam twelve times, to Enoch four, to Noahfifty, to Abraham forty-two, to Moses four hundred, to Jesus ten times, toMuhammad twenty-four thousand times. 

Ilhám means the inspiration given to a saint or to a prophet when he, though rightly guided, delivers the subject matter out of his own mind, andis not a mere machine to reproduce the messages of Gabriel. There is alower form of Wahí Záhir, which is called Ishárat-ul-Malak (literally, "sign of the Angel. ") This expresses what Muhammad meant when he said: "TheHoly Ghost has entered into my heart. " In other words, he received theinspiration through {38} Gabriel, but not by word of mouth. This form ofinspiration is higher than that possessed by saints, and is usually appliedto the inspiration of the Traditions. This is denied by some, who say thatexcept when delivering the Qurán Muhammad spoke by Ilhám and not by Wahí. The practical belief is, however, that the Traditions were Wahíinspiration, and thus they come to be as authoritative as the Qurán. Sharastani speaks of "the signs (sayings) of the Prophet which have themarks of Wahí. "[41] This opinion is said by some Muslim theologians to besupported by the first verse of the fifty-third Súra, entitled the Star. "By the Star when it setteth; your companion Muhammad _erreth not_, nor ishe _led astray_, neither doth he _speak of his own will_. It is none otherthan a revelation which hath been revealed to him. " In any case theinspiration of Muhammad is something quite different from the Christianidea of inspiration, which is to Musalmáns a very imperfect mode oftransmitting a revelation of God's will. 

That there should be a human as well as a divine side to inspiration is anidea not only foreign, but absolutely repugnant to Muhammadans. The Quránis not a book of principles. It is a book of directions. The Qurándescribes the revelation given to Moses thus:--"We wrote for him upon thetables a monition concerning every matter and said: 'Receive them thyselfwith steadfastness, and command thy people to receive them for theobservance of its most goodly precepts. '" (Súra vii. 142). It is such aninspiration as this the Qurán claims for itself. Muhammad's idea was thatit should be a complete and final code of directions in every matter forall mankind. It is not the word of a prophet enlightened by God. Itproceeds immediately from God, and the word 'say' or 'speak' precedes, oris understood to precede, every sentence. This to a Muslim is the highestform of inspiration; this alone stamps a book as {39} divine. It isacknowledged that the Injíl--the Gospel--was given by Jesus; but as that, too, according to Muslim belief, was brought down from heaven by the angelGabriel during the month of Ramazán, it is now asserted that it has beenlost, and that the four Gospels of the New Testament are simply Traditionscollected by the writers whose names they bear. Their value is, therefore, that of the second foundation of the Islámic system. 

The question next arises as to the exact way in which Gabriel made knownhis message to Muhammad. The Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, a standard theologicalwork, gives some details on this point. [42] Though the Qurán is all of God, both as to matter and form, yet it was not all made known to the Prophet inone and the same manner. The following are some of the modes:--

1. It is recorded on the authority of 'Áyesha, one of Muhammad's wives, that a brightness like the brightness of the morning came upon the Prophet. According to some commentators this brightness remained six months. In somemysterious way Gabriel, through this brightness or vision, made known thewill of God. 

2. Gabriel appeared in the form of Dahiah, one of the Companions of theProphet, renowned for his beauty and gracefulness. A learned dispute hasarisen with regard to the abode of the soul of Gabriel when he assumed thebodily form of Dahiah. At times, the angelic nature of Gabriel overcameMuhammad, who was then translated to the world of angels. This alwayshappened when the revelation was one of bad news, such as denunciations orpredictions of woe. At other times, when the message brought by Gabriel wasone of consolation and comfort, the human nature of the Prophet overcamethe angelic nature of the angel, who, in such case, having assumed a humanform, proceeded to deliver the message. {40}

3. The Prophet heard at times the noise of the tinkling of a bell. To himalone was known the meaning of the sound. He alone could distinguish in, and through it, the words which Gabriel wished him to understand. Theeffect of this mode of Wahí was more marvellous than that of any of theother ways. When his ear caught the sound his whole frame became agitated. On the coldest day, the perspiration, like beads of silver, would roll downhis face. The glorious brightness of his countenance gave place to aghastly hue, whilst the way in which he bent down his head showed theintensity of the emotion through which he was passing. If riding, the camelon which he sat would fall to the ground. The Prophet one day, whenreclining with his head in the lap of Zeid, heard the well known sound:Zeid, too, knew that something unusual was happening, for so heavy becamethe head of Muhammad that it was with the greatest difficulty he couldsupport the weight. 

4. At the time of the Mi'ráj, or night ascent into heaven, God spoke to theProphet without the intervention of an angel. It is a disputed pointwhether the face of the Lord was veiled or not. 

5. God sometimes appeared in a dream, and placing his hands on theProphet's shoulders made known his will. 

6. Twice, angels having each six hundred wings, appeared and brought themessage from God. 

7. Gabriel, though not appearing in bodily form, so inspired the heart ofthe Prophet that the words he uttered under its influence were the words ofGod. This is technically called Ilká, and is by some supposed to be thedegree of inspiration to which the Traditions belong. 

Above all, the Prophet was not allowed to remain in any error; if, by anychance, he had made a wrong deduction from any previous revelation, anotherwas always sent to rectify it. This idea has been worked up to a science ofabrogation, according to which some verses of the Qurán abrogate others. Muhammad found it necessary to shift {41} his stand-point more than once, and thus it became necessary to annul earlier portions of his revelation. 

Thus in various ways was the revelation made known to Muhammad. At firstthere seems to have been a season of doubt (Ante p. 3), the dread lestafter all it might be a mockery. But as years rolled on confidence inhimself and in his mission came. At times, too, there is a joyousness inhis utterances as he swears by heaven and earth, by God and man; but moreoften the visions were weird and terrible. Tradition says:--"He roared likea camel, the sound as of bells well-nigh rent his heart in pieces. " Somestrange power moved him, his fear was uncontrollable. For twenty years ormore the revelations came, a direction on things of heaven and of earth, tothe Prophet as the spiritual guide of all men, [43] to the Warrior-Chief, asthe founder of political unity among the Arab tribes. 

A Muhammadan student, after passing through a course of instruction ingrammar, rhetoric, logic, law, and dogmatics, at length reaches the stagewhen he is permitted to enter upon the study of "'Ilm-i-usúl, " or theexegesis of the Qurán, and the inspired sayings of the Prophet. This done, he can henceforth read the approved commentaries in order to learn what theFathers of Islám have to say. This science in one way fits him to be acommentator, for the work of a Muslim divine now is, not to bring things"new and old" out of the sacred book, but to hand down to others the thingsold. There is no indwelling spirit in the Church of Islám which can revealto the devout mind new views of truth, or lead the pious scholar on todeeper and more profound knowledge. 

The greatest proficient in theology is the man who can repeat the Qurán byheart, who knows also and can reproduce at will what the early commentatorshave said, who can remember, and quote in the most apposite manner, the{42} Prophet's sayings preserved in the Traditions handed down by theCompanions, their followers, and their followers' followers, who can pointout a flaw in the Isnád (_i. E. _ chain of narrators) of a Tradition quotedby an opponent, or maintain, by repeating the long list of names, theauthority of the Isnád of the Tradition he quotes himself. A good memory, not critical acumen, is the great desideratum in a Muslim theologian. Thechief qualification of a Háfiz, a man who can repeat the whole Qurán byheart, is not that he shall understand its meaning, but that he shall beable to pronounce each word correctly. By men who are not Arabs by birth, this is only to be attained after years of practice from childhood. TheSunnís say that no Shía'h can ever become a Háfiz, from which fact theydraw the conclusion that the Shía'hs are heretics. In the early days ofIslám, the great authorities on the question of the correct pronunciationof the Qurán were the Khalífs Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán, and 'Alí, and ten ofthe Companions, who learned from the Prophet himself the exact way in whichGabriel had spoken. The Arabic of heaven was the Arabic of Islám. Theeffort, however, to preserve one uniform method of repeating the Quránfailed. Men of other lands could not acquire the pure intonation of Mecca, and so no less than seven different ways of reading the sacred book becamecurrent. Here was a great difficulty, but it proved surmountable. Abu IbnKáb, one of the Companions, had become so famous as a reader that theProphet himself said: "read the Qurán under Abu Ibn Káb. " These menremembered that Abu Ibn Káb had stated, that one day when scandalized atman after man who entered the mosque repeating the Qurán in different ways, he spoke to Muhammad about it. His Highness said: "O Abu Ibn Káb!intelligence was sent to me to read the Qurán in one dialect, and I wasattentive to the Court of God, and said: 'make easy the reading of theQurán to my sects. ' These instructions were sent to me a second timesaying: 'read the {43} Qurán in two dialects. ' Then I turned myself to theCourt of God saying: 'make easy the reading of the Qurán to my sects. ' Thena voice was sent to me the third time saying: 'read the Qurán in sevendialects. '"

This removed all difficulty, and the foresight displayed by the Prophet inthus obtaining a divine sanction for the various ways of reading was lookedupon as a proof of his inspiration. Thus arose the "haft qirá, at, " or sevenreadings of the Qurán, now recognised. 

In the Qurán compiled by the order of the Khalíf Osmán there were novowel-points, but when men of other countries embraced Islám they foundgreat difficulty in mastering Arabic. Khalid bin Ahmad, a great grammarian, then invented the short vowels and other diacritical marks. The sevenfamous "Readers" whose names have been given to the various modes ofreading, are Imám Nafi of Madína, Imám Ibn-i-Kasir of Mecca, Imám Abu 'Umrof Basra, Imám Hamza of Kufa, Imám Ibn 'Amir of Syria, Imám 'Ásim of Kufa, Imám Kisáe of Kufa. [44] These learned men affixed different vowel-points inmany places in the Qurán, and thus slight differences of meaning arose. InIndia the "qirá, at--reading, --of Imám 'Ásim is followed by both Sunnís andShía'hs. There are three readings of lesser note allowable when reading theQurán privately, but not when reading any part in a liturgical service. During the month of Ramazán the Qurán is repeated every night in themosque, it being so arranged that one-thirtieth part shall be recited eachnight. The Imám of the mosque, or public Reader, (Qárí) who commencesaccording to one of the seven recognised readings (qirá, at), must keep tothe same all the month. As he has to recite without a book this involves agreat exercise of the memory. A good Háfiz will know the whole sevenvarieties. The various readings thus introduced, though {44} unimportant intheir nature, [45] amount to about five hundred in number. The following area few illustrations. In the second Súra Abu 'Umr reads: "Nor shall ye bequestioned concerning that which _they_ have done;" but 'Ásim reads: "Thatwhich _ye_ have done. " This is caused by putting two dots above the lineinstead of below it. Again 'Ásim reads: "_Enter ye_ the gates of hell"(Súra xxxix. 73), but Nafi reads: "_Ye will be made to enter_ hell, "--thatis, by a slight change the passive is substituted for the active voice. These are fair samples of the rest. No doctrine, so far as I know, istouched, but the way in which Tradition records the Prophet's anticipationof the difficulty is instructive to the student of Islám. At times, too, fierce disputes have arisen between the followers of the seven famousReaders whose names I have given above. In the year 935 A. H. , Ibn Shanabud, a resident of Baghdád, ventured to introduce some different readings in hisrecital of the Qurán. The people of Baghdád, not knowing these, werefurious, and the Khalíf was compelled to cast the offender into prison. ACouncil of divines was called together, before whom the unhappy IbnShanabud was produced. For a while he maintained the correctness of his"readings, " but after being whipped seven times he said: "I renounce mymanner of reading, and in future I shall follow no other than that of themanuscript drawn up by the Khalíf Osmán, and that which is generallyreceived. "[46]

Closely connected with this subject is the history of the rise of thescience of grammar. As Islám spread, it became necessary to expound theQurán to persons unacquainted with Arabic. The science of grammar thenbecame an important branch of study, and the collection of Traditions anecessary duty. The Faithful were for a long time in {45} doubt as to thelawfulness of applying the laws of grammar to so sacred a book. There wasno command in the book itself to do so, nor had the Prophet given anydirections on this point. It was then neither "farz" nor "sunnat, " that is, neither a command based on the Qurán nor one based on any saying or act ofthe Prophet. The Traditions, however, solve the difficulty. 

Al Mamun, the distinguished though heretical Khalíf of Baghdád, was apatron of Al Farra, the chief of grammarians. A distinguished pupil of his, Abu'l 'Abbás Thalub, on his death-bed expressed his belief in the fact thatthe Quránists, the Traditionists, and others, had gained their heavenlyreward, but he had been only a grammarian, and grammar after all was, inconnection with the Qurán, a science of doubtful legality. The friend towhom he told his doubts and fears went home and saw a vision. It isrecorded that he had a vision in his sleep that very night, in which he sawthe blessed Prophet, who said to him: "Give my greeting to Abu'l 'AbbásThalub, and say, 'thou art master of the superior science. '" The Prophethad now spoken, and henceforth grammar became a lawful study in Islám. Muslims now quote the Qurán as a perfect model of style; it may be well toremember that the rules have been made for it, and that, therefore, it isbut natural that it should be perfect according to the present canons ofArabic grammar. [47]

The question of the interpretation of the text speedily became a veryimportant branch of the "'Ilm-i-usúl. " It is said that the Qurán wasbrought from Paradise by Gabriel to Muhammad as occasion required. TheProphet was reproached for not having a complete revelation, and {46}answered the reproach by the following verse, sent for the purpose. "Theinfidels say, 'unless the Qurán be sent down to him all at once'--but inthis way we establish thy heart in it, _in parcels have we parcelled it outto thee_" (Súra xxv. 34). The revelation thus given is entirely objective;it came to the ear of the Prophet through the teaching of Gabriel. "Yet itis a glorious Qurán, _written on the preserved Table_. " (Súra lxxxv. 22). Gabriel addresses the Prophet thus: "When we have _recited_ it then followthou the _recital_. " (Súra lxxv. 18). The external mode in which it came isreferred to in the verse: "We have _sent down_ to thee an Arabic Qurán. "(Súra xx. 112). The fragmentary way in which the Qurán was given[48] wasnot without its difficulties. Some passages contradicted others, some weredifficult to understand. To the Prophet alone was the solution known. Theknowledge he communicated to his immediate followers, the Companions, asthey are called, thus: "To thee have we sent down this book of monitions, that _thou mayest make clear to men_ what hath been sent down to them. "(Súra xvi. 46). 

Ibn Khaldoun says: "The Prophet unfolded the meaning, distinguished betweenabrogated and abrogating verses, {47} and communicated this knowledge tohis Companions. It was from his mouth that they knew the meaning of theverses and the circumstances which led to each distinct revelation beingmade. "[49] The Companions thus instructed became perfectly familiar withthe whole revelation. This knowledge they handed down by word of mouth totheir followers, the Tába'ín, who in their turn passed it on to theirfollowers the Taba-i-Tába'ín. The art of writing then became common, andthe business of the commentator henceforth was to collect together thesayings of the Companions thus handed down. Criticism of a passage in theQurán was not his duty, criticism of a comment made on it by a Companionwas beyond his province: the first was too sacred to be touched, the secondmust be accepted if only the chain of narrators of the statement wereperfect. Thus early in the history of Islám were the principles of exegesisfixed and settled. Every word, every sentence, has now its place and class. The commentator has now only to reproduce what was written before, [50]though he may in elucidation of the point, bring forth some Traditionhitherto unnoticed, which would, however, be a difficult thing to do. Itwill thus be seen that anything like the work of a Christian commentator, with all its fresh life and new ideas, is not to be had in Islám. Theperfection of its exegesis is its dogmatic and antique nature--

 "While as the world rolls on from age to age, And realms of thought expand, The letter stands without expanse or range, Stiff as a dead man's hand. "

The technical terms which the student must know, and {48} the definitionsof which he must understand, are those which relate to the nature of thewords, the sentences, the use of the words of the Qurán, and the deductionof arguments from passages in the book. 

I. The words of the Qurán are divided into four classes. 

1. _Kháss_, or special words. These are sub-divided into three classes. First, words which relate to genus, _e. G. _ mankind. Secondly, words whichrelate to species, _e. G. _ a man, which refers to men as distinguished fromwomen. Thirdly, words which relate to special individuality, _e. G. _ Zeid, which is the name of a special individual. 

2. _'Amm_, or common or collective names, such as "people. "

3. _Mushtarik_, or words which have several significations, as the Arabicword "'ain, " which may mean an eye, a fountain, or the sun. Again, the word"Sulát, " if connected with God, may mean mercy, as "Sulát Ulláh, " the mercyof God; if with man, it may mean either "namáz, " a stated liturgicalservice, or "du'a, " prayer in its ordinary sense, _e. G. _ Sulát-ul-Istisqá(prayer in time of drought) is du'a, not namáz. 

4. _Muawwal_, words which have several significations, all of which arepossible, and so a special explanation is required. For example, Súracviii. 2, reads thus in Sale's translation. "Wherefore pray unto the Lordand _slay_ (the victims). " The word translated "slay" is in Arabic "nahr, "which has many meanings. The followers of the great Legist Abu Hanífarender it, "sacrifice, " and add the words (the "victims"). The followers ofIbn Sháfa'í say it means "placing the hands on the breast in prayer. "

This illustrates the difference between Mushtarik and Muawwal. In theformer, only one meaning is allowable, and that meaning the contextsettles; in the latter both meanings are allowable and both right. 

These divisions of words having been well mastered and the power ofdefining any word in the Qurán gained, the {49} student passes on toconsider the nature of the sentences. These are divided into two greatclasses, --the "Obvious, " and the "Hidden. "

This division is referred to in the following passage of the Qurán. "He itis who hath sent down to thee the book. Some of its signs are of themselves_perspicuous_; these are the basis (literally "mother") of the book, andothers are _figurative_. But they whose hearts are given to err follow itsfigures, craving discord, craving an interpretation; yet none know itsinterpretation, but God. [51] And the stable in knowledge say: 'We believein it, it is all from God. '" (Súra iii. 3). 

This has given rise to the division of the whole book into literal andallegorical statements. In order to explain these correctly the commentatormust know (1) the reason why, (2) the place where, (3) the time when, theparticular passage he is expounding was revealed; he must know whether itabrogates or is abrogated, whether it is in its proper order and place ornot; whether it contains its meaning within itself or needs the light whichthe context throws upon it; he must know all the Traditions which bear uponit, and the authority for each such Tradition. This effectually confinesthe order of commentators in the strict sense of the word to theCompanions, and supplies the reason why commentators since then simplyreproduce their opinions. [52] But to return from this digression. Sentencesare Záhir--"Obvious, " or Khafí--"Hidden. " Obvious sentences are dividedinto four classes. 

I. (1). _Záhir_, or obvious, the meaning of which is so clear that he whohears it at once understands its meaning {50} without seeking for anyexplanation. This kind of sentence may be abrogated. Unless abrogated, action in accordance with it is to be considered as the express command ofGod. All penal laws and the rules regulating the substitution of onereligious act for another, _e. G. _ almsgiving instead of fasting, must bebased on this, the clearest of the obvious sentences. 

(2). _Nass_, a word commonly used for a text of the Qurán, but in itstechnical meaning here expressing what is meant by a sentence, the meaningof which is made clear by some word which occurs in it. The followingsentence illustrates both Záhir and Nass: "Take in marriage of such otherwomen as please you, two, three, four. " This sentence is Záhir, becausemarriage is here declared lawful; it is Nass, because the words "one, two, three, four, " which occur in the sentence, show the unlawfulness of havingmore than four wives. 

(3). _Mufassir_, or explained. This is a sentence which needs some word init to explain it and make it clear. Thus: "And the angels prostratedthemselves, all of them with one accord, save Iblis (Satan). " Here thewords "save Iblis, " show that he did not prostrate himself. This kind ofsentence may be abrogated. 

(4). _Mukham_, or perspicuous. This is a sentence as to the meaning ofwhich there can be no doubt, and which cannot be controverted, thus: "Godknoweth all things. " This kind of sentence cannot be abrogated. To act onsuch sentences without departing from the literal sense is the highestdegree of obedience to God's command. 

The difference between these sentences is seen when there is a real orapparent contradiction between them. If such should occur, the first mustgive place to the second, and so on. Thus Mukham cannot be abrogated orchanged by any of the preceding, or Mufassir by Nass, &c. 

The other great division of sentences is that of

II. (1). _Khafí_ or hidden. Such are those sentences in {51} which otherpersons or things are hidden beneath the plain meaning of a word orexpression contained therein, as: "as for a thief, whether male or female, cut ye off their hands in recompense for their doings. " (Súra v. 42). Theword for thief is "Sáriq, " and in this passage it is understood to includehighwaymen, pickpockets, plunderers of the dead, &c. These meanings areKhafí or hidden under it. 

(2). _Muskhil_, or ambiguous, The following is given as an illustration:"And (their attendants) shall go round about them with vessels of silverand goblets. The bottles shall be bottles of silver. " The difficulty hereis that bottles are not made of silver, but of glass. The commentators say, however, that glass is dull in colour, though it has some lustre, whilstsilver is white, and not so bright as glass. Now it may be, that thebottles of Paradise will be like glass bottles as regards their lustre, andlike silver as regards their colour. But anyhow, it is very difficult toascertain the meaning. 

(3. ) _Mujmal. _ These are, first, sentences which may have a variety ofinterpretations, owing to the words in them being capable of severalmeanings; in that case the meaning which is given to the sentence in theTraditions relating to it should be acted on and accepted. Secondly, thesentence may contain some very rare word, and thus its meaning may bedoubtful, as: "Man truly is by creation hasty. " (Súra lxx. 19. ) In thisverse the word "halú'"--hasty--occurs. It is very rarely used, and had itnot been for the following words, "when evil toucheth him, he is full ofcomplaint; but when good befalleth him, he becometh niggardly, " its meaningwould not have been at all easy to understand. 

The following is an illustration of the first kind of _Mujmal_ sentences:"Stand for prayer (salát) and give alms, " (zakát. ) Both salát and zakát are'Mushtarik' words. The people, therefore, did not understand this verse, sothey applied to Muhammad for an explanation. He explained to them that"salát" might mean the ritual of public prayer, {52} standing to say thewords "God is great, " or standing to repeat a few verses of the Qurán; orit might mean private prayer. The primitive meaning of "zakát" is growing. The Prophet, however, fixed the meaning here to that of "almsgiving, " andsaid, "Give of your substance one-fortieth part. "

(4. ) _Mutashábih. _ These are sentences so difficult that men cannotunderstand them, a fact referred to in Súra iii. 3. (Ante. P. 49), nor willthey do so until the day of resurrection. The Prophet, however, knew theirmeaning. Such portions are the letters A, L, M; A, L, R; Y, A at thecommencement of some of the Súras. [53] Such expressions also as "God'shand, " "The face of God, " "God sitteth, " &c. , come under this category. 

The next point to be considered is the _use_ of words in the Qurán, andhere again the same symmetrical division into four classes is found, _viz_:--

(1. ) _Haqíqat_, that is, words which are used in their literal meaning, as"rukú', " a prostration, and "salát" in the sense of prayer. 

(2. ) _Majáz_, or words which are used in a figurative sense, as "salát" inthe sense of "námáz" a liturgical service. 

(3. ) _Saríh_, or words the meaning of which is quite evident, as, "Thou art_divorced_, " "Thou art _free_. "

(4. ) _Kinayáh_, or words which, being used in a metaphorical sense, requirethe aid of the context to make their meaning clear, as: "Thou artseparated, " which may, as it {53} stands alone, mean "Thou art divorced. "This class also includes all pronouns the meaning of which is only to beknown from the context, _e. G. _ one day the Prophet not knowing who knockedat his door said, "Who art thou?" The man replied, "It is I. " Muhammadanswered, "Why dost thou say I, I? Say thy name that I may know who thouart. " The pronoun "I" is here 'kinayáh. '

The most important and most difficult branch of exegesis is "istidlál, " orthe science of deducing arguments from the Qurán. This too is divided intofour sections, as follows:--

(1. ) _Ibárat_, or the plain sentence. "Mothers, after they are divorced, shall give suck unto their children two full years, and the father shall beobliged to maintain them and clothe them according to that which isreasonable. " (Súra ii. 233. ) From this verse two deductions are made. First, from the fact that the word "them" is in the feminine plural, itmust refer to the mothers and not to the children; secondly, as the duty ofsupporting the mother is incumbent on the father, it shows that therelationship of the child is closer with the father than with the mother. Penal laws may be based on a deduction of this kind. 

(2. ) _Ishárat_, that is, a sign or hint which may be given from the orderin which the words are placed. 

(3. ) _Dalálat_, or the argument which may be deduced from the use of somespecial word in the verse, as: "say not to your parents, "Fie" (Arabic"uff") (Súra xvii. 23). From the use of the word "uff, " it is argued thatchildren may not beat or abuse their parents. Penal laws may be based on"dalálat, " thus: "Their aim will be to abet disorder on the earth; but Godloveth not the abettors of disorder. " (Súra v. 69. ) The word translated"aim" is in Arabic literally yasa'úna, "they run. " From this the argumentis deduced that as highwaymen wander about, they are included amongst thosewhom "God loveth not, " and that, therefore, the severest punishment may begiven to {54} them, for any deduction that comes under the head of"dalálat" is a sufficient basis for the formation of the severest penallaws. 

(4. ) _Iqtizá. _ This is a deduction which demands certain conditions:"whosoever killeth a believer by mischance, shall be bound to free abeliever from slavery. " (Súra iv. 94). As a man has no authority to freehis neighbour's slave, the condition here required, though not expressed, is that the slave should be his own property. 

The Qurán is divided into:--

(1). _Harf_ (plural _Hurúf_), letters. The numbers given by differentauthorities vary. In one standard book it is said that there are 338, 606letters. 

(2). _Kalima_ (plural _Kalimát_), words, stated by some to amount to79, 087; by others to 77, 934. 

(3). _Áyat_ (plural _Áyát_), verses. Áyat really means a sign, and was thename given by Muhammad to short sections or verses of the Qurán. The end ofa verse is determined by the position of a small circle (. ). The earlyQurán Readers did not agree as to the position of these circles, and sofive different ways of arranging them have arisen. This accounts for avariation in the number of verses in various editions. The varieties are:--

(1). _Kúfa_ verses. The Readers in the city of Kúfa say that they followedthe custom of 'Alí. Their way of reckoning is generally adopted in India. They reckon 6, 239 verses. 

(2). _Basra_ verses. The Readers of Basra follow 'Asim bin Hajjáj, aCompanion. They reckon 6, 204. 

(3). _Shámi_ verses. The Readers in Syria (Shám) followed Abd-ulláh bin'Umr, a Companion. They reckon 6, 225 verses. 

(4). _Mecca_ verses. According to this arrangement there are 6, 219 verses. 

(5). _Madína_ verses. This way of reading contains 6, 211 verses. 

{55}

In each of the above varieties the verse "Bismilláh" (in the name of God)is not reckoned. It occurs 113 times in the Qurán. 

This diversity of punctuation does not generally affect the meaning of anyimportant passage. The third verse of the third Súra is an importantexception. The position of the circle (. ), the symbol denoting a full stop, in that verse is of the highest importance in connection with the rise ofscholasticism ('Ilm-i-kalám) in Islám. 

Most of the cases, however, are like the following:--

In Súra xxvii. An account is given of the Queen of Sheba's receiving aletter from King Solomon. Addressing her nobles she said: "Verily, Kings, when they enter a city (by force) waste the same, and abase the mostpowerful of the inhabitants hereof: and so will (these) do (with us). " ManyReaders put the full stop after the word "hereof, " and say that God is thespeaker of the words "and so will they do. "

(4). _Súra_, or chapter. The word Súra means a row or series, such as aline of bricks arranged in a wall, but it is now exclusively used forchapters in the Qurán. These are one hundred and fourteen in number. TheSúras are not numbered in the original Arabic, but each one has someapproximate name, (as Baqr--the cow, Nisá--women, &c. , ) generally takenfrom some expression which occurs in it. They are not arranged inchronological order, but according to their length. As a general rule, theshorter Súras which contain the theology of Islám, belong to the Meccanperiod of the Prophet's career, [54] and the longer ones relating chiefly tosocial duties and relationships, to the organisation of Islám as a civilpolity, to the time when he was consolidating his power at Madína. The bestway, therefore, to {56} read the Qurán, is to begin at the end. The attemptto arrange the Súras in due order, is a very difficult one, and, after all, can only be approximately correct. [55] Carlyle referring to the confusedmass of "endless iterations, long windedness, entanglement, most crude, incondite" says: "nothing but a sense of duty could carry any Europeanthrough the Qurán. " When re-arranged the book becomes more intelligible. The chief tests for such re-arrangement are the style and the matter. Thereis a very distinct difference in both of these respects between the earlierand later Súras. The references to historical events sometimes give a clue. Individual Súras are often very composite in their character, but, such asthey are, they have been from the beginning. The recension made by Zeid, inthe reign of the Khalíf Osmán, has been handed down unaltered in its form. The only variations (qirá'at) now to be found in the text have been alreadynoticed. They in no way affect the arrangements of the Súras. 

5. _Sípára_ a thirtieth portion. This is a Persian word derived from _sí_, thirty, and _pára_, a portion. The Arabs call each of these divisions a_Juz_. Owing to this division, a pious man can recite the whole Qurán in amonth, taking one Sípára each day. Musalmáns never quote the Qurán as we doby Súra and Áyat, but by the Sípára and Rukú', a term I now proceed toexplain. 

6. _Rukú'_ (plural _Rukúát_). This word literally means a prostration madeby a worshipper in the act of saying the prayers. The collection of versesrecited from the Qurán, ascriptions of praise offered to God, and variousritual acts connected with these, constitute one act of worship called a"rak'at. " After reciting some verses in this form of prayer, the worshippermakes a _Rukú'_, or prostration, the {57} portion then recited takes thename of _Rukú'_. Tradition states that the Khalíf Osmán, when reciting theQurán during the month of Ramazán, used to make twenty rak'ats eachevening. In each rak'at he introduced different verses of the Qurán, beginning with the first chapter and going steadily on. In this way herecited about two hundred verses each evening; that is, about ten verses ineach rak'at. Since then, it has been the custom to recite the Qurán in thisway in Ramazán, and also to quote it by the rukú', _e. G. _, "such a passageis in such a Sípára and in such a rukú'. "

The following account of a rak'at will make the matter plain. When theFaithful are assembled in the mosque, the Imám, or leader, being in frontfacing the Qibla, the service commences thus:--Each worshipper stands andsays the Niyyat (literally "intention"), a form of words declaring hisintention to say his prayers. He then says: "God is great. " After this, looking downwards, he says: "Holiness to Thee, O God! and praise be toThee, Great is Thy name, Great is Thy greatness, there is no deity butThee. " Then follows: "I seek from God refuge from cursed Satan. " Then theTasmiyah is repeated: "In the name of God, the Compassionate and Merciful. "Then follows the Fátiha, that is, the short chapter at the commencement ofthe Qurán. After this has been recited, the Imám proceeds, on the firstnight of the month Ramazán, with the first verse of the second chapter. [56]After saying a few verses, he makes a rukú'; that is, he bends his head andbody down, and places his hands on his knees. In this position he says:"God is great. " Then he repeats three times the words: "I extol theholiness of my Lord, the Great. " He then stands up and says: "God hears himwho praises Him. " To this the people respond: "O Lord, thou art praised. "Again, falling on his knees, the worshipper says: "God is great. " Then heputs first his nose, and then his forehead on the {58} ground and saysthree times: "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High. " Then sittingon his heels, he says: "God is great;" and again repeats as before: "Iextol, etc. " He then rises and says: "God is great. " This is one rak'at. Oneach night in the month of Ramazán this is gone through twenty times, theonly variation being that after the Fátiha and before the firstprostration, fresh verses of the Qurán are introduced. The whole is, ofcourse, done in Arabic, in whatever country the worshippers may be. Thename of the prostration (rukú') has been transferred to the portion of theQurán recited just before it is made. There are altogether 557 Rukúát. 

(7). The other divisions are not important. They are, a _Sumn_, _Ruba'_, _Nisf_, _Suls_, that is one-eighth, one-fourth, one-half, one-third of aSípára respectively. 

In reciting the Qurán the worshipper must be careful to say the "Takbír, "_i. E. _ "God is great, " after the several appointed places. Such a place isafter the recital of the 93rd Súra. The custom arose in this way. Thehypocrites came to the Prophet and asked him to relate the story of the"Seven Sleepers. " He said: "I will tell you to-morrow;" but he forgot toadd the words "if God will. " By way of warning, God allowed no inspirationto descend upon him for some days. Then the hypocrites began to laugh andsay: "God has left him. " As it was not God's purpose to put his messengerto ridicule, the Súra entitled "The brightness" (xciii) was immediatelybrought by the ever-ready Gabriel. It begins: "By the brightness of themorning, and by the night when it groweth dark, _thy Lord hath not forsakenthee_, neither doth He hate thee. " In remembrance of this signalinterposition of Providence on his behalf, the Prophet always concluded therecital of this Súra with the words: "God is great. " The practice thusbecame a "Sunnat" obligation; that is, it should be done because theProphet did it. 

The doctrine of abrogation is a very important one in {59} connection withthe study of the Qurán. It is referred to in the verses: "Whatever verseswe cancel or cause thee to forget, we give thee better in their stead, orthe like thereof. " (Súra ii. 100). This is a Madína Súra. "What He pleasethwill God abrogate or confirm; for with Him is the source of revelation. "(Súra xiii. 39). Some verses which were cancelled in the Prophet'slife-time are not now extant. Abdullah Ibn Masúd states that the Prophetone day recited a verse, which he immediately wrote down. The next morninghe found it had vanished from the material on which it had been written. Astonished at this, he acquainted Muhammad with the fact, and was informedthat the verse in question had been revoked. There are, however, manyverses still in the Qurán, which have been abrogated. It was an exceedinglyconvenient doctrine, and one needed to explain the change of front whichMuhammad made at different periods of his career. Certain rules have beenlaid down to regulate the practice. The verse which abrogates is called_Núsikh_, and the abrogated verse _Mansúkh_. _Mansúkh_ verses are of threekinds:--first, where the words and the sense have both been abrogated;secondly, where the letter only is abrogated and the sense remains;thirdly, where the sense is abrogated though the letter remains. Imám Málikgives as an instance of the first kind the verse: "If a son of Adam had tworivers of gold, he would covet yet a third; and if he had three he wouldcovet yet a fourth. Neither shall the belly of a son of Adam be filled, butwith dust. God will turn unto him who shall repent. " The Imám states thatoriginally this verse was in the Súra (ix. ) called Repentance. The verse, called the "verse of stoning" is an illustration of the second kind. Itreads: "Abhor not your parents for this would be ingratitude in you. If aman and woman of reputation commit adultery, ye shall stone them both; itis a punishment ordained by God; for God is mighty and wise. " The KhalífOmar says this verse was extant in Muhammad's life-time but that it {60} isnow lost. But it is the third class which practically comes into'Ilm-i-usúl. Authorities differ as to the number of verses abrogated. Salestates that they have been estimated at two hundred and twenty-five. Theprincipal ones are not many in number, and are very generally agreed upon. I give a few examples. It is a fact worthy of notice that they occurchiefly, if not almost entirely, in Súras delivered at Madína. There, whereMuhammad had to confront Jews and Christians, he was at first politic inhis aim to win them over to his side, and then, when he found themobstinate, the doctrine of abrogation came in conveniently. This is seenplainly in the following case. At Mecca Muhammad and his followers did notstand facing any particular direction when at prayer, a fact to which thefollowing passage refers:--"To God belongeth the east and west; therefore, whithersoever ye turn yourselves to pray there is the face of God. " (Súraii. 109). When Muhammad arrived at Madína, he entered into friendship withthe Jews and tried to win them to his side. The Qibla (sanctuary) towardswhich the worshippers now invariably turned at prayer was Jerusalem. Thiswent on for a while, but when Muhammad claimed to be not merely a Prophetfor the Arabs, but the last and the greatest of all the Prophets, when heasserted that Moses had foretold his advent, and that his revelations werethe same as those contained in their own Scriptures, they utterly refusedallegiance to him. In the first half of the second year of the Hijra thebreach between them was complete. It was now time to reconcile the leadersof the Quraish tribe at Mecca. So the verse quoted above was abrogated by:"We have seen thee turning thy face towards heaven, but we will have theeturn to a Qibla, which shall please thee. Turn then thy face toward theHoly Temple (of Mecca), and wherever ye be, turn your faces toward thatpart. " (Súra ii. 139. ) The Faithful were consoled by the assurance thatthough they had not done so hitherto, yet God would not let their {61}faith be fruitless, "for unto man is God merciful, gracious. " (v. 138. ) Thedoctrine of abrogation is brought in for a more personal matter in thefollowing case: "It is not permitted to thee to take other wives hereafter, nor to change thy present wives for other women, though their beauty charmthee, except slaves, whom thy right hand shall possess. " (Súra xxxiii. 52. )This is said by Beidawi, and other eminent Muslim divines, to have beenabrogated by a verse which though placed before it in the arrangement ofverses, was really delivered after it. The verse is: "O Prophet, we allowthee thy wives whom thou hast dowered, and the slaves which thy right handpossesseth out of the booty which God hath granted thee; and the daughtersof thy uncle, and the daughters of thy aunts, both on thy father's side, and on thy mother's side, who have fled with thee (to Madína), and anyother believing woman, who hath given herself up to the Prophet; if theProphet desireth to wed her, it is a peculiar privilege for thee, above therest of the Faithful. " (Súra xxxiii. 49. )

The Moghul Emperor Akbar, wishing to discredit the 'Ulamá, in one of themeetings so frequently held for discussion during his long reign, propounded the question as to how many free born women a man might marry. The lawyers answered that four was the number fixed by the Prophet. "Ofother women who seem good in your eyes marry two and two, and three andthree, and four and four. " (Súra iv. 3. ) The Emperor said that he had notrestricted himself to that number, and that Shaikh 'Abd-un-Nabi had toldhim that a certain Mujtahid had had nine wives. The Mujtahid in question, Ibn Abi Lailah reckoned the number allowed thus 2+3+4=9. Other learned mencounted in this way 2+2, 3+3, 4+4=18. The Emperor wished the meeting todecide the point. 

Again, the second verse of Súra lxxiii reads: "Stand up all night, except asmall portion of it, for prayer. " According to a Tradition handed down by'Áyesha the last verse {62} of this Súra was revealed a year later. Itmakes the matter much easier. "God measureth the night and the day; heknoweth that ye cannot count its hours aright, and therefore turneth to youmercifully. Recite _then so much of the Qurán as may be easy to you_. " (v. 20. )

The following is an illustration of a verse abrogated, though there is noverse to prove its abrogation. However, according to the Ijmá' it has beenabrogated. "But alms are only to be given to the poor and the needy and tothose who collect them, and to those whose hearts are won to Islám. " (Súraix. 60. ) The clause--"to those whose hearts are won to Islám"--is nowcancelled. [57] Muhammad, to gain the hearts of those, who lately enemies, had now become friends, and to confirm them in the faith, gave them largepresents from the spoils he took in war; but when Islám spread and becamestrong, the 'Ulamá agreed that such a procedure was not required and saidthat the order was "mansukh. "

The other verses abrogated relate to the Ramazán fast, to Jihád, the law ofretaliation, and other matters of social interest. 

The doctrine of abrogation is now almost invariably applied by Musalmáncontroversialists to the Old and New Testaments, which they say areabrogated by the Qurán. "His (Muhammad's) law is the abrogator of everyother law. "[58] This is not, however, a legitimate use of the doctrine. According to the best and most ancient Muslim divines, abrogation refersentirely to the Qurán and the Traditions, and even then is confined tocommands and prohibitions. "Those who imagine it to be part of theMuhammadan creed that one law has totally repealed another, are utterlymistaken--we hold no such doctrine. "[59] In the Tafsír-i-Itifáq it iswritten: "Abrogation affects those {63} matters which God has confined tothe followers of Muhammad, and one of the chief advantages of it is thatthe way is made easy. " In the Tafsír-i-Mazhirí we find: "Abrogation refersonly to commands and prohibitions, not to facts or historicalstatements. "[60] Again, no verse of the Qurán, or a Tradition can beabrogated unless the abrogating verse is distinctly opposed to it inmeaning. If it is a verse of the Qurán, we must have the authority ofMuhammad himself for the abrogation; if a Tradition, that of a Companion. Thus "the word of a commentator or a Mujtahid is not sufficient unlessthere is a 'genuine Tradition' (Hadís-i-Sahíh), to show the matter clearly. The question of the abrogation of any previous command depends onhistorical facts with regard to the abrogation, not on the mere opinion ofa commentator. " It cannot be shown that either Muhammad or a Companion eversaid that the Bible was abrogated. This rule, whilst it shows that theassertion of modern controversialists on this point is void of foundation, also illustrates another point to which I have often called attention, _viz. _; that in Islám all interpretation must be regulated bytraditionalism. 

Additions were occasionally made. Thus when it was revealed that those whostay at home were not before God as those who go forth to war, Abdullah andIbn Um-Maktum said: 'and what if they were blind. ' The Prophet asked forthe shoulder-blade on which the verse was written. He then had a spasmodicconvulsion. After his recovery he made Zeid add the words, "free fromtrouble. " So now the whole verse reads thus: "Those believers who sit athome _free from trouble_ (_i. E. _, bodily infirmity), and those who dovaliantly in the cause of God, with their substance and their persons, shall not be treated alike. " (Súra iv. 97). Years after, Zeid said: "Ifancy I see the words now on the shoulder-blade near a crack. "

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The question of the eternal nature of the Qurán does not properly comeunder the head of 'Ilm-i-usúl, but it is a dogma fondly cherished by manyMuslims. In the days of the Khalíf Al-Mamun this question was fiercelydebated. The Freethinkers, whilst believing in the Mission of Muhammad, asserted that the Qurán was created, by which statement they meant that therevelation came to him in a subjective mode, and that the language was hisown. The book was thus brought within the reach of criticism. In the year212, A. H. The Khalíf issued a decree to the effect that all who held theQurán to be uncreated were to be declared guilty of heresy. But the Khalífhimself was a notorious rationalist, and so the orthodox, though theyremained quiet, remained unconvinced. The arguments used on the orthodoxside are, that both the words and their pronunciation are eternal, that theattempt to draw a distinction between the word as it exists in the DivineMind and as it appears in the Qurán is highly dangerous. In vain do theiropponents argue that, if the Qurán is uncreated, two Eternal Beings are inexistence. To this it is answered: "This is the honourable Qurán, writtenin the preserved Tablet. " (Súra lvi. 76). A Tradition is also adduced whichstates: "God wrote the Thora (Law) with His own hand, and with His own handHe created Adam; and also in the Qurán it is written, 'and We wrote for himupon the tables a monition concerning every matter, ' in reference to thetables of the Law given to Moses. " If God did this for former prophets andtheir works, how much more, it is argued, should he not have done it forthe last and greatest of the prophets, and the noble Qurán? It is not easyto get a correct definition of the term "the uncreated Qurán, " but it hasbeen put thus: "The Word as it exists in the mind of God is 'Kalám-i-Nafsí'(spiritual word), something unwritten and eternal. It is acknowledged bythe Ijmá'-i-Ummat (consent of the Faithful), the Traditions, and by otherprophets that God {65} speaks. The Kalám-i-Nafsí then is eternal, but theactual words, style, and eloquence are created by God; so also is thearrangement and the miraculous nature of the book. " This seems to be areasonable account of the doctrine, though there are theologians who holdthat the very words are eternal. The doctrine of abrogation clashes withthis idea, but they meet the objection by their theory of absolutepredestination. This accounts for the circumstances which necessitated theabrogation, for the circumstances, as well as the abrogated verses, weredetermined on from all eternity. 

This concludes the consideration of the exegesis of the Qurán, a bookdifficult and uninteresting for a non-Muslim to read, but one which hasengaged and is still engaging the earnest thoughts of many millions of thehuman race. Thousands of devout students in the great theological schoolsof Cairo, Stamboul, Central Asia and India are now plodding through thisvery subject of which I have here been treating; soon will they go forth asteachers of the book they so much revere. How utterly unfit that trainingis to make them wise men in any true sense of the word, how calculated torender them proud, conceited, and scornful of other creeds, its rigid andexclusive character shows. Still, it is a marvellous book; for twelvehundred years and more it has helped to mould the faith, animate thecourage, cheer the despondency of multitudes, whether dwellers in the wilduplands of Central Asia, in Hindustan, or on the shores of theMediterranean. The Turanian and the Aryan, the Arab and the Negro, alikelearn its sonorous sentences, day by day repeat its opening clauses, andpray in its words as their fathers prayed before them. 

Next to the act of testifying to the unity of God, the Qurán is the greatbond of Islám. No matter from what race the convert may have come, nomatter what language he may speak, he must learn in Arabic, and repeat byrote portions of the Qurán in every act of public worship. 

The next subject for consideration is that of the {66} Traditions, or thesecond branch of the science of 'Ilm-i-usúl. The Traditions contain therecord of all that Muhammad did and said. It is the belief of every Muslim, to whatever sect he belongs, that the Prophet not only spake but also actedunder a divine influence. The mode of the inspiration is different fromthat of the Qurán. There the revelation was objective. In the Prophet'ssayings recorded in the Traditions the inspiration is subjective, but stilla true inspiration. This belief places the Traditions in a place secondonly to the Qurán; it makes them a true supplement to that book, and thusthey not only throw light on its meaning, but themselves form the basis onwhich doctrines may be established. Without going so far as to say thatevery Tradition by itself is to be accepted as an authority in Islám, itmay be distinctly asserted that there can be no true conception formed ofthat system if the Traditions are not studied and taken into account. Soimportant a branch of Muslim theology is it, that the study of theTraditions is included in the 'Ilm-i-usúl, or science of exegesis. Someaccount of them, therefore, naturally forms part of this chapter. 

The first four Khalífs were called the Khulafá-i-Ráshidín that is, thosewho could guide others aright. They had been friends and Companions of theProphet, and the Faithful could always appeal to them in cases of doubt. The Prophet had declared that Islám must be written in the hearts of men. There was therefore an unwillingness to commit his sayings to writing. Theywere handed down by word of mouth. As no argument was so effectual in adispute as "a saying" of the Prophet, the door was opened by which spuriousTraditions could be palmed off on the Faithful. To prevent this, a numberof strict rules were framed, at the head of which stands the Prophet'ssaying, itself a Tradition: "Convey to other persons none of my wordsexcept those which ye know of a surety. Verily, he who purposely representsmy {67} words wrongly will find a place for himself nowhere but in fire. "To enforce this rule, it was laid down that the relator of a Tradition mustalso repeat its "Isnád, " or chain of authorities, as: "I heard from such anone, who heard from such an one, " and so on, until the chain reaches theProphet himself. Each person, too, in this "Isnád, " must have been wellknown for his good character and retentive memory. This failed, however, toprevent a vast number of manifestly false Traditions becoming current; somen set themselves to the work of collecting and sifting the great mass ofTradition that in the second century of Islám had begun to work untoldevil. These men are called "Muhadisín, " or "collectors of Tradition. " TheSunnís and the Wahhábís recognise six such men, and their collections areknown as the "Sihah-Sittah, " or six correct books. They are thefollowing:--

(1). The _Sahíh-i-Bukhárí_, called after Abu Abdullah MuhammadIbn-i-Ismá'íl, a native of Bukhárá. He was born A. H. 194. He was a man ofmiddle height, spare in frame, and as a boy totally blind. The grief of hisfather was on this account intense; but one day in a dream he saw thePatriarch Abraham, who said to him: "God on account of thy grief and sorrowhas granted sight to thy son. " The sight being thus restored, at the age often he went to school, and began to learn the Traditions by heart. Afterhis education was finished, a famous Muhadis named Dákhlí came to Bukhárá. One day the youthful Bukhárí ventured to correct the famous man. It was anastounding piece of audacity, but the youth was proved to be in the right. This set him on the work of collecting and sifting the Traditions. At theearly age of sixteen he was able to remember fifteen thousand. In course oftime he collected 600, 000 Traditions. The result of his examination andselection was that he approved of seven thousand two hundred andseventy-five. These are now recorded in his great work, theSahíh-i-Bukhárí. It {68} is said that he never sat down to examine aTradition without first performing a legal ablution, and repeating tworak'at prayers. He then said: "O Lord, let me not make a mistake. " Forsixteen years he lived in a mosque and died much respected at the age ofsixty-four. 

(2). _Sahíh-i-Muslim. _ Muslim Ibn-i-Hajjáj was born at Nishápúr, a city ofKhorásán. He collected about 300, 000 Traditions, from which he made hiscollection. He is said to have been a very just man, and willing to obligeall who sought his advice. In fact, this willingness to oblige was theindirect cause of his death. One day he was sitting as usual in the mosquewhen some people came to ask him about a Tradition. As he could notdiscover it in the books he had with him, he went to his house to searchthere. The people brought him a basket of dates. He went on eating andsearching, but unfortunately he ate so many dates that he died. (A. H. 261. )

(3). _Sunan-i-Abu Dáúd. _ Abu Dáúd Sajistání, a native of Seistán, was bornA. H. 202. He was a great traveller, and went to all the chief places ofMusalmán learning. In knowledge of the Traditions, in devotion, in piety, he was unrivalled. He collected about 500, 000 Traditions, of which heselected four thousand eight hundred for his book. 

(4). _Jámí'-i-Tirmizí. _ Abu Isa' Muhammad Tirmizí was born at Tirmiz in theyear A. H. 209. He was a disciple of Bukhárí. Ibn Khallikan says this workis "the production of a well-informed man: its exactness isproverbial. "[61]

(5). _Sunan-i-Nasáí. _ Abu Abd-ur-Rahman Nasáí was born at Nasá, inKhorásán, in the year A. H. 214, and died A. H. 303. It is recorded of him, with great approbation, that he fasted every other day, and had four wivesand many slaves. This book is considered of great value. He met with hisdeath in rather a sad way. He had compiled a book on the virtues of 'Alí, and as the people of {69} Damascus were at that time inclined to the heresyof the Khárigites, he wished to read his book in the mosque of that place. After he had read a little way, a man arose and asked him whether he knewaught of the praises of Muavia, 'Alí's deadly enemy. He replied that he didnot. This answer enraged the people, who beat him so severely that he diedsoon after. 

(6). _Sunan-i-Ibn Májah. _ Ibn Májah[62] was born at 'Irak A. H. 209. Thiswork contains 4, 000 Traditions. 

The Shía'hs reject these books and substitute five books[63] of their owninstead. They are of a much later date, the last one, indeed, having beencompiled more than four hundred years after the Hijra. 

The belief which underlies the question of the authority of the Traditionsis that before the Throne of God there stands a 'preserved Table, ' on whichall that can happen, and all that has ever entered, or will enter, the mindof man is 'noted in a distinct writing. ' Through the medium of Gabriel, theProphet had access to this. It follows then that the words of the Prophetare the words of God. 

Of the four great "Canonical Legists" of Islám, Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was thegreatest collector of Traditions. It is said that he knew by heart no lessthan one million. Of these he incorporated thirty thousand into his systemof jurisprudence. That system is now almost obsolete. Abu Hanífa, who issaid to have accepted only eighteen Traditions as authentic, founded asystem which is to this day the most powerful in Islám. The Hanifites, however, as well as other Muslims, acknowledge the six standard collectionsof Traditions as direct revelations of the will of {70} God. They rangeover a vast number of subjects, and furnish a commentary on the Qurán. TheProphet's personal appearance, his mental and moral qualities, his actions, his opinions, are all recorded over and over again. Many questions ofreligious belief are largely founded on the Traditions, and it is to themwe must go for an explanation of much of the ritual of Islám. It is verydifficult for any one, who has not lived in long and friendly intercoursewith Muslims, to realize how much their religious life and opinions, theirthought and actions, are based on the Traditions. 

Having thus shown the importance of the Traditions, I now proceed to entera little into detail on the question of the rules framed concerning them. The classification adopted by different authors may vary in somesubordinate points; but the following account is adopted from a standardMuhammadan work. A Tradition may be Hadís-i-Qualí, that is, an account ofsomething the Prophet said; or Hadís-i-Fa'lí, a record of something whichhe did; or Hadís-i-Taqrírí, a statement of some act performed by otherpersons in his presence, and which action he did not forbid. 

The Traditions may be classed under two general heads:--

First. --_Hadís-i-Mutawátír_, that is, "an undoubted Tradition, " the Isnád, or chain of narrators of which is perfect, and in which chain each narratorpossessed all the necessary qualifications for his office. [64] Someauthorities say there are only a few of these Traditions extant, but mostallow that the following is one: "There are no good works except withintention, " for example, a man may fast, but, unless he has the intentionof fasting firmly in his mind, he gains no spiritual reward by so doing. 

Second. --_Hadís-i-Ahád. _ The authority of this class is {71} theoreticallysomewhat less than that of the first, but practically it is the same. 

