THE DETECTION OF FORGERY. 

 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK FOR THE USE OF BANKERS, SOLICITORS, MAGISTRATES' CLERKS, AND ALL HANDLING SUSPECTED DOCUMENTS. 

 BY DOUGLAS BLACKBURN (_Late Expert to the Natal Criminal Investigation Department, and the Transvaal Republic_)

 AND CAPTAIN WAITHMAN CADDELL. 

 LONDON: CHARLES & EDWIN LAYTON, FARRINGDON STREET, E. C. 1909. 

ERRATUM. (_Page 15. _)

Owing to the averages given in the table on page 15 being printed fromsome incomplete manuscript they are incorrect. It is obvious that theproper averages are--

 | 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16-1/4 | 21 | 20-3/4 | 20-3/4

Transcriber's Note:

 The corrections in the above erratum have been applied. The handwritten pages entitled 'Terminology' and 'Alphabet Variants' have been moved to the beginning of their relevant chapters. Hyphenation and punctuation have been standardised. 

CONTENTS. 

 CHAPTER PAGE

 INTRODUCTION 5

 I. --THE PRINCIPLES OF HANDWRITING ANALYSIS 7

 II. --MEASUREMENT AND ITS APPLIANCES 13

 III. --TERMINOLOGY 17

 IV. --CLASSES OF HANDWRITING 19

 V. --HOW TO EXAMINE A WRITING 21

 VI. --THE ALPHABET IN DETAIL 24

 VII. --THE CAPITALS 29

 VIII. --PUNCTUATION 31

 IX. --PAPER AND WATERMARKS 34

 X. --INKS 38

 XI. --ERASURES 42

 XII. --PENCILS AND STYLOGRAPHS 45

 XIII. --ANONYMOUS LETTERS AND DISGUISED HANDS 47

 XIV. --FORGED LITERARY AUTOGRAPHS 52

 XV. --FORGED SIGNATURES 60

 XVI. --THE EXPERT IN THE WITNESS-BOX 68

 XVII. --HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION 72

 XVIII. --BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HANDWRITING 78

INTRODUCTION. 

The object of this little work is to assist those who may occasionallybe called upon to form an opinion as to the genuineness of signatures, alterations in cheques, and the varied doubtful documents that demandthe serious consideration of business men by way of a preliminary to"taking further steps. "

It is the first attempt published in England to explain the principlesupon which the comparison and examination of handwriting are conductedby experts. It is, and can only be, an outline of suggestions how tobegin, for no two experts follow precisely the same methods, any morethan two painters work on the same lines. Both agree in recognisingcertain rules and general principles, but each strives for his objectivepoint by the employment of those means which experience, temperament, taste and opportunity suggest. The study of the elementary rules oftheir art puts them upon the road for perfecting it, after which successcan only be attained by rightly reading the signs that lead to theultimate goal. 

In reading these chapters the student should begin by practising thatself-help which is essential to success. _He must read with pen andnotebook. _ It is with the object of compelling this valuable habit thatno illustrative examples are given in the text. It would have been easyto fill many pages with script illustrations, but experience shows thata much greater impression is made upon the memory by the hand formingthe outlines described than if they were provided in pictorial form. Inother words, the student should supply this purposeful omission byhimself constructing the illustrations from the description. Thetrifling extra time and trouble thus demanded will be amply repaid bythe ease and rapidity with which the various points will be fixed in thememory. Nor is this the only advantage to be gained. The act ofreproducing the illustration cited will emphasise and render cleartechnical and mechanical features that would require many words toexplain, with the attendant risk of confusing the mind by mere verbiage. 

The material and opportunity for practising and studying the comparisonof handwritings are abundant. Every letter written or read affords asubject, and in a surprisingly short space of time the student will findhimself instinctively noting and analysing peculiarities in handwritingthat probably never arrested his attention before. The principles of theart are exceedingly simple and free from complexity, and many a personwho takes up the study will find that he possesses powers of analysisand observation unguessed before. The most successful expert is he whoobserves most closely and accurately, and the faculty needs only thespur of an objective point for it to be developed. 

After a little practice, experience will suggest many methods ofexamination and test not dealt with here. For example, photographicenlargements can be and are utilised with great advantage by bringingout minute details, especially in signatures, erasures and alterations. Interesting experiments can be made with a view to discovering theeffect of different kinds of ink--important in settling the questionwhether the whole of a particular writing was done with one fluid, andat the same time, or at intervals. 

The study of erasures and alterations of figures or characters alsocomes within the scope of developments of the art which it is not deemednecessary to deal with at length in these pages, for after experiencewill suggest their use and the best methods of procedure. For thebeginner the instructions given in the chapters that follow will befound amply sufficient to direct him how to take up a fascinating andpractical accomplishment, and this, with no further aid than his ownjudgment, perseverance and powers of observation and deduction. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE PRINCIPLES OF HANDWRITING ANALYSIS. 

The principle on which experts claim to be able to detect variations andto differentiate between handwritings is based on the well-establishedaxiom that there is no such thing as a perfect pair in nature; that, however close the apparent similarity between two things, a carefulexamination and comparison will reveal marked differences to thosetrained to detect them. 

This is especially true of everything that is produced by human agency. Everyone knows how difficult it is to keep check upon and eradicatecertain physical habits, such as gestures, style of walking, moving thehands, arms, &c. , tricks of speech, or tone of voice. These mannerisms, being mechanical and automatic, or the result of long habit, areperformed unconsciously, and there is probably no person who is entirelyfree from some marked peculiarity of manner, which he is ignorant ofpossessing. It is a well-known fact that the subject of caricature ormimicry rarely admits the accuracy or justness of the imitation, although the peculiarities so emphasised are plainly apparent to others. Even actors, who are supposed to make a careful study of their everytone and gesture, are constantly criticised for faults or mannerismsplain to the observer, but undetected by themselves. 

It is easy, therefore, to understand how a trick or a gesture may becomea fixed and unconscious habit through long custom, especially when, asin the case of a peculiarity of style in handwriting, there has beenneither criticism on it, nor special reason for abandoning it. 

Every person whose handwriting is developed and permanently formed hasadopted certain more or less distinctive peculiarities in the formationof letters of which he is generally unaware. 

The act of writing is much less a matter of control than may besupposed. The pen follows the thoughts mechanically, and few ready andhabitual writers could, if suddenly called upon to do so, say whatpeculiarities their writing possessed. For example, how many could sayoff-hand how they dotted an _i_--whether with a round dot, a tick or adash--whether the tick was vertical, horizontal or sloping; what was theproportional distance of the dot from the top of the _i_. Again, ask apractised writer how he crosses the letter _t_--whether with ahorizontal, up or down stroke? It is safe to assume that not one in athousand could give an accurate answer, for the reason that the dottingof an _i_ and crossing of a _t_ have become mechanical acts, donewithout thought or premeditation, but as the result of a long-formedhabit. 

It is these unconscious hand-gestures and mechanical tricks of stylethat the handwriting expert learns to distinguish and recognise, --theunconsidered trifles that the writer has probably never devoted aminute's thought to, and which come upon him as a surprise when they arepointed out to him. Their detection is rendered the more easy when oneknows what to look for from the fact that they are, unlike gestures andtricks of voice, permanent. A mannerism may not strike two observers inthe same way, nor is it easy to compare, for it is fleeting, and thememory has to be relied upon to recall a former gesture in order tocompare it with the last. It is not so with a hand-gesture in writing. The sign remains side by side with its repetition, for careful anddeliberate comparison; and if the writing be a long one, the expert hasthe advantage of being in possession of ample material on which to basehis judgment. 

_A Popular Fallacy. _--One of the most frequent objections offered by thecasual critic when the subject of expert testimony is discussed is tothe effect that people write different hands with different pens, and heprobably believes this to be true. A very slight acquaintance with theprinciples on which the expert works would satisfy this spontaneouscritic of the fallacy of his objection. A person who habitually writes afine, small hand, sloping from right to left, may believe that he hasaltered the character of his hand by using a thick, soft quill, reversing the slope to what is called a backhand, and doubling the sizeof the letters. All he has done is to put on a different suit ofclothes; the same man is in them. The use of a thick pen does not makehim put a dot over the _i_ where before he made an horizontal dash; itdoes not turn a straight, barred _t_ into a curved loop, neither does italter the proportionate distance between the letters and lines. It doesnot make him form loops where before he habitually made bars, or _viceversâ_, and if he formerly made a _u_ with an angle like a _v_ he willnot write the _u_ with a rounded hook. Neither will it cause him to drophis habit of adding a spur to his initial letters or curtail the endsand tails that he was wont to make long. In short, the points to whichthe expert devotes his investigation are those least affected by anyvariation in the character of the pen used and the hand-gestures whichhave, by constant usage, become as much part of the writer's style ashis walk and the tone of his voice. 

It follows, therefore, that the work of the handwriting experts consistsin learning how to detect and recognize those unconscious or mechanicalsigns, characteristics or hand-gestures that are a feature in thehandwriting of every person, no matter how closely any two hands mayapproximate in general appearance. However similar two hands may seem tothe casual and untrained observer, very distinct and unmistakabledifferences become apparent when the student has been taught what tolook for. There is no more certain thing than the fact that there hasnot yet been discovered two handwritings by separate persons so closelyallied that a difference cannot be detected by the trained observer. Every schoolmaster knows that in a class of pupils taught writing fromthe same model, and kept strictly to it, no two hands are alike, although in the early and rudimentary stage, before the hand hasattained freedom and approached a settled character, the differences areless marked. So soon as the child has been freed from the restraint ofthe set copy and the criticism of the teacher, he begins to manifestdistinct characteristics, which become more marked and fixed withpractice and usage. 

There is no writing so uniform as the regulation hand used, and wiselyinsisted upon, in the Civil Service, and familiar to the general publicin telegrams and official letters. Yet it is safe to say that there isnot a telegraph or post office clerk in England who would not be able topick out the writing of any colleague with which he was at allacquainted. 

_Duplicates non-existent. _--But the best and most decisive answer to theobjection that writings may be exactly similar lies in the notoriousfact that during half a century experts have failed to discover twocomplete writings by different hands, so much alike that a differencecould not be detected. Had such existed, they would long ere this havebeen produced for the confuting of the expert in the witness-box;particularly when we bear in mind that the liberty, and even the life ofa person, have depended upon the identification of handwriting. Thatthere are many cases of extraordinary similarity between differenthandwritings is a fact; if there were not, there would be very littleoccasion for the services of the expert, but it is equally a fact thatthe fancied resemblance becomes less apparent as soon as the writing isexamined by a capable and painstaking expert. It should not be forgottenthat it is not every person who undertakes the comparison ofhandwritings who is qualified for the task, any more than every doctorwho diagnoses a case can be depended upon to arrive at an accurateconclusion. But if the tried and accepted principles of the art be actedupon, there should be no possibility of error, always assuming that theperson undertaking the examination has a sufficiency of material forcomparison. An expert who valued his reputation would, for example, bevery cautious about giving an emphatic opinion if the only material athis disposal were two or three words or letters. It is quite possiblethat a clever mimic might reproduce the voice of another person soaccurately as to deceive those who knew the subject of the imitation;but let him carry on a conversation in the assumed voice for a fewminutes, and detection is certain. In like manner, while a fewcharacters and tricks of style in writing may be fairly well imitated, it is impossible to carry the deception over a number of words. Sooneror later the forger lapses into some trick of his own, and it is herethe trained observer catches him. The expert, like the caricaturist, lays himself out to note the peculiarities of his subject, knowing thatthese are practically beyond the control of the writer, and that theprobabilities are that he is not even aware of them. Peculiarities inhandwriting, like unchecked habits in children, become, in time, crystallised into a mannerism so fixed as to be part of the nature, andconsequently are difficult of eradication. As a matter of fact apeculiarity in handwriting is more often cultivated than controlled, many writers regarding a departure from orthodox copybook form as anevidence of an "educated hand. "

_The Law of Probabilities. _--In examining a writing for comparison withanother the expert notes all peculiarities, which he labels, fordistinctive reference, "tricks. " When he has recorded as many aspossible he looks for them in the writing which he has to compare. Suppose that he has taken note of a dozen tricks, and finds them allrepeated in the suspected writing. The law of probabilities points to acommon authorship for both writings, for it is asking too much to expectone to believe that there should exist two different persons, probablystrangers, who possess precisely the same peculiarities in penmanship. 

This principle of the law of probabilities is applied in the case of theidentification of persons "wanted" by the police. For example, theofficial description of an absconding forger runs as follows:--"He has ahabit of rubbing his right thumb against the middle finger as if turninga ring. He frequently strokes his right eyebrow with right forefingerwhen engaged in writing; when perplexed, he bites his lower lip andclenches and unclenches his fingers. "

Now there are, probably, thousands of people who do every one of thesethings singly, but the chances are millions to one against there beingtwo people who do them all as described in the official placard. In likemanner there may be a multitude of writers who form an _f_ or _k_ with apeculiar exaggerated buckle. Thousands more may make certain letters inthe same way, but to assume that there are two persons who possessequally the whole twelve characteristics noted by the expert is tostrain coincidence to the breaking-point of absurdity. 

Therefore, it follows that it is the weight of cumulative evidence ofsimilarity in the production of unusual tricks of style that proclaims acommon authorship for two apparently different writings. 

It may be, and often is, the case that the peculiarities or tricks inthe original have been imitated in the suspected writing. As the resultof his experience in knowing what to look for in a copied document, theexpert is not deceived. However good the copy, there are always apparentto the trained eye evidences that prove another and stranger hand, plainas the difference between the firm, clear line of the drawing master andthe broken saw-edged effort of the pupil. Habitual observation trainsthe eye to an extent that would scarcely be credited unless proved byexperiment. The art of observation cannot be taught; it must be theoutcome of practice. The most the teacher can do is to indicate thelines on which the study should be carried out, and offer hints andsuggestions as to what to look for. The rest is in the hands of thestudent. 

CHAPTER II. 

