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 THE DEAF

 THEIR POSITION IN SOCIETY AND THE PROVISION FOR THEIR EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

 BY HARRY BEST

 NEW YORK THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY PUBLISHERS

 COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY HARRY BEST. 

 _Published April, 1914. _

Transcriber's Note:

 Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. Significant corrections have been listed at the end of the text. The oe ligature has been transcribed as [oe]. 

TO

THE DEAF OF THE LAND

AND TO THOSE WHO LOVE THEM

FOREWORD

The aim of the present study is to ascertain as far as possible thestanding of the deaf, or, as they are so often called, the "deaf anddumb, " in society in America, and to examine the treatment that has beenaccorded to them--to present an account of an element of the populationof whom little is generally known. In this effort regard is had not onlyto the interests of the deaf themselves, but also, with the growingconcern in social problems, to the fixing of a status for them in thedomain of the social sciences. In other words, the design may be said tobe to set forth respecting the deaf something of what the socialeconomist terms a "survey, " or, as it may more popularly be described, to tell "the story of 'the deaf and dumb. '"

The material employed in the preparation of the work has been collectedfrom various documents, and from not a little personal correspondence:from the reports and other publications of schools for the deaf, oforganizations interested in the deaf, of state charities, education orother departments, of the United States bureaus of education and of thecensus; from the proceedings of bodies interested in the education ofthe deaf, of organizations composed of the deaf, of state and nationalconferences of charities and corrections; from the statutes of theseveral states; and from similar publications. From the _American Annalsof the Deaf_ the writer has drawn unsparingly, and to it a veryconsiderable debt is owed. Valuable assistance has also been obtainedfrom the _Volta Review_, formerly the _Association Review_, and frompapers published by the deaf or in schools for the deaf. Other sourcesof information used will be noted from time to time in the work itself. 

For all that has been set down the writer is alone responsible. He is, however, keenly mindful of all the co-operation that has been given him, and it would be most pleasant if it were possible to relate by namethose who have been of aid. Mere words of thanks could but very littleexpress the sense of obligation that is felt towards all of these. Indeed, one of the most delightful features connected with the work hasbeen the response which as a rule has been elicited by the writer'sinquiries; and in some cases so courteous and gracious have been thecorrespondents and informants that one might at times think that a favorwere being done them in the making of the request. To certain ones thewriter cannot escape mentioning his appreciation: to Dr. E. A. Fay, editor of the _American Annals of the Deaf_, and vice-president ofGallaudet College; Dr. J. R. Dobyns, of the Mississippi School, andsecretary of the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf; Mr. Fred Deland, of the Volta Bureau; Mr. E. A. Hodgson, editor of the_Deaf-Mutes' Journal_; Mr. E. H. Currier, of the New York Institution, and Dr. T. F. Fox and Mr. Ignatius Bjorlee, also of this institution;Dr. Joseph A. Hill, of the Census Bureau; Mr. Alexander Johnson, formerly secretary of the National Conference of Charities andCorrections; Dr. H. H. Hart, of the Russell Sage Foundation; ProfessorS. M. Lindsay and Dr. E. S. Whitin, of Columbia University; and to theofficials of the Library of Congress, of the New York Public Library, ofthe New York State Library, of the New York School of PhilanthropyLibrary, of the New York Academy of Medicine, of the Columbia UniversityLibrary, of the Volta Bureau, and of the Gallaudet College Library. 

CONTENTS

 PAGE

 INTRODUCTION xiii

 PART I

 POSITION OF THE DEAF IN SOCIETY

 CHAPTER

 I. THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES 3

 Meaning of Term "Deaf" in the Present Study--Number of the Deaf in the United States--Age when Deafness Occurred--Ability of the Deaf to Speak--Means of Communication Employed by the Deaf. 

 II. THE DEAF AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT OF THE POPULATION 13

 Increase in the Number of the Deaf in Relation to the Increase in the General Population--The Adventitiously Deaf and the Congenitally Deaf--Adventitious Deafness and its Causes--Possible Action for the Prevention of Adventitious Deafness--Adventitious Deafness as an Increasing or Decreasing Phenomenon--The Congenitally Deaf--The Offspring of Consanguineous Marriages--The Deaf Having Deaf Relatives--The Offspring of Deaf Parents--Possible Action for the Prevention of Congenital Deafness--Congenital Deafness as an Increasing or Decreasing Phenomenon--Conclusions with Respect to the Elimination or Prevention of Deafness. 

 III. TREATMENT OF THE DEAF BY THE STATE 63

 General Attitude of the Law towards the Deaf--Legislation Discriminatory respecting the Deaf--Legislation in Protection of the Deaf--Legislation in Aid of the Deaf--Tenor of Court Decisions Affecting the Deaf--Present Trend of the Law in Respect to the Deaf. 

 IV. ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE DEAF 75

 The Extent to which the Deaf are a Wage-earning and Self-supporting Element of the Population--Views of the Deaf as to their Economic Standing--The Deaf as Alms-seekers--Homes for the Deaf--Conclusions with Respect to the Economic Position of the Deaf. 

 V. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF THE DEAF 91

 Social Cleavage from the General Population--Desirability of Organizations Composed of the Deaf--Purposes, Activities, and Extent of Such Organizations--Newspapers of the Deaf. 

 VI. POPULAR CONCEPTIONS CONCERNING THE DEAF 99

 Viewed as a Strange Class--Viewed as a Defective Class--Viewed as an Unhappy Class--Viewed as a Dependent Class--Need of a Changed Regard for the Deaf. 

 VII. PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN THE DEAF 107

 General Societies Interested in the Deaf--The Volta Bureau--Parents' Associations for the Deaf--Church Missions to the Deaf--Organizations Interested in the Education of the Deaf--Publications Devoted to the Interests of the Deaf. 

 PART II

 PROVISION FOR THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF

 VIII. THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF PRIOR TO ITS INTRODUCTION INTO THE UNITED STATES 119

 IX. HISTORY OF EDUCATION OF THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES 129

 Early Attempts at Instruction--Beginning of the First Schools--Early Ideas concerning the Schools for the Deaf--Aims of the Founders--Extension of the Means of Instruction over the Country. 

 X. ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTITUTIONS AND GENERAL PROVISIONS 171

 Arrangements in the Different States--Semi-Public Institutions--"Dual Schools"--Provision for the Deaf-Blind--Provision for the Feeble-minded Deaf--Government of the Different Institutions--Procedure in States without Institutions. 

 XI. THE DAY SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF 187

 Inception and Growth of the Day School--Design and Scope of Day Schools--Extent and Organization of Day Schools--Arguments for the Day School--Arguments against the Day School--Evening Schools for Adults. 

 XII. DENOMINATIONAL AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS 202

 Denominational Schools--Private Schools. 

 XIII. THE NATIONAL COLLEGE 206

 XIV. PROVISION FOR EDUCATION BY STATES 209

 XV. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR SCHOOLS 242

 Extent of Constitutional Provisions--Language and Forms of Provisions. 

 XVI. QUESTION OF THE CHARITY CONNECTION OF SCHOOLS 248

 Institutions Sometimes Regarded as Educational: Sometimes as Charitable--Charity in Connection with Schools for the Deaf--Arguments for the Connection with Boards of Charities--Arguments in Opposition to the Connection---Conclusions in Respect to the Charity Connection of Schools for the Deaf. 

 XVII. PROVISIONS CONCERNING ADMISSION OF PUPILS INTO SCHOOLS 262

 Rules as to the Payment of Fees--Provision for the Collateral Support of Pupils--Age Limits of Attendance. 

 XVIII. ATTENDANCE UPON THE SCHOOLS 268

 The Proportion of the Deaf in the Schools--The Need of Compulsory Education Laws for the Deaf--Present Extent of Compulsory Education Laws. 

 XIX. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN SCHOOLS 277

 The Use of Signs as a Means of Communication--Rise and Growth of the Oral Movement--Present Methods of Instruction--Courses of Study and Gradations of Pupils--Industrial Training in the Schools. 

 XX. COST TO THE STATE FOR EDUCATION 293

 Value of the Property Used for the Education of the Deaf--Cost of the Maintenance of the Schools--Form of Public Appropriations--Cost to the State for Each Pupil. 

 XXI. PUBLIC DONATIONS OF LAND TO SCHOOLS 299

 Grants by the National Government--Grants by the States--Grants by Cities or Citizens. 

 XXII. PRIVATE BENEFACTIONS TO SCHOOLS 303

 Donations of Money--Gifts for Pupils--Present Tendencies of Private Benefactions. 

 XXIII. CONCLUSIONS WITH RESPECT TO THE WORK FOR THE DEAF IN AMERICA 309

 APPENDIX A 325

 TABLE WITH RESPECT TO HOMES FOR THE DEAF IN AMERICA. 

 APPENDIX B 326

 TABLES WITH RESPECT TO SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF IN AMERICA. 

 I. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS 326 II. PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS 329 III. DENOMINATIONAL AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS 331

 INDEX 333

INTRODUCTION

Society as a whole knows little of the deaf, or the so-called deaf anddumb. They do not form a large part of the population, and many peopleseldom come in contact with them. Their affliction to a great extentremoves them from the usual avenues of intercourse with men and debarsthem from many of the social activities of life, all tending to make thedeaf more or less a class apart in the community. They would seem, then, to have received separate treatment, as a section not wholly absorbedand lost in the general population, but in a measure standing out anddifferentiated from the rest of their kind. Thus it comes that societyhas to take notice of them. By reason of their condition certain dutiesare called forth respecting them, and certain provision has to be madefor them. 

The object of the present study of the deaf is to consider primarily theattitude of society or the state in America towards them, the duties ithas recognized in respect to them, the status it has created for them, and the extent and forms, as well as the adequacy and correctness, ofthis treatment. Hence in our study of the problems of the deaf, theapproach is not to be by the way of medicine, or of law, or ofeducation, though all these aspects will be necessarily touched upon. Nor is our study to deal with this class as a problem of psychology orof mental or physical abnormality, though more or less considerationwill have to be given to these points. Nor yet again are we to concernourselves principally with what is known as the "human interest"question, though we should be much disappointed if there were not foundan abundance of human interest in what we shall have to consider. Rather, then, we are to regard the deaf as certain components of thestate who demand classification and attention in its machinery oforganization. Our attitude is thus that of the social economist, and theobject of our treatment is a part or section of the community in itsrelation to the greater and more solidified body of society. 

More particularly, our purpose is twofold. We first consider the deaf, who they are, and their place in society, and then examine the one greatform of treatment which the state gives, namely, the making of provisionfor their education. This we have attempted to do in two parts, Part Itreating of the position of the deaf in society, and Part II of theprovisions made for their education. As we shall find, the special careof the state for the deaf to-day has assumed practically this one form. Means of education are extended to all the state's deaf children, andwith this its attention for the most part ceases. It has come to be seenthat after they have received an education, they deserve or requirelittle further aid or concern. But it has not always been the policy ofthe state to allow to the deaf the realization that they form in itscitizenship an element able to look out for themselves, and demandinglittle of its special oversight. They have a story full of interest totell, for the way of the deaf to the attainment of this position hasbeen long and tortuous, being first looked upon as wards, and then byslow gradations coming to the full rights and responsibilities ofcitizenship. In this final stage, where the state provides education forthe deaf only as it provides it for all others, and attempts littlebeyond, the deaf find themselves on a level with citizens in general inthe state's regard. 

In Part I, after we have ascertained who are meant by the "deaf, " andhow many of them there are, we are to find ourselves confronted by aquestion which is of the foremost concern to society; namely, whetherthe deaf are to be considered a permanent part of the population, orwhether society may have means at hand to eliminate or prevent deafness. After this, our discussion will revolve about the deaf from differentpoints of view, regarding them in the several aspects in which theyappear to society. We shall examine the treatment which the state ingeneral accords the deaf, how they are looked upon in the law, and whatchanges have been brought about in its attitude towards them. This maybe said to be the view of the publicist or legalist. Next, we shallattempt to see how far the deaf are really a class apart in the life ofthe community. This will involve an examination, on the one hand, as towhether their infirmity is a bar to their independent self-support, thatis, whether they are potentially economic factors in the world ofindustry, how far their status is due to what they themselves have done, and to what extent this result has modified the regard and treatment ofsociety; and, on the other, how far their want of hearing stands in theway of their mingling in the social life of the community in which theylive, whether the effect of this will tend to force the deaf toassociate more with themselves than with the rest of the people, andwhat forms their associations take. These will be the views respectivelyof the economist and the sociologist. Then we shall consider the regardin which the deaf are popularly held, the view of "the man in thestreet, " and whether this regard is the proper and just one. Lastly, weshall note what movements have been undertaken in the interests of thedeaf by private organizations, and to what extent these have beencarried. 