This class is again sub-divided into two:--

(1). _Hadís-i-Sahíh_, or a genuine Tradition. It is not necessary to gointo the sub-divisions of this sub-division. A Tradition is Sahíh if thenarrators have been men of pious lives, abstemious in their habits, endowedwith a good memory, free from blemish, and persons who lived at peace withtheir neighbours. The following also are Sahíh, though their importance asauthorities varies. I arrange them in the order of their value. SahíhTraditions are those which are found in the collections made by Bukhárí andMuslim, or in the collection of either of the above, though not in both;or, if not mentioned by either of these famous collectors, if it has beenretained in accordance with their canons for the rejection or retention ofTraditions; or lastly, if retained in accordance with the rules of anyother approved collector. For each of these classes there is a distinctname. 

(2). _Hadís-i-Hasan. _ The narrators of this class are not of such goodauthority as those of the former with regard to one or two qualities; butthese Traditions should be received as of equal authority as regards anypractical use. [65] It is merely as a matter of classification that theyrank second. 

In addition to these names, there are a number of other technical termswhich have regard to the personal character of the narrators, the Isnád, and other points. A few may be mentioned. 

(1). _Hadís-i-Z'aíf_, or a weak Tradition. The narrators of it have beenpersons whose characters were not above reproach, whose memories were bad, or who, worse still, were addicted to "bid'at, " innovation, a habit now, asthen, a crime in the eyes of all true Muslims. All agree that a {72} "weakTradition" has little force; but few rival theologians agree as to whichare, and which are not, "weak Traditions. "

(2). _Hadís-i-Mua'llaq_, or a Tradition in the Isnád of which there is somebreak. If it begins with a Tábi' (one in the generation after that of theCompanions), it is called "_Mursal_" the one link in the chain, theCompanion, being wanting. If the first link in the chain of narratorsbegins in a generation still later, it has another name, and so on. 

(3). Traditions which have various names, according as the narratorconcealed the name of his Imám, or where different narrators disagree, orwhere the narrator has mixed some of his own words with the Tradition, orhas been proved to be a liar, an evil liver, or mistaken; but into anaccount of these it is not necessary to enter, for no Tradition of thisclass would be considered as of itself sufficient ground on which to baseany important doctrine. [66]

It is the universally accepted rule, that no authentic Tradition can becontrary to the Qurán. The importance attached to Tradition has been shownin the preceding chapter, an importance which has demanded the formation ofan elaborate system of exegesis. To an orthodox Muslim the Book and theSunnat, God's word direct and God's word through the mind of the Prophet, are the foundation and sum of Islám, a fact not always taken into accountby modern panegyrists of the system. 

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 * * * * *

CHAPTER III. 

THE SECTS OF ISLÁM. 

It is a commonly received but nevertheless an erroneous opinion, that theMuhammadan religion is one remarkable for the absence of dogma and theunanimity of its professors. In this chapter I propose to show how thegreat sects differ in some very important principles of the faith, andtheir consequent divergence in practice. There is much that is commonground to all, and of that some account was given in the first chapter onthe "Foundations of Islám. "

It was there shown that all Muslim sects are not agreed as to the essentialfoundations of the Faith. The Sunnís recognise four foundations, theWahhábís two; whilst the Shía'hs reject altogether the Traditions heldsacred by both Sunní and Wahhábí. The next chapter will contain a fullaccount of the doctrines held by the Sunnís, and so no account of this, theorthodox sect, is given in this chapter. 

The first breach in Islám arose out of a civil war. The story has been sooften told that it need not be reproduced here at any length. 'Alí, theson-in-law of Muhammad, was the fourth Khalíf of Islám. He is described as"the last and worthiest of the primitive Musalmáns who imbibed hisreligious enthusiasm from companionship with the Prophet himself, and whofollowed to the last the simplicity of his character. " He was a mancalculated by his earnest devotion to the Prophet and his own naturalgraces to win, as he has done, the admiration of succeeding generations. Astrong opposition, however, arose, and 'Alí was assassinated in a mosque atKúfa. It is not easy, amid the conflicting statements of historians of therival sects, to arrive at the truth in all the details of the events whichhappened then; {74} but the generally received opinion is, that after theassassination of 'Alí, Hasan, his son, renounced his claim to the Khalifatein favour of his father's rival, Muavia. Hasan was ultimately poisoned byhis wife, who, it is said, was instigated by Muavia to do the deed, inorder to leave the coast clear for his son Yezíd. The most tragic event hasyet to come. Yezíd, who succeeded his father, was a very licentious andirreligious man. The people of Kúfa, being disgusted at his conduct, sentmessengers to Husain, the remaining son of 'Alí, with the request that hewould assume the Khalifate. In vain the friends of Husain tried to persuadehim to let the people of Kúfa first revolt, and thus show the reality oftheir wishes by their deeds. In an evil hour Husain started with a smallband of forty horsemen and one hundred foot-soldiers. On the plain ofKarbalá he found his way barred by a force of three thousand men. "We arefew in number, " said Husain, "and the enemy is in force. I am resolved todie. But you--I release you from your oath of allegiance; let all those whowish to do so leave me. " "O Son of the Apostle of God!" was the reply, "what excuse could we give to thy grandfather on the day of resurrectiondid we abandon thee to the hands of thine enemies?" One by one these bravemen fell beneath the swords of the enemy, until Husain and his infant sonalone were left. Weary and thirsty, Husain sat upon the ground. The enemydrew near, but no one dared to kill the grandson of the Prophet. An arrowpierced the ear of the little boy and he died. "We came from God, and wereturn to him, " were the pathetic words of Husain, as with a sorrowfulheart he laid the dead body of his son on the sand. He then stooped down todrink some water from the river Euphrates. Seeing him thus stooping, theenemy discharged a flight of arrows, one of which wounded him in the mouth. He fought bravely for a while, but at last fell covered with many wounds. The schism between the Sunní and the Shía'h was now complete. {75}

The ceremonies celebrated during the annual fast of Muharram refer to thesehistorical facts, and help to keep alive a bitter feud; but to suppose thatthe only difference between the Shía'h and the Sunní is a mere dispute asto the proper order of the early Khalífs would be a mistake. Starting offwith a political quarrel, the Shía'hs have travelled into a very distinctreligious position of their own. The fundamental tenet of the Shía'h sectis the "divine right" of 'Alí the Chosen and his descendants. From this itfollows that the chief duty of religion consists in devotion to the Imám(or Pontiff); from which position some curious dogmas issue. The wholequestion of the Imámat is a very important one. The word Imám comes from anArabic word meaning to aim at, to follow after. The term Imám then becomesequal to the word leader or exemplar. It is applied in this sense toMuhammad as the leader in all civil and religious questions, and to theKhalífs, his successors. It is also, in its religious import only, appliedto the founders of the four orthodox schools of jurisprudence, and in arestricted sense to the leader of a congregation at prayer in a mosque. Itis with the first of these meanings that we have now to deal. It is so usedin the Qurán--"When his Lord made trial of Abraham by commands which hefulfilled, He said: 'I am about to make of thee an Imám to mankind;' hesaid: 'Of my offspring also?' 'My covenant, ' said God, 'embraceth not theevil-doers. '" (Súra ii. 118. ) From this verse two doctrines are deduced. First, that the Imám must be appointed by God, for if this is not the case, why did Abraham say "of my offspring also?" Secondly, the Imám is free fromsin, for God said: "My covenant embraceth not the evil-doer. "

The first dispute about the Imámat originated with the twelve thousand whorevolted from 'Alí after the battle of Siffin (657 A. D. ), because heconsented to submit to arbitration the dispute between himself and Muavia. Some years after they were nearly all destroyed by 'Alí. A few {76}survivors, however, fled to various parts. Two at last settled in Omán, andthere preached their distinctive doctrines. In course of time the people ofOmán adopted the doctrine that the Imámat was not hereditary but elective, and that in the event of misconduct the Imám might be deposed. 'Abdullah-ibn-Ibádh (744 A. D. ) was a vigorous preacher of this doctrine, and from him the sect known as the 'Ibádhiyah takes its rise. The result ofthis teaching was the establishment of the power and jurisdiction of theImám of Omán. The 'Ibádhiyah seem to have always kept themselvesindependent of the Sunní Khalífs of Baghdád, and, therefore, would considerthemselves free from any obligation to obey the Sultán of Turkey. From theordinary Shía'hs they differ as regards the "divine right" of 'Alí and hischildren. The curious in such matters will find the whole subject welltreated in Dr. Badger's "Seyyids of Omán. "

The term Khárigite (Separatist) has since become the generic name for agroup of sects which agree as to the need of an Imám, though they differ asto the details of the dogma. In opposition to this heresy of the Khárigitestands what may be termed the orthodox doctrine of the Shía'h. The Shía'hshold that the Imámat must continue in the family of 'Alí, and that religionconsists mainly in devotion to the Imám. The tragic end of 'Alí and hissons invested them with peculiar interest. When grieving for the sad end oftheir leaders, the Shí'ahs found consolation in the doctrine which soonfound development, _viz. _, that it was God's will that the Imámat shouldcontinue in the family of 'Alí. Thus a tradition relates that the Prophetsaid: "He of whom I am master has 'Alí also for a master. " "The best judgeamong you is 'Alí. " Ibn Abbás, a Companion says: "I heard the Prophet say:'He who blasphemes my name blasphemes the name of God; he who blasphemesthe name of 'Alí blasphemes my name. '" A popular Persian hymn shows to whatan extent this feeling deepened. {77}

 "Mysterious being! none can tell The attributes in thee that dwell; None can thine essence comprehend; To thee should every mortal bend-- For 'tis by thee that man is given To know the high behests of heaven. "

The general idea is, that long before the creation of the world, God took aray of light from the splendour of His own glory and united it to the bodyof Muhammad, to which He said: "Thou art the elect, the chosen, I will makethe members of thy family the guides to salvation. " Muhammad said: "Thefirst thing which God created was my light, and my spirit. "[67] The body ofthe Prophet was then in some mysterious way hidden. In due time the worldwas created, but not until the birth of Muhammad did this ray of gloryappear. It is well known to all Musalmáns as the "Núr-i-Muhammadí"--lightof Muhammad. 

This "Núr" is said to be of four kinds. From the first kind God created HisThrone, from the second the Pen of Fate, from the third Paradise, and fromthe fourth the state, or place of Spirits and all created beings. Accordingto a statement made by 'Alí, Muhammad said that he was created from thelight of God, whilst all other created beings were formed from the "lightof Muhammad. "[68]

This "light" descended to 'Alí, and from him passed on to the true Imáms, who alone are the lawful successors of the Prophet. Rebellion against themis sin; devotion to them the very essence of religion. 

The doctrine of the Imámat has given rise to endless discussion anddissension, as the numerous sub-divisions of the Shía'h sect will show. They are said to be thirty-two in number. The Shía'h proper is the largestand most influential of them. The following are the Shí'ah tenets regardingthe Imám, based on one of their standard books of {78} divinity. [69] TheImám is the successor of the Prophet, adorned with all the qualities whichhe possessed. He is wiser than the most learned men of the age, holier thanthe most pious. He is the noblest of the sons of men and is free from allsin original or actual: hence the Imám is called ma'sum (innocent. )[70] Godrules the world by wisdom, hence the sending forth of prophets was anecessity; but it was equally necessary to establish the Imámat. Thus theImám is equal to a prophet. 'Alí said: "In me is the glory of every prophetthat has ever been. " The authority of the Imám is the authority of God, for(I quote the Hyát-un-Nafís) "his word is the word of God and of theProphet, and obedience to his order is incumbent. " The nature of the Imámis identical with the nature of Muhammad, for did not 'Alí say: "I amMuhammad, and Muhammad is me. " This probably refers to the possession bythe Imám of the "light of Muhammad. " The bodies of the Imáms are so pureand delicate that they cast no shadow. [71] They {79} are the beginning andthe end of all things. To know the Imáms is the very essence of theknowledge which men can gain of God. "The Holy God calls the Imáms Hisword, His hands, His signs, His secret. Their commands and prohibitions, their actions too, He recognises as His own. " As mediums between God andman they hold a far higher position than the prophets, for "the grace ofGod, without their intervention, reaches to no created being. " Theseextravagant claims for the Imáms culminate in the assertion that "for thema pillar of light has been fixed between the earth and heaven, by which theactions of the Faithful are made known to them. " The Imám is the supremePontiff, the Vicar of God on earth. The possession of an infallible book isnot sufficient. The infallible guide is needed. Such wisdom and discernmentas such a guide would require can only be found amongst the descendants ofthe Prophet. It is no longer, then, a matter of wonder, that in some cases, almost, if not entirely, divine honour is paid to 'Alí and hisdescendants. [72]

The Usúl, or fundamental tenets of the Shía'h sect are five in number. (1)To believe in the unity of God, (2) To admit that He is just, (3) Tobelieve in the divine mission of all the prophets, and that Muhammad is thechief of all, (4) To consider 'Alí the Khalíf next in order after Muhammad, (5) To believe 'Alí's descendants from Hasan to Mahdí, the twelfth Imám, tobe his true successors, and to consider all of them in character, positionand dignity as raised far above all other Muslims. This is the doctrine ofthe Imámat. 

{80}

The first principal divisions of the Shía'h sect are the Ismá'ílians andthe Imámites. The latter believe in twelve Imáms, reckoning 'Alí as thefirst. [73] The last of the twelve Abu'l-Qásim, is supposed to be alivestill, though hidden in some secret place. He bears the name of Al-Mahdí, "the guided. " It is expected that he will reappear at the second advent ofChrist. They say that he was born near Baghdád in the year 258 A. H. Heafterwards mysteriously disappeared. When he was born the words, "Say:'truth is come and falsehood is vanished: Verily falsehood is a thing thatvanisheth, '" (Súra xvii. 83) were found written on his right arm. When hecame into the world, he pointed with his fingers to heaven, sneezed, andsaid: 'Praise be to God, the Lord of the world. ' A person one day visitedImám Hasan 'Askarí (the eleventh Imám) and said: 'O son of the Prophet whowill be Khalíf and Imám after thee?' He brought out a child and said: 'ifthou hadst not found favour in the eyes of God, He would not have shownthee this child; his name is that of the Prophet, and so is hispatronymic, ' (Abu 'l-Qásim). The sect who believe Mahdí to be alive atpresent, say that he rules over cities in the far west, and he is even saidto have children. God alone knows the truth. [74]

The other large division, the Ismá'ílians, agree with the Imámites in allparticulars save one. They hold that after Sádiq, the sixth Imám, commencedwhat is called the succession of the "concealed Imáms. " They believe thatthere never can be a time when there shall be no Imám, but that he is nowin seclusion. This idea has given rise to all sorts of secret societies, and has paved the way for a mystical religion, which often lands itsvotaries in atheism. [75] {81}

The Ghair-i-Mahdí (literally "without Mahdí") are a small sect who believethat Al-Mahdí will not reappear. They say that one Syed Muhammad of Jeyporewas the real Mahdí, the twelfth Imám, and that he has now gone never moreto return. They venerate him as highly as they do the Prophet, and considerall other Musalmáns to be unbelievers. On the night called Lailat-ul-Qadr, in the month of Ramazán, they meet and repeat two rak'at prayers. Afterthat act of devotion is over, they say: "God is Almighty, Muhammad is ourProphet, the Qurán and Mahdí are just and true. Imám Mahdí is come andgone. Whosoever disbelieves this is an infidel. " They are a very fanaticalsect. 

There is another small community of Ghair-i-Mahdís called the Dá, irí, settled in the province of Mysore, who hold peculiar views on this point. About four hundred years ago, a man named Syed Ahmad collected somefollowers in the dominions of the Nizám of Hyderabad. He called himself theImám Mahdí, and said that he was superior to any prophet. He and hisdisciples, being bitterly persecuted by the orthodox Musalmáns, fled to avillage in the adjoining district of Mysore where their descendants, fifteen hundred in number, now reside. It is said that they do notintermarry with other Musalmáns. The usual Friday service in the mosque isended by the leader saying: "Imám Mahdí came and went away, " to which thepeople respond: "He who does not believe this is a Káfir" (infidel). 

There are several Traditions which refer to the latter days. "When of timeone day shall be left, God shall raise up a man from among my descendants, who shall fill the world with justice, just as before him the world wasfull of oppression. " And again: "The world shall not come to an end tillthe king of the earth shall appear, who is a man of my family, and whosename is the same as mine. " When Islám entered upon the tenth century of itsexistence, there was throughout Persia and India a millenarian movement. Men {82} declared that the end was drawing near, and various persons arosewho claimed to be Al-Mahdí. I have already mentioned two. Amongst otherswas Shaikh 'Aláí of Agra. (956 A. H. ) Shaikh Mubarak, the father ofAbu'l-Fazl--the Emperor Akbar's famous vizier, was a disciple of Shaikh'Aláí and from him imbibed Mahdaví ideas. This brought upon him the wrathof the 'Ulamá who, however, were finally overcome by the free-thinking andheretical Emperor and his vizier. There never was a better ruler in Indiathan Akbar, and never a more heretical one as far as orthodox Islám isconcerned. The Emperor delighted in the controversies of the age. The Súfísand Mahdavís were in favour at Court. The orthodox 'Ulamá were treated withcontempt. Akbar fully believed that the millennium had come. He started anew era, and a new religion called the 'Divine Faith. ' There was tolerationfor all except the bigoted orthodox Muslims. Abu'l-Fazl and others likehim, who professed to reflect Akbar's religious views, held that allreligions contained truth. Thus:--

 "O God, in every temple I see people that seek Thee, and in every language I hear spoken, people praise Thee! Polytheism and Islam feel after Thee, Each religion says, 'Thou art one, without equal. ' If it be a mosque, people murmur the holy prayer, and if it be a Christian Church, people ring the bell from love to Thee, Sometimes I frequent the Christian cloister, and sometimes the mosque, But it is Thou whom I search from temple to temple. "

In this reign one Mír Sharíf was promoted to the rank of a Commander of athousand, and to an appointment in Bengal. His chief merit in Akbar's eyeswas that he taught the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and theclose advent of the millennium. He was a disciple of Mahmúd of Busakhwán, the founder of the Nuqtawiah sect. As this is another offshoot of theShía'hs I give a brief account of them here. Mahmúd lived in the reign ofTimur and {83} professed to be Al-Mahdí. He also called himself theShakhs-i-Wáhíd--the Individual one. He used to quote the verse, "It may bethat thy Lord will raise thee up to a glorious (mahmúd) station. " (Súraxvii. 81). From this he argued that the body of man had been advancing inpurity since the creation, and that on its reaching to a certain degree, one Mahmúd (glorious) would arise, and that then the dispensation ofMuhammad would come to an end. He claimed to be the Mahmúd. He also taughtthe doctrine of transmigration, and that the beginning of everything wasthe Nuqtah-i-khák--earth atom. It is on this account that they are calledthe Nuqtawiah sect. They are also known by the names Mahmúdiah andWáhídiah. Shah 'Abbás king of Persia expelled them from his dominions, butAkbar received the fugitives kindly and promoted some amongst them to highoffices of State. 

This Mahdaví movement, arising as it did out of the Shía'h doctrine of theImámat, is a very striking fact. That imposters should arise and claim thename and office of Al-Mahdí is not to be wondered at, but that large bodiesof men should follow them shows the unrest which dwelt in men's hearts, andhow they longed for a personal leader and guide. 

The whole of the Shía'h doctrine on this point seems to show that there isin the human heart a natural desire for some Mediator--some Word of theFather, who shall reveal Him to His children. At first sight it would seem, as if the doctrine of the Imámat might to some extent reconcile thethoughtful Shía'h to the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation andMediation of Jesus Christ, to His office as the perfect revealer of God'swill; and as our Guide in life; but alas! it is not so. The mystic loreconnected with Shía'h doctrine has sapped the foundation of moral life andvigour. A system of religious reservation, too, is a fundamental part ofthe system in its mystical developments, whilst all Shía'hs may lawfullypractise "takía, " or religious {84} compromise in their daily lives. Itthus becomes impossible to place dependence on what a Shía'h may profess, as pious frauds are legalised by his system of religion. If he becomes amystic, he looks upon the ceremonial and the moral law as restrictionsimposed by an Almighty Power. The omission of the one is a sin almost, ifnot quite, as bad as a breach, of the other. The advent of Mahdí is thegood time when all such restrictions shall be removed, when the utmostfreedom shall be allowed. Thus the moral sense, in many cases, becomesdeadened to an extent such as those who are not in daily contact with thesepeople can hardly credit. The practice of "takía, " religious compromise, and the legality of "muta'h" or temporary marriages, have done much todemoralise the Shía'h community. The following words of a recent authordescriptive of the Shía'h system are in the main true, though they do notapply to each individual in that system:--

 "There can be no stronger testimony of the corrupting power and the hard and hopeless bondage of the orthodox creed, than that men should escape from it into a system which established falsehood as the supreme law of conduct, and regarded the reduction of men to the level of swine as the goal of human existence. "[76]

The Mutazilites, or Seceders, were once an influential body. They do notexist as a separate sect now. An account of them will be given in the nextchapter. 

In the doctrine of the Imámat, common to all the offshoots of the Shía'hsect, is to be found the chief point of difference between the Sunní andthe Shía'h, a difference so great that there is no danger of even apolitical union between these two great branches of Islám. I have alreadydescribed, too, how the Shía'hs reject the Sunnat, though they do notreject Tradition. A good deal of ill-blood is still kept up by therecollection--a recollection kept alive by the annual recurrence of theMuharram fast--of the sad {85} fate of 'Alí and his sons. The Sunnís areblamed for the work of their ancestors in the faith, whilst the Khalífs AbuBakr, Omar, and Osmán are looked upon as usurpers. Not to them wascommitted the wonderful ray of light. In the possession of that alone canany one make good a claim to be the Imám, the Guide of the Believers. Theterrible disorders of the early days of Islám can only be understood whenwe realise to some extent the passionate longing which men felt for aspiritual head--an Imám. It was thought to be impossible that Muhammad, thelast--the seal--of the prophets should leave the Faithful without a guide, who would be the interpreter of the will of Allah. 

We here make a slight digression to show that this feeling extends beyondthe Shía'h sect, and is of some importance in its bearing upon the EasternQuestion. Apart from the superhuman claims for the Imám, what he is as aruler to the Shía'h, the Khalíf is to the Sunní--the supreme head in Churchand State, the successor of the Prophet, the Conservator of Islám as madeknown in the Qurán, the Sunnat and the Ijmá' of the early Mujtahidín. Toadminister the laws, the administrator must have a divine sanction. Thuswhen the Ottoman ruler, Selim the First, conquered Egypt, (A. D. 1516) hesought and obtained, from an old descendant of the Baghdád Khalífs, thetransfer of the title to himself, and in this way the Sultáns of Turkeybecame the Khalífs of Islám. Whether Mutawakal Billál, the last titularKhalíf of the house of 'Abbás, was right or wrong in thus transferring thetitle is not my purpose now to discuss. I only adduce the fact to show howit illustrates the feeling of the need of a Pontiff--a divinely appointedRuler. Strictly speaking, according to Muhammadan law, the Sultáns are notKhalífs, for it is clearly laid down in the Traditions that the Khalíf (orthe Imám) must be of the tribe of the Quraish, to which the Prophet himselfbelonged. 

Ibn-i-Umr relates that the Prophet said:--"The Khalífs shall be in theQuraish tribe as long as there are two {86} persons in it, one to rule andanother to serve. "[77] "It is a necessary condition that the Khalíf shouldbe of the Quraish tribe. "[78] Such quotations might be multiplied, and theytend to show that it is not at all incumbent on orthodox Sunnís, other thanthe Turks, to rush to the rescue of the Sultán, whilst to the Shía'hs he islittle better than a heretic. Certainly they would never look upon him asan Imám, which personage is to them in the place of a Khalíf. In countriesnot under Turkish rule, the Khutbah, or prayer for the ruler, said onFridays in the mosques, is said for the "ruler of the age, " or for theAmír, or whatever happens to be the title of the head of the State. Of lateyears it has become more common in India to say it for the Sultán. This isnot, strictly speaking, according to Muhammadan law, which declares thatthe Khutbah can only be said with the permission of the ruler, and as inIndia that ruler is the British Government, the prayers should be said forthe Queen. Evidently the law never contemplated large bodies of Musalmánsresiding anywhere but where the influence of the Khalíf extended. 

In thus casting doubt on the legality of the claim made by Turkish Sultánsto the Khalifate of Islám, I do not deny that the Law of Islám requiresthat there should be a Khalíf. Unfortunately for Islám, there is nothing inits history parallel to the conflict of Pope and Emperor, of Church andState. "The action and re-action of these powerful and partiallyindependent forces, their resistance to each other, and their ministry toeach other, have been of incalculable value to the higher activity and lifeof Christendom. " In Islám the Khalíf is both Pope and Emperor. Ibn Khaldounstates that the difference between the Khalíf and any other ruler is thatthe former rules according to divine, the latter according to human law. The Prophet in transmitting his sacred authority to the Khalífs, hissuccessors, conveyed to {87} them absolute powers. Khalífs can beassassinated, murdered, banished, but so long as they reign anything likeconstitutional liberty is impossible. It is a fatal mistake in Europeanpolitics and an evil for Turkey to recognize the Sultán as the Khalíf ofIslám, for, if he be such, Turkey can never take any step forward tonewness of political life. [79]

This, however, is a digression from the subject of this chapter. 

There has been from the earliest ages of Islám a movement which exists tothis day. It is a kind of mysticism, known as Súfíism. It has beenespecially prevalent among the Persians. It is a re-action from the burdenof a rigid law, and a wearisome ritual. It has now existed for a thousandyears, and if it has the element of progress in it, if it is the salt ofIslám some fruit should now be seen. But what is Súfíism? The term Súfí ismost probably derived from the Arabic word Súf, "wool, " of which materialthe garments worn by Eastern ascetics used to be generally made. Somepersons, however, derive it from the Persian, Súf, "pure, " or the Greek[Greek: sophia], "wisdom. " Tasawwuf, or Súfíism, is the abstract form ofthe word, and is, according to Sir W. Jones, and other learnedorientalists, a figurative mode, borrowed mainly from the Indianphilosophers of the Vedanta school, of expressing the fervour of devotion. The chief idea is that the souls of men differ in degree, but not {88} inkind, from the Divine Spirit, of which they are emanations, and to whichthey will ultimately return. The Spirit of God is in all He has made, andit in Him. He alone is perfect love, beauty, etc. --hence love to him is theonly _real_ thing; all else is illusion. Sa'dí says: "I swear by the truthof God, that when He showed me His glory all else was illusion. " Thispresent life is one of separation from the beloved. The beauties of nature, music, and art revive in men the divine idea, and recall their affectionsfrom wandering from Him to other objects. These sublime affections men mustcherish, and by abstraction concentrate their thoughts on God, and soapproximate to His essence, and finally reach the highest stage ofbliss--absorption into the Eternal. The true end and object of human lifeis to lose all consciousness of individual existence--to sink "in the oceanof Divine Life, as a breaking bubble is merged into the stream on thesurface of which it has for a moment risen. "[80]

Súfís, who all accept Islám as a divinely established religion, supposethat long before the creation of the world a contract was made by theSupreme Soul with the assembled world of spirits, who are parts of it. Eachspirit was addressed separately, thus: "Art thou not with thy Lord?" thatis, bound to him by a solemn contract. To this they all answered with onevoice, "Yes. "

Another account says that the seed of theosophy (m'arifat) was placed inthe ground in the time of Adam; that the plant {89} came forth in the daysof Noah, was in flower when Abraham was alive and produced fruit beforeMoses passed away. The grapes of this noble plant were ripe in the time ofJesus, but it was not till the age of Muhammad that pure wine was made fromthem. Then those intoxicated with it, having attained to the highest degreeof the knowledge of God, could forget their own personality andsay:--"Praise to me, is there any greater than myself? I am the Truth. "

The following verse of the Qurán is quoted by Súfís in support of theirfavourite dogma--the attaining to the knowledge of God: "When God said tothe angels, 'I am about to place a viceregent on the earth, ' they said:'Wilt Thou place therein one who shall commit abomination and shed blood?Nay; we celebrate Thy praise and holiness. ' God answered them, 'Verily Iknow that ye wot not of. '" (Súra ii. 28. ) It is said that this verse provesthat, though the great mass of mankind would commit abomination, some wouldreceive the divine light and attain to a knowledge of God. A Traditionstates that David said: "'Oh Lord! why hast Thou created mankind?' Godreplied, 'I am a hidden treasure, and I would fain become known. '" Thebusiness of the mystic is to find this treasure, to attain to the Divinelight and the true knowledge of God. 

The earlier Muhammadan mystics sought to impart life to a rigid and formalritual, and though the seeds of Pantheism were planted in their system fromthe first, they maintained that they were orthodox. "Our system ofdoctrine, " says Al-Junaid, "is firmly bound up with the dogmas of thefaith, the Qurán and the Traditions. " There was a moral earnestness aboutmany of these men which frequently restrained the arm of unrighteous power, and their sayings, often full of beauty, show that they had the power ofappreciating the spiritual side of life. Some of these sentences are worthyof any age. "As neither meat nor drink, " says one, "profit the diseasedbody, so no warning avails {90} to touch the heart full of the love of thisworld. " "The work of a holy man doth not consist in this, that he eatsgrain, and clothes himself in wool, but in the knowledge of God andsubmission to His will. " "Thou deservest not the name of a learned man tillthy heart is emptied of the love of this world. " "Hide thy good deeds asclosely as thou wouldst hide thy sins. " A famous mystic was brought intothe presence of the Khalíf Hárún-ur-Rashíd who said to him: "How great isthy abnegation?" He replied, "Thine is greater. " "How so?" said the Khalíf. "Because I make abnegation of this world, and thou makest abnegation of thenext. " The same man also said: "The display of devotional works to pleasemen is hypocrisy, and acts of devotion done to please men are acts ofpolytheism. "

But towards the close of the second century of the Hijra, this earliermysticism developed into Súfíism. Then Al-Halláj taught in Baghdád thus: "Iam the Truth. There is nought in Paradise but God. I am He whom I love, andHe whom I love is I; we are two souls dwelling in one body. When thou seestme, thou seest Him; and when thou seest Him thou seest me. " This roused theopposition of the orthodox divines by whom Al-Halláj was condemned to beworthy of death. He was then by order of the Khalíf flogged, tortured andfinally beheaded. Thus died one of the early martyrs of Súfíism, but itgrew in spite of bitter persecution. 

In order to understand the esoteric teaching of Súfíistic poetry, it isnecessary to remember that the perceptive sense is the traveller, theknowledge of God the goal, the doctrines of this ascent, or upward progressis the Tarikat, or the road. The extinction of self is necessary before anyprogress can be made on that road. A Súfí poet writes:--

 "Plant one foot upon the neck of self, The other in thy Friend's domain; In everything His presence see, For other vision is in vain. "

{91}

Sa'dí in the Bustán says: "Art thou a friend of God? Speak not of self, forto speak of God and of self is infidelity. " Shaikh Abu'l-Faiz, a great poetand a friend of the Emperor Akbar, from whom he received the honourabletitle of Málik-ush-Shu'ará--Master of the Poets, says: "Those who have notclosed the door on existence and non-existence reap no advantage from thecalm of this world and of the world to come. " Khusrau, another well-knownpoet says:--

 "I have become Thou: Thou art become I, I am the body, Thou the soul; Let no one henceforth say That I am distinct from Thee, and Thou from me. "

The fact is, that Persian poetry is almost entirely Súfíistic. It isdifficult for the uninitiated to arrive at the esoteric meaning of thesewritings. Kitmán, or the art of hiding from the profane religious beliefs, often contrary to the revealed law, has always been a special quality ofthe East. Pantheistic doctrines are largely inculcated. [81] Thus:--

 "I was, ere a name had been named upon earth; Ere one trace yet existed of aught that has birth; When the locks of the Loved One streamed forth for a sign, And Being was none, save the Presence Divine! Named and name were alike emanations from Me, Ere aught that was 'I' existed, or 'We. '"

The poet then describes his fruitless search for rest and peace inChristianity, Hinduism, and the religion of the Parsee. Even Islám gave himno satisfaction, for--

 "Nor above nor beneath came the Loved One to view, I toiled to the summit, wild, pathless and lone, Of the globe-girding Kaf[82]:--but the 'Anka[83] had flown! {92} The sev'nth heaven I traversed--the sev'nth heaven explored, But in neither discern'd I the court of the Lord! I question'd the Pen and the Tablet of Fate, But they whisper'd not where He pavilions His state; My vision I strain'd; but my God-scanning eye No trace, that to Godhead belongs, could descry. My glance I bent inward; within my own breast, Lo, the vainly sought elsewhere, the Godhead confess'd! In the whirl of its transport my spirit was toss'd, _Till each atom of separate being I lost_. "

These are the words of the greatest authority among the Súfís, the famousMaulána Jelál-ud-dín Rúmí, founder of the order of the Mauláví Darwíshes. He also relates the following story: "One knocked at the door of thebeloved, and a voice from within said: 'Who is there?' Then he answered, '_It is I. _' The voice replied, 'This house will not hold _me_ and _thee_!'So the door remained shut. The lover retired to a wilderness, and spentsome time in solitude, fasting, and prayer. One year elapsed, when he againreturned, and knocked at the door. 'Who is there?' said the voice. Thelover answered, '_It is thou. _' Then the door was opened. "

The great object of life, then, being to escape from the hindrances to purelove and to a return to the divine essence, the Tálib, or seeker, attacheshimself to a Murshid, or teacher. If he prosecutes his studies according toSúfíistic methods he now often enters one of the many orders of Darwíshes. After due preparation under his Murshid, he is allowed to enter on theroad. He then becomes a Sálik, or traveller, whose business henceforth issúlúk that is, devotion to one idea--the knowledge of God. In this roadthere are eight stages. (1) Service. Here he must serve God and obey theLaw for he is still in bondage. (2) Love. It is supposed that now theDivine influence has so attracted his soul that he really loves God. (3)Seclusion. Love having expelled all worldly desires, he arrives at thisstage, and passes his time in meditation on the deeper doctrines {93} ofSúfíism regarding the Divine nature. (4) Knowledge. The meditation in thepreceding stage, and the investigation of the metaphysical theoriesconcerning God, His nature, His attributes and the like make him an'Árif--one who knows. (5) Ecstasy. The mental excitement caused by suchcontinued meditation on abstruse subjects produces a kind of frenzy, whichis looked upon as a mark of direct illumination of the heart from God. Itis known as Hál--the state; or Wajd--ecstasy. Arrival at this stage ishighly valued, for it is the certain entrance to the next. (6) Haqiqat--theTruth. Now to the traveller is revealed the true nature of God, now helearns the reality of that which he has been for so long seeking. Thisadmits him to the highest stage in his journey, as far as this life isconcerned. (7) That stage is Wasl--union with God. 

 "There was a door to which I found no key; There was a veil past which I could not see: Some little talk of Me and Thee There seemed--and then no more of Thee and Me. "

He cannot, in this life, go beyond that, and very few reach that exaltedstage. Thus arose a "system of Pantheism, which represents joy and sorrow, good and evil, pleasure and pain as manifestations of one changelessessence. " Religion, as made known by an outward revelation, is, to the fewwho reach this stage, a thing of the past. Even its restraints are notneeded. The soul that is united to God can do no evil. The poet Khusrausays: "Love is the object of my worship, what need have I of Islám?"

Death ensues and with it the last stage is reached. (8) It isFaná--extinction. The seeker after all his search, the traveller after allhis wearisome journey passes behind the veil and finds--nothing! As thetraveller proceeds from stage to stage, the restraints of an objectiverevelation and of an outward system are less and less heeded. "The {94}religion of the mystic consists in his immediate communication with God, and when once this has been established, the value of ecclesiastical forms, and of the historical part of religion, becomes doubtful. " What law canbind the soul in union with God, what outward system impose any trammels onone who, in the "Ecstasy, " has received from Him, who is the Truth, thedirect revelation of His own glorious nature? Moral laws and ceremonialobservances have only an allegorical signification. Creeds are but fetterscunningly devised to limit the flight of the soul; all that is objective inreligion is a restraint to the reason of the initiated. [84]

Pantheistic in creed, and too often Antinomian in practice, Súfíismpossesses no regenerative power in Islám. "It is not a substantive religionsuch as shapes the life of races or of nations, it is a state of opinion. "No Muslim State makes a national profession of Súfíism. 

In spite of all its dogmatic utterances, in spite of much that is sublimein its idea of the search after light and truth, Súfíism ends in utternegation of all separate existence. The pantheism of the Súfís, thisesoteric doctrine of Islám, as a moral doctrine leads to the sameconclusions as materialism, "the negation of human liberty, theindifference to actions and the legitimacy of all temporal enjoyments. "

The result of Súfíism has been the establishment of a large number ofreligious orders known as Darwíshes. [85] These men are looked upon withdisfavour by the {95} orthodox; but they flourish nevertheless, and inTurkey at the present day have great influence. There are in Constantinopletwo hundred Takiahs, or monasteries. The Darwíshes are not organized withsuch regularity, nor subject to discipline so severe as that of theChristian Monastic orders; but they surpass them in number. Each order hasits own special mysteries and practices by which its members think they canobtain a knowledge of the secrets of the invisible world. They are alsocalled Faqírs--poor men, not, however, always in the sense of being intemporal want, but as being poor in the sight of God. As a matter of factthe Darwíshes of many of the orders do not beg, and many of the Takiahs arerichly endowed. They are divided into two great classes, the Ba Shara'(with the Law) Darwíshes; and the Be Shara' (without the Law). The formerprefer to rule their conduct according to the law of Islám and are calledthe Sálik--travellers on the path (taríqat) to heaven; the latter thoughthey call themselves Muslims do not conform to the law, and are called Azád(free), or Majzúb (abstracted), a term which signifies their renunciationof all worldly cares and pursuits. 

The Sálik Darwíshes are those who perform the Zikrs. [86] What little hopethere is of these professedly religious men working any reform in Islámwill be seen from the following account of their doctrines. [87]

1. God only exists, --He is in all things, and all things are in Him. "Verily we are _from_ God, and _to_ Him shall we return. " (Súra ii. 151. )

{96}

2. All visible and invisible beings are an emanation from Him, and are notreally distinct from Him. Creation is only a pastime with God. 

3. Paradise and Hell, and all the dogmas of positive religions, are only somany allegories, the spirit of which is only known to the Súfí. 

4. Religions are matters of indifference; they, however, serve as a meansof reaching to realities. Some, for this purpose, are more advantageousthan others. Among which is the Musalmán religion, of which the doctrine ofthe Súfís is the philosophy. 

5. There is not any real difference between good and evil, for all isreduced to unity, and God is the real author of the acts of mankind. 

6. It is God who fixes the will of man. Man, therefore, is not free in hisactions. 

7. The soul existed before the body, and is now confined within it as in acage. At death the soul returns to the Divinity from which it emanated. 

8. The principal occupation of the Súfí is to meditate on the unity, and soto attain to spiritual perfection--unification with God. 

9. Without the grace of God no one can attain to this unity; but God doesnot refuse His aid to those who are in the right path. 

The power of a Sheikh, a spiritual leader, is very great. The followingaccount of the admission of a Novice, called Tawakkul Beg, into an Order, and of the severe tests applied, will be of some interest. [88] Tawakkul Begsays:--"Having been introduced by Akhúnd Moollá Muhammad to Sheikh MoollaSháh, my heart, through frequent intercourse with him, was filled with sucha burning desire to arrive at a true knowledge of the mystical science thatI found no sleep by night, nor rest by day. When the initiation commenced, {97} I passed the whole night without sleep, and repeated innumerable timesthe Súrat-ul-Ikhlás:--

 "Say: He is God alone: God the eternal: He begetteth not, and He is not begotten; And there is none like unto Him. " (Súra cxii. )

Whosoever repeats this Súra one hundred times can accomplish all his vows. I desired that the Sheikh should bestow on me his love. No sooner had Ifinished my task than the heart of the Sheikh became full of sympathy forme. On the following night I was conducted to his presence. During thewhole of that night he concentrated his thoughts on me, whilst I gavemyself up to inward meditation. Three nights passed in this way. On thefourth night the Sheikh said:--'Let Moollá Senghim and Sálih Beg, who arevery susceptible to ecstatic emotions, apply their spiritual energies toTawakkul Beg. '

They did so, whilst I passed the whole night in meditation, with my faceturned toward Mecca. As the morning drew near, a little light came into mymind, but I could not distinguish form or colour. After the morningprayers, I was taken to the Sheikh who bade me inform him of my mentalstate. I replied that I had seen a light with my inward eye. On hearingthis, the Sheikh became animated and said: 'Thy heart is dark, but the timeis come when I will show myself clearly to thee. ' He then ordered me to sitdown in front of him, and to impress his features on my mind. Then havingblindfolded me, he ordered me to concentrate all my thoughts upon him. Idid so, and in an instant by the spiritual help of the Sheikh my heartopened. He asked me what I saw. I said that I saw another Tawakkul Beg andanother Moollá Sháh. The bandage was then removed, and I saw the Sheikh infront of me. Again they covered my face, and again I saw him with my inwardeye. Astonished, I cried; 'O master! whether I look with my bodily eye, orwith my spiritual {98} sight, it is always you I see. ' I then saw adazzling figure approach me. The Sheikh told me to say to the apparition, 'What is your name?' In my spirit I put the question, and the figureanswered to my heart: 'I am 'Abd-ul-Qádir Jilání, I have already aidedthee, thy heart is opened. ' Much affected, I vowed that in honour of thesaint, I would repeat the whole Qurán every Friday night. 

Moollá Sháh then said: 'The spiritual world has been shown to thee in allits beauty. ' I then rendered perfect obedience to the Sheikh. The followingday I saw the Prophet, the chief Companions, and legions of saints andangels. After three months, I entered the cheerless region in which thefigures appeared no more. During the whole of this time, the Sheikhcontinued to explain to me the mystery of the doctrine of the Unity and ofthe knowledge of God; but as yet he did not show me the absolute reality. It was not until a year had passed that I arrived at the true conception ofunity. Then in words such as these I told the Sheikh of my inspiration. 'Ilook upon the body as only dust and water, I regard neither my heart nor mysoul, alas! that in separation from Thee (God) so much of my life haspassed. Thou wert I and I knew it not. ' The Sheikh was delighted, and saidthat the truth of the union with God was now clearly revealed to me. Thenaddressing those who were present, he said: 'Tawakkul Beg learnt from methe doctrine of the Unity, his inward eye has been opened, the spheres ofcolours and of images have been shown to him. At length, he entered thecolourless region. He has now attained to the Unity, doubt and scepticismhenceforth have no power over him. No one sees the Unity with the outwardeye, till the inward eye gains strength and power. '"

I cannot pass from this branch of the subject without making a few remarkson Omar Khayyám, the great Astronomer-Poet of Persia. He is sometimesconfounded with the Súfís, for there is much in his poetry which is similar{99} in tone to that of the Súfí writers. But his true position was that ofa sceptic. He wrote little, but what he has written will live. As anastronomer he was a man of note. He died in the year 517 A. H. There are twothings which may have caused his scepticism. To a man of his intelligencethe hard and fast system of Islám was an intolerable burden. Then, hisscientific spirit had little sympathy with mysticism, the earnestenthusiasts of which were too often followed by hollow impostors. It istrue, that there was much in the spirit of some of the better Súfís thatseemed to show a yearning for something higher than mere earthly good;above all, there was the recognition of a Higher Power. But with all thiscame spiritual pride, the world and its duties became a thing of evil, andthe religious and the secular life were completely divorced, to the ruin ofboth. The Pantheism which soon pervaded the system left no room for man'swill to act, for his conscience to guide. So the moral law become a deadletter. Irreligious men, to free themselves from the bondage and restraintsof law, assumed the religious life. "Thus a movement, animated at first bya high and lofty purpose, has degenerated into a fruitful source of ill. The stream which ought to have expanded into a fertilising river has becomea vast swamp, exhaling vapours charged with disease and death. "

Omar Khayyám saw through the unreality of all this. In vain does he try, byan assumed air of gaiety, to hide from others the sadness which fills hisheart, as all that is bright is seen passing away into oblivion. 

 One moment in annihilation's waste, One moment, of the well of life to taste-- The stars are setting and the Caravan Starts for the dawn of nothing--oh, make haste!

 Ah, fill the cup:--what boots it to repeat How Time is slipping underneath our feet: Unborn To-morrow, and dead Yesterday, Why fret about them if To-day be sweet. 

{100}

Omar held to the earthly and the material. For him there was no spiritualworld. Chance seemed to rule all the affairs of men. A pitiless destinyshaped out the course of each human being. 

 "'Tis all a chequer-board of nights and days Where destiny with men for pieces plays: Hither and thither moves, and mates, and slays, And one by one back in the closet lays. 

 The moving finger writes; and, having writ, Moves on: nor all thy piety nor wit Shall lure it back to cancel half a line, Nor all thy tears wash out a word of it. "

Neither from earth nor heaven could he find any answer to his cry. Withsages and saints he discussed, and heard, "great argument, but evermorecame out by the same door as in he went. " He left the wise to talk, for onething alone was certain, and all else was lies, --"the flower that once hasblown for ever dies. " Leaving men he turned to nature, but it was all thesame. 

 "Up from earth's centre through the seventh gate I rose, and on the throne of Saturn sate, And many knots unravell'd by the road; But not the knot of human death and fate. 

 And that inverted bowl we call the sky, Where under crawling coop'd we live and die, Lift not thy hands to it for help--for it Rolls impotently on as thou or I. "

Omar has with justice been compared to Lucretius. Both were materialists, both believed not in a future life. "Lucretius built a system for himselfin his poem ... It has a professed practical aim--to explain the world'sself-acting machine to the polytheist, and to disabuse him of all spiritualideas. " Omar builds up no system, he only shows forth his own doubts anddifficulties, "he loves to balance antitheses of belief, and settle himselfin the equipoise of the sceptic. " {101}

The fact that there is no hereafter gives Lucretius no pain, but Omar who, if only his reason could let him, would believe, records his utter despairin words of passionate bitterness. He is not glad that there is no helpanywhere. [89] And though he calls for the wine-cup, and listens to thevoice within the tavern cry, "Awake, my little ones, and fill the cup Before Life's liquor in its cup be dry, "

yet he also looks back to the time, when he consorted with those whoprofessed to know, and could say:

 "With them the seed of wisdom did I sow, And with my own hand laboured it to grow. "

The founder of the Wahhábí sect was Muhammad-ibn-Abd-ul-Wahháb, who wasborn at a village in Nejd in the year 1691 A. D. The Wahhábís speak ofthemselves as Muwahhid--Unitarians; but their opponents have given to themthe name of the father of the founder of their sect and call them Wahhábís. Muhammad was a bright intelligent youth, of a strong constitution andgenerous spirit. After going through a course of Arabic literature hestudied jurisprudence under a teacher of the Hanífi school. He then set outin company with his father to perform the Hajj. At Madína he receivedfurther instruction in the Law. He spent sometime at Ispahán in the societyof learned men. Full of {102} knowledge, he returned to his native villageof Ayína where he assumed the position of a religious teacher. He wasshocked to see how the Arabs had departed from what seemed to him thestrict unchanging precepts of the Prophet. Luxury in the form of richdresses and silken garments, superstition in the use of omens, auguries, and the like, in the pilgrimages to shrines and tombs seemed to be alteringthe character of the religion as given by the Apostle of God. He saw, orthought he saw, that in the veneration paid to saints and holy men, thegreat doctrine of the "Unity" was being obscured. The reason was veryplain. The Qurán and the Traditions of the Companions had been neglected, whilst the sayings of men of lesser note, and the jurisprudence of the fourgreat Imáms had been too readily followed. Here was work to do. He wouldreform the Church of Islám, and restore men to their allegiance to the Bookand the Sunnat, as recorded by the Companions. It is true, that the Sunníswould rise up in opposition, for thus the authority of the four Imáms, the"Canonical Legists" of the orthodox sect, would be set aside; but what ofthat? Had he not been a follower of Abu Hanífa? Now he was prepared to letAba Hanífa go, for none but a Companion of the Prophet could give anauthoritative statement with regard to the Sunnat--the Prophet's words andacts. He must break a lance with the glorious Imám, and start a school ofhis own. 

He said: "The Muslim pilgrims adore the tomb of the Prophet, and thesepulchre of 'Alí, and of other saints who have died in the odour ofsanctity. They run there to pay the tribute of their fervent prayers. Bythis means they think that they can satisfy their spiritual and temporalneeds, From what do they seek this benefit? From walls made of mud andstones, from corpses deposited in tombs. If you speak to them they willreply, 'We do not call these monuments God; we turn to them in prayer, andwe pray the saints to intercede for us on high. ' Now, the true {103} way ofsalvation is to prostrate one's self before Him who is ever present, and tovenerate Him--the one without associate or equal. " Such outspoken languageraised up opposition, and he had to seek the protection ofMuhammad-Ibn-Saud, a chief of some importance, who now vigorously supportedthe Wahhábí movement. He was a stern and uncompromising man. "As soon asyou seize a place, " he said to his soldiers, "put the males to the sword. Plunder and pillage at your pleasure, but spare the women and do not strikea blow at their modesty. " On the day of battle he used to give each soldiera paper, a safe conduct to the other world. This letter was addressed tothe Treasurer of Paradise. It was enclosed in a bag which the warriorsuspended to his neck. The soldiers were persuaded that the souls of thosewho died in battle would go straight to heaven, without being examined bythe angels Munkar and Nakír in the grave. The widows and orphans of all whofell were supported by the survivors. Nothing could resist men who, firedwith a burning zeal for what they deemed the truth, received a share of thebooty, if conquerors; who went direct to Paradise if they were slain. Incourse of time, Muhammad-Ibn-Saud married the daughter of Ibn-Abd-ul-Wahháband founded the Wahhábí dynasty which to this day rules at Ryadh. [90]

Such was the origin of this great movement, which spread, in course oftime, over Central and Eastern Arabia, and in the beginning of this centuryfound acceptance in India. In the year 1803 A. D. Both Mecca and Madína fellinto the hands of the Wahhábís. A clean sweep was made of all things, theuse of which was opposed to Wahhábí principles. Not only rosaries andcharms, but silk robes and pipes were consigned to the flames, for smokingis a {104} deadly sin. On this point there is a good story told byPalgrave--"'Abd-ul-Karím said: 'The first of the great sins is the givingdivine honours to a creature. ' Of course I replied, 'The enormity of such asin is beyond all doubt. But if this be the first, there must be a second;what is it?' 'Drinking the shameful!' (in English idiom, 'smoking tobacco')was the unhesitating answer. 'And murder, and adultery, and false witness?'I suggested. 'God is merciful and forgiving, ' rejoined my friend; that is, these are merely little sins. "[91]

After holding possession of the holy cities for nine years they were drivenout by the Turkish forces. 'Abdullah, the fourth Wahhábí ruler, wascaptured by Ibrahím Pasha, and afterwards executed in the square of St. Sophia (1818 A. D. ) The political power of the Wahhábís has since beenconfined to parts of Arabia; but their religious opinions have widelyspread. 

The leader of the Wahhábí movement in India was Sayyid Ahmad, a reformedfreebooter. He was now born at Ráí Bareili, in Oudh, 1786 A. D. When aboutthirty years of age he gave up his wild way of living and settled down inDelhi as a student of the Law of Islám. After a while, he went onpilgrimage to Mecca, but his opinions, so similar to those of the notedWahhábí, attracted the attention of the orthodox theologians, through whoseinfluence he was expelled from the sacred city. Persecution deepened hisreligious convictions, and he returned to India a pronounced Wahhábí. Hesoon gained a large number of disciples, and in 1826 A. D. He preached aJihád against the Sikhs. This war was not a success. In the year 1831 theWahhábís were suddenly attacked by the Sikhs, under Sher Singh, and SayyidAhmad was slain. This did not, however, prevent the spread of Wahhábíprinciples, for he had the good fortune to leave behind him an enthusiasticdisciple. This man, {105} Muhammad Ismá'íl, was born near Delhi in the year1781 A. D. He was a youth of good abilities and soon mastered the subjectswhich form the curriculum of a liberal education amongst Musalmáns. Hisfirst preaching was in a Mosque at Delhi on Tauhíd (Unity), and againstShirk (Polytheism). He now met with Sayyid Ahmad who soon acquired greatinfluence over his new disciple. Ismá'íl told him one evening that he couldnot offer up his prayers with Huzúr-i-Kalb, presence of heart. The Sayyidtook him to his room where he instructed him to repeat the first of theprayers after him, and then to conclude them alone. He did so, and was ableto so abstract himself in the contemplation of God that he remained engagedin prayer till the morning. Henceforward he was a devoted adherent of hisspiritual teacher. In the public discussions, which now often took place, none were a match for Ismá'íl. This fervent preacher of Wahhábíism is nowchiefly remembered by his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Imán, the book fromwhich the account of Wahhábí doctrine given in this chapter is taken. If Imake no special reference to the quotations given, it will be known that myauthority for the statements thus made is Muhammad Ismá'íl, the most famousof all Sayyid Ahmad's disciples. This book was followed by theSirát-ul-Mustaqím, said to have been written by one of Ismá'íl's followers. Wahhábí doctrines are now spread throughout India. In the South there isnot much religious excitement or inquiry, yet Wahhábís are to be foundthere. [92] It was and is a remarkable movement. In one sense it is astruggle against the traditionalism of later ages, but in no sense can itbe said that the Wahhábís reject Tradition. They acknowledge as thefoundation of the faith--first, the Qurán; secondly, the Traditions whichare recorded on the authority of the Companions, and also the Ijmá' of theCompanions, that is, all things on which they were unanimous in opinion{106} or in practice. Thus to the Wahhábí as to the Sunní, Muhammad is inall his _acts_ and _words_ a perfect guide. 