MEASUREMENT AND ITS APPLIANCES. 

The appliances necessary for the work of examination are, a goodmagnifying or reading glass of the greatest power obtainable, a pair offine compasses or dividers, a horn or celluloid protractor for measuringangles of slope, and a clearly marked scale rule. Suitable articles willgenerally be found in an ordinary case of mathematical instruments. 

A simpler and equally accurate method of taking measurements ofhandwriting is by the aid of the transparent paper known as foreignletter paper. It is usually of quarto size, very thin and transparent, and is ruled horizontally and vertically, dividing the sheet into tinysquares. It is laid over the writing to be examined, and the variousmeasurement marks are made with a finely pointed lead pencil. The linesand squares are used for measurement as the parallels of latitude andlongitude are used on a chart. For example, a letter is said to be somany lines high, so many lines wide. One of the tiny squares should becarefully divided into two, or, if possible, four parts, so as to ensurefiner and more accurate measurement. A letter may then be measured inparts of a line, being described, for example, as, height 6-3/4 lines, breadth 2-1/2 lines. It is of course important that the same gauge ofruled paper be used uniformly, otherwise the measurements will vary. Ifthe student has had practice in the use of the dividers and scale rule, he may prefer to employ these, but the ruled paper and a finely pointedlead pencil will be found sufficient for most purposes. A paperspecially prepared for surveyors, ruled in squares of one-eighth of aninch may be obtained. For measuring the slopes of letters a transparentprotractor is necessary. The letters measured are all topped and tailedsmall letters, and all capitals having a shank. Letters like _O_, _C_, _Q_, _S_, and _X_ can only be measured approximately. 

The method of applying the measurements of heights and angles of slopeis shown in the case illustrated by the table on page 15. 

The subject of enquiry was a signature containing the letters _B_, _l_, _k_, _b_. 

The measurements of these letters in the forgery are given at the top ofthe table, and show the height in lines and angle of slope in degrees. 

The measurements of the corresponding letters in twelve genuinesignatures are shown in the table as Examples 1 to 12. 

The total is averaged by dividing by twelve. 

The presumption in favour of the suspected signature being a forgery isstrongly supported by the arithmetical result. 

A difference of more than 2 per cent. In angle of slope, and 3 per cent. In height may be safely relied upon as ground for suspicion, for it israrely that a man's signature varies so greatly within a brief period. In the absence of the explanation provided by illness, intentionalchange in style or other abnormal circumstances, such a difference as isshown in this example will justify a belief that the suspected signatureis by another hand. 

 ---------+-------------------------------++------------------------------- | Height in lines. || Angle of slope. +-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- | _B. _ | _l. _ | _k. _ | _b. _ || _B. _ | _l. _ | _k. _ | _b. _ ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- Forgery | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7-1/4 || 15 | 20 | 21 | 21 ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- Example 1| 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-1/2 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 22 | 21 | 20 | | | | || | | | " 2| 7-1/4 | 6-1/4 | 6 | 7-1/4 || 17 | 21 | 20 | 20 | | | | || | | | " 3| 7-1/4 | 6 | 5-3/4 | 7-3/4 || 16 | 21 | 20 | 21 | | | | || | | | " 4| 7 | 6-1/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 21 | 20 | 21 | | | | || | | | " 5| 7 | 6-3/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 17 | 22 | 21 | 20 | | | | || | | | " 6| 7-1/2 | 6-3/4 | 5 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 21 | 20 | 21 | | | | || | | | " 7| 7-1/2 | 6 | 6 | 7-1/4 || 17 | 20 | 21 | 21 | | | | || | | | " 8| 7-1/2 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 22 | 21 | 21 | | | | || | | | " 9| 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-1/2 | 7 || 16 | 21 | 21 | 21 | | | | || | | | " 10| 6-3/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/4 || 16 | 20 | 21 | 21 | | | | || | | | " 11| 7-1/4 | 6-3/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 21 | 21 | 22 | | | | || | | | " 12| 7 | 6-1/4 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16 | 20 | 21 | 21 ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+------- Average | 7-1/4 | 6-1/2 | 5-3/4 | 7-1/2 || 16-1/4| 21 | 20-3/4| 20-3/4 ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+-------

CHAPTER III. 

TERMINOLOGY. 

[Illustration: TERMINOLOGY. ]

In order to render the description of a writing perfectly clear, asystem of terminology is adopted which is invariable. That is, the sameterms are always employed in indicating the same parts of a letter. These are simple, and for the most part self-explanatory, so that noeffort is required to commit them to memory. 

Every part of a letter has a distinctive name, so that it would bepossible to reproduce a script character very closely by a verbaldescription. 

The following are the terms used in describing a letter:--

_Letter_ means the whole of any script character, capital or small. Forthe sake of brevity in notes and reports capital is written Cp. ; small, Sm. 

_Arc. _--An arc is the curve formed _inside_ the top loop or curve, as in_f_, _m_, _h_, _o_. In _o_, the inside top half of the letter is thearc; the inside bottom half is the hook. 

_Buckle. _--The buckle is the separate stroke added to such letters as_k_, _f_, and capitals _A_, _F_, _H_. 

_Beard. _--The beard is the preliminary stroke that often appears incapital letters. 

_Body. _--The body of a letter is that portion of it which rests on theline and could be contained in a small circle. For example, in a small_d_ the body consists of the circle and the final upward curve or toe. In a small _g_ the body is the circle minus the tail. 

_Eye_ is the small circle formed by the continuation of a stroke as inthe shoulder _r_. 

_Finals. _--A final is the finishing stroke not carried beyond the shankin capitals, and in a few smalls like _y_, _g_, _z_. 

_Foot. _--The foot of a letter is that portion of it that rests on theline. Small _m_ has three feet, _h_ has two, etc. 

_Hook. _--The hook is the inside of a bottom curve. It is the opposite ofthe arc. 

_Link. _--The link is that portion of the stroke which connects twoletters. 

_Broken link. _--A broken link is a disconnection in the link joining twoletters. 

_Loop. _--A loop is that portion of a letter which forms the top or tail. Unlooped tops and tails are called "barred. " For example, small _f_ hastwo loops, top and bottom; _f_, _h_, _l_ have one top loop; _g_, _y_, _z_ have one bottom loop. 

_Shank. _--The shank of a letter is the principal long downstroke thatforms the backbone. 

_Shoulder. _--The shoulder is the outside of the top of the curve as seenin small _m_, _n_, _o_, _h_. Small _m_ has three shoulders, _n_ two, _h_one. 

_Spur. _--The spur is to the small letter what the beard is to thecapital. It is the initial stroke. 

_Tick. _--A tick is a small stroke generally at the beginning of aletter, sometimes at the end. 

_Toe. _--The toe is the concluding upward stroke of a letter, as seen insmall _e_, _n_, _h_, &c. 

_Whirl. _--The whirl is the upstroke in all looped letters. It is acontinuation of the spur in _b_, _h_, _f_, _l_, and is always anupstroke. 

CHAPTER IV. 

CLASSES OF HANDWRITING. 

For convenience in differentiation, handwritings are divided into thefollowing classes. Practically every type of writing can be placed inone of them. 

_Vertical Hand. _--A vertical hand is one in which the tops and tails ofletters form as nearly as possible a perpendicular with the horizontalline. The best example of this class of handwriting is that known as theCivil Service hand, familiar to the general public through telegrams andofficial documents. 

_Back Hand_ is a hand in which the general slope of the characters isfrom right to left. 

_Italian Hand_ is the reverse of a back hand, the slope being at anacute angle from left to right. It is a style fast going out of fashion, and is almost invariably the handwriting used by elderly ladies. Itsmost pronounced characteristic is its sharp angles and absence ofcurves. 

_Open Hand. _--An open hand is one that generally approximates to thevertical, its distinguishing feature being the wide space between theletters. The best example of it is that known as the Cusack style ofwriting. 

_Closed Hand. _--A closed hand is the opposite of an open hand, theletters being crowded together and generally long and narrow, with theslope from left to right. 

_Greek Hand. _--This is the name given to a type of writing that closelyapproximates to the printed character. Many letters, both capital andsmall, are formed to imitate print, particularly the capitals _T_, _X_, _Y_, _R_, _B_, _D_, and the smalls _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, _j_, _k_, _p_, _r_, _t_, _v_, _w_, _x_, _y_, _z_. It is a hand frequently found in thewritings of classical scholars, literary men engaged in work entailingcareful research, and often is an evidence of short sight. 

The _Wavy Hand_ is generally vertical. Its characteristic is anundulating serpentine waviness. Little or no distinction is made betweenbarred or looped letters. There are no rounded shoulders to the _m_ and_n_ and the word minnie would be written by five small _u_'s. Inround-bodied letters like _a_, _d_, _g_, the circle is rarely completed, but is left open, so that small _a_ becomes _u_, and small _d_ may bemistaken for _it_, with the _i_ undotted and _t_ uncrossed. Despite itsgeometrical and caligraphic inaccuracy in detail, this hand is generallywritten with great regularity, that is, the characters, thoughincomplete, are always uniform in their irregularity. The _e_ is neveropen, but is an undotted _i_, and _n_ is _u_, but when the peculiaritiesof the writer become familiar this hand is often very legible. 

_Flat Hand. _--A flat hand is a type of handwriting in which thecharacters have an oblate or flattened appearance, the _o_, _a_, _g_, &c. , being horizontal ovals, like the minim and breve in music. Thetails and tops are generally short, with wide loops. It is nearly alwaysa vertical hand. 

An _Eccentric Hand_ is one that presents various marked peculiaritiesand departures from standard rules in the formation of certain letters, and cannot be placed in any recognised class, though it may approximateto one more than to another. 

The _Round_ or _Clerical Hand_ is a writing that preserves a closeaffinity for the round regular hand of the average school-boy, with thedifference that while the characters are formed on regular copybookmodel, the hand is written with considerable fluency and firmness. It isgenerally only a little out of the perpendicular, sloping slightlytowards the right. 

CHAPTER V. 

HOW TO EXAMINE A WRITING. 

The examination of a writing generally consists in making a carefulcomparison between it and another or others, the object being todetermine whether all are by the same hand. 

The writing which is in a known hand or as to the authorship of whichthere is no doubt, is usually called the Original, and is alwaysreferred to by this name. The writing which has to be compared with it, and which practically forms the subject of the enquiry, is called theSuspect. The Suspects should be marked A, B, C, D, &c. , and put awaywithout examination until the Original has been thoroughly mastered. This is more important than may appear at first sight, for the confusingeffect of having the two types of writing in the eye and mind before onetype is made familiar is highly prejudicial. Any inclination to look atthe Suspects first should be firmly resisted. 

Let us assume that the object of the examination is to discover thewriter of an anonymous letter--one of the most frequent tasks of thehandwriting expert. The material in hand is the anonymous letter, whichin such a case may be called the Original, and half-a-dozen specimens ofthe writing of suspected persons. These Suspects are numbered from 1 to6, or marked A, B, C, &c. , and put aside until the Original has beenthoroughly studied. 

The first thing is to examine the paper and envelope, noting itsquality, watermark, size, and any feature that may afford a clue. It isalways safe to presume that the paper is in every respect unlike thatcommonly used by the writer, just as it is equally safe to take it forgranted that the writing it contains will, so far as its generalappearance goes, be the reverse of the normal hand of the author. Thatis, if it be a heavy back hand, the writer probably uses a handapproximating to the Italian, though too much weight must not beattached to this theory. 

Next, note the general style of the document as a whole, whether themargin between top, bottom, and sides is large or small. A writer whohabitually begins at the top left-hand corner very near to the edge ofthe paper will often betray himself by repeating the habit. It is a verycommon sign of an economical disposition. Note whether he crowds hiswords and letters near the ends of lines or leaves a good margin. Clerksand those engaged in official work rarely crowd their final words, preferring rather to leave a wide space and go on to the next line. 

Note whether the hyphen is used to divide words. Many writers neverdivide a word, others do it frequently, with or without the hyphen. 

Measure the average distance between lines, if unruled paper be used, and make a note of the average distance. 

Measure the distance between words and strike an average, noting ifwords are connected without lifting the pen. It may be found that thisjoining is only done when certain letters form the final of the firstword joined and the initial of the word connected. Look carefully forsuch. 

Note particularly the slope of the topped and tailed letters. 

Note the punctuation, whether frequent and accurate or otherwise. 

Determine the class to which the writing belongs. 

Read the document carefully, noting any peculiarities of language, errors, or Americanisms in spelling, such as "favor" for "favour, ""color" for "colour, " &c. ; the substitution of "_z_" for "_s_" in suchwords as "advertise, " &c. Examine with the glass any words that may havebeen crossed out or rewritten, noting particularly letters that havebeen mended or touched up. 

Note whether the horizontal lines have a tendency to slope up or down. 

Note particularly letters with two or more feet, like _a_, _d_, _h_, _k_, _m_, _n_, &c. It will be found that a certain regularity information exists in most writings. If the _a_ be formed like an _o_, the toe not touching the line, or an _n_ with the second foot high uplike a bearded _r_, these peculiarities should be carefully noted. Somewriters go to the other extreme, and carry the second foot below theline, so that _a_ becomes a small _q_. Too much time cannot be devotedto this aspect of handwriting, as it presents features of which thewriter is probably quite unconscious, and, therefore, affords valuableevidence. 

Next study the topped and tailed letters, noting whether they are loopedor barred, that is, formed by a single stroke. It will be often foundthat certain letters are always looped, others barred. Take careful noteof such. If both barred and looped letters appear to be usedindiscriminately, count and average them. In any case, a characteristicwill be revealed. Examine and classify the loops. Note whether they arelong or short, rounded or angular, wide or narrow. Devote specialattention to the arc, shoulder and hook. Note, also, any difference ofthickness between the up and down stroke; test the degree of clearnessand sharpness of stroke by means of the glass, and carefully look forthe serrated or ragged edge, which will assist in determining the angleat which the pen is held. 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE ALPHABET IN DETAIL. 