In Part II we shall consider the provision that has been made for theinstruction of deaf children. First we shall review the attempts atinstruction in the Old World, and then carefully follow the developmentof instruction in America, considering the early efforts in thisdirection, the founding of the first schools, and the spread of the workover the land; and noting how it was first taken up by privateinitiative, in time to be seconded or taken over by the state, and howfar the state has seen and performed its duty in this respect. Publicinstitutions have been created in nearly all the states, and we shallexamine the organizations of these institutions and the generalarrangements in the different states. The development of the work alsoincludes a system of day schools, a certain number of private schoolsand a national college, all of which we shall consider, devotingespecial attention to the day schools and their significance. Followingthis, we shall consider how each state individually has been found toprovide for the instruction of the deaf, observing also the extent towhich the states have made provision in their constitutions, and theextent to which the schools are regarded as purely educational. Next, weshall proceed to inquire into the terms of admission of pupils into theschools; and we shall particularly concern ourselves with theinvestigation of the question of how far the means provided foreducation by the state are actually availed of by the deaf. The greattechnical problems involved in the education of the deaf will be outsidethe province of this work, but we shall indicate, so far as publicaction may be concerned, the present methods of instruction. This done, we shall mark what is the cost to the state of all this activity for theeducation of its deaf children, noting also how far the state has beenassisted in the work by private benevolence. In the final chapter of ourstudy we shall set down the conclusions which we have found in respectto the work for the deaf on the whole in the United States. 

PART I

POSITION OF THE DEAF IN SOCIETY

CHAPTER I

THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES

MEANING OF TERM "DEAF" IN THE PRESENT STUDY

By the "deaf" in the present study is meant that element of thepopulation in which the sense of hearing is either wholly absent or isso slight as to be of no practical value; or in which there is inabilityto hear and understand spoken language; or in which there exists no realsound perception. In other words, those persons are meant who may beregarded as either totally deaf or practically totally deaf. [1] Withsuch deafness there is not infrequently associated an inability tospeak, or to use vocal language. Hence our attention may be said to bedirected to that part of the community which, by the want of the senseof hearing and oftentimes also of the power of speech, forms a specialand distinct class; and is known, more or less inaccurately, as the"deaf and dumb" or "deaf-mutes" or "mutes. "

In our discussion it is with deafness that we are primarily concerned. _Deafness_ and _dumbness_ are, physically, two essentially differentthings. There is no anatomical connection between the organs of hearingand those of speech; and the structure and functioning of each are suchas to preclude any direct pathological relation. The number of theso-called deaf and dumb, moreover, who are really dumb is very small--sosmall actually as to be negligible. Almost all who are spoken of as deafand dumb have organs of speech that are quite intact, and are, indeed, constructively perfect. It comes about, however, that dumbness--consideredas the want of normal and usual locution--though organically separatefrom deafness, is a natural consequence of it; and does, as a matter offact, in most cases to a greater or less extent, accompany or co-existwith it. The reason of this is that the deaf, particularly those whohave always been so, being unable to hear, do not know how to use theirorgans of speech, and especially are unable to modulate their speech bythe ear, as the hearing do. If the deaf could regain their hearing, theywould have back their speech in short order. The character of the humanvoice depends thus on the ear to an unrealized degree. 

NUMBER OF THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES

According to the census of 1900 there were 37, 426 persons in the UnitedStates enumerated as totally deaf;[2] and according to that of 1910there were 43, 812 enumerated as "deaf and dumb. "[3] Hence we may assumethat there are between forty and fifty thousand deaf persons in theUnited States forming a special class. [4]

The following table will give the number of the deaf in the severalstates and the number per million of population, according to the censusof 1910. [5]

NUMBER OF THE DEAF IN THE SEVERAL STATES

 NO. PER NO. PER MILLION OF MILLION OF NO. POPULATION NO. POPULATION

 United States 43, 812 476 Montana 117 311 Alabama 807 377 Nebraska 636 531 Arizona 53 259 Nevada 23 281 Arkansas 729 464 New Hampshire 191 443 California 784 329 New Jersey 667 263 Colorado 243 304 New Mexico 177 540 Connecticut 332 297 New York 4, 760 522 Delaware 59 291 North Carolina 1, 421 644 District of Columbia 114 344 North Dakota 239 414 Florida 216 286 Ohio 2, 582 539 Georgia 956 366 Oklahoma 826 491 Idaho 114 349 Oregon 241 359 Illinois 2, 641 468 Pennsylvania 3, 656 477 Indiana 1, 672 619 Rhode Island 208 383 Iowa 950 427 South Carolina 735 485 Kansas 934 552 South Dakota 315 539 Kentucky 1, 581 690 Tennessee 1, 231 563 Louisiana 774 468 Texas 1, 864 478 Maine 340 458 Utah 232 621 Maryland 746 576 Vermont 126 354 Massachusetts 1, 092 324 Virginia 1, 120 543 Michigan 1, 315 468 Washington 368 323 Minnesota 1, 077 519 West Virginia 713 584 Mississippi 737 410 Wisconsin 1, 251 537 Missouri 1, 823 553 Wyoming 24 159

From this table the largest proportions of the deaf appear to be foundin the states rather toward the central part of the country, and thesmallest in the states in the far west and the extreme east. The highestproportions occur in Kentucky, North Carolina, Utah, Indiana, WestVirginia, Maryland, Tennessee, Missouri, Kansas, Virginia, New Mexico, Ohio, South Dakota, Wisconsin, Nebraska, New York, and Minnesota, allthese states having over 500 per million of population. The lowestproportions are found in Wyoming, Arizona, New Jersey, Nevada, Florida, Delaware, Connecticut, Colorado, Montana, Washington, Massachusetts, California, District of Columbia, Idaho, Vermont, Oregon, Alabama, andRhode Island, in none of these states the number being over 400 permillion. Why there should be these differences in the respectiveproportions of the deaf in the population of the several states, wecannot say; and we are generally unable to determine to what thevariations are to be ascribed--whether they are to be set down toparticular conditions of morbidity, the intensity of congenitaldeafness, or other influences operating in different sections; or, perhaps in some measure, to the greater thoroughness with which thecensus was taken in some places than in others. 

AGE WHEN DEAFNESS OCCURRED

The vast majority of the deaf lost their hearing in early life, and mostof them in the tender years of infancy and childhood. More than ninetyper cent (90. 6, according to the returns of the census) became deafbefore the twentieth year; nearly three-fourths (73. 7 per cent) underfive; over half (52. 4 per cent) under two; and over a third (35. 5 percent) were born deaf. Deafness thus occurs in a strongly diminishingratio with advancing years. [6] These facts may be indicated by thefollowing table, [7] which shows the percentages of those who became deafat different ages. 

THE DEAF ACCORDING TO AGE OF OCCURRENCE OF DEAFNESS

 At birth 35. 5 After birth and under two 16. 9

 Under two years 52. 4 2 and under 4 17. 1 4 and under 6 7. 3 6 and under 8 4. 5 8 and under 10 2. 8 10 and under 12 1. 8 12 and under 14 1. 6 14 and under 16 1. 3 16 and under 18 1. 0 18 and under 20 0. 8

 Under five 73. 7 5 and under 10 10. 5 10 and under 15 4. 0 15 and under 20 2. 4

 Under 20 90. 6 20 and under 40 5. 7 40 and under 60 2. 4 60 and under 80 1. 1 80 and over 0. 2

ABILITY OF THE DEAF TO SPEAK

We have just seen that "dumbness" frequently follows upon deafness, orthat it is usually believed to be an effect of deafness. It is true thatwith the majority of the deaf phonetic speech is not employed to anylarge extent; but there is at the same time a fair number who can, anddo, use vocal language. This speech varies to a wide degree, in someapproximating normal speech, and in others being harsh and understoodwith difficulty; and it depends in the main upon three conditions: 1. The age at which deafness occurred, this being the most importantfactor; 2. The extent to which the voice is cultivated; and 3. Theremaining power of the ear (which is found but seldom). [8]

Of the deaf persons enumerated in the census, [9] 21. 5 per cent werereported able to speak well; 15. 8 per cent imperfectly; and 62. 7 percent not at all. In other words, somewhat over a third of the deaf canspeak more or less, one-fifth being able to speak well, and one-sixthimperfectly, while over three-fifths do not speak at all. The dependenceof the ability to speak upon the age of becoming deaf is clearly inevidence here, the proportion of those not able to speak showing agreat decrease with the rise of this age. Thus, of those born deaf, 83. 5per cent cannot speak at all; of those becoming deaf after birth andunder five, 74. 6 per cent; of those becoming deaf after five and undertwenty, 26. 5 per cent; and of those becoming deaf after twenty, 3. 4 percent. 

Some of the deaf are able to read the lips of the speaker, or as it isbetter expressed, to read speech, or to understand what is being said bywatching the motions of the mouth. This in reality is a distinct artfrom the ability to speak, though popularly they are often thought to beco-ordinate or complementary one to the other. Like the ability tospeak, it varies in wide degree, from the ability to understand simpleand easy expressions only, to the ability to follow protracteddiscourse; and like the ability to speak, it is found in increasingfrequency with the rise of the age of becoming deaf. According to thecensus, [10] 38. 6 per cent of the deaf are able to read the lips. Ofthose born deaf, 28. 0 per cent have this ability; of those becoming deafafter birth and under five, 37. 1 per cent; of those becoming deaf afterfive and under twenty, 64. 3 per cent; and of those becoming deaf aftertwenty, 43. 6 per cent. [11]

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION EMPLOYED BY THE DEAF

If the larger number of the deaf do not use the speech which is used bythose who can hear, how is it that their communication is carried on?The chief method is a certain silent tongue peculiar to the deaf, knownas the "sign language, "[12] a part of which may be said to be the manualalphabet, or the system of finger-spelling, [13] the two usually goinghand in hand. In this way most of the deaf are enabled to communicatewith each other readily and fluently. But this language, or at least thegreater part of it, not being known to people generally, the deaffrequently have to fall back on writing to convey their ideas incommunicating with hearing persons. This, while slow and cumbersome, isthe surest and most reliable method of all. In addition, as we haveseen, a certain number of the deaf are able to use speech, which ofcourse has manifold advantages. These are the several methods, then, ofcommunication employed by the deaf; but they are not usually employedsingly, as most of the deaf are able to use two or more. According tothe census, [14] the sign language alone or in combination with othermethods is employed by 68. 2 per cent, or over two-thirds of the deaf;finger-spelling by 52. 6 per cent, or over one-half; writing by almostthe same proportion--51. 9 per cent; and speech by 39. 8 per cent, or sometwo-fifths. It is probable, however, that the proportions employing thesign language, finger-spelling and writing, either singly or with othermethods, are really somewhat larger. In this case, likewise, we findthat the lower the age of becoming deaf, the smaller is the proportionof the deaf with speech, which shows again the connection of the abilityto speak with the age of the occurrence of deafness. Of those born deaf, speech alone or in combination with other methods is used by 18. 2 percent; of those becoming deaf after birth and under five, by 27. 4 percent; of those becoming deaf after five and under twenty, by 75. 3 percent; and of those becoming deaf after twenty, by 97. 7 per cent. 

FOOTNOTES:

[1] There are no sharply dividing lines between the different degrees ofdeafness, but it is only those described that really constitute aspecial class. Persons whose hearing is such as to be of use even insome slight degree are rather to be distinguished as "hard of hearing. "

[2] By this census both the partially deaf and the totally deaf wereenumerated, or 89, 287 in all. The former should not have beenenumerated, the enumerators being instructed not to include those ableto hear loud conversation. 

[3] For the census returns for 1900, see "Special Reports of the CensusOffice. The Blind and the Deaf, " 1906. This report was under the specialdirection of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, who has long been interested inthe deaf. The returns of the census for 1910 are yet to be revised, while at the same time additional data are to be secured to be publishedas a special report like that of 1906. As yet the census office has for1910 only the actual enumeration of the deaf and dumb in the variousstates, and the returns with respect to other particulars regarding themare yet to be completed. See _Volta Review_, xiii. , 1911, p. 399. Hencein our discussions we shall, except for the number by states, deal withthe census of 1900. For a review of this census, see _American Annals ofthe Deaf_, Sept. , 1906, to May, 1907 (li. , lii. ). In a number of statescertain county officers are required from time to time to enumerate thedeaf. For a census in one state, see Bulletin of Labor of Massachusetts, July-Aug. , 1907. 

[4] Included in the census of 1900 were 491 deaf-blind persons (totallydeaf), and in that of 1910, 584. 

[5] From statistics kindly furnished by the Census Bureau. 

[6] This is just the opposite of the case with the blind. 

[7] Special Reports, 1906, p. 79. Some 2, 000 cases were thrown out forindefinite replies, leaving 35, 479, upon which our percentages arebased. 