So far from Wahhábíism being a move onward because it is a return to firstprinciples, it rather binds the fetters of Islám more tightly. It does notoriginate anything new, it offers no relaxation from a system which looksupon the Qurán and the Traditions as a perfect and complete law, social andpolitical, moral and religious. 

The Wahhábí places the doctrine of the "Tauhíd, " or Unity, in a veryprominent position. It is true that all Musalmán sects put this dogma inthe first rank, but Wahhábís set their faces against practices common tothe other sects, because they consider that they obscure this fundamentaldoctrine. It is this which brings them into collision with other Musalmáns. The greatest of all sins is Shirk (_i. E. _ the ascribing of plurality to theDeity). A Mushrik (Polytheist) is one who so offends. All Musalmánsconsider Christians to be Polytheists, and all Wahhábís consider all otherMusalmáns also to be Polytheists, because they look to the Prophet forintercession, pray to saints, visit shrines, and do other unlawful acts. 

The Takwiat-ul-Imán says that "two things are necessary in religion--toknow God as God, and the Prophet as the Prophet. " The two fundamental basesof the faith are the "Doctrine of the Tauhíd (Unity) and obedience to theSunnat. " The two great errors to be avoided are Shirk (Polytheism) andBida't (Innovation). As Bida't is looked upon as evil, it is somewhatdifficult to see what hope of progress can be placed upon this latest phaseof Muhammadan revival. 

Shirk is defined to be of four kinds: Shirk-ul-'Ilm, ascribing knowledge toothers than God; Shirk-ut-tasarruf, ascribing power to others than God;Shirk-ul-'Ibádat, offering worship to created things; Shirk-ul-'ádat, theperformance of ceremonies which imply reliance on others than God. {107}

The first, Shirk-ul-'Ilm, is illustrated by the statement that prophets andholy men have no knowledge of secret things unless as revealed to them byGod. Thus some wicked persons made a charge against 'Áyesha. The Prophetwas troubled in mind, but knew not the truth of the matter till God made itknown to him. To ascribe, then, power to soothsayers, astrologers, andsaints is Polytheism. "All who pretend to have a knowledge of hiddenthings, such as fortune-tellers, soothsayers and interpreters of dreams, aswell as those who profess to be inspired are all liars. " Again, "should anyone take the name of any saint, or invoke his aid in the time of need, instead of calling on God, or use his name in attacking an enemy, or readpassages to propitiate him, or make him the object of contemplation--it isShirk-ul-'Ilm. "

The second kind, Shirk-ut-tasarruf, is to suppose that any one has powerwith God. He who looks up to any one as an intercessor with God commitsShirk. Thus: "But they who take others beside Him as lords, saying, 'Weonly serve them that they may bring us near God, '--God will judge betweenthem (and the Faithful) concerning that wherein they are at variance. "(Súra xxxix. 4. ) Intercession may be of three kinds. For example, acriminal is placed before the King. The Vizier intercedes. The King, havingregard to the rank of the Vizier, pardons the offender. This is calledShafá'at-i-Wajahat, or 'intercession from regard. ' But to suppose that Godso esteems the rank of any one as to pardon a sinner merely on account ofit is Shirk. Again, the Queen or the Princes intercede for the criminal. The King, from love to them, pardons him. This is calledShafá'at-i-muhabbat, or 'intercession from affection. ' But to consider thatGod so loves any one as to pardon a criminal on his account is to give thatloved one power, and this is Shirk, for such power is not possible in theCourt of God. "God may out of His bounty confer on His favourite servantsthe epithets of Habíb--favourite, or Khalíl--friend, {108} &c. ; but aservant is but a servant, no one can put his foot outside the limits ofservitude, or rise beyond the rank of a servant. " Again, the King mayhimself wish to pardon the offender, but he fears lest the majesty of thelaw should be lowered. The Vizier perceives the King's wish, andintercedes. This intercession is lawful. It is calledShafá'at-i-ba-izn--intercession by permission, and such power Muhammad willhave at the day of Judgment. Wahhábís hold that he has not that power now, though all other Musalmáns consider that he has, and in consequence (inWahhábí opinion) commit the sin of Shirk-ut-tasarruf. The Wahhábís quotethe following passages in support of their view. "Who is he that canintercede with Him but by _His own permission_. " (Súra ii. 256) "Say:Intercession is wholly with God! His the kingdoms of the heavens and of theearth. " (Súra xxxix. 46). They also say: "whenever an allusion is made inthe Qurán, or the Traditions to the intercession of certain prophets orapostles, it is this kind of intercession and no other that is meant. "

The third Shirk is prostration before any created beings with the idea ofworshipping it. It also includes perambulating the shrines of departedsaints. Thus: "Prostration, bowing down, standing with folded arms, spending money in the name of an individual, fasting out of respect to hismemory, proceeding to a distant shrine in a pilgrim's garb and calling outthe name of the saint whilst so going is Shirk-ul-'Ibádat. " It is wrong "tocover the grave with a sheet (ghiláf), to say prayers at the shrine, tokiss any particular stone, to rub the mouth and breast against the walls ofthe shrine, &c. " This is a stern condemnation of the very common practiceof visiting the tombs of saints and of some of the special practices of thepilgrimage to Mecca. All such practices as are here condemned are calledIshrák fi'l 'Ibádat--'association in worship. '

The fourth Shirk is the keeping up of superstitious customs, such as theIstikhára--seeking guidance from beads {109} &c. , trusting to omens, goodor bad, believing in lucky and unlucky days, adopting such names as'Abd-un-Nabi (slave of the Prophet), and so on. In fact, the denouncing ofsuch practices and calling them Shirk brings Wahhábíism into daily contactwith the other sects, for scarcely any people in the world are suchprofound believers in the virtue of charms and the power of astrologers asMusalmáns. The difference between the first and fourth Shirk, theShirk-ul-'Ilm and the Shirk-ul-'ádat, seems to be that the first is the_belief_, say in the knowledge of a soothsayer, and the second the _habit_of consulting him. 

To swear by the name of the Prophet, of 'Alí, of the Imáms, or of Pírs(Leaders) is to give them the honour due to God alone. It is Ishrák fi'ladab--'Shirk in association. '

Another common belief which Wahhábís oppose is that Musalmáns can performthe Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), say prayers, read the Qurán, abide inmeditation, give alms, and do other good works, the reward of which shallbe credited to a person already dead. [93] Amongst other Musalmáns it is acommon practice to read the Qurán in the belief that, if done with such anintention, the reward will pass to the deceased object of the desire. Wahábís entirely object to this. 

The above technical exposition of Wahhábí tenets shows how much stress theylay on a rigid adherence to the doctrine of the "Unity. " "Lá-il-láha, Il-lal-lá-hu" (there is no God but God) is an eternal truth. Yet to theMusalmán God is a Being afar off. In rejecting the Fatherhood of God he hasaccepted as the object of his worship, hardly of his affections, a Beingdespotic in all He does, arbitrary in all His ways. He has accepted theposition of a slave instead of that of a son. Wahhábíism emphasizes theideas which flow from the first article of the Muslim creed. But {110} onthis subject we prefer to let Palgrave speak. He of all men knew theWahhábí best, and he, at least, can be accused of no sectarian bias. Theextract is rather long, but will repay perusal; indeed, the whole passagefrom which this extract is taken should be read. 

 "'There is no God but God, ' are words simply tantamount in English to the negation of any deity save one alone; and thus much they certainly mean in Arabic, but they imply much more also. Their full sense is, not only to deny absolutely and unreservedly all plurality whether of nature or of person in the Supreme Being, not only to establish the unity of the Unbegetting and the Unbegot, in all its simple and incommunicable oneness, but besides this, the words, in Arabic and among Arabs, imply that this one Supreme Being is the only Agent, the only Force, the only Act existing throughout the universe, and leave to all beings else, matter or spirit, instinct or intelligence, physical or moral, nothing but pure unconditional passiveness, alike in movement or in quiescence, in action or in capacity. Hence in this one sentence is summed up a system which, for want of a better name, I may be permitted to call the 'Pantheism of Force. ' 'God is One in the totality of omnipotent and omnipresent action, which acknowledges no rule, standard, or limit, save one sole and absolute will. He communicates nothing to His creatures, for their seeming power and act ever remain His alone, and in return He receives nothing from them. ' 'It is His singular satisfaction to let created beings continually feel that they are nothing else than His slaves, that they may the better acknowledge His superiority. ' 'He Himself, sterile in His inaccessible height, neither loving nor enjoying aught save His own and self-measured decree, without son, companion, or councillor, is no less barren for Himself than for His creatures, and His own barrenness and lone egoism in Himself is the cause and rule of His indifferent and unregarding despotism around. '[94]

Palgrave allows that such a notion of the Deity is monstrous, but maintainsthat it is the "truest mirror of the mind and scope of the writer of theBook" (Qurán), and that, as such, it is confirmed by authentic Traditionand learned commentaries. At all events, Palgrave possessed {111} the twoessential qualifications for a critic of Islam--a knowledge of theliterature, and intercourse with the people. So far as my experience goes Ihave never seen any reason to differ from Palgrave's statement. Men areoften better than their creeds. Even the Prophet was not always consistent. There are some redeeming points in Islám. But the root idea of the whole isas described above, and from it no system can be deduced which will grow ingrace and beauty as age after age rolls by. 

The Arab proverb states that "The worshipper models himself on what heworships. "[95] Thus a return to "first principles, " sometimes proclaimed asthe hope of Turkey, is but the "putting back the hour-hand of Islám" to theplace where indeed Muhammad always meant it to stay, for

 "Islám is in its essence stationary, and was framed thus to remain. Sterile, like its God, lifeless like its first Principle and supreme Original in all that constitutes true life--for life is love, participation, and progress, and of these the Quránic Deity has none--it justly repudiates all change, all advance, all development. "[96]

Muhammad Ibn 'Abd-ul Wahháb was a man of great intellectual power andvigour. He could pierce through the mists of a thousand years, and see withan eagle eye how one sect and another had laid accretions on the Faith. Hehad the rare gift of intuition, and could see that change (Bida't) andprogress were alien to the truth. This recognition of his ability is due tohim; but what a sad prostration of great gifts it was to seek to arrest, bythe worship of the letter, all hope of progress, and to make "thestarting-point of Islám its goal. " That he was a good Musalmán in so doingno one can doubt, but that his work gives any hope of the rise of anenlightened form of Islám no one who really has studied Islám can believe. 

Wahhábíism simply amounts to this, that while it denounces all otherMusalmáns as polytheists, it enforces the {112} Sunnat of the Prophet withall its energy. [97] It breaks down shrines, but insists on the necessity ofa pilgrimage to a black stone at Mecca. It forbids the use of a rosary, butattaches great merit to counting the ninety-nine names of God on thefingers. It would make life unsocial. The study of the Fine Arts with theexception of Architecture can find no place in it. Ismá'íl quotes withapproval the following Tradition. "'Áyesha said: 'I purchased a carpet onwhich were some figures. The Prophet stood in the doorway and lookeddispleased. ' I said: 'O messenger of God, I repent to God and HisMessenger; what fault have I committed that you do not enter?' His Highnessthen said: 'What is this carpet?' I replied; 'I have bought it for you tosit and rest upon. ' Then the messenger of God replied: 'Verily, the makerof pictures will be punished on the day of resurrection, when God willdesire them to bring them to life. A house which contains pictures is notvisited by the angels. '" In a Tradition quoted by Ibn 'Abbás, the Prophetclasses artists with murderers and parricides. Wahhábíism approves of allthis, and thus by forbidding harmless enjoyments it would make society "anorganised hypocrisy. " It would spread abroad a spirit of contempt for allmankind except its own followers, and, where it had the power, it wouldforce its convictions on others at the point of the sword. 

Wahhábíism was reform after a fashion, in one direction; in the history ofIslám there have been attempts at reform in other directions; there willyet be such attempts, but so long as the Qurán and the Sunnat (or, in thecase of the Shía'h, its equivalent) are to form, as they have hitherto{113} done for every sect, the sole law to regulate all conditions andstates of life, enlightened and continued progress is impossible. Thedeadening influence of Islám is the greatest obstacle the Church of God hasto overcome in her onward march; its immobility is the bane of many lands;connection with it is the association of the living with the dead; to speakof it, as some do, as if it were a sort of sister religion to Christianity, is but to show deplorable ignorance where ignorance is inexcusable. Thus itis plain that Musalmáns are not all of one heart and soul. [98] In the nextchapter I hope to show that Islám is a very dogmatic and complex system inspite of the simple form of its creed. 

{114}

 NOTE TO CHAPTER III. 

 WAHHÁBÍISM. 

 In the Journal Asiatique, 4me Série, tome 11, a curious account is given of the voyage of Mirzá Muhammad 'Alí Khán, some time Persian Ambassador in Paris. This gentleman states that in one of his voyages from Persia to India he met with a Wahhábí, who had in his possession a tract written by the founder of the sect. This small pamphlet he allowed Mirzá Muhammad to copy. I give the substance of the pamphlet in this note. The original Arabic will be found in the Journal Asiatique. It is of considerable interest as a protest against idolatry. It is as follows:--I know that God is merciful, that the sect of Abu Hanífa is orthodox and identical with the religion of Abraham. After thou hast known that God has created His servants for the purpose of being served by them, know also that this service or devotion is to worship God, One and alone; just as prayer (Salát) is not prayer (Salát), unless it is accompanied with the legal purification. God Most High has said: "It is not for the votaries of other gods with God, witnesses against themselves of infidelity, to visit the temples of God. These! vain their works: and in the fire shall they abide for ever!" (Súra ix. 17. )

 Those who in their prayers, address any other than God, in the hope of obtaining by them that which God alone can give--those bring unto their prayers the leaven of idolatry and make them of none effect, "and who erreth more than he who, beside God, calleth upon that which shall not answer him until the day of resurrection. " (Súra xlvi. 4) On the contrary, when the day of resurrection comes, they will become their enemies and treat them as infidels for having served others than God. "But the gods whom ye call on beside Him have no power over the husk of a date-stone! If ye cry to them they will not hear your cry; and if they heard they would not answer you, and in the day of resurrection they will disown your joining them with God. " (Súra xxxv. 14, 15. )

 He who says: "O thou Prophet of God! O 'Ibn 'Abbás! O 'Abd-ul-Qádir!" &c. With the persuasion that the souls of these blessed ones can obtain from God that of which the suppliant has need, or that they can protect him, is an infidel whose blood any one may shed, and whose goods any one may appropriate with impunity unless he repent. There are four different classes of idolaters. 

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 First, the infidels against whom the Prophet made war. These acknowledge that God is the creator of the world, that He supports all living creatures, that in wisdom He rules over all. "Say: who supplieth you from the heavens and the earth? who hath power over hearing and sight? and who bringeth forth the living from the dead, and bringeth forth the dead from the living? who ruleth all things? they will surely say: 'God, ' then say: 'What! will ye not therefore fear Him. '" (Súra x. 32. ) It is difficult to distinguish idolatry of this kind; but under an outwardly orthodox appearance they go astray; for they have recourse to divinities of their own choosing and pray to them. 

 Secondly, there are idolaters who say that they only call upon these intermediary powers to intercede in their favour with God, and that what they desire they seek from God. The Qurán furnishes a proof against them. "They worship beside God what cannot hurt or help them, and say, these are our advocates with God! say: will ye inform God of aught in the heavens and in the earth which He knoweth not?" (Súra x. 19. )

 Thirdly, those are idolaters who choose one idol as their patron, or rather those who, renouncing the worship of idols, become attached to one saint, as Jesus or His Mother, and put themselves under the protection of Guardian Angels. Against them we cite the verse: "Those whom ye call on, themselves desire union with their Lord, striving which of them shall be nearest to Him; they also hope for His mercy, and fear His chastisement. " (Súra xvii. 59. ) We see here that the Prophet drew no distinction between the worship of an idol and the worship of such and such a saint; on the contrary, he treated them all as infidels, and made war upon them in order to consolidate the religion of God upon a firm basis. 

 Fourthly, those who worship God sincerely in the time of trouble, but at other times call on other Gods are idolaters. Thus: "Lo! when they embark on board a ship, they call upon God, vowing Him sincere worship, but when He bringeth them safe to land, behold they join partners with Him. " (Súra xxix. 65. )

 In the age in which we live, I could cite still worse heresies. The idolaters, our contemporaries, pray to and invoke the lower divinities when they are in distress. The idolaters of the Prophet's time were less culpable than those of the present age are. They, at least, had recourse to God in time of great evil; these in good and evil states, seek the aid of their patrons, other than God, and pray to them. 

{116}

 * * * * *

CHAPTER IV. 

THE CREED OF ISLÁM. [99]

Faith is defined by Muslim theologians as: "Confession with the tongue andbelief with the heart. "[100] It is said to "stand midway between hope andfear. " It is sub-divided into Imán-í-mujmal and Imán-í-mufassal. The formeris an expression of the following faith: "I believe in God, His names andattributes, and accept all His commands. "[101] The latter is the acceptanceof the following dogmas: "I believe in God, Angels, Books, Prophets, theLast Day, the Predestination by the Most High God of good and evil and theResurrection after death. "[102] These form the articles of faith whichevery Muslim must believe, to which belief, in order to render it perfect, he must add the performance of the "acts of practice, " _viz. _: (1) "Therecital of the Kalima or creed:--'There is no deity but God, and Muhammadis the Apostle of God. ' (2) Sulát. The five daily prayers. (3) Roza. Thethirty days fast of Ramazán. (4) Zakát. The legal alms. (5) Hajj, or thepilgrimage to Mecca. " This chapter will contain an account of the Imán--thedogmas of Islám. An account of the Dín--the practical duties, will be givenin the next chapter. {117}

1. GOD. --This article of the faith includes a belief in the existence ofGod, His unity and attributes, and has given rise to a large number ofsects. Some acquaintance with the various controversies which have thusarisen is necessary to a correct knowledge of Islám. I commence theconsideration of this subject by giving the substance of a Sunní, ororthodox treatise known as the Risála-i-Berkevi. The learned orientalist M. Garcin de Tassy, considered it to be of such authority that in his"L'Islamisme d'après le Coran" he has inserted a translation of theRisála. [103] Muhammad Al-Berkevi, speaking of the Divine attributes, says:--

 (1). Life. (Hyát). God Most High is alone to be adored. He has neither associate nor equal. He is free from the imperfections of humanity. He is neither begotten nor does He beget. He is invisible. He is without figure, form, colour or parts. His existence has neither beginning nor end. He is immutable. If He so wills, He can annihilate the world in a moment of time and, if it seem good to Him, recreate it in an instant. Nothing is difficult to Him, whether it be the creation of a fly or that of the seven heavens. He receives neither profit nor loss from whatever may happen. If all the Infidels became Believers and all the irreligious pious, He would gain no advantage. On the other hand, if all Believers became Infidels, He would suffer no loss. 

 (2). Knowledge. ('Ilm). He has knowledge of all things hidden or manifest, whether in heaven or on earth. He knows the number of the leaves of the trees, of the grains of wheat and of sand. Events past and future are known to Him. He knows what enters into the heart of man and what he utters with his mouth. He alone, except those to whom He has revealed them, knows the invisible things. He is free from forgetfulness, negligence and error. His knowledge is eternal: it is not posterior to His essence. 

 (3). Power. (Qudrat). He is Almighty. If He wills, He can raise the dead, make stones talk, trees walk, annihilate the heavens and the earth and recreate of gold or of silver thousands similar to those destroyed. He can transport a man in a moment of time from the east to the west, or from the west to the east, or to the seventh heaven. His power is eternal à priori and à posteriori. It is not posterior to His essence. 

 {118}

 (4). Will (Irádah). He can do what He wills, and whatever He wills comes to pass. He is not obliged to act. Everything, good or evil, in this world exists by His will. He wills the faith of the believer and the piety of the religious. If He were to change His will there would be neither a true believer nor a pious man. He willeth also the unbelief of the unbeliever and the irreligion of the wicked and, without that will, there would neither be unbelief nor irreligion. All we do we do by His will: what He willeth not does not come to pass. If one should ask why God does not will that all men should believe we answer: "We have no right to enquire about what God wills and does. He is perfectly free to will and to do what He pleases. " In creating unbelievers, in willing that they should remain in that state; in making serpents, scorpions and pigs: in willing, in short, all that is evil God has wise ends in view which it is not necessary that we should know. We must acknowledge that the will of God is eternal and that it is not posterior to His essence. 

 (5). Hearing. (Sama'). He hears all sounds whether low or loud. He hears without an ear for His attributes are not like those of men. 

 (6). Seeing. (Basr). He sees all things, even the steps of a black ant on a black stone in a dark night; yet He has no eye as men have. 

 (7). Speech. (Kalám). He speaks, but not with a tongue as men do. He speaks to some of His servants without the intervention of another, even as He spoke to Moses, and to Muhammad on the night of the ascension to heaven. He speaks to others by the instrumentality of Gabriel, and this is the usual way in which He communicates His will to the prophets. It follows from this that the Qurán is the word of God, and is eternal and uncreated. 

These are the "haft sifát, " or seven attributes of God. There is unanimityof opinion as to the number of attributes, but not as regards their natureand the extent of the knowledge concerning them to which men can attain. Thus some say that the knowledge of God is the first thing to acquire; butImám Sháfa'í and the Mutazilites say that a man must first attain to the_idea_ of the knowledge of God. The meaning of the expression "Knowledge ofGod" is the ascertaining the truth of His existence, and of His positiveand privative attributes, as far as the human understanding can enter intothese matters. The unity is not a mere numerical unity but absolute, forthe number one is the first of a series and implies a second, but God hasnot a {119} second. He is "singular without anything like Him, separatehaving no equal;" for, "had there been either in heaven or earth godsbeside God, both surely had gone to ruin. " (Súra xxi. 22). God is not asubstance, for substance has accidents, but God has none: otherwise Hisnature would be that of "dependent existence. " God is without parts, forotherwise he would not exist till all the parts were formed, and Hisexistence would depend on the parts, that is, on something beside Himself. 

The orthodox strictly prohibit the discussion of minute particulars, forsay they, "just as the eye turning to the brightness of the sun findsdarkness intervene to prevent all observation, so the understanding findsitself bewildered if it attempts to pry into the nature of God. " TheProphet said: "We did not know the reality of the knowledge of Thee;" andto his followers he gave this advice: "Think of God's gifts, not of Hisnature: certainly you have no power for that. " The Khalíf Akbar is reportedto have said: "to be helpless in the search of knowledge is knowledge andto enquire into the nature of God is Shirk (infidelity). "[104] A moderateacquaintance with Muslim theology shows that neither the injunction of theProphet nor the warning of the Khalíf has been heeded. 

According to the early Muslims, the Companions and their followers, enquiries into the nature of God and His attributes were not lawful. TheProphet knowing what was good for men, had plainly revealed the way ofsalvation and had taught them:--

 "Say: He is God alone: God the eternal! He begetteth not, and He is not begotten; And there is none like unto Him. " (Súra cxii)

This was sufficient for them to know of the mystery of the Godhead. God isfar beyond the reach of the human {120} understanding. He alone embracesall in His comprehension. Men should therefore mistrust their ownperceptive faculties and notions and should obey the inspired legislatorMuhammad, who loving them better than they love themselves, and knowingbetter than they do what is truly useful, has revealed both what they oughtto believe and what they ought to do. It is true that men must exercisetheir reason, but they must not do so with regard to the divineattributes. [105]

Dogma is divided into two portions, usúl and farú'--(_i. E. _, roots andbranches. ) The former include the doctrine about God; the latter, as thename implies, consist of truths which result from the acceptance of theformer. The orthodox belief is that reason has only to do with the "farú', "for the usúl being founded on the Qurán and Sunnat have an objective basis. 

Differences of opinion about various branches of the "farú', " led todiscussions which did not stop there but went on to the "usúl, " and sopaved the way for the rise of scholastic theology ('Ilm-i-kalám. ) I havealready in the chapter on the exegesis of the Qurán explained thedifference in meaning between muhkam (obvious) verses and mutashábih(intricate) ones. This difference lies at the very foundation of thepresent subject. It is, therefore, necessary to enter a little into detail. 

The question turns very much on the interpretation of the 5th verse of the3rd Súra: "He it is who hath sent down to thee 'the Book. ' Some of itssigns are of themselves perspicuous (muhkam): these are the basis of the{121} Book--and others are figurative (mutashábih. ) But they whose heartsare given to err, follow its figures, craving discord, craving aninterpretation; yet none knoweth its interpretation but God. And the stablein knowledge say, 'We believe in it: it is all from our Lord. ' But nonewill bear this in mind, save men endued with understanding. " Here it isclearly stated (1) that no one except God can know the interpretation ofmutashábih verses, and (2) that wise men though they know not theirinterpretation, yet believe them all. Many learned men, however, say thatthe full stop should not be placed after the word "God" but after"knowledge, " and so this portion of the verse would read thus: "Noneknoweth its interpretation but God and the stable in knowledge. They say:'we believe, &c. '" On this slight change in punctuation, which shows thatthe 'stable in knowledge' can interpret the mutashábih verses, oppositeschools of theology have arisen in Islám. 

The latter reading opens the way to a fearless investigation of subjectswhich all the early Muslims avoided as beyond their province. In the earlydays of Islám it was held that all parts of the Qurán, except the muhkamverses and the purely narrative portions, were mutashábih; that is, allverses which related to the attributes of God, to the existence of angelsand genii, to the appearance of Antichrist, the period and signs of the dayof judgment, and generally all matters which are beyond the dailyexperience of mankind. It was strongly felt that not only must there be nodiscussion on them, [106] but no attempt should be made to understand or acton them. Ibn 'Abbás, a Companion, says: "One must believe the mutashábihverses, but not take them for a rule of conduct. " Ibn Jubair was once {122}asked to put the meaning of the Qurán into writing. He became angry andsaid: "I should rather be palsied in one-half of my body than do so. "[107]'Ayesha said: "Avoid those persons who dispute about the meaning of theQurán, for they are those whom God has referred to in the words, 'whosehearts are given to err. '"

The first reading is the one adopted by the Asháb, the Tábi'ín and theTaba-i-Tábi'ín and the great majority of Commentators. The Sunnísgenerally, and, according to the testimony of Fakr-ud-dín Rází (A. H. 544-606), the Sháfa'í sect are of the same opinion. 

Those who take the opposite view are the Commentators Mujáhid (died A. H. 101), Rábí' bin Ans and others. The scholastic theologians[108](Mutakallimán) generally adopt the latter reading. [109] They argued thus:how could men believe what they did not know; to which their opponentsanswered, that the act of belief in the unknown is the very thing herepraised by God. The scholastics then enquired why, since the Qurán was sentto be a guide and direction to men, were not all its verses muhkam? Theanswer was, that the Arabs acknowledged two kinds of eloquence. One kindwas to arrange words and ideas in a plain and simple style so that themeaning might be at once apparent, the other was to speak in figurativelanguage. Now, if the Qurán had not contained both these styles ofcomposition, it could not have claimed the position it does as a bookabsolutely perfect in form as well as in matter. [110]

Bearing in mind this fundamental difference of opinion, we can now pass onto the consideration of the attributes. 

{123} The essential attributes are Life, Knowledge, Power, Will, forwithout these the others could not exist. Then the attributes of Hearing, Seeing, Speech give us a further idea of perfection. These are the"Sifát-i-Sabútiah, " or affirmative attributes, the privation of which wouldimply loss; there are also Sifát-i-Salbiah, or privative attributes, suchas--God has no form, is not limited by place, has no equal, &c. The acts ofsitting, rising, descending, the possession of face, hands, eyes, &c. , being connected with the idea of corporeal existences imply imperfectionand apparently contradict the doctrine of "exemption" (tenzih) according towhich God is, in virtue of His essence, in no way like the creatures He hasmade. This was a difficulty, but the four great Imáms all taught that itwas impious to enquire into these matters for all such allusions weremutashábih. "The Imám Hanbal and other early divines followed in the pathof the early Muslims and said: 'We believe in the Book and the Sunnat, anddo not desire explanations. We know that the High God is not to be comparedto any created object: nor any creature with Him. '"[111] Imám As-Sháfa'ísaid that a man who enquired into such matters should be tied to a stake, and carried about, and that the following proclamation should be madebefore him: "This is the reward of him who left the Qurán and theTraditions for the study of scholastic theology. " Imám Hanbal says:"Whosoever moves his hand when he reads in the Qurán the words, 'I havecreated with my hand, ' ought to have his hand cut off; and whoeverstretches forth his finger in repeating the saying of Muhammad, 'The heartof the believer is between two fingers of the Merciful, ' deserves to havehis finger cut off. " At-Tirmízí when consulted about the statement of theProphet that God had descended to the lowest of the seven heavens, said:"The descent is intelligible, the manner how is unknown; the belief therein{124} is obligatory; and the asking about it is a blameable innovation. "But all such attempts to restrain discussion and investigation failed. 

The two main points in the discussion of this question are (1) whether theattributes of God are internal or external, whether they are part of Hisessence or not, and (2) whether they are eternal or not. 

The two leading Sects were the Sifátians (or Attributists) and theMutazilites. The Sifátians whom the early orthodox Muslims follow, taughtthat the attributes of God are eternally inherent in His essence withoutseparation or change. Every attribute is conjoined with Him as life withknowledge, or knowledge with power. They also taught that the mutashábihverses were not to be explained, and such were those which seemed to show aresemblance between God and His creatures. So at first they did not attemptto give the meaning of the terms, "hands, eyes, face, &c. , " when applied toGod. They simply accepted them as they stood. In course of time, as will beseen, differences of opinion on this point led to some sub-divisions ofthis sect. 

The Mutazilites were the great opponents of the Sifátians. They rejectedthe idea of eternal attributes, saying that eternity was the formalattribute of the essence of God. "If, " said they, "we admit the eternalexistence of an attribute then we must recognize the multiplicity ofeternal existences. " They also rejected the attributes of hearing, seeingand speech, as these were accidents proper to corporeal existences. Theylooked upon the divine attributes as mental abstractions, and not as havinga real existence in the divine essence. The Mutazilites were emphaticallythe Free thinkers of Islám. The origin of the sect was as follows: AlHasan, a famous divine, was one day seated in the Mosque at Basra when adiscussion arose on the question whether a believer who committed a mortalsin became thereby an unbeliever. The Khárigites (Ante p. 76) {125}affirmed that it was so. The orthodox denied this, saying that, thoughguilty of sin, yet that as he believed rightly he was not an infidel. [112]One of the scholars Wásil Ibn Atá, (who was born at Madína A. H. 80), thenrose up and said: "I maintain that a Muslim who has committed a mortal sinshould be regarded neither as a believer nor an unbeliever, but asoccupying a middle station between the two. " He then retired to anotherpart of the Mosque where he was joined by his friend 'Umr Ibn Obaid andothers. They resumed the discussion. A learned man, named Katáda, enteringthe Mosque, went up to them, but on finding that they were not the party inwhich Al Hasan was, said 'these are the Seceders (Al-Mutazila). ' Al Hasansoon expelled them from his school. Wásil then founded a school of his ownof which, after the death of his master, 'Umr Ibn Obaid became the head. 

Wásil felt that a believer, though sinful, did not merit the same degree ofpunishment as an infidel, and thus starting off on the question of_degrees_ of punishment, he soon opened up the whole subject of man'sresponsibility and the question of free-will. This soon brought him intoconflict with the orthodox on the subject of predestination and that againto the subject of the inspiration, the interpretation and the eternity ofthe Qurán, and of the divine attributes. His followers rejected thedoctrine of the "divine right" of the Imám, and held that the entire bodyof the Faithful had the right to elect the most suitable person, who neednot necessarily be a man of the Quraish tribe, to fill that office. Theprinciples of logic and the teaching of philosophy were brought to bear onthe precepts of religion. According to Shahrastání the Mutazilites hold:--

 "That God is eternal; and that eternity is the peculiar property of His essence; but they deny the existence of any eternal attributes (as distinct from His nature). For they say, He is Omniscient as to {126} His nature; Living as to His nature; Almighty as to His nature; but not through any knowledge, power or life existing in Him as eternal attributes; for knowledge, power and life are part of His essence, otherwise, if they are to be looked upon as eternal attributes of the Deity, it will give rise to a multiplicity of eternal entities. "

 "They maintain that the knowledge of God is as much within the province of reason as that of any other entity; that He cannot be beheld with the corporeal sight; and with the exception of Himself everything else is liable to change or to suffer extinction. They also maintain that Justice is the animating principle of human actions: Justice according to them being the dictates of Reason and the concordance of the ultimate results of this conduct of man with such dictates. "

 "Again, they hold that there is no eternal law as regards human actions; that the divine ordinances which regulate the conduct of men are the results of growth and development; that God has commanded and forbidden, promised and threatened by a law which grew gradually. At the same time, say they, he who works righteousness merits rewards and he who works evil deserves punishment. They also say, that all knowledge is attained through reason, and must necessarily be so obtained. They hold that the cognition of good and evil is also within the province of reason; that nothing is known to be right or wrong until reason has enlightened us as to the distinction; and that thankfulness for the blessings of the Benefactor is made obligatory by reason, even before the promulgation of any law upon the subject. They also maintain that man has perfect freedom; is the author of his actions both good and evil, and deserves reward or punishment hereafter accordingly. "

During the reigns of the 'Abbásside Khalífs Mámún, Mutasim and Wathik(198-232 A. H. ) at Baghdád, the Mutazilites were in high favour at Court, Under the 'Abbásside dynasty[113] the ancient Arab Society wasrevolutionized, Persians filled the most important offices of State;Persian doctrines took the place of Arab ones. The orthodox suffered bitterpersecution. The story of that persecution will be told later on. TheKhalíf Wathik at length relented. {127} An old man, heavily chained, wasone day brought into his presence. The prisoner obtained permission to puta few questions to Ahmad Ibn Abu Dá, úd, a Mutazilite and the President ofthe Court of Inquisition. The following dialogue took place. "Ahmad, " saidthe prisoner, "what is the dogma which you desire to have established. ""That the Qurán is created, " replied Ahmad. "This dogma, then, is withoutdoubt an essential part of religion, insomuch that the latter cannotwithout it be said to be complete?" "Certainly. " "Has the Apostle of Godtaught this to men or has he left them free?" "He has left them free. " "Wasthe Apostle of God acquainted with this dogma or not?" "He was acquaintedwith it. " "Wherefore, then, do you desire to impose a belief regardingwhich the Apostle of God has left men free to think as they please?" Ahmadremaining silent, the old man turned to Wathik and said, "O Prince ofBelievers, here is my first position made good. " Then turning to Ahmad, hesaid, "God has said, 'This day have I perfected religion for you, and havefilled up the measures of my favours upon you; and it is my pleasure thatIslám be your religion. ' (Súra v. 5). But according to you Islám is notperfected unless we adopt this doctrine that the Qurán is created. Whichnow is most worthy of credence--God, when He declares Islám to be completeand perfect, or you when you announce the contrary?" Ahmad was stillsilent. "Prince of Believers, " said the old man, "there is my second pointmade good. " He continued, "Ahmad, how do you explain the following words ofGod in His Holy Book?--'O Apostle! proclaim all that hath been sent down tothee from thy Lord; for if thou dost not, thou hast not proclaimed Hismessage at all. ' Now this doctrine that you desire to spread among theFaithful, has the Apostle taught it, or has he abstained from doing so?"Ahmad remained silent. The old man resumed, "Prince of Believers, such ismy third argument. " Then turning to Ahmad he said: "If the Prophet wasacquainted with the doctrine {128} which you desire to impose upon us, hadhe the right to pass by it in silence?" "He had the right. " "And did thesame right appertain to Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Ali?" "It did, " "Princeof Believers, " said the prisoner, "God will, in truth, be severe on us, ifHe deprives us of a liberty which He accorded to the Prophet and hisCompanions. " The Khalíf assented, and at once restored the old man toliberty. So ended one of the fiercest persecutions the orthodox have everhad to endure, but so also ended the attempt to break through the barriersof traditionalism. [114] The next Khalíf, Al Mutawakhil, a ferocious andcruel man, restored the orthodox party to place and power. He issued afatva (decree) declaring that the dogma that the Qurán was created was anutter falsehood. He instituted severe measures against Christians, Jews, Shía'hs and Mutazilites. Ahmad Ibn Abu Dá, úd was one of the first to bedisgraced. Heresy and latitudinarianism were banished. 

The final blow to the Mutazilites, however, came not from the Khalíf but alittle later on from Abu Hasan-al-Ash'arí (270-340 A. H. )

The Mutazilites expelled from power in Baghdád, still flourished at Basrawhere one day the following incident occurred. Abu 'Alí Al-Jubbai, aMutazilite doctor, was lecturing to his students when Al-Ash'arí propoundedthe following case to his master: "There were three brothers, one of whomwas a true believer, virtuous and pious; the second an infidel, a debaucheeand a reprobate; and the third an infant; they all died. What became ofthem?" Al-Jubbai answered: "The virtuous brother holds a high station inParadise, the infidel is in the depths of hell, and the child is amongthose who have obtained salvation. " {129} "Suppose now, " said Al-Ash'arí, "that the child should wish to ascend to the place occupied by his virtuousbrother, would he be allowed to do so?" "No, " replied Al-Jubbai, "it wouldbe said to him: 'thy brother arrived at this place through His numerousworks of obedience to God, and thou hast no such works to set forward. '""Suppose then, " said Al-Ash'arí, "that the child should say: 'this is notmy fault, you did not let me live long enough, neither did you give me themeans of proving my obedience. '" "In that case, " said Al-Jubbai, "theAlmighty would say: 'I knew that if I allowed thee to live, thou wouldesthave been disobedient and have incurred the punishment of hell: I acted, therefore, for thy advantage. '" "Well, " said Al-Ash'arí, "and suppose theinfidel brother were here to say: 'O God of the Universe! since Thouknowest what awaited him, Thou must have known what awaited me; why thendidst Thou act for his advantage and not for mine?'"[115] Al-Jubbai wassilent, though very angry with his pupil, who was now convinced that theMutazilite dogma of man's free-will was false, and that God elects some formercy and some for punishment without any motive whatever. Disagreeing withhis teacher on this point, he soon began to find other points ofdifference, and soon announced his belief that the Qurán was not created. This occurred on a Friday in the Great Mosque at Basra. Seated in his chairhe cried out in a loud voice: "They who know me know who I am; as for thosewho do not know me I shall tell them; I am 'Alí Ibn Ismá'íl Al-Ash'arí, andI used to hold that the Qurán was created, that the eyes (of men) shall notsee God, and that we ourselves are the authors of our evil deeds; now, Ihave returned to the truth: I renounce these opinions, and I take theengagement to refute the Mutazilites and expose their infamy andturpitude. "[116]

He then, adopting scholastic methods, started a school of {130} thought ofhis own, which was in the main a return to orthodoxy. The Ash'aríandoctrines differ slightly from the tenets of the Sifátians of which sectAl-Ash'arí's disciples form a branch. The Ash'aríans hold--

(i. ) That the attributes of God are distinct from His essence, yet in sucha way as to forbid any comparison being made between God and His creatures. They say they are not "_'ain_ nor _ghair_:" not of His essence, nordistinct from it: _i. E. , _ they cannot be compared with any other things. 

(ii. ) That God has one eternal will from which proceed all things, the goodand the evil, the useful and the hurtful. The destiny of man was written onthe eternal table before the world was created. So far they go with theSifátians, but in order to preserve the moral responsibility of man theysay that he has power to convert will into action. But this power cannotcreate anything new for then God's sovereignty would be impaired; so theysay that God in His providence so orders matters that whenever "a mandesires to do a certain thing, good or bad, the action corresponding to thedesire is, there and then, created by God, and, as it were, fitted on tothe desire. " Thus it seems as if it came naturally from the will of theman, whereas it does not. This action is called Kasb (acquisition) becauseit is acquired by a special creative act of God. It is an act directed tothe obtaining of profit, or the removing of injury: the term is, therefore, inapplicable to the Deity. Abu Bakr-al-Bakillání, a disciple of Al-Ash'arí, says: "The essence or substance of the action is the effect of the power ofGod, but its being an action of obedience, such as prayer, or an action ofdisobedience, such as fornication, are qualities of the action, whichproceed from the power of man. " The Imám Al-Haramain (419-478 A. H. ) held"that the actions of men were effected by the power which God has createdin man. " Abu Isháq al Isfarayain says: "That which maketh impression, orhath influence on action, is a compound of the power of God and the powerof man. " {131}

(iii. ) They say that the word of God is eternal, though they acknowledgethat the vocal sounds used in the Qurán, which is the manifestation of thatword, are created. They say, in short, that the Qurán contains (1) theeternal word which existed in the essence of God before time was; and (2)the word which consists of sounds and combinations of letters. This lastthey call the created word. 

Thus Al-Ash'arí traversed the main positions of the Mutazilites, denyingthat man can by the aid of his reason alone rise to the knowledge of goodand evil. He must exercise no judgment but accept all that is revealed. Hehas no right to apply the moral laws which affect men to the actions ofGod. It cannot be asserted by the human reason that the good will berewarded, or the bad punished in a future world. Man must always approachGod as a slave, in whom there is no light or knowledge to judge of theactions of the Supreme. Whether God will accept the penitent sinner or notcannot be asserted, for He is an absolute Sovereign, above all law. [117]

The opinions of the more irrational sub-divisions of the Sifátians need notbe entered into at any length. 

The Mushábihites (or Assimilators), interpreting some of the mutashábihverses literally, held that there is a resemblance between God and Hiscreatures; and that the Deity is capable of local motion, of ascending, descending, &c. These they called "declarative attributes. " TheMujassimians (or Corporealists) declared God to be corporeal, by which someof them meant, a self-subsisting body, whilst others declared the Deity tobe finite. They are acknowledged to be heretics. 

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The Jabríans gave great prominence to the denial of free agency in man, andthus opposed the Mutazilites, who in this respect are Kadríans, that is, they deny "Al-Kadr, " God's absolute sovereignty, and recognize free will inman. 

These and various other sub-divisions are not now of much importance. TheSunnís follow the teaching of Al-Ash'arí, whilst the Shí'ahs incline tothat of the Mutazilites. 

Connected with the subject of the attributes of God is that of the names tobe used when speaking of Him. All sects agree in this, that the names "TheLiving, the Wise, the Powerful, the Hearer, the Seer, the Speaker, " &c. , are to be applied to God; but the orthodox belief is that all such namesmust be "tauqífi, " that is dependent on some revelation. Thus it is notlawful to apply a name to God expressive of one of His attributes, unlessthere is some statement made, or order given by Muhammad to legalize it. God is rightly called Sháfí (Healer), but He cannot be called Tabíb whichmeans much the same thing, for the simple reason that the word Tabíb isnever applied in the Qurán or the Traditions to God. In like manner theterm 'Álim (Knower) is lawful, but not so the expression 'Áqil (Wise). TheMutazilites say that if, in the Qurán or Traditions, there is any praise ofan attribute, then the adjective formed from the name of that attribute canbe applied to God even though the actual word does not occur in anyrevelation. Al-Ghazzálí (A. H. 450-505), who gave in the East the death-blowto the Muslim philosophers, says: "The names of God not given in the Law, if expressive of His glory, may be used of Him, but only as expressive ofHis attributes, not of His nature. " On the ground that it does not occur inthe Law, the Persian word "Khuda" has been objected to, an objection whichalso holds good with regard to the use of such terms as God, Dieu, Gott, &c. To this it is answered, that as "Khuda" means "one who comes byhimself" it is equivalent to the term Wájib-ul-Wajúd, {133} "one who hasnecessary existence, " and therefore so long as it is not considered as the"Ism-i-Zát (name of His nature) it may with propriety be used. "[118]

The current belief now seems to be that the proper name equal to the termAlláh, current in a language, can be used, provided always that such a nameis not taken from the language of the Infidels; so God, Dieu, &c, stillremain unlawful. The names of God authorised by the Qurán and Traditionsare, exclusive of the term Alláh, ninety-nine in number. They are calledthe Asmá-i-Husná[119] (noble names); but in addition to these there aremany synonyms used on the authority of Ijmá'. Such are Hanán, equal toRahím (Merciful) and Manán, "one who puts another under an obligation. " Inthe Tafsír-i-Bahr it is stated that there are three thousand names of God;one thousand of which are known to angels; one thousand to prophets; whilstone thousand are thus distributed, _viz. _, in the Pentateuch there arethree hundred, in the Psalms three hundred, in the Gospels three hundred, in the Qurán ninety-nine, and one still hidden. 

The following texts of the Qurán are adduced to prove the nature of thedivine attributes:--

(1). Life. "There is no God but He, the Living, the Eternal. " (Súra ii. 256). "Put thy trust in Him that liveth and dieth not. " (Súra xxv. 60). 

(2). Knowledge. "Dost thou not see that God knoweth all that is in theheavens, and all that is in the earth. " (Súra lviii. 8). "With Him are thekeys of the secret things; none knoweth them but He: He knoweth whatever ison the land and in the sea; and no leaf falleth but He knoweth it; neitheris there a grain in the darknesses of the earth, nor a thing green or sere, but it is noted in a distinct writing. " (Súra vi. 59). 

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(3). Power. "If God pleased, of their ears and of their eyes would Hesurely deprive them. Verily God is Almighty. " (Súra ii. 19). "Is He notpowerful enough to quicken the dead. " (Súra lxxv. 40). "God hath power overall things. " (Súra iii. 159. )

(4). Will. "God is worker of that He willeth. " (Súra lxxxv. 16). "But ifGod pleased, He would surely bring them, one and all, to the guidance. "(Súra vi. 35). "God misleadeth whom He will, and whom He will Heguideth--God doeth His pleasure. " (Súra xiv. 4, 32). 

As this attribute is closely connected with the article of the Creed whichrefers to Predestination, the different opinions regarding it will bestated under that head. 

There has never been any difference of opinion as to the existence of thesefour attributes so clearly described in the Qurán: the difference is withregard to the mode of their existence and their operation. There is, first, the ancient Sifátian doctrine that the attributes are eternal and of theessence of God: secondly, the Mutazilite theory that they are not eternal;and, thirdly, the Ash'arían dogma that they are eternal, but distinct fromHis essence. 

There is also great difference of opinion with regard to the next threeattributes--hearing, sight, speech. For the existence of the two first ofthese the following verses are quoted, "He truly heareth and knoweth allthings. " (Súra xliv. 5). "No vision taketh in Him, but He taketh in allvision. " (Súra vi. 103). 

The use of the terms sitting, rising, &c. , hands, face, eyes, and so on, gave rise as I have shown to several sub-divisions of the Sifátians. Al-Ghazzálí says: "He sits upon His throne after that manner which He hasHimself described and in that sense which He Himself means, which is asitting far remote from any notion of contact or resting upon, or localsituation. " This is the Ash'arían idea, but between the Ash'aríans andthose who fell into the error of the {135} Mujassimians, [120] there wasanother school. The followers of Imám Ibn Hanbal say that such wordsrepresent the attributes existing in God. The words "God sits on Histhrone" mean that He has the power of sitting. Thus, they say, "We keep theliteral meaning of the words, we allow no figurative interpretation. To doso is to introduce a dangerous principle of interpretation, for thenegation of the apparent sense of a passage may tend to weaken theauthority of revelation. At the same time we do not pretend to explain theact, for it is written: 'There is none like unto Him. ' (Súra cxii. ) 'Noughtis there like Him. ' (Súra xlii. 9. ) 'Unworthy the estimate they form ofGod. '" (Súra xxii. 73. ) To prove that God occupies a place they produce thefollowing Tradition: "Ibn-al-Hákim wished to give liberty to a female slaveSaouda and consulted the Prophet about it. Muhammad said to her, 'Where isGod?' 'In heaven, ' she replied. 'Set her at liberty, she is a truebeliever. '" Not, say the Commentators, because she believed that Godoccupied a place but because she took the words in their literalsignification. The Shí'ahs consider it wrong to attribute to God movement, quiescence, &c, for these imply the possession of a body. They hold, too, in opposition to the orthodox that God will never be seen, for that whichis seen is limited by space. 

The seventh attribute--speech--has been fruitful of a very long andimportant controversy connected with the nature of the Qurán, for the word"Kalám" means not mere speech, but revelation and every other mode ofcommunicating intelligence. Al-Ghazzálí says:--

 "He doth speak, command, forbid, promise, and threaten by an eternal ancient word, subsisting in His essence. Neither is it like to the word of the creatures, nor doth it consist in a voice arising from the commotion of the air and the collision of bodies, nor letters {136} which are separated by the joining together of the lips or the motion of the tongue. The Qurán, the Law, the Gospel and the Psalter are books sent down by Him to His Apostles, and the Qurán, indeed, is read with tongues written in books, and is kept in hearts; yet, as subsisting in the essence of God, it doth not become liable to separation and division whilst it is transferred into the hearts and on to paper. Thus Moses also heard the word of God without voice or letter, even as the saints behold the essence of God without substance or accident. "

The orthodox believe that God is really a speaker: the Mutazilites denythis, and say that He is only called a speaker because He is the originatorof words and sounds. 

They also bring the following objections to bear against the doctrine ofthe eternity of the Qurán. (1) It is written in Arabic, it descended, isread, is heard, and is written. It was the subject of a miracle. It isdivided into parts and some verses are abrogated by others. (2) Events aredescribed in the past tense, but if the Qurán had been eternal the futuretense would have been used. (3) The Qurán contains commands andprohibitions; if it is eternal who were commanded and who were admonished?(4) If it has existed from eternity it must exist to eternity, and so evenin the last day, and in the next world, men will be under the obligation ofperforming the same religious duties as they do now, and of keeping all theoutward precepts of the law. (5) If the Qurán is eternal, then there aretwo eternals. 

The position thus assailed was not at first a hard and fast dogma of Islám. It was more a speculative opinion than anything else, but the opposition ofthe Mutazilites soon led all who wished to be considered orthodox to becomenot only stout assertors of the eternity of the Qurán, but to give up theirlives in defence of what they believed to be true. The Mutazilites byasserting the subjective nature of the Quránic inspiration brought the bookitself within the reach of criticism. This was too much for orthodox Islámto bear even though the Khalíf Mámún in the {137} year 212 A. H. Issued afatva declaring that all who asserted the eternity of the Qurán were guiltyof heresy. Some six years after this, the Imám Ahmad Ibn Hanbal wasseverely beaten, and then imprisoned because he refused to assent to thetruth of the decree issued by the Khalíf. Al Buwaiti, a famous disciple ofAs-Sháfa'í, used an ingenious argument to fortify his own mind when beingpunished by the order of the Khalíf. He was taken all the way from Cairo toBaghdád and told to confess that the Qurán was created. On his refusal, hewas imprisoned at Baghdád and there remained in chains till the day of hisdeath. As Ar-Rábí Ibn Sulaimán says: "I saw Al Buwaiti mounted on a mule:round his neck was a wooden collar, on his legs were fetters, from these tothe collar extended an iron chain to which was attached a clog weighingfifty pounds. Whilst they led him on he continued repeating these words, 'Almighty God created the world by means of the word _Be!_ Now, if thatword was created, one created thing would have created another. '"[121] AlBuwaiti here refers to the verse, "Verily our speech unto a thing when wewill the same, is that we only say to it, 'Be, ' and it is, --Kun fayakúna. "(Súra xxxvi. 82). This, in the way Al Buwaiti applied it, is a standingargument of the orthodox to prove the eternity of the Qurán. 