[Illustration: ALPHABET VARIANTS. ]

If the instructions so far given have been acted upon, the student willhave familiarised himself with the general character of the writingunder examination. He should now proceed with a detailed examination ofeach letter, beginning with the smalls, and taking them in alphabeticalorder. 

Take a sheet of tracing paper and trace each small _a_, letting themfollow each other on the line, with about a quarter inch of spacebetween each letter. During the process of tracing, the eye must be onthe alert for peculiarities, notably the roundness or otherwise of thecircle as a whole, the curve or angle of the arc and hook, the relativeposition of the toe. Note the shank, whether looped or barred, whetherthe top of it is above or below the body of the circle, whether it isvertical or sloping from right or left. Having compared all the _a_'s, count them, and decide which form most frequently recurs. This may betaken as the normal _a_ of the writer. 

The following are the principal points to be considered in examiningsucceeding letters. 

_b. _--Note the spur, its length, how far up the shank it meets it;whether the shank is barred or looped; the character of the loop. Noteparticularly the toe, which also forms the link. This is a verysignificant hand-gesture. It may be low down, making the _b_ literally_li_, or it may be a horizontal bar, an angle, or a neat semicircle. Itsformation offers large scope for variation, and should be very carefullystudied. Compare the toe with the corresponding stroke in _f_, _o_, _v_, _w_. Note whether it is joined with an eye, and observe its averagedistance from the bottom on base line. 

_c. _--This letter, when an initial, is frequently begun with a spur, often with a dot or tick. When connected with a preceding letter, thelink may make the _c_ into an _e_. It is sometimes disconnected from thepreceding letter. Note whether this is characteristic. 

_d. _--Apply the same tests as in examining small _a_, noting whether theshank is barred or looped. 

_e. _--Examine the spur in initials; closely observe the loop. Look forany recurrence of the Greek ε. Examine and compare the specimens givenin the examples. Many writers have a habit of forming an _e_ as an _i_and adding the loop. Look out for this with assistance of the glass. 

_f. _--This is an important letter, giving scope for numerous varietiesof form. Examine and classify the loops, noting which is the longer--thetop or bottom; whether one or both are barred. The eye and toe arepregnant with material for observation. Examine the various forms ofthis letter given in the examples. 

_g. _--Like the preceding letter, this one has many varieties of form, and will repay careful study. 

_h. _--The characteristic portion of this letter is the hook forming itsbody. Note how it is joined to the shank--whether it starts from theline or high up; whether the shoulder is rounded or angular, whether thefoot touches the line or remains above it; whether the shank is loopedor barred. 

_i. _--This is an important letter because of the dot, which is mademechanically. After noting whether the shank is spurred as an initial, special attention must be devoted to the dot. Dots are of various forms. They may be a wedge-shaped stroke sloping in any direction, a horizontaldash, a tiny circle or semicircle, a small _v_, or a perfect dot. Examine them all through the glass, and compare them with the comma, which often partakes of the same character as the dot. Note also itsrelative position to the shank, whether vertical, to the right or left, and its average height and distance from the shank. Much may be learnedfrom a careful examination of the dot, and its every variation andcharacteristic should be most carefully noted and classified. 

_j_ is important for the same reason that makes the _i_ significant. There are several forms of it, but the dotting offers the most valuableevidence. 

_k. _--This is the most significant and valuable of the small letters, asit offers scope for so much originality and irregularity in itsformation. The characteristic features of the small _k_ lie mainly inthe body. Few writers form a _k_ alike. Although it may belong to thesame class, the number of variations that can be rung on the body issurprisingly large, ranging from the regulation copybook model to theeccentric patterns shown in the examples. Special attention should bedevoted to the eye and buckle, for it is at this junction of the twostrokes forming the body that most writers exhibit their peculiarities. 

_l. _--The same principles of examination apply to this letter as to thesmall _e_. Note carefully the character of the loop and examine theposition of the spur. 

_m_ and _n_ offer ample material for examination. As an initial thefirst stroke is sometimes exaggerated, approximating the letter to thecapital _M_ or _N_. Note the formation of the shoulders and theirrelative heights and width; also, by means of a line touching the topsof the shoulders, note carefully and compare the last shoulder with thefirst. This letter presents great extremes in formation. The shouldersmay be high and well rounded, or even horizontal, or they may be sharpangles, turning the _m_ into _in_, and the _n_ into _u_. Note thedistance between the shanks and observe whether it is uniform. 

_o. _--This letter owes its main importance to its connecting link. Notewhether it is carried low down, making the letter like an _a_, whetherit is joined to the body by an eye, and if the toe is curved or angular. Note, also, the general conformation of the circular body and comparethe toe with that in _b_, _f_, _v_, and _w_. 

_p. _--There are several forms of this letter, and a writer who affectsone of them generally repeats it often. The shank may be barred orlooped, wholly or in part, especially when used as an initial. The bodygenerally offers ample material for examination. 

_q_ is also a letter with which great liberties are taken, and is thesubject of several variations. Some writers make no distinction between_g_ and _q_, and the final stroke often supplies the main characteristicof this letter. 

_r. _--This important letter has two forms--the square, or eyed, and thehooked. Many variants are employed in forming it, as the specimens inthe examples show. Many writers unconsciously form a habit of using both_r_'s, but with a certain degree of system. For example, one may use thehook _r_ always as a final, and the eyed _r_ as an initial. Theformation of the eye should be specially studied, with the shoulder, which may be formed as a semicircle, an arc, a straight bar or anangular _v_. The hooked _r_ is equally rich in varying forms, and theletter forms an interesting study. 

_s. _--This is a letter of such frequent recurrence in the Englishlanguage that it not unnaturally has become the subject of a variety offorms, and this despite the fact that its regulation shape isexceedingly simple and rudimentary. The majority of writers have onefavourite form of the letter, which, like the _k_, becomescharacteristic. 

_t. _--This letter is important because of its frequent recurrence, andon account of the variations of form, the bar or crossing being the mostfruitful in material for observation. There are two usual forms of the_t_, the hooked and crossed, and the barred, and they are equallyvaluable and characteristic. The crossing of a hooked _t_, like thedotting of an _i_, is so mechanical an act that it often revealsimportant evidence. The cross stroke when closely examined will be foundto present many variations. It may be a fine horizontal line, a curve, aheavy short dash; it may be ticked or dotted at either end or both--inshort, there is scarcely an end to the numerous forms this importanthand-gesture may assume. Then its relative position to the shank tellsmuch. It may be high up, not touching the shank; low down, neatly struckat right angles to the shank, or it may be omitted altogether. In somecircumstances a _t_ is crossed, in others left uncrossed; for example, the _t_ at the beginning of a word may be invariably uncrossed, but thefinal _t_ never. These are the peculiarities and characteristics thestudent has to keep a watchful eye for. The other form of the _t_ isknown as the bar _t_. It is generally uncrossed, and often the buckle isan important feature. A careful examination of the examples will suggestthe lines on which the analysis of the letter _t_ should be conductedand at the same time reveal the richness of material at the disposal ofthe student. 

_u. _--Note whether the two shanks are uniform, whether the letter isspurred as an initial. Average the distance between the shanks, andobserve the conformation of the hook, whether rounded or _v_-shaped. 

_v. _--The important feature of this letter is the toe. Its formationmust be carefully noted as in _f_, _o_, hooked _r_ and _w_. 

_w. _--Apply the same test as to _u_ and _v_. Note the uniformity orotherwise of the shanks and hooks, and study the varied forms given inthe examples. 

_x. _--This letter lends itself to tricks and variations, and few lettersdepart more from the orthodox copybook form in actual practice, as isshown in the examples. 

_y. _--Note the spur and its relative position to the shank. Note thetail and its average length. 

_z. _--This letter offers good material for study and the detection ofmannerisms. Its body is the most significant part, as it is capable ofso many variations. It may be angular or well curved; the eye may belarge or exaggerated or merely suggested. Like _k_ and _x_, the formonce adopted by a writer is not usually departed from to any greatextent. 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE CAPITALS. 

Owing to their large size and more complex form the capital lettersoffer much more material for tests than the smalls. They yield morescope for tricks and eccentricity, though, at the same time, their extraprominence, and the clearness with which their outlines strike the eyeof the writer render it more likely that he will detect glaringdepartures from the orthodox model. In other words, a writer wouldprobably pay more attention to accuracy in forming, and particularly incopying, a capital than a small letter. This is generally found to bethe case in signature forgeries, the capitals being, as a rule, muchnearer the original than the small letters. But there is this greatadvantage in favour of the student in examining capitals--the strokesbeing more expansive supply a larger field and material for examination. For example, a ragged or diamond stroke in a much flourished capitallike _M_, _W_, _R_ or _B_ would be more apparent than the same kind ofstroke in a small letter. 

There is no need to take the capital letters seriatim, as was the casewith the smalls, for the same principles and rules for examination applyin both cases. The same care is necessary in examining the arcs, hooksand shoulders of loops, with their general conformation. The angle ofslope is more noticeable in capitals, and they reveal thecharacteristics of the writer more than small letters. Persons whoprofess to delineate character from handwriting always pay greatattention to the capitals, doubtless with good reason, and as the resultof long experience. 

An examination will show that about ten capitals can be formed with twodisconnected strokes. They are _A_, _B_, _F_, _H_, _K_, _P_, _Q_, _R_, _T_ and _X_. These are known as double capitals. These doubles shouldbe carefully looked for, and the frequency, or otherwise, of theirrecurrence noted, as it is probable they will be found to be nearlyalways used under the same circumstances; that is, a writer may have ahabit of beginning with a double capital when possible, but revert tothe single form of the same letter in the body of the writing. Anotherwriter will almost invariably disconnect the capitals from the rest ofthe word, while a third as regularly connects them. Some writers affectthe more simple form, approximating to the printed character. Othersagain indulge in inordinate flourishes, particularly in theirsignatures. Such writers prove easy prey to the forger. 

A feature very easy of detection in capitals is the "diamond. " It isformed by a sudden thickening of the downstroke. It is particularlynoticeable in the writing of those who have been instructed in theold-fashioned school, where a distinction between the heavy downstrokeand the light upstroke was insisted upon. The diamond habit once formedis very difficult to eradicate, and traces of it always remain in thewriting of persons thus taught. 

An important and significant part of a capital letter is the beard. Itis an automatic trick, and always repays careful examination. It may bea spurred, ticked or dotted beard, but in any case the initial strokemust be carefully examined, whatever form it may assume, for theoft-emphasized reason that it belongs so essentially to theclue-providing class of unguarded and unpremeditated automatic strokesthat are overlooked by the writer. 

Variations in the form of a capital must be noted, and a record kept, for, however great the variety, it will be found that one particularform is more used than another, and may be regarded as the normal typeof the writer. 

A peculiarity of some writers is the use of an enlarged form of thesmall letter for a capital. The letters so made to serve a doublepurpose are generally _A_, _C_, _E_, _G_, _M_, _N_, _O_, _P_, _Q_, _S_, _U_, _V_ and _W_. They are referred to as small capitals. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

PUNCTUATION. 

The ampersand (&) is a symbol that provides excellent material for cluesto tricks and mannerisms. It varies in form from a mere _v_-shaped tickof almost indeterminate character to an ornate thing of loops andflourishes. It is very sparingly employed by illiterate persons, andsome educated writers avoid its use under the impression that, like theabbreviation of words, it is vulgar. In a few high-class ladies' schoolsits use is sternly repressed, and there are many fluent and habitualwriters who never employ this sign. This in itself supplies a usefulclue to characterisation. Others, again, only employ it in suchcombinations as "& Co. , " "&c. , " though this latter abbreviation is, asoften as not, written "etc. " by many persons. 

The dash (--) occurs very largely in many writings, and particularly inthose of ladies, who regard it as a universal punctuation mark, andemploy it indiscriminately as comma and full stop. Many persons of bothsexes invariably make a dash below the address on an envelope, using itas a kind of final flourish. A close examination of the samples providedin such a writing will reveal many valuable idiosyncrasies. It may be abold, firm horizontal line, a curve with a tick at either end, or both;a wavy line or even an upward or downward line. Note, also, the raggededge, as it affords an important clue to the style of holding the pen. The dash is so essentially an unpremeditated and mechanically-formedhand-gesture that it often betrays more of the character of the writerthan any other letter. Cases have been known in which the writer of ananonymous letter has successfully concealed all his characteristics, but in putting the final stroke in the form of a dash he has so farforgotten himself as to produce, quite unconsciously, what was probablyone of his most pronounced hand-gestures, thus providing a clue whichled to ultimate conviction. 

Punctuation is rarely a marked feature of English handwriting. It issaid that many of our leading literary men practically leave thisimportant phase of their work to the printer's proof-reader. Anexamination of a hundred private letters by different hands will show amarvellous scarcity of punctuation marks, and few correspondents use orappear to know the use of any stop other than the comma and full point, the dash being made to do service for all else. The mark ofinterrogation is fairly often used, and its formation gives scope andmaterial for careful examination. The examples offer suggestions of theform and direction eccentricity sometimes takes. 

The colon and semicolon are very little used by average writers, andwhen they are, it is generally inaccurately, but nearly always under thesame circumstances, which should be carefully noted. The quotation marks(" ") are still more rarely employed, and it will be found onexamination that most people form them wrongly. The accurate style isthis, “ ”, but as often as not the initial quotation has the dot at thetop instead of the bottom. 

Another almost universal omission is that of the full point afterinitials to a name, after "Esq. , " and in the initials of postaldistricts, as E. C. , W. C. The addressing of an envelope affordsinteresting and valuable material for clues, for it will generally befound that a writer who uses punctuation marks at all will do so withautomatic regularity under the same circumstances. 

The shape and general formation of stops and marks must be carefullyexamined and classified, for they belong to the significantunpremeditated class of hand-gestures, and are, therefore, valuable asclues to peculiarities. 