[8] A somewhat frequent classification of the deaf in respect to theirpower to speak is to regard them roughly as falling into three greatdivisions: 1. "Deaf-mutes, " who come nearest to being deaf and dumb. They have always been deaf, and have never had natural speech. Whatspeech they may possess has come from special instruction, with theresult that it is more or less artificial. 2. "Semi-mutes, " who aredeaf, but who have once had hearing as well as speech; and this speechthey are able to use to a greater or less degree, though in time it islikely to become more and more astray. 3. "Semi-deaf" persons, who areonly partly deaf, and possess a little hearing, though it is too slightto be of real practical use; and who have voices most nearly approachingthe normal. They belong somewhere between the really deaf and the hardof hearing. 

[9] Special Reports, pp. 82, 240. 

[10] _Ibid. _, pp. 87, 240. For 8, 966 no returns were made. 

[11] On the subject of lip-reading, see especially E. B. Nitchie, "Lip-Reading: its Principles and Practice", 1912. 

[12] This "sign language" is referred to at somewhat more length inChapter XIX. 

[13] Sometimes called "the deaf and dumb alphabet". 

[14] Special Reports, pp. 89, 240. For 2, 365 no returns were made. 

CHAPTER II

THE DEAF AS A PERMANENT ELEMENT OF THE POPULATION

INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF THE DEAF IN RELATION TO THE INCREASE IN THEGENERAL POPULATION

Are the deaf to be a permanent element in the constitution of thepopulation? Are they always to be reckoned with in the life of the stateand the regard of society? Would it not be well to inquire whether ornot deafness may be eliminated, or at least reduced to an appreciabledegree? These are questions that present themselves at the outset in aconsideration of the relation of the deaf to society, and to them we nowdevote our attention. 

Our first inquiry in the matter is directed to the question whetherdeafness as a whole is increasing, decreasing or remaining stationary, in relation to the general population. To determine this, we haverecourse to the census returns of the deaf in connection with those ofthe general population. Unfortunately, however, comparisons of thedifferent censuses respecting the deaf are not altogether to bedepended upon, for the reason that they have not always been taken onthe same basis, and conclusions from them consequently have to beaccepted with qualifications. Special census returns of the deaf havebeen made since 1830; but the censuses of 1830-1870 purport to be of thedeaf and dumb; the census of 1880, of the deaf who became deaf undersixteen years of age; that of 1890, of the deaf and dumb; that of 1900, of the totally deaf; and that of 1910, of the deaf and dumb. The resultsthus obtained are in the main analogous, but there are a certain numberof cases included on one basis that would be excluded on another, and_vice versa_. [15]

Taking the statistics as they are, we have the following table, [16]which gives the number of the deaf as found in the several censuses, according to the bases upon which they were made, together with theratio per million of population. 

NUMBER OF THE DEAF ACCORDING TO THE CENSUSES OF 1830-1910

 NO. PER MILLION OF YEAR NUMBER POPULATION

 1830 (the deaf and dumb) 6, 106 475 1840 (the deaf and dumb) 7, 665 449 1850 (the deaf and dumb) 9, 803 423 1860 (the deaf and dumb) 12, 821 408 1870 (the deaf and dumb) 16, 205 420 1880 (deafness occurring under sixteen) 33, 878 675 1890 (the deaf and dumb) 40, 592 648 1900 (the totally deaf) 37, 426 492 1910 (the deaf and dumb) 43, 812 476

From this table there appears to be a steady decrease in the number ofthe deaf in relation to the general population from 1830 to 1860, thislatter year seeming to be the low water mark. From 1860 to 1870 there isa slight increase, and from 1870 to 1880 a very large one, due to someextent to the method of taking the census. From 1880 to 1890 there is acertain decrease, though the proportion is still very high. From 1890 to1900 there is a very considerable decrease, probably indicating a returnto true conditions; and a not negligible decrease from 1900 to 1910. 

On the whole, with respect to these statistics, probably the most thatwe can safely say is that deafness is at least not on the increaserelatively among the population, while there is a possibility that atpresent it is decreasing. For further determinations, we shall have toseek other means of inquiry. 

THE ADVENTITIOUSLY DEAF AND THE CONGENITALLY DEAF

We may perhaps best approach the problem of deafness as an increasing ordecreasing phenomenon in the population, if we think of the deaf ascomposed of two great classes: those adventitiously deaf, that is, thosewho have lost their hearing by some disease or accident occurring afterbirth, and those congenitally deaf, that is, those who have never hadhearing. [17] In regard to the former class, it follows that we arelargely interested in the consideration of those diseases, especiallythose of childhood, which may affect the hearing, and in theirprevention or diminution we can endeavor to ascertain how far there arepossibilities of reducing the number of the deaf of this class. In thelatter case we are called upon to examine some of the great problemsinvolved in the study of heredity, especially in respect to the extentthat the offspring is affected by defects or abnormalities of theparent, and to see what, if any, means are at hand to alter conditionsthat bring about this form of deafness. We shall first discuss thecauses of adventitious deafness, together with the possibilities of itsprevention and the likelihood of its diminution, and then consider thequestions involved in congenital deafness. 

ADVENTITIOUS DEAFNESS AND ITS CAUSES

From three-fifths to two-thirds of the cases of deafness are causedadventitiously--by accident or disease. To accidents, however, only avery small part are due, probably less than one-fiftieth of the entirenumber. [18] Nearly all adventitious deafness results from some disease, either as a primary disease of the auditory organs, or as a sequence orproduct of some disease of the system, often one of infectiouscharacter, the deafness thus constituting a secondary malady or ailment. The larger portion is of the latter type, probably less than a fourthresulting from original ear troubles. [19] In either case deafness occursusually in infancy or childhood, and does its harm by attacking themiddle or internal ear. 

From diseases of the middle ear results over one-fourth (27. 2 per cent, according to the census) of all deafness, and from diseases of theinternal ear, one-fifth (20. 7 per cent), very little (0. 6 per cent)being caused by disorders of the outer ear. Of the classified cases ofdeafness, according to the census, 56. 3 per cent are due to diseasesaffecting the middle ear, and 42. 7 per cent to diseases affecting theinternal. Of diseases of the middle ear, 72 per cent are of suppurativecharacter, often with inflammation or abscess, and 28 per centnon-suppurative, or rather catarrhal in character. Of diseases of theinternal ear, 89 per cent are affections of the nerve, and 10 per centof the labyrinth. It is to be noted that when the affection is of theinternal ear, the result is usually total deafness. 

By specified diseases, the leading causes of deafness are scarlet fever(11. 1 per cent), meningitis (9. 6), brain fever (4. 7), catarrh (3. 6), "disease of middle ear" (3. 6), measles (2. 5), typhoid fever (2. 4), colds(1. 6), malarial fever (1. 2), influenza (0. 7), with smaller proportionsfrom diphtheria, pneumonia, whooping cough, la grippe, and otherdiseases. A large part of deafness is seen to be due to infectiousdiseases, the probabilities being that fully one-third is to be soascribed, with one-fifth from infectious fevers alone. 

After birth and under two years of age, the chief causes of deafness aremeningitis, scarlet fever, disease of middle ear, brain fever, andmeasles. From two to five scarlet fever and meningitis are far in thelead, with many cases also from brain fever, disease of middle ear, measles, and typhoid fever. From five to ten scarlet fever aloneoutdistances all other diseases, followed in order by meningitis, brainfever and typhoid fever. From ten to fifteen the main causes aremeningitis, scarlet fever, brain fever, and catarrh; from fifteen totwenty catarrh and meningitis; from twenty to forty catarrh, colds andtyphoid fever; and from forty on, catarrh. 

The following table[20] will show in detail the several causes ofdeafness and their respective percentages. 

CAUSES OF DEAFNESS

 Total classified 48. 5 External ear 0. 6 Impacted cerumen 0. 2 Foreign bodies 0. 1 Miscellaneous 0. 3 Middle ear 27. 2 Suppurative 19. 6 Scarlet fever 11. 1 Disease of ear 3. 6 Measles 2. 5 Influenza 0. 7 Other causes 1. 7 Non-suppurative 7. 6 Catarrh 3. 6 Colds 1. 6 Other causes 2. 4 Internal ear 20. 7 Labyrinth 1. 8 Malarial fever 1. 2 Other causes 0. 6 Nerves 18. 5 Meningitis 9. 6 Brain fever 4. 7 Typhoid fever 2. 4 Other causes 1. 8 Brain center 0. 3 Miscellaneous 0. 1 Unclassified 45. 3 Congenital 33. 7 Old age 0. 3 Military service 1. 0 Falls and blows 2. 8 Sickness 2. 7 Fever 2. 0 Hereditary 0. 3 Miscellaneous 2. 5 Unknown 6. 2

In fairly approximate agreement with the returns of the census, are therecords of the special schools for the deaf in respect to the causes ofdeafness in their pupils, with information also as to the amount fromthe minor diseases. The following table will give the causes by specificdiseases, as found in one school, the Pennsylvania Institution, for twoyears:[21]

CAUSES OF DEAFNESS OF PUPILS IN PENNSYLVANIA INSTITUTION

 1906 1907 PER CENT PER CENT

 Total number 510 100. 0 500 100. 0 Born deaf 213 41. 8 206 41. 2 Scarlet fever 43 8. 2 47 9. 4 Meningitis 36 7. 1 40 8. 0 Falls 24 4. 7 25 5. 0 Diseases of ear and throat 13 2. 6 23 4. 6 Catarrh and colds 13 2. 6 -- -- Measles 18 3. 5 18 3. 6 Brain fever 17 3. 3 16 3. 2 Convulsions 14 2. 8 13 2. 6 Abscesses 10 2. 0 12 2. 4 La grippe 10 2. 0 7 1. 4 Accidents (not stated) 9 1. 8 7 1. 4 Whooping cough 7 1. 4 7 1. 4 Typhoid fever 7 1. 4 6 1. 2 Diphtheria 6 1. 2 6 1. 2 Mumps 5 1. 0 5 1. 0 Paralysis 5 1. 0 4 0. 8 Marasmus 2 0. 4 4 0. 8 Pneumonia 4 0. 8 2 0. 4 Dentition -- -- 2 0. 4 Dropsy of blood 2 0. 4 -- -- Chicken pox 1 0. 2 1 0. 2 Poisoning 1 0. 2 1 0. 2 Intermittent fever 1 0. 2 1 0. 2 Blood clotting on brain 1 0. 2 -- -- Cholera infantum 1 0. 2 -- -- Gastric fever -- -- 1 0. 2 Sickness (not stated) 10 2. 0 8 1. 6 Unknown 37 7. 3 38 7. 6

POSSIBLE ACTION FOR THE PREVENTION OF ADVENTITIOUS DEAFNESS

In respect to present activities for the prevention of adventitiousdeafness, we find the situation very much like that of marking time. Deafness, since the beginning of time, has largely been accepted as theportion of a certain fraction of the race, and any serious anddetermined efforts for its eradication have been considered for themost part as of little hope. [22] With the auditory organs so securelyhidden away in the head, entrenched within the protecting temporal bone, and with their structure so delicate and complicated, the problem maywell have been regarded a baffling one even for the best labor ofmedicine and surgery. Hence it is that after deafness has once effectedlodgment in the system, a cure has not usually been regarded as withinreach, though for certain individual cases there may be medicalexamination and treatment, with attempts made at relief. For deafness ingeneral, it has been felt that there has been little that could be donein the way of prevention or cure beyond the preservation of the generalhealth and the warding off of diseases that might cause loss of hearing. 

As a matter of fact, however, altogether too little attention has beengiven hitherto to the possibilities of the prevention of deafness. Without question there is much at the outset that can be accomplishedtowards the prevention of those diseases that cause deafness. A largepart, perhaps fully a third, as we have seen, are due to infectiousdiseases, and it is probably here that measures are likely to be mostefficacious. A considerable portion likewise are the result of diseasesaffecting the passages of the nose and throat, and help should bepossible for many of these if taken in hand soon enough. In certaindiseases also, as scarlet fever, measles, typhoid fever, diphtheria, andothers, there are not a few cases which, so far as deafness as adevelopment is concerned, would prove amenable to skillful andpersistent treatment. At the same time due attention to primary eartroubles would in a number of instances keep off permanent deafness. Indeed, it is possible that some thirty or forty per cent ofadventitious deafness is preventable by present known means. [23]

Aside from direct medical treatment for those diseases that causedeafness, there are other measures available in a program for theprevention of deafness. One of the foremost essentials is the report tothe health authorities of all serious diseases that are liable to resultin deafness. In this way proper medical care may be secured, and dueprecautions may be taken to isolate infectious cases. Even withmeningitis, which is so hard usually to deal with and which is sosevere in its ravages, there is often some concomitant trouble, and ifmade notifiable in all cases deafness from it might be checked in noinconsiderable measure. The report of births is also especially needed, and as it becomes obligatory in general, with the consequent detectionof physical ailments or disabilities, early cases of deafness may comeincreasingly to notice, and timely treatment may be availed of. Particular attention is likewise necessary in respect to the medicalexamination of school children. The proportion of such children withimpaired hearing is not slight, even though no great part of them becometotally deaf. A committee on defective eyes and ears of school childrenof the National Educational Association in 1903 found that of 57, 072children examined in seven cities, 2, 067, or 3. 6 per cent, wereextremely defective in hearing. [24] An investigation of the schoolchildren in New York City has disclosed the fact that one per cent haveseriously defective hearing. [25] Under proper and adequate medicalinspection of schools, not only would the need of treatment for adenoidsand similar troubles be brought to light, with the result that a numberof incipient cases might be stopped in time, but in some instances ofdeafness already acquired beneficial treatment might be possible. [26]

There is thus a considerable sphere for action towards the prevention ofadventitious deafness both by legislation and by education. For theultimate solution of its problems, however, we have to look mainly tothe medical profession. In recent years medical science has won somegreat triumphs, and in the field of the prevention of deafness no littlemay be in store to be accomplished in the years to come. [27] Even now, with more particular attention to the diseases of children, and withstronger insistence upon general sanitary measures, the probabilitiesare that there is less deafness from certain diseases than formerly--amatter which we are soon to consider. 