When times changed men were put to death for holding the opposite opinion. The Imám As-Sháfa'í held a public disputation in Baghdád with Hafs, aMutazilite preacher, on this very point. Sháfa'í quoted the verse, "Godsaid _be, and it was_, " and asked, "Did not God create all things by theword _be?_" Hafs assented. "If then the Qurán was created, must not theword _be_ have been created with it?" Hafs could not deny so plain aproposition. "Then, " said Sháfa'í, "All things, according to you, werecreated by a created being, which is a gross inconsistency and manifest{138} impiety. " Hafs was reduced to silence, and such an effect hadSháfa'í's logic on the audience that they put Hafs to death as a pestilentheretic. Thus did the Ash'arían opinions on the subject of the Divineattributes again gain the mastery. [122]

The Mutazilites failed, and the reason why is plain. They were, as a rule, influenced by no high spiritual motives; often they were mere quibblers. They sought no light in an external revelation. Driven to a reaction by therigid system they combated, they would have made reason alone their chiefguide. The nobler spirits among them were impotent to regenerate the faiththey professed to follow. It was, however, a great movement, and at onetime, it threatened to change the whole nature of Islám. This period ofMuslim history, famed as that in which the effort was made to cast off thefetters of the rigid system which Islám was gradually tightening by theincreased authority given to traditionalism, and to the refinements of thefour Imáms, was undoubtedly a period of, comparatively speaking, highcivilization. Baghdád, the capital of the Khalífate, was a busy, populous, well-governed city. This it mainly owed to the influence of the Persianfamily of the Barmecides, one of whom was Vizier to the KhalífHárún-ur-Rashíd. Hárún's fame as a good man is quite undeserved. It is truethat he was a patron of learning, that his Empire was extensive, that hegained many victories, that his reign was the culminating point of Arabgrandeur. But for all that, he was a morose despot, a cruel man, thoroughlygiven up to pleasures of a very questionable nature. Drunkenness anddebauchery were common at court. Plots and intrigues were ever at work. Such was the state of one of the greatest, if not the greatest, periods{139} of Muslim rule. This, too, was at a time most favourable for thedevelopment of any good which Islám might have possessed. It should beremembered that whatever glory is rightly attached to this period isconnected with an epoch when heresy was specially prevalent, when orthodoxywas weak in Baghdád. The culture of the time was in spite of, not onaccount of, the influence of orthodox Islám. 

2. ANGELS. --Of this article of the creed Muhammad Al-Berkevi says:--

 "We must confess that God has angels who act according to His order and who do not rebel against Him. They neither eat nor drink, nor is there amongst them any difference of sex. Some are near the throne of God; those are His messengers. Each one has his particular work. Some are on earth, some in heaven, some are always standing, some always prostrate themselves and some laud and praise God. Others have charge of men and record all their actions. Some angels are high in stature and are possessed of great power. Such an one is Gabriel (Jibrá, íl) who in the space of one hour can descend from heaven to earth, and who with one wing can lift up a mountain. 

 We must believe in 'Izrá, íl who receives the souls of men when they die, and in Isráfíl into whose charge is committed the trumpet. This trumpet he has actually in his hand, and placed to his mouth ready to blow when God gives the order. When he receives that order he will blow such a terrible blast that all living things will die. [123] This is the commencement of the last day. The world will remain in this state of death forty years. Then God Most High will revive Isráfíl who will blow a second blast, at the sound of which all the dead will rise to life. "[124]

This confession of faith makes no mention of Míká, íl (Michael), the fourthof the archangels. His special duty is to see that all created beings havewhat is needful for them. He has charge of the rain-fall, plants, grain andall that is required for the sustenance of men, beasts, fishes, &c. Gabriel's special charge is the communication of God's will to prophets. The words "one terrible in power" (Súra liii. 5) {140} are generallyapplied to him. He is honoured with the privilege of nearness to God. Tradition says that on the night of the Mi'ráj, the Prophet saw thatGabriel had six hundred wings, and that his body was so large that from oneshoulder to the other the distance was so great that a swift flying birdwould require five hundred years to pass over it. 

Nine-tenths of all created beings are said to be angels who are formed oflight. Their rank is stationary, and each is content with the position heoccupies. Their one desire is to love and to know God. Whatever he commandsthey do. "All beings in the heaven and on the earth are His: and they whoare in His presence disdain not His service, neither are they wearied: theypraise Him day and night. " (Súra xxi. 19, 20. ) They are free from allsin. [125] It is true that they did not wish for the creation of Adam, andthis may seem like a want of confidence in God. It is said, however, thattheir object was not to oppose God, but to relieve their minds of thedoubts they had in the matter. Thus "when the Lord said to the angels, 'Verily, I am about to place one in my stead on earth, ' they said: 'WiltThou place there one who will do ill therein, and shed blood when wecelebrate thy praise and extol thy holiness. ' God said: 'Verily I know whatye know not. '" It is true that Iblís was disobedient, but then he belongednot to the angelic order but to that of the jinn. "When we said to theangels, 'prostrate yourselves before Adam, ' they all prostrated themselvessave Iblís, who was of the jinn, and revolted from his Lord's behest. "(Súra xviii. 48. ) (See also Súra ii. 33. )

Angels appear in human form on special occasions, but usually they areinvisible. It is a common belief that animals can see angels and devils. This accounts for the saying, "If you hear a cock crow, pray for mercy, forit has seen an angel; but if you hear an ass bray, take refuge with God, for it has seen a devil. "

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The angels intercede for man: "The angels celebrate the praise of theirLord and ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth. " (Súra xlii. 3. ) Theyalso act as guardian angels: "Each hath a succession of angels before himand behind him who watch over him by God's behest. " (Súra xiii. 12. ) "Is itnot enough for you that your Lord aideth you with three thousand angelssent down from on high?" (Súra iii. 120. ) "Supreme over His servants Hesendeth forth guardians who watch over you, until when death overtaketh anyone of you our messengers take his soul and fail not. " (Súra vi. 61. )

In the Traditions it is said that God has appointed for every man twoangels to watch over him by day, and two by night. The one stands on theright hand side of the man, the other on his left. Some, however, say thatthey reside in the teeth, and that the tongue of the man is the pen and thesaliva of the mouth the ink. [126] They protect the actions of men andrecord them all whether good or bad. They are called the Mua'qqibát, _i. E. _, those who succeed one another. They also bear the name ofKirám-ul-Kátibín, "the exalted writers. " They are referred to in the Qurán. "Think they that we hear not their secrets and their private talk? Yes, andour angels who are at their sides write them down. " (Súra xliii. 80). 

There are eight angels who support the throne of God. "And the angels shallbe on its sides, and over them on that day eight shall bear up the throneof thy Lord. " (Súra lxix. 17). Nineteen have charge of hell. "Over it arenineteen. None but angels have we made guardians of the fire. " (Súra lxxiv. 30). 

There is a special arrangement made by Providence to mitigate the evils ofSatanic interference. "Iblís, " says Jábir Maghrabí, "though able to assumeall other forms is not permitted to appear in the semblance of the Deity, or {142} any of His angels, or prophets. There would otherwise be muchdanger to human salvation, as he might, under the appearance of one of theprophets, or of some superior being, make use of this power to seduce mento sin. To prevent this, whenever he attempts to assume such forms, firecomes down from heaven and repulses him. "

The story of Hárút and Márút is of some interest from its connection withthe question of the impeccability of the angels. Speaking of those whoreject God's Apostle the Qurán says: "And they followed what the Satansread in the reign of Solomon; not that Solomon was unbelieving, but theSatans were unbelieving. Sorcery did they teach to men, and what had beenrevealed to the two angels Hárút and Márút at Bábel. Yet no man did thesetwo teach until they had said, 'We are only a temptation. Be not thou anunbeliever. '" (Súra ii. 96). Here it is quite clear that two angels teachsorcery, which is generally allowed to be an evil. Some explanation has tobe given. Commentators are by no means reticent on this subject. The storygoes that in the time of the prophet Enoch when the angels saw the badactions of men they said: "O Lord! Adam and his descendants whom Thou hasappointed as Thy vice-regents on earth act disobediently. " To which theLord replied: "If I were to send you on earth, and to give you lustful andangry dispositions, you too would sin. " The angels thought otherwise; soGod told them to select two of their number who should undergo this ordeal. They selected two, renowned for devotion and piety. God having implanted inthem the passions of lust and anger said: "All day go to and fro on theearth, put an end to the quarrels of men, ascribe no equal to Me, do notcommit adultery, drink no wine, and every night repeat the Ism-ul-A'zam, the exalted name (of God) and return to heaven. " This they did for sometime, but at length a beautiful woman named Zuhra (Venus) led them astray. One day she brought them a cup of wine. One said: {143} "God has forbiddenit;" the other, "God is merciful and forgiving. " So they drank the wine, killed the husband of Zuhra, to whom they revealed the "exalted name, " andfell into grievous sin. Immediately after, they found that the "name" hadgone from their memories and so they could not return to heaven as usual. They were very much concerned at this and begged Enoch to intercede forthem. The prophet did so, and with such success that the angels wereallowed to choose between a present or a future punishment. They elected tobe punished here on earth. They were then suspended with their headsdownwards in a well at Bábel. Some say that angels came and whipped themwith rods of fire, and that a fresh spring ever flowed just beyond thereach of their parched lips. The woman was changed to a star. Some assertthat it was a shooting star which has now passed out of existence. Otherssay that she is the star Venus. 

It is only right to state that the Qází 'Ayáz, Imám Fakhr-ud-dín Rází(544-606 A. H. ), Qází Násir-ud-dín Baidaví (620-691 A. H. ) and mostscholastic divines deny the truth of this story. They say that angels areimmaculate, but it is plain that this does not meet the difficulty whichthe Qurán itself raises in connection with Hárút and Márút. They want toknow how beings in such a state can teach, and whether it is likely thatmen would have the courage to go near such a horrible scene. As to thewoman, they think the whole story absurd, not only because the star Venuswas created before the time of Adam, but also because it is inconceivablethat one who was so wicked should have the honour of shining in heaven forever. A solution, however, they are bound to give, and it is this. Magic isa great art which God must allow mankind to know. The dignity of the orderof prophets is so great that they cannot teach men what is confessedlyhurtful. Two angels were therefore sent, and so men can now distinguishbetween the miracles of prophets, the signs of {144} saints, the wonders ofmagicians and others. Then Hárút and Márút always discouraged men fromlearning magic. They said to those who came to them: "We are only atemptation. Be not thou an unbeliever. " Others assert that it is a Jewishallegory in which the two angels represent reason and benevolence, thewoman the evil appetites. The woman's ascent to heaven represents death. 

To this solution of the difficulty, however, the great body of theTraditionists do not agree. They declare that the story is a Hadís-i-Sahíh, and that the Isnád is sound and good. I name only a few of the greatdivines who hold this view. They are Imám Ibn Hanbal, Ibn Ma'súd, Ibn 'Umr, Ibn 'Abbás, Háfiz 'Asqallání[127] and others. Jelál-ud-din Syútí in hiscommentary the Dúrr-i-Mashúr, has given all the Traditions in order and, though there is some variety in the details, the general purport accordswith the narrative as I have related it. The Traditionists answer theobjections of the Scholastics thus. They say that angels are immaculateonly so long as they remain in the angelic state; that, though confined, Hárút and Márút can teach magic, for a word or two is quite sufficient forthat purpose; that some men have no fear and, if they have, it is quiteconceivable that the two angels may teach through the instrumentality ofdevils or jinn. With regard to the woman Zuhra they grant that to bechanged into a bright star is of the nature of a reward; but they say thedesire to learn the "exalted name" was so meritorious an act that the goodshe desired outweighs the evil she did. With regard to the date of thecreation of the star Venus, it is said that all our astronomical knowledgeis based on observations made since the Flood, whereas this story relatesto the times of Enoch who lived before the days of Noah. So the disputegoes on and men of great repute for learning and knowledge believe in thestory. 

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Munkir and Nakír are two fierce-looking black angels with blue eyes whovisit every man in his grave, and examine him with regard to his faith inGod and in Muhammad. The dead are supposed to dwell in 'Álam-i-barzakh, astate of existence intervening between the present life and the life ofmankind after the resurrection. [128] This is the meaning of the word"grave" when used in this connection. Unbelievers and wicked Muslims suffertrouble in that state; true believers who can give a good answer to theangels are happy. Some suppose that a body of angels are appointed for thispurpose and that some of them bear the name of Munkir, and some that ofNakír and that, just as each man has two recording angels during hislifetime, two from this class are appointed to examine him after death. There is a difference of opinion with regard to children. The generalbelief is that the children of believers will be questioned, but that theangels will teach them to say: "Alláh is my Lord, Islám my religion, andMuhammad my Prophet. " With regard to the children of unbelievers beingquestioned, Imám Abu Hanífa hesitated to give an opinion. He also doubtedabout their punishment. Some think they will be in A'ráf, a place betweenheaven and hell; others suppose that they will be servants to the truebelievers in Paradise. 

Distinct from the angels there is another order of beings made of firecalled jinn (genii. ) It is said that they were created thousands of yearsbefore Adam came into existence. "We created man of dried clay, of darkloam moulded, and the jinn had been before created of subtle fire. " (Súraxv. 26, 27. ) They eat, drink, propagate their species and are subject todeath, though they generally live many centuries. They dwell chiefly in theKoh-i-Káf, a chain of mountains supposed to encompass the world:[129] {146}some are believers in Islám; some are infidels, and will be punished. "Iwill wholly fill hell with jinn and men. " (Súra xi. 120. ) The Súra calledSúrat-ul-Jinn (lxxii. ) refers to their belief in Islám. The passage is toolong to quote. They try to hear[130] what is going on in heaven. "We guardthem (_i. E. _, men) from every stoned Satan, save such as steal a hearing. "(Súra xv. 18. ) They were under the power of Solomon and served him. (Súraxxxviii. 36. ) An 'Ifrít of the jinn said, "I will bring it thee (Solomon)ere thou risest from thy place: I have power for this and am trusty. " (Súraxxvii. 39. ) At the last day the jinn also will be questioned. Imám Hanífadoubted whether the jinn who are Muslims will be rewarded. The unbelievingjinn will assuredly be punished. Tradition classifies them in the followingorder: (1) Jánn, (2) Jinn, (3) Shaitán, (4) 'Ifrít, (5) Márid. Many fableshave been invented concerning these beings, and though intelligent Muslimsmay doubt these wonderful accounts, yet a belief in the order of jinn isimperative, at least, as long as there is belief in the Qurán. Those whowish to know more of this subject will find a very interesting chapter onit in Lane's Modern Egyptians. 

3. THE BOOKS. --Al Berkevi says:--

 "It is necessary to believe that the books of God have been sent through the instrumentality of Gabriel, to prophets upon the earth. The books are never sent except to prophets. The Qurán was sent to Muhammad portion by portion during a space of 23 years. The Pentateuch came to Moses, the Injíl to Jesus, the Zabúr to David, and the other books to other prophets. The whole number of the Divine books is 104. The Qurán, the last of all, is to be followed till the day of judgment. It can neither be abrogated nor changed. Some laws of the previous books have been abrogated by the Qurán and ought not to be followed. "

The one hundred and four books were sent from heaven in the followingorder:--To Adam, ten; to Seth, fifty; to Enoch (Idris), thirty; to Abraham, ten; to Moses, the {147} Taurát (Pentateuch); to David, the Zabúr (Psalms);to Jesus, the Injíl; to Muhammad, the Qurán. The one hundred to which nodistinctive name is given are known as the "Suhúf-ul-Anbiya, "--Books of theProphets. The Qurán is also known as the Furqán, the distinguisher; theQurán-i-Sharíf, noble Qurán; the Quran-i-Majíd, glorious Qurán; the Mushaf, the Book. It is said to be the compendium of the Taurát, Zabúr andInjíl[131]; so Muslims do not require to study these books. [132] Theorthodox belief is that they are entirely abrogated by the Qurán, [133]though Syed Ahmad denounces as ignorant and foolish those Musalmáns who sayso. [134] Be that as it may, their inspiration is considered to be of alower order than that of the Qurán. A large {148} portion of the Injíl isconsidered to be mere narrative. The actual words of Christ only are lookedupon as the revelation which descended from heaven. It is so in the case ofthe Old Testament Prophets. "However, it was the rule to call a book by thename of the prophet, whether the subject-matter was pure doctrine only, orwhether it was mixed up with narrative also. " "It is to be observed that, in the case of our own Prophet, the revelations made to him were intendedto impart a special miracle of eloquence and they were written down, literally and exactly, in the form in which they were communicated withoutany narrative being inserted in them. "[135] The writings of the Apostlesare not considered to be inspired books. "We do not consider that the Actsof the Apostles, or the various Epistles, although unquestionably very goodbooks, are to be taken as part and parcel of the New Testament itself;nevertheless we look upon the writings of the Apostles in the same light aswe do the writings of the Companions of our own Prophet; that is to say, asentitled to veneration and respect. "[136] There are many verses in theQurán which speak of previous revelations, thus: "We also caused Jesus, theson of Mary, to follow the footsteps of the prophets, confirming the law(Taurát) which was sent before him, and we gave him the Injíl with itsguidance and light, confirmatory of the preceding law; a guidance and awarning to those that fear God. " (Súra v. 50). "We believe in God, and thatwhich hath been sent down to us, and that which hath been sent down toAbraham and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which hath been givento Moses and to Jesus, and that which was given to the prophets from theirLord. No difference do we make between any of them: and to God are weresigned. " (Súra ii. 130). "In truth hath He sent down to thee the Book, which confirmeth those that precede it, for He had sent down the {149} Lawand the Injíl aforetime, as man's guidance; and now hath He sent down theFurqán. " (Súra iii. 2). [137]

Practically, Musalmáns reject the Old and New Testaments. To do so ismanifestly against the letter of the Qurán, and, as some reason for thisneglect of previous Scriptures must be given, Muslim divines say that theJewish and Christian Scriptures have been corrupted. The technicalexpression is "tahríf, " a word signifying, to change, to turn asideanything from the truth. Then tahríf may be of two kinds, tahríf-i-m'anaví, a change in the meaning of words; tahríf-i-lafzí, an actual change of thewritten words. Most Musalmáns maintain that the latter kind of corruptionhas taken place, and so they do not feel bound to read or study theprevious revelations so frequently referred to in the Qurán. The chargebrought against the Jews of corrupting their Scriptures is based on thefollowing verse of the Qurán: "Some truly are there among you who torturethe Scriptures with their tongues, in order that ye may suppose it to befrom the Scripture, yet it is not from the Scripture. And they say: 'thisis from God, ' yet it is not from God; and they utter a lie against God, andthey know they do so. " (Súra iii. 72. ) All the ancient commentators assertthat this only proved tahríf-i-m'anaví; that is, that the Jews referred toeither misinterpreted what they read, or, whilst professing to read fromthe Scripture, used expressions not found therein. It does not mean thatthey altered the text of their Scriptures. This, however, does not excuseMusalmáns for their neglect of the previous Scriptures, and so the orthodoxdivines of modern times maintain that the greater corruption--thetahríf-i-lafzí, has taken place. The question is fully discussed, and theopinion of the earlier commentators endorsed by Syed Ahmad in hisCommentary on the Bible. [138]

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4. PROPHETS. --Muhammad Al Berkevi says:--

 "It is necessary to confess that God has sent prophets; that Adam is the first of the prophets and the father of all men; that Muhammad is the last of the prophets; that between Adam and Muhammad there were a great number of prophets; that Muhammad is the most excellent of all and that his people are the best of all peoples; that each of the preceding prophets was sent to a special people, some with books, some without, but that Muhammad was sent to all men and also to the genii; that his law will remain until the end of the world, that his miracles are many in number, that by his blessed finger he made waters flow, that he divided the moon into two parts, that animals, trees, and stones said to him: 'Thou art a true prophet. '

 We must also believe that one night he was transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, and from thence to heaven, where he saw both paradise and hell, conversed with the Most High and returned to Mecca before morning. After him no other prophet will come, for he is the seal of the prophets. "

The number of prophets sent by God to make known His will varies accordingto the Tradition which records it. About two hundred thousand is the usualnumber stated. Twenty-five are mentioned by name in the Qurán, of whom sixare distinguished by special titles. Adam, Sufi Ulláh, the chosen of God;Noah, Nabí Ulláh, the prophet of God; Abraham, Khalíl Ulláh, the friend ofGod; Moses, Kalím Ulláh, the speaker with God; Jesus, Rúh Ulláh, the spiritof God; Muhammad, Rasúl Ulláh, the messenger of God. These are called theAnbiya-ulul-'Azm (possessors of purpose) because they were the heads oftheir respective dispensations, and because they will be permitted by Godto intercede in the day of judgment for their followers. They are thegreatest and most exalted of the prophets. [139]

There are degrees of rank amongst the prophets, for "Some of the Apostleshave We endowed more highly than others. Those to whom God hath spoken, Hehath raised to the loftiest grade, and to Jesus, the Son of Mary We gave{151} manifest signs, and We strengthened him with the Holy Spirit. " (Súraii. 254). The Anbiya-ulul-'Azm are ranked in the following order: Noah, Jesus, Moses, Abraham and as the chief of all, Muhammad, of whom it issaid: "He is the Apostle of God and the seal of the prophets. " (Súraxxxiii. 40). 

A Tradition, as usual, supports his position. "I am the chief of the sonsof men. " "Adam and all beside him will be ranged under my flag in thejudgment day. "[140] It is said that the law given by Moses was harsh andsevere; that by Christ was mild and gracious; but that the law given byMuhammad is perfect, for it combines both the quality of strictness andthat of graciousness; according to the Tradition: "I always laugh and bylaughing kill. "[141] Each prophet is said to have been sent to his owntribe, but Muhammad was sent for all men. A Tradition is adduced to supportthis statement: "I was raised up for all men whether white or black, otherprophets were not except for their own tribe. " The Qurán also states: "Wehave sent thee (Muhammad) for all men. "

There is some difference of opinion as to whether the prophets are superiorto the angels. The Hanífites hold that the prophets amongst men aresuperior to the prophets amongst angels, who in their turn are superior tothe ordinary run of men, to whom again the angels, other than prophets, areinferior. The Mutazilites say that the angels are superior to the prophets. The Shía'hs assert that the twelve Imáms are superior to prophets. 

The way in which Muhammad received inspiration has been shown in a previouschapter; but Ibn Khaldoun gives such an interesting account of propheticinspiration that I give the substance of his remarks here. He speakssomewhat as follows. [142] If we contemplate the world and the creatures itcontains we shall recognize a perfect order, a regular {152} system, asequence of cause and effect, a connexion between different categories ofexistence, and a transformation of beings from one category of existence toanother. Then the phenomena of the visible world indicate to us theexistence of an agent whose nature is different from that of the body, whois in fact a spiritual existence. This agent, which is the soul, must onthe one hand be in contact with the existences of this world and, on theother, with the existences in the next category of superiority, and onewhose essential qualities are pure perception and clear intelligence. Suchare the angels. It follows, then, that the human soul has a tendencytowards the angelic world. All this is quite in accordance with the ideathat, according to a regular order, all the categories of existences in theuniverse are in mutual contact by means of their faculties and on accountof their nature. 

The souls of men may be divided into three classes. The first kind of soulis too feeble by nature to attain to a perception of the spiritual: it hasto content itself with moving in the region of sense and imagination. Thusit can understand concepts and affirmations. It can raise itself high inits own category but cannot pass its limit. 

The souls of the second class are carried by a reflective movement and anatural disposition towards a spiritual intelligence. They can enter into astate of contemplation which results in ecstasy. This is the intuition ofthe Saints (Auliya)[143] to whom God has given this divine knowledge. 

The souls of the third class are created with the power of disengagingthemselves altogether from their human bodies in order that they may riseto the angelic state where they become like angels. In a moment of timesuch {153} a soul perceives the sublime company (of angels) in the spherewhich contains them. It, there and then, hears the speech of the soul andthe divine voice. Such are the souls of the prophets. God has given tothese souls the power of leaving the human body. Whilst thus separate fromit God gives to them His revelation. The prophets are endowed by God withsuch a purity of disposition, such an instinct of uprightness, that theyare naturally inclined to the spiritual world. They are animated by anardour quite peculiar to their order. When they return from the angelicstate they deliver to men the revelations they have received. Sometimes therevelation comes to the prophet as the humming of confused discourse. Hegrasps the ideas and, as soon as the humming ceases, he comprehends themessage; sometimes an angel in human form communicates the revelation, andwhat he says the prophet learns by heart. The journey to, the return fromthe angelic state, and the comprehension of the revelation received thereoccupy less time than the twinkling of an eye. So rapidly do the souls ofprophets move. So instantaneously do they receive and understand God'srevelations. This is why inspiration is called Wahí, a word which, according to Ibn Khaldoun, means to make haste. 

The first way of delivering a message is adopted when he who receives it isonly a Nabí (prophet), and not a Rasúl (apostle or messenger. ) The secondmode is employed towards a Rasúl who, on the principle that the greatercontains the less, is also a Nabí. A Hadís records that Muhammad said:"Revelation came to me sometimes like the ticking of a clock and fatiguedme much. When it stopped I learnt the meaning of what had been delivered tome. Sometimes an angel in human form spoke to me and, whilst he wasspeaking, I learnt what was said. " That a prophet should feel oppressed onsuch occasions is hinted at in "With measured tone intone the Qurán, for weshall devolve on thee mighty words. " (Súra lxxiii. 5. )

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A Nabí, (who must be a wise and a free man, that is, one who is not a slaveof another, and one also who is free from imperfection either of body ormind), receives Wahí but has not necessarily to deliver to men the ordersof God. A Rasúl who must possess the same qualifications as a Nabí, is onewho is commanded to deliver God's message to men, though he does notnecessarily abrogate what preceding Rasúls have delivered. Neither is itnecessary that he should bring a book or even a new law. Some Rasúls do so, but the distinguishing mark of the Rasúl is that he delivers to mencommands direct from God, and is specially commissioned so to do. Thusevery Rasúl is a Nabí, whilst every Nabí is not a Rasúl. 

The question of the sinlessness of the prophets is one to whichconsiderable attention has been paid by Muslim theologians. The orthodoxbelief is that they are free from sin. Some think that their freedom fromsin is because the grace of God being ever in them in the richest fulnessthey are kept in the right path. The Ash'aríans believe that the power ofsinning is not created in them. [144] The Mutazilites deny this, but admitthe existence of some quality which keeps them from evil. These theories donot agree with actual facts. Prophets like other men commit faults, buthere comes in the Muslim distinction of sins into gunáh-i-kabíra "greatsins, " and gunáh-i-saghíra "little sins. " The gunáh-i-kabíra are, murder, adultery, disobedience to God and to parents, robbing of orphans, to accuseof adultery, to avoid fighting against infidels, drunkenness, to give or totake usury, to neglect the Friday prayers and the Ramazán fast, tyranny, backbiting, untrustworthiness, forgetting the Qurán after reading it, toavoid giving true or to give false witness, lying without sufficientreason, [145] to swear falsely or to swear by any other than God, flatteryof tyrants, false judgments, giving short weight or measure, {155} magic, gambling, approval of the ceremonies of infidels, boasting of one's piety, calling on the names of deceased persons and beating the breast at suchtimes, [146] dancing, music, neglect when opportunity offers of warningother persons with regard to the "commands and prohibitions" of God, disrespect to a Háfiz, to shave the beard, to omit saying the "darúd"(_i. E. _ on whom and on whose family be the peace and mercy of God) wheneverthe name of Muhammad is mentioned. [147] These are all "great sins" and canonly be forgiven after due repentance: the "little sins" are forgiven ifsome good actions are done. "Observe prayer at early morning, at the closeof day, and at the approach of night; for the _good deeds drive away theevil deeds_. " (Súra xi. 116). 

Men may commit sin wittingly or unwittingly. It is the universal beliefthat a prophet never commits the greater sins in either way; but there is adifference of opinion with regard to the lesser sins. Some hold that theycan do them unwittingly, though even then it is not in any thing connectedwith their office. Others again limit even this frailty to the periodbefore "wahí" (inspiration) comes upon them. The general opinion, however, is that they are free from all sin, whether great or small. The frailtieswhich they show are merely reckoned as faults and slight imperfections notamounting to sin. 

This, to the Muslim mind at once disposes of a difficulty the Qurán itselfraises on this point. With the exception of Jesus Christ, theAnbiya-ulul-'Azm are spoken of as doing what every one except an orthodoxMuslim would call sin. Adam's transgression[148] is referred to in Súra ii. 29-37 and {156} in Súra vii. 10-24. I quote only one verse: "They said, 'Oour Lord! with ourselves have we dealt unjustly; if Thou forgive us not andhave not pity on us, we shall surely be of those that perish. '" The sin ofNoah is not specified in the Qurán, yet it is plainly hinted at. "To Theeverily, O my Lord, do I repair lest I ask that of Thee wherein I have noknowledge: unless Thou forgive me and be merciful to me I shall be one ofthe lost. " (Súra xi. 49). There is also a similar request in Súra lxxi. 29. Abraham is represented as saying to his people: "They whom ye worship, yeand your fathers of early days, are my foes; but not so the Lord of theworlds, who hath created me, and guideth me, who giveth me food and drink;and when I am sick, he healeth me, and who will cause me to die and againquicken me, and who, I hope, will forgive me my sins in the day ofreckoning. " (Súra xxvi. 75-82). Moses is described as having done "a workof Satan" in killing a man, and as saying: "'O my Lord, I have sinned to myown hurt; forgive me. ' So God forgave him; for He is the forgiving, themerciful. He said: 'Lord, because thou hast showed me this grace, I willnever again be the helper of the wicked. '" (Súra xxviii. 15, 16). 

The following passages refer to Muhammad. "Be thou steadfast and patient;for true is the promise of God; and seek pardon for thy fault. "[149] (Súraxl. 57). "Ask pardon for thy sin, and for believers, both men and women. "(Súra xlvii. 21). The scandal caused by the Prophet's conduct with the wifeof Zeid, and with the Egyptian slave Mary, necessitated a pretendedrevelation of God's will in reference to these events. The circumstanceswill be found fully detailed in Súra xxxiii. 36-38 and in Súra lxvi. 1-5. 

One of the most important verses is: "Verily, we have won for thee anundoubted victory, in token that God forgiveth thy earlier and laterfault. " (Súra xlviii. 1-2). {157} It is not quite clear what victory ishere referred to. According to the Tafsír-i-Husainí, some commentators saythat it is the taking of Mecca, the past tense being prophetically used forthe future. The following explanations are given of the expression "earlierand later fault. " (1) God has forgiven thy sin committed before and afterthe descent of wahí, (2) before and after the taking of Mecca, or (3)before the descent of this Súra. (4) The commentator Salmí says: "Theearlier sin refers to the sin of Adam committed when Muhammad was in theloins of his great ancestor and thus connected with him; the later sinrefers to the followers of the Prophet, and in that way is connected withhim, just as the sin of Adam was the predecessor and the cause of theirsin. " (5) Imám Abu'l-Lais says: "The words refer to the sin of Adam, and tothose of the followers of the Prophet. Both are connected with Muhammad, because the former is forgiven by the blessing, and the latter by theintercession of Muhammad. "[150]

From these extracts from the Qurán it appears that sin is imputed toprophets, though Muslims evade the charge by the casuistry I have alreadyreferred to. Be that as it may, it is a striking fact that the one sinlessmember of the Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, the one sinless prophet of Islám, is noneother than Jesus Christ. There is no passage in the Qurán which hints atsin, even in the modified form in which Muslims attribute it to otherprophets, being committed by him: no passage which speaks of His seekingfor pardon. 

It is the universal belief that prophets work miracles, (mu'jizát). Amiracle is defined to be "Kharq-i-'ádat, " that is, something contrary tothe usual course of nature. 

The object for which a miracle is performed must be a moral one, andchiefly to attest the truth of the statements made by the prophet. AlthoughMuhammad makes, in the {158} Qurán, no distinct claim to the power ofworking miracles, [151] his followers maintain that in this, as in all otherrespects he was equal to all and superior to some prophets, and producevarious passages of the Qurán in support of their view. Thus, according toShaikh Jelál-ud-dín Syutí, if to Adam was given the power of naming everything, Muhammad also possessed the same power. Enoch was exalted on high, but Muhammad was taken to the 'Baqáb-i-qausain, ' the 'two bows' length, 'where Gabriel, "one mighty in power, " appeared to him. (Súra liii. 5-9). Ishmael was ready to be sacrificed, but Muhammad endured the splitting ofhis chest;[152] Joseph was to some extent handsome, but Muhammad was thevery perfection of beauty; Moses brought water from the rock, but Muhammadproduced it from his fingers. The sun was stayed on its course by Joshuaand so it was by Muhammad. Solomon had a great kingdom, Muhammad a greater, for he possessed the keys of the treasuries of the earth. Wisdom was givento John the Baptist whilst yet a child, so also were wisdom andunderstanding granted to Muhammad at an early period of his life. Jesuscould raise the dead, so also could Muhammad. In addition to all these, thespecial miracles of the Prophet are the splitting of the moon asunder, theMi'ráj, the coming of a tree into his presence, and above all the wonderfulmiracle of the Qurán. [153]

The splitting of the moon in sunder is referred to in, {159} "The hour ofjudgment approacheth; and the moon hath been split in sunder. " (Súra liv. 1). Imám Záhid says that Abu Jahl and a Jew visited the Prophet, anddemanded a sign from him on pain of death. The Prophet made a sign with hislittle finger, and at once the moon separated into two parts: one of whichremained in the sky, the other went off to a long distance. The Jewbelieved in Islám forthwith. Abu Jahl ascribed the affair to magic, but onmaking enquiry from various travellers ascertained that they, on this verynight, distinctly saw the moon in two parts. [154] Some, however, refer thepassage to the future, as they consider the splitting of the moon to be oneof the signs of the last day. 

The Mi'ráj, or night ascent, is mentioned in, "Glory be to Him who carriedHis servant by night from the sacred temple (of Mecca) to the temple thatis more remote, whose precinct We have blessed, that We might show him ofour signs. " (Súra xvii. 1). Muslim writers, who are fond of the marvellous, narrate at length the wonderful things the Prophet saw and did on thiseventful night;[155] but some maintain that it was only a vision, and quotethe words: "We ordained the vision which we showed thee, " in proof of thisassertion. [156] Be that as it may, all orthodox Muslims maintain thesuperiority of Muhammad, as a worker of miracles, over all other prophets. 

5. THE RESURRECTION AND THE LAST DAY. --These two articles of the faith maybe considered together. The {160} following is a summary of the remarks ofMuhammad Al Berkevi on this point. It is necessary to acknowledge:--

 1. That the torments of the tomb are real and certain and that Munkir and Nakír (Ante p. 145) will come and interrogate the dead person concerning his God, his Prophet, his faith and his Qibla. The faithful will reply: "our God is God; our Prophet is Muhammad; our religion, Islám; our Qibla, the Ki-'ádataba. 

 2. That all the signs of the last day mentioned by the Prophet will come to pass; such as, the appearance of Dajjál, or Antichrist; the descent of Jesus from heaven; the appearance of Imám Mahdí and of Gog and Magog; the rising of the sun from the west, &c. 

 3. That all living things will die; that the mountains will fly in the air like birds; that the heavens will melt away; that after some time has thus passed God most High will set the earth in order and raise the dead; that prophets, saints, doctors of the law, and the faithful will find near them the robes and the horses of Paradise. They will put on the robes, and mount the horses and go into the shade of the throne of God. Other men, hungry, thirsty, and naked will go on foot. The Faithful will go to the right, the Infidels to the left. 

 4. That there will be a balance, in which the good and bad actions of men will be weighed. Those whose good deeds outweigh the bad will go to Paradise; if the bad predominate, they will go into the fire, unless God has mercy on them, or the prophets or saints intercede for them. If, however, they were not Muslims there will be no intercession for them, nor will they come out from the fire. The Muslims who enter the fire will, after having purged their crimes, enter Paradise. 

 5. That the bridge Sirát, which is sharper than a sword, is raised above the fire; that all men must pass over this. Some will pass over with the speed of lightning, some like a horse that runs, some, their backs laden with their sins, will go very slowly over; others will fall and certainly enter into the fire. 

 6. That each prophet has a pool where he, with his people, will quench their thirst before entering Paradise; that the pool of Muhammad is the largest of all, for it is a month's march from one side thereof to the other. Its water is sweeter than honey, whiter than milk. 

 7. That Paradise and Hell actually exist; that the chosen remain for ever in the former; they neither die, nor grow aged. They experience no kind of change. The Houris and the females are exempted {161} from the infirmities of their sex. They will no longer bear children. The elect will find there the meat and the drink they require, without taking upon themselves any trouble. The ground of Paradise is of musk; the bricks of its edifices are of gold and of silver. 

 The unbelievers and the demons will remain for ever in hell, tormented by serpents as thick as the neck of a camel, by scorpions as large as mules, by fire and by scalding water. Their bodies will burn, till they become reduced to a coal, when God will revive them so that they may endure fresh torments. This will last for ever. "

The following additional remarks are based on the Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí. They fall under four heads. 

(1). The sounding of the trumpets. (Nafkhatain-i-Súr). This will not takeplace until wickedness spreads over all the earth. The Prophet said: "Theresurrection will not come to pass, till some of the sects among myfollowers mix up with the Mushriks (those who associate others with God)and till others commence to worship monuments. " Again, "The last hour willnot be till no one is found who calls on God. " Then "There shall be a blaston the trumpet, and all who are in the heavens and all who are in the earthshall expire, save those whom God shall vouchsafe to live. There shall beanother blast on it, and lo! arising they shall gaze around them. " (Súraxxxix. 68). Abu Huraira, a Companion, relates that the Prophet speaking ofthe trumpet stated as follows: "After the creation of the heavens and theearth God created the trumpet and gave it to Isráfíl who, with his mouthplaced to it, is ever looking up and waiting for the order to blow it. Hewill blow three times. [157] The first time, the blast of consternation, toterrify; the second, the blast of examination, to slay; the third, theblast of resurrection, to quicken the dead. " Most persons believe thateverything, save God and His attributes, will perish. The Karamians andsome other sects deny this. 

{162}

The resurrection of the body is clearly proved by the Qurán. Thus, "Theysay, 'Who will bring us back?' Say: 'He who created you at first. '" (Súraxvii. 53). "'Who shall give life to bones when they are rotten?' Say: 'Heshall give life to them who gave them being at first, for in all creationis He skilled. '" (Súra xxxvi. 79). "Man saith: 'What! after I am dead, shall I in the end be brought forth alive?' Doth not man bear in mind thatwe made him at first, when he was nought?" (Súra xix. 68). "The infidelswill say, 'shall we indeed be restored as at first? What! When we havebecome rotten bones?' 'This then, ' say they, 'will be a return to loss. 'Verily, it will be but a single blast, and lo! they are on the surface ofthe earth. " (Súra lxxix. 10-14). "Is He not powerful enough to quicken thedead?" (Súra lxxv. 40). This resurrection will be to judgment. "'Never, 'say the unbelievers, 'will the hour come upon us. ' Say: 'Yea, by my Lordwho knoweth the unseen, it will surely come upon you, ... To the intentthat God may reward those who have believed, ... But as for those who aimto invalidate our signs, a chastisement of painful torment awaiteth them. '"(Súra xxxiv. 3, 4). "A terrible chastisement doth await them _on the Day_when faces shall turn white, and faces shall turn black. 'What! after yourbelief have ye become infidels? Taste, then, the chastisement for that yehave been unbelievers. ' And as to those whose faces shall have becomewhite, they shall be within the mercy of God. " (Súra iii, 102). The Prophetknew not the time when all this would take place. "They will ask thee ofthe 'Hour, ' when will be its fixed time? But what knowledge hast thou ofit? Its period is known only to thy Lord; and thou art charged with thewarning of those who fear it. " (Súra lxxix. 41-45. ) These and similar textsshow the certainty of the resurrection. According to the Ijmá' of theFaithful, he who has any doubts on this article of the faith is an infidel. The {163} Mutazilites show from reason that a resurrection of the body isnecessary in order that rewards and punishment may be bestowed. Theorthodox agree with the conclusion, but hesitate to base it on reason. [158]

The Karamians hold that the different parts of the body will not cease tobe, but that at the last God will gather them together. "Thinketh man thatwe shall not re-unite his bones? Aye! his very finger tips we are ableevenly to replace. " (Súra lxxv. 3, 4. ) The orthodox, however, hold thatthis verse does not disprove the fact of previous annihilation, a beliefsupported by the Prophet's saying, "All the sons of men will beannihilated. " It will be a re-creation though the body will return to itsformer state. 

The learned are not agreed as to the state of the soul during this periodof the death of the body, and therefore disagree with regard to itsrevival. Some assert that it is wrong to speak of a resurrection of thesoul, for it exists in the body as "fire in coal, " hence its revival isincluded in the resurrection of the body; others maintain that as it is adistinct entity, it is not annihilated with the body. The scholasticsfavour the first idea. Practically the result seems the same in both cases. The resurrection body has a soul. Wise and foolish, devils and beasts, insects and birds--all will rise at the last day. Muhammad will come firstin order and be the first to enter Paradise. 

(2). The descent of the Books (Tatáír-i-sahá, íf). After the resurrection, men will wander about for forty years, during which time the "Books ofActions" will be given to them. These books contain the record kept by theKirám-ul-Kátibín, (Ante p. 141). Traditions recorded by Abu Huraira state:"Men will rise up naked, and confused; some will walk about, some stand forforty years. All will be constantly looking up toward the heavens (_i. E. _expecting the books. ) They will perspire profusely through {164} excess ofsorrow. [159] Then God will say to Abraham, 'put on clothes. ' He will put ona robe of Paradise. Then He will call Muhammad for whose benefit a fountainwill flow forth not far from Mecca. The people, too, shall thirst no more. "The Prophet said: "I will also put on a dress and will stand near thethrone, where no one else will be allowed to stand and God will say: 'Askand it shall be granted to thee; intercede, thy intercession shall beaccepted. '" Each book flies from the treasury under the Throne of God andis given to its proper owner. "Every man's fate have We fastened about hisneck; and on the day of resurrection will We bring forth to him (every man)a book which shall be proffered to him wide open: 'Read thy book, thereneedeth none but thyself to make out an account against thee this day. '"(Súra xvii. 15). "He into whose _right_ hand his book shall be given, shallbe reckoned, with an easy reckoning, and shall turn, rejoicing, to hiskindred. But he whose book shall be given behind his back (_i. E. _ into his_left_ hand) shall invoke destruction. " (Súra lxxxiv. 8-11. ) "He, who shallhave his book given into his _left_ hand will say: 'O that my book hadnever been given me! and that I had not known my reckoning. '" (Súra lxix. 25). It is always said that wicked Musalmáns will be seized by the _right_hand before they are cast into the fire, which is a proof that they are notalways to remain there. Some hold that the expression "Read thy book"implies a literal reading; others that it is a metaphorical expressionwhich simply means that all the past actions will be known. Those whobelieve in a literal reading say that each believer will read the accountof his faults only, and that other persons will read that of his gooddeeds. The face of the believer as he reads will shine resplendently, butblack will be the face of the infidel. 

{165}

(3). The Balances (Mízán). This belief is based on the authority of theQurán, Sunnat and the Ijmá'; no Muslim, therefore, can have any doubt aboutit. Thus: "They whose balances shall be heavy, shall be the blest; but theywhose balances shall be light, --these are they who shall lose their souls, abiding in hell for ever. " (Súra xxiii. 104). "As to him whose balances areheavy, his shall be a life that shall please him well: and as to him whosebalances are light, his dwelling-place shall be the pit. And who shallteach thee what the pit (Al-Háwía) is? A raging fire!" (Súra ci. 5-8). TheTraditions on this point are very numerous. The Ijmá' is also strong on thereality, the objective existence, of a balance with scales, &c. , complete. They also state that the "Books of Actions" (Sahá, íf-i-A'mál) will beweighed. In the Sahíh-i-Bukhárí it is said that the Believers will not beweighed in the balances, for "God will say, 'O Muhammad make those of thypeople, from whom no account is taken, enter into Paradise. '" Prophets andangels will also be exempt. Such a test also is not required for theunbelievers, for their state is very evident; "By their tokens shall thesinners be known, and they shall be seized by their forelocks and theirfeet. " (Súra lv. 41). Thus it is evident that, with regard to truebelievers and unbelievers, the works of such only as God may choose need beweighed. Some, however, maintain that no unbeliever will have this testapplied to his case and quote: "Vain therefore, are their works; and noweight will we allow them on the day of resurrection. " (Súra xviii. 105). To this it is answered, that all that is here denied is the fact of "aweighing in _their favour_. " The place where the weighing will take placeis situated midway between heaven and hell. Gabriel standing by watches themovement of the scales and Michael guards the balance. The orthodox are notagreed as to whether there will be a separate balance for each tribe ofmen, and also for each of the 'good works' {166} of the believers. Thosewho hold that there will be a balance for prayer, another for fasting andso on, adduce the use of the plural form, balances (muwázín) in proof oftheir statement. There is also a difference of opinion as to whether the"works" themselves, or the books (sahá, íf) will be weighed. The latteropinion is supported by a Tradition recorded by Tirmízí. "The Prophet said:'Ninety-nine registers will be distributed. Each register will extend asfar as the eye can reach. God will say: 'What! dost thou deny this, or havethe recording angels treated thee unjustly?' Each will say: 'No! O Lord. ''Hast thou then any excuse?' 'No! O Lord. ' Then God will display a cloth onwhich the Kalima is written. This will be put into one scale, and God willsay: 'To thee will be no evil if thou hast a register in this scale, andthis cloth in the other, for the first scale will be light. '" This isconsidered conclusive testimony with regard to the weighing of the Sahá, íf. The Mutazilites objected to statements such as these, for said they:"actions are accidents, and the qualities of lightness and heaviness cannotbe attributed to accidents. " They explained the verses of the Qurán and thestatements of the Traditions on this point, as being a figurative way ofsaying that perfect justice will be done to all in the Day of Judgment. 

(4). The Bridge (Sirát). The meaning of the word Sirát is a road, a way. Itis so used in the Qurán. In connection with the Day of Judgment it is said:"If we pleased we would surely put out their eyes: yet even then would theyspeed on with rivalry in their path (Sirát). " (Súra xxxvi. 66). "Gathertogether those who have acted unjustly, and their consorts (demons), andthe gods whom they have adored beside God; and guide them to the road(Sirát) for hell. " (Súra xxxvii. 23). It is nowhere in the Qurán called abridge, but Tradition is very clear on this point. The Prophet said: "Therewill be a bridge sharper than the edge of a sword, finer than a hair, suspended over {167} hell. Iron spikes on it will pierce those whom Godwills. Some will pass over it in the twinkling of an eye, some like a flashof lightning, others with the speed of a swift horse. The angels will callout, 'O Lord! save and protect. ' Some Muslims will be saved, some will fallheadlong into hell. " Bukhárí relates a similar Tradition. The infidels willall fall into hell and there remain for ever. Muslims will be releasedafter a while. 

The Mutazilites deny the existence of such a bridge. "If we admit it, " saythey, "it would be a trouble for the believers, and such there is not forthem in the Day of Judgment. " To this the orthodox reply that the believerspass over it to show how they are saved from fire, and that thus they maybe delighted with Paradise, and also that the infidels may feel chagrin atthose who were with them on the bridge being now safe for ever. 

Al A'ráf is situated between heaven and hell. It is described thus: "On(the wall) Al A'ráf shall be men who know all, by their tokens, [160] andthey shall cry to the inhabitants of Paradise, 'Peace be on you!' but theyshall not yet enter it, although they long to do so. And when their eyesare turned towards the inmates of the fire, they shall say, 'O our Lord!place us not with offending people &c. '" (Súra vii. 44, 45). Sale's summaryof the opinions regarding Al A'ráf in his Preliminary Discourse isexceedingly good. It is as follows:--

 "They call it Al Orf, and more frequently in the plural, Al Aráf, a word derived from the verb _Arafa_, which signifies to distinguish between things, or to part them; though some commentators give another reason for the imposition of this name, because, say they, those who stand on this partition will _know_ and _distinguish_ the blessed from the damned, by their respective marks or characteristics: and others way the word properly intends anything that is _high raised_ or _elevated_, as such a wall of separation must be supposed to {168} be. Some imagine it to be a sort of _limbo_ for the patriarchs and prophets, or for the martyrs and those who have been most eminent for sanctity. Others place here such whose good and evil works are so equal that they exactly counterpoise each other, and therefore deserve neither reward nor punishment; and these, say they, will on the last day be admitted into Paradise, after they shall have performed an act of adoration, which will be imputed to them as a merit, and will make the scale of their good works to overbalance. Others suppose this intermediate space will be a receptacle for those who have gone to war, without their parents' leave, and therein suffered martyrdom; being excluded from Paradise for their disobedience, and escaping hell because they are martyrs. "

There is also an interval, between the death of the body in this world andthe Last Day, called Al-Barzakh. "Behind them shall be a barrier (barzakh), until the day when they shall be raised again. " (Súra xxiii. 102). Whendeath takes place, the soul is separated from the body by the Angel ofdeath; in the case of the good with ease, in that of the wicked withviolence. It then enters into Al-Barzakh. [161]

It is a doctrine founded on Ijmá', that God will not pardon Shirk, that is, the ascribing plurality to the Divine Being. The Mushrik, one who does so, will remain in hell for ever, for as Kufr, infidelity, is an eternal crime, its punishment must also be eternal. "The unbelievers among the people ofthe Book, and among the Polytheists shall go into the fire of Gehenna toabide therein for aye. Of all creatures are they the worst?" (Súra xcviii. 5). "Cast into Hell every infidel, every hardened one, the hinderer of thegood, the transgressor, the doubter who set up other Gods with God. Cast yehim into the fierce torment. " (Súra 1. 23-25. )

Muslims who commit great (Kabíra) sins, though they die unrepentant, willnot remain in hell for ever, for, "whosoever shall have wrought an atom'sweight of good shall {169} behold it. " (Súra xcix. 7). It is asserted thatthe fact of believing in Islám is a good work and merits a reward: thiscannot be given before the man enters hell to be punished for his sins, andtherefore he must be, after a while, released from punishment. "Perfectfaith (Imán-i-Kámil) consists in believing with sincerity of heart andacting in accordance thereto, but the actions are not the faith itself. Great sins, therefore, prevent a man from having "perfect faith, " but donot destroy faith (Imán), nor make the Muslim an infidel, but only asinner. "[162] The Mutazilites teach that the Muslim who enters hell willremain there for ever. They maintain that the person who, having committedgreat sins, dies unrepentant, though not an infidel, ceases to be abeliever and hence suffers as the infidels do. 

The orthodox belief is that Muhammad is now an Intercessor and will be soat the Last Day. The intercession then is of several kinds. There is the'great intercession' to which the words, "it may be that thy Lord willraise thee to a _glorious station_, " (Súra xvii. 81) are supposed to refer. The Maqám-i-mahmúd, (glorious station), is said to be the place ofintercession in which all persons will praise the Prophet. [163] In theZád-ul-Masír it is said that the Maqám-i-mahmúd refers to the fact that Godwill place the Prophet on His Throne. Others say that it is a place inwhich a standard will be given to the Prophet, around whom all the otherprophets will then gather to do him honour. The first interpretation is, however, the ordinary one. The people will be in great fear. Muhammad willsay: "O my people! I am appointed for intercession. " Their fear will thenpass away. The second intercession is made so that they may enter intoParadise without rendering an account. The authorities differ with regardto this. The third intercession is on behalf of those Muslims who {170}ought to go to hell. The fourth for those who are already there. No one butthe Prophet can make these intercessions. The fifth intercession is for anincrease of rank to those who are in Paradise. The Mutazilites maintainedthat there would be no intercession for Muslims guilty of great sins, andadduced in favour of their opinion the verse: "Fear ye the day when soulshall not satisfy for soul at all, nor shall any intercession be acceptedfrom them, nor shall any ransom be taken, neither shall they be helped. "(Súra ii. 45). The orthodox bring in reply this Hadís-i-Sahíh: "The Prophetsaid: 'my intercession is for the men of my following who have committedgreat sins. '" If this Tradition is disputed, they then say that the versein the Qurán just quoted does not refer to Muslims at all, but to theInfidels. [164]

According to a Tradition related by Anas the Prophet said: "In the day ofresurrection Musalmáns will not be able to move, and they will be greatlydistressed and say: 'would to God that we had asked Him to create some oneto intercede for us, that we might be taken from this place, and bedelivered from tribulation and sorrow. '" The Tradition goes on to state howthey sought help from Adam and the prophets of the old dispensation, who, one and all, excused themselves on account of their own sinfulness. Atlength Moses told them to go to Jesus, the Apostle of God, the Spirit ofGod and the Word of God. They did so and Jesus said: "Go to Muhammad who isa servant, whose sins God has forgiven both first and last. " The Prophetcontinued, according to the Tradition, "then the Musalmáns will come to me, and I will ask permission to go into God's presence and intercede forthem. "[165]

The second advent of Christ is a sign of the last day. "Jesus is no morethan a servant whom We favoured ... {171} and he shall be a sign of thelast hour. " (Súra xliii. 61). He will not, according to the Qurán, come asa judge, but like other prophets to be judged. "We formed with them (_i. E. _prophets) a strict covenant, that God may question the men of truth as totheir truth, (_i. E. _ how they have discharged their prophetic functions). "(Súra xxxiii. 7, 8). He will come to bear witness against the Jews whoreject him: "In the day of resurrection, He will be a witness againstthem. " (Súra iv. 158). 