The "Esq. " that generally follows a man's name on a letter addressed tohim partakes much of the character of a symbol like the "?" or "!", and, being automatic through usage, is therefore valuable. Most writers use auniform style in shaping it, and the three letters that go to make upthe abbreviation are fortunately of a kind that lend themselves tocharacterisation. 

Notice, also, the position of the possessive sign in such words as"men's, " "writer's. " If accurately placed, the writer may be presumed tounderstand punctuation, and will give evidence of it in a long writing. 

CHAPTER IX. 

PAPER AND WATERMARKS. 

The brownish tint of old age which paper needs to help out a fraud isobtained in various ways--sometimes by steeping in a weak solution ofcoffee, but in other cases by holding it before a bright hot fire. Thislatter device is, fortunately, not easy of accomplishment, considerablecare, judgment and even luck being needed to ensure a satisfactoryresult. In our own case we have failed persistently in the attempt, thepaper becoming tinted so unequally as to excite remark at first sight. 

All the old pattern of letter paper was almost uniform in size--postquarto, and the watermark is invariably very distinct, explainable bythe fact that the art of close weaving the wire mould was not thenbrought to its present state of perfection. 

The watermarks are very fairly imitated by means of a pointed stickdipped in a solution of spermaceti and linseed oil melted in water andstirred till cold; or, equal quantities of turpentine and Canada balsamshaken together. The same result may be obtained by the use of megilp, amixture employed by artists. 

The detection of this watermark fraud is simple and infallible. If thesuspected document be moistened with lukewarm water the spuriouswatermark disappears immediately, but if genuine, it becomes plainer. 

The worn and dingy appearance inseparable from age in a letter isaccentuated by rubbing it lightly with a dirty duster. The effect isusually obvious under a strong glass, the passage of the dirty clothrevealing itself in minute parallel lines. 

Very little care is needed to distinguish between paper that has beentaken from books and the genuine letter paper of the period. To beginwith, such letters are always on single sheets. In genuine cases, thesheet is as often as not a folio of four pages. In the majority of casesthe bogus sheet is of no recognised size. If taken from a book largerthan post quarto, it has had to be cut to conceal the tear. Thisoperation has made an irregular sized sheet--too small for post quarto, too large for the next size. In the genuine writing paper, all fouredges are usually rough like those of a bank note. If the sheet has beenabstracted from a book, one edge must have been cut or trimmed. 

Again, such paper is of unequal thickness, the writing paper of theperiod being much smoother and finer than the printing paper, while inparts it is almost certain the ink has run, as it does on a coarse, absorbent paper. This is a sure sign that the paper is printing and notwriting. 

Further, such paper is certain to show signs of wear at the bottom edgeswhere they have been handled and exposed, while that part of the pagewhich has been closest to the inside edge of the cover is generallycleaner, and shows less sign of wear. In many cases the impression ofthe book binding is plainly visible. 

A careful examination and comparison of a few sheets of genuine letterpaper of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with the blank leavesfound in printed books will reveal differences so marked that mistake isscarcely possible afterwards. 

It often occurs that grease marks interrupt the forger. Knowing that hecannot write over them, and that they are hardly likely to have existedon the paper when it was new, and when the letter was supposed to bewritten, he avoids them. The result becomes apparent in unequal spacingof words and even letters. 

On one occasion a really excellent forgery, which had successfullywithstood all the tests we had applied, had its real character revealedby a curious oversight on the part of the forger. 

It was an early seventeenth century document, and our attention wasarrested by a peculiar uniform smudgy appearance, such as results fromblotting with a hard, unabsorbent, much-worn sheet of blotting paper. Atthe period of the presumed date of this document blotting paper wasunknown, writings being dried by means of a specially prepared finepowder called pounce, sand, or a powder containing fine crystals ofmetal intended to give an ornamental gloss to the ink. Close examinationunder the microscope revealed the truth. There were no signs of pounceor any other drying powder, the crystals of which are usually plain tothe unassisted eye, but there were distinct signs of the fibre of theblotting paper left in the ink. 

Another forgery we discovered through the presence in the centre of thesheet of paper of a very faint square outline which enclosed a slightdiscolouration. The sheet had, as usual, been removed from a book, andthe square outline was a faint impression of a book-plate which had beenaffixed to the opposite page. The discolouration was caused by the inkon the book-plate. 

It should be superfluous to have to remind intelligent and educatedpersons that it is necessary for a collector of old documents to makehimself familiar with the peculiarities, habits and customs of theperiod in whose literary curiosities he is dealing. Yet fact compels theadmission that extraordinary laxity and even ignorance exist on thesepoints. We are acquainted with a collector, by no means uneducated, whogave a good price for a letter purporting to be by Sir Humphrey Davy, the inventor of the miners' safety lamp, enclosed in an envelope. He wasignorant of the fact that envelopes were unknown until 1840, thirtyyears later than the date of this particular letter. Envelopes supposedto have been addressed by Dickens have been offered for sale andpurchased, bearing postage stamps not in circulation at the period. 

One would imagine that a forger would pay sufficient attention to hismaterials to be on his guard against the blunder which earned theperpetrator of the Whalley Will Forgery penal servitude. He put forwarda will dated 1862, written on paper bearing in a plain watermark thedate 1870! Another indiscreet person asked the Court to accept a willwritten and signed with an aniline copying pencil, but dated yearsbefore that instrument had been invented. 

Both the works by Dr. Scott and Mr. Davies, given in the list, showsamples of watermarks of the various periods affected by forgers ofliterary documents. 

CHAPTER X. 

INKS. 

Examination for determining whether a writing has been done at one time, or added to later, necessitates some acquaintance with the nature andqualities of ink. In the ordinary case the assistance of a chemist isnecessary, but an enlarged photograph shows up minute differences withamazing accuracy. 

In the majority of instances alterations are made some time after theoriginal has been written, in which case a difference in the shade ofthe ink will be perceptible, even to the unassisted eye. This isparticularly true when the now almost universal blue-black ink is used. 

The period required for an addition to become as black as the olderwriting depends very much upon the character of the paper. If this besmooth and hard, and the writing has not been dried with blotting paper, but allowed to dry naturally and slowly, it will become black muchquicker than if the paper be rough and of an absorbent nature. 

A fairly reliable test is to touch a thick stroke of the suspectedaddition with a drop of diluted muriatic acid--as much as will cling tothe point of a pin. Apply the drop to the suspected addition and to theolder writing at the same moment, and carefully watch the result. Thenewer writing will become faint and watery, with a bluish tinge almostinstantly, but the change will be slower in the case of the olderwriting, taking ten or even twenty seconds. The longer the periodrequired for the change, the older the writing. 

This same acid test is applied to prove whether a writing is in ordinaryink, or has been lithographed or photographed. If the two latter, theacid will have no effect. 

On more than one occasion collectors have purchased as originalautographs of celebrities which proved to have been lithographed orphotographed, but the persons so deceived have generally beeninexperienced amateurs. 

When the difference between a written and printed signature has beenonce noticed it is hardly likely that an observant person will bedeceived. It is, however, as well to be carefully on guard against thiscontingency, for modern photography and process printing have beenbrought to such a degree of imitative perfection that it is easy for anot too keen-eyed person to experience great difficulty in forming anopinion in the absence of the acid test. Fortunately that is infallible. 

It must, however, be admitted that up to the present no great successhas attended efforts to determine how long an interval has passedbetween the writing of the original and the suspected addition. Broadlyspeaking, the most that the expert can hope to gain from an examinationof ink under these circumstances are hints, clues and suggestions ratherthan definite, reliable facts. Fortunately it often occurs that asuggestion so obtained proves of immense value to the trained or carefulobserver, though it might convey no conviction to others. 

As in the case of nearly all deductive reasoning the handwriting expertbecomes sensitive to slight suggestions. If called upon, as he sometimesis, to explain to others how and why one of these slight and almostimperceptible signs fit in with his theory, he fails. Therefore thecautious expert, like a good judge, is careful in giving reasons for hisjudgment only to cite those which are self-evident. 

Many an expert has made a poor exhibition in the witness-box by failingto convey to a jury the impression produced on his own mind by a slightpiece of evidence, the proper understanding and interpretation of whichcan only be grasped by those who have learned how to recognize faintsigns. 

The process of chemically testing inks for the purpose of ascertainingthe points mentioned is quite simple, and is distinctly interesting. Ina very important case the services of a qualified chemist will probablybe requisitioned, but the cost of the necessary material and the timerequired to make oneself proficient as a capable tester are so slightthat even the small fee that would be charged by a chemist is scarcelyworth paying. 

The materials necessary are a few test tubes, some bottles of limewater, diluted muriatic acid, a solution of nitrate of silver indistilled water, in the proportion of ten grains to the ounce, somecamel hair pencils, and clean white blotting and litmus paper. The wholeneed not cost more than half-a-crown. 

The method of using these materials is best illustrated by describing atest often needed by autograph collectors. 

A very common method employed by forgers to give an appearance of age tothe ink used in spurious old documents is to mix with ordinary ink, muriatic acid, oxalic acid, or binoxalate of potash. The presence ofthese colouring agents can be detected in the following manner. 

In the first place, washing the letter with cold water will make the inkbecome darker if acid has been used to brown the ink, but the followingtest will settle the point beyond dispute:

With a camel's-hair brush wash the letter over with warm water. If, assometimes happens, a sort of paint or coloured indian ink has been used, this will be immediately washed away and disappear, leaving a rustysmudge. If not, apply the litmus paper to the wetted ink, and thepresence of acid will be shown in the usual way by the litmus paperchanging colour. If genuine, wetting makes no difference. 

Next, pour a drop or two of the water from the writing into a test tubefrom off the letter, add a little distilled water and one or two dropsof the nitrate of silver solution. 

If muriatic acid has been used to colour the ink, a thick whiteprecipitate will be seen in the tube immediately. 

If not, pour a few more drops of the water which has been washed overthe writing into a second test tube, add a little distilled water and afew drops of lime water. A white precipitate will be seen in the tube ifeither oxalic acid or binoxalate of potash has been employed. 

In many cases it will be sufficient to place the tip of the tongue to athick stroke. An unmistakable acid taste will be noticed. 

Further and fuller particulars of the methods resorted to by forgers tosimulate ancient documents will be given in the chapter on Autographs. 

It is sometimes important to know whether a stroke has been made overanother, as in the famous case in which the real issue turned on thequestion whether an apparent alteration in a signature was really apen-mark made to indicate where the signatory should sign. It wasobvious that if the mark was made first the signature would be over it;if, as was suggested, the mark was added in an attempt to alter or touchup the signature, it must have been written over the signature. 

In cases of this kind an enlarged photograph leaves no room for doubt. The ink is seen lying over the lower stroke as plainly as a layer ofpaint in a picture can be seen overlying the stroke beneath. 

This is one of those apparently difficult points which becomemarvellously simple when dealt with in a practical manner. 

Pages might be needed to explain what a very simple experiment willreveal at a glance. 

Take a word which has been written long enough for the ink to havebecome dry, and make a stroke across it. For example, make a letter _t_without the bar, then, after a lapse of an hour or two, add the crossbar. When this is quite dry and has become as dark as the first mark, examine it with a good glass. The ink of the added bar will be seenplainly overlaying the vertical stroke, but any doubt can be promptlyremoved by taking an enlarged photograph. 

Even when the second stroke is added while the ink on the first is stillwet the upper stroke can be distinguished, though not so clearly as ifthe first stroke had been allowed to dry first. 

By practising and examining such strokes, the student will soon learn todistinguish important signs which leave no doubt as to which stroke wasfirst made. 

CHAPTER XI. 

ERASURES. 

The alteration of the figures and amount written on a cheque isgenerally effected by erasure. At one time chemicals were used for thispurpose, but fortunately the modern cheque is forgery-proof in thisrespect. No means are known to chemists by which ordinary writing can beremoved from a cheque without leaving a sign too pronounced to escapedetection. 

But even erasure on a cheque is extremely difficult, and the experiencedeye of the average bank teller can detect it in the vast majority ofcases. Frauds perpetrated by this means are very rare, and are usuallythe result of gross carelessness on the part of the person accepting thedocument so altered. 

The more frequent form of cheque fraud is effected by adding to suchwords as six, seven, eight and nine. The addition of _ty_ and _y_ is allthat is necessary. But the ordinarily careful business man never leavessufficient blank space between his words to admit of this addition, while there are few bank tellers who do not carefully scrutinise acheque made out for these larger amounts. 

It may be accepted as a satisfactory fact that cheque forgery is notonly extremely difficult, but rarely successful. Great frauds areusually perpetrated by means of other instruments, such as bills ofexchange, credit notes, &c. 

An erasure is the easiest thing to detect if looked for. To begin withit is only necessary to hold a scratched document to the light to havethe alteration revealed. 

Erasing must of necessity remove part of the surface of the paper whichis made noticeably thinner at the spot erased. 

In nearly every case the writing that has been added to the erasure isblurred, owing to the rough and absorbent character of the paper. Expertforgers have devised means of counteracting this by rubbing in somesubstance which partially restores the original smoothness and mitigatesthe blurred appearance. But such devices ought not to be successful forthey are so easily detected. 

As a matter of fact the only chance the forger of an erased cheque haslies in the carelessness of the teller. Any crowding of words andunequal spacing in the filling up of a cheque ought to excite suspicionand provoke careful and closer scrutiny, and, it may be added, itgenerally does. 

The addition of letters intended to increase the value of a number, suchas the adding of _ty_ to six or seven, is easy of detection if properlylooked for. 

It is safe to assume that the addition has been made long after theoriginal word was written, and the point of junction can be detected bythe aid of a good glass. 

Had the word been originally written sixty, the chances are that therewould be no perceptible break between the _x_ and the _t_. Few personswrite such short words in a disconnected manner. On placing the wordunder an ordinary glass the point of junction will be plainly apparent, and a microscope, or an enlarged photograph, cannot fail to reveal thefraud. Of course these latter tests will not be possible under theordinary circumstances attending the paying out of a cheque over thecounter, but when once the peculiarities of such alterations have beenstudied, it is marvellous how quick the eye becomes in recognizing themat a glance. 