Though as yet there has been little direct action for the prevention ofadventitious deafness, there is an increasing concern in the matter, andin this there is promise. By medical bodies in particular is greaterattention being given to the subject, [28] and in the wideningrecognition of their part as guardians of the public health it may bepossible for them to do much for the enlightenment of the public. In onestate legislative action has been taken expressly for the protection ofthe hearing of school children. This is Massachusetts, which requiresthe examination of the eyes and ears of the school children in everytown and city, the state board of education furnishing the tests. [29] Insome states also general inspection of schools is mandatory by statute, and in others permissive, while in several there are local ordinanceswith the force of a state law. 

In combating adventitious deafness, then, our attack is to be directedin the largest part upon those diseases, especially infantile andinfectious diseases, that cause deafness; and it is upon the checking oftheir spread that our main efforts for the present have to beconcentrated. At the same time the better safe-guarding of the generalhealth of the community will insure a proportionate diminution ofdeafness. Beyond this, we will have to wait upon the developments ofmedical science, both in the study of the prevention of diseases and oftheir treatment; and can trust only to what it may offer. [30]

ADVENTITIOUS DEAFNESS AS AN INCREASING OR DECREASING PHENOMENON

Our main interest in the problem of adventitious deafness lies in thepossible discovery whether or not it is relatively increasing ordecreasing among the population, and in what respects signs appear of adiminution. We have just seen the likelihood of a decrease from certaincauses; but we are to find what is indicated by statistical evidence. 

To be considered first is adventitious deafness as a whole. Respectingit our only statistics are in the returns of the censuses since 1880, the different forms of deafness not being distinguished before thistime. The following table will show the number of the adventitiouslydeaf as reported by the censuses of 1880, 1890 and 1900, with theirrespective percentages and ratios per million of population. [31]

NUMBER OF THE ADVENTITIOUSLY DEAF IN 1880, 1890 AND 1900

 TOTAL ADVENTITIOUSLY PERCENTAGE RATIO NUMBER DEAF PER MILLION OF POPULATION

 1880 33, 878 10, 187 30. 1 20. 3 1890 40, 562 16, 767 41. 1 26. 8 1900 37, 426 18, 164 48. 4 23. 9

From this it appears that adventitious deafness is increasing inrelation to total deafness, which is most likely the case, as congenitaldeafness, as we shall see, is evidently decreasing. Whether or notadventitious deafness is increasing in respect to the generalpopulation, the table does not disclose definitely. The statisticsprobably are not full enough to afford any real indication yet. 

Our next inquiry is in respect to the increase or decrease ofadventitious deafness from the several diseases individually, which is, upon the whole, the more satisfactory test. Here also, unfortunately, our statistics are very limited, and our findings will have to fall muchshort of what could be desired. 

The following table, based on the returns of the censuses of 1880, 1890and 1900, so far as the approximate identity of the several diseases canbe established, will give the respective percentages found. [32]

CAUSES OF ADVENTITIOUS DEAFNESS IN 1880, 1890 AND 1900

 1880 1890 1900

 Scarlet fever 7. 9 11. 8 11. 1 Meningitis 8. 4 7. 8 9. 6 Catarrh and catarrhal fevers 0. 9 3. 3 3. 6[33] Diphtheria 0. 2 0. 5 --[34] Abscess and inflammation 1. 0 2. 5 --[35] Measles 1. 3 2. 5 2. 5 Whooping cough 0. 5 0. 8 --[34] Malarial and typhoid fevers 1. 7 1. 8 3. 6 Other fevers 1. 1 -- 2. 0

In this table the most noticeable thing is perhaps the persistency withwhich we find most of the diseases to recur, with apparently no greatchange, while in certain ones, as catarrh and malarial and typhoidfevers, there seems to be rather an increase. It would be best, however, not to place very great confidence in these figures, but, so far as thecensus reports are concerned, to wait for more precise and uniformstatistics. 

We have, further, the statistics published in the reports of certainschools for the deaf. While these are perhaps not of sufficient extentto warrant full conclusions, they may be regarded as quiterepresentative;[36] and though to be taken with something of the cautionas the census figures, they may serve to throw some light upon thesituation. Comparison of the proportions of pupils deaf from the severaldiseases at different times may be made in two ways: by finding therespective proportions over a series of successive years from a certaintime back down to the present, and by contrasting the proportions in twowidely separated periods, one in the present and one in the past. Thesewill be taken up in order. 

The following tables give the percentages of cases of deafness in pupilsfrom the important diseases as found in six schools in successive years:in the New York Institution in the total annual attendance from 1899 to1912; in the Michigan School in the total biennial attendance from 1883to 1912; in the Pennsylvania Institution in the number of new pupilsadmitted quadriennially from 1843 to 1912; in the Western PennsylvaniaInstitution in the number admitted biennially from 1887 to 1912; in theMaryland School in the number admitted biennially from 1884 to 1911; andin the Wisconsin School in the number admitted biennially from 1880 to1908. 

I. CAUSES OF DEAFNESS IN NEW YORK INSTITUTION FROM 1899 TO 1912

 |1899|1900|1901|1902|1903|1904|1905|1906|1907|1908|1909 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Total Number | 466| 476| 481| 477| 464| 503| 508| 510| 543| 555| 565 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Congenital |36. 0|27. 1|26. 8|40. 9|36. 2|41. 1|46. 2|31. 8|33. 3|34. 4|34. 9 Scarlet Fever |11. 4|10. 1| 8. 9| 7. 1| 6. 5| 6. 9| 6. 5| 4. 9| 5. 3| 5. 0| 5. 7 Meningitis | 9. 5| 9. 4| 7. 7| 7. 9| 7. 8| 7. 9|11. 0|12. 2|16. 8|18. 6|17. 7 Brain Trouble |10. 1| 9. 2| 8. 3| 8. 1| 7. 2| 5. 9| 5. 9| 7. 1| 9. 0| 8. 3| 8. 7 Falls | 9. 0| 7. 2| 5. 4| 4. 5| 3. 9| 4. 2| 3. 8| 5. 2| 5. 9| 6. 1| 6. 0 Measles | 5. 1| 3. 8| 3. 8| 2. 1| 3. 9| 4. 5| 4. 1| 4. 1| 4. 8| 4. 7| 4. 4 Typhoid Fever | 3. 7| 2. 3| 1. 6| 1. 0| 0. 9| 1. 2| 1. 0| 1. 0| 1. 3| 1. 3| 1. 2 Convulsions | 3. 2| 4. 4| 3. 2| 2. 9| 2. 6| 0. 2| 1. 8| 1. 8| 1. 9| 1. 5| 1. 9 Various Fevers | 2. 5| 1. 5| 1. 4| 1. 0| 1. 7| 1. 6| 1. 6| 1. 6| 1. 5| 1. 3| 0. 7 Catarrh | 2. 3| 2. 1| 1. 9| 1. 8| 1. 6| 1. 2| 1. 0| 2. 0| 1. 9| 1. 9| 1. 4 Diphtheria | 1. 9| 1. 7| 1. 9| 1. 0| 0. 9| 0. 4| 0. 6| 0. 8| 0. 9| 0. 9| 0. 7 Pneumonia | 1. 5| 0. 8| 0. 8| 0. 6| 1. 1| 0. 2| 1. 0| 1. 1| 1. 1| 0. 9| 1. 1 Whooping Cough | 1. 7| -- | 1. 6| 1. 2| 1. 1| 1. 0| 0. 8| 0. 6| 0. 9| 0. 9| 0. 5 Miscellaneous | | | | | | | | | | | and Unknown | 2. 1|20. 4|26. 7|19. 8|18. 6|23. 7|14. 7|25. 9|15. 4|14. 2|15. 1

 1910|1911|1912| ----+----+----+ Total Number 570| 546| 518| ----+----+----+ Congenital 32. 8|34. 6|36. 6| Scarlet Fever 6. 1| 5. 7| 5. 0| Meningitis 17. 9|19. 0|19. 7| Brain Trouble 8. 3| 8. 0| 8. 9| Falls 5. 1| 5. 5| 5. 6| Measles 4. 6| 0. 2| 0. 7| Typhoid Fever 1. 1| 0. 9| 0. 5| Convulsions 1. 9| 2. 0| 2. 1| Various Fevers 0. 5| 0. 5| 0. 7| Catarrh 0. 8| 1. 0| 0. 5| Diphtheria 0. 7| 0. 7| 0. 5| Pneumonia 1. 1| 0. 7| 0. 5| Whooping Cough 0. 5| 0. 5| 0. 2| Miscellaneous | | | and Unknown 18. 6|20. 7|18. 5|

II. CAUSES OF DEAFNESS IN MICHIGAN SCHOOL FROM 1883 TO 1912

 |1883|1885|1887|1889|1891|1893|1895|1897|1899|1901|1903 |1884|1886|1888|1890|1892|1894|1896|1898|1900|1902|1904 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Total Number | 302| 336| 342| 350| 343| 365| 428| 412| 441| 447| 451 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Congenital | 7. 0|18. 8|23. 1|26. 3|24. 2|26. 3|25. 2|30. 3|28. 8|31. 5|32. 8 Meningitis |28. 8|28. 1|23. 1|23. 1|21. 3|15. 8|15. 6|14. 5|10. 2| 9. 2| 4. 6 Scarlet Fever |12. 2|11. 8|12. 3|11. 2| 9. 0| 9. 6| 9. 5| 9. 7| 9. 5| 9. 3| 7. 6 Brain Fever | 6. 2| 6. 5| 4. 8| 3. 7| 5. 2| 6. 9| 6. 6| 6. 3| 5. 4| 3. 8| 3. 8 Typhoid Fever | 4. 6| 3. 6| 4. 1| 4. 3| 4. 7| 1. 9| 1. 8| 1. 4| 2. 5| 2. 2| 1. 3 Measles | 3. 6| 4. 1| 3. 9| 2. 9| 2. 6| 1. 4| 0. 8| 1. 9| 3. 2| 3. 1| 2. 9 Diphtheria | 0. 6| -- | -- | 0. 3| 0. 3| 0. 3| 0. 2| 0. 2| 0. 4| 0. 2| 0. 4 Catarrh | 0. 6| 0. 6| 0. 9| 0. 8| 0. 9| 1. 1| 1. 9| -- | 2. 9| 3. 5| 3. 3 Various Fevers | 2. 9| 1. 5| 2. 0| 2. 6| 3. 0| 4. 4| 4. 4| 1. 7| 2. 9| 2. 9| 3. 3 Whooping Cough | 1. 3| 1. 2| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 3. 0| 3. 8| 3. 6| 2. 7| 2. 5| 3. 1 Pneumonia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0. 2| 0. 2| 0. 4 La grippe | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0. 9| 1. 1| 1. 6 Miscellaneous | | | | | | | | | | | and Unknown |32. 2|23. 8|24. 3|23. 3|27. 3|29. 3|30. 2|30. 4|30. 4|31. 5|34. 9

 1905|1907|1909|1911| 1906|1908|1910|1912| ----+----+----+----+ Total Number 404| 361| 354| 353| ----+----+----+----+ Congenital 36. 6|35. 7|35. 0|31. 2| Meningitis 8. 6| 9. 5| 8. 8| 8. 2| Scarlet Fever 6. 9| 5. 8| 3. 6| 4. 5| Brain Fever 2. 7| 2. 5| 2. 3| 1. 0| Typhoid Fever 1. 0| 1. 4| 1. 5| 1. 7| Measles 2. 9| 4. 1| 3. 4| 3. 1| Diphtheria 0. 5| 0. 2| 0. 3| 0. 3| Catarrh 2. 8| 1. 9| 2. 5| 0. 8| Various Fevers 2. 5| 0. 5| 2. 0| 1. 4| Whooping Cough 3. 4| 4. 4| 4. 8| 5. 1| Pneumonia -- | 0. 7| 0. 6| 0. 8| La grippe 1. 5| 3. 0| 2. 3| -- | Miscellaneous | | | | and Unknown 30. 6|30. 3|32. 9|41. 9|