It is necessary to believe in the pond of the Prophet called Kausar. Thisfaith is founded on the verse "Truly we have given thee an _abundance_. "(Súra cviii. 1). Bukhárí says: "The meaning of Kausar is the 'abundance ofgood' which God gives to the Prophet. Abu Básh said to one Sa'íd, 'thepeople think that Kausar is a river of Paradise. ' Sa'íd replied, 'Kausar isa river in which there is abundance of good. '" According to the sameauthority Muhammad said: "My pond is square, its water is whiter than milk, its perfume better than that of musk, whosoever drinks thereof will thirstno more. "

There are many degrees of felicity in heaven to which the believers areadmitted. The Prophet, according to Tirmízí, said there were one hundred. Some of these may possibly be meant by the eight names they give toParadise. (1. ) Jannat-ul-Khuld. "Say: Is this, or the _Garden of Eternity_which was promised to the God-fearing, best?" (Súra xxv. 16. ) (2. )Jannat-us-Salám. "For them is a _Dwelling of Peace_ with their Lord. " (Súravi. 127. ) (3. ) Dár-ul-Qarár. "The life to come is the _Mansion whichabideth_. " (Súra xl. 42. ) (4. ) Jannat-ul-'Adan. "To the Faithful, both menand women, God promiseth gardens and goodly mansions in the _Garden ofEden_. " (Súra ix. 73. ) (5. ) Jannat-ul-Mawá. "Near which is the _Garden ofRepose_. " (Súra liii. 15. ) (6) Jannat-un-Na'ím. "Amid _delights_ shall therighteous dwell. " (Súra lxxxii. 13. ) (7) Jannat-ul-Illiyún. "The registerof the righteous is {172} in _Illiyún_. " (Súra lxxxiii. 18, ) (8. )Jannat-ul-Firdaus. "Those who believe and do the things that are right, they shall have the _Gardens of Paradise_ for their abode. " (Súra xviii. 107. )

Hell is said to have seven divisions. The Qurán, though it mentions thenames of these divisions, does not state what classes of persons will besent to each; but Muslim Commentators have supplied the needed information. They classify them thus:--(1. ) Jahannam, for sinners who die withoutrepentance. (2. ) Lazwá, for the infidels (_i. E. _, Christians. ) (3. ) Hutama, a fire for Jews, and according to some for Christians. (4. ) Sa'ir, fordevils, the descendants of Iblís. (5. ) Saqar, for the magians: also forthose who neglect prayer. (6. ) Jahím, a boiling caldron for idolaters: alsofor Gog and Magog. (7. ) Háwía, a bottomless pit for hypocrites. It is saidthat heaven has one division more than hell to show that God's mercyexceeds His justice. 

The Muhammadan writers give very full and minute accounts of the eventsconnected with the resurrection, judgment and future state of those who arelost, and of those who are saved. Sale gives such an excellent summary ofthese opinions, that it is not necessary to enter into details here. Theorthodox belief is that the statements in the Qurán and the Traditionsregarding the pleasures of Paradise are to be taken literally. [166]

6. THE PREDESTINATION OF GOOD AND EVIL. --I have already in the section inwhich the attribute "will" is described (p. 118) given some account of thedogmatic statements concerning the doctrine of predestination; but as italways forms a distinct chapter in Musalmán books, I treat it separatelyhere. Having, however, in the passage referred {173} to, given Al Berkevi'swords on the attribute "will, " it is only necessary to make a short extractfrom his dogmatic statement concerning Predestination. He says:--

 "It is necessary to confess that good and evil take place by the predestination and predetermination of God, that all that has been and all that will be was decreed in eternity, and written on the _preserved table_;[167] that the faith of the believer, the piety of the pious and good actions are foreseen, willed, predestinated, decreed by the writing on the _preserved table_, produced and approved by God; that the unbelief of the unbeliever, the impiety of the impious and bad actions come to pass with the fore-knowledge, will, predestination and decree of God, but not with His satisfaction and approval. Should any ask why God willeth and produceth evil, we can only reply that He may have wise ends in view which we cannot comprehend. "

Another confession of faith has:--

 "Whoever shall say, that God is not delighted with virtue and faith, and is not wroth with vice and infidelity, or that God has decreed good and evil with equal complacency is an infidel. "

There are three well-defined schools of thought on the subject:--

First. --The Jabríans, so called from the word "_jabr_" compulsion, deny allfree agency in man and say that man is necessarily constrained by the forceof God's eternal and immutable decree to act as he does. [168] They holdthat as {174} God is the absolute Lord, He can, if He so wills, admit allmen into Paradise, or cast all into hell. This sect is one of the branchesof the Ash'aríans with whom on most points they agree. 

Secondly. --The Qadríans, who deny _Al-Qadr_, or God's absolute decree, saythat evil and injustice ought not to be attributed to God but to man, whois altogether a free agent. God has given him the power to do or not to doan act. This sect is generally considered to be a branch of the Mutazilitebody, though in reality it existed before Wásil quitted the school of hismaster Hasan (Ante. P. 125). As Wásil, however, followed the opinions ofMábad-al-Johní, the leading Kadrían divine, the Mutazilites and Qadríansare practically one and the same. 

Thirdly. --The Ash'aríans, of whom I have already given some account, maintain that God has one eternal will which is applied to whatsoever Hewilleth, both of His own actions and those of men; that He willeth thatwhich He knoweth and what is written on the _preserved table_; that Hewilleth both good and evil. So far they agree with the Jabríans; but thenthey seem to allow some power to man, a tenet I have already explained whendescribing their idea of "Kasb" (Ante. P. 130). The orthodox, or Sunníbelief is theoretically Ash'arían, but practically the Sunnís are confirmedJabríans. The Mutazilite doctrines are looked upon as quite heretical. 

No subject has been more warmly discussed in Islám than that ofpredestination. The following abstract of some lengthy discussions willpresent the points of difference. 

The Ash'aríans, who in this matter represent in the main orthodox views, formulate their objections to the Mutazilite system thus:--

(i). If man is the causer of an action by the force of his own will, thenhe should also have the power of controlling the result of that action. 

(ii). If it be granted that man has the power to _originate_ {175} an actit is necessary that he should know all acts, because a creator should beindependent in act and choice. Intention must be conditioned by knowledge. To this the Mutazilites well reply that a man need not know the length of aroad before he walks, or the structure of the throat before he talks. 

(iii). Suppose a man wills to move his body and God at the same time willsit to be steady, then if both intentions come to pass there will be acollection of opposites; if neither, a removal of opposites; if theexaltation of the first, an unreasonable preference. 

(iv). If man can create an act, some of his works will be better than someof the works of God, _e. G. _ a man determines to have faith: now faith is abetter thing than reptiles, which are created by God. 

(v). If man is free to act, why can he not make at once a human body; whydoes he need to thank God for grace and faith?

(vi). But better far than all argument, the orthodox say, is the testimonyof the Book. "All things have we created under a fixed decree. " (Súra liv. 49). "When God created you and _that ye make_. " (Súra xxxvii. 94). "Some ofthem there were whom God guided and there were others decreed to err. "(Súra xvi. 38). As God decrees faith and obedience He must be the causer ofit, for "on the hearts of these hath God graven the Faith. " (Súra lviii. 22). "It is he who causeth you to laugh and weep, to die and make alive. "(Súra liii. 44). "If God pleased He would surely bring them, one and all, to the guidance. " (Súra vi. 36). "Had God pleased, He had guided you allaright. " (Súra vi. 150). "Had the Lord pleased, He would have made mankindof one religion. " (Súra xi. 120). "God will mislead whom he pleaseth, andwhom He pleaseth He will place upon the straight path. " (Súra vi. 39. )Tradition records that the Prophet said: "God is the maker of all makersand of their actions. "[169]

{176}

The Mutazilites took up the opposite side of this great question andsaid:--

(i). If man has no power to will or to do, then what is the differencebetween praising God and sinning against Him; between faith and infidelity;good and evil; what is the use of commands and prohibitions; rewards andpunishments; promises and threats; what is the use of prophets, books, &c. 

(ii). Some acts of men are bad, such as tyranny and polytheism. If theseare created by God, it follows that to tyrannise and to ascribe pluralityto the Deity is to render obedience. To this the Ash'aríans reply thatorders are of two kinds, immediate and mediate. The former which they call"Amr-i-takwíti, " is the order, "Be and it was. " This comprehends allexistences, and according to it whatever is ordered must come to pass. Thelatter they call "Amr-i-tashri'í, " an order given in the Law. This comes tomen through prophets and thus is to be obeyed. True obedience is to actaccording to that which is revealed, not according to the secret intentionsof God, for that we know not. 

(iii). If God decrees the acts of men, He should bear the name of thatwhich he decrees. Thus the causer of infidelity is an infidel; of tyranny atyrant, and so on; but to speak thus of God is blasphemy. 

(iv). If infidelity is decreed by God He must wish it; but a prophetdesires faith and obedience and so is opposed to God. To this the orthodoxreply, that God knows by His eternal knowledge that such a man will die aninfidel. {177} If a prophet intends by bringing the message of salvation tosuch an one to make God's knowledge become ignorance, he would be doingwrong; but as he does not know the secret decrees of God, his duty is todeliver his message according to the Hadís: "A prophet has only to deliverthe clear message. "

(v). The Mutazilites claimed as on their side all verses of the Qurán, inwhich the words to do, to construct, to renew, to create, &c. , are appliedto men. Such are the verses: "Whatever is in the heavens and in the earthis God's that He may reward those who _do_ evil according to their deeds:and those who _do_ good will He reward with good things. " (Súra liii. 32). "Whoso shall have _wrought_ evil shall not be recompensed but with itslike: but whoso shall have _done_ the things that are right, whether maleor female and is a believer, these shall enter Paradise. " (Súra xl. 43). Say: "the truth is from the Lord; let him then who will believe; and lethim who will, be an infidel. " (Súra xviii. 28). [170] "Those who add Gods toGod will say: 'If God had pleased neither we nor our fathers had given Himcompanions. ' Say: 'Verily ye follow only a conceit, ye utter lies. '" (Súravi. 149). The Hadís is also very plain. "All good is in Thy hands and evilis not to Thee. " (Al-khair kuluhu fí yadaika wash-sharru laisa 'alaika. )

The Ash'aríans have one famous text which they bring to bear against allthis reasoning and evidence. It is: "This truly is a warning; and whosowilleth, taketh the way of his Lord; but _will it ye shall not_, unless Godwill it, for God is knowing, wise. " (Súra lxxvi. 29, 30). To the Hadís theyreply (1) that there is a difference between acquiescence in evil anddecreeing it. Thus the expression "God willeth not tyranny for Hisservants, " does not mean {178} that God hath not decreed it, but thattyranny is not one of His attributes: so "evil is not to Thee" means it isnot an attribute of God; and (2) the Hadís must be explained in accordancewith the teaching of the Qurán. 

The Muslim philosophers tried to find a way out of the difficulty. Averhoessays: "We are free to act in this way or that, but our will is alwaysdetermined by some exterior cause. For example, we see something whichpleases us, we are drawn to it in spite of ourselves. Our will is thusbound by exterior causes. These causes exist according to a certain orderof things which is founded on the general laws of nature. God alone knowsbefore hand the necessary connection which to us is a mystery. Theconnection of our will with exterior causes is determined by the laws ofnature. It is this which in theology we call, 'decrees andpredestination. '"[171]

I have already shown how, as Islám grew into a system, the Muslims fellinto a Cabbalism, and a superstitious reverence for the mere letters andwords of the Qurán. With this declension came a still more distorted viewof the character of God. The quotations made from the Qurán in the last fewpages will have shown that whilst some passages seem to attribute freedomto man and speak of his consequent responsibility, others teach a clear anddistinct fatalism. The great strength of Islám lay in the energy with whichMuhammad preached the doctrine that God was a divine Ruler, one who woulddeal righteous judgment, who "taught man that which he knew not. " As thesystem became more complex and dogmatic--a very necessary result of itsfirst principles--men lost the sense of the nearness of God. He became anunapproachable being. A harsh unfeeling Fate took the place of theOmnipotent Ruler. It is this dark fatalism which, whatever the Qurán mayteach on the subject, is the ruling principle in all Muslim {179}communities. It is this which makes all Muhammadan nations decay. Carelessof self-improvement, [172] heedless of the need of progress, the Muslimnations, still independent, are in all that relates to the higher aspectsof intellectual and civilized life far behind the nations of the west. 

The subject of _'Ilm-i-Aqáíd_, or the science of dogma properly ends here, but most Muslim treatises include in this branch of the subject a fewpractical remarks. I therefore add a summary of them here. The believer whocommits murder, fornication, &c. , does not cease to be a Muslim providedthat he does not say that these are allowed: should he die unrepentant, Godcan punish him for a while in hell, or forgive him without punishment. TheHadd, a punishment based on a Záhir, or obvious sentence of the Quránrequires that a Muslim who apostatizes shall be put to death. [173] In thecase of an apostate woman, Imám Abu Hanífa ruled that she should beimprisoned and beaten every day. The other three Imáms, Málik, Sháfa'í andHanbal said that she should be put to death in accordance with theTradition which says: "He who changes his religion, kill. " The Arabic word"man, " usually translated "He who" is of common gender, and so these Imámsinclude women in the list of those who, after apostasy, are to bekilled. [174] God does not pardon polytheism and infidelity; but He can, ifHe willeth, pardon all other crimes. If any one is asked, "dost thoubelieve?" he should reply, "I am truly a believer, " and not say: "If God{180} willeth. "[175] If any one says to him: "Wilt thou die in the faith?"he should reply: "I do not know, God knows. " Except when speaking ofprophets, or of those of whom the Prophets have spoken, such as Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Alí, it must not be said of any one, "he is gone toParadise, " for God only knows his state. Prayer should be made for adeceased Muslim whether he was a good or bad man. To give alms, to read theQurán, to perform other good works, and to apply the merit thus gained tothe souls of the dead is a pious and beneficial act. 

{181}

 NOTE TO CHAPTER IV. 

 MUSLIM PHILOSOPHY. 

 I have shown in the preceding chapter how the earlier scholastics, or the Mutazilites, as they are called, were finally crushed by the orthodox party. The later scholastics, or the philosophers, form the subject of this note. The Khalíf Mámún (813-833 A. D. ), a notorious free-thinker, was the first to give an impulse to philosophic researches. It was then that Greek philosophical works were translated into Arabic. The Greek author most patronized was Aristotle, partly, because his empirical method accorded with the positive tendencies of the Arab mind better than the pure idealism of Plato; and, partly, because his system of logic was considered an useful auxiliary in the daily quarrels between the rival theological schools. It was quite natural that Aristotle should be thus followed. "The Musalmán mind was trained in habits of absolute obedience to the authority of fixed dogmas. The Muslims did not so much wish to discover truth as to cultivate their own intellect. For that purpose, a sharp and subtle systematist like Aristotle was the very man they required. "[176] Some idea of the range of subjects then discussed may be gained from an account given by the Arab historian, Masoudi, of a meeting held under the Presidentship of Yahya, one of the famous Barmecide family. [177] Yahya thus addressed the meeting: "You have discussed at length the theory of concealment (Al-Kumún) and manifestation (Al-Zahúr), of pre-existence and creation, of duration and stability, of movement and quiescence, of the union and separation (of the Divine substance), of existence and non-existence, of bodies and accidents, of the approval and the refutation (of the Isnáds of the Traditions), of the absence or the existence of attributes in God, of potential and active force, of substance, quantity, modality and relation, of life and annihilation. You have examined the question as to whether the Imám rules by divine right, or by popular election; you have had an exhaustive discussion on metaphysical subjects, in their principles and corollaries. Occupy yourselves to-day with the subject of love, " &c. 

 The translation of the works of Aristotle, as indeed of all the Greek authors, was made by Syrian and Chaldean Christians, and {182} especially by the Nestorians who, as physicians, were in high favour with the liberal Khalífs of the 'Abbásside dynasty. In some cases the translation into Arabic was made from Syriac versions, for in the time of the Emperor Justinian many Greek works had been translated into the latter language. The most celebrated translator was the historian physician Honein-Ibn-Ishak (died 876 A. D. ), a man profoundly acquainted with the Syriac, Greek and Arabic languages. He was at the head of a school of interpreters in Baghdád, to which his son Ishak-ben-Honein and his nephew Hobeisch-Al-Asam also belonged. In the tenth century (A. D. ) Yahya-ben-Adi and Isa-ben-Zara'a translated some works and corrected earlier translations of others. It is to these men that the Arabs owe their chief acquaintance with Plato. 

 The study of Aristotle spread rapidly amongst the Muslim people, especially amongst the heretical sects. The orthodox looked with grave suspicion on the movement, but could not for a while stay the impulse. The historian Makrizi says: "The doctrine of the Philosophers has worked amongst the Muslims evils most fatal. It serves only to augment the errors of the heretics and to increase their impiety. "[178] It came into contact with Muslim dogmas in such subjects as the creation of the world, the special providence of God and the nature of the divine attributes. To a certain extent the Mutazilites were supported by the philosophical theories they embraced, but this did not diminish the disfavour with which the orthodox looked upon the study of philosophy. Still it grew, and men in self defence had to adopt philosophic methods. Thus arose a later system of scholasticism. The earlier system was confined mainly to matters of religion; the later school occupied itself with the whole range of philosophic investigation, and thus went farther and farther away from orthodox Islám. 

 The Muslims themselves did not write books on philosophy in the earlier period. Men of liberal tendencies imbibed its teaching, but orthodoxy finally gained the day over the earlier scholastics, and in the form known as that of the Ash'arían School became again supreme. [179] The great intellectual movement of the Philosophers proper, the later scholastics (Mutakallimán), lasted longer, but by the end of the twelfth century (A. D. ) the whole Muhammadan world had again become orthodox. Saláh-ud-dín (Saladin) and his successors in Egypt were strong supporters of the Ash'aríans. 

 {183}

 The period now under review was one prolific of authors on grammar, rhetoric, logic, exegesis, traditions and the various branches of philosophy; but the men who stand out most prominently as philosophers were then, and are now, considered heretics. [180]

 Al-Kendi, was born at Basra, on the Persian Gulf. He died about 870 A. D. He was a very scientific man, but a thorough rationalist in theology. He composed commentaries on the logic of Aristotle. In his great work on the unity of God he has strayed far away from Muslim dogmas. 

 Al Farabi, another philosopher patronized by the 'Abbássides, seems to have denied not only the rigid and formal Islámic view of inspiration, but any objective revelation at all. He held that intuition was a true inspiration, and that all who had acquired intuitive knowledge were real prophets. This is the only revelation he admits. He received his philosophical training at Baghdád, where for a while he taught; but finally he went to Damascus, where he died 950 A. D. 

 Ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna, a man of Persian origin, was a Philosopher of great note, but of him it is said that in spite of the concessions he made to the religious ideas of his age, he could not find favour for his opinions, which ill accord with the principles of Islám. He was born near Bukhárá, in the year 980 A. D. For a while he taught medicine and philosophy in Ispahán. 

 Ibn Badja, (Avempace) was one of the most celebrated Muslim Philosophers of Spain. He was born at Saragossa towards the end of the eleventh century. He is distinguished for having opposed the mystical tendencies of the teaching of Al-Ghazzálí, and for maintaining that speculative science alone was capable of leading man to a true conception of his own proper nature. He was violently attacked by the orthodox divines who declared that all philosophical teaching was "a calamity for religion and an affliction to those who were in the good way. "

 Al-Ghazzálí was born A. D. 1059 in Khorásán. He was a famous Muslim divine. He adopted scholastic methods. For a while he was President of the Nizámiah College at Baghdád. He travelled much, and wrote many books to prove the superiority of Islám over all other religions and over philosophy. The first result of his wide and extensive study of the writings of the philosophers, and of the heretics was that he fell into a state of scepticism with regard to religion and philosophy. From this he emerged into Súfíism, in {184} which his restless spirit found satisfaction. On Súfíism, however, he exercised no very notable influence; but the scepticism which he still retained as regards philosophy rendered him a very formidable opponent to those who were trying to bring Islám into accord with philosophic theories. His works, "Tendency of Philosophers, " and "Destruction of the Philosophers" had an immense influence. In the preface to the latter book, he speaks of "those who arrogate to themselves a superior intelligence, and who, in their pride, mistaking the precepts of religion, take as a guide the authority of certain great men, instead of revealed religion. " It is, however, and with some show of reason supposed that Al-Ghazzálí did not really object to all that he condemned, but that to gain the orthodox he wrote what he did. Indeed, Moses of Narbonne states that Ghazzálí later on in life wrote a book, circulated only amongst a few select friends, in which he withdrew many of the objections he had raised in the "Destruction of Philosophers. " Be that as it may, it is acknowledged that he dealt a blow to philosophy from which in the East it has never recovered; that is, as far as the Muslim world is concerned. His course marks a reaction of the exclusively religious principle of Islám against philosophical speculation, which in spite of all accommodation never made itself orthodox. 

 In Spain philosophy still found an ardent defender in Ibn Rashíd, better known as Averhoes. This celebrated man was born at Cordova in the year 1126 A. D. , or about 520 of the Muhammadan era. He came of a noble and learned family, whilst he himself must ever occupy a distinguished place amongst the Muslim Philosophers. "Without dispute he was one of the most learned men of the Muslim world, and one of the profoundest commentators of Aristotle. He knew all the sciences then accessible to the Muslims and was a most prolific writer. "[181] One of his most famous works was the "Refutation of the destruction of Philosophers. " Notwithstanding his philosophical opinions Averhoes claimed to pass for a good Muslim. He held that the philosophic truths are the highest object of research; but that only a few men could by speculation arrive at them, and that, therefore, a divine revelation through the medium of prophets was necessary for spreading amongst men the eternal verities which are proclaimed alike by philosophy and religion. He held, it is true, that the orthodox had paid too much attention to the letter, and too little to the spirit, and that false interpretations had educed principles not really to be found in religion. This {185} profession and a rigid adherence to outward forms of worship, however, did not save him from suspicion. He was accused of preaching philosophy and the ancient sciences to the detriment of religion. He was deprived of his honours and banished by the Khalíf Al-Mansúr to Lucena, near Cordova. In his disgrace he had to suffer many insults from the orthodox. One day on entering the mosque with his son he was forcibly expelled by the people. He died at Morocco in 1198 A. D. Thus passed away in disgrace the last of the Muslim Philosophers worthy of the name. [182] In Spain a strict prohibition was issued against the study of Greek philosophy, and many valuable works were committed to the flames. Soon after the rule of the Moors in Spain began to decline. The study of philosophy came to an end, and liberal culture sank under the pressure of the hard and fast dogmatic system of Islám. In Spain, [183] as in Baghdád, orthodoxy gained the day. There was much of doubtful value in the speculations of the Muslim Philosophers, but they were Muslims, and if they went too far in their efforts to rationalize Islám, they also tried to cast off what to them seemed accretions, added on by the Traditionalists and the Canonical Legists. They failed because like the earlier scholastics they had no gospel to proclaim to men, no tidings to give of a new life which could enable wearied humanity to bear the ills to which it was subject. Another strong reason was that the orthodoxy against which they strove was a logical development of the foundations of Islám, and these foundations are too strongly laid for any power other than a spiritual one to uproot. They were men of good position in life, voluminous writers, profound admirers of Aristotle, and "more or less devoted to science, especially to medicine. " Yet they did not advance philosophy, and science they left much as they found it. They preserved something of what Grecian thought had achieved, and so far their labour is not lost. 

 Thus Islám has, as a religion, no right to claim any of the glory which Muslim philosophers are supposed to have shed around it. {186} The founders of Islám, the Arabs, produced but one philosopher of note. [184] The first impetus to the study was given by heretical Khalífs employing Christians at Baghdád to translate Greek books; whilst in Spain, where philosophy most flourished, it was due largely to the contact of intelligent Muslims with learned Jews. Even there, the philosophers were, as a rule, the objects of bitter persecution. Now and again, a liberal minded Khalíf arose, but a system such as Islám survives the liberal tendencies of a generation. From the close of the twelfth century (A. D. ) downwards it would be difficult to point to any Muslim Philosopher, much more to an Arab one, whose work is of any real value to the human race. For four hundred years the contest raged, a contest such as Islám has never since seen. This great effort to bring it into accordance with the main stream of human thought, to introduce into it some element of progress utterly failed. The lesson is plain. Any project of reform in Islám which admits in any degree its fundamental principles must fail. Revolution, not reform, is the only hope for the permanence of an independent Muslim state when it enters into the circle of civilized nations. 

{187}

 * * * * *

CHAPTER V. 

THE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF ISLÁM. 

The portion of the creed considered in the last chapter was connected withImán (faith); the remaining portion is connected with Dín (practicalreligion). The five principal acts are called Irkán-i-Dín, pillars ofreligion. They are: (1) The recital of the Kalima, or short confession offaith; (2) Sulát, the five stated periods of prayer; (3) Roza, the thirtydays' fast of Ramazán; (4) Zakát, legal alms; (5) Hajj, the pilgrimage toMecca. These are all _farz_ duties, being based on a Nass-i-Záhir, or"obvious, " sentence of the Qurán, a proof derived from which is calleddalíl-i-qata'í. This is the strongest of all kinds of proofs. 

The authorities, however, specify other religious duties which good Muslimsshould perform. Such are the seven duties which are _wájib_, or dutiesbased on the more obscure texts of the Qurán, called Khafi, or "hidden"sentences, a proof derived from which is called dalíl-i-zaní. These dutiesare: (1) To make the 'Umra, or Pilgrimage to Mecca in addition to the Hajj;(2) obedience to parents; (3) the obedience of a wife to her husband; (4)the giving of alms after a fast; (5) the offering of sacrifice; (6) thesaying of Namáz-i-witr, a term which will be explained later on; (7) thesupport of relatives. The duties numbered as (4) and (5) are _wájib_ ordersto the rich; but only _mustahab_ to the poor: that is, it is meritorious ifthey perform them, but not sinful if they leave them undone. 

The duties next in order as regards authority are the _sunnat_ ones. Theyare three in number and are based either on the practice of the Prophet, orare _fitrat_, that is practices of previous prophets, the continuance ofwhich {188} Muhammad did not forbid. They are (1) circumcision; (2) shavingoff the hair from the head and the body; (3) the paring of the nails. Inaddition to these there are actions which are _mustahab_. They are thosewhich Muhammad sometimes did and sometimes omitted. There is a still lowerclass of action which are _mubáh_. These are works of supererogation. Ifomitted there is no fear of punishment. 

It may be mentioned in passing that unlawful actions and things are (1)_Harám_, actions and food forbidden either in the Qurán or the Traditions;(2) _Mahrúh_, actions the unlawfulness of which is not absolutely certain, but which are generally considered wrong; (3) _Mufsid_, actions corruptingor pernicious. It is necessary to bear these terms in mind as they will nowfrequently occur. 

1. TASHAHHUD. --This is the recital of a confession of faith. There areseveral forms of this. A common one is: "I testify that there is no deitybut God, I testify to His unity and that He has no partner; I testify thatMuhammad is His servant and His messenger. " The shorter form is: "There isno deity but God and Muhammad is the apostle of God. " The power containedin this latter confession is extraordinary. It embodies the very spirit ofIslám. "It has led everywhere the march of its armies, it has rung fortwelve centuries in the morning air from its minarets, it has been passedfrom lip to lip, as no other word has ever been passed, by thousands ofmillions of the human race. " The power of Islám, its proclamation of theUnity, is here seen in the closest contact with what is to Muslimtheologians the equally fundamental truth--the apostleship of Muhammad, adogma which retards the healthy development, explains the narrowness, andcauses the prostration of Islám, as the world around grows luminant withthe light of science and truth, of faith and reason. 

2. SULÁT. [185]--All the books on Fiqh (Law) which treat of {189} theseIrkán-i-dín, give in connection with Sulát the rules regarding thenecessary purifications. It will be convenient to follow the same order. 

Tahárat or legal purification is of three kinds: (1) Wazú, the lesserlustration; (2) Ghusl, the greater lustration; (3) Tayammum, orpurification by sand. 

(1). Wazú is an ablution made before saying the appointed prayers. Thosewhich are 'farz' are four in number, viz:--to wash (1) the face from thetop of the forehead to the chin, and as far as each ear; and (2) the handsand arms up to the elbow; (3) to rub (masah) with the wet hand a fourthpart of the head; also (4) the feet to the ankles. The authority for theseactions is the text: "O Believers! when ye address yourselves to prayer, wash your hands up to the elbow, and wipe your heads, and your feet to theankles" (Súra v. 8). The Sunnís wash the feet: the Shía'hs are apparentlymore correct, for they only wipe, or rather rub, (masah) them. In theseablutions, if the least portion of the specified part is left untouched, the whole act becomes useless and the prayer which follows is vain. 

The act of making wazú, however, has not been allowed to remain in thissimple form. The Sunnat regulations regarding it are fourteen in number. They are, (1) to make the intention of wazú, thus: I make this wazú for thepurpose of putting away impurity; (2) to wash the hand up to the wrist, butcare must be taken not to put the hands entirely into the water, until eachhas been rubbed three times with water poured on it; (3) to say one of thenames of God at the commencement of the wazú[186] thus: "In the name of theGreat God, " or "Thanks be to God for the religion of Islám;" (4) to cleanthe teeth; (5) to rinse the mouth three times; (6) to put water into the{190} nostrils three times; (7) to do all the above in proper order; (8) todo all without any delay between the various acts; (9) each part is to bepurified three times; (10) the space between the fingers of one hand mustbe rubbed with the wet fingers of the other; (11) the beard must be combedwith the fingers; (12) the whole head must be rubbed once; (13) the earsmust be washed with the water remaining on the fingers after the lastoperation; (14) to rub under and between the toes with the little finger ofthe left hand, drawing it from the little toe of the right foot and betweeneach toe in succession. Imám Sháfa'í holds that (1) and (7) are farz dutiesand that (12) should be done three times. Imám Málik considers (8) to befarz. 

The actions may be done in silence, or prayer may be repeated. Such arecital is a mustahab, not a sunnat or farz order. It is not obligatory. Aspecimen of these prayers is given in a note. [187]

(2). Ghusl is an ablution of the whole body after certain legaldefilements, and should be made as follows. The person should put on cleanclothes and perform the wazú, then he should say: "I make ghusl to put awayimpurity. " All being ready he should wash himself in the following order. He must pour water over the right shoulder three times, then over the leftthree times and, lastly, on his head {191} also the same number of times. The three farz conditions are that (1) the mouth must be rinsed, (2) waterbe put into the nostrils, and (3) the whole body be washed. If one haireven is left dry the whole act is rendered vain and useless. All otherparticulars are sunnat or mustahab. 

There are obvious reasons why an explanation of the causes which vitiate apurification, or of the cases in which ghusl is required, cannot be givenhere. Every standard Muslim work on Fikh, or law, deals fully with thesubject. Nothing is more calculated to show the student of Islám how muchthe Sunnat rules in the practical life of Muslims. The Traditions haveraised the most trivial ceremonial observances into duties of the greatestimportance. That there may be spiritually minded men in Islám is not to bedenied; but a system of religion which declares that the virtue of prayerdepends practically on an ablution, and that that ablution is uselessunless done in the order prescribed, is one well calculated to make menformalists and nothing more. It comes to this, that, if a man when makingwazú washes his left hand before his right, or his nose before his teeth, he cannot lawfully say the daily Namáz enjoined on all Muslims. None butthose who have studied Muslim treatises on the subject can conceive of thepuerile discussions which have taken place on points apparently trivial, but which from their connection with the Sunnat are deemed by learnedMuslims of great importance. 

(3). Tayammum, or purification by sand, is allowable under the followingcircumstances. (1) When water cannot be procured except at a distance ofone kos (about 2 miles); (2) in case of sickness when the use of watermight be injurious; (3) when water cannot be obtained without incurringdanger from an enemy, a beast or a reptile; and (4) when on the occasion ofthe Namáz of a Feast day or the Namáz at a funeral, the worshipper is lateand has no time to perform the wazú. On ordinary days this substitution oftayammum for wazú is not allowable. 

{192}

The ceremony is performed as follows. The person says: "I make tayammum toput away impurity;" then, "I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan. Icommence in the name of God, most Merciful and most High, whose praises arein the religion of Islám. " He then strikes the sand with open hands, rubshis mouth and, at last, the arms to the elbows. Not one hair must be leftuntouched or the whole ceremony is useless. The farz acts are to make theintention of tayammum, to rub the mouth and the hands. "If ye are sick, oron a journey, or if one of you come from the place of retirement, or if yehave touched women, and ye find no water, then take clean sand and rub yourfaces and your hands with it. " (Súra v. 9. )

Minute regulations are laid down with regard to the water which may be usedfor purification. The following kinds of water are lawful:--rain, sea, river, fountain, well, snow and ice-water. Ice is not lawful. The firstkind is authorized by the Qurán. "He sent you down water from heaven thatHe might thereby cleanse you, and cause the pollution of Satan to pass fromyou. " (Súra viii. 11. ) The use of the others is sanctioned by theTraditions. I give one illustration. A man one day came to the Prophet andsaid: "I am going on a voyage and shall only have a small supply of freshwater; if I use it for ablutions I shall have none wherewith to quench mythirst, may I use sea water?" The Prophet replied: "The water of the sea ispure. " Tirmízí states that this is a Hadís-i-Sahíh. Great difference ofopinion exists with regard to what constitutes impurity in water, and sorenders it unfit for ablutions. It would be wearisome to the reader toenter into all details, but I may briefly say that, amongst the orthodox, it is generally held that if a dead body or any unclean thing falls intoflowing water, or into a reservoir more than 15 feet square it can be used, provided always that the colour, smell and taste are not changed. It is forthis reason that the pool near a mosque is never less than ten cubitssquare. If of {193} that size, it is called a _dah dar dah_, (literally 10x 10). It may be, and commonly is, larger than this. It should be about onefoot deep. 

The necessary ablutions having been made, the worshipper can commence theNamáz. 

(4). Salát or Namáz. The Namáz can be said either in private or in public. All that is required is that the clothes and person of the worshippershould be clean, the place free from all impurity, and that the face beturned towards Mecca. Whether the Namáz is said in public or in private, itmust be preceded by wazú, except when tayammum is allowed. If theNamáz[188] is said in a mosque which is considered to be more meritoriousthan repeating it in private, it must be preceded by the Azán, or call toprayers, and the Iqámat. Minute particulars regarding the exact attitude inwhich the Musallí, one who says the Salát, must stand and the words he isto say are given in Muslim books. The following account will give some ideaof a Namáz, or Service. [189]

The Mu, azzin[190] calls out loudly in Arabic:--

"Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar[191]!"

All who hear it respond:--

"Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar!"

The Mu, azzin says:--

"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but God. "

Each of his auditors replies:--

"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but God. "

{194}

Mu, azzin:--"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God. "

Auditor:--"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God. "

Mu, azzin:--"Come to prayer. "

Auditor:--"I have no power or strength but from God most High and Great. "

Mu, azzin:--"Come to do good. "

Auditor:--"What God wills will be; what He wills not will not be. "

If it is the time of morning prayer, the Mu, azzin adds the words: "Prayeris better than sleep, " to which the response is given: "Thou hast spokenwell. " "Alláhu Akbar, " and "There is no God but God" are then repeatedtwice and so the Azán ends. 

The Iqámat (literally, "causing to stand") is a repetition of the Azán, butafter the words, "come to do good, " the statement "prayer has commenced" ismade. 

These preliminaries being now over, the Namáz can commence. It is asfollows:

The Musallí, or worshipper, stands with his hands close to his side andsays in a low voice the Niyyat (intention):--

"I have purposed to offer up to God only, with a sincere heart this morning(or as the case may be), with my face Qibla-wards, two (or as the case maybe) rak'at prayers, farz (or sunnat or nafl, as the case may be). "

Then follows the Takbír-i-Tahrímah, said with the thumbs touching the lobesof the ears. The palms of the hands are placed towards the Qibla. Thefingers are slightly separated from each other. In this position theMusallí says:--"Alláhu Akbar!"

The Qíám, or standing position. The palm of the right hand being placed onthe back of the left, the thumb and little finger of the former seize thewrist of the latter. Both hands are then placed below the navel, [192] theeyes are {195} directed towards the spot where the head of the worshipperwill touch the ground in prostration, and the Saná is said. It is:--

 "Holiness to Thee O God! and praise be to Thee! Great is Thy name! Great is thy Greatness! There is no God but Thee!"

The Ta'awwuz is then said:--

 "I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan. "

Then follows the Tasmíyah:--

 "In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. "

Then follows the Fátiha, [193] or first chapter of the Qurán:--

"Praise be to God, Lord of the worlds! the Compassionate, the Merciful!King on the day of reckoning! Thee only do we worship, and to Thee do wecry for help. Guide Thou us on the straight path: the path of those to whomThou hast been gracious: with whom Thou art not angry, and who go notastray. "

After this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters of the Qurán as helikes. [194] Some verses he must repeat. 

The Súrat-ul-Ikhlás (Súra 112) is generally said:--

"Say: He is God alone: God the Eternal, He begetteth not, and is notbegotten; and there is none like unto Him. "

The Takbír-i-rukú'--Alláhu Akbar!--is said whilst the Musallí makes aninclination of the head and body, and separating the fingers a little, places his hands upon his knees. 

The Tasbíh-i-rukú' is said in the same position. It is:--

 "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great! I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great! I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!"

The Tasmía' is then said with the body erect, but with the hands placed oneither side. Thus:--

{196}

"God hears him who praises Him: O Lord, Thou art praised[195]. "

The Takbír-i-Sijdar--Alláhu Akbar!--is said as the worshipper drops on hisknees. 

The Musallí then kneeling down, places his hands, with the fingers close toeach other, upon the ground. He must rest upon his toes, not on the side ofthe feet which must be kept straight behind him. The elbow must not touchthe side, nor the stomach the thigh, nor the thigh the calf of the leg. Theeyes must be kept bent downwards. Then he touches the ground first with hisnose, and then with his forehead, taking care that the thumbs just touchthe lobe of the ears. [196] All this being carefully attended to, theMusallí can say the Tasbíh-i-Sijda thus:--

 "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High! I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High! I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!"

He then raises his head and body, sinks backwards upon his heels, placeshis hands a little above his knees, and whilst doing so says theTakbír-i-Jalsa[197]--"Alláhu Akbar!"

After a slight pause, a second prostration, or Sijda is made and theTakbír-i-Sijda and the Tasbíh-i-Sijda are repeated as before. Then when inthe act of rising up the Musallí says the Takbír-i-Qíám--"Alláhu Akbar!"

This concludes one rak'at. The second rak'at begins with the Fátiha, sothat after saying the Takbír-i-Qíám a Musallí would have to begin again atthat place (p. 195) and repeat all that he had just finished; the onlychange being that after the Fátiha, he recites different verses of theQurán to those he said in the first rak'at. After two rak'ats have beensaid, and after the last, though it be an odd number, the {197} Musallí, unless he is a Shía'h, places his left foot under him and sits upon it. Hethen places his hands above his knees, as for the Takbír-i-Jalsa, and withhis eyes directed towards his lap says the Attahíyát:--

"The adorations of the tongue are for God, and also the adorations of thebody, and almsgiving! Peace be on thee O Prophet! with the mercy of God andHis blessing. Peace be on us and upon God's righteous servants!"

Then raising the first finger of the right hand he says theTashahhud[198]:--

"I testify that there is no deity but God; and I testify that Muhammad isthe servant of God and the messenger of God. "

Then at the end of all the rak'ats the Musallí, whilst in the same posture, says the Darúd:--

"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and his descendants[199]; as Thou didst havemercy on Abraham and his descendants, Thou art to be praised and Thou artgreat. O God! bless Muhammad and his descendants, as Thou didst blessAbraham and his descendants. Thou art to be praised and Thou art great. "

Then comes the Du'á, which may be in the worshipper's own words though heusually says[200]:--

"O God our Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and also the blessingsof life everlasting. Save us from the torments of hell. "

Then turning the head to the right the Musallí repeats the Salám:--

"The peace and mercy of God be with you. "

Then turning the head to the left he says:--

"The peace and mercy of God be with you. "

At the close of the whole ceremony, the worshipper raises {198} his handsas high as his shoulders, with the palm towards heaven, or towards his ownface, and offers up a Munáját, or supplication, either in Arabic or in thevernacular. The hands are then drawn over the face, as if to convey theblessing received from above to every part of the body. 

The appointed periods of prayer are five in number, in proof of which thefollowing text is quoted: "Glorify God when ye reach the evening (masá), and when ye rise at morn (subh); and to Him be praise in the heavens and inthe earth, --and at twilight ('ashí) and when ye rest at noon (zuhr). " (Súraxxx. 17). The Commentators say that masá includes both sunset and theperiod after sunset; that is both the Salát-ul-Maghrib and theSalát-ul-'Ishá. There is also a reference to a stated period of prayer inthe following verse: "Observe prayer at early morning, at the close of theday, and at the approach of night. " (Súra xi. 116). 

These daily Namáz are farz, sunnat, witr and nafl prayers. Farz are thosedistinctly ordained by God, such as the five stated periods of prayer. 

Sunnat, a certain number of rak'ats which are added, because it is said theProphet repeated them. 

Witr rak'ats are an odd number of rak'ats, 3, 5 or 7, which may be saidafter the last prayer at night, and before the dawn of day. Usually theyare added to the Salát-ul-'Ishá. Imám Abu Hanífa says they are wájib, thatis ordered by God. They are not authorised by any text in the Qurán, but byTraditions each of which is generally received as a Hadís-i-Sahíh, and sowitr rak'ats are regarded as being of divine authority. Imám Sháfa'í, however, considers them to be sunnat only, a term already explained. 

The Traditions referred to are: "God has added to your Namáz one Namázmore: know that it is witr, say it between the Salát-ul-'Ishá and dawn. " Onthe authority of Buzár, a Traditionist, it is recorded that the Prophet{199} said: "Witr is wájib upon Muslims, " and in order to enforce thepractice he added: "Witr is right, he who does not observe it is not myfollower. " The Prophet, the Companions, the Tába'ín and the Taba-i-Tába'ínall observed it. The word witr literally means "odd number. " A Traditionsays: "God is odd, He loves the odd. " (Alláhu witrun yuhibbu'l-witra). Musalmáns pay the greatest respect to an odd number. It is consideredunlucky to begin any work, or to commence a journey on a day, the date ofwhich is an even number. The number of lines in a page of a book is nearlyalways an odd number. 

Nafl are voluntary prayers the performance of which is considered mustahab, or meritorious, but they are not of divine obligation. It must beunderstood that all these prayers are precisely the same in form. Theysimply consist in the repetition of a number of rak'ats, of which I havealready given a single illustration in full. A Muslim who says the fivedaily prayers with the full number of rak'ats will repeat the Service Ihave described fifty times in one day. If in addition to these he observesthe three voluntary periods of prayers, he must add twenty-five morerak'ats, making a grand total of seventy-five. It is, however, usual toomit some of the Sunnat rak'ats; still there is a vast amount ofrepetition, and as the whole must be said in Arabic it becomes verymechanical. 

A Muslim who ventured to say that a Namáz might be recited in Hindustaniwas publicly excommunicated in the principal Mosque at Madras on Friday, February 13th, 1880. [201]

The table on the next page will make the matter clear. [202] The optionalSunnat rak'ats are called {200} 'Sunnat-i-ghair-i-maukadda'; the Sunnatrak'ats before the farz are 'Sun-nat-i-maukadda' and should be said. 

---+------------------+-----------------------------------+----------------No. | Time. | THE NAMES OF THE TIME OF PRAYER. | THE NUMBER OF | | | RAK'ATS SAID. | +-----------+-----------------------+---------------- | | | Witr | | |--------------------------------------+ | | | Nafl| | | |-----------------------------------+ | | | | Sunnat after Farz| | | | |--------------------------------+ | | | | | Farz| | | | | |-----------------------------+ | | | | | | Sunnat-i-mau-kadda'| | | | | | |--------------------------+ | | | | | | | Sunnat-i-ghair-maukadda'| | | | | | | |-----------+-----------+ | | | | | | | Arabic | Persian | Urdu | | | | | |---+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--+--+--+--+--+- 1 | From dawn to | Salát-ul- | Namáz-i- | Fajr Kí | | 2| | | | | sunrise. | Fajr. | Subh. | Namáz. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | When the sun | Salát-uz- | Namáz-i- | Zuhr Kí | | 4| 4| 2| 2| | has begun to | Zuhr. | Peshín. | Namáz. | | | | | | | decline. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 3 | Midway between | Salát-ul- | Namáz-i- | 'Asr Kí | 4| | 4| | | | No. 2 and 4. | 'Asr. | Dígar. | Namáz. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 4 | A few minutes | Salát-ul- | Namáz-i- | Maghrib | | | 3| 2| 2| | after sunset. | Maghrib. | Shám. | Kí Namáz. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 5 | When the night | Salát-ul- | Namáz-i- | 'Ishá Kí | 4| | 4| 2| 2|7 | has closed in. | 'Ishá. | Khuftan. | Namáz. | | | | [203] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | When the sun | Salát-ul- | Namúz-i- | Ishráq Kí | | | | | 8| | has well risen. | Ishráq. | Ishráq. | Namáz. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | About 11 o'clock | Salát-uz- | Namáz-i- | Zuhá Kí | | | | | 8| | A. M. | Zuhá. | Chast. | Namáz. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 3 | After mid-night. | Salát-ut- | Namáz-i- | Tahajjud | | | | | 9| | | Tahajjud. | Tahajjud. | Kí Namáz. | | | | | |---+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--+--+--+--+--+-

In addition to these there are several kinds of Namáz which have to be saidat different times, or under special circumstances. 

(i). Salát-ul-Juma'--The Friday Namáz. This is a farz duty. It has thethreefold authority of the Qurán, the Sunnat, and the Ijmá'. Thus: "O yewho believe! When ye are summoned to prayer on the _day of the assembly_(Friday), haste ye to the commemoration of God, and quit your traffic. "(Súra lxii. 9. ) The Prophet also said: "Juma' is farz, " and, "God will makea mark on the heart of him who misses the Salát-ul-Juma'[204]. " There are, however, eight kind of persons on whom it is not incumbent, _viz_: atraveller, a sick person, a slave, a woman, a young child, a mad {201}person, a blind or a lame person. The conditions which make this Namázobligatory are:--

(1). That the place in which it is said be a town in which a Qází (judge)dwells. 

(2). There must be in the town a ruler or his deputy. 

(3). It must take the place of the Salát-uz-Zuhr, with which it agrees, except that two farz rak'ats instead of four are recited. The nafl rak'atsare omitted. The four sunnat rak'ats which precede, and the two whichfollow the farz ones are said. 

(4). One, or according to the followers of Imám Sháfa'í two Khutbas, orsermons are preached. These are delivered by the Imám after the four sunnatrak'ats are recited, and before the two farz ones. The Khutba shouldconsist of the praise of God, prayer and injunctions to piety. 

(5). There must be a congregation of three persons besides the Imám. TheSháfa'ítes say there should be at least forty worshippers. 

(6). The Azán, or call to prayers, must be made to all without distinctionof rank. 

Any person who is qualified to act as Imám at the other prayers can conductthis Namáz. The Imám and Khatíb (preacher) is usually, but not necessarily, one and the same person. The Khutbas should not be long, for Muhammad saidthat long sermons and short prayers would be a sign of the degeneracy ofthe latter days. When two Khutbas are said, the Imám sits down to restbefore the delivery of the second. The worshippers may then offer up aDu'á, or private prayer. Some, however, say that this practice is bid'at, (innovation) and consider it a very bad act. According to theTraditionists, Bukhárí, Abu Dáúd and Tirmízí, it is a mustahab act to wearclean clothes on Friday. 

The preacher standing on the second step of the Mimbar, or pulpit, with alarge club or staff in his hand, delivers his sermon. [205]

{202}

The following is a specimen of the Khutbas. 

 SERMON ON THE EXCELLENCE OF FRIDAY. 

 In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. 

 Praise be to God, the King, the Holy, the Great, the Knower. He has opened our hearts through the blessing of Islám. He has made Friday the best of days. We testify that there is no God but God, the One, without partner. This confession saves those who make it from danger and from darkness. We testify that our Lord Muhammad is His servant and His Apostle sent to all mankind. May the mercy and peace of God be on him, his descendants and on his Companions. O men! O believers of God! I advise you and my own soul thus: "Obey God!" Know, O servants of God! that when Friday commences the angels assemble in the fourth heaven, and Gabriel, (on whom be peace) is the Mu, azzin, Míká, íl the Khatíb, Isráfíl the Imám and 'Izrá, íl the Mukabbir[206] and all the angels join in the Namáz. When it is over Gabriel says: "I give the reward due to me as Mu, azzin to the Mu, azzins of the sect of Islám;" Míká, íl: "I give mine to the Khatíbs;" Isráfíl: "I give mine to the Imáms;" 'Izrá, íl: "I give mine to the Mukabbirs. " The angels say: "We give ours to the company of the Muslims. " The Prophet said: "The night and day of Friday last twenty-four hours, and each hour God releases a thousand souls from hell. Whosoever makes 'ghusl' on Friday, God will give him for every hair on his body the reward of ten good deeds. Whosoever dies on a Friday meets with the reward of a martyr. "

 Certainly the best and most eloquent speech is the Holy Qurán, the Word of God, --the King, the Great, the Knower. His word is true and righteous. When thou readest the Qurán say: "O God! protect me from cursed Satan. "

 In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful. 

 "When ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly, haste to the commemoration of God and quit your traffic. This, if ye knew it, will be best for you. And when the prayer is ended, then disperse yourselves abroad and go in quest of the bounties of God; and that it may be well with you, oft remember God. But when they get a sight of merchandize or sport, they disperse after, and leave thee standing alone. Say: 'God hath in reserve what is better than sport or wares. God is the best provider. '" (Súra lxii. 9-11. ) God {203} by means of the Holy Qurán will bless us and you. And by its verses and teaching will reward us and you. God is Almighty, Generous, Merciful, Eternal, Holy, Clement. 

Here ends the first sermon; after a short pause the preacher commences thesecond. 

 In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful. 

 Praise be to God, the Creator of the earth and heavens, the Maker of light and darkness. I testify that there is no God but God. He is one. He has no partner. Know, O believers! that this confession will save you from trouble and calamity. I testify that Muhammad, who wipes out error and infidelity, is the servant and Apostle of God. The mercy of God be on our Lord Muhammad, the Lord of Creation; and on his descendants; and on his Companions be grace and honour. O servants of God! I advise you and my own soul thus: Obey God! Fear God, who created life and death and who scrutinizes our good actions. O God! be pleased with Abu Bakr, the righteous, the Sáhib-ul-Ghár, [207] and with Omar Ibn-ul-Khattáb, the chief of the holy men; and with Osmán the possessor of two lights, who was martyred when reading the Holy Qurán, and upon 'Alí Murtuzá, the destroyer of infidels and sinners. O God! be pleased with the great Imáms Hasan and Husain. Be pleased with their mother Fatimat-uz-Zuhra, the chief of women, and with Hamza and 'Abbás, the uncles of the Prophet. Also be pleased with all the Asháb (Companions). O God! help those who help the religion of Muhammad, and make us of their number. Make those wretched who corrupt it, and keep us aloof from all such. O believers! truly God orders you to do justice and to show kindness to your kindred. He orders you to abstain from infidelity and from the greater and the lesser sins. God warns you. God is the Most High, the Most Glorious. God is Great!"

The collection of Khutbas from which the above have been translatedcontains a considerable number on a variety of subjects, such as prayer, the resurrection, worldliness, the various feast and fast days, &c. Theform in all is very similar. The exordium and the conclusion arepractically the same. A few sentences in the middle refer to the specialsubject of the sermon. The second of the two {204} sermons is always thesame; it is practically an invocation of blessings on certain persons. Bothare said in Arabic. What would answer to our idea of a sermon, such as anexplanation of some doctrine, or an exposition of some passages in theQurán, is not part of the public worship in the mosque, but would be donein an ordinary assembly, in any convenient place, by a Moollá, or anylearned man who could collect an audience. 