Erasure in writings on stout thick paper is not quite so readily noticedas those on thin paper such as cheques; but the same methods ofexamination will apply--holding the document to the light, or level withand horizontal to the eye. A very effective application of the lattertest is to bend or curve the paper, making an arch. The bending has atendency to stretch and widen the erased part, and if any smoothingsubstance such as starch or wax has been added to restore the gloss ofthe scraped portion, it will usually reveal itself by separating andcoming away in dust or tiny flakes. This process may be accentuated bydrawing the suspected document over a ruler, or, better still, a pencil, repeating the motion several times. 

CHAPTER XII. 

PENCILS AND STYLOGRAPHS. 

It is obvious that writing executed with a pencil or the now much-usedstylograph will differ in many respects from that performed by anordinary pen. It is not too much to say that their use will eliminatemany features and introduce new ones. This change is mainly broughtabout by the different way in which a pencil or stylograph is held incomparison with a pen. There is a much greater sense of freedom. Thepencil can be, and is, turned and twisted in the process of making astroke as a pen cannot be, and the signs of this freedom become apparentin a more rounded stroke. Even a writer whose characters are acutelyangular shows a tendency to a more graceful outline. As a matter offact, it is comparatively rare to meet a pencilled writing that ispronouncedly angular. 

The same remarks apply with only little modification to writing producedby the stylograph, and for the same reason--the ease and freedom withwhich the instrument is held. 

There is no possibility of mistaking writing produced by a stylographfor that of an ordinary steel nib. The strokes are absolutely uniform inthickness. No nib-formed writing can be so, for it is impossible for awriter, however careful, to avoid putting pressure on his pen at somepoint; and the opening of the nib, however slight, must produce anapparent thickening. 

Therefore, recognising these facts, the expert is always extremelycareful in giving an opinion upon a writing produced by pencil or stylounless he have ample specimens of the writer's productions done withthese instruments. 

At the same time, although an absence of characteristics present in penwriting would be noticeable, the main features would exist: for example, the space between words and letters would be the same; the dot over the_i_ would be in its customary position; the bar of the _t_ would be ofthe same type as heretofore. The principal changes would be in thedirection of a more uniform stroke with a tendency to greater rotundity. 

Persons who habitually employ the stylo very frequently develop anunconscious habit of twisting the pen at certain points so as to form adeep, rounded dot. This occurs principally at the ends of words andstrokes. A magnifying-glass reveals this peculiarity at once, and, whendiscovered, notice should be taken of the circumstances under which thistwisting is usually done. It will be found, most probably, that thetrick is uniform; that is, certain letters or strokes are mostlyfinished with the dot. 

There is a well-known public character who for years has employed noother writing instrument but the stylo. His writing possesses onepeculiarity which is so habitual that in four hundred examples examinedit was absent in only five. He forms this twist dot at the end of thelast letter at the end of every line. The inference and explanation isthat, in raising the pen to travel back to the next line, he twists itwith a backward motion in harmony with the back movement. Another trickis to make the same dot in words on which he appears to have halted orhesitated before writing the next. In every such case there is an extrawide space between the word ended by a dot and that which follows. Itwould appear as if the writer mechanically made the dot while pausing tochoose the next word. This is a striking example of the unconscioushand-gesture. 

Something akin to it occurs in the handwriting of a famous lawyer. Hereand there in his letters will be noticed a faint, sloping, verticalstroke, like a figure _1_. Those who have seen him write explain itthus. While hesitating in the choice of a word he moves his pen up anddown over the paper, and unintentionally touches it. It is such slips asthese which often supply the expert with valuable clues to identity. When they occur they should be carefully examined, for in the majorityof cases a reason will be found for their presence. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

ANONYMOUS LETTERS AND DISGUISED HANDS. 

That mischievous and cowardly form of secret attack, the anonymousletter, demands, unfortunately, a large amount of attention from thehandwriting expert. One of the most pleasant rewards that can attend theconscientious and painstaking student of handwriting lies in theknowledge that his art may sometimes enable him to bring to deservedpunishment the assassin of reputation and domestic happiness. 

It is a moot point, which has been discussed by legal authorities, as towhether the handwriting expert is justified in tendering evidence andopinions of a kind that may be said to belong by right to the criminalinvestigator. By this is meant that the expert should not be allowed topoint out to a jury such pieces of circumstantial evidence as thesimilarity of the paper used by the suspected person with other found inhis possession; that he ought not to direct attention to postmarks, coincidence of dates, similarity of ink used, the employment of certainwords and phrases, and other external and indirect clues that point tothe authorship. It is urged that the whole duty of the expert is to saywhether in his opinion two or more writings are by the same hand or not, and any expression of opinion outside this question is _ultra vires_. 

The obvious answer to this objection is that it is impossible to limitthe expert in the selection of those points which appeal to and assisthim in forming an opinion. It is impossible to say what may or may notsuggest a valuable clue to a keen observer; and as the expert is oftencalled upon to give reasons for his opinion he is quite justified inindicating the steps by which he arrived at it. 

These circumstances arise more often in connection with anonymousletters than with ordinary signature forgeries, for the field ofexploration and the material examined are so much larger. Details becomeinvaluable. The quality and make of the paper used, or a peculiar methodof folding and placing it in the envelope may afford a clue that willput the expert on the high road to an important discovery. It isimpossible to say how or where a clue may lurk. The torn edge of apostage stamp once supplied a hint that was followed up successfully. Asmudge on the envelope, that matched a similar one on a packet ofenvelopes in the writing case of a person quite unsuspected, led toconviction, as did a number of an address that was crossed out andrewritten, the anonymous writer having, by force of habit, begun withthe number he was in the habit of writing--his own. 

In short, the expert has, _nolens volens_, to assume many of thefunctions of the crime investigator in dealing with apparent trifles, and even if they do not always help him in reaching his goal, theyprovide material for exercising the useful art of observation. Strictlyspeaking the expert should, perhaps, ignore all outside suggestions asto the authorship, and confine himself to saying whether or not thespecimens submitted are in the same handwriting; but in practice thiswill be found extremely difficult, if not impossible, for the studentcannot shut his eyes to the accidental clues that invariably arise inthe examination of the evidence, and almost before he realizes it, themost cautious expert finds himself trespassing upon ground that by rightshould be the preserve of the detective. 

The points raised here may, however, be safely left to be dealt with bythe judgment of the student as they arise. In the early stages of studythey will probably not present themselves with the same force andfrequency as later on, when they will be appreciated as providing usefulprivate pointers for guidance; and though at times they may put theinexperienced student upon a false scent, he will have no difficulty indetecting his error if, when in doubt, he follows the principles laiddown for the comparison of handwriting. 

The first step to the examination of the anonymous letter consists inprocuring as many suspects as possible, which, as before advised, shouldbe lettered or numbered and put aside, until the original, which in thiscase is the anonymous letter, has been studied and mastered. Theexternal evidence of which so much has already been said may or may notbe looked for. 

Next proceed with the examination and comparison of the writings. It ispresumed that the student has prepared his notes of the peculiarities ofthe original; he has now to search for them in the suspects. Suppose hebegins with the spurs and beards, having found them well marked in theoriginal. He will take any one of the suspects and examine it for arepetition of the same signs. He may follow on with the rest of thesuspects, taking advantage of his memory being fresh on this point, orhe may prefer to exhaust one suspect of all its evidences beforeproceeding with another; but practice and experience will decide thebest course in this matter, and influence the line of procedure. 

Whatever method is pursued, all have the same object--the discovery ofthe peculiarities of the original in one or more of the suspects, andthe student will be wise if he follow accurately the course laid down inthe chapter on "How to Examine a Writing. "

It is generally safe to take it for granted that the writing in ananonymous letter is disguised. There are occasions when the authorpersuades another person to write for him, but only rarely; for theperpetrator of a contemptible act is not usually brazen and indiscreetenough to expose himself to others. The same reasons lend strength tothe presumption that the writing will, so far as its general appearancegoes, be as much the opposite of the author's usual style as hisingenuity can make it. The extreme back hand occurs very frequently. Itseems to be the first impulse of the anonymous writer to avoid the rightslope. Even when the normal hand is a vertical, with a tendency to backhand, the extreme left slope is often chosen. Fortunately, the assumedback hand is one of the most transparent of disguises. If the studenthas practised it, he will not need to be reminded how difficult it isfor a writer to conceal his mannerisms. By altering the slope he hasonly stretched and lengthened his outlines, and the expert soon learnsto recognise them in their new form. 

Another common disguise is the illiterate hand. This is quite as easy ofdetection. It is no easier for the practised and fluent writer toreproduce the shaky, irregular outlines of the illiterate, than it isfor the speaker of pure and cultured English to imitate the coarseaccent of the vulgar. However good the copy it always breaks down early, and the sudden and unconscious firm, clear and geometrically accuratestroke reveals the practised writer beneath the mask. Sometimes anaccurately placed punctuation mark supplies the necessary clue, for whenonce the art of proper punctuation has been acquired it becomes almostautomatic. Even experienced novelists are caught this way occasionally. They will introduce a letter, supposed to be the work of an illiteratecharacter. The grammar and orthography suggest the idea, but the moredifficult details of punctuation will be attended to, even to theapostrophe that marks the elided _g_ in such words as "talkin', ""comin', " &c. 

Very difficult and troublesome is the letter written throughout inimitation printed characters. The expert has to rely upon the curvedlines, accidental punctuation marks and unpremeditated flourishes andhand-gestures; but, broadly speaking, such a letter is beyond the skillof the expert if unaided by accidental betrayal. If, as sometimeshappens, the writer is ingenious enough to adopt an alphabet formedcompletely of straight lines and angles--an easy task--he may boast ofhaving produced a detection-proof writing; that is, if characters formedwith the aid of a rule can be called writing, for it defies detection, because there are none of the signs essential for comparison, and isless easy of identification than an incomplete skeleton. In the absenceof external clues, an expert would refuse to do more than offer a veryguarded opinion, and it would be wiser to decline to offer any commentwhatever. 

Another trick that has been resorted to by some persons is writing withthe hand constricted by a tight-fitting glove. This produces a veryeffective disguise; but if the student will practise with the sameimpediment, he will discover many useful rules for guiding him on theroad to penetrating this entanglement. 

It should be remembered that the less control a writer has over his pen, the more likely is he unintentionally to revert to those forms to whichhe is habituated, for, left by itself, the hand steers the morefamiliar course. Disguise, alteration and variation on customary formsare the result of premeditation. When the mind is occupied more with thesubject than the formation of characters, the latter naturally assumethat shape to which the force of custom has bent them. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

FORGED LITERARY AUTOGRAPHS. 

The collection of autographs, letters, and documents of literary andhistorical interest has for many years been a prominent feature in thecollecting world, but at no time was the quest more keen or conducted onmore systematic lines than to-day. The records of the leading sale roomsoften supply matter for surprise, the prices asked and obtained for rareand choice specimens being such as to excite both wonder and amazement, sometimes tempered with scepticism. 

It is, therefore, not surprising that this profitable and growing marketshould have attracted the fraudulent, for the prizes when won aregenerally of a substantial character, and amply repay the misappliedeffort and ingenuity demanded. 

The success which has attended too many of these frauds may be largelyaccounted for by the fact that in many cases the enthusiasm of thecollector has outrun his caution. 

Many a man famous for his astuteness in the pursuit of his ordinarybusiness has allowed himself to fall an easy victim to the forger, thusexemplifying the familiar adage that we are easily persuaded to believewhat we want to believe. 

The recorded stories of some of the frauds perpetrated upon ardent andpresumably judicious collectors read like the tales told so often of thetriumph of the confidence trickster, and one marvels how a person ofordinary power of observation, to say nothing of experience, could falla victim to a fraud requiring little perception to detect. Theexplanation doubtless lies in the direction indicated--the ardour of thepursuit, the pride and joy of possessing something that is absolutelyunique. 

The leading case--to use an expressive legal term--is that known as theVrain-Lucas fraud, the principal victim of which was Mons. Chasles, probably the greatest of modern French geometricians, and one of the fewforeign savants entitled to append the distinguishing mark of a F. R. S. Of England. 

Lucas was a half-educated frequenter, and nominal reading student of thegreat Parisian library, and for some years had dealt in autographs in asmall way, the specimens he offered being undoubtedly genuine. Inspiredby the collecting ardour and the apparent blind faith placed in him byM. Chasles, Lucas embarked upon a series of deceptions so impudent, thatit is easy to sympathise with the defence put forward by his advocate atthe trial, namely, that the fraud was so transparent that it could onlybe regarded as a freak. 

In the period between the years 1861 and 1869, Lucas sold to his dupethe enormous number of 27, 000 documents, every one a glaring fraud. Theycomprised letters purporting to have been written by such improbableauthors as Abelard, Alcibiades, Alexander the Great to Aristotle, Cicero, Cleopatra, Joan of Arc, Sappho, Anacreon, Pliny, Plutarch, St. Jerome, Diocletian, Juvenal, Socrates, Pompey, and--most stupendous jokeof all--Lazarus after his resurrection. 

It is hard to believe, and but for the irrefutable records of the Court, few would credit the fact that every one of these letters was in theFrench language! And the dupe a highly educated mathematician ofEuropean repute. 

In the face of such incredible gullibility one is disposed to regard thesentence of two years' imprisonment and a fine of 500 francs asextravagantly severe, even despite the fact that Lucas received in allover 140, 000 francs from M. Chasles. 

The Chatterton and Ireland forgeries are familiar to all educatedpersons. These, however, hardly come under the head of the class offraud with which the ordinary forger is associated. In each of thesecases the motive of the deception was not so much to make money as aliterary reputation. In both cases presumably competent judges weredeceived. But the standard by which they gauged the genuineness of theproductions was not caligraphic, but literary. In neither instance wasthere occasion or opportunity for the handwriting expert to exercise hisskill, for the sufficient reason that there existed no material withwhich the writings could be compared. What the literary expert had to dowas to examine and compare the style of the compositions--a test inwhich the idiosyncrasies and predilections of the judge played a leadingpart. 