III. CAUSES OF DEAFNESS IN PENNSYLVANIA INSTITUTION FROM 1843 TO 1912

 |1843|1847|1851|1855|1859|1863|1867|1871|1875|1879|1883 |1846|1850|1854|1858|1862|1866|1870|1874|1878|1882|1886 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Total Number | 90| 111| 125| 143| 167| 152| 150| 178| 282| 233| 261 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Congenital |54. 4|58. 5|56. 0|46. 8|53. 3|48. 4|40. 0|42. 1|31. 2|24. 4|34. 1 Scarlet Fever |13. 3|18. 0|12. 8|16. 8| 9. 6|19. 7|16. 0|18. 6|18. 1|13. 7|14. 9 Meningitis | -- | -- | 0. 8| -- | -- | 2. 0| 1. 3| 9. 6|18. 1|25. 7|16. 4 Measles | 1. 1| 2. 7| 1. 6| 2. 8| 2. 4| 3. 3| 4. 0| 1. 1| 1. 7| 2. 6| 1. 9 Whooping Cough | 2. 2| 0. 9| 0. 8| 0. 7| 1. 2| 0. 7| 1. 3| 0. 6| 0. 3| 0. 8| -- Catarrh | -- | 0. 9| -- | -- | -- | -- | 0. 7| 0. 6| 2. 1| -- | -- Brain Fever | -- | -- | 2. 8| 2. 1| -- | 6. 0| 4. 7| -- | -- | -- | 0. 8 Typhoid Fever | -- | -- | -- | 1. 4| 0. 6| 0. 7| 2. 6| 2. 7| 2. 1| 2. 6| 3. 4 Diphtheria | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0. 7| -- | -- | -- | -- Pneumonia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- La grippe | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- Mis. And Unknown |29. 0|19. 2|25. 2|29. 4|32. 9|19. 2|28. 7|24. 7|26. 3|30. 2|28. 5

 1887|1891|1895|1899|1903|1907|1911| 1890|1894|1898|1902|1906|1910|1912| ----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ Total Number 207| 248| 250| 239| 240| 282| 152| ----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ Congenital 47. 3|46. 8|41. 6|32. 2|35. 8|33. 7|34. 2| Scarlet Fever 14. 0|14. 1|11. 2| 6. 3|10. 4| 3. 9| 5. 2| Meningitis 5. 8| 5. 6| 7. 6| 8. 4| 7. 1|17. 4|15. 1| Measles 3. 9| 3. 2| 4. 4| 4. 6| 4. 5| 3. 5| 3. 9| Whooping Cough 0. 5| 0. 4| 0. 8| 1. 7| 0. 7| 2. 9| 1. 3| Catarrh 3. 9| 4. 8| 6. 8| 4. 2| 1. 2| 2. 5| 1. 3| Brain Fever 2. 9| 5. 2| 4. 0| 3. 4| 1. 7| 2. 9| 2. 6| Typhoid Fever 2. 9| 3. 6| -- | 2. 5| 0. 7| 3. 9| 1. 3| Diphtheria 0. 5| 1. 6| 2. 0| 0. 8| 2. 5| 1. 2| 2. 0| Pneumonia 0. 5| -- | -- | 0. 8| 0. 4| 1. 2| 4. 8| La grippe -- | 0. 4| -- | 2. 1| 1. 2| 0. 3| -- | Mis. And Unknown 17. 8|14. 3|21. 6|33. 0|33. 8|26. 6|28. 3|

IV. CAUSES OF DEAFNESS IN WESTERN PENNSYLVANIA INSTITUTION FROM 1887 TO1912

 |1887|1889|1891|1893|1895|1897|1899|1901|1903|1905|1907 |1888|1890|1892|1894|1896|1898|1900|1902|1904|1906|1908 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Total Number | 61| 56| 58| 58| 49| 40| 50| 41| 110| 59| 73 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Congenital |24. 6|14. 3|20. 7|32. 8|46. 9|40. 6|40. 0|31. 9|38. 2|25. 4|30. 1 Scarlet Fever | 9. 8|21. 4| 8. 6|10. 4|10. 2| 5. 0| 6. 0|12. 2| 8. 3|11. 8| 8. 2 Meningitis |16. 5|14. 5|13. 8|10. 4|10. 2|20. 0|14. 0|17. 1| 7. 2|10. 2|13. 7 Measles | 4. 9| 1. 9| 5. 2|10. 4| 4. 0| -- | 2. 0| 2. 4| 7. 2| 1. 9| 8. 2 Catarrh | 3. 2| -- | 7. 6| 1. 9| 2. 0| 5. 0| 2. 0| 9. 6| 2. 7| 3. 8| 4. 1 Brain Fever | 6. 5| 5. 4| 1. 9| 1. 9| -- | 2. 5| -- | 4. 8| 2. 7| 5. 1| 2. 8 Typhoid Fever | -- | 1. 9| 5. 2| -- | 6. 0| 2. 5| -- | -- | 1. 8| 1. 9| 4. 1 Whooping Cough | 1. 6| -- | 1. 9| -- | 2. 0| -- | 6. 0| 2. 4| 1. 8| 1. 9| 2. 8 Diphtheria | 1. 6| -- | 1. 9| -- | -- | -- | 4. 0| 2. 4| 1. 8| -- | 1. 4 La grippe | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2. 0| -- | 2. 0| -- | -- | 1. 9| -- Pneumonia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2. 5| 2. 0| -- | -- | 1. 9| 1. 4 Miscellaneous | | | | | | | | | | | and Unknown |31. 3|30. 6|33. 2|32. 2|16. 7|22. 5|22. 0|17. 2|28. 3|34. 2|23. 2

 1909|1911| 1910|1912| ----+----+ Total Number 71| 73| ----+----+ Congenital 40. 9|36. 5| Scarlet Fever 11. 3|12. 7| Meningitis 14. 1| 9. 6| Measles 2. 8| 6. 8| Catarrh 2. 8| 1. 8| Brain Fever 1. 4| 4. 1| Typhoid Fever 2. 8| -- | Whooping Cough -- | 1. 8| Diphtheria 1. 4| 1. 8| La grippe -- | -- | Pneumonia -- | -- | Miscellaneous | | and Unknown 22. 5|24. 9|

V. CAUSES OF DEAFNESS IN MARYLAND SCHOOL FROM 1884 TO 1911

 |1884|1886|1888|1890|1892|1894|1896|1898|1900|1902|1904 |1885|1887|1889|1891|1893|1895|1897|1899|1901|1903|1905 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Total Number | 28| 27| 25| 25| 29| 30| 30| 39| 29| 30| 28 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Congenital |46. 4|62. 9|44. 4|36. 0|37. 9|43. 3|43. 3|61. 5|44. 8|43. 3|57. 1 Meningitis |10. 7|11. 1| 8. 0|12. 0|10. 3|10. 6| 6. 7| 2. 6|14. 0| 3. 3| 3. 6 Scarlet Fever |10. 7| 7. 4|12. 0|16. 0| -- | -- | 6. 7| 5. 2| 3. 5|10. 0| 7. 2 Measles | 3. 6| -- | -- | -- | 3. 5| 3. 3| 6. 7| -- | 3. 5| 3. 3| -- Diphtheria | -- | -- | -- | -- | 3. 5| 3. 3| 3. 3| 2. 6| -- | 3. 3| 3. 6 Catarrh | -- | -- | -- | -- | 3. 5| 3. 3| 3. 3| 5. 2| 3. 5| -- | -- Typhoid Fever | -- | -- | 4. 0| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 6. 7| -- Whooping Cough | 3. 6| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 3. 5| -- | -- Pneumonia | 3. 6| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 7. 0| -- | 3. 6 Brain Fever | 7. 2| -- | 4. 0| 8. 0| 3. 5| 3. 3| -- | -- | 7. 0| 3. 3| -- Various Fevers | -- | -- | 4. 0| 8. 0| 3. 5| -- | -- | 2. 6| -- | 3. 3| 3. 6 Miscellaneous | | | | | | | | | | | and Unknown |14. 2|18. 6|23. 6|20. 0|34. 3|32. 9|28. 1|22. 0|16. 7|23. 5|21. 3

 1906|1908| 1910| 1907|1909| 1911| ----+----+-------+ Total Number 41| 32|135[37]| ----+----+-------+ Congenital 53. 7|34. 4| 51. 8| Meningitis 2. 4|12. 2| 8. 1| Scarlet Fever 9. 6| 3. 1| 1. 4| Measles -- | 3. 3| 2. 2| Diphtheria -- | -- | 0. 7| Catarrh -- | -- | -- | Typhoid Fever 2. 4| 3. 1| 2. 2| Whooping Cough -- | 3. 1| 1. 4| Pneumonia 2. 4| 3. 1| 2. 2| Brain Fever 4. 8| -- | 2. 9| Various Fevers 4. 8| -- | 2. 2| Miscellaneous | | | and Unknown 19. 9|37. 7| 24. 1|

VI. CAUSES OF DEAFNESS IN WISCONSIN SCHOOL FROM 1879 TO 1908

 |1879|1881| 1883 |1885|1887|1889|1891|1893|1895|1897 |1880|1882| 1884 |1886|1888|1890|1892|1894|1896|1898 +----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Total Number | 36| 66|231[37]| 56| 67| 50| 44| 72| 64| 72 +----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Congenital |14. 3|31. 8| 35. 1|35. 7|49. 3|38. 0|50. 0|40. 3|53. 1|52. 7 Meningitis |27. 7|33. 3| 37. 7|33. 9|28. 3|32. 0|15. 9|12. 5|31. 2|19. 4 Scarlet Fever |14. 3| 6. 0| 12. 5| -- | 8. 9|12. 0|20. 4|11. 1| 4. 7| 6. 9 Measles |12. 8| 3. 0| 1. 5| -- | 2. 9| -- | 2. 3| 4. 1| 3. 1| -- Typhoid Fever | -- | 6. 0| 7. 4| 1. 8| -- | 2. 0| 2. 3| -- | 1. 6| -- Whooping Cough | -- | -- | 1. 3| 1. 8| 1. 5| -- | -- | -- | -- | 1. 4 Diphtheria | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2. 0| 4. 6| -- | -- | 1. 4 Catarrh | -- | -- | 1. 3| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1. 6| 5. 5 Brain Fever | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2. 9| -- | -- |11. 1| -- | -- Miscellaneous | | | | | | | | | | and Unknown |30. 9|19. 9| 3. 2|26. 8| 6. 2|14. 0| 4. 5|20. 9| 4. 7|12. 7

 1899|1901|1903|1905|1907| 1900|1902|1904|1906|1908| ----+----+----+----+----+ Total Number 62| 33| 33| 63| 70| ----+----+----+----+----+ Congenital 64. 3|33. 3|48. 4|34. 9|40. 0| Meningitis 16. 1| 9. 1| 3. 0| 6. 3| 5. 7| Scarlet Fever 4. 7| 6. 1| -- | 9. 5| 8. 6| Measles -- | 3. 0| 3. 6| 1. 6| 4. 3| Typhoid Fever 3. 2| 6. 1| -- | 3. 2| 1. 4| Whooping Cough -- | -- | -- | 1. 6| 2. 8| Diphtheria 1. 6| -- | -- | 3. 2| 1. 4| Catarrh 1. 6| 3. 0| 9. 1| 3. 2| 2. 8| Brain Fever -- | 6. 1| 3. 6| 4. 8| 4. 3| Miscellaneous | | | | | and Unknown 8. 5|33. 3|31. 3|31. 7|28. 7|

We may take these tables together to see how the proportions of deafnessfrom the leading diseases have changed in the course of the severalperiods indicated, proper allowance being made for the shorter length oftime covered in some schools than in others. In respect to scarletfever, one of the two foremost causes, we find in the New YorkInstitution, the Michigan School and the Maryland School, a distinct andsteady decline; in the Pennsylvania Institution a decline of late years, which is especially significant in view of the extended period coveredby it; and in the Western Pennsylvania and the Wisconsin School littlechange, though in the latter there is less than at the beginning. Inmeningitis, on the other hand, the second of the two most importantcauses, a marked increase is seen in the Pennsylvania Institution forthe entire period, while in the New York a sharp increase is found inthe time designated, this being all the more noticeable because of thelarge proportion already attributed here to convulsions, often a troubleof kindred origin. In the Western Pennsylvania Institution and theMaryland School little change is observed, though in the latter somedecline is apparent in the later years. In the Wisconsin and Michiganschools a very strong decline is seen. On somewhat the same order asmeningitis is brain fever. It, however, shows little change on thewhole, though in the Michigan and Maryland schools and the New YorkInstitution some decline is evident. Of the remaining diseases noneplays singly a large part in the causation of deafness, and in most ofthem the results are similar. Measles, typhoid fever, diphtheria, pneumonia, and whooping cough show, with some fluctuations at times, little change on the whole, beyond certain local differences. In the NewYork Institution a decline is reported in nearly all. In thePennsylvania Institution a rather larger proportion for measles is seenin later than in earlier years. In the Michigan School an increase seemsto be the case with whooping cough, but a decrease with typhoid fever. In catarrh the results are not so uniform. In the New York andPennsylvania institutions a decline is manifest, though in the latter alarger proportion is reported than at the beginning. In the Michigan andWisconsin schools rather an increase is noted. La grippe is onlyreported occasionally of late years, and its real effects cannot yet beascertained. With respect to general fevers, their classification isfound to be so varying that little can be determined. 