(ii). Salát-ul-Musáfir. --Prayers said by a traveller. A person who makes ajourney which lasts three days or three nights is, for this purpose, considered a traveller. [208] The length of a day's journey is estimated atthe distance a camel can march in that period of time. If a travellerintends to stay in a certain place fifteen days, he must repeat the usualNamáz; if less than fifteen days, or when actually on the journey, he canshorten it. He is then permitted to say only two farz rak'ats. He may omitthe sunnat and nafl rak'ats if he chooses; but the three witr rak'ats hemust recite at the Salát-ul-'Ishá. If a traveller passing through a placeis, for the time being, the most suitable person to act as Imám, he being atraveller will only recite two rak'ats. The rest of the worshippers thencomplete the Namáz. In the case where a permanent resident of the place isthe Imám and the traveller only a worshipper, the Imám is bound to recitethe whole number of rak'ats and the traveller must also repeat the wholeafter him. The principle on which this is based is that the worshippersmust not recite less than the Imám. [209]

(iii). Salát-ul-Khauf. --Prayers of fear. This is a Namáz said during thetime of war. When there is imminent danger from the approach of an enemythe Imám should divide the army into two bodies; one of which should beplaced in a position towards the enemy, the other should recite, if theyare on the march, one rak'at; if stationary {205} in a place, two rak'ats. This division will then march towards the enemy and the first division willrecite as many rak'ats as may be required to complete the Namáz. The Salám(Ante. P. 197) will be recited by the Imám alone. The first division oftroops will not say the qir, at, _i. E. _ the Fátiha and the other verses ofthe Qurán recited after it (Ante. P. 195); but the second division willsupply the omission. If the enemy are so near that the cavalry dare notdismount, then each man will recite a rak'at or rak'ats for himself, andmake the rukú' and sijda by means of signs. If he cannot turn towards theQibla, he is, under the circumstances, allowed to face any direction mostconvenient. During the recital of the Namáz he must not fight, or allow hishorse to move, lest the prayer should be rendered void. "When ye go forthto war in the land, it shall be no crime in you to cut short your prayers, if ye fear lest the infidels come upon you. Verily, the infidels are yourundoubted enemies! And when thou, O Apostle! shalt be among them, and shaltpray with them, then let a party of them rise up with thee, but let themtake their arms; and when they shall have made their prostrations, let themretire to your rear: then let another party that hath not prayed comeforward, and let them pray with you. " (Súra iv. 102, 103). 

(iv). Salát-ut-Taráwíh. --This is a special set of twenty rak'ats recitedevery night during the month of Ramazán. They must be said after the farzand sunnat, and before the witr rak'ats at the time of the Salát-ul-'Ishá. The Salát-ut-Taráwíh is considered of sunnat obligation. The practice datesfrom the time of the Khalíf Omar. Abd-ur-Rahmán, a Traditionist, statesthat one night in Ramazán he went with Omar to the Mosque. They saw somepersons saying the Namáz alone and some reciting it in groups. Omar said:"If I gather them all together, so that they may recite it after one Imámit will be good. " He did so, and the next night the people of their ownaccord came in great numbers and united together. Then said Omar: "this{206} bid'at is good. " This is good authority for the institution, for theProphet said: "Follow my Sunnat and that of the Khulafá-i-Rashídín. " Thereis also a Hadís-i-Sahíh to the effect that "God has made the fast ofRamazán farz, and its qíám[210] sunnat. " (Kutiba 'alaikum síámu Ramazána wasunna qíámuhu). The Prophet was anxious lest the Tiráwíh Namáz shouldbecome farz and, therefore, after going to the Mosque on two successivenights in Ramazán, he stayed away on the third, giving as his reason for sodoing that he feared that, if he went every night, it might be considered afarz and not a sunnat duty. [211] The number of rak'ats is fixed at twenty, as that was the number recited by Muhammad and by the Khalíf Omar. TheShía'hs do not say these prayers or even enter the Mosque on suchoccasions, as after every four rak'ats an eulogium is repeated on the fourKhalífs--the first three of whom they hate. 

(v). Salát-ul-Kusúf and Salát-ul-Khusúf--Prayer said when an eclipse of thesun, or of the moon takes place. In the former case, the Imám recites withthe congregation in the Mosque two rak'ats. The Azán and the Iqámat areboth omitted. No Khutba is said. In each rak'at one rukú' is read. TheSháfa'ítes read two. After the rak'ats are completed those present remainin prayer (Du'á) until the eclipse is at an end. The Namáz during aneclipse of the moon is the same as that during an eclipse of the sun, withthis exception that the rak'ats need not be recited in a congregation. EachMuslim can say the Namáz privately in his own house. The practice isfounded on the Prophet's saying: "When you see an eclipse then rememberGod, pray (Du'á) and recite the Namáz until it becomes light again. "

(vi). Salát-ul-Istisqá. --Prayer in time of drought. When {207} there is ascarcity of water each person should, with face Qibla-wards, offer upprayer to God. They can be said at home and in private. Care must be takenthat no Zimmí[212] is present. The reason given is that this is a prayerfor a blessing; but God sends no blessing on a company in which a Zimmí ispresent. 

These prayers are simple Du'á and not a Namáz. There is nowell-authenticated Tradition to the effect that the Prophet ever said Namázon such an occasion; whilst there are many which show that he made Du'á. This is a very good example of the use of the term Salát as a _Mushtarik_word, _i. E. _ one which has several significations. Its ordinary meaning isNamáz; here it means Du'á. 

(vii). Salát-ul-Janáza. --Prayers at a Funeral. When a person is about todie, the attendants should place him on his right side with his faceQibla-wards. In that position he should repeat the "Kalima-i-Shahádat, " thecreed of testimony: "I confess that God is one, without a partner; thattruly Muhammad is His servant and His Apostle. " After death has takenplace, the corpse is laid out, incense is burnt, and the shroud is perfumedan _odd_ number of times. A tradition states that an odd number is fixedupon, because the number one which represents the unity of God is odd andnot even. The lesser lustration (wazú) is then made. The head and beard arewashed with a decoction made of some flowers, after which the greaterlustration (ghusl) is made. The members of the body used when making sijda(prostration) _i. E. _, forehead, nose, hands, knees, feet, are then rubbedwith camphor. 

To recite the Salát-ul-Janáza is a duty called Farz-i-kifáya, that is, ifsome few persons in the assembly say it, all need not do so; whilst if noone repeats it all will be guilty of sin. To prove that this Namáz is farzthe following verse is quoted: "Take alms of their substance, that thoumayest {208} cleanse and purify them thereby, and pray for them; for thyprayers shall assure their minds: and God heareth, knoweth. " (Súra ix. 104. ) The proof that it is not Farz-i-'ain (_i. E. _, incumbent on all), butFarz-i-kifáya is drawn from an account given in a Hadís, to the effect thatthe Prophet one day did not recite the Namáz over one of his deceasedfollowers. Now, if the Namáz had been Farz-i-'ain even the Prophet couldnot have omitted it. His Sunnat, or practice, has decided the nature of thefarz command contained in the verse of the Qurán just quoted. 

The Namáz can only be said when the corpse is present. It is recited in theopen space in front of the Mosque, or in some neighbouring spot: never inthe graveyard. 

When all are assembled the Imám or leader says: "Here begins the Namáz forthe dead. "

The company present then stand up in rows with faces turned in thedirection of Mecca. The Imám stands a little in front, near the head orwaist of the corpse according as it is that of a male or female. Then allassume the Qíám, or standing position, and recite the Niyyat as follows:--

"I recite Namáz for the sake of God, and offer prayers (Du'á) for thisdeceased person, and I follow the Imám (who is about to officiate. )"

Then all at the first[213] Takbír put the hands to the lobe of the ears andsay: "God is Great!"

Then they say the Saná (Ante, p. 195. ):--

"Holiness to Thee O God! And to Thee be praise! Great is Thy Name! Great isThy greatness! Great is Thy praise! There is no God but Thee!"

Then follows the second Takbír: "God is Great!"

Then all say the Darud-i-Ibráhím:--

"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and upon his descendants, as Thou didstbestow mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compassion, and great kindnessupon {209} Abraham and upon his descendants. " "Thou art praised, and Thouart Great!" "O God, bless Muhammad and his descendants as Thou didst bless, and didst have compassion and great kindness upon Abraham and upon hisdescendants. "

Then follows the third Takbír: "God is Great!"

The Du'á is then repeated:--

"O God, forgive our living and our dead, and those o£ us who are present, and those who are absent, and our children and our full grown persons, ourmen and our women. O God, those whom Thou dost keep alive amongst us, keepalive in Islám, and those whom Thou causest to die, let them die in theFaith. "[214]

Then follows the fourth Takbír: "God is Great!"

Then all say:--

"O God, give us good in this world and in the next, and save us by Thymercy from the troubles of the grave and of hell. "

Then each one in a low voice says the Salám, as in an ordinary Namáz. (Ante, p. 197. )[215]

The Namáz is now over and the people make another Du'á thus:--

"'O our Lord! suffer not our hearts to go astray after that Thou hast onceguided us; and give us mercy from before Thee; for verily Thou art He whogiveth. ' (Súra iii. 6. ) O God, Thou art his[216] Master, and Thou createdsthim, and Thou didst nourish him, and didst guide him toward Islám, and Thouhast taken his life, and Thou knowest well his inner and outer life. Provide intercessors for us. Forgive him, for Thou art the Forgiver, themost Merciful. "

{210}

Then going towards the head of the corpse, they say:--

"No doubt is there about this Book (Qurán. ) It is a guidance to theGod-fearing, who believe in the unseen, [217] who observe prayer (salát), and out of what we have bestowed on them, expend (for God), and who believein that which hath been sent down to thee (Muhammad), and in what hath beensent down before thee; and full faith have they in the life to come: theseare guided by their Lord; and with these it shall be well. " (Súra ii. 1-4). 

Then coming towards the feet of the corpse, they say:--

"The Apostle believeth in that which hath been sent down from his Lord, asdo the faithful also. Each believeth in God, and His angels, and His Booksand His Apostles: we make no distinction between any of His Apostles. [218]And they say: 'We have heard and we obey. (We implore) Thy mercy, Lord; forunto Thee must we return. ' God will not burden any soul beyond its power. It shall enjoy the good which it hath acquired, and shall bear the evil forthe acquirement of which it laboured. O our Lord! punish us not if weforget, or fall into sin; O our Lord! and lay not on us a load like thatwhich Thou hast laid on those who have been before us[219]; O our Lord! andlay not on us that for which we have no strength: but blot out our sins andforgive us, and have pity on us. Thou art our protector; give us victorytherefore over the infidel nations. " (Súra ii. 285, 286). 

{211}

The chief mourner then gives the Izn-i-'Ámm, that is, he says:--

"All have permission to depart. "

Some then proceed homewards, others go with the corpse to the graveyard. When the bier is lifted up, or when it is placed down near the grave, thepeople say:--

"We commit thee to earth in the name of God and in the religion of theProphet. "

If the ground is very hard, a recess (lahad) is dug out in the side of thegrave. This must be high enough to allow the corpse to sit up when Munkirand Nakír come to interrogate it. If the ground is soft a small grave isexcavated at the bottom of the larger one. The corpse is then placed in thelower one. The idea in both cases is that the corpse must be in such aposition that it can have free movement. The body is placed with the facetowards Mecca. When the bands of the shroud have been loosened the peoplesay:--

"O God deprive us not of the heavenly reward of the deceased, place us notin trouble. "

Each person then takes seven clods of earth, and over each clod says;"Bismilláh" (in the name of God), and the Súrat-ul-Iklás (Súra cxii) andthen places each clod by the head of the corpse. Unburnt bricks, bamboos orboards having then been placed over the smaller grave, the persons presentwith both hands throw clods of earth three times into the grave. The firsttime they say: "From it (earth) We created you"; the second time, "and intoit will We return you;" the third time, "and out of it will We bring you asecond time. " (Súra xx. 57). 

Then they say this Du'á: "O God I beseech Thee for the sake of Muhammad notto trouble the deceased. "

When the attendants are filling up the grave they say:--

"O God, defend the deceased from Shaitan (devil) and from the torments ofthe grave. "

When the grave is completely filled up, one man pours {212} water three, orfive, or seven times over it and then plants a green branch on it. [220]

One of the mourners then draws near the middle of the grave and recites theTalqín (instruction):--

"O servant of God, and child of a female servant of God. 

O son of (such an one), [221] remember the faith you professed on earth tothe very last; that is, your witness that there is no God but God, and thatcertainly Muhammad is His Apostle, and that Paradise and Hell and theResurrection from the dead are real; that there will be a day of judgment, and say: 'I confess that God is my Lord, Islám my religion, Muhammad (onwhom be the mercy and peace of God) my Prophet, the Qurán my guide, theK'aba my Qibla, and that Muslims are my brethren. ' O God, keep him (thedeceased) firm in this faith, and widen his grave, and make his examination(by Munkir and Nakír) easy, and exalt him and have mercy on him, O Thoumost Merciful. "

The other persons present then offer a Fátiha. [222]

After this, they may, if they like to do so, read the Súrat-ul-Yá Sín(xxxvi) and the Súrat-ul-Mulk (lxvii. ) It is not common to do so. Thenretiring forty paces from the grave they again offer a Fátiha, for by thistime the examination of the deceased has commenced. The first night is oneof great trouble to the deceased, so alms should be given liberally thatnight in his name. In order to relieve him as much as possible, two naflrak'ats of a Namáz should be said. After the Fátiha in each rak'at theworshipper should repeat the Áyat-ul-Kursí {213} (Throne-verse)[223] threetimes; then the Súrat-ut-Takísur (102) eleven times; then theSúrat-ul-Iklás (112) three times. 

After the Salám and the Darúd the worshipper lifts up both hands, and withgreat humility prays that the reward of the service just concluded may bebestowed on the deceased. 

(viii). Salát-ul-Istikhára. --This is a Namáz said before undertaking anyspecial work. The person recites two rak'at prayers. After each rak'at hesays the following Du'á: "O God, make me know what is best for me, and keepme from evil, and bestow good upon me, for I have no power to know what isbest for me. " He then goes to sleep, during which period be expects toreceive a special inspiration (Ilhám) which will give him the neededdirections and guide him aright as to the matter in hand. 

(ix). Salát-ut-Taráwih. --This consists of twenty rak'ats recited eachevening during the month of Ramazán. An account of these will be given inthe next chapter when the ceremonies connected with the Ramazán fast aredescribed. 

3. ROZA, THE THIRTY DAYS' FAST OF RAMAZÁN. --Fasting is defined to beabstinence from food, drink and cohabitation from sunrise to sunset. Theremust also be in the mind the intention of keeping a fast. The person shouldsay: "O Lord, I intend to fast to-morrow for Thy sake. Forgive my past andfuture sin. " When the fast is ended he says: "O God I fasted for Thy sakeand had faith in Thee, and confided in Thee and now I break (iftár) thefast with the food Thou givest. Accept this act. "

It is a farz duty to keep the fast during the thirty days of the monthRamazán. This is laid down in the words: "O believers! a fast is prescribedto you as it was prescribed to those before you. " "As to the month Ramazán, in which the Qurán was sent down to be man's guidance, and an explanationof that guidance, and of that {214} illumination, as soon as any one of youobserveth the moon, let him set about the fast. " (Súra ii. 179-181). TheIjmá' is also unanimous on this point. Young children and idiots areexcused. Sick persons and travellers may postpone the fast to another time. "He who is sick, or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days. God wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your discomfort, and that you fulfilthe number of days. " (Súra ii. 181). This is called a qazá fast, that is, afast kept at another time in lieu of one which has been omitted. 

If a person makes a vow that, if God grants a certain request, he will fast(roza-i-nazr), or if he fasts by way of atonement for some sin committed(roza-i-kafára), in both cases it is a wájib duty to keep the fast. Somehold that the former is a farz duty and base their assertion on the verse:"Let them bring the neglect of their persons to a close, and let them paytheir vows. " (Súra xxii. 30). 

All other kinds of fasts are nafl, a term already explained (p. 199). Suchare the fasts kept on the 10th day of Muharram, on the Aiyám-i-Bíz (brightdays)--the 13th, 14th and 15th day of any month, on the 15th of Sh'abán, that is, the day following the night called Shab-Barát, and on the 30th ofeach month in which there are thirty days. A nafl fast may be broken if theperson who intended to keep it receives an invitation to a feast. Accordingto Bukhárí, a woman may not make a nafl fast without the consent of herhusband. The reverse is not the case, for "Men are superior to women onaccount of the qualities with which God hath gifted the one above theother, and on account of the outlay they make from their substance forthem. " (Súra iv. 38). It is said that one day a woman came to the Prophetand said that her husband had slapped her. The Prophet wished to punish himfor doing so improper an act, but he was prevented by the descent fromheaven of the verse just quoted, which is held to be conclusive evidence ofthe inferiority of women. The verse also contains the words "chide those{215} (wives) for whose refractoriness ye have cause to fear; remove theminto beds apart, and scourge them. " It is mustahab to fast some days in themonth Shawwál, for Muhammad is reported to have said: "Whosoever keeps thefast of Ramazán and some seven days in the preceding month of Shawwál, itis as if his whole life were a fast. "

If on account of dull weather, or of dust storms the new moon is notvisible, it is sufficient to act on the testimony of a trustworthy personwho declares that Ramazán has commenced. Imám Sháfa'í requires two, but thefollowing Tradition is quoted against him: "An Arab came to the Prophet andsaid: 'I have seen the new moon. ' His Excellency said: 'Dost thou believethat there is no God but God? Dost thou confess that Muhammad is HisApostle?' 'Yes, ' replied the man. The Prophet calling Billál, the Mu, azzin, said: 'Tell the people to commence the fast. '" This proves that theevidence of one good Muslim is sufficient testimony in the matter. 

The fast is destroyed in the following cases:--if when cleansing the teetha little water should pass into the throat, if food is eaten undercompulsion, if an enema is used, if medicine is put into the ears, nose ora wound in the head, if a meal has been taken on the supposition that itwas night when it was really day, if the niyyat (intention) in the Ramazánfast was not properly made, if after a meal taken during the night aportion of food larger than a grain of corn remains between the teeth or ina cavity of a tooth, lastly, if food is vomited. In each of these cases aqazá fast must be kept in lieu of the one thus broken. 

In the case where the fast is deliberately broken, the person must atonefor his sin by setting a slave at liberty; if from any cause that cannot bedone, he must fast every day for two months; if that cannot be done, hemust give sixty persons two full meals each, or give one man such mealsdaily for sixty days. 

The fast is not broken by merely tasting anything, by {216} applyingantimony to the eyes, and oil to the beard, by cleansing the teeth, or bykissing a person; but it is considered better not to do these things duringthe day-time. The Imám As-Sháfa'í declared that it was very wrong indeed todo either of these actions after noon. He used to repeat the followingTradition handed down by Tabrání. "The Prophet said: 'when you fast, cleanse the teeth in the early morning, because when the lips of him whofasts become dry and parched, they will be for him a light in the day ofjudgment. '"

If a person through the infirmity of old age is not able to keep the fast, he must perform sadqa, that is, he must feed a poor person. This opinion isbased on a sentence in the Qurán, which has caused a good deal of dispute:"As for those who are able (_to keep it and yet break it_), the expiationof this shall be the maintenance of a poor man. " (Súra ii. 180). This seemsto make fasting a matter of personal option, and some Commentators admitthat at first it was so, but they say that the words have beenabrogated[224] by the following sentence which occurs in the next verse:"As soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast. "Others say that the negative particle "not" must be understood before"able, " in which case the words in italics must be omitted. Others explainthe expression "those who are able" as equivalent to "those who have greatdifficulty therein, " such as aged and infirm persons. This seems to be thebest interpretation and is the one which practically is acted on. 

In the case of women with child, mothers giving suck to their children, sick persons whom fasting at this particular time might injure, it issufficient if they keep it at another time; that is, they must whenconvenient make a qazá fast. {217} In these cases the sadqa or feeding ofthe poor is not required. Thus Abu Dáúd says: "The Prophet said, 'Godallows travellers to shorten the Namáz and to postpone the fast. Women alsoare allowed to fast another time. '" The Qurán is also clear on the point:"He who is sick or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days. "(Súra ii. 181). There are five days in the year in which it is unlawful tofast. These are, 'Íd-ul-Fitr, Baqr-'íd and the three following days, _viz_:the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja. If during the month of Ramazán, aperson arrives at maturity, or an Infidel becomes a Muslim, each must keepthe fast during the remaining days of the month. 

To take the Sahra, or meal taken just before sunrise in the month ofRamazán, is a Sunnat act. The great Traditionists, Bukhárí, Muslim andTirmízí, all agree that the Prophet said: "Eat Sahra because there is ablessing in it. The difference between our fast and that of the men of theBook (Christians) is the partaking of Sahra. "

The meal eaten immediately after sunset is called Iftár, or the breaking ofthe fast. In India it is the custom to eat a date first, or if that fruitis not procurable to drink a little water. In Turkey an olive is chosen asthe fruit with which the fast should be broken. 

The distinctive feature of a Muhammadan fast is, that it is a fast duringthe day only. The rich classes by turning day into night avoid much of itsrigour. 

They, however, frequently break the fast, though any such action must bedone in secret, for popular opinion all over the Musalmán world is stronglyagainst a man who does not outwardly, at least, observe the fast ofRamazán. In this matter it may be said

 "Pecher en secret, n'est pas pecher, Ce n'est que l'éclat qui fait le crime. "

Those who have to work for their living find the observance of the fastvery difficult, for however laborious may be their occupation they must notswallow any liquid; yet as {218} a rule the lower classes observe itstrictly. [225] In hot climates this is often exceedingly distressing. Insuch circumstances the evening twilight is anxiously looked for, as thenthe Iftár can be commenced. The month of Ramazán brings with it otherduties than that of fasting. These will be described in the next chapter. 

4. ZAKÁT. --There are two terms in use to express almsgiving. The first isZakát (literally, "purification") or the legal alms due, with certainexceptions, from every Muslim. The second is Sadqa, or offerings on thefeast day known as 'Íd-ul-Fitr, or alms in general. [226] It is the first ofthese that has now to be considered. 

On the authority of the Qurán and the Ijmá'-i-Ummat it is declared to be afarz duty for every Muslim of full age, after the expiration of a year, togive the Zakát on account of his property; provided that, he has sufficientfor his subsistence and is a Sáhib-i-Nisáb, or one who possesses an incomeequivalent to about £5 per annum. The Qurán says: "Observe prayer (Salát)and the legal impost (Zakát). " (Súra ii. 40). The Khalíf 'Umr Ibn'Abd-ul-'Azíz used to say: "Prayer carries us half way to God, fastingbrings us to the door of His palace, and alms procure us admission. " Thethree conditions without which Zakát would not be compulsory are Islám, Hurriat (freedom) and Nisáb (stock). The reason for this is, that Zakát issaid to be a fundamental part of 'Ibádat (worship), and that, as theInfidels cannot perform acceptable worship, they have nothing to do withZakát. Freedom is necessary, for slaves hold no {219} property. Nisáb isrequired, for so the Prophet has decreed. When the Nisáb is required fordaily use the zakát is not taken from it; such as a slave retained forpersonal service, grain for food, weapons, tools, books, householdfurniture, wearing apparel, horses for riding, &c. , for one Traditionrecords that the Prophet specially exempted all these, whilst another givenon the authority of Bukhárí states that for slaves employed in domesticservice only the Sadqa-i-fitr[227] should be given. If a person owes adebt, the amount necessary for its liquidation must be deducted from hisproperty and the Zakát given on the balance. If it is a debt due to God, such as an offering due on a vow or to be given in atonement for theneglect of some religious duty, it must not be so deducted from theproperty on which Zakát is due. 

The amount of gold which constitutes a Nisáb is 20 miskats, or of silver200 dirhems (=£5 4s. ). Whether these metals are in coin or not, one-fortieth part is due. Some say that gold and silver ornaments areexempt, but Imám Sháfa'í does not admit this, and quotes from Abu Dáúd thefollowing Tradition: "A woman with a child, on whose arms were heavy goldenbracelets, came to the Prophet. He enquired if the Zakát had been given forthem. On receiving a reply in the negative he said: 'It is easy for God inthe day of judgment to make thee wear bracelets of fire. ' The girl thentook them off and said: 'These are for the service of God and of HisProphet. '" On all treasure known as rikáz, that is, buried treasure foundby any one, and on valuable metals extracted from mines, one-fifth of thevalue must be paid, whether the land be Khárijí, rented at its propermarket value; or 'Usharí possessed by the payment of a tithe. If the rikázis found in Dar-ul-Harb, a country under a non-Muslim Government, the wholebelongs to the finder, if it is on his own land, or if on unclaimed {220}land he must pay the one-fifth. If the coins found bear the mint stamp of aMusalmán Government, the finder must, if he can, find the owner and returnthem to him; if they were coined in a mint belonging to the Infidels, afterhaving given one-fifth as Zakát, he may retain four-fifths for himself. 

Pearls, amber and turquoise are not subject to any deduction, for theProphet said: "There is no Zakát for stones. "

As regards cattle the following rules have been laid down. For sheep andgoats nothing is given when the number is under forty. The owner must giveone for one hundred and twenty, two for the next eighty and one for everyhundred after. The scale for buffaloes is the same as that for sheep. 

For camels the rule is as follows: from 5 to 24 in number, one sheep orgoat must be given; from 25 to 35, one yearling female camel(bint-i-mukház); from 36 to 45, one two-year old female camel(bint-i-labún); from 46 to 60, one three-year old female camel (hiqqah);from 61 to 75, one four-year old female camel (jaz'ah); from 76 to 90, twobint-i-labún; from 91 to 120, two hiqqah; and from 121 upwards, either abint-i-labún for every forty or a hiqqah for every fifty. Horses followthis scale, or two and a half per cent on the value may be given instead. For 30 cows a one-year old female calf (tabi'a) must be given; for 40, atwo-year old female calf (musinna), and after that one calf for every tencows. 

Donkeys and mules are exempt, for the Prophet said: "No order has come down(from heaven) to me about them. "

If a stock of merchandize exceeds the Nisáb (£5 4s. ), Zakát must be givenon it and on the profits at the rate of one in forty, or two-and-a-half percent. The Hanífites do not count a fraction of the forty. The Sháfa'ítescount such a fractional part as forty and require the full Zakát to be paidon it. 

Honey, fruit, grain, &c. , although less than five camel {221} loads, [228]must according to Imám Abu Hanífa pay one-tenth; but the Sáhibain and ImámSháfa'í say that if there is less than the five camel loads no Zakát isrequired. The Prophet said: "If produced on land naturally wateredone-tenth is due, if on land artificially irrigated one-twentieth. " As hesaid nothing about the quantity, the Hanífites adduce the fact of theomission as a proof on their side. 

The Zakát should be given to the classes of person mentioned in thefollowing verse. "Alms are to be given to the poor and the needy, and tothose who collect them, _and to those whose hearts are won to Islám_, andfor ransoms, and for debtors, and for the cause of God, and for thewayfarer. " (Súra ix. 60). The words italicised, according to theTafsír-i-Husainí, are now cancelled (mansúkh). The reference is to the ArabChiefs who were beaten by the Prophet at the battle of Honein (A. H. 8). This victory is referred to in the 25th verse of this Súra. "God hathhelped you in many battle fields, and on the day of Honein. " Abu Bakrabolished this giving of Zakát to converts, and the Khalíf Omar said tothese or similar persons: "This Zakát was given to incline your heartstoward Islám. Now God has prospered Islám. If you be converted it is well;if not, a sword is between us. " No Companion has denied this statement, andso the authority for the cancelling of this clause is that of theIjmá'-i-Ummat (unanimous consent). It is well that an appeal to unworthymotives should be abolished, but no commentator so far as I know makes thata reason for the cancelling of this order. It is always placed on theground of the triumphant nature of Islám which now needs no such support. Contemptuous indifference, not any high moral motive was the cause of thechange. 

In addition to the persons mentioned in the verse just quoted, Zakát may begiven to assist a Mukátib, or slave {222} who is working in order topurchase his freedom. Persons who are too poor to go on a Jihád or to makethe Hajj must be assisted. 

The Zakát must not be given for building mosques, [229] for funeralexpenses, liquidating the debts of a deceased person, or to purchase aslave in order to set him free. It is not lawful to give the Zakát toparents or grand-parents, children or grandchildren; or for a husband togive it to his wife, or a wife to her husband; or a master to his slave. The Sáhibain[230] maintain that a wife can apply the Zakát to her husband'swants and quote this Tradition: "A woman asked the Prophet if she couldgive the Zakát to her husband. He answered 'give; such an act has tworewards, one for the giving of charity and one for the fulfilment of theduties of relationship. '" It should not be given to a rich man, nor to hisson, nor to his slave. The descendants of Hásham and the descendants of theProphet should not be the recipients of the Zakát. The Prophet said: "OAhl-i-Beit (men of the house), it is not lawful for you to receive Zakát, for you get the one-fifth share of my fifth portion of the booty. " So somesay that Syeds are excluded; but they demur and reply that they do not nowget a portion of the spoil of the Infidels. Zakát must not be given to aZimmí (a non-muslim subject). 

In Muhammadan countries there are officers whose duty it is to collect theZakát; in India the payment is left to each person's conscience. Whilstthere is not much regularity in the payment, due credit must be given forthe care which Musalmáns take of their poor. 

The Sadqa (charitable offerings) form a different branch of this subject. Afull account of it will be given in the section of the next chapter whichtreats of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr. 

{223}

5. THE HAJJ. --The Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, is a farz duty, and he whodenies this fact is considered to be an infidel. "The pilgrimage to thetemple is a service due to God from those who are able to journey thither:and as to him who believeth not--verily God can afford to dispense with allcreatures. " (Súra iii. 91, 92. ) On the authority of Ibn 'Abbás thefollowing Tradition has been handed down. "The Prophet said: 'God has madethe Hajj farz. ' Then Aqra' bin Hábis, standing up, said: 'O Prophet is itto be made every year?' His Excellency said: 'If I say--yes, it will be awájib duty to do it annually; but that ye are not able to bear, so the Hajjis necessary only once; whatever pilgrimage may be made to Mecca inaddition is nafl. '"

The Hajj must be made by every free Muslim, who is sound in body, and offull age, when he has sufficient means to pay his expenses, after dulyproviding for the support of his household till his return. If a slave, ora child should make the Hajj, the former on attaining freedom, and thelatter on coming of age must again go on pilgrimage. If a woman, whoseresidence is at a distance of more than three days' journey from Mecca, goes on pilgrimage, she must be accompanied by her husband or by a nearrelative. Imám As Sháfa'í denies the necessity of such attendance, statingthat the verse already quoted makes no such restriction. His objection is, however, met as usual by a Tradition. "A certain man came to the Prophetand said: 'My wife is about to make the Hajj, but I am called to go on awarlike expedition. ' The Prophet said: 'Turn away from the war andaccompany thy wife in the Hajj. '" Imám Abu Yúsuf considered that a man whopossessed the means should go to Mecca, and held that if he delayed morethan a year in making the Hajj he was a sinner. Imám Muhammad, and mostothers think that a person may postpone the Hajj for some years, but ifdeath should overtake the man before he has made {224} the pilgrimage, hewill be accounted a sinner. So practically all agree that delay isdangerous. 

Connected with the Hajj there are three actions which are farz, and fivewhich are wájib; all the rest are sunnat or mustahab. The farz requisitesare: (1) to wear no other garment except the Ihrám, [231] two seamlesswrappers, one of which is worn round the loins, the other thrown over theshoulder; (2) to stand in 'Arfát; (3) to make the Tawáf, that is to goround the K'aba seven times. 

The wájib duties are: (1) to stay in Muzdalífah; (2) to run between MountSafá and Mount Marwah; (3) to perform the Ramí-ul-Jamár, or the casting ofthe pebbles; (4) if the pilgrims are non-Meccans they must make an extraTawáf; (5) to shave the head after the pilgrimage is over. 

The Hajj must be made at the appointed season. "Let the pilgrimage (Hajj)be made in the months already known. " (Súra ii. 193). These months areShawwál, Zu'l-q'ada, and the first ten days of Zu'l-Hajja. The actual Hajjmust be in the month Zu'l-Hajja, but the preparations for, and the niyyat, or intention of the Hajj can be made in the two preceding months. The'Umrah, or ordinary pilgrimage, can be done at any time of the year excepton the ninth, and four succeeding days of Zu'l-Hajja. On each of thevarious roads leading to Mecca, there are at a distance of about five orsix miles from the city stages called Míqát. The following are the names. On the Madína road, the stage (manzil) is called Zu'l-Halifah; on the 'Iráqroad, Zát-i-'Arq; on the Syrian road, Hujfah; on the Najd road, Qarn; onthe Yaman road, Yalamlam. [232]

{225}

The Hájís from all parts of the Muslim world at length arrive weary andworn at one of these stages. They then divest themselves of their ordinaryclothing, and after a legal ablution, and after saying a Namáz of two naflrak'ats they put on the Ihrám. The Hájí, having now really entered upon theHajj, faces Mecca and makes the niyyat (intention), and says: "O God, Ipurpose to make the Hajj; make this service easy to me and accept it fromme. " He then says the Talbíyah[233]: "Here I am! O Alláh! Here I am! Here Iam! There is no God but Thee! Truly, praise and bounty, and the kingdom areto Thee! No partner hast Thou! Here am I!"

The persons who reside permanently in any of these Míqát can assume thepilgrim's garb in a place called Hal, near to Mecca, or in the city itself;whilst the inhabitants of Mecca can put on the Ihrám in the precincts ofthe temple. 

The Hájí having assumed the Ihrám must now abstain from worldly affairs, and devote himself entirely to the duties of the Hajj. He is not allowed tohunt, though he may catch fish if he can. "O Believers, kill no game whileye are on pilgrimage. " (Súra v. 96). The Prophet also said: "He who showsthe place where game is to be found is equally as bad as the man who killsit. " The Hájí must not scratch himself, lest vermin be destroyed, or a hairbe uprooted. Should he feel uncomfortable, he must rub himself with theopen palm of his hand. [234] The face and head must be left uncovered, thehair on the head and beard unwashed and uncut. "Shave not your heads untilthe {226} offering reach the place of sacrifice. " (Súra ii, 192). Onarriving at an elevated place, on descending a valley, on meeting any one, on entering the city of Mecca or the Musjid-ul-Harám[235] the Hájí shouldcontinually repeat the word "Labbaik, Labbaik. "

As soon as he sees the K'aba[236] he must say the Takbír and the Tahlíl. The Traditionist 'Atá says that at this stage the Prophet used to lift uphis hands and pray. 

On entering the enclosure, the Hájí says the Labbaik, Takbír and theTahlíl, then a Du'á. A Namáz of two rak'ats is then said at the station ofone of the four great Imáms. On arriving near the Hajr-ul-Aswad (blackstone) the Hájí again says the Takbír and the Tahlíl, after which he kissesthe stone. If, on account of the crowd, he cannot get near enough to dothis, he must touch it with his hand or with a stick, and kiss that withwhich he has thus touched the stone. At the same time he says: "O Alláh, (Ido this) in Thy belief, and in verification of Thy book, and in pursuanceof Thy Prophet's example--may Alláh bless and preserve him. O accept Thoumy supplication, diminish my obstacles, pity my humiliation and graciouslygrant me Thy pardon. " Then he again repeats the Takbír and the {227}Tahlíl, the Darúd and the Tahríf (prayer for, and praise of Muhammad). Hethen encompasses the K'aba seven times, in accordance with the niyyat hehad made, thus: "In the name of Alláh, and Alláh is Omnipotent! I purposeto make the circuit seven times. "[237] This is called the Tawáf. The Hájíruns round three times at a rapid pace (Tarammul), and four times heproceeds slowly (Taammul). A permanent resident in Mecca will not performthe Tawáf. The Hájí then presses his stomach, chest and right cheek againstthe portion of the K'aba wall, called Al-Multazim, and raising up his armson high says: "O Alláh, Lord of the Ancient House, free my neck fromhell-fire, and preserve me from every evil deed; make me contented withthat daily bread which Thou hast given to me, and bless me in all Thou hastgranted!" He then says the Istigfár--"I beg pardon of Alláh, the Most High, the Living, the Eternal, and to Him I repent. "

The Hájí next proceeds to the Maqám-i-Ibráhím[238] (place of Abraham) andthen recites two rak'ats[239] called Sunnat-ut-Tawáf. Some water from thesacred well Zemzem is then drunk, after which the Hájí returns to theHajr-ul-Aswad, and again kisses it. 

Hájí Burton thus describes one shaut or circuit:--

 "We began the prayer 'O Alláh (I do this) in Thy belief and in verification of Thy Book, and in faithfulness to Thy covenant and after the example of Thy Prophet Muhammad. May Alláh bless and preserve him!' till we reached the place Al-Multazim, between the corner of the black stone and the K'aba door. Here we ejaculated, 'O Alláh, Thou hast rights, so pardon my transgressing them. ' Opposite the door we repeated, 'O Alláh, verily the house is Thy house, and the sanctuary Thy sanctuary, and the safeguard Thy {228} safeguard, and this is the place of Him who flees to Thee from (hell) fire. ' At the building called Maqám-i-Ibráhím, we said: 'O Alláh, verily this is the place of Abraham, who took refuge with, and fled to Thee from the fire! O deny my flesh and blood, my skin and bones to the (eternal) flames. ' As we paced slowly round the north or Irák corner of the K'aba we exclaimed, 'O Alláh, verily I take refuge with Thee from polytheism, and disobedience, and hypocrisy, and evil conversation, and evil thoughts concerning family, and property and progeny. ' When we passed from the Mízáb, or spout, we repeated the words, 'O Alláh, verily I beg of Thee faith which shall not decline, and a certainty which shall not perish, and the good aid of Thy Prophet Muhammad--may Alláh bless and preserve him! O Alláh, shadow me in Thy shadow, on the day when there is no shadow by Thy shadow; and cause me to drink from the cup of Thy Prophet Muhammad--may Alláh bless and preserve him--that pleasant draught, after which is no thirst to all eternity, O Lord of honour and glory. ' Turning to the west corner, or the Rukn el Shámí, we exclaimed: 'O Alláh, make it an acceptable pilgrimage, and a forgiveness of sins, and a laudable endeavour, and a pleasant action (in Thy sight), and a store which perisheth not, O Thou Glorious, O Thou Pardoner!' This was repeated thrice, till we arrived at the Yemaní, or southern corner, where the crowd being less importunate, we touched the wall with the right hand, after the example of the Prophet, and kissed the finger-tips. Between the south angle and that of the black stone, where our circuit would be completed, we said: 'O Alláh, verily I take refuge with Thee from infidelity, and I take refuge with Thee from want, and from the tortures of the tomb, and from the troubles of life and death. And I fly to Thee from ignominy in this world and the next, and implore Thy pardon for the present and the future. O Lord, grant to me in this life prosperity, and in the next life prosperity, and save me from the punishment of fire. '"

The next important step is the running between the Mounts Safá and Marwah. Starting from the former, the Hájí runs seven times between the twosummits. He runs, moving the shoulders, and with head erect, like soldierscharging in battle. The reason for this is, that the infidel Meccans mockedthe Companions of the Prophet, and said that the climate of Madína had madethem weak. This bold way of running was adopted to disprove the {229}calumny and so has become a Sunnat practice. The prayer to be said duringthe S'ai (running) is: "O my Lord, pardon and pity, and pass over that(sin) which Thou knowest. Verily Thou knowest what is not known, and verilyThou art the most Glorious, the most Generous. O, our Lord, grant us inboth worlds prosperity, and save us from fire. " The Hájí should also quotepassages from the Qurán. This S'ai must be done after an important Tawáf, either the first, or a later one. On the seventh day the Imám must preachin Mecca, and instruct the pilgrims in the ritual of the Hajj. He preachesagain on the ninth and eleventh days. 

On the eighth day, (Rúz-i-Tarwiáh), the Hájí goes to Miná, a place threemiles distant from Mecca, where with all the other Hájís he says the usualNamáz, and there spends the night. [240] This is a sunnat observance. On themorning of the ninth day, starting after the Salát-ul-Fajr, the Hájí goesto 'Arifát. [241] On arriving there he says: "O God, I turn to Thee, I putmy trust on Thee, I desire Thee, pardon my sin, accept my Hajj, show mercyto me, supply my need in 'Arifát, Thou art powerful over all. " He then saysLabbaik, the Takbír and the Tahlíl. 

The noontide, and the afternoon Namáz are said together there: they arethus shortened. [242] This done he should stand upon the mountain, ifpossible at or near the place the Prophet {230} is said to have occupied. This is called the Wukúf or (standing), a necessary part of the Hajj. Hemust also listen to the sermon delivered by the Imám, explaining what stillremains of the ritual of the Hajj, _i. E. _, how the Hájís are to stand inMuzdalífah, to throw the stones in Miná, to make the sacrifice, &c. 

All the time the Hájí should constantly shout out the Talbíyah, and theTahlíl, and weep bitterly. 

The Hájí then proceeds to Muzdalífah, a place situated about half-waybetween Miná and 'Arifát, where he should pass a portion of the night. After a visit to the Mosque Mashar al Harám, he should collect sevenpebbles and proceed to Miná. 

When the morning of the tenth day, the 'Íd-ul-Azhá arrives, he again goesto Miná, where there are three different pillars, called respectively theJamrat-ul-Akabah, commonly known as the Shaitan-ul-Kabír[243] (greatdevil), the Wusta, or middle pillar, and the Al Ula, or first one. Holdingthe jamár, or pebble, between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, the Hájí throws it a distance of not less than fifteen feet and says: "Inthe name of Alláh, and Alláh is Almighty, (I do this) in hatred of theFiend and to his shame. " The remaining six stones are thrown in likemanner. The object is to confound the devils who are supposed to be there. The stones are small lest the pilgrims should be hurt. Before each stone isthrown the Takbír must be said. This ceremony is called Ramí-ul-Jamár, thethrowing of stones. It is also known as Hasal Khazaf. It is said that thisceremony has been performed since the time of Abraham, and that the stonesare miraculously removed. Ibn 'Abbás, a Companion, says that if thepilgrimage of a Hájí is approved of by God, the stones are secretlyremoved. Mujáhid, a well known Traditionist, {231} says that he put a markon his stones and afterwards searched, but found them not. The pilgrim thenreturns to Miná, and there offers the usual sacrifice of the 'Íd-ul-Azhá. An account of this will be given in the next chapter. This act strictlyspeaking, concludes the Hajj. The Hájí can now shave his head, pare hisnails and remove the Ihrám. 

The remaining three days, the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja are calledthe Aiyám-ut-Tashríq "days of drying flesh" because now the pilgrimsprepare provisions for the return journey, by cutting slices from thevictims offered in sacrifice and drying them in the sun. The Hájí shouldspend this time at Miná, and each day throw seven pebbles at each of thepillars. This ceremony duly over, he returns to Mecca and makes theTawáf-ul-Widá' (circuit of farewell). He should also drink some water fromthe well of Zemzem. Tradition says that when Ishmael was thirsty Gabrielstamped with his foot and a spring gushed forth. This is now the far-famedwell Zemzem. Finally, the Hájí kisses the threshold, and then, with handsuplifted laying hold of the covering of the K'aba, and weeping bitterly, heprays most humbly, and expresses regret that he will soon have to departfrom a place so dear as the sacred K'aba. Retiring backwards, he makes hisexit and the Hajj is complete. [244] The Umráh or little pilgrimage can bemade at any time except the eighth, ninth and tenth of Zu'l-Hajja. It isusually done before pilgrims start homewards. Its ceremonies differ butslightly from the Hajj. The Ihrám must {232} be put on, and the obligationsof abstinence which it entails must be observed. 

The usual course is then to make the Ziárat, or visit to the tomb of theProphet at Madína. Henceforth the pilgrim assumes the honorable title ofHájí and so is, ever after, a person of some consequence among thecommunity in which he dwells. The Hajj cannot be performed by proxy, thoughit is esteemed a 'good work, ' if someone who can afford it, sends a pilgrimwho otherwise could not go. 

This account of the Irkán-i-dín, or five pillars of religion, must now drawto a close. They illustrate well the fixed and formal nature of Islám, whilst the constant reference to the Prophet's sayings and practice, as anauthority for many of the details, shows how largely Islám is based on theSunnat. With regard to the differences of opinion which the great Imámshold on some of the details, it is most difficult to decide which sideholds the correct view. Such opinions are always based on some Tradition, the value of which it is impossible to determine. The opponent says it is aweak (z'aif) Tradition--a statement it would puzzle any one to prove or todisprove. It is sometimes said in praise of Musalmáns that they are notpriest-ridden; but no people in the world are so Tradition-ridden, if onemay use such an expression. Until this chain of superstition is brokenthere can be no progress and no enlightenment; but when it is so brokenIslám will cease to be Islám, for this foundation of the Faith and theedifice erected on it are so welded together that the undermining of theone will be the fall of the other. 

{233}

 NOTE TO CHAPTER V. 

 _The following Fatvá was publicly given in the Great Mosque, Triplicane, Madras, February 13th, 1880. _

 In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. 

 QUESTION. 

 "O 'Ulamá of the religion, and Muftís of the enlightened Law, what is your opinion in this matter? A person having translated a juz (one-thirtieth part) of the noble Qurán into the Hindustani language has printed it. The translation is defective: moreover the Arabic text is not given. In order to give the translation the same authority as the original, he has retained the usual signs and marks of the Arabic editions; such as--toí, qif, jím, lá, mím, and (. ). [245] At the end of the juz he has added a translation of the Tashshahud, Qanúd, Saná, Ta'awwuz, Tasmí, Tashibát, rukú' and Sujúd, and has said that all these must be read in Hindustani. He further states that in the translation he has retained the rhythm of the original, and that in eloquence and style it is equal to the Arabic. He has also added rubrical directions as to the ritual of the Namáz, and has stated that to those who do not know Arabic, it is a wájib and a farz duty to recite the translation; otherwise they commit sin and the Namáz is vain. As regards the past, he considers that the ignorant are forgiven, but he maintains that the 'Ulamá of these days must answer for the neglect they show in not telling the people to use translations of the Qurán. Further, in support of his views he adduces a Hadís-i-Sahíh, according to which the Prophet said to a Companion, Salmán-i-Farsí: "Read a translation of the Qurán in the Namáz. " He claims, as on his side, the four great Imáms. He himself understands Arabic, yet he says his Namáz in Hindustani and influences others to do likewise. He has been spoken to, but he takes no heed and strives to spread his sect all over India. 

 Now, what is the order of the noble Law with regard to such a person, and what is the decree in the case of those who follow {234} him, or who circulate his opinions, or who consider him a religious man and a guide, or who consider the translation to which reference has been made to be the Holy Qurán, or who teach it to their children? O learned men, state the Law in this matter and merit a good reward. "

 THE ANSWER. 

 "After praising God, and after imploring His mercy and peace on Muhammad, be it known that the person referred to is an infidel, an atheist and a wanderer from the truth. He also causes others to wander. His assertion that his opinions are in accordance with those of the four Imáms is utterly false, because according to Imám Sháfa'í, Imám Málik, and Imám Hanbal it is illegal to use a translation of the Qurán when saying the Namáz, whether the worshipper is ignorant of Arabic or not. Thus Imám Navarí, a disciple of Sháfa'í says: "It is unlawful in any case to use Persian[246] in the Namáz. " Faqí 'Alí, a disciple of Málik says: "Persian is unlawful. " To these opinions Káfí, a disciple of Hanbal adds his testimony: "To recite in the Namáz from a translation of the Qurán is unlawful. " Moreover from the Qurán itself, the recital of it in Arabic is proved to be a divine command (farz). The term Qurán, too, means an Arabic Qurán, for God speaks of it as a revelation in Arabic. The words "recite so much of the Qurán as may be easy to you" prove the duty of reciting it; whilst the words "an Arabic Qurán have we sent it down" show that the Qurán to be used is an Arabic one. Imám Abu Hanífa and his disciples, the Sáhibain (Imám Muhammad and Imám Abu Yúsuf), consider that, if a person can recite only a short verse in Arabic, it is not lawful for such an one to use a translation. If he cannot read the Arabic character, he must learn by heart such a sentence as "Praise be to God, Lord of the people. " Until he learns this he may use a translation. [247] In the Tanwír-ul-Absár it is written: "It is a farz duty to read one verse, and to learn it by heart is farz-i-'ain" (_i. E. _, incumbent on all). In the Masíh-ul-Azhar it is written: "If a person says the Namáz in a language other than Arabic, he is a madman or an atheist. " With regard to the statement made by Imám Abu Hanífa that a person might use for a {235} time a translation, it is well known that he afterwards recalled that opinion. The statement made by the person complained of regarding Sulmán-i-Farsí is not correct. In the Niháyáh (commentary on the Hidáyah) it is written that some Persians wrote to Sulmán, and requested him to send them a Persian translation of Súrat-ul-Fátiha. He complied with their request and they used it in the Namáz, _until they could pronounce Arabic properly_. The Prophet on hearing of this circumstance made no remark. This account, however, is not trustworthy; but granting that it is true, all that it proves is that, until some Arabic words can be remembered, a translation may be used. No Imám has ever allowed that to read a translation is farz or wájib. So if the person referred to says that it is farz to read his own translation, then it follows that to read the original Arabic will not be farz, but will be unlawful. Now such an opinion is infidelity. The person is a Káfir, for he tries to make out that the 'Ulamá of all preceding ages who have instructed the people, from the days of the Prophet till now, to read Arabic in the Namáz are sinners. Further, he rejects the statement made by learned canonists and listens now to no advice. He reads his translation in the Namáz and causes others to read it. He boasts that his translation is equal in style to the original. He has translated the Du'á-i-qunút, Saná, and the Tasbíhát of the rukú' and Sujúd, and has said that these translations should be used in the Namáz. Thus, it is plain that he wants to abolish the use of Arabic in the prayers. The result of such a course would be that soon a number of different translations would be circulated, and the text like that of the Taurait, and the Injíl would be corrupted. In the Fatáwá-i-'Álamgírí it is written: "Whosoever considers that the unlawful is lawful or _vice versâ_ is a Káfir. " "If any one without apparent cause has enmity with one of the 'Ulamá, his orthodoxy is doubtful. " "A man who after committing a fault declines to repent, though requested to do so, is an infidel. " In the Tahqíq-i-Sharh-i-Husainí it is written; "To translate the Qurán into Persian and to read that is unlawful. " In the Fatáwá-i-Matlúb-ul-Múminín it is said: "Whosoever intends to write the Qurán in Persian must be strictly forbidden. " In the Itqán it is written: "According to Ijmá', it is wrong to speak of the Qurán as having rhymes. "[248] In the Fatáwá-i-Tátár Khánía it is said: "To translate the Arabic into Persian is an act of infidelity. "

 Our decision then is that the usual salutations should not be made to this person. If he dies he must not be buried in a Musalmán {236} cemetery. His marriages are void and his wives are at liberty, according to the rule laid down in the Miftáh-us-S'ádat. To doubt of the infidelity of such a person is itself infidelity. As by the proofs of the law here adduced, the 'Ulamá have declared such a person to be an infidel, it follows that all those who assist him or who consider his claim just, or who circulate his opinions, or who consider him to be a religious person and a fit guide for men, are also infidels. To send children to be taught by him, to purchase newspapers which advocate his views, and to continue to read his translation is unlawful. In the Fatáwá-i-'Álamgírí in the chapter entitled Murtád it is written: "Whosoever has doubts of the present infidelity and of the future punishment of such an one is an infidel. " God says in the Qurán: "Be helpful to one another according to goodness and piety, but be not helpful for evil and malice; and fear ye God. " (Súra v. 3). In another place God says: "Whosoever acts not according to God's order is an infidel. " Now, what greater disobedience can there be than this, that a person should say that the recital of the Arabic Qurán in the Namáz is not lawful, and that the recital of his own Hindustani translation of it is incumbent (farz). 

 "Our duty is to give information to Musalmáns, and God is the best Knower. "

 This was written by a learned Moulvie, and signed by twenty-four other leading Moulvies of the city of Madras. 

 This Fatvá, an authentic copy of which is in my possession, is of very considerable importance as showing how unyielding the law of Islám is to the varied circumstances of the countries in which it exists. The law enjoining the Arabic language as a medium of worship was suited for the Arab people, and the principle involved would seem to be that the vernacular language of a country should be used by the Muslims of that country for the purposes of devotion; but, as I have repeatedly shown, precepts, not principles are the ruling power in Islám. It further demonstrates that all such matters must be regulated, not by the needs of the age or country, but by an antiquated law which, to say the least, is an anachronism in the world's history. The authority paid to the statements made by the four chief Imáms, and the fact that the Fatvá is based on their decisions, and on previous Fatvás in which their authority has been adduced, show how even to the present day they are regarded as the Mujtahidín of Islám. The Fatvá is thus manifestly orthodox, and corroborates most fully all I have said in the first chapter on the "Foundations of Islám. "

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CHAPTER VI. 

THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLÁM. 

1. MUHARRAM. --Muharram, the name of the first month of the Muhammadan year, has now become the name by which are known the days of mourning spent bythe Shía'hs in commemoration of the martyrdoms of 'Alí and of his two sonsHasan and Husain. The historical events thus referred to have been alreadydescribed in the third chapter, so that it is only necessary now to give anaccount of the ceremonies connected with the Muharram. They differ indifferent countries. The following is a description of an Indian Muharram. 