Probably the greatest, and for a short time the most successfulautograph fraud perpetrated in Great Britain was that known as the caseof the Rillbank MSS. , the detection and exposure of which were mainlyattributable to one of the authors of this work (Capt. W. W. Caddell). 

Just before, and up till 1891, there was in Edinburgh a young man namedAlexander Howland Smith, who claimed to be the son of a reputableScottish law official, and a descendant of Sir Walter Scott. 

On the strength of his presumed connection with the great novelist, hehad no difficulty in disposing of, to an Edinburgh bookseller, forprices whose smallness alone should have excited suspicion, letterspurporting to be in the handwriting of Sir Walter Scott. Emboldened bysuccess, he embarked upon a wholesale manufacture of spurious lettersbearing the signatures of Burns, Edmund Burke, Sir Walter Scott, Grattanand Thackeray. His principal victim was an Edinburgh chemist, Mr. JamesMackenzie, who, when the fraud was not only suspected, but proved, distinguished himself by a stubborn and courageous defence of thegenuineness of the documents. 

Smith's _modus operandi_ consisted in purchasing large-sized volumes ofthe period of the subjects of his forgeries, and using the blank leavesfor the purpose of fabricating the letters. In May, 1891, a number ofalleged Burns' letters were put up for sale by public auction atEdinburgh, fetching the surprising paltry price of from twenty to thirtyshillings apiece. 

It was a feature of all Smith's productions that the letters wereextremely brief--a feature common to literary forgeries. Thecircumstance which first gave rise to suspicion was that the lettersattributed to Scott, Burke, Burns, General Abercrombie, Grattan andThackeray all began and ended with the same words. Those signed by SirWalter Scott all began "I have your letter, " and ended "I remain, " aform of phraseology the reputed writer never used, but which, accordingto Smith, was common to all the distinguished men whose handwriting hehad counterfeited with considerable success. 

On the strength of the partial guarantee provided by the sale of some ofthese documents at a reputable auction room, Captain Caddell purchased aparcel of alleged Scott letters without prior inspection. A briefexamination disclosed their fraudulent nature, and Smith was arrested. The Edinburgh police took the matter up, and the impostor was convictedin June, 1893, and sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment. 

Thackeray and Dickens are favourite subjects with most literary forgers, Washington and Benjamin Franklin running them very close forfavouriteship. American collectors are particularly keen on procuringspecimens of the last two-named, and there is grave reason to believethat many fall easy victims. 

Fortunately the facilities for comparing and testing the genuineness ofthe autographs of every distinguished person whose holographs are mostin favour with the forger, are numerous. In addition to the splendidcollection of specimens extant at the British Museum Library, there aremany facsimiles available. 

The excellent work on Autograph Collecting by Dr. Henry T. Scott (UpcottGill, London) is indispensable to the collector. It contains somehundreds of specimens, specially selected for the purposes ofcomparison, and gives besides many very valuable rules and hints fordetecting the real from the sham. 

Dr. Scott, writing of the autographic letters of his distinguishednamesake, says:

"Of Sir Walter Scott's autographs it may be observed (1) the paper isgenerally letter size, gilt edged, with a soft, firm feeling to thetouch, and an unglazed surface. (2) The date and residence are placed onthe top and right hand, with a good space before the 'My Dear Sir, 'uniform margins on the left side of the paper of a quarter of an inch, but on the right side no margin at all, the writing being carried closeto the edge. The folding is done with the precision of a man ofbusiness, forming the space for the address into a nice oblong almost inthe centre of the sheet, and the first line of the address is writtennearly in the centre of the space with the remainder below. 

"The watermarks found on the paper are one of the following:Valleyfield, 1809; C. Wilmott, 1815; J. Dickinson and Co. , 1813; J. Dickinson, 1816; J. Dickinson (without date); J. Whatman, 1814; J. Whatman (without date); Turkey Mill, 1819; Turkey Mill (without date);G. C. & Co. , 1828. "

The paper used by Burns for his correspondence was always large in size, rough in surface, never glossy, and all four edges had the rough edgethat is the peculiarity of a Bank of England note. 

It is worthy of remark that in the case of the A. H. Smith Burnsforgeries, suspicion was first excited by a simple but significantmatter. The paper contained several worm holes. These had been carefullyavoided by the writer, he knowing that if his pen touched them theresult would be a spluttering and spreading of the ink. 

Now it is safe to assume that these worm holes, being the effect of age, did not exist at the time the letter--if genuine--was written; as theworm did its work long afterwards, it must be regarded as a fortunatecircumstance that in perforating the paper it refrained from destroyingthe writing, carefully selecting the wider spaces that the poet had, with commendable foresight, left for the insect's depredations. 

The letters of Thackeray are in two styles of handwriting, the earliersloping slightly, the latter vertical, round, neat and print-like, thecapital _I_ being invariably a simple vertical stroke. His is the mostneat and uniformly readable hand of all the great literary characters. It is somewhat unfortunate that he was not anything like so uniform inhis choice of paper. Letters are in existence on an extraordinaryvariety of material, from a quarto sheet to a scrap torn from half asheet of note paper. On many of these letters is neither address nordate, but when once the characteristics of the charming handscript havebeen mastered, they are never forgotten, and are recognisable amid theclosest imitations. 

There are extant a number of forged Thackeray's. Their distinguishingfeatures are that they are invariably very short, as if the forgerfeared to provide sufficient matter to supply material for comparison;most are on single half sheets of note paper, many on quarto sheets ofvarying texture and quality, and the characteristic vertical _I_, Thackeray's trade mark, always occurs. It is shaky and often out of theperpendicular, as the genuine rarely is. In the forgeries we have seenand suspect to be the work of A. H. Smith, a very significant sign is asudden thickening of the downstrokes of tailed letters like _y_, _f_, _g_, producing a tiny diamond-shaped excrescence in the middle of theletter. The glass reveals that ragged-edged stroke which is inseparablefrom the writing of the nervous copyist. 

It is generally safe to be cautious about very short letters. The forgerwell knows how difficult is the task of maintaining an assumedcharacter. Just as the mimic may succeed in reproducing the tone andmanner of a person with sufficient closeness to deceive even the mostintimate acquaintances of the subject, yet fail to carry the deceptionbeyond a few words or phrases, so the literary forger invariably breaksdown when he attempts to simulate handwriting over many sentences. Soconscious is he of this great difficulty that he often avoids it byboldly copying some genuine letter. We have had offered to us"guaranteed" Thackeray letters which we immediately recognised as such. In one particularly glaring case the forger had copied the originalletter very fairly so far as the penmanship was concerned, but while theoriginal was written on a half sheet of note paper, the forgery was on adifferent size paper, and the writing across the length of the paperinstead of the breadth. This naturally disarranged the spacing betweenthe words, which in all Thackeray's writings is a pronouncedly regularfeature, and this variation was in itself sufficient to excitesuspicion. 

The popularity of Dickens among collectors grows steadily. Despite thefact that he was an industrious correspondent, and that a very largenumber of his letters appear from time to time in the market, the demandis ever in excess of the supply. As a consequence he has sufferedperhaps more than any of the literary immortals at the hands of theforger. Yet it is safe to say that there should be no writer so safefrom fraudulent imitation, for there is a peculiar distinctiveness abouthis caligraphic productions that once seen and noted should never beforgotten. Specimens are easily available. The catalogues of dealers areconstantly presenting them, and most public libraries possess examples, either in the original holograph or in some form of reproduction. 

Probably no writer preserved his style with such little change asDickens. His signature in later years varied somewhat from that of hisliterary youth, but the body of his handscript retained throughout thesame characteristics. It was always a free, fluent, graceful hand, legible as that of Thackeray when its leading peculiarities have beenmastered, but less formal and studied than his. It was always remarkablyfree from corrections or interlineations. He wrote with the easy freedomof the stenographer; indeed it is easy to recognise in the delicategracefully formed letters the effect of years of training in the mostdifficult and exacting form of handscript. 

Perhaps the leading peculiarities in the Dickens holograph are these:--

The date of the month is never expressed in figures, but always writtenin full; in fact, abbreviation in any form he never countenanced. 

The letter _y_, both as a capital and a small letter is a figure 7except in the affix "ly, " when the two letters become an _f_ or longstroke _s_. 

The letter _t_ is crossed by the firm downward bar, which the characterreaders claim as a sign of great resolution. 

Letter _g_ is invariable in form. 

Capital _E_ consists of a downstroke with a bar in the centre. 

The hook of many final letters has a tendency to turn backwards. 

New paragraphs are marked by beginning the line about an inch from theleft-hand margin. 

A very marked peculiarity noticeable in many letters is that theleft-hand margin gradually grows wider as the lines approach the bottomof the page. The narrowing is wondrously regular, a line drawn from thefirst letter on the first line to the corresponding position on the lastwill touch nearly every other line. This peculiarity appears to haveescaped every forger whose work we have examined. 

If the signs relied upon by the readers of character in handwriting areto be accepted, self-esteem was a pronounced characteristic of the greatnovelist. His writing abounds with those subtle symptoms of theprevalence of that weakness. 

His signature is perhaps the best known of any with which the Britishpublic are familiar. It is remarkably uniform, and remained preciselythe same from the time he adopted it after the Pickwick period until hisdeath. That which he used in youth was less striking, but none the lessself-conscious. 

After the Pickwick period Dickens adopted the use of blue paper and blueink. Letters in black ink, if undated, may safely be attributed to theearlier period. 

His note paper was in later years of the regulation note size. Theaddress, Gads' Hill Place, Higham by Rochester, Kent, was in embossedblack old English letter. His paper was hand-made, and of good quality. The envelopes were blue, of the same quality paper, but without crest, monogram or distinctive mark. Dickens' vanity expressed itself in thehabit of franking envelopes, _i. E. _, by writing his name in theleft-hand bottom corner, after the fashion in vogue when Peers andM. P. 's enjoyed the privilege of free postage. 

His letters of the pre-envelope period--before 1842--were on quartosheets. These are exceedingly rare. 

There is one feature about autographic forgery which may always berelied upon to assist greatly in the work of detection. As a generalrule there is sufficient matter in a literary forgery to supply thenecessary material for comparison. It must of necessity be a copy, ifnot of an existing original, at least of the general style. The processof imitation must be slow and cautious, and the signs remain in shaky, broken lines, and a ruggedness entirely absent from the writing of thereal author, which is fluent and free. Even the shakiness of agenoticeable in a few distinguished handwritings is different to theshakiness of the forger's uncertainty. 

CHAPTER XV. 

FORGED SIGNATURES. 

The most difficult phase of the art of the handwriting expert consistsin the detection of forgery in signatures. It will be obvious to thestudent who has followed the instructions and illustrations alreadygiven that this difficulty is brought about by two principal causes:first, by the paucity of material for comparison; secondly, because ofthe very important fact that a forgery must, by its nature, be a goodand close copy of an original. This means that the unconscious tricksand irregularities that often abound in a long letter, written in a moreor less disguised hand, are almost entirely absent from a forgedsignature. It follows, therefore, that the student must have some otherclues and rules to guide him, for he cannot rely upon the chance of aslip or accidental trick occurring in a signature that contains at mostperhaps a dozen letters. 

The first step in the examination of a suspected signature is to masterthoroughly the various characteristics of the genuine signature. Thesemust be studied in every possible relation, and from as many specimensas can be obtained. The magnifying glass must be in constant use and theeye alert to detect the angle at which the pen is habitually held, theclass of pen used, and the degree of pressure and speed employed. Theselast-named points can only be discovered as the result of practice andobservation, and though at first sight it may appear impossible to forma correct estimate of the pace at which a pen has travelled, the studentwill, if observant, soon learn to detect the difference between aswiftly formed stroke and one written with slowness and deliberation. Bymaking a number of each kind of stroke and carefully examining themthrough a glass, the student will learn in an hour more than can betaught by means of verbal description. The study of the genuinesignatures must be continued until every stroke and its peculiaritiesare as familiar as the features of a well-known face, for until one isthoroughly impregnated with the original it will be useless to proceedwith the examination of the suspects. 

At first sight the student will probably perceive very little, if any, difference between the original and the suspect. It would be a veryclumsy forgery if he could. Gradually the points of dissimilarity willbecome clear to him, and with each fresh examination they grow plainer, until he is surprised that they did not sooner strike him; they are soobvious that the eye cannot avoid them; they stand out as plainly as thehidden figure, after it has been detected, in the well-known picturepuzzles. There are few faculties capable of such rapid and accuratedevelopment as that of observation. Thousands of persons go through lifeunconscious of the existence of certain common things until the occasionarises for noticing them, or accident forces them upon the attention;then they marvel that the thing should have escaped observation. This isa truism, no doubt, but the force of every platitude does not alwayspresent itself to every one. The comparison of handwritings is soessentially a matter of cultivating the powers of observation, that evenif turned to no more practical account than that of a hobby its value asa mental exercise is great. 

There are two principal methods by which a signature may be forged:first, by carefully copying the original as one would copy a drawing;secondly, by tracing it. 

The first process is referred to as copied. The forger will, mostprobably, have practised the signature before affixing it to the chequeor other document, thereby attaining a certain degree of fluency. Buthowever well executed, close examination with the aid of the magnifyingglass will reveal those signs of hesitancy and irregularity that one mayreasonably expect to find in a copy. 

There is no part of a person's handwriting so fluent and free as hissignature. Even the most illiterate persons show more freedom andcontinuity of outline in their signature than in the body of theirwriting. This is explicable on the ground of usage. A writer may feel adegree of momentary uncertainty in forming a word that he does notwrite frequently, but his signature he is more sure about. He strikes itoff without hesitancy, and in the majority of cases appends somemeaningless flourish, which may be described as a superfluous stroke orstrokes added for the purpose of ornamentation, for addingdistinctiveness, or, in some cases, and particularly with business men, with the idea that the flourishes help to secure the signature fromforgery. Such writers will probably be surprised to learn that there isno form of signature so easy to forge as that involved and complicatedby a maze of superfluous lines and meaningless flourishes. The mostdifficult signature for the forger is the clear, plain, copybook-modelled autograph. A little thought and examination will makethe reason for this clear. 