We now proceed to make comparison of the proportions of deafness fromthe principal diseases in a series of years some time past with similarproportions in recent years. The following tables give the severalproportions in the American School (Connecticut) in the entireattendance from 1817 to 1844 and from 1817 to 1857, and in the newadmissions from 1901 to 1913; in the Ohio School in the entireattendance from 1829 to 1872, and in the average annual attendance in1904, 1905, 1906, and 1911; in the Iowa School in the entire attendancefrom 1855 to 1870 and from 1855 to 1912; and in the New York Institutionin the entire attendance from 1818 to 1853 and in the average annualattendance from 1899 to 1912. [38]

I. CAUSES OF DEAFNESS IN AMERICAN SCHOOL FROM 1817 TO 1844, FROM 1817 TO1857, AND FROM 1901 TO 1913. 

 PERIOD |TOTAL NUMBER | |CONGENITAL | | |SCARLET FEVER | | | |MENINGITIS | | | | |TYPHOID FEVER | | | | | |MEASLES | | | | | | |WHOOPING COUGH | | | | | | | |GENERAL FEVERS | | | | | | | | |BRAIN FEVER | | | | | | | | | |PNEUMONIA | | | | | | | | | | |DIPHTHERIA | | | | | | | | | | | |CATARRH | | | | | | | | | | | | |UNKNOWN | | | | | | | | | | | | |AND MIS. ---------+----+----+----+-----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-------- 1817-1844| 761|44. 8| 5. 7| 6. 1| --|1. 6|1. 6|6. 7| --| --| --| --| 33. 5 1817-1857|1081|50. 1| 9. 2| 4. 6| --|1. 8|1. 3|5. 3| --| --| --| --| 27. 7 1901-1913| 310|35. 2| 7. 7| 11. 3|3. 2|1. 3|1. 3|1. 9|5. 8|0. 6|1. 3|1. 0| 29. 4

II. CAUSES OF DEAFNESS IN OHIO SCHOOL FROM 1829 TO 1872 AND FROM 1904 TO1911. 

 PERIOD |TOTAL NUMBER | |CONGENITAL | | |SCARLET FEVER | | | |MENINGITIS | | | | |TYPHOID FEVER | | | | | |MEASLES | | | | | | |WHOOPING COUGH | | | | | | | |GENERAL FEVERS | | | | | | | | |BRAIN FEVER | | | | | | | | | |PNEUMONIA | | | | | | | | | | |DIPHTHERIA | | | | | | | | | | | |CATARRH | | | | | | | | | | | | |UNKNOWN | | | | | | | | | | | | |AND MIS. ---------+----+----+----+-----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-------- 1829-1872|1252|33. 8|10. 3| 3. 0|1. 8|3. 2|1. 7|4. 6|5. 7| --|0. 3| --| 35. 6 1904-1911| --|38. 9| 5. 0| 9. 2|1. 4|2. 8|1. 7|1. 1|5. 3|0. 5|0. 5|3. 5| 30. 1

III. CAUSES OF DEAFNESS IN IOWA SCHOOL FROM 1855 TO 1870 AND FROM 1855TO 1912. 

 PERIOD |TOTAL NUMBER | |CONGENITAL | | |SCARLET FEVER | | | |MENINGITIS | | | | |TYPHOID FEVER | | | | | |MEASLES | | | | | | |WHOOPING COUGH | | | | | | | |GENERAL FEVERS | | | | | | | | |BRAIN FEVER | | | | | | | | | |PNEUMONIA | | | | | | | | | | |DIPHTHERIA | | | | | | | | | | | |CATARRH | | | | | | | | | | | | |UNKNOWN | | | | | | | | | | | | |AND MIS. ---------+----+----+----+-----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-------- 1855-1870| 245|87. 2|13. 4| 3. 3|1. 6|2. 0|1. 3|6. 1|1. 3| --| --| --| 33. 8 1855-1912|1672|26. 9|10. 3| 14. 9|1. 7|2. 2|1. 7|0. 1|7. 0|0. 3|0. 8|1. 7| 32. 4

IV. CAUSES OF DEAFNESS IN NEW YORK INSTITUTION FROM 1818 TO 1853 ANDFROM 1899 TO 1912. 

 PERIOD |TOTAL NUMBER | |CONGENITAL | | |SCARLET FEVER | | | |MENINGITIS | | | | |TYPHOID FEVER | | | | | |MEASLES | | | | | | |WHOOPING COUGH | | | | | | | |GENERAL FEVERS | | | | | | | | |BRAIN FEVER | | | | | | | | | |PNEUMONIA | | | | | | | | | | |DIPHTHERIA | | | | | | | | | | | |CATARRH | | | | | | | | | | | | |UNKNOWN | | | | | | | | | | | | |AND MIS. ---------+----+----+----+------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-------- 1818-1853|1148|42. 9| 7. 2|--[39]| --|1. 9|0. 7|1. 6| --| --| --| --| 45. 7 1899-1912| --|38. 0| 6. 8| 13. 1|1. 3|3. 4|0. 8|1. 3|8. 1|0. 9|0. 9|1. 7| 23. 7

Taking these tables also collectively, we find in respect to scarletfever a decline in all the schools, this being especially pronounced inthe case of the Ohio. In meningitis, however, there is an increase soheavy as to call in question the accuracy of the earlier records; and itis possible that it failed to be entirely recognized then. In most ofthe other diseases, as in the previous case, no very great change isperceptible. In general fevers a decline is apparent in all, in mostbeing considerable; and probably several diseases were formerly includedwhich are now listed separately. In measles rather a decline is found inthe American and Ohio schools, but a slight increase in the Iowa, and asomewhat larger one in the New York Institution. In typhoid fever thereis a slight increase also in the Iowa School, but a decrease in theOhio. In brain fever a considerable increase is observed in the IowaSchool, but a slight decrease likewise in the Ohio. In whooping coughthere is an increase in the New York Institution and the Iowa School, but a decrease in the American. Such diseases as pneumonia, diphtheriaand catarrh seem not usually to have been separately classified in thepast, though in the Ohio School we find diphtheria noted, and withsomewhat smaller proportions than in later years; while in several ofthe schools we find "colds" given in former times, which may have beenin part really catarrh. 

Combining now the results of our two groups of tables, we may be able toreach some conclusions with respect to the increase or decrease ofdeafness from certain diseases, though on the whole far less definitethan we could wish. In the first place, it seems safe to affirm thatdeafness from scarlet fever is becoming relatively less with the years;and it is possible that if it continues its present rate of decline, itwill in time cease to be one of the main causes of deafness. On theother hand, meningitis, its great companion in evil, shows a strikingincrease in comparison with past years, as a cause of adventitiousdeafness; while its accretion may be traced as well in a series ofrecent years in certain schools, though not in others. But how far thereis an absolute increase in meningitis over the past, and whether it istending at present actually to increase, may be a matter for question. In view of the possibility that the disease was not sufficientlyaccounted for in the past, and in the absence of any knowledge toindicate a reason for its less prevalence in earlier years, at least notto the extent indicated by the statistics, it may be that its increaseis, after all, more apparent than real. The fact, moreover, that in theseries of recent years a marked increase is found in some schools, buta marked decline in others, may perhaps be taken to mean that at presentmeningitis may be on the increase only in certain sections, dependingpossibly on local conditions. With the greater medical skill of to-day, and with a larger proportion of children in the schools, it may be opento considerable doubt if the movement of this disease is really one ofincrease, though it seems that we are on the whole making no greatheadway against it. 

As to the minor diseases causing deafness, our statistics do notindicate just to what extent and in what direction deafness from them isbeing affected, and no precise conclusions can at present be set down. It is probable, however, that with the increased attention to children'sdiseases, as we have noted, there is really less deafness from most ofthem than formerly. [40]

THE CONGENITALLY DEAF

When we come to consider the question of congenital deafness, whichcomprises a little over a third of the total amount of deafness, we havean even more difficult problem on our hands, for here we are to dealwith some of the great questions of heredity--though hereditary deafnessand congenital deafness are not altogether one and the same thing. [41]For the purposes of our inquiry, let us think of the congenitally deafas divided into three great classes in respect to their familyrelations: 1. The offspring of parents who were cousins; 2. Theoffspring of parents who were themselves deaf or members of families inwhich there are other deaf relatives; and 3. The product of familieswithout either consanguinity or antecedent deafness. Of these threeclasses the first two only will engage our attention. Of the last, comprising, according to the census, nine-twentieths, or 44. 4 per cent, of the congenitally deaf, there is not much that we can say. For a greatpart of it there no doubt exists in the parent, or perhaps in a moreremote ancestor, some abnormal strain, physical or mental, in the natureof disease or other defect. But in respect to such deafness we have toolittle in the way of statistical data to help us arrive at any realdetermination; and for it as a whole we shall have to wait till we havegreater knowledge of eugenics and the laws of heredity. [42]

THE OFFSPRING OF CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGES

Not all the deaf born of consanguineous marriages are congenitally deaf, but as the majority are so, and as the fact of the parents being bloodrelatives is assumed to have at least a contributing influence in theresult, we may consider the matter in this place. It is in fact closelyconnected with the question of deaf relatives in general. 

In the census investigations, [43] of the number who answered on thispoint, 2, 525, or 7. 4 per cent, have parents who were cousins. Of thesecases, deafness occurred in 87 per cent before the fifth year of age, and in 60 per cent at birth. Of all the deaf born without hearing, 13. 5per cent are the offspring of consanguineous marriages. The proportionof those born deaf is thus nearly twice as great when the parents arecousins as it is among the whole class of the congenitally deaf; and theproportion is also nearly twice as great of the offspring ofconsanguineous marriages among the congenitally deaf as the proportionof the deaf from such marriages among the total number of the deaf. Moreover, 55. 0 per cent of the offspring of cousin-marriages have deafrelatives of some kind, and of the congenitally deaf fromcousin-marriages, 65. 6 per cent have deaf relatives; while therespective proportions when the parents are not cousins are 25. 5 percent and 40. 7 per cent--in the one case less than half, and in the othertwo-thirds, as great. 

Further statistics bear out the findings of the census. Dr. E. A. Fay inhis "Marriages of the Deaf"[44]--a work we are soon to notice--findsthat, though consanguineous marriages form only about one per cent ofthe total number considered, 30. 0 per cent of the children of deafparents who are cousins are deaf, and that 45. 1 per cent of suchmarriages result in deaf offspring; but that when the parents are notcousins, the respective proportions are 8. 3 per cent and 9. 3 percent--only about a fourth and a fifth as great. In the Colorado School, out of 567 pupils in attendance from the beginning to 1912, in 17, or 3per cent, the parents were related before marriage. In the KentuckySchool, out of 83 pupils admitted in 1910 and 1911, 18, or 19. 3 percent, and out of 42 admitted in 1912 and 1913, 8, or 19 per cent, werethe offspring of parents who were cousins. In the Iowa School, out of 62admissions in 1911 and 1912, 4, or 6. 5 per cent, and in the MarylandSchool, out of a total attendance in 1911 of 135, 13, or 9. 2 per cent, had parents who were cousins. [45]

Consanguineous marriages, so far as the effect on deafness is concerned, are not of relatively frequent occurrence. But where they do take place, there is found a decided connection between them and deafness, theincreased tendency thus to transmit a physical abnormality being plain. How far, however, if at all, such deafness is to be directly ascribed toconsanguineous marriages, is a matter for question. The mainconsideration seems to be that in such marriages the chances are atleast doubled of the offspring acquiring the characteristics of theparents; and that in them the liability is thus proportionately enhancedof transmitting deafness. [46]

THE DEAF HAVING DEAF RELATIVES

We are now to examine what traces there may be of deafness in a familyby noting what proportion of the deaf have deaf relatives, and are toattempt to see what may be its bearings upon the question of heredity. In the census investigations, [47] we find that out of 34, 780 deafpersons who answered, there are 10, 033, or 28. 8 per cent, who have deafrelatives of some kind, direct or collateral, 8, 170, or 23. 5 per cent, having deaf brothers, sisters or ancestors. In all of these we canwithout difficulty discover the influence of heredity. In thecongenitally deaf the trace of a physical defect is even more clearlyindicated. Of these 40. 1 per cent have deaf brothers, sisters orancestors, and 46. 2 per cent have also deaf uncles, cousins, etc. [48]

It is thus evident that there are certain families in society deeplytinged with deafness, that it sometimes passes from parent to child, from generation to generation, and that like a cloud it hangs over asection of the race. 