Some days previous to the feast, the 'Áshúr Khána (literally, ten-dayhouse) is prepared. As soon as the new moon appears, the people gathertogether in the various 'Áshúr Khánas, and offer a Fátiha over some sherbetor some sugar in the name of Husain. The Fátiha concludes thus: "O God, grant the reward of this to the soul of Husain. " The sherbet and sugar arethen given to the poor. Then they mark a spot for the Alláwa, or hole forthe bonfire which is to be lit. Every night during the festival these firesare kindled, and the people, both old and young, fence across the fire withswords or sticks, and jump about calling out: "'Alí! Noble Husain! NobleHusain! Dulha! Dulha! Bridegroom! Bridegroom! Friend! &c. " These words theyrepeat hundreds of times. 

In some parts of the country they erect an Imám Bára (Imám-house). This isoften a substantial building, frequently used afterwards as a mausoleum forthe founder and his family. In South India the 'Áshúr Khána only is known. This is generally a temporary structure, or {238} some large hall fitted upfor the occasion. Sometimes the walls are draped with black cloth, borderedwith texts of the Qurán written in a large and elegant style. The place isbrilliantly illuminated. On one side stands the Tázíahs orTábúts--structures made of bamboos covered with tinsel and profuselyornamented. They are intended to represent the mausoleum erected on theplains of Karbalá over the remains of Husain. Sometimes the Tázíah isconstructed to represent the Prophet's tomb at Madína. Large sums of moneyare spent on these Tázíahs, which when lighted up have a very elegantappearance. At the back of the Tázíahs are laid the several articlessimilar to those supposed to have been used by Husain at Karbalá, --a turbanof gold, a rich sword, a shield, a bow and arrow. The Mimbar, or pulpit isso placed that the speaker can face Mecca. The 'Alams, or standards, whichare commonly made of copper and brass, though occasionally of gold or ofsilver, are placed against the walls. The usual standard is that of a handplaced on a pole. This is emblematic of the five members who compose thefamily of the Prophet, and is the special standard of the Shía'hs. Thesestandards have many different names, such as--the standard of the palm of'Alí, the Lady Fátima's standard, the standard of the Horse-shoe, torepresent the shoe of Husain's swift horse, and others too numerous tomention. Mirrors, chandeliers and coloured lanterns add lustre to thescene. 

Every evening large crowds of people assemble in these 'Áshúr Khánas. Inthe centre, on a slightly raised platform a band of singers chant theMarsiya, an elegiac poem in honour of the martyred Husain. It is amonotonous performance lasting about an hour; but it has a wonderful effecton the audience, who, seated on the ground, listen patiently andattentively. At each pause the hearers beat their breasts, and say Husain!Husain! Real or stimulated grief often finds expression in groans andtears, though the more violent expression of the anguish felt is reservedfor a later ceremony. 

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This over, the Wáqi'a Khán (literally, narrator of events) ascends theMimbar, or pulpit, and seats himself on the top, or on a lower step. Heproceeds to relate the historical facts, adding many curious storiesgathered from the vast heap of Traditions which have cast such a halo ofglory around the martyr. Sometimes he becomes very excited, and theaudience is stirred up to great enthusiasm. The following account is thatof an eye-witness who passed an evening in an 'Áshúr Khána. "The firstWáqi'a Khán was a Persian who delivered a very eloquent oration in his owntongue. It was calm but effective. He was succeeded by an eloquent oldgentleman who spoke rapidly in Hindustani at the top of his voice, thenrose up, ran down the steps, and casting off his turban rushed in and outamongst the audience, vociferating vigorously all the while. The effect wasmarvellous, old and venerable men wept like little children, whilst fromthe adjoining Zanána was heard the bitter weeping of the women who, thoughnot exposed to view, could hear all that was said. After a while, theassembly rose and formed two lines facing each other. A boy then chanted afew words and the whole assembly began, slowly at first, to sway theirbodies to and fro, calling out 'Alí! 'Alí! Husain! Husain! Each one thenbegan to beat his breast vigorously. The excitement at last became intenseand the men in the rows looked like so many wild creatures. "

In some cases blood has been known to flow from the breast, so severe isthe self-inflicted beating. This continues till they are well-nighexhausted, when the whole company goes away to repeat the performance overagain in some other 'Áshúr Khána. A devout person will visit several eachevening. During the day some pious Shía'hs recite the Qurán. 

During this season women who can read, visit the Zanánas and chant Marsiyasto the ladies of the Harem, by whom this season of Muharram is celebratedwith great earnestness. 

For the first six days, nothing else takes place, but on the {240} seventhday the 'Alam-i-Qásím is taken out in public procession. This is torepresent the marriage of Qásím, the son of Hasan, to the favouritedaughter of Husain, just before the death of the latter. The event is nowcommemorated by the bearing of Qásím's standard in procession. It isusually borne by a man on horseback. If it is carried by a man on foot, hereels about like a drunken man to show his grief. The crowd shout out:Bridegroom! Bridegroom! After perambulating the principal thoroughfares, the people bring the standard back to its own 'Áshúr Khána. As the standardwhich represents Qásím is supposed to be a martyr, it is then laid down, covered over, and treated as a corpse. Lamentation is made over it as forone dead. Sherbet is then produced, and a Fátiha is said, after which thestandard is again set up in its own place. 

The Neza, a lance or spear, with a lime on the top, to recall toremembrance the fact that Yezíd caused Husain's head to be thus carriedabout, is taken in procession from one place to another. The Na'l Sáhib(literally, Mr. Horse-shoe) is the representation of a horse shoe, and ismeant to remind the people of the swift horse of Husain. Vows arefrequently made to this standard. Thus a woman may say to it: "Should Ithrough your favour be blessed with offspring, I shall make it run in yourprocession. " If she attains her wish, the child when seven or eight yearsold has a small parasol placed in its hand and is made to run after theNa'l Sáhib. 

If two 'Alams, or standards, meet, they embrace each other, that is theyare made to touch. Fátiha is then said and the respective processions passon their way. The Buráq, supposed to be a fac-simile of the horse sent byGabriel for Muhammad to make the night ascent to heaven (Ante. P. 159) isalso taken out. 

On the evening before the tenth day, which according to the Muslim mode ofcomputing time is the tenth night, the whole of the Tázías and the 'Alamsare taken out in {241} procession. It is a scene of great confusion, formen and boys disguised in all sorts of quaint devices run about. It is thecarnival of the Musalmán year. 

On the following day, the 'Áshúrá, they kindle the fires in the Alláwas, and say a Fátiha in each 'Áshúr Khána. After this the 'Alams and the Tázíasare taken away to a large open spot near water, which represents the plainof Karbalá. Another Fátiha is said, the ornaments and decorations are takenoff the Tázías, the frameworks of which are then cast into the water. [249]Sometimes they are reserved for use the following year. The water remindsthe people of the parching thirst which Husain felt before his death. Onlythe 'Alams, not the Buráqs nor the Na'l Sáhibs, are immersed. The peoplethen burn incense, recite the Marsiyas, return home and say Fátiha over the'Alams, Buráqs, &c. On the evening of the 12th, they sit up all nightreading the Qurán, reciting Marsiyas and verses in the praise of Husain. Onthe 13th day, a quantity of food is cooked which, when a Fátiha has beensaid over it, is distributed to the poor. Some very pious Shía'hs celebratethe fortieth day after the first of Muharram. It is on this day, accordingto some accounts, that the head and body of Husain were reunited. It isknown as the 'Íd-i-sar wa tan (head and body feast). 

The Sunnís do not, except as spectators, take any part in the Muharramceremonies. Indeed, where the ruling power is not strong, there is oftenmuch ill-feeling aroused by the enthusiasm excited for all that concerns'Alí and his family. The three first Khalífs are often well abused, andthat no Sunní can bear with patience. The breach between the Sunní and theShía'h is very wide, and the annual recurrence of the Muharram feast tendsto keep alive the distinction. 

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The tenth day--the 'Áshúrá is, however, a Sunnat feast and, as such, isobserved by all Sunnís. It is considered to be a most excellent day, for onit God is said to have created Adam and Eve, His throne, heaven, hell, theseat of judgment, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate, life and death. 

The Sunnís about three o'clock in the afternoon of this day prepare sherbetand khichrí--a dish composed of boiled rice and pulse mixed with clarifiedbutter and spices. A Fátiha in the name of Husain and of those who weremartyred with him is then said. The food is disposed of as usual in suchcases. A Namáz of some nafl rak'ats is said and sometimes a Du'á is added. On this day also they go to the burial grounds and place flowers on, andsay Fátiha over the graves of their friends. 

Indian Musalmáns have copied in their feast many Hindu ceremonies. Theprocession of the Tázías, and the casting of them into the water is verysimilar to the procession at the Hindu feast of the Durga Puja, [250] whenon the tenth day the Hindus cast the idol Durga, the wife of Siva, into theGanges. The oblations offered at different shrines are similar to thoseoffered by the Hindus, such as rice, clarified butter and flowers. 

The Muhammadan form of worship was too simple for a country, in which anallegorical and idolatrous religion predominated, addressing itself to thesenses and the imaginations rather than to the understanding and the heart;consequently the Musalmán festivals have borrowed from it a variety ofpagan rites, and a pompous and splendid ceremonial. While this has donemuch to add to the superstition of the Musalmáns in India, it has no doubtsoftened their intolerant spirit. Though the Sunnís consider the Shía'hobservances as impious, they look on with the contempt of indifference. Thefact that the British Government punishes all who break {243} the peace mayhave something to do with this. Still the Sunní and the Shía'h in Indialive on much better terms, and have more respect for each other than theTurk has for the Persian, or the Persian for the Turk. Some Musalmán poets, indeed, are both Sunnís and Shía'hs. Thus Wálí, begins his poem with abrief encomium on the four first Khalífs, and then bestows an eulogy on'Alí and his sons Hasan and Husain whom he calls "Imáms of the world. "

The following is a prayer used in a Fátiha for 'Alí:--

 I pray, "That God may deign for the sake of that pure soul, the ornament of the book of nature, the first of mortals after the Prophet, the star of mortals, the most precious jewel of the jewel-box of virtue, the lord of the high and the low, he who occupies a distinguished place on the bridge of eternity, the mihráb[251] of the faith, he who sits upon the throne of the palace of the law, the ship of the sea of religion, the sun of the firmament of glory, the power of the arm of the Prophet, he who has merited access to the tabernacle of the Divine Unity, the most profound of all religious people, the resplendent brightness of the marvels of God, the father of victory, the Imám of the gate of heaven, the cup-bearer of the water of Kausar, he who has merited the praise of Muhammad, he who is the best of men, the holy martyr, the chief of Believers, the Imám of the Faithful, 'Alí, son of Abu Tálib, 'Alí the victorious lion of the Most High. I pray that God for the sake of this holy Khalíf may favourably hear the vows which I offer to Him. "

The following prayer occurs in a Fátiha said for Hasan and Husain:--

 I pray, "That the eternal God may deign to accept the vows which I make for the repose of the glorious souls of the two brave Imáms, the martyrs well-beloved by God, the innocent victims of wickedness, the blessed Abu Muhammad Al-Hasan and Abu 'Abd-Alláh Al-Husain, and for the twelve Imáms, and the fourteen[252] pure ones, and for the seventy-two martyrs of the plain of Karbalá. "

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2. AKHIR-I-CHÁR SHAMBA. --This feast is held on the last Wednesday of themonth Safar. It is kept in commemoration of the fact, that, as on this day, the Prophet experienced some mitigation of the disorder which in the nextmonth terminated his life. Sweet cakes are prepared, and Fátihas in thename of the Prophet are said over them; but the most extraordinary customis the drinking of the seven Saláms. A plantain, or a mango tree leaf, or apiece of paper is taken to a Mullá, or a religious teacher, who writesseven short sentences from the Qurán upon it. The writing whilst still wetis washed off, and the mixture drunk by the person for whom it was written. Peace and happiness are thus ensured for the future. The seven Saláms are:(1) "Peace! shall be the word on the part of a merciful Lord. " (Súra xxxvi. 58). (2) "Peace be on Noah throughout the worlds. " (Súra xxxvii. 77). (3)"Peace be on Abraham. " (Súra xxxvii. 109). (4) "Peace be on Moses andAaron. " (Súra xxxvii. 120). (5) "Peace be on Elias. " (Súra xxxvii. 130). (6) "Peace be on you, ye have been good; enter into Paradise. " (Súra xxxix. 73). (7) "It is peace till the breaking of the morn. " (Súra xcvii. 5). TheShía'hs consider this an unlucky day. They call it "ChárShamba-i-Súrí. "--The "Wednesday of the Trumpet;" that is, of the trumpet ofthe last day. The Sunnís, on the other hand, rejoice in the day, and esteemit an excellent and auspicious season. 

3. BÁRÁ WAFÁT. --This feast is held on the twelfth day of the monthRabí'-ul-Awwal. The name is derived from bárá, twelve and wafát, death, because many suppose that on this day the Prophet died. According to awell-known Muslim writer "the terrific intelligence, circulating throughoutthe world, produced universal consternation, and all hastened to offer toGod their vows and prayers for the repose of the Prophet's soul. " Others, however, maintain that he died on the second of the month and, as there issome doubt on the subject, many persons make a Fátiha {245} every day, fromthe first to the twelfth of the month inclusive. Those who keep the feastas Bárá Wafát observe the ceremony called Sandal on the previous evening, and the 'Urs, that is, the prayers and the oblations, on the twelfth. TheSandal consists in making a perfumed embrocation from sandal wood. This isthen placed into a vessel and carried in procession to the 'Íd-gáh, [253] orto the place where Fátiha will be said. It is then distributed to thepeople. It is a sort of public notice on the eve of a Feast day, or of aSaint's day, that on the morrow the usual prayers and offerings will bemade in such and such a place. On the morning of the twelfth, the Qurán isread in the Mosque, or in private houses: then food is cooked and Fátihasare said. 

Some persons possess a Qadam-i-Rasúl, or footstep of the Prophet. This is astone with the impression of a footstep on it. It is a sacred thing and onthis day the place in which it is kept is elegantly decorated. When acompany has assembled, some persons appointed for the purpose, repeat thestory of the birth, miracles and death of the Prophet. Portions of theQurán are read and the Darúd is said. [254]

In Madras, and in some other parts, it is more customary to keep this day, not as the anniversary of the death of the Prophet, but as the"'Jashn-i-milád-i-Sharíf, " the "Feast of the noble birth. " The practicalduties are the same. Instead of the Qadam-i-Rasúl, the Ásár-i-Sharíf isexhibited. This is supposed to be a real portion of the hair of theProphet's beard and moustache. It is said to possess {246} the miraculousproperty of growing again when a portion is broken off. On this day it isput into rose water which those present then drink and rub on their eyes. Great virtue is attached to this proceeding. In the Ásár Khána, or house inwhich this hair is kept Fátihas, Darúds, &c. , are repeated. 

The observance of this festival is neither wájib nor sunnat, but mustahab. It is generally kept, and it is a very rare thing to meet a person who doesnot believe in the miraculous growth of the Ásár-i-Sharíf. 

4. SHAB BARÁT. --This feast, the name of which signifies the "night of therecord, " is held on the fourteenth day of the month Sh'abán. The 'Arfa, orvigil is kept on the preceding day. [255] It is commonly but erroneouslycalled Shab-i-Barát. 

The word Barát signifies a book or record. It is said that God on thisnight registers in the Barát all the actions men are to perform during theensuing year. On the thirteenth day food is prepared for the poor and aFátiha for the benefit of deceased ancestors and relatives is said over it. When all in the house are assembled, the Súrat-ul-Fátiha is read once, theSúrat-ul-Iklás (112) three times, the Áyat-ul-Kursí once, and then theDarúd. After this a prayer is offered, in which God is asked to transferthe reward of this Service, and of the charity shown in the gift of food tothe poor, to the souls of deceased relatives and friends of this family. This petition is offered in the name of the Prophet. The men then go to theMosque and after the Namáz-i-'Ishá they repeat a number of nafl rak'ats. This over, the Súrat-ul-Yá Sín is read three times. It must be done withthe niyyat, intention. The first time, the intention is that the worshippermay have a long life; the second time, that his means of subsistence may beincreased; the third time, that he may be protected from evil. {247} TheSúra-i-Dukhán (144) is then read with the same intentions. Any otherportions may then be read. After this those present rise, and go to thevarious cemeteries. On the way they purchase flowers which are afterwardsstrewn on the graves. A Fátiha is then said. If the worshipper has norelatives or friends buried there, prayer is offered for the benefit of theArwáh-i-Qubúr, the souls of those there buried. The very pious spend thewhole night in going from one cemetery to another. 

These observances are neither farz, nor sunnat, but nawáfil, (sing. Nafl), works of supererogation. Still though they are bid'at, yet they areesteemed good and so are called bid'at-i-Hasana, or "excellent innovation. "The general merry-making of the fourteenth day has no religioussignification. The night of the fifteenth is the Guy Fawkes night of Islám. Large sums of money are spent on fireworks, of which more are let off onthis feast than at any other. 

The following prayer occurs in the Fátiha: "O our God, by the merits of theApostleship of Muhammad, grant that the lamps which are lit up on this holynight may be for the dead a pledge of the light eternal, which we pray Theeto shed on them. O God, admit them, we beseech Thee, unto the abode ofeternal felicity. "

5. RAMAZÁN AND 'ÍD-UL-FITR--It is one of the five pillars of the practicalreligious duties to fast during the thirty days of the month Ramazán. Thesubject of fasting has been fully treated of in the preceding chapter; andso it is only necessary now to describe the other ceremonies connected withthe religious observance of this month. 

From the earliest days of Islám this month has been held in the greatestesteem by Muslims, for it was in this month that Muhammad used to retirefor meditation, year after year, to the cave of Hira, situated on a lowhill some few miles distant from Mecca. In the second year of the Hijra, orflight from Mecca, it was ordained that the month of Ramazán should be keptas a fast. "As to the month {248} Ramazán, in which the Qurán was sent downto be man's guidance, and an explanation of that guidance, and of thatillumination, as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him setabout the fast. " (Súra ii. 181). 

The Muslims had hitherto observed as the principal fast the 'Ashúrá, thetenth of Muharram. This fast was probably connected with the Jewish fast onthe tenth day of the seventh month. "Also on the tenth day of this seventhmonth there shall be a day of atonement: it shall be an holy convocationunto you; and ye shall afflict your souls, &c. " (Leviticus xxiii. 27). Now, when Muhammad first went to Madína he had great hopes of winning over theJews to his side; but when he failed he took every opportunity of makingIslám differ as much as possible from Judaism. This was the reason why theQibla was changed (Ante. P. 60), and that in the second year of hisresidence at Madína the fast of Ramazán was appointed. The reasons assignedby learned Muslims for the selection of this month, are that in Ramazán Godgave to the previous prophets the revelations connected with their names, and that in this month the Qurán was sent down from the Secret Tablet inthe seventh heaven to the first or lowest, and that on the Laylut-ul-Qadr, or 'night of power' the first revelation was made to Muhammad. "Verily wehave caused it (Qurán) to descend on the 'night of power. ' And who shallteach thee what the night of power is? The night of power excelleth athousand nights. " (Súra xcvii. 1-3). To illustrate the sacredness of thismonth the Prophet used to say that in it "the gates of Paradise are open, and the gates of hell are shut, and the devils are chained by the leg. ""Only those who observe it will be allowed to enter by the gate of heavencalled Rayyán. " Those who keep the fast "will be pardoned all their pastvenial sins. "[256]

In making the fast one for the day, and none for the night, {249} Muhammaddoubtless had reference to the verse: "God wisheth you ease, but wishethnot your discomfort. " (Súra ii. 181). 

The special ceremonies connected with the Ramazán are the Taráwíh Namáz and'Itikáf (retirement). The Taráwíh prayers have been described already (p. 205). Each night in Ramazán one-thirtieth part (sípára) of the Qurán isrecited in the Mosque. The duty of performing the 'Itikáf is aSunnat-ul-maukadda, a very strict duty. The Mu'takif, one who makes'Itikáf, must remain apart in a Mosque used for public services, and theremeditate. Bukhárí says that the Prophet made 'Itikáf the last ten days ofeach Ramazán, and that the practice was continued by his wives after hisdeath. Usually a man should thus sit and meditate one of the days betweenthe twentieth and the thirtieth of Ramazán. If his meditation is disturbedby any illegal interruption, another day should be devoted to it; but ImámMuhammad says: "The least legal time is one hour. " Some theologians holdthat 'Itikáf is farz-i-kifáya, that is, if one person of a community doesit the obligation does not rest on the others. If, however, a person makesa vow in Ramazán, then 'Itikáf is considered wájib. 'Itikáf can beperformed at any time other than the last ten days of Ramazán, but then itis only mustahab, a work of supererogation. All the sects except theSháfa'ítes hold that the Mu'takif must fast. He should also make thenizzat, or intention, of performing what he is about to do. The Mu'takifmust not go out of the Mosque except for obviously necessary purposes, andfor making the legal wazú and ghusl (purifications). At night he may eat, drink and sleep in the Mosque: acts quite unlawful at other times. He mayspeak with others on religious matters, and if a man of business, he maygive orders with regard to the purchase and sale of merchandize, but on noaccount must any goods be brought to him. It is highly meritorious for himto read the Qurán in an audible voice. By such an act he becomes {250} aman of penetration, whose words are as powerful as a sharp sword. [257]

When the thirty days have passed the fast is broken. This act is calledIftár, and the first day on which food is taken is called the'Íd-ul-Fitr--the 'Feast of the breaking of the fast. ' On that day theSadqa, or alms are given before the Namáz is said in the Mosque. The Sadqaof the 'Íd-ul-Fitr is confined to Muslims: no other persons receive it. Ifany one neglects to give these alms before the Namáz is said, he will notmerit so great a reward as he otherwise would. The reason assigned for thisis that, unless they are given early in the day, the poor cannot refreshthemselves before coming to the Mosque for the Namáz. The Sadqa are givenfor the good of one's own soul, for that of young children, slaves male andfemale--Muslim or Infidel; but not for the spiritual benefit of one's wifeor elder children. 

In South India, the Sadqa consists of a gift of sufficient rice to feed oneperson. When this has been done the people go to the Mosque saying, 'God isgreat! God is great!' The Namáz is like that of a Friday, except that onlytwo rak'ats are said, and the Khutba which is said after the Namáz issunnat; whereas the Friday Khutba is said before the farz rak'ats, and isitself of farz obligation. After hearing the sermon, the people disperse, visit each other and thoroughly enjoy themselves. 

A very usual form of the Khutba of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr which is preached inArabic is as follows:--

 SERMON ON THE 'ÍD-UL-FITR. 

 In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. 

 "Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast, and in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance into heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of praise. It {251} is of His grace and favour that He rewards those who keep the fast. He has said: 'I will give in the future world houses and palaces, and many excellent blessings to those who fast. God is great! God is great! Holy is He who certainly sent the Qurán to our Prophet in the month of Ramazán, and who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers. God is great! and worthy of all praise. We praise and thank Him for the 'Íd-ul-Fitr, that great blessing; and we testify that beside Him there is no God. He is alone. He has no partner. This witness which we give to His Unity will be a cause of our safety here, and finally gain us an entrance to Paradise. Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) and all famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of genii and of men. From Him comes mercy and peace upon Muhammad and his family, so long as the world shall last. God is greater than all. There is none beside Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of all praise. O company of Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on you. He says that this Feast day is a blessing to you, and a curse to the unbelievers. Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your prayers will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the sadqa. [258] O congregation of Believers, to give alms is to you a wájib duty. Give to the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent. Your duty in Ramazán was to say the Taráwíh prayers, to make supplication to God, to sit and meditate ('Itikáf) and to read the Qurán. The religious duties of the first ten days of Ramazán gain the mercy of God, those of the second ten merit His pardon; whilst those of the last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God has declared that Ramazán is a noble month, for is not one of its nights, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, better than a thousand months? On that night Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven: till the morning breaks it is full of blessing. Its eloquent interpreter, and its clearest proof is the Qurán, the Word of God, most Gracious. Holy is God who says in the Qurán: "This word of God comes down in the month of Ramazán. " This is a guide for men, a distinguisher between right and wrong. O Believers, in such a month be present, obey the order of your God and fast; but let the sick and the travellers substitute some other days on which to fast so that no days be lost, and say: "God is great!" and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. O Believers, God will bless you and us by the grace of the Holy Qurán. Every verse of it is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the Bestower, the {252} Holy King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful, the Clement. "[259]

"The assemblies of the ladies on this 'Íd are marked by all the amusementsand indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy in their secluded state. Some receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doinghonour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and splendid dress. TheZanána rings with festive songs and loud music, the cheerful meeting offriends, the distribution of presents to dependents, and remembrances tothe poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and amusement, on this happyday of 'Íd, when the good lady of the Mansion sits in state to receivepresents from inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to others. "[260]

6. The Baqr-'Íd. --This is the most important Feast in the whole year. It isalso known as the 'Íd-i-Qurbán, and as the 'Íd-ul-Azhá, commonly called theÍd-uz-Zuhá, the feast of sacrifice. In Turkey and in Egypt it is calledBairám. Its origin was as follows: A few months after the Hijra, or flightfrom Mecca, Muhammad, dwelling in Madína, observed that the Jews kept, onthe tenth day of the seventh month, the great fast of the Atonement. ATradition records that the Prophet asked them why they kept this fast. Hewas informed that it was a memorial of the deliverance of Moses and thechildren of Israel from the hands of Pharaoh. "We have a greater right inMoses than they, " said Muhammad, so he fasted with the Jews and commandedhis followers to fast also. This was at the period of his mission whenMuhammad was friendly with the Jews of Madína, who occasionally came tohear him preach. The Prophet also occasionally attended the synagogue. Thencame the change of the Qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca, for the Jews were notso ready to change their {253} creed as Muhammad had at first hoped. In thesecond year of the Hijra, Muhammad and his followers did not participate inthe Jewish fast, for the Prophet now instituted the feast of the Baqr-'Íd. The idolatrous Arabs had been in the habit of making an annual pilgrimageto Mecca at this season of the year. The offering of animals in sacrificeformed a part of the concluding ceremony of that pilgrimage. Thatportion--the sacrifice of animals--Muhammad adopted in the feast which now, at Madína, he substituted for the Jewish fast. This was well calculated toattract the attention of the Meccans and to gain the goodwill of the Arabs. Muhammad could not then make the pilgrimage to Mecca, for as yet there wasa hostile feeling between the inhabitants of the two cities; but on thetenth day of the month Zu'l-Hajja, at the very time when the Arabs at Meccawere engaged in sacrificing victims, Muhammad went forth from his house atMadína, and assembling his followers instituted the Íd-uz-Zuhá or Baqr-'Íd. Two young kids were brought before him. One he sacrificed and said: "OLord! I sacrifice this for my whole people, all those who bear witness toThy unity and to my mission. O Lord! this is for Muhammad and for thefamily of Muhammad. "

Great merit is obtained by all who keep this feast. 'Áyesha relates how theProphet once said: "Man hath not done anything on the 'Íd-ul-Azhá morepleasing to God than spilling blood; for verily the animal sacrificed willcome on the day of resurrection with its horns, hair and hoofs, and willmake the scale of his good actions very heavy. Verily its blood reached theacceptance of God before it falleth upon the ground, therefore be joyful init. "

Musalmáns say that the Patriarch Abraham was ordered to sacrifice Ishmael, and that he made several ineffectual attempts to cut the throat of his son. Ishmael then said to his father: "It is through pity and compassion for methat you allow the knife to miss: blindfold yourself and then sacrificeme. " Abraham acted upon this advice, {254} blindfolded himself, drew hisknife, repeated the Bismilláh, and, as he thought, cut the throat of hisson; but, behold, in the meantime Gabriel had substituted a sheep for thelad. This event is commemorated in this feast. 

On the day before the feast, the Arfa, or vigil, is kept. Food of variouskinds is prepared, over which a Fátiha is offered, first, in the name ofthe Prophet; secondly, in the names of deceased relatives, and of othersfor whom a blessing is desired, or from whom some favor is expected. Thefood is then sent as a present to friends. 

On the morning of the feast day, the devout Muslims proceed to the 'Íd-gáhor, if there is no 'Íd-gáh, to the principal Mosque, repeating on the waythe Takbír "God is Great!" and "There is no other God save the one trueGod, God is great, praise be to God. " At the time of making wazú, theworshipper should say: "O God, make this (_i. E. _ the sacrifice I shalloffer to-day) an atonement for my sin, and purify my religion and take evilaway from me. "

The Service at the 'Íd-gáh, or in the Mosque consists of two farz rak'ats, as in the Salát-ul-Juma (p. 201), after the Khutba is delivered. It will, however, be seen from the following sermon that it is mustahab to say fourmore rak'ats. 

 SERMON ON THE 'ÍD-UZ-ZUHÁ. 

 In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. 

 Alláhu Akbar! God is Great. There is no God but God. God is Great! God is Great and worthy of all praise. He is Holy. Day and night we should praise Him. He is without partner, without equal. All praise be to Him. Holy is He, Who makes the rich generous, Who provides the sacrifice for the wise. He is Great, without an equal. All praise be to Him. Listen! I testify that there is no God but God. He is alone, without partner. This testimony is as bright as the early dawn, as brilliant as the glorious feast day. Muhammad is His servant who delivered His message. On Muhammad, and on his family, and on his Companions may the peace of God rest. On you who are present, O congregation of Muslimín, may the {255} mercy of God for ever rest. O servants of God! our first duty is to fear God and to be kind. God has said: "I will be with those who fear Me and are kind. "

 Know O servants of God! that to rejoice on the feast day is the sign and mark of the pure and good. Exalted will be the rank of such in Paradise (Dár-ul-Qarár), especially on the day of resurrection will they obtain dignity and honour. Do not on this day foolish acts. It is no time for amusements and negligence. This is the day on which to utter the praises of God. (Tasbíh. ) Read the Kalíma, the Takbír and the Tamhíd. This is a high festival season and the feast of sacrifice. Read now the Takbír-ut-Tashríq. God is great! God is great! There is no God but God! God is great! God is great! All praise be to Him! From the morning of the 'Arfa, after every farz rak'at it is good (mustahab) for a person to repeat the Takbír-ut-Tashríq. The woman before whom is a man as Imám, and the traveller whose Imám is a permanent resident (Muqím) should also repeat this Takbír. It should be said at each Namáz until the Salát-ul-'Asr of the Feast day (10th). Some, however, say that it should be recited every day till the afternoon ('Asr) of the thirteenth day, as these are the days of the Tashríq (p. 231). [261] If the Imám forgets to recite, let not the worshipper forget. Know, O believers, that every free man who is a Sáhib-i-Nisáb (_i. E. _ worth Rs. 52) should offer sacrifice on this day, provided that this sum is exclusive of his horse, his clothes, his tools, and his household goods and slaves. It is wájib for every one to offer sacrifice for himself, but it is not a wájib order that he should do it for his children. [262] A goat, a ram or a cow should be offered in sacrifice for every seven persons. The victim must not be one-eyed, blind, lame or very thin. 

 If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve you well, and carry you across the Sirát. O Believers, thus said the Prophet, on whom be the mercy and peace of God, "Sacrifice the victim with your own hands, this was the Sunnat of Ibráhím, on whom be peace. "

 In the Kitáb-uz-zád-ut-Taqwá, it is said that on the 'Íd-ul-Fitr and the 'Íd-uz-Zuhá, four nafl rak'ats should be said after the farz Namáz {256} of the 'Íd. In the first rak'at after the Súrat-ul-Fátiha recite the Súrat-ul-A'lá (Súra lxxvii); in the second, the Súrat-ush-Shams (Súra xci); in the third, the Súrat-uz-Zuhá (Súra xciii); in the fourth, the Súrat-ul-Ikhlás (cxii). 

 O Believers, if ye do so, God will pardon the sins of fifty years which are past and of fifty years to come. The reading of these Súras are equal as an act of merit to the reading of all the books God has sent by His prophets. 

 May God include us amongst those who are accepted by Him, who act according to the Law, whose desire will be granted at the last day. To all such there will be no fear in the day of resurrection; no sorrow in the examination at the day of judgment. The best of all books is the Qurán. O believers! May God give to us, and to you a blessing for ever by the grace of the Noble Qurán. May its verses be our guide, and may its wise mention of God direct us aright. I desire that God may pardon all believers, male and female, the Muslimín and the Muslimát. O believers, also seek for pardon. Truly God is the Forgiver, the Merciful, the Eternal King, the Compassionate, the Clement. O believers, the Khutba is over. Let all desire that on Muhammad Mustafá the mercy and peace of God may rest. 

The worshippers then return to their respective homes and offer up thesacrifice, [263] for it is a wájib order that every Muslim should keep thisfeast, and sacrifice an animal for himself. He need not fear though he hasto incur debt for the purchase of an animal, for it is said that God willin some way help him to pay the debt. If a camel is sacrificed, it shouldbe one not less than five years of age, if a cow or sheep it should atleast be in its second year, though the third year is better; if a goat itmust not be less than six months old. All of these animals must be withouta blemish, or defect of any kind. It is a sunnat order that the head of thehousehold should himself slay the victim. If, however, from any cause, hecannot do so, he may call in a butcher; but in that case he must place hishand upon that of the butcher when the operation is performed. If the {257}victim is a camel, it must be placed with the head towards Mecca. Its frontlegs being bandaged together the sacrificer must stand on the right handside of the victim, and plunge the knife into its throat with such forcethat the animal may fall at once. Any other mode of slaying it is unlawful. Other animals must be slain in the same way. Just before slaying the victimthe following verse of the Qurán should be repeated: "Say! my prayers, andmy worship, and my life and my death are unto God, the Lord of the worlds. He hath no associate. This am I commanded, and I am the first of theMuslims. " (Súra vi. 163). The operator also adds: "O God, from Thee, and toThee (I do this), in the name of God, God is Great!" Then having slain thevictim he says: "O God accept this for me. " The first meal taken should beprepared from the flesh of the animal just slaughtered, after which themembers of the family, the neighbours, and the poor should receive someportions. 

It is considered highly meritorious to sacrifice one animal for each memberof the family; but as that would involve an expenditure few could bear, itis allowable to sacrifice one victim for the household. In extreme casesmen may combine together and make one sacrifice do for the whole, but thenumber of persons so combining must not exceed seventy. Some authoritieslimit the number to seven. This feast is strictly observed by all Muslimswherever they may be. 

The Baqr-'Íd and the 'Íd-ul-Fitr constitute the 'Ídain, the two greatFeasts of Islám. A country in which Musalmáns could not observe them bothwould at once become Dár-ul-Harb, or House of Enmity, in which it would bethe bounden duty of every Muslim to join in a Jíhád, against the Infidelrulers of the land. 

This completes the principal Feasts of the Muslim year. 

Among other practices borrowed from the Hindus must be placed thepilgrimage made by Indian Musalmáns to the {258} shrines of Saints, theceremonies connected with them and the festivals instituted in theirhonour. Properly speaking, the Sunnís have but two festivals--the Baqr-'Ídand the 'Íd-ul-Fitr, but many others are now observed. Of these I havedescribed several. It only remains to notice a few of the festival dayswhich are peculiar to India. The title of Pír given to a Musalmán devoteeis equivalent to the term Guru amongst the Hindus. A man who seeks to be a'religious' takes a Pír as a spiritual guide. "Follow, " says the poet Walí, "the footsteps of thy Pír, like a shadow. " After death these Pírs arevenerated as Walís or Saints. The Pírs when alive, are frequently resortedto for a ta'wíz, or charm, and the aid of their prayers is often invoked. The sepulchre of a Walí is called a Dargáh, shrine; Mazár, place ofpilgrimage; Rauza, garden. The professional reciter of the Qurán, and theNamáz at such places is called a Rauza Khán. As a rule, processions aremade to the shrines, and flowers, sweetmeats and food over which a Fátihahas been said are offered. Usually the Fátiha is _for_ the Saint, not _to_the Saint. It is considered a very meritorious act to give land for theerection of such shrines and to endow them. An account of many of theseSaints is given in the Bara Masa by Jawán and the Áráyish-i-Mahfil byAfsos. The following selection will give an idea of the customsprevalent:--

1. FESTIVAL OF MADÁR. --Sayyid Badr-ud-dín Kutb-ul-Madár is said to havedescended from the Imám Husain. He was born at Aleppo about A. D. 1050, andreceived from Muhammad permission to "hold his breath" (Habs-i-dam). Thushe was able to live to a good old age. He is said to have had 1, 442 sons, and to have died when upwards of 300 years old. More rational peopleexplain the number of his sons by saying they were his spiritual children. The length of his life is explained by saying that as each man has to makea certain number of inspirations, the less frequently he does it the longerhe will live. Jawán in his account of {259} the festival states: "The tombof Madár is at Makanpúr, a place about forty miles from Cawnpore. " On theseventeenth of the month Jamádí-ul-Awwal an immense crowd fills the villagewhich is illuminated at night. Fires are lighted, around which Fakírsdance, and through which they leap calling out "Dam Madár, Dam Madár, "(breath of Madár. ) An order of Fakírs, called Madária, look to this Saintas their patron. In distant places where this feast is kept they set up anAlam, or standard in honour of the Saint, and perform ceremonies common tosuch days. The nights are spent in celebrating his praises, &c. 

2. FESTIVAL OF MU'ÍN-UD-DÍN CHISTÍ. [264]--The tomb of this Saint is inAjmír. He was a Syed descended from Husain, the son of 'Alí, and was bornin Sajistán about the year 537 A. H. His father died when he was aboutfifteen years old. Soon after this he fell in with a famous Fakír, IbráhímQandúzí, through whose influence he began to seek the Taríqat, or mysticalroad to the knowledge of God. When he was twenty years of age he receivedfurther instruction from the famous 'Abd-ul-Qádir Jílání. After theconquest of Hindustan by Shaháb-ud-dín Ghorí, Mu'ín-ud-dín retired toAjmír, where he died in the odour of sanctity 636 A. H. Pilgrimages to thistomb have been and are very popular. Emperors and people vied with eachother in doing honour to the memory of this saint. Even Akbar, scepticthough he was as regards orthodox Islám, made a pilgrimage to this shrine, and offered vows that he might have a son who would live to manhood. Hindusalso visit this tomb and presents from rich men of this class are notunusual. 

3. FESTIVAL OF SÁLÁR MAS'ÚD GHÁZÍ. --There is some doubt as to thenationality of this Saint. Some say he was a Husainí Syed, others that hewas a Pathán, and a martyr. His tomb is situated in Oude. Afsos thusdescribes the {260} pilgrimage. "Once a year great crowds of people gatherfrom all parts. They carry red lances, and beat thousands of tambourines. The 'Urs is held on the first Sunday of the month Jíth (May-June). Thepeople believe that this was his wedding day, because it is said that hehad on wedding garments when he was killed. This belief once led a certainoilman, a resident of Radúlí, to send a bedstead, chair, and other marriagepresents to the shrine at this time. The custom is still kept up by thedescendants of the oilman. The common people fasten ropes to the branchesof the trees in the neighbourhood, and swing, some by the hands and some bythe heels, and assume various disguises. They thus hope to obtain what theydesire. " The Hindus venerate this Saint very highly. The Musalmáns lookupon him as a most sacred person, for he slew many idolatrous Hindus, andso earned the title of Ghází, the warrior: the Hindus consider that it wasonly by the power of God that he could do so many acts of prowess. 

4. FESTIVAL OF THE BÍRA OR OF KHÁJA KHIZR. --Of this Saint, M. Garcin deTassy says: "Khája Khizr is a personage respecting whom the opinions oforientals vary. Many consider him the same as Phineas, the grandson ofAaron; others that he is the prophet Elias; and lastly, the Turks confoundhim with St. George. In order to reconcile these conflicting opinions, someallege that the same soul has animated three different persons. Whatever bethe fact, Khizr, according to the Musalmáns, discovered the source of theWater of Life of which he is the guardian. He is believed to be very cleverin divination, and to be the patron of waters. As such a festival is heldin his honour. " Jawán describes it thus: "In the month of Bhádún(August-September) all whose wishes have been fulfilled, make it a point ofduty to set afloat the boat (náú) in honour of Khája Khizr, and to makeaccording to their means offerings of milk and bruised grain to the holypersonage. On every Friday, and in some places on every Thursday, in themonth {261} in question, the devotees having prepared the bíra carry it atnight to the bank of the river, with many ceremonies. There great andsmall, having lighted lamps and tapers, make their respective oblations, whilst a number of swimmers together jointly push the bíra into the middleof the river. " Sometimes a number of small bíras, made of clay, are alsolaunched, and as each carries a lamp the general effect is striking. It issaid that the Musalmán natives of the Maldive Islands annually launch asmall vessel laden with perfumes, gum, and odoriferous flowers, and leaveit to the mercy of the winds and waves as an offering to the god of thesea. There can be no doubt that this god of the sea is Khizr, the patron ofthe waters. 

The following prayer is recited in the Fátiha of Khizr: "To obtain purityof heart, and the benediction of Him who hears the vows of mortals, and whoalone can keep from them all evils, I rest upon the merits of Khája Khizr, the great prophet Elias. "

5. THE FEAST OF PÍR DASTGÍR SÁHIB. --This is held on the eleventh day of themonth of Rabí'-us-Sání. The Sunnis hold this Saint in great reverence. Hehas no less than ninety-nine names. His tomb is at Baghdád. On the tenth ofthe month the ceremony called Sandal (p. 245) is performed, followed on thenext day by the 'Urs, when the Maulad, or the account of the circumstancesconnected with the birth of the saint is read; Qasá, id, or elegiac poemsare recited; the Darúd is repeated and Fátihas are said. The Qurán is alsoread through. Vows are frequently made to this Saint and in time of anyspecial visitation, such as cholera, a flag is carried about in honour ofthis Pír by some of his devotees to whom presents of food, &c, are offered. Fátiha is then said over them. He is said to appear to his followers duringtheir sleep and to give them directions. Ja'far Sharíf, the compiler of theQánún-i-Islám speaking, on this point relates his own experience thus: "Theauthor speaks from personal experience, for at the time of need, when he{262} was oppressed in mind concerning things which he desired, he used torepeat constantly the ninety-nine names of the Pír and vow before the HolyGod, imploring His assistance by the soul of Dastgír; and through the mercyof the Almighty, his Excellency Ghaus-ul-A'zam (Dastgír) presented himselfin his sleep, and relieved him of his perplexities and vouchsafed hisbehests. "

Syed Ahmad Kabír Rafáí, the founder of the Rafái Darwíshes was a nephew ofthis Saint. 

6. FESTIVAL OF QÁDIR WALÍ SÁHIB. --This is the great saint of SouthernIndia. The 'Urs is celebrated on the tenth day of Jamádí-us-Sání. Theshrine is at Nagore, a town situated four miles north of Negapatam. Thesandal and other ceremonies are similar to those described already. He isthe patron saint of sailors, who in times of difficulty vow that, if theyreach the shore in safety, they will offer a Fátiha in the name of QádirWalí. The common people have a profound faith in the power of the saint towork miracles. The story of the following one is frequently related: "Avessel springing a leak was about to founder, when the Captain made a vowthat should Qádir Walí stop the leak, he would offer in his name the valueof the cargo. At that time the saint was being shaved, but beingmiraculously acquainted with the perilous position of the Captain he castaway the looking-glass which he held in his hand. This glass attacheditself to the hole in the bottom of the ship which then came safely toland. The Captain, in due course, presented his offering to the saint whorequested him to return the glass to the barber. The Captain was astonishedat this request and enquired what glass was meant. He was then directed tolook at the bottom of his ship. He did so, and discovered how the saint hadsaved the ship. "

The festival affords a curious illustration of the way in which Hinduinfluences have acted on Islám, and how even Hindus pay regard to MuslimSaints. Qádir Walí is said to {263} have been a Fakír who lived on thecharity of both Hindus and Musalmáns. Indeed both parties claim him asbelonging to their respective religions, which may be accounted for by thefact that in his preaching to mixed audiences he suited his addresses toboth classes of his hearers. After his death a small Mosque was erected onor near his tomb. The fame of the Walí gradually grew, and a Hindu Rajahmade a vow that if he were blessed with the birth of a son, he wouldenlarge and beautify the Mosque. His wish was fulfilled, and the presentelegant structure is the result. So famous has the shrine of the Saint nowbecome that the Musalmáns there say: "First Mecca, then Nagore. " The samereason which induced the Hindu Rajah to make a votive offering years ago, still influences large numbers of people. On Thursday evenings, thecommencement of the Muhammadan Sabbath, many Hindu women resort to theshrine of the Saint. On the closing night of the Annual Feast, Tábúts aretaken in procession from Negapatam, and rich presents are sent from theTanjore Palace to the Nagore Mosque. Thus is the Hindu connection stillkept up with the festival of this Musalmán Saint. 

There are many other Walís and Pírs to whose tombs pilgrimages are made, and in memory of whom many superstitious observances are still kept up; butall such pilgrimages to a Dargáh (shrine) are no necessary part of Islám. In all parts of the country there are the shrines of Saints who have alocal reputation and whose annual festivals are more or less observed. Still it is not necessary for me to give a further account of these. Thisbrings me to the close of my subject. 

In the preceding chapters, I have endeavoured to set forth the mainfeatures of the Faith of Islám, and the religious duties it enjoins. Imight now go on to show its relation to Judaism and Christianity, theelements it has drawn from them, and the distortions it has made in theborrowing, as well as the protest it raised against much that was {264}corrupt in the Christianity with which it came in contact. I might alsoenlarge upon its moral and social effects, and the character it produces inthe individual and the state. But these subjects would lead me far beyondmy present scope. I prefer to content myself with giving a representationof the Faith of Islám from its own authorities, and with leaving my readersto make comparisons and draw inferences for themselves. 

THE END. 

{265}

 * * * * *

INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 

 A. 

 Aiyám-i-Bíz, 214 Aiyám-ut-Tashríq, 231 'Alam, 238 Al-A'ráf, 167 Al-Barzakh, 168 Al-Mahdí, 80 Akhir-Chár Shambah, 244 'Amm, 48 Amr-i-Takwíti, 176 Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, 150 Ásár-i-Sharíf, 245 Asháb, 7 'Áshúrá, 241 'Áshúr Khána, 237 Asmá-i-Husná, 133 Attahíyát, 197 Auliya, 152 Áyat, 54 Áyat-ul-Kursí, 212 Azád, 95 Azán, 193

 B. 

 Bárá Wafát, 244 Baqáb-i-Qausain, 158 Baqr-'íd, 252 bid'at, 14 Buráq, 241

 D. 

 Dá, írí, 81 Dalálat, 53 Dalíl-i-qata'í, 187 Dalíl-i-zani, 187 Darwíshes, 94 Dargáh, 258 Du'á, 197

 F. 

 Faná, 93 Farú', 120 Farz, 187 Farz-í-'ain, 208 Farz-i-kifáya, 207 Fatrah, 3 Fitrat, 187 Fuqihá, 33

 G. 

 Ghair-i-Mahdí, 81 Ghusl, 190 Gunáh-i-kabíra, 154 Gunáh-i-saghíra, 154 {266}

 H. 

 Hadís-i-Ahád, 70 Hadís-i-Hasan, 71 Hadís-i-Mua'llaq, 72 Hadís-i-Mursal, 72 Hadís-i-Mutawátír, 70 Hadís-i-Sahíh, 71 Hadís-i-Z'aíf, 71 Hadd, 179 Háfiz, 42 Haft Sifát, 118 Hajj, 223 Hajr-ul-Aswad, 226 Hál, 93 Haqíqat, 52, 93 Harám, 188 Hárút, 142 Hasal Khazaf, 230

 I. 

 Ibádhiyah, 76 Ibárat, 53 Iblís, 140 'Íd-gáh, 245 'Íd-ul-Fitr, 247 Iftár, 250 Ihlál, 224 Ihrám, 224 Ijmá', 16 Ijmá'-i-Ummat, 17 Ijtihád, 17, 26, 32 Ijtihád fi'l-Masá, íl, 34 Ijtihád fi'l-Mazhab, 34 Ijtihád fi'l-Sharí', 34 Ilhám, 37 Ilká, 40 'Ilm-i-usúl, 41 Imám, 75 Imám Abu Hanífa, 19 Imám Ibn Málik, 20 Imám As-Sháfa'í, 21 Imám Ibn Hanbal, 22 Imámat, 75 Imám Bára, 237 Imán-i-mufassal, 116 Imán-i-mujmal, 116 Istidlál, 53 Ishárat, 53 Ishrák fi'l-'ibádat, 108 Ishrák fi'l-adab, 109 Isnád, 67 'Itikáf, 249 Iqámat, 194 Iqtizá, 54 I'tibár-ul-Amsál, 27

 J. 

 Jabríans, 132 Jahannum, 172 Jámí'-i-Tirmizí, 86 Jamrat-ul-Akahah, 230 Jannat, 171 Jashn-i-milád-i-sharíf, 245 Jinn, 145 Juz, 56

 K. 

 K'aba, 227 Kalám, 135 {267} Kalima, 54, 116 Karámians, 163 Kasb, 130 Kausar, 171 Kináyah, 52 Kirám-ul-Kátibín, 141 Kitmán, 91 Khafí, 50 Khárigites, 76 Kháss, 48 Kharq-i-'ádat, 157 Khulafá-i-Ráshidín, 66 Khutba, 201

 L. 

 Labbaik, 225 Lahad, 211 Lailat-ul-Qadr, 2

 M. 

 Mahmúdiah, 83 Majáz, 52 Majzúb, 95 Maukadda', 200 Makrúh, 188 Mansúkh, 59 Maqám-i-Mahmúd, 169 Marsiya, 238 Márút, 142 Mihráb, 243 Mimbar, 239 Míqát, 225 Mízán, 165 Mua'qqibát, 141 Muawwal, 48 Mu, azzin, 193 Mubáh, 188 Mufassir, 33, 50 Mufsid, 188 Muhaddis, 67 Mujassimians, 131 Mu'jizát, 157 Mujmal, 51 Mujtahid, 17 Mukham, 50 Munkir, 145 Murshid, 92 Mutashábih, 52 Musallí, 193 Mushábihites, 131 Mus-haf, 147 Muharram, 237 Muskhil, 51 Mustahab, 188 Mu'takif, 249 Mustarik, 48 Muta'h, 84 Mutazilites, 125

 N. 

 Nabí, 153 Nafkhatain-i-Súr, 161 Nafl, 199 Nakír, 145 Namáz, 193 Nass, 50 Násikh, 59 Nisáb, 218 Niyyat, 194 Núr-i-Muhammadí, 77 {268}

 Q. 

 Qadam-i-Rasúl, 245 Qadríans, 174 Qazá, 214 Qíám, 194 Qíás, 27, 28 Qirá, at, 43 Qárí, 43

 R. 

 Rak'at, 195 Ramazán, 247 Ramí-ul-Jamár, 230 Rasúl, 153 Rauza Khán, 258 Roza, 213 Roza-i-nazr, 214 Roza-i-kafára, 214 Rúh-ul-Ámín, 4 Rukú', 56 Rúz-i-Tarwiáh, 229

 S. 

 Sadqa, 250 Sahá, íf-i-A'mál, 165 Sahíh-i-Bukhárí, 67 Sahíh-i-Muslim, 68 S'ai, 229 Salát, 193 Salát-ul-'Asr, 200 Salát-ul-Fajr, 200 Salát-ul-'Ishá, 200 Salát-ul-Ishráq, 200 Salát-ul-Istisqá, 206 Salát-ul-Istikhára, 213 Salát-ul-Janáza, 207 Salát-ul-Juma', 200 Salát-ul-Khauf, 204 Salát-ul-Khusúf, 206 Salát-ul-Kusúf, 205 Salát-ul-Maghrib, 200 Salát-ul-Musáfir, 204 Salát-ut-Taráwíh, 206 Salát-ul-Tahajjud, 200 Salát-uz-Zuhá, 200 Salát-uz-Zuhr, 200 Sálik, 92 Saríh, 52 Shafá'at-i-ba-izn, 108 Shafá'at-i-muhabbat, 107 Shafá'at-i-wajahat, 107 Shirk, 105 Shirk-ul-'Ádat, 109 Shirk-ul-ibádat, 108 Shirk-ul-'ilm, 107 Shirk-ut-tasarruf, 107 Sifát-i-Salbiah, 123 Sifát-i-Sabútiah, 123 Sihah-Sittah, 67 Sípára, 56 Sirát, 166 Sufíism, 87-101 Sunan-i-Abu Dáúd, 68 Sunan-i-Nasáí, 68 Sunan-i-Májah, 69 Sunnat, 10 Súra, 55

 T. 