Let a signature be enveloped in a web of curves and flourishes, makingit look like a complicated script monogram. The lines are so numerousthat the eye cannot take them all in at a glance, and, if copied, anyslight irregularity or departure from the original is more likely topass undetected amid the confusing network of interlaced lines. If, onthe other hand, the signature be simple and free from the bewilderingeffects of flourishes, the entire autograph lies revealed, a clear andregular outline, and the slightest variation from the accustomed figurestands out naked and plain. Most of the successful forgeries will befound to be on signatures of the complicated order. Their apparentimpregnability has tempted the facile penman to essay the task ofharmless imitation; his success has surprised and flattered him, and theeasy possibilities of forgery opened up. More than one forger hasadmitted that his initiatory lessons were prompted by an innocentchallenge to imitate a particularly complicated "forgery-proof"signature. 

It must be remembered that the eye of the casual observer takes in aword as a whole rather than in detail. This explains why an author canrarely be trusted to correct his own proofs. He knows what the wordshould be, and in reading his work in print he notices only the generalexpected effect of a word. It needs the trained eye of the proof-readerto detect the small _c_ that has taken the place of the _e_, thebattered _l_ that is masquerading as an _i_. So long as the generaloutline of the word is not distorted the wrong letters are often passed;and it is much the same with a signature with which one is fairlyfamiliar. The trained examiner of handwriting, like the proof-reader, knows what to look for, and discovers irregularities that would escapethe notice of the untrained eye. 

The first part of a genuine signature that should be examined is theflourish, which includes all fancy strokes appended to it, and anysuperfluous addition to the body of the letters. A close scrutinythrough the glass will show that the lines forming the tail-flourish aregenerally clear, firm and sharp in outline, being formed, not onlywithout hesitation, but with a dash and decided sweep that are stronglyat variance with the broken, saw-edged, unsteady line of the copy. Itwill also generally be found to follow an almost fixed rule in thematter of its proportionate conformation: that is, supposing the writerfinishes up with a horizontal line under his signature, it will be seen, on averaging a dozen or so of them, that the distance of the line fromthe feet of the letters is proportionately uniform. If the line be begunwith a spur or curved inward hook, that feature will be repeated. Theend of the flourish or final stroke, at the point where the pen leavesthe paper, should be very carefully examined. One writer finishes withan almost imperceptible dot, as if the pen had been stabbed into thepaper; another finishes with a curve, either upward or downward; a thirdwith a hook turned upward, either a curve or an angle; while a fourthcontinues the line till it becomes finer and sharper to vanishing point. Some writers are fond of concluding with a more or less bold andexpansive underline running horizontally with the signature. A closeexamination will show a variation in the degrees of thickness of such aline, which should be carefully noted and looked for in other genuinesignatures. 

In this connection it will be found extremely useful and instructive tostudy strokes, either horizontal or vertical, with a view to discoveringwhether they were struck from right to left, top to bottom, or _viceversâ_. The glass will render it easy to detect beginning from end aftera few failures, which, by the way, should not be allowed to discourage, for every minute devoted to the study of handwriting is so much gain inexperience, and represents so much more learned, which will never beforgotten. 

The flourishes that occur on and about the signature proper must betreated as exaggerated loops, and their shoulders, arcs, hooks and toescarefully measured and noted. For this purpose an average genuinesignature should be selected and gauged, which is done in this way:Place over it a sheet of transfer paper. With the scale-rule and a finepencil draw horizontal lines that will touch the tops and bottoms of thebodies of the letters, lines that touch the tops and bottoms of thetailed and topped letters, and vertical lines that follow the shanks ofevery topped or tailed letter, including the capitals. The gauge, whencompleted, will represent a framework fitting the signature, and its useis twofold. It helps the eye to detect the variations in the generalcontour of the signature, and, when placed over another, brings out thepoints of difference. Due allowance must be made for proportion. It isobvious that the distance of letters will be greater in a signaturewritten larger than another, but the proportionate distances will bepreserved. The difference in the size of a letter is not very important, except that it offers more scope for examination. For example, a looped_l_ may be very small or half an inch long; but, if made by the samewriter, the proportionate width at top, bottom and middle will bepreserved, and compare with the same measurements in the smaller letter. Signatures of the same writer do not often vary much in size, thoughthey may be thicker or finer according to the character of the pen used;but observation will show that the difference in a handwriting caused bythe use of different pens is much more imaginary than real. 

The traced signature is produced by placing the paper over the genuineautograph, holding it to the light, generally on a sheet of glass, andtracing it with a fine point. Such forgeries are often more easilydetected than the copied signature, for the reason that signs of thetracing process can generally be found by careful examination. The fine, hard point used to trace the autograph leaves a smooth hollow, which canbe seen through the glass on examining the back of the cheque ordocument. If the paper be held in a line with the eye in a strong light, the ridge will be more clearly perceived. The difference between a markmade by a hard point and a pen can be tested by experiment. The hardpoint must of necessity be pressed with a degree of force to make thedesired impression on the paper, and the result is a smooth hollow. Butif a pen be pressed hard, it produces two parallel lines, and, insteadof a hollow, a ridge is formed between the parallels. Of course, it willbe so slight as to be hardly perceptible, except through a strong glass, but it will be there nevertheless, and knowing what to look for, theexpert will generally have no difficulty in satisfying himself whetherthe forgery has been traced or copied, a very valuable piece of evidencewhen once settled, for it is within the bounds of probability that thegenuine signature from which the tracing was made may be discovered. Itis possible, and has often occurred, that the writer of the original mayhave some recollection of having written to the suspected person, or inmany ways a clue may be suggested. There is a well-known case of aforgery being brought home to the perpetrator through the accuracy ofthe tracing. It is a fact easily proved, that no man can write a wordtwice, so exactly, that if the two are overlaid they fit. If two suchsignatures be produced, it is safe to assume that one has been traced orotherwise mechanically produced. In the case mentioned a signature on acheque was pronounced a forgery by the person supposed to have signedit. In examining specimens of the genuine autograph, the experts cameupon one which, when placed upon that on the cheque, proved a perfectreplica, down to the most minute detail, showing beyond question that ithad been used to trace the forgery from. It was further proved that theoriginal had been in the possession of the supposed forger, and the jurywere asked to decide whether it was probable that a man could reproducehis signature in exact facsimile after a lapse of time, and without theoriginal before him. As the chances against such a contingency are manymillions to one--a fact the student can verify--the jury decided againstthe forger. 

At the risk of appearing tautological to a tiresome degree it isnecessary to accentuate the fact that the comparison of handwriting, and more particularly of signatures, is essentially dependent oncultivating the faculty of observation. This art cannot be taught; itcan only be acquired by practice and experience, like swimming orriding. The teacher can at most indicate the method of study and some ofthe leading principles of conducting an investigation. Most men are notnaturally observant, and the habit can be best fostered by having anobject; but when once a person has been taught what to look for healmost instinctively notices details that previously never struck him. This is specially true of the study of handwriting. 

The best method of practice that can be adopted by the student is tobegin by making a careful study of his own signature and writing. Hewill be surprised at the number of facts hitherto unsuspected that willbe revealed to him. The value of using his own handwriting as a subjectof examination lies in this, that the student can satisfy himself howand why certain strokes are made. This he can only guess at in thewriting of others. 

The preliminary exercise should consist in studying the effect producedby the different methods of holding the pen. The signature suppliesexcellent material for this class of practice. Begin by holding the penwith the top end pointed well towards the left shoulder, in the absurdand unnatural position taught by the old school of writing masters. Repeat the signature with the pen held a trifle less acutely angular, and go on till six or eight signatures have been written at a decreasingangle--until the top of the penholder points well to the right, producing what is known as a backhand. The effect of these angles mustbe carefully noted, and in a short time it will be found possible toarrive at a very accurate opinion as to how the writer of a particularsignature habitually holds his pen--an important and valuable piece ofknowledge. The practice should be extended to long sentences, and afrequent repetition of all the letters, capital and small, themagnifying glass being always used to examine the effect of the variousand varying strokes. 

In examining a signature for comparing it with a suspected forgery itshould be copied very frequently, as the clues and suggestions theexperiments will produce are of much greater service than will at firstappear, and of more practical value than pages of theory, as the how andwhy will be revealed for much that would be obscure without thisassistance. As experience grows, it will not be necessary to adopt thiscopying process so often, for the eye soon becomes alert at detectingslight shades of difference in strokes, and a glance will convey morethan could be explained in many pages. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

THE EXPERT IN THE WITNESS-BOX. 

When the expert has been called upon to give an opinion upon thegenuineness of writings he embodies his conclusions in a report of whichthe following may be taken as a fair example:--

 To the Chief of Police. 

 SIR, REX _versus_ JONES. 

 In accordance with your instructions dated ---- I beg leave to inform you that I have made a careful examination of the document marked _A_, and attached hereto, and compared it with the documents marked _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_ and _F_, also attached. 

 I have arrived at the conclusion that the document _A_ was written by the same hand as produced _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_ and _F_. 

 The main reasons which have led me to form this opinion are these:--

 First, although the writing in _A_ bears at first sight no resemblance to that of the other documents, the difference is only such as experience leads me to expect in a writing which has been purposely disguised, as I believe this has been. 

 The writing on the five documents _B_ to _F_ I take to be the normal hand of the author, and that on _A_ to be the same writer's hand altered so as to present a different appearance. I will call the specimens _B_ to _F_ the genuine examples, and _A_ the disguised. 

 Experience shows that the person who writes an anonymous letter generally seeks to disguise his hand by departing as much as he deems possible from his normal writing. The usual hand of the writer of the genuine document is a free rounded hand sloping upwards towards the right. The writing of _A_ presents exactly the features I would expect to find when, as appears to be the case here, the writer has adopted the familiar trick of sloping his writing in a direction opposite to his normal hand. While the result of this change is to alter the apparent style and general appearance of the writing, the alteration does not extend to certain tricks and characteristics which are plainly obvious in the genuine letters and are repeated in the anonymous letter _A_. 

 The writing in the genuine letters contains fourteen very distinctive peculiarities, or tricks of hand, which I find repeated in the anonymous letter _A_. 

 (Here describe them, as for example. )

 1. The figure 4 in the dates is always made like the print form of that figure. 

 2. The small _e_ is always of the Greek form. 

 3. The small _t_ is always crossed by a bar thick at the beginning, tapering to a point, with its longest part behind the shank of the _t_ [and so on]. 

The various points of resemblance are set out in detail, a separateparagraph for each, and each paragraph numbered. 

It is extremely important that a report should be fully descriptive andwritten in plain, non-technical language, easily understood by the jury, who will have to decide whether the resemblance has been made out. 

Too many handwriting experts spoil the effect of their evidence byemploying technical language and presuming on the part of the jury anacquaintance with the methods of comparing handwritings. 

Do not be satisfied by saying that certain letters resemble each other. Show by an enlarged diagram how and where, indicating the parts to whichattention is called by arrows. Place the single letters to be comparedin parallel columns, headed with the alphabetical letter distinguishingthe document in which the particular letter occurs. Use foolscap paper, and write on one side of the paper only. 

The usual method of dealing with the handwriting expert in thewitness-box is shown in the following extract from a report of an actualcase. 

Mr. D. B---- was called by counsel for the prosecution and duly sworn. 

Q. --You have had considerable experience in examining handwriting. 

A. --Over twenty years. 

Q. --Look at these documents. (Hands documents to witness. ) Have you seenand examined these?

A. --I have. 

Q. --Have you formed any opinion upon them?

A. --I have, and have prepared a report. 

In some cases the expert is allowed to read his report in full. Inothers he is requested to give a verbal report, but if the point beinsisted upon, the judge generally permits the report to be read, eitherby the expert or by counsel. A copy of the report, together with thedocuments in dispute are then usually handed to the jury forexamination. The expert may proceed to illustrate his point with the aidof a blackboard and chalk, but much depends upon the attitude taken bythe judge and counsel. Some judges insist that the expert shall confinehimself to expressing his opinion, leaving counsel to deal with theexplanation and comparison; others give the expert every opportunity ofshowing how he has arrived at his opinions. 

The examination in chief is usually a very simple matter. The troublefor the expert begins when counsel for the other side gets up tocross-examine. 

In nearly every case the object of the cross-examining counsel is toridicule the art and get the expert to admit the possibility of otherwriters possessing the same peculiarities which are said to distinguishthe letters before the Court. 

Counsel's favourite trick is to select some letter and ask the expert ifhe is prepared to swear that he has never seen something just like it insome other person's writing. The expert who knows his business willinsist on keeping well to the front the bedrock basis of handwritingcomparison, which is the application of the law of probability tocumulative evidence. It is not a question whether some other person maybe in the habit of making a _t_ or a _k_ similar to those cited asevidences of common origin, but whether it is probable that two personsshould make a dozen or more letters in precisely the same way undersimilar conditions and exhibit precisely the same peculiarities ofstyle. He should reply with the unanswerable postulate that millions ofpersons possess red hair, snub noses, a scar on the face, blue eyes, bent fingers and a stammer; but it is millions to one against any twopersons possessing all six of those peculiarities. 

In the course of his replies the expert may justifiably help his owncase by repeating, when opportunity occurs, such irrefutable axioms as, No writer can say off-hand what peculiarities he may exhibit; that thereare scores of ways of dotting an _i_, or crossing a _t_, and that fewpersons know which form they mostly affect. Fifty such points may begathered from this little volume alone, while acquaintance with theworks of other writers on caligraphy will supply ample ammunition formeeting and repelling the customary form of attack on the handwritingexpert. 