THE OFFSPRING OF DEAF PARENTS

All this argument leads up to one most pertinent question: Are thestatistics which we have indicative that this deafness which passes soremorselessly in certain families will be found all the stronger in thechildren of deaf parents? Have we ground to believe or fear that thisdeafness will crop out far more surely than in the children of parentsnot deaf? And can we determine to what extent possibilities areincreased of the offspring of deaf parents being likewise deaf?

Let us now consider the statistics which we have in this matter, firstexamining the results of the census investigation. [49] Of the 8, 022married deaf persons for whom statements are made, we find that thereare 190 who have deaf offspring, or 2. 4 per cent. Of the 4, 116 deafpersons who are married to deaf persons, 137 have deaf children, or 3. 3per cent; and of the 3, 906 deaf persons married to hearing persons, 53have deaf children, or 1. 4 per cent. Of the married deaf having deafchildren, 52. 5 per cent have deaf relatives of some kind, and 54. 7 percent are congenitally deaf, the proportion of those having deafrelatives who are also congenitally deaf being 66. 7 per cent. Of thedeaf married to hearing partners, who have deaf children, 26. 4 per centare congenitally deaf, while 50. 9 per cent of the partners in suchmarriages have deaf relatives of some kind. 

From the census statistics, then, it appears that the married deaf as aclass do not have a large proportion of deaf children, and that thisproportion is only a little more than twice as great when the deaf aremarried to the deaf as when they are married to the hearing. It appearsalso, however, that when there are deaf relatives involved in eitherkind of marriages, or when there is congenital deafness in the deafparent, the effect is quite marked in the offspring. 

Besides the census returns, we have the statistics presented in thereports of certain schools, which are found to point, as far as they go, to the same conclusions. In the Kentucky School, out of 83 pupilsadmitted in 1910 and 1911, there were none the children of deaf parents, though 35, or 30. 1 per cent, had deaf relatives; and out of 42 admittedin 1912 and 1913, there were 2, or 4. 8 per cent, the children of deafparents, and 12, or 28. 8 per cent, with deaf relatives. In the IowaSchool, out of 62 admissions in 1911 and 1912, 4, or 6. 5 per cent, haddeaf parents, and 21, or 33. 9 per cent, "defective" relatives. In theMichigan School, with an annual enrollment of some three hundred, therewere from 1903 to 1908 but three children of deaf parents. [50] In theColorado School, out of a total attendance since its founding to 1912 of567, 3, or 0. 57 per cent, were the children of deaf parents, though 83, or 14. 6 per cent, had deaf relatives. In the Missouri School, out of asimilar attendance to 1912 of 2, 174 there were 52, or 2. 4 per cent, withdeaf parents, though there were 235, or 10. 8 per cent, with deafrelatives. [51]

The most exhaustive study of the question of the liability of the deafto deaf offspring is that of Dr. E. A. Fay in his "Marriages of theDeaf"--covering the majority of the marriages of the deaf in America atthe time it was made (1898). [52] Statistical information is presentedfor 7, 227 deaf persons and for 3, 078 marriages with either deaf orhearing partners. [53] In the following table are summarized the resultsof this investigation. [54]

MARRIAGES OF DEAF PERSONS

 NUMBER OF NUMBER OF MARRIAGES CHILDREN ---------------------------------+------+---------+-----+------+----+----- Partners in Marriage |Total |Resulting|Per |Total |Deaf|Per | |in deaf |cent | | |cent | |children | | | | ---------------------------------+------+---------+-----+------+----+----- One or both deaf | 3, 078| 300| 9. 7| 6, 782| 588| 8. 6 | | | | | | Both deaf | 2, 377| 220| 9. 2| 5, 072| 429| 8. 4 One deaf, other hearing | 599| 75| 12. 5| 1, 532| 151| 9. 8 | | | | | | One or both congenitally deaf | 1, 477| 194| 13. 1| 3, 401| 413| 12. 1 One or both adventitiously deaf | 2, 212| 124| 5. 6| 4, 701| 199| 4. 2 | | | | | | Both congenitally deaf | 335| 83| 24. 7| 779| 202| 25. 9 One congenitally, other | | | | | | adventitiously deaf | 814| 66| 8. 1| 1, 820| 119| 6. 5 Both adventitiously deaf | 845| 30| 3. 5| 1, 720| 40| 2. 3 | | | | | | One congenitally deaf, other | | | | | | hearing | 191| 28| 14. 6| 528| 63| 11. 9 One adventitiously deaf, other | | | | | | hearing | 310| 10| 3. 2| 713| 16| 2. 2 | | | | | | Both had deaf relatives | 437| 103 | 23. 5| 1, 060| 222| 20. 9 One had deaf relatives, other not| 541| 36 | 6. 6| 1, 210| 78| 6. 4 Neither had deaf relatives | 471| 11 | 2. 3| 1, 044| 13| 1. 2 | | | | | | _Both congenitally deaf_ | | | | | | Both had deaf relatives | 172| 49 | 28. 4| 429| 130| 30. 3 One had deaf relatives, other not| 49| 8 | 16. 3| 105| 21| 20. 0 Neither had deaf relatives | 14| 1 | 7. 1| 24| 1| 4. 1 | | | | | | _Both adventitiously deaf_ | | | | | | Both had deaf relatives | 57| 10 | 17. 5| 114| 11| 9. 6 One had deaf relatives, other not| 167| 7 | 4. 1| 357| 10| 2. 8 Neither had deaf relatives | 284| 2 | 0. 7| 550| 2| 0. 3 | | | | | | Partners consanguineous | 31| 14 | 45. 1| 100| 30| 30. 0

It is thus seen that 9. 7 per cent of the marriages of the deaf result indeaf offspring, and that 8. 6 per cent of the children born of them aredeaf--proportions far greater than for the the population generally. [55]A striking fact to be noted, however, is that these proportions aregreater when one parent is deaf and the other hearing than when both aredeaf. The percentage of marriages resulting in deaf offspring when onlyone parent is deaf is 12. 5, and when both are deaf, 9. 2; while thepercentage of deaf children born of them when only one parent is deaf is9. 8, and when both are deaf, 8. 4. This is apparently a very strangeresult, though it probably may be accounted for in some part on thetheory that it is not so much deafness itself that is inherited, butrather an abnormality of the auditory organs, or a tendency to disease, of which deafness is a result or symptom, and that with differentpathological conditions in the parent there is less likelihood ofdeafness resulting. 

The most significant part of the results seems to be found, as before, in respect to whether or not deaf parents are themselves congenitallydeaf or have deaf relatives. On the one hand, when one or both of theparents are adventitiously deaf, the percentage of marriages resultingin deaf children is 5. 6, and the percentage of deaf children is 4. 2;when both parents are so, the percentages are lower: 3. 5 and 2. 3. Thepercentages rise when one parent is adventitiously deaf, and the othercongenitally: 8. 1 and 6. 5. In respect to deaf relatives of parents, thepercentages are very low when neither has such relatives: 2. 3 and 1. 2. The lowest percentages of all are in the case where both parents areadventitiously deaf and neither has deaf relatives: 0. 7 and 0. 3. 

On the other hand, we find the proportion of marriages resulting in deafoffspring and the proportion of deaf children much greater when there iscongenital deafness in one or both parents, when one or both have deafrelatives, and greatest of all when these influences are combined. Whenone or both parents are congenitally deaf, the percentage of marriagesresulting in deaf offspring is 13. 1, and the percentage of deaf childrenis 12. 1; when both parents are so, the percentages are doubled: 24. 7 and25. 9. When one parent has deaf relatives and the other has not, thepercentages are 6. 6 and 6. 4; when both have, the percentages are nearlyfour times as great: 23. 5 and 20. 9. When both parents are congenitallydeaf but neither has deaf relatives, the percentages are 7. 1 and 4. 1. When both are adventitiously deaf and both have deaf relatives, thepercentages are 17. 5 and 9. 6. When both are congenitally deaf and onehas deaf relatives, the percentages are 16. 3 and 20. 0; and when bothhave deaf relatives, the percentages are 28. 4 and 30. 3. 

The evidence is very strong, then, with regard to the form of deafnessand the presence or absence of deaf relatives. In cases where theparents are not congenitally deaf and have no deaf relatives, theproportion of deaf children is very low. When one or both parents arecongenitally deaf or have deaf relatives--when the deafness is inheritedor in the family--the likelihood becomes far greater, and greater stillwhen the two influences are in conjunction. In general, in respect tothe influences of heredity upon deafness, the main determinants seem tobe found in the existence in the parties, whether hearing or deaf, ofdeaf relatives, and, to a less extent, in the existence in parties whoare deaf of congenital deafness. 

POSSIBLE ACTION FOR THE PREVENTION OF CONGENITAL DEAFNESS

We come now to the consideration of the question of possible action forthe prevention of congenital deafness. This examination naturallycenters about the matter of the regulation of marriage, with dueattention to the extent that action on the part of the state is to beregarded as desirable or feasible. 

We have seen that congenital deafness may, hypothetically, be dividedinto three distinguishable classes: that in which consanguineousmarriages are concerned, that in which there is antecedent deafness inthe family, and that in which neither of these conditions occurs; andin our inquiry it has seemed best to take up each of these separately. It may be, however, that there is in fact no very radical differencebetween these several forms, and that with increased knowledge on thesubject a more or less intimate relation will be found to exist. 

Of that form of deafness in which neither consanguineous marriages norantecedent deafness is involved, we are at present, as we have noted, able to say little definitely. In most cases we may be convinced thatthere exists in the parent some peculiar state of morbidity or otheraffection, latent or manifest, perhaps to some extent of hereditaryinfluence, which has an effect on the organs of hearing of theoffspring. A certain proportion is quite possibly due to recognizabledefects both of physical and mental character. Our statistical evidence, however, in respect to this form of congenital deafness is too slight towarrant any positive deductions; and we will have to wait for furtherinvestigation to determine its nature fully. None the less, marriage ofpersons known to be liable to have ill effect on possible offspring isobjectionable for not a few reasons, from the standpoint of theinterests of society; and in their reduction there will probably be agreater or less diminution of congenital deafness. 

With regard to consanguineous marriages and their effect on deafness weare on surer ground, so far as may be indicated by statistical data. This question is found in very great measure to be connected with thatof deaf relatives in general. The matter appears to be largely a part ofa law of wide application, namely, that in the blood relationship ofparents the possibilities are intensified of the perpetuation of acertain strain, which holds true no less with the transmission ofdeafness. Consanguineous marriages are perhaps not of sufficientlyfrequent occurrence, so far as concerns the effect on deafness, torequire special action; but in the consideration of such marriages ingeneral, their part in the causation of deafness should have due weight;and whatever may be said regarding them in other relations, they are tobe avoided if we wish to remove all chances of this kind of deafnessresulting. 

The problem of deaf relatives and their connection with congenitaldeafness is a very large one. Attention however, has mostly been focusedupon it in relation to the intermarriage of the deaf and its effect upontheir offspring. Indeed, in such unions there has already been more orless concern, and there has even been question whether it is a wise orunwise policy to allow the deaf to marry other deaf persons. The deaf, as we shall discover, not only find their companions for socialintercourse among similar deaf persons, but _a fortiori_ very often seeksuch persons for their partners in marriage--in fact, more often thanthey do hearing partners, nearly three-fourths of the married deaf beingmarried to deaf partners. [56] Not only has it been feared that theoffspring of such marriages might likewise be deaf, but there has alsobeen apprehension lest in their encouragement there might result a deafspecies of the race. [57]

From our discussion, however, we have found that in most of themarriages of the deaf we have but small reason for disquiet. If deafnessin the parent is really adventitious, there is little possibility of itspassing on to the offspring. When the deafness in the parent is itselfcongenital, the situation becomes more serious. If in such case there isno added risk from the existence of deaf relatives, the likelihood oftransmitting deafness need not always be a matter of deep concern, though the hazard is materially larger than for adventitious deafness. When there are deaf relatives involved, the peril, made stronger ifcoupled with congenital deafness, is most pronounced; and, indeed, theexistence of collateral deafness seems a more certain sign of warningthan direct heredity itself. Finally, even in the marriage of the deafwith the hearing, the dangers are not in fact lessened if conditionsotherwise unchanged are attendant. 

What action should be taken in respect to that part of the deaf who maymarry under conditions favorable to the production of deaf offspring isnot at present clear. Legislation would not appear on the whole to beadvisable;[58] and the exertion of moral suasion, so far as possible, inthe individual cases concerned would seem a more acceptable course. Thematter, however, really belongs in the province of eugenics, and we willprobably do best to await the authoritative pronouncement of itsdecrees before full procedure is resolved upon. 