 Ta'awwuz, 195 {269} Taba-i-Tábi'ín, 7 Tábi'ín, 7 Tábút, 238 Tahárat, 189 Tahríf, 149 Takbír, 193 Takía, 84 Talbíyah, 225 Talqín, 212 Tasbíh, 195 Tashahhud, 188 Tasmía', 195 Tasmíyah, 195 Tatáír-i-Sahá, íf, 163 Tauhíd, 106 Tauqífi, 132 Tawáf, 227 Tawáf-ul-Widá', 231 Tayammum, 190 Tázíah, 238

 U. 

 Usúl, 120 'Umráh, 231

 W. 

 Wahhábís, 101 Wahí, 37 Wajd, 93 Wájib, 187 Wájib-ul-Wajúd, 132 Wáqi'a Khán, 239 Wazú, 189 Witr, 198

 Z. 

 Zakát, 218-222 Záhir, 49 Ziárat, 233

 * * * * *

NOTES

[1] There is an excellent one by Neil B. E. Baillie. The question of Jihádis fully discussed in Dr. Hunter's _Our Indian Musalmáns_. 

[2] "Let none touch it but the purified. " (Súra lvi. 78. )

[3] "It was certainly an admirable and politic contrivance of his to bringdown the whole Korán at once to the lowest heaven only, and not to theearth, as a bungling prophet would have done; for if the whole had beenpublished at once, innumerable objections might have been made, which itwould have been very hard, if not impossible for him to solve; but as hepretended to receive it by parcels, as God saw proper that they should bepublished for the conversion and instruction of the people, he had a sureway to answer all emergencies, and to extricate himself with honour fromany difficulty which might occur. " (Sale's Preliminary Discourse, SectionIII. )

[4] Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 77. 

[5] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. I. P. 195. 

[6] "The grandeur of the Qurán consists, its contents apart, in itsdiction. We cannot explain the peculiarly dignified, impressive, sonorousnature of Semitic sound and parlance; its sesquipedalia verba with theircrowd of affixes and prefixes, each of them affirming its own position, whilst consciously bearing upon and influencing the central root--whichthey envelope like a garment of many folds, or as chosen courtiers movearound the anointed person of the king. " Literary Remains of EmmanuelDeutsch, p. 122. 

[7] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. I. P. 194. 

[8] Those who were in constant intercourse with the prophet are calledAsháb (Companions); their disciples are named Tábi'ín (Followers); theirdisciples are known as Taba-i-Tábi'ín (Followers of the Followers). "

[9] "Thus, after the usual distribution of the spoils taken on the field ofCadesia (A. H. 14) the residue was divided among those who knew most of theCorán. " Muir, vol. I. P. 5. 

[10] Muavia. 

[11] The twelve Imáms. 

[12] Al-Mahdí is still supposed to be alive. 

[13] These are called (1) Sunnat-i-Fi'lí; that which Muhammad himself did. (2) Sunnat-i-Qaulí, that which he said should be practised. (3)Sunnat-i-Taqrírí, that which was done in his presence and which he did notforbid. 

[14] Risála-i-Berkeví. 

[15] The great Wahhábí preacher Muhammad Ismá'íl, of whom some account willbe given later on, says in the Takwiat-ul-Imán:--"The best of all ways isto have for principles the words (holy writings) of God and _of HisApostle_; to hold them alone as precedents, and not to allow our ownopinion to be exercised. "

[16] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. I. P. 195. 

[17] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 16. 

[18] Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 285. 

[19] "Les docteurs de la loi sont unaniment d'accord sur l'obligation deconformer ses actions à ce qui est indiqué dans les traditions attribuéesau Prophète, " Ibn Khaldoun, vol. Ii. P. 465. 

[20] In June 1827, A. D. , Sultán Mahmud issued a manifesto protestingagainst interference in the affairs of the Ottomán Empire, "the affairs ofwhich are conducted upon the principles of _sacred legislation_, and allthe regulations of which are strictly connected with the principles ofreligion. " These principles still remain in force, for the famous Fatvágiven by the Council of the 'Ulamá, in July 1879, anent Khair-ud-dín'sproposed reforms, speaks of "the unalterable principles of the Sheri, " orLaw. 

[21] "The respect which modern Muslims pay to their Prophet is almostidolatrous. The Imám Ibn Hanbal would not even eat water-melons becausealthough he knew the Prophet ate them, he could not learn whether he atethem with or without the rind, or whether he broke, bit or cut them: and heforbade a woman, who questioned him as to the propriety of the act, to spinby the light of torches passing in the streets by night, because theProphet had not mentioned that it was lawful to do so. " Lane's ModernEgyptians, vol. I. P. 354. 

[22] Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 1009. 

[23] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. Ii. P. 469. 

[24] Journal Asiatique 4me série, tom. Xii. 

[25] Osborn's Islám under the Khalífs, p. 29. 

[26] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. Ii. P. 594. 

[27] Ibid. , p. 546. 

[28] Ibid. , vol. Ii. P. 548. 

[29] In South India, the Muhammadan money-changer resorts to a curiouspiece of casuistry to reconcile the practice of his profession with thefaith he holds. It is wrong to gain money by money as a direct agency. Suppose, then, for example, that the charge for changing a shilling is onefarthing. It is unlawful for the money-changer to give four three-pennypieces for one shilling plus one farthing, for then he will have sinnedagainst the laws anent usury by gaining money (one farthing) by money; butif he gives three three-penny pieces plus two pence three farthings incopper the transaction will be lawful, as his profit of one farthing isthen gained by selling as merchandize certain pieces of silver and copperfor one shilling, and not by exactly changing the shilling. 

Again, pictures or representations of living creatures are unlawful; andso, when British rupees were first circulated in India, good Muslimsdoubted whether they could use them, but after a long consultation the'Ulamá declared that, as the eye of His Majesty was so small as not to beclearly visible, the use of such coins was legal. This kind of casuistry isvery common and very demoralizing; but it shows how rigid the law is. 

[30] "Authority becomes sacred because sanctioned by heaven. Despotism, being the first form of consolidated political authority, is thus renderedunchangeable and identical in fact with Government at large. " "SupremeGovernment has four stages: (1) where the absolute Prince (Muhammad) isamong them concentrating in his own person the four cardinal virtues, andthis we call the reign of wisdom; (2) where the Prince appears no longer, neither do these virtues centre in any single person: but are found in four(Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Alí), who govern in concert with each other, asif they were one, and this we call the reign of the pious; (3) where noneof these is to be found any longer, but a chief (Khalíf) arises with aknowledge of the rules propounded by the previous ones, and with judgmentenough to apply and explain them, and this we call the reign of the Sunnat;(4) Where these latter qualities, again, are not to be met with in a singleperson, but only in a variety who govern in concert; and this we call thereign of the Sunnat-followers. --Akhlák-i-Jalálí, pp. 374. 378. 

[31] Life of Muhammad, by Syed Amír 'Alí, p. 289. 

[32] The Muslim 'Ulamá are certainly much fettered by their religion in thepursuit of some of the paths of learning; and superstition sometimesdecides a point which has been controverted for centuries. Lane's ModernEgyptians, vol. I. P. 269. 

[33] The Goth might ravage Italy, but the Goth came forth purified from theflames which he himself had kindled. The Saxon swept Britain, but the musicof the Celtic heart softened his rough nature, and wooed him into lesschurlish habits. Visigoth and Frank, Heruli and Vandal, blotted out theirferocity in the very light of the civilisation they had striven toextinguish. Even the Hun, wildest Tartar from the Scythian waste, wastouched and softened in his wicker encampment amid Pannonian plains; butthe Turk--wherever his scymitar reached--degraded, defiled, and defamed;blasting into eternal decay Greek, Roman and Latin civilisation, until, when all had gone, he sat down, satiated with savagery, to doze for twohundred years into hopeless decrepitude. Lieut. -Col. W. F. Butler, C. B. , in_Good Words_ for September 1880. 

[34] "The Muslim everywhere, after a brilliant passage of prosperity, seemsto stagnate and wither, because there is nothing in his system or hisbelief which lifts him above the level of a servant, and on that levelman's life in the long run must not only stagnate but decay. The Christian, on the other hand, seems everywhere in the last extremity to biddisorganization and decay defiance, and to find, Antæus-like, in the earthwhich he touches, the spring of a new and fruitful progress. For there isthat in his belief, his traditions, and in the silent influences whichpervade the very atmosphere around him, which is ever moving him, often inways that he knows not, to rise to the dignity and to clothe himself withthe power which the Gospel proposes as the prize of his Christian calling. The submissive servant of Allah is the highest type of Moslem perfection;the Christian ideal is the Christ-like son. "--_British Quarterly, No. _cxxx. 

[35] A Mukallif is one who is subject to the Law. A Ghair-i-Mukallif is onenot so subject, such as a minor, an idiot, &c. The term Mukallif is thusequivalent to a consistent Muslim, one who takes trouble (taklíf) in hisreligious duties. 

[36] Commentators on the Qurán. 

[37] The Traditionists. 

[38] Plural of Faqíh, a theologian. 

[39] I have given the dates of their death. 

[40] Osborn's Islám under the Khalífs p. 72. 

[41] Dabistán, p. 214. 

[42] pp. 508-510. 

[43] "It (the Qurán) is simply an instruction for all mankind" (Súra xii. 104). 

[44] Zawábit-al-Qurán, pp. 110, 111. 

[45] The opinion of Von Hammer, quoted by Sir W. Muir, in his life ofMuhammad (vol. I. Page 27) seems to be correct, "We may hold the Qurán tobe as surely Muhammad's words as the Muhammadans hold it to be the Word ofGod. "

[46] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. Iii. P. 16. 

[47] "Were we to examine the Qurán by the rules of rhetoric and criticismas they are taught in Muslim schools, we should be obliged to acknowledgethat it is the perfection of thought and expression; an inevitable resultas the Muslims drew their principles of rhetoric from that verybook. "--Baron M. De Slane, in the introduction to Ibu Khallikan'sBiographical Dictionary. 

[48] There are many Traditions which refer to this fact. Omar Ibn alKhattáb said; "I accorded with my cherisher (_i. E. _, God) in three things. One is that I said, 'O messenger of God! if we were to say our prayers inAbraham's place it would be better. ' Then a revelation came down 'Take theplace of Abraham for a place of prayer. ' The second is, that I said, 'Omessenger of God! good and bad people come to your house; and I do not seethat it is fitting; therefore, if you order your women to be shut up itwill be better. ' Then the revelation for doing so came down. The third is, that his Majesty's wives were all agreed in a story about his drinkinghoney; and he had vowed never to drink it more. Then I said to hisMajesty's wives, 'Should the Prophet divorce you, God will give him betterin exchange. ' Then a revelation, came down agreeing with what I said. "

'Áyesha said:--"I was reflecting on those women who had given themselves tothe Prophet, and said 'What! does a woman give herself away?' Then therevelation descended:, 'Thou mayest decline for the present whom thou wiltof them, and thou mayest take to thy bed her whom thou wilt, and whomsoeverthou shalt long for of those thou shalt have before neglected: and thisshall be no crime in thee. ' (Súra xxxiii. 51). I said; 'I see nothing inwhich your God doth not hasten to please you: whatsoever you wish Hedoeth. '"

[49] Les Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. Ii. P. 459. 

[50] This includes even the orthography, for:--"La génération suivante, jeveux dire les Tábis (Tába'ín), adopta l'orthographe des Compagnons duProphète et se fit un mérite de ne point s'écarter des formes adoptées parceux qui, après Mahommed, étaient les plus excellent des hommes et quiavaient recu de lui les révélations célestes, soit par écrit, soit de vivevoix. " Ibn Khaldoun, vol. Ii. P. 397. 

[51] This interpretation God made known to the Prophet, who communicated itto the Companions, hence all orthodox opinion must be in strict accordancewith theirs. They were the sole depositaries of the inspired commentarygiven by Muhammad. There is now no room for, as there is no need of, anyother. 

[52] Speaking on this very subject Ibn Khaldoun says:--"Rien de tout celan'a pu se connaître que par des indications provenant des Compagnons et deleurs disciples. " Vol. Ii. P. 460. 

[53] Ibn Khaldoun says that Zamakchori, (a theologian of good repute forlearning in the sixth century A. H. ), remarked on these letters asfollows:--They indicate that the style of the Qurán is carried to such adegree of excellence, that it defies every attempt to imitate it; for thisbook which has been sent down to us from heaven is composed of letters. Allmen know them all alike, but this power disappears when, in order toexpress their ideas, they want to use these same letters combined. "

On this curious passage Baron de Slane remarks that the author is not veryclear, and that the Turkish translator of Ibn Khaldoun gives the sense ofthe passage as:--"God has placed these letters in several Súras as a sortof defiance; as if He had said:--'Voilà les éléments dont se compose leCoran; prenez-les et faites-eu un livre qui l'égale par le style. '" IbnKhaldoun, vol. Iii. P. 68. 

[54] The last verse revealed at Mecca was, "This day have I perfected yourreligion for you, and have filled up the measure of my favours upon you;and it is my pleasure that Islám be your religion; but whoso without wilfulleanings to wrong shall be forced by hunger to transgress, to him, verily, will God be indulgent, merciful. " (Súra v. 5). Ibn Khaldoun vol. I. P. 206. 

[55] The arrangement made by Professor Th. Nöldeke in his "Geschichte desQuráns" is considered by Stanley Lane Poole to be the best. Rodwell'sEnglish version of the Qurán is, with some exceptions, an example of thisorder. 

[56] On ordinary occasions any verses may be chosen. The 112th Súra is theone generally repeated. 

[57] Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 216. 

[58] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 131. 

[59] Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, C. S. I. , vol. I. P. 268. See note on this in chapter 4. Section 'Prophets. '

[60] Niáz Namáh, by Maulavi Safdar 'Ali, p. 250. 

[61] Biographical Dictionary, vol. Ii, p. 679. 

[62] "He ranked as a high authority in the Traditions and was well versedin all the sciences connected with them. " Ibn Khallikan, vol. Ii. P. 680. 

[63] The Káfi, by Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A. H. 329. TheMan-lá-yastah-zirah-al-Faqíh, by Shaikh 'Alí, A. H. 381. The Tahzíb and theIstibsár by Shaikh Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A. H. 466. The Nahaj-ul-Balághat bySayyud Razí A. H. 406. 

[64] If the Isnád is good, internal improbability carries with it littleweight against the genuineness of a Tradition. There is a saying current tothis effect:--"A relation made by Sháfa'í on the authority of Málik, and byhim on the authority of Nafi, and by him on the authority of Ibn Omar, isreally the golden chain. "

[65] Núr-ul-Hidáyah, p. 5. 

[66] A full account of these will be found in the preface to theNúr-ul-Hidáyah, the Urdu translation of the Sharh-i-Waqáyah. 

[67] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 123. 

[68] Kisas-ul-Anbiya, --"Lives of the Prophets. "

[69] Hyát-un-Nafís. 

[70] The Shía'hs in claiming freedom from sin for the infallible Imáms aremore logical than the Romanists, thus:--

"If we are to believe in the inerrability of a person, or a body ofpersons, because it is, forsooth, necessary for the full preservation ofthe truth, we must then also believe in all besides that can be shown to beneedful for the perfect attainment of that end. Now, the conservation ofall spiritual truth is not a mere operation of the intellect. It requiresthe faultless action of the perceiving power of the spirit. That is to say, it requires the exclusion of sin; and the man or body that is to beinfallible, must also be a sinless organ. It is necessary that thetainting, blinding, distorting power of sin should be shut out from thespiritual eye of the infallible judge. " Gladstone's _Gleanings_, vol. Iii. P. 260. 

[71] It is a common Musalmán belief that the body of a prophet casts noshadow. A similar idea regarding necromancers was widely spread overNorthern Europe. It is alluded to by Scott in the "Lay of the LastMinstrel, " where speaking of the father of the Ladye, who in Padua, "hadlearned the art that none might name, " he says:--

 "His form no darkening shadow traced Upon the sunny wall. "

It is said that at a certain stage of initiation candidates for magicalhonours were in danger of being caught by the devil. Now if the devil couldonly catch the shadow, and the man escaped, though so nearly captured, hebecame a great magician. This is evidently a legend to explain a previousbelief. Muhammadan ideas in the middle ages were prevalent in theUniversities of Southern Europe, and Salamanca and Padua were theuniversities, in which it was supposed that the greatest proficiency inmagic was obtained. The superstition has evidently some connection with theMusalmán belief regarding the shadows of prophets. 

[72] The Sunnís esteem and respect the Imáms, as Ahl-i-Beit--men of theHouse, (of the Prophet); but do not give them precedence over the dulyappointed Khalífs. 

[73] The names are 'Alí, Hasan, Husain, Zain-ul-'Abid-dín, Muhammad Báqr, Ja'far Sádiq, Musa Kázim, 'Alí Músa Razá, Muhammad Taqí, Muhammad Naqí, Hasan 'Askarí, Abu 'l-Qásim (or Imám Mahdí). 

[74] Rauzat-ul-Aimmah by Sayyid 'Izzat 'Alí. 

[75] For a good account of this movement see, Osborn's Islám under theArabs, pp. 168-184. 

[76] Islám under the Khalífs, p. 139. 

[77] Miskát-ul-Musábih. 

[78] Hujjat-ullah-ul-Balaghah. 

[79] Nothing shows this more plainly than the Fatvá pronounced by theCouncil of the 'Ulamá in July 1879 anent Khaír-ud-din's proposed reform, which would have placed the Sultán in the position of a constitutionalsovereign. This was declared to be directly contrary to the Law. Thus:--"The law of the Sheri does not authorize the Khalíf to place beside him apower superior to his own. The Khalíf ought to reign alone and govern asmaster. The Vakils (Ministers) should never possess any authority beyondthat of representatives, always dependent and submissive. It wouldconsequently be a transgression of the unalterable principles of the Sheri, which should be the guide of _all_ the actions of the Khalíf, to transferthe supreme power of the Khalíf to one Vakil. " This, the latest and mostimportant decision of the jurists of Islám, is quite in accordance with allthat has been said about Muhammadan Law. It proves as clearly as possiblethat so long as the Sultán rules as Khalíf, he must oppose any attempt toset up a constitutional Government. There is absolutely no hope of reform. 

[80] It is instructive to compare the words of the Christian poet with theSúfí idea of absorption into the Divine Being. 

 "That each who seems a separate whole Should move his rounds, and fusing all The skirts of self again, should fall Remerging in the general soul, Is faith as vague as all unsweet: Eternal form shall still divide The eternal soul from all beside; And I shall know him when we meet. " Tennyson's "In Memoriam. "

[81] "Le spiritualisme des Sofis, quoiqu'il soit le contraire dumatérialisme, lui est en réalité identique. Mais si leur doctrine n'est pasplus raisonnable, elle est du moins plus élevee et plus poétique. " PoésiePhilosophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin De Tassy, p. 2. 

[82] Kaf--a chain of mountains supposed to encircle the earth. 

[83] 'Anka--the Phoenix. 

[84] "Ils pensent que la Bible et le Coran ont été seulement écrits pourl'homme qui se contente de l'apparence des choses, qui s'occupe del'extérieur, pour le _záhir parast_, comme ils le nomment, et non pour lesofi qui sonde le fond des choses. " La Poésie Philosophique et religieusechez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 13. 

[85] The word Darvísh, or Darwísh, is of Persian origin. It is derived from'dar, ' a door, and 'wíz' the root of the verb 'awíkhtan, ' to hang; hencethe idea of hanging about doors, or begging. The 'z' is changed into 'sh'and the word becomes 'Darwísh. ' Some Musalmáns, however, do not like thisidea of holy men being called by a name which implies the habit of begging, and so they propose another derivation. They derive it from "dur, " a pearl, and "wísh, " like; and so a durwísh is one 'like a pearl. ' The wísh is fromwásh, a lengthened form of wash, an affix of common use to expresssimilitude; or the long vowel in wásh may by a figure of speech, calledImála, be changed into the í of wísh. I think the first derivation the moreprobable. A good Persian dictionary, the Ghíás-ul-Lugbát, gives bothderivations. 

[86] For a very interesting account of this religious ceremony, see Hughes'Notes on Muhammadanism, Chapter 51. 

[87] La Poésie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcinde Tassy, p. 7. 

[88] Súfí doctrines of the Moollá Sháh by Tawakkul Beg. Journal Asiatique6me Série, tom. 13. 

[89] "That Omar in his impiety was false to his better nature we mayreadily admit, while, at the same time, we may find some excuse for hiserrors, if we remember the state of the world at that time. His clearstrong sense revolted from the prevailing mysticism where all the earnestspirits of his age found their refuge, and his honest independence wasequally shocked by the hypocrites who aped their fervour and enthusiasm;and at that dark hour of man's history whither, out of Islám, was thethoughtful Muhammadan to repair? No missionary's step, bringing goodtidings, had appeared on the mountains of Persia; the few Christians whomight cross his path in his native land, would only seem to him idolaters. "Speaking, too, of Sa'di's life the reviewer says: "almost the only point ofcontact with Christendom is his slavery under the Crusaders at Tripoli. Thesame isolation runs through all the golden period of PersianLiterature"--_Calcutta Review_, No. Lix. 

[90] The following are the names of the Wahhábí chiefs:--Muhammad-Ibn-Saud, died A. D. 1765; 'Abd-ul-Azíz, assassinated, 1803; Saud-Ibn-'Abd-ul-Azíz, died 1814; 'Abd-Ulláh-ibn-Saud, beheaded 1818; Turki, assassinated 1830;Fayzul, died 1866; 'Abd-Ulláh, still living. Hughes Notes, p. 221. 

[91] Palgrave's Arabia, vol. Ii. P. 10. 

[92] According to the latest Census Report there are 4, 000 in the MadrasPresidency, where the total Musalmán population is about 2, 000, 000. 

[93] Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 149. 

[94] Palgrave's Arabia vol. I. P. 369. 

[95] Palgrave's Arabia, vol. I. P. 372. 

[96] Ibid, p. 372. 

[97] Muhammad Ismá'íl concludes his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Imán, withthe prayer--"O Lord teach us by Thy grace, the meaning of the terms Bid'atand Sunnat, and the Law of the Prophet. Make us pure Sunnís and strictlysubmissive to the Sunnat. " This is a clear and distinct proof that Wahhábísdo not reject Tradition as a basis of the Faith. It also shows their horrorof innovation, and reveals the little hope there is of any real progressthrough their influence. 

[98] "Mr. Finlay, the clever but partial author of "The Byzantine Empire, "has declared in a sweeping way 'that there is no greater delusion than tospeak of the unity of the Christian Church. ' However this may be, I canaffirm the perfect applicability of this sentence to Islám in the East. Inno part of the world is there more of secret division, aversion, misbelief(taking Muhammadanism as our standard), and unbelief than in those verylands which to a superficial survey, seem absolutely identified in the onecommon creed of the Qurán and its author. "--Palgrave's Arabia, vol. I. P. 10. 

[99] Strictly speaking, this chapter should be entitled the 'Faith ofIslám, ' as the subject of it is technically called Imán, or faith. TheKalima, or creed is, in the strict sense, the expression of belief in oneGod, and in Muhammad as His apostle. I here use the word creed in the usualsense of a body of dogmas. 

[100] Iqrárun bil-lisáni wa tasdíqun bil janáni. 

[101] Amantu billáhi kama hua bismáíhi wa sifátíhi wa qabiltu jamí'aahkámihi. 

[102] Amantu billáhi wa maláíkatihi wa kutubihi wa rusulihiwal-youm-íl-ákhiri wal-qadri khairihi wa sharrihi min alláhi ta'áláwal-ba'si ba'd al-mouti. 

[103] He speaks of it thus: "l'ouvrage élémentaire de la religion Musulmanele plus estimé et le plus répandu en Turquie, " p. 154. 

[104] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 27. 

[105] The above statements form the substance of several pages in the"Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, " in which also occurs the following: "Celan'est pas toutefois un motif pour déprécier notre intelligence et nosfacultés perceptives: l'intelligence est une balance parfaitement juste:elle nous fournit des résultats certains sans nous tromper. Mais on ne doitpas employer cette balance pour peser les choses qui se rattachent àl'unité de Dieu, à la vie future, à la nature du prophétisme, au véritablecaractère des attributs divine et à tout ce qui est au delà de sa porteé. Vouloir le faire, ce serait une absurdité. " Vol. Iii. P. 45. 

[106] "Telle fut la règle suivie par les anciens musulmans à l'égard desverses motachabeh; ils l'appliquaient aussi aux expressions du même genrequi se présentent dans la Sonna, parce qu'elles proviennent de la mêmesource que celles du Coran. " Ibn Khaldoun, vol. Iii. P. 67. 

This passage is of some interest as maintaining the common source andorigin of the Qurán and the Sunnat. 

[107] Ibn Khallikan, vol. I. P. 565. 

[108] "The Musulmán Authors distinguish between the earlier and laterMutakallimán. The former (of whom we here treat) were occupied with purelyreligious questions; the latter, who arose after the introduction of theGreek philosophy amongst Muslims, embraced many philosophic notions, thoughthey tried to make them fit in with their religious opinions. " Mélanges dePhilosophie Juive et Arabe, p. 320. 

[109] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 250. 

[110] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 250. 

[111] Dabistán, p. 218. 

[112] Ibn Khallikan, vol. Iii, p. 343. 

[113] "C'etait l'époque de la plus grande splendeur extérieure de l'empiredes Arabes, où leur pouvoir, et en même temps leur culture intellectuelleet littáraire, atteignirent leur point culminant. " Journal Asiatique 4meSérie, Tome xii. P. 104. 

[114] To understand the bearing of all the discussions that then tookplace, the reader should have some acquaintance with the history of theKhalífs, and of the rise and progress of Muslim philosophy. The former canbe found in Osborn's "Khalífs of Baghdád. " A short review of the latterwill be found in a note at the end of this chapter. 

[115] Ibn Khallikan, vol. Ii p. 669. 

[116] Ibid, p. 228. 

[117] Ibn Khaldoun says: "L'établissement des preuves (fondées sur laraison) fut adopté par les (premiers) scolastiques pour le sujet de leurtraités, mais il ne fut pas, comme chez les philosophes, une tentative pourarriver à la découverte de la vérité et pour obtenir, au moyen de ladémonstration, la connaissance de ce qui était ignoré jusqu' alors. Lesscolastiques recherchaient des preuves intellectuelles dans le but deconfirmer la vérité des dogmes, de justifier les opinions des premiersMusalmans et de repousser les doctrines trompeuses que les novateursavaient émises. " Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. Iii. P. 169. 

[118] Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 63

[119] "Most excellent titles has God: by these call ye on Him and standaloof from those who pervert His titles. " (Súra vii. 179. )

[120] "The Mujassimians, or Corporealists not only admitted a resemblancebetween God and created beings, but declared God to be corporeal. " Sale'sPreliminary discourse, Section viii. Para. 3. 

[121] Ibn Khallikan, vol. Iv. P. 394. 

[122] "The Freethinkers (Mutazilites) left no traces of themselves exceptin the controversial treatises which they had written. These weredestroyed, and with their destruction the last vestiges of the conflictbetween Free-thought and the spirit of Islám were obliterated. " Osborn'sKhalífs of Baghdád, p. 148. 

[123] Súra xxxix, 68, 69. 

[124] L'Islamisme d'après le Coran, p. 135. 

[125] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 112. 

[126] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 187. 

[127] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 58. 

[128] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 19. 

[129] "From the beginning of history the Caucasus is to civilized nations, both Greek and Oriental, the boundary of geographical knowledge--indeed, the boundary of the world itself. "--Bryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat, p. 48. 

[130] See also Súra xxxviii. 89. 

[131] Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 140. 

[132] Thus the famous Persian poet Sa'dí says in the Bustán, "Yetímí kihnákardah Qurán darust, kutub khána-i-chand millat bashust. "--"The Perfectone who, ere the whole of Gabriel's book he reads, has blotted out thelibrary of all the peoples' creeds. "

[133] Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 147. Mansukh shud tiláwatan wa Kitábatan, _i. E. _ abrogated both as regards reading and writing--entirely abrogated. Also Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 64. Dín-i-wai Násikh-i-jami'-i-adián ast. --"Hisreligion abrogates all religions. "

[134] Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, C. S. I. , vol. I. P. 268. This Commentary is written in Urdu, but the author has made a translationfor the benefit of the English reader. The passage referred to reads thusin English: "Those who imagine it to be part of the Muhammadan creed thatone law has totally repealed another are utterly mistaken, and we do notbelieve that the Zuboor (Book of Psalms) abrogated the Taureit(Pentateuch); that the Taureit in turn gave way to the Injeel (NewTestament) and that the New Testament was suppressed by the Holy Korán. Wehold no such doctrine, and if any ignorant Muhammadan should assert to thecontrary, he simply knows nothing whatever about the doctrines and articlesof his faith. " The learned Syed here assumes the rôle of a liberalMusalmán, but the English translation is different from his Urdu textwhich, literally translated, is as follows:--"Now it should be consideredthat those who imagine it to be part of the creed of Muslims that theTaurát by the coming of the Zabúr, and the Zabúr by the coming of theInjíl, and the Injíl by the coming of the Qurán are abrogated _on accountof the idea that there is any defect in them_ are utterly mistaken, &c. "

The clause which I have italicised is entirely omitted in the English text;but it alters the import of the whole passage. To his co-religionists theSyed says in effect: "The books _are abrogated_ but not because they wereimperfect. " Now, as no Muslim would believe that a divine book wasdefective, the Syed is simply asserting the fact of the abrogation of theprevious Scriptures and to the orthodox is orthodox. The leader of anapparently liberal section of Indian Musalmáns is, in this instance, atleast, as conservative as the most bigoted. 

[135] Syed Ahmad's Commentary on the Holy Bible, vol. I. P. 22. 

[136] Ibid, p. 31. 

[137] There are many other such passages. They are given in detail, withthe interpretation of approved commentators, in a small S. P. C. K. Publication--The Korán--by Sir W. Muir. 

[138] Commentary on the Holy Bible, by Syed Ahmad, C. S. I. , vol. I. Pp. 64-95. 

[139] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59. 

[140] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59. 

[141] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 65. 

[142] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. I. Pp. 196-205. 

[143] "That the "Auliya" are distinguished above ordinary mortals ismaintained on the authority of:--"Are not the friends (Auliya) of God, those on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they be put to grief. " (Súra x. 63. )

[144] Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 125. 

[145] Sirát-ul-Islám, p. 18. 

[146] This is an orthodox blow at the Shía'h practices in the month ofMuharram. Shía'hs consider this a good act. 

[147] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 18. 

[148] It is said Adam's sin was a mere slip but it brought good to theworld. Had he remained in Paradise the world would not have been peopled;and the word of God "I have not created men and jinns, except for worship, "would not have been fulfilled. 

[149] That is, according to the commentator Beidawí, --"Thy remissness inpropagating Islám. "

[150] Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 332. 

[151] On the contrary, he seems to disclaim such a power. Thus the Quraishsaid: "By no means will we believe on thee till thou cause a fountain togush forth for us from the earth; or, till thou have a garden of palm-treesand grapes, and thou cause forth-gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst;or thou make the heaven to fall on us, as thou hast given out, in pieces;or thou bring God and the angels to vouch for thee, &c. Say: Am I more thana man, an Apostle?" (Súra xvii. 92-95). Former prophets, Muhammad used tosay, were sent to their own sect, but he was sent for all. Their miracleswere confined to their own times. The Qurán the great miracle of Islám, wasfor all ages. He needed no other sign than this. 

[152] "Have We not opened thine heart for thee. " (Súra xciv. 1). Traditionrelates that when young, two angels cut open his breast, and took out ablack drop; many other marvels are also connected with this event. 

[153] Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí. 

[154] Tafsír-i-Husainí. P. 362

[155] For a graphic account of these events see "Literary Remains ofEmmanuel Deutsch, " pp. 99-112. 

[156] "All that Muhammadans must believe respecting the Mi'ráj is that theProphet saw himself, in a vision, transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, andthat in such a vision he really beheld some of the greatest signs of hisLord. " Essays by Syed Ahmad, Essay vi. P. 34. This, though a legitimate, isnot, however, an orthodox opinion; which is, that he who denies an actualbodily migration from Mecca to Jerusalem is a Káfir, (infidel) as he deniesthe statement of a 'nass' or plain text of the Qurán. He who denies theascension to heaven, and the wonderful account of the night's proceedingspreserved in the Traditions is a "fásiq, " (sinner), though he remains aMuslim. 

[157] Some commentators make no distinction between the first and secondblast, as only two are distinctly mentioned in the Qurán. 

[158] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 183. 

[159] According to Búkhárí and to Muslim, this perspiration will flow to adistance of seventy yards from, and reach up to the lobe of the ears ofthose who perspire. 

[160] "That is, they will know the inhabitants of Paradise by theirwhiteness, and the people of Hell by the blackness of their faces. "

[161] For some curious opinions with regard to the state of the soul theresee Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv. , p. 55. 

[162] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 47. 

[163] Tafsír-i-Husainí, vol. I. P. 397. 

[164] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 25. 

[165] Miskát-ul-Musábíh, book xxiii. Ch. 12. 

[166] "Although some Muhammadans, whose understandings are too refined toadmit such gross conceptions, look on their Prophet's description asparabolical, and are willing to receive them in an allegorical or spiritualacceptation, yet the general and orthodox doctrine is, that the whole is tobe strictly believed in the obvious and literal acceptance. " Sale'sPreliminary Discourse, Section iv. P. 73. 

[167] This, the Lauh-ul-Mahfúz, is referred to in Súra lxxxv. 22, as thaton which the Qurán is written. In Súra xxxvi. 11, the actions of men aresaid to be written in "the clear book of our decrees. " This is called theImám-ul-Mubín, the clear prototype. 

[168] "The Prophet of God said that Adam and Moses (in the world ofSpirits) maintained a debate before God, and Adam got the better of Moses, who said, "Thou art that Adam, whom God created and breathed into thee Hisown Spirit, and made the angels bow down before thee, and placed thee inParadise; after which, thou threwest man upon the earth, from the faultwhich thou didst commit. ' Adam replied, 'Thou art that Moses, whom Godselected for His prophecy and to converse with, and He gave thee twelvetables, in which are explained everything, and he made thee His confidantand the bearer of His secrets; then how long was the Bible written before Iwas created?' Moses said, 'Forty years. ' Then said Adam, 'Didst thou see inthe Bible that Adam disobeyed God?' 'Yes. ' 'Dost thou reproach me on amatter, which God wrote in the Bible forty years before creating me?'"

[169] Ibn Kah, commenting on the verse, "When thy Lord brought forth theirdescendants from the reins of the sons of Adam and took them to witnessagainst themselves, 'Am I not, ' said He, 'your Lord, ' They said: 'yes, wewitness it. '" (Súra vii. 171), goes on to say: "God formed all the prophetsand saints into one class, and the martyrs into another. The pious men, also, were separated into one, and the wicked into another. One class wasformed of the obedient servants, while the unbelievers, _viz_. , the Jews, the Christians, the Majians, the Hindus, &c. , were likewise divided intoseveral parties; next, they were shaped into forms, that is, into the shapein which he was to appear in the world was predestined for each one. " Thispassage is quoted with approval by the Wahhábí author of theTakwiyat-ul-Imán. 

[170] The orthodox Commentator 'Abbás says: "This verse refers to thedecree, _e. G. _ 'He whom God wills to believe certainly will do so, and whomHe wills to be an infidel will be one, ' and not at all to man's free will. "Tafsír-Hisainí, vol. Ii. Page 9. 

[171] Mélanges de Philosophe Juive et Arabe par S. Munk. P. 458. 

[172] Thus the poet Faizí says: "Before thou and I were thought of, ourfree will was taken from our hands; be without cares, for the Maker of bothworlds settled our affairs long before we were made. "

[173] The punishment of death is sometimes decreed for lesser offences. Inthe latter part of the year 1879, one of the Turkish 'Ulamá, named Ahmad, was condemned to death for having assisted Dr. Koelle, an English clergymanresiding in Constantinople, in the translation of the Book of CommonPrayer, and a tract on 'Christ the Word of God. ' Owing to the urgentrepresentations of the British Ambassador the Khojah's life was spared, buthe was banished to the island of Chio. The Porte promised to maintain hisfamily whilst he was absent. It need scarcely be said that nothing of thekind has been done. 

[174] Journal Asiatique 4me Série, tome 17, p. 582

[175] This is the Sháfa'íte form which the Hanifites consider wrong. 

[176] Kingsley's Alexandria and her Schools, p. 160. 

[177] Les Prairies D'or, tome sixième, p. 368. 

[178] Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 315. 

[179] For a statement of the Ash'arían doctrines see pp. 130-131. 

[180] Strictly speaking, one should not speak of Arab but of Muslimphilosophy, for curiously enough only one famous Philosopher, Al-Kendi, wasan Arab. 

[181] Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 429. 

[182] "Aprés lui, nous ne trouvons plus chez les Arabes aucun philosophevéritablement digne de ce nom. " Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, parS. Munk, p. 458. 

[183] Muslim rule in Spain is often referred to as an instance of theheight of culture and the liberality of sentiment which may exist in aMuhammadan state. I have shown that the culture was not due to the teachingof the Arab Prophet and his Companions, and with regard to the liberalityit is well to remember the words of G. H. Lewes. He says: "The Arabs, though they conquered Spain, were too weak in numbers to hold that countryin subjection otherwise than by politic concessions to the opinion andcustoms of the people. " History of Philosophy, vol. I. P. 36. 

[184] "There never was any Arabian science, strictly speaking. In the firstplace, all the Philosophy and Science of the Muhammadans was Greek, Jewish, and Persian.... It really designates a reaction against Islámism, whicharose in the distant parts of the Empire, in Samarcand, Bokhara, Morocco, and Cordova. The Arabian language having become the language of the Empire, this Philosophy is written in that language; but the ideas are not Arabian;the spirit is not Arabian. " History of Philosophy, by G. H. Lewes, vol. Ii. P. 34. 

[185] The Persian term for this is Namáz, a word in commoner use in Indiathan Sulát. Both terms will henceforth be employed. 

[186] There is a Tradition to the effect that "the whole body of him whosays the name of God when making wazú will be clean; whereas, if he says itnot, only the part washed will be pure. "

[187] Before commencing the wazú, say: "I am going to purify myself fromall bodily uncleanness preparatory to commencing prayer, that holy act ofduty, which will draw my soul near to the throne of the Most High. In thename of God, the Great and Mighty. Praise be to God who has given us graceto be Muslims. Islám is a truth and infidelity a falsehood. "

When cleaning the teeth say: "Vouchsafe O God, as I clean my teeth, topurify me from my faults and accept my homage. O Lord, may the purity of myteeth be for me a pledge of the whiteness of my face at the day ofjudgment. "

When washing the nostrils say: "O my God, if I am pleasing in Thy sight, perfume me with the odours of Paradise. "

When washing the right hand say: "O my God, on the day of judgment, placethe book of my actions in my right hand, and examine my account withfavour. "

When washing the left hand, say: "O my God, place not at the resurrectionthe book of my actions in my left hand. " Similar prayers are said at eachact. 

[188] From the account which follows it will be seen that the term Namázexpresses what we term a 'Service. ' The word for prayer in the ordinarysense is 'Du'á. '

[189] It is taken from the Sirát-un-Naját, pp. 30-33. 

[190] As the use of bells is unlawful a man is employed to call the peopleto prayers. 

[191] "God is Great. "

[192] The followers of Imám As-Sháfa'í and the women of all sects place thehands upon the breast. The feet should be about four inches apart; womenstand with the feet close together. 

[193] The second rak'at begins here: all that precedes is only repeated atthe first rak'at. 

[194] A fixed portion is said in each rak'at during the nights of Ramazán, which portion is then called a rukú'. (Ante. P. 57. )

[195] In a mosque the Imám says the first sentences alone; the people thesecond. 

[196] Women in the Sijda keep all the limbs of the body close together, andput both feet at right angles to the body. If their face is Qibla-wards itis sufficient. 

[197] Here the Shía'hs say:--"I rise and sit by the power of God. "

[198] This is said at the close of every two rak'ats. 

[199] The Shía'hs stop here and omit the rest. 

[200] The Shía'hs omit the Du'á and say: "Peace be on thee, O Prophet, withthe mercy of God and His blessing. Peace be on us and on God's righteousservants. "

[201] The Fatvá, or decree, will be found in a note at the end of thischapter. 

[202] I am indebted to Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism for this excellenttable. 

[203] The Musallí may say five or three witr rak'ats instead of seven. 

[204] Núr-ul-Hidáayat, p. 155. 

[205] In countries under Muslim rule he holds a wooden sword reversed. 

[206] One who says, "Alláhu Akbar--God is Great. "

[207] A reference to his presence with Muhammad in the cave (ghár) whenthey fled from Mecca to Madína. See Súra ix. 40. 

[208] Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 153. 

[209] Sirát-un-Naját, p. 40. 

[210] Qíám is one of the positions in a Namáz and is here used bysynecdoche for it. In Mecca the Salát-ut-Taráwíh is called with referenceto this Tradition the Salát-ul-Qíámíah. 

[211] Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 141. 

[212] That is, a non-Muslim who is allowed to reside in a Musalmán State onpayment of a special tax. 

[213] The Sháfa'ítes raise the hands at the recital of each of the fourTakbírs; the other sects do so only at the first. 

[214] If the deceased was a child or a mad person, they say:--

"O God, make him (or her, as the case may be) a guide for us, and make hima cause of our gaining a future reward. O God, save him and make him anintercessor for us. "

[215] The Imám makes the Niyyat in his mind that the Salám may be on hisguardian angels, and on the worshippers who are behind him; each worshippermakes the Niyyat that the Salám may be on his guardian angels, on hisfellow worshippers and on the Imám. 

[216] _i. E. _, the deceased's. 

[217] Death, resurrection, judgment; &c. 

[218] This contradicts verse 254 of this Súra. Muslims explain it thus. Weaccept all prophets and as regards _faith_ in them make no difference, though as regards _dignity_ we recognize the distinction indicated in the254th verse. 

[219] That is, the Jews and Christians, on whom, it is said by the MuslimCommentators, many strict ceremonial observances were incumbent. The wordoften used to express the idea of the burdensome nature of ceremonialobservance is taklilíf, trouble. Practically, Muslims are not free fromthese "loads, " a fact which finds expression in the word used for a piousman--a mukhallif, one who has to take trouble in the way of performingreligious duties. 

[220] In Madras, a branch of the pomegranate tree is usually stuck in. 

[221] The name of the mother is here inserted. The mother's name is chosenin preference to that of the father, as there can be no doubt as to thematernity of the child. For the same reason it is said that at the Last Dayeach man will be summoned as such an one, son of such a mother. This simplefact reveals a sad state of morals, or, at least, a disbelief in the virtueof women. 

[222] The idea is that the reward of this act is transferred to the personon whose behalf it is made. 

[223] Súra ii. 256. 

[224] There are others who maintain that this is a _mukham_ statement andcannot therefore be abrogated. They hold that it must be restricted to theaged and to persons who have chronic diseases. Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 30. Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 120. 

[225] Burton says that, when in the disguise of a Musalmán doctor he was inCairo making preparations for the Hajj, he had but one patient who wouldbreak his fast to save his life. All the others refused though death shouldbe the consequence. 

[226] "The former are called Zakát, either because they increase a man'sstore by drawing down a blessing on him and produce in his soul the virtueof liberality, or because they purify the remaining part of one's substancefrom pollution and the soul from the filth of avarice; the latter arecalled Sadqa because they are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worshipof God. " Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv. 

[227] That is food or money sufficient to provide one meal for a poorperson. 

[228] The technical term is 5 wasq. A wasq is equal to 60 sá', and a sá' isequal to 8 ratal. A ratal is equal to 1 lb; so a wasq, a load for onecamel, is about 480 lb. 

[229] Mosques are usually endowed. The property thus set apart is calledwaqf. This supports the various officials connected with a Mosque. 

[230] The two famous disciples of Imám Abu Hanífa, Abu Yúsuf and Muhammad. 

[231] This ceremony is called Al-Ihrám (_i. E. _, making unlawful), becausenow various actions and pursuits must be abstained from. The ceremony ofdoffing the pilgrim's garb is called Al-Ihlál (_i. E. _, making lawful), fornow the pilgrim returns to the ordinary pursuits and joys of a life in theworld. 

[232] This statement of names is taken from the Núr-ul-Hidáyat p. 211, andthat of the distance from Hughes' Notes on Islám; but Burton speaks of AlZaribah, a place 47 miles distant from Mecca as a Míqát. It was there thathe assumed the Ihrám. The explanation probably is that a Hájí must notapproach nearer to Mecca without the Ihrám than the places named in thetext. The farther from Mecca it is assumed, provided that it be during oneof the two months preceding Zu'l-Hajja, the more meritorious is the act. 

[233] Talbíyah means the repetition of "Labbaik, " a phrase equivalent to "Iam here. " The Talbíyah can be said in any language, though Arabic ispreferred. It usually is as follows: "Labbaik, Alláhumma, Labbaik! LáSharíka laka, Labbaik! Inna-l-hamda wa-n-ní'amata laka, w'-al-mulk! LáSharíka laka, Labbaik!

[234] "The object of these minute details is that the "Truce of God" may bekept. " The five noxious creatures, however, may be slain, _viz. _, a crow, akite, a scorpion, a rat and a biting dog. " (Burton). 

[235] The Musjid-ul-Harám is the large Mosque in Mecca. The K'aba (cube) isa square stone building in the centre. This is also called the Qibla. TheHajr-ul-Aswad is the black stone fixed in the corner of the K'aba. 

[236] It is said to have been rebuilt ten times. A full description will befound in Burton's Pilgrimage to Madína and Mecca, vol. Iii. Ch. 26. It isfar too long to quote, and it cannot be condensed. The following extract isof some interest, as it states why the 'Ulama consider the K'aba so sacreda place. They quote the verse: 'Verily the first house built for mankind(to worship in) is that in Beccah (Mecca)--Blessed and a salvation to humanbeings. Therein are manifest signs, even the standing-place of Abraham, andhe who entereth is safe. ' (Súra iii. 90). The word 'therein' is said tomean Mecca, and the "manifest signs" the K'aba, which contains such marvelsas the footprints on Abraham's platform, and is the spiritual safeguard ofall who enter it. In addition, other "signs" are the preservation of theblack stone, the miracles put forth to defend the House, the terrible deathof the sacrilegious, and the fact that in the Flood the big fish did noteat the little fish in the Harám. Invalids recover their health by rubbingthemselves against the Kiswat (the covering of the K'aba), and the blackstone. One hundred thousand mercies descend on it every day, &c. Portionsof the Kiswat are highly valued as markers for the Qurán. Waistcoats madeof it are supposed to render the combatant invulnerable in battle. 

[237] The whole seven are one Usbú'. 

[238] The Maqám-i-Ibráhím is a small building, supported, by six pillarsabout eight feet high, four of which are surrounded from top to bottom by afine iron railing, while the space between the two hinder pillars is leftopen; within the railing is a frame about five feet square, said to containthe sacred stone on which Abraham sat when he built the K'aba. 

[239] In the first rak'at, the chapter usually recited is Súra cix; in thesecond, Súra cxii. 

[240] "Many find this inconvenient and so pass on to 'Arifát during theafternoon of the eighth day" (Burton). 

[241] The following legend is current about 'Arifát. "When our parentsforfeited heaven by eating wheat, which deprived them of their primevalpurity, they were cast down upon earth. The serpent descended at Ispahán, the peacock at Cabul, Satan at Bilbays, Eve upon 'Arifát and Adam atCeylon. The latter determining to seek his wife, began a journey, to whichthe earth owes its present mottled appearance. Wherever he placed hisfoot--which was large--a town arose; between the strides will always becountry. Wandering for many years he came to the Mountain of mercy, whereour common mother was continually calling upon his name, and theirrecognition gave the place the name of 'Arifát. They lived here till deathtook place. " (Burton). 

[242] The Sháfa'í rules allow a traveller any time when on a journey of anight and day to reduce the five Namáz to three by joining some. The Hanafícode allows the shortened form only on this day. 

[243] "The Shaitan-ul-Kabír is a dwarf buttress of rude masonry about eightfeet high, by two and a half broad, placed against a rough wall of stones. "(Burton). 

[244] Most of the ceremonies connected with the Hajj, the Ihrám, theshaving of the head, the going to Safá and Marwah, the throwing of thestones, the circuit of the K'aba, the kissing of the black stone, and thesacrifice were all pagan ceremonies performed by the idolatrous Arabs. Muhammad by his time-serving policy, adopted to gain the Meccans to hisside, has confirmed an idolatrous practice which otherwise would probablyhave been extinct long ago. Safá and Marwah were hills held insuperstitious reverence by the Meccans. The early Muslims had some doubtabout retaining them as sacred places: then came the revelation to theProphet, "Safá and Marwah are among the monuments of God, whosoever thenmaketh a pilgrimage to the temple or visiteth it, shall not be to blame ifhe go round about them both. " (Súra ii. 153). 

[245] These are the letters contained in words which direct the reader whento pause. Thus toí stands for mutlaq (slight pause), qif (pause), jím forjá, íz (freedom to pause, or not to pause), lá for no (no pause), mím forla'zim (necessary to pause), (. ) is a full stop. 

[246] Persian was the foreign language with which the early Muslims werebrought most into contact; but the objection applies equally to any otherlanguage. 

[247] A concession of no practical value, as any one with the power ofspeech could learn these words in a very short time. 

[248] This is because by so doing it would seem to ascribe to it similarityto human compositions. 

[249] During the first ten days they are supposed to contain the bodies ofthe martyrs, but now being empty the Tázías become mere ordinary frames andcan be destroyed, Qánún-i-Islám, p. 146. 

[250] This feast is known in South India as the Dassara. The idol is throwninto a tank. 

[251] The Mihráb is a niche in a wall which indicates the position ofMecca. The face is always turned to it when prayers are said; so that theexpression in the prayer means that 'Alí is to be the object toward whichthe faithful look. 

[252] The twelve Imáms, Muhammad and Fátima. 

[253] The 'Íd-gáh is usually built outside of the town, and consists of along wall of masonry with two minarets and a large raised open court. Thereis a Mihráb in the wall: but no proper mimbar or pulpit, three raised stepsdoing duty for it. Sometimes, however, a Mosque is used as an 'Íd-gáh. 

[254] Tradition records that the Prophet, after the battle of Ohud, was oneday ascending a hill in a rage. The heat of his passion was such that themountain softened into the consistence of wax and retained, some sayeighteen; others, forty impressions of his feet. When rebuked by Gabrielfor his anger the Prophet enquired the cause of his rebuke. Gabriel toldhim to look around. The Prophet seeing these impressions of his feet on thestones was astonished. His anger instantly ceased. Qánún-i-Islám, p. 152. 

[255] The Baqr-'Íd is the only other feast that has an 'Arfa. 

[256] Mishkát-ul-Musábih, Book vii. Ch. 1. 

[257] That is, his blessing or his curse takes effect. Qánún-i-Islám p. 170. 

[258] This is a warning to those who may have omitted this duty. 

[259] Khutbahá-i-Muhtarjam, p. 104. 

[260] "Observations on the Musalmáns of India. " Mrs. Mír Husan 'Alí, p. 192. "

[261] The opinion of the various Traditionists on this point is given inthe Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. Iv. P. 61. 

[262] Still it is mustahab, or a meritorious act so to do. It is also saidthat, if a minor is possessed of property, his father or his guardian maypurchase at his expense an animal and sacrifice it. The child may then eatas much as it can. The remainder of the meat must be exchanged forsomething which the child can use, such as clothes, shoes, &c. Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. Iv. P. 60. 

[263] According to the Imáms Sháfa'í and Málik no one must offer up thesacrifice until the Imám who has officiated at the previous Namáz has slainhis victim. Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. Iv. P. 61. 

[264] Áráyish-i-Mahfil p. 144. 

 * * * * *

Corrections made to printed original. 

Page 29 "It is moreover the unanimous opinion" - 'moveover' in original. 

Page 33 "the Imám-i-A'zam or great Imám" - Imám-í-'Azam in original, corrected by Errata. 

Page 40 "This is technically called Ilká" - Ilka in original, corrected byErrata. 

Page 91 "Sa'dí in the Bustán says" - Bustun in original, corrected byErrata. 

Page 92 "the famous Maulána Jelál-ud-dín Rúmí" - Maolána in original, corrected by Errata. 

Page 93 "It is Faná--extinction. " - Fana in original, corrected by Errata. 

Page 188 "a still lower class of action which are mubáh. " - mubah inoriginal, corrected by Errata. 

Page 190 "(12) the whole head must be rubbed once" - '(13)' in original. 

Page 192 "A man one day came to the Prophet" - 'come' in original. 

Page 218 "Islám, Hurriat (freedom) and Nisáb (stock). " - Húrriat inoriginal, corrected by Errata. 

Note 133 "Also Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 64. " - Tamíl-ul-Imán in original, corrected by Errata.