Another method of discrediting a witness is to remind him that expertshave differed, the Dreyfus case being usually cited. The answer isobvious. First it is essential to be assured that those experts were allcompetent, for there are degrees of competency in judging handwriting asin every other subject on which opinion may be called. It is a notoriousfact that in the Dreyfus case the most competent experts testified thatthe Henry letters were forgeries, the authorities called on the otherside being in most cases unknown men or amateurs of no standing. Anumber of these self-styled experts possessed no other qualificationthan presumed familiarity with the handwriting of Dreyfus. It is alsoworthy of note that several of the experts on both sides proved mostinefficient witnesses, obscuring their explanations by the employment oftechnical phraseology which conveyed little meaning to the lay mind. 

Exactitude and regularity in the choice of the words used in describingthe parts of letters should be strictly observed by the student. Therules given in the chapter on "Terminology" should be mastered andadhered to. In most cases the terms there applied to letter-analysiswill be found to be self-explanatory. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION. 

No work dealing with the study of handwriting would be complete unlessit recognised that phase of it which touches on the delineation ofcharacter by an examination of the caligraphy. 

That many valuable clues can be picked up by the expert who applies theprinciples on which the graphologist works is indisputable, nor is itnecessary to accept all the theories claimed as reliable by those whopractice this interesting branch of the art of writing-analysis. 

There is no doubt that many persons have attained a remarkable degree ofproficiency in deducing from the hand-gestures of an unknown person avery accurate estimate of his or her character, and this fact shouldprove that the principles of the art of graphology are based onscientific grounds, or at least that the rules on which the studentworks are regular and not, as some suggest, mere guess-work orcoincidence. 

The elder d'Israeli, in his fascinating work, the "Curiosities ofLiterature, " devotes considerable space to the subject. Among otherthings, he says:--

"Assuredly nature would prompt every individual to have a distinct sortof writing, as she has given a peculiar countenance, a voice, and amanner. The flexibility of the muscles differs with every individual, and the hand will follow the direction of the thoughts, and the emotionsand the habits of the writers. 

"The phlegmatic will portray his words with signs of labour anddeliberation, while the playful haste of the volatile will scarcelysketch them; the slovenly will blot and efface and scrawl, while theneat and orderly-minded will view themselves in the paper before theireyes. The merchant's clerk will not write like the lawyer or the poet. Even nations are distinguished by their writing; the vivacity andvariableness of the Frenchman, and the delicacy and suppleness of theItalian, are perceptibly distinct from the slowness and strength of pendiscoverable in the phlegmatic German, Dane, and Swede. 

"When we are in grief we do not write as we should in joy. The elegantand correct mind, which has acquired the fortunate habit of a fixity ofattention, will write with scarcely an erasure on the page, as Fenelonand Gibbon; while we find in Pope's manuscripts the perpetual struggleof correction, and the eager and rapid interlineations struck off inheat. Lavater's notion of handwriting is by no means chimerical; nor wasGeneral Paoli fanciful when he told Mr. Northcote he had decided on thecharacter and disposition of a man from his letters and the handwriting. 

"Long before the days of Lavater, Shenstone in one of his letters said, 'I want to see Mrs. Jago's writing that I may judge of her temper. '

"One great truth must, however, be conceded to the opponents of thephysiognomy of handwriting. General rules only can be laid down. Yet thevital principle must be true that the handwriting bears an analogy tothe character of the writer, as all voluntary actions are characteristicof the individual. "

 * * * * *

Professor Foli, in his very useful work, "Handwriting as an Index toCharacter" (London: C. A. Pearson, Ltd. ), says:

"The changes which handwriting undergoes as maturity is reached provehow directly it is influenced by the nervous condition of the writer. 

"The writing proper to childhood is large, round and accompanied by alaboured pen movement; whereas that which is normal as manhood orwomanhood is attained is smaller, and turned off by a more rapid andfluent motion of the hand. 

"Illness, again, affects the writing. As the hand is charged with moreor less of the nerve fluid, so the writing is stronger or weaker, firmeror feebler, as the case may be. 

"This goes to show the important influence which the nerve currentexerts in fashioning the handwriting. Small wonder that our handwritingalters day by day. Yet it does not alter either. So far as its generalappearance is concerned I grant it _seems_ to do so. But look at thereally significant points of the writing written at different times. Give a glance at the height at which the '_i_' is dotted, the way inwhich the '_t_' is barred, the manner in which the letters are, or arenot, connected and finished off. These things will crop up with unerringuniformity time after time. 

"You do, of course, get a studied handwriting now and then, just as yousometimes meet with a formed facial expression. But that does notexpress the true character, simply because the control over the feelingsor the power of disguising what is felt is a salient point in thecharacter; and this very fact will serve to show that there is truth ingraphology. 

"That the pen, whether it be a fine or a broad pointed nib, plays acertain part in determining the thickness or thinness of the strokes, Iam willing to allow, but here again we have no argument againstgraphology, for most people have their favourite nib--just as theyprefer one occupation to another--and this is the one which will bestserve to define their characteristics. The same with the surface of thepaper upon which they write; some will select a smooth, others a roughkind, but whatever that may be which is adopted with comfort, it will betypical of the writer. "

The following are some of the more marked signs of the character theyindicate. For a fuller exposition of their application it would be wellto study the work of Foli, before mentioned, and of Rosa Baughan (UpcottGill, London, 2_s. _ 6_d. _), with the scholarly work of J. Crépieux-Jainin, entitled, "Handwriting and Expression, " translated byJ. Holt Schooling. 

 * * * * *

_General Characteristic. _--The fineness of an organism will be revealedby a fine light penstroke. Coarse, low natures make heavy blurredentangled lines. 

_Activity_ is denoted by the length of the letters. Where it is feeblethe letters will be widely spaced and rounded. 

_Excitability_ is shown by sharp strokes and stops. The more acute andirregular the pen-strokes the greater the intensity of feeling. 

_Aggression_, which is the inclination to attack, the destructive force, is indicated by the final strokes of letters and the cross-bars of _t_'sadvancing well forward, the dots of the _i_'s placed well forward. Insuch a word as "time" the dot would probably be between the _m_ and _e_. The style is angular and well and evenly spaced, altogether a forward, "go-ahead" writing. 

_Economy_, or acquisitiveness, is shown by the finishing strokes beingturned backwards, and inwards; by a cramped hand, a disposition tocurtail strokes, particularly the endings of letters, as if theexpenditure of ink was begrudged. 

_Secretiveness_, or extra caution, has its sign in the narrow, tightly-closed form of the body of the letters _a_, _d_, _g_, _o_, _q_, the _a_ and _o_ often being merely a narrow _v_. The general tendency ofthe writing is to compression, the final strokes being very short. Whenvery marked, the letters dwindle into an indistinct unformed condition. The substitution of dashes for punctuation is another symptom. 

_Insincerity. _--Beware of the man or woman whose writing is a fine, wavyline, upright, with short, stumpy and indistinct tops and tails, wordsrunning at their end to an almost straight line, the letters merelyindicated. The flatter, finer and more perpendicular this writing, thegreater the insincerity. Such a writer would probably be a polite, pleasing and plausible person, but double-faced as Janus. 

_Love of praise_, glory, ambition are shown by a tendency to writeupwards, the lines of writing trending towards the right-hand corner ofthe paper. The signature will usually have a curved line below it, witha degree of flourish. 

_Self-esteem_, to which is allied conceit and ostentation, shows itselfin proportion to the size of the writing, the taller and more flourishedthe upstrokes and the longer the downstrokes, the greater theself-assertiveness. The flourish beneath the signature will be verypronounced, often an elaborate spider's web of interlaced lines. Thewriting is more or less angular with the finals turned backwards andinwards. 

_Will power_ is shown by firm bars to the _t_, with a tendency todescend from left to right, bludgeon-like downstrokes to tailed letters, writing rather angular than rounded, and the final strokes finished bya heavy pressure. Straight, firm, downward strokes take the place of thetails to _y_, _g_, _f_, _q_. 

_Sympathy_, good nature, kindness of heart are shown by a flowing openhand, the finals of the letters being extended and thrown out with anexpansive movement. The tailed letters are long and looped, and oftenturned up the right side of the letter. The letters are well apart butnot necessarily unconnected, and the style is curved. As a general rulehard matter-of-fact natures incline to an angular style; the artisticand softer nature affects rounded, gracefully curved strokes, and avoidsstraight perpendiculars or horizontals. 

_Constructiveness_, which implies the ability to combine and connectwords and phrases, is shown by joining the words together, several beingwritten without lifting the pen from the paper. The more simple andingenuous the method of attaching the words, the greater will be theability. When this joining of words is carried to extremes, it may betaken as a sign of good deductive judgment. 

_Observation_, by which is implied the keen, penetrating, inquiring mind(which in excess becomes curiosity), is marked by angularity of thestrokes and finals; a small, generally neat, handwriting, with theletters disconnected. 

_Punctuation_ affords a very valuable clue to character-reading, forreasons set out in the chapter "How to Study a Handwriting. " They arethe most mechanical and unpremeditated of hand-gestures, and are, therefore, the more valuable. 

When, for example, a dot is thick and heavy, we infer that the pen hasbeen driven across the paper with a strong, decided movement of thehand, which would be consistent with extreme energy and will power;whereas, when the dot is light and faintly indicated we may be certainthat only a moderate force has been expended upon its production, whichwould be compatible with less resistance and endurance in the character. 

Again, a dot whose outlines were blurred would show a certainsensuousness of character--strong passions and a want of restraint overthe lower propensities; whereas, a dot whose edges were sharply definedwould tell of refinement and a loathing against all that was coarse orvulgar. 

Careful attention to punctuation indicates neatness, order, method andlove of arrangement; nor is it necessary that the punctuation should bestrictly correct, for the art is but imperfectly mastered by mostpeople, even the best educated. 

Stops that partake of the appearance of a comma indicate a degree ofimpetuosity; well rounded stops imply calmness and tranquility oftemperament. When the full stops are fashioned after the form of a commaand droop towards the right hand they indicate a tendency to sulkiness. When they are merely angular we may infer impatience and a "peppery"disposition. 

Flourishes are always indicative of a certain amount of assertiveness. The simpler the flourish the less artificial this self-insistence; themore elaborate, the greater the desire to seem what one is not. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HANDWRITING. 

Most of the works in this list relate to that aspect of the study ofgraphology which is supposed to bear upon the manifestations ofcharacter. But there is not one which the student of handwriting canafford to ignore, since, apart from the debatable question of characterreading, they all contain numerous hints and observations of extremevalue to the student whose objective is the acquisition of aptitude inthe more practical art of detecting forgery. 

 AUTOGRAPH COLLECTING: A practical manual for Amateurs and Historical Students. By HENRY T. SCOTT, M. D. London: Upcott Gill. Price 5_s. _

 A GUIDE TO THE COLLECTION OF HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS, LITERARY MSS. AND AUTOGRAPH LETTERS, &c. By Rev. H. T. SCOTT and SAMUEL DAVEY. (Out of print. ) May be seen in British Museum and many public libraries. 

 THE AUTOGRAPHIC MIRROR: A monthly journal now defunct, but procurable at second hand. 

 HANDWRITING AND EXPRESSION. Translated and edited by JOHN HOLT SCHOOLING, from the third French edition of "L'Escriture et le Caractere, " par J. CRÉPIEUX-JAININ. Kegan, Paul and Trench. 

 CHARACTER INDICATED BY HANDWRITING. By ROSA BAUGHAN. Upcott Gill. Price 2_s. _ 6_d. _

 THE PHILOSOPHY OF HANDWRITING. By DON FELIX DE SALAMANCA. Macmillan. 

 HOW TO READ CHARACTER IN HANDWRITING. By HENRY FRITH. Ward Lock. Price 1_s. _

 HANDWRITING AS AN INDEX TO CHARACTER. By Professor FOLI. C. A. Pearson. Price 1_s. _

 A SYSTEM OF GRAPHOLOGY. By the ABBÉ MICHON. In French; no English translation. A valuable work. 

 A HISTORY OF HANDWRITING. Same Author. 

 A METHOD OF GRAPHOLOGIC STUDY. Same Author. 

 A MEMOIR UPON THE FAULTY METHODS USED BY EXPERTS IN HANDWRITING. Same Author. 

 A DICTIONARY OF THE NOTABILITIES OF FRANCE JUDGED FROM THE HANDWRITING. Same Author. 

 THE HANDWRITING OF THE FRENCH PEOPLE SINCE THE MEROVINGIAN EPOCH. Same Author. 

 LES MYSTÉRES DE L'ÉCRITURE. Preface by Desbarrolles. Same Author. 

 THE HANDWRITING OF JUNIUS PROFESSIONALLY EXAMINED BY CHABOT. Edited by the Hon. E. TWISTLETON. John Murray. 1871. 

This work is the only one hitherto published in England explaining themethods of the handwriting expert. Mons. Chabot, for many years theleading English expert, was commissioned by Mr. Twistleton to examinethe handwriting of "Junius" with a view to deciding the authorship ofthe famous letters. The result was an exhaustive volume in which theprocess of handwriting analysis is illustrated by thousands of examples. The conclusion arrived at was that the writer of the "Junius" letterswas Sir Philip Francis. 

 _Literary and Historical Autograph Letters and Manuscripts Purchased. _

 OPINIONS GIVEN AS TO

 GENUINENESS OF DOCUMENTS. 

 ALSO ON

 SUSPECTED FORGERIES

 AND

 ANONYMOUS LETTERS. 

 BY

 BLACKBURN & CADDELL, 19, CHARLWOOD PLACE, LONDON, S. W. 

Transcriber's Note:

 Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst more significant amendments have been listed below. 

 Page 37, 'analine' amended to _aniline_. Page 53, 'Alcebiades' amended to _Alcibiades_. Page 56, 'correspence' amended to _correspondence_. Page 56, 'addresss' amended to _address_. Page 68, 'four documents' amended to _five documents_. Page 78, 'MERORINGIAN' amended to _MEROVINGIAN_.