CONGENITAL DEAFNESS AS AN INCREASING OR DECREASING PHENOMENON

The final matter to be ascertained in respect to congenital deafness iswhether it is relatively increasing or decreasing. The following tablewill show the number of the congenitally deaf in the censuses of 1880, 1890, and 1900, with their respective percentages and the ratios permillion of population. [59]

NUMBER OF THE CONGENITALLY DEAF IN 1880, 1890, AND 1900

 RATIO PER TOTAL CONGENITALLY PER MILLION OF NUMBER DEAF CENT POPULATION

 1880 33, 878 12, 155 35. 6 242 1890 40, 562 16, 866 41. 2 269 1900 37, 426 12, 609 33. 7 166

From this it appears that congenital deafness is decreasing both inrelation to all deafness, and to the general population. 

For further statistics, we may revert to our tables under adventitiousdeafness. In the tables relating to periods of successive recent yearswe find in respect to three schools, the New York and WesternPennsylvania institutions and the Maryland School, with certainfluctuations, no great change on the whole, though the last named schoolshows still a very high proportion. In two schools, the Michigan andWisconsin, rather an increase is observed. In the PennsylvaniaInstitution, which covers a period of seventy years, there is a decreasefrom over 50 per cent to less than 40. 

A better test perhaps lies in the comparison of the proportions foundfor congenital deafness in the tables relating to periods widelyseparated in time. In these an increase is seen in the single case ofthe Ohio School; while a decrease is apparent in three, namely, theAmerican and Iowa schools and the New York Institution. These decreasesin percentages are respectively from 44. 8 and 50. 1 to 35. 2; from 37. 2to 26. 9; and from 42. 9 to 38. 0. [60]

From the evidence that we have, then, taken together, it seemsreasonable to conclude that congenital deafness is, though slowly, becoming less in the course of the years. 

CONCLUSIONS WITH RESPECT TO THE ELIMINATION OR PREVENTION OF DEAFNESS

Most of what has been said in this chapter with respect to theelimination or prevention of deafness may be summed up as follows:

1. There are two kinds of deafness--adventitious and congenital. Of thetotal number of cases adventitious deafness comprises nearly two-thirds, and congenital deafness a little over one-third. 

2. Nearly all adventitious deafness is caused by some disease of infancyor childhood attacking the middle or internal ear, a large part being ofinfectious character. The two chief diseases causing such deafness arescarlet fever and meningitis, with a less amount from brain fever, typhoid fever, measles, catarrh, diphtheria, whooping cough, etc. 

3. A considerable part of this deafness is preventable under enlightenedaction. Medical science is principally in control of the situation, butthere is also much that can be done in general measures for theprotection of the health. In attacking the problem, the most immediatepractical program lies in the arrest of those diseases, especiallyinfantile and infectious diseases, that cause deafness. 

4. Our evidence is incomplete to determine definitely whetheradventitious deafness is increasing or decreasing relatively among thepopulation; but it is hardly other than likely that it is decreasing. Although certain diseases producing deafness fail to show any extensivesigns of abatement, there are other diseases from which there can belittle doubt that deafness is decreasing. 

5. In the outlook there is, on the whole, promise, both in respect tothe treatment of deafness itself and of the diseases that lead todeafness, though it cannot be said in any sense that any large orgeneral relief is at present in sight. 

6. Of congenital deafness nearly half occurs in families often withoutany positively known strain to indicate a predisposition to deafness. Though concerning this deafness little in the present state of ourknowledge can be predicated, it is likely that with measures to securea race sound in all particulars there will be a reduction to a greateror less extent of such deafness. 

7. Consanguineous marriages do not take place, so far as deafness as aneffect is concerned, to any great extent; though where they do theconsequences are very marked. Their relation to deafness consistsapparently for the greatest part in the fact that the chances of itstransmission are thereby intensified, there being also a very strongconnection with the question of deaf relatives in general. 

8. There are a certain number of families in society deeply tainted withdeafness, in evidence both lineally and collaterally, and this deafnessmay be transmitted from parent to offspring. 

9. Children of deaf parents are far more likely to be deaf than childrenof hearing parents. 

10. The great majority of the children of deaf parents, however, areable to hear, the proportion of those who are not being small. 

11. The likelihood of deaf offspring is not necessarily greater whenboth parents are deaf than when one is deaf and the other hearing. 

12. The liability to deaf offspring depends in the greatest degree uponthe presence or absence in the parents, deaf or hearing, of deafrelatives, and, to a less extent, upon whether or not the existingdeafness is congenital--being especially great under a combination ofthese two conditions. 

13. Action in respect to marriages of the deaf likely to result in deafoffspring seems for the present rather to be limited to moral forces. 

14. Congenital deafness appears, from all the evidence, to be decreasingrelatively among the population, though probably only at a very slowrate. 

15. Finally, with respect to our original inquiry, it is to be said thatthere are no indications that deafness will disappear from the humanrace within any time which we can measure; and hence that the deaf areto be in society not only for a season, but for a period apparently asyet indefinite. Nevertheless the situation is not without encouragement. From the data in our possession regarding deafness as a whole, it seemscertain that deafness is not on the increase relatively among thepopulation. From our knowledge concerning adventitious deafness, theprobabilities are that, if anything, it is decreasing; while theevidence as to congenital deafness is that it is decreasing. It islikely, then, that deafness in general is tending to decrease; and weare thus justified in believing that the number of the deaf will in timebecome less. 

FOOTNOTES:

[15] Moreover, later censuses are probably taken more thoroughly thanformer, with a consequent discovery of a larger number of the deaf;while at the same time greater care is employed in preparing the latercensuses, with the more rigorous elimination of doubtful cases, all insome measure, however, tending to even up the differences. On thedifficulty of making comparisons of the censuses of the deaf, seeSpecial Reports, pp. 66-69; _Annals_, li. , 1906, p. 487. 

[16] _Ibid. _

[17] Deafness has also been divided into three classes: adventitiousdeafness, congenital or hereditary deafness, and infantile or sporadiccongenital deafness, the last class including many cases where there areother antecedent defects, mental or physical, or where the deafnessoccurred shortly after birth with the exact cause not definitelydetermined. See Proceedings of International Otological Congress, ix. , 1913, p. 49; _Volta Review_, xiv. , 1912, p. 348; xv. , 1913, p. 209. 

[18] Of the cases usually ascribed to accidents, as falls, blows and thelike, the probabilities are that a large part are really to beattributed to some other cause. Deafness is not often likely to resultfrom such occurrences. 

[19] See Proceedings of International Otological Congress, ix. , 1913, p. 49; _Volta Review_, xiv. , 1912, p. 348. 

[20] Special Reports, pp. 110, 122, 124. See also _Annals_, xxxiii. , 1888, p. 199; lii. , 1907, p. 168. In the table are given only thespecified causes that represent at least 0. 7 per cent of the totalamount of deafness. In respect to external ear trouble, impacted cerumenis usually found to result from water in the ear, or wax in the ear. Other diseases of the middle ear of suppurative character arediphtheria, pneumonia, erysipelas, smallpox, tonsilitis, teething, bronchitis, and consumption. Other non-suppurative diseases of themiddle ear are whooping cough, scrofula, exposure and cold, disease ofthe throat, thickening of eardrum, croup, etc. Of the internal ear, other causes affecting the labyrinth are malformation, noise andconcussion, mumps, and syphilis; affecting the nerve, paralysis, convulsions, sunstroke, congestion of brain, and disease of nervoussystem; and affecting brain center, hydrocephalus and epilepsy. Amongunclassified causes are also adduced neuralgia, childbirth, accident, medicine, heat, rheumatism, head-ache, fright or shock, overwork, lightning, diarrhea, chicken-pox, operation, and other causes. 

[21] Proceedings of National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1906, p. 250; Ceremonies of Laying of Corner Stone of Rhode IslandSchool, 1907, p. 27. 

[22] There are no general or organized movements on foot for theprevention of deafness as there are for the prevention of blindness. This is perhaps chiefly because there are believed to be nothing like somany preventable cases of the one as of the other, so much of blindnessbeing due to diseases that might have been avoided without greatdifficulty, and to accidents and other injuries to the eye. 

[23] It has been estimated that three-fourths of deafness from primaryear diseases, and one-half from infectious diseases, is preventable. SeeProceedings of International Otological Congress, _loc. Cit. _; _VoltaReview_, xiv. , 1912, pp. 251, 348. 

[24] Proceedings, 1903, p. 1036. 

[25] _Volta Review_, xv. , 1913, p. 136. See also _ibid. _, v. , 1903, p. 415; _Outlook_, civ. , 1913, p. 997. 

[26] See _Medical and Surgical Monitor_, vii. , 1904, p. 47; _New YorkMedical Journal_, lxxxiii. , 1906, p. 816; _Annals_, lv. , 1910, p. 192;_Volta Review_, xiii. , 1911, p. 332. 

[27] The possibilities, for instance, in the use of antitoxins andvaccines in certain diseases are just beginning to be known, and someresults as affect deafness may be expected from such operations. 

[28] In 1909 a special committee in regard to the prevention of deafnesswas created by the Otological Section of the American MedicalAssociation, and in 1910 both by the American Laryngological, Rhinological and Otological Society and by the American OtologicalSociety. See _Laryngoscope_, xx. , 1910, pp. 596-665; _Volta Review_, xii. , 1910, pp. 267, 545. 

[29] Laws, 1906, ch. 502. 

[30] On the possibilities of the prevention of adventitious deafness, see Dr. J. K. Love, "Deaf-Mutism", 1896; Archives of Otology, xxiv. , 1895, p. 50; _Journal of American Medical Association_, liii. , 1909, p. 89; _New York Medical Journal_, l. , 1889, p. 205; lxxxix. , 1909, p. 1007; xcv. , 1912, p. 1189; _New York State Journal of Medicine_, xii. , 1912, p. 690ff. ; _Maryland Medical Journal_, lv. , 1912, p. 33;_Pediatrics_, xxiv. , 1912, p. 335; _Popular Science Monthly_, xlii. , 1892, p. 211; "Progress in Amelioration of Certain Forms of Deafness andImpaired Hearing, " Proceedings of American Association to Promote theTeaching of Speech to the Deaf, iv. , 1894; _Annals_, xxxiv. , 1889, p. 199; lvi. , 1911, p. 211; lviii. , 1913, p. 131; _Volta Review_, xii. , 1910, p. 143; xv. , 1913, p. 303; New York _Times_, April 6, 1913; PublicSchool Health Bulletin, Eyes and Ears, by Superintendent of PublicInstruction of North Carolina, 1910. 

[31] Census Reports, 1880. Report on Defective, Dependent and DelinquentClasses of the Population of the United States, 1888, p. 402ff. ; CensusReports, 1890. Report on Insane, Feeble-minded, Deaf and Dumb and Blind, 1895, pp. 108ff. , 648; Special Reports, 1906, p. 122. 

[32] _Ibid. _

[33] Probably with the "fevers" the proportion would be larger. 

[34] Less than 0. 7 per cent. 

[35] Probably included with certain of the suppurative diseases. 

[36] Not a large number of schools, it is greatly to be regretted, give, regularly and over an extended period of time, such information instatistical form and upon the same basis from year to year. 

[37] Total attendance. 

[38] These tables are based upon statistics given in the reports of theschools, and given in _Annals_, vi. , 1854, p. 237; xv. , 1870, p. 113;xvii. , 1872, p. 167. 

[39] One case reported. 

[40] Letters of inquiry as to whether or not "total" deafness appearedto be decreasing were sent by the writer to the professors of diseasesof the ear of the medical schools of Johns Hopkins University, University of Pennsylvania, Columbia University, Cornell University, Harvard University, University of Chicago, Northwestern University, University of Michigan, and the Jefferson Medical College ofPhiladelphia. The opinion of four of these is that such deafness isclearly decreasing; of three that little or no decrease is apparent;while by two no opinion can be vouched yet. The greatest encouragementis found in respect to treatment for middle ear affections andinfections from fevers. By Dr. S. MacCuen Smith, of the JeffersonMedical College, it is believed that there is a decrease, "largely dueto the fact that not only the general medical profession, but the publicat large, are recognizing the importance of having the minor aurallesions promptly and properly cared for. This being the case, it is nolonger possible for children in the public schools to continue theirstudies when suffering from diseased tonsils and enlarged adenoidvegetations. From this cause alone, many cases of impairment of hearingwhich usually occur later in life will be prevented in the future". ByDr. E. A. Crockett, of Harvard University, it is believed that, althoughthere is a larger amount of deafness from measles, there is less, notonly from scarlet fever, but also from chronic suppurations, fromadenoid and throat troubles in general, and even from meningitis, owingto the use of serums. Regarding his own observations, within a period oftwenty-five years "the number of extremely deaf persons and deaf-muteshas very materially diminished". 

[41] Hereditary deafness is sometimes of a kind that manifests itselfsome years after birth, often with certain relatives similarly affected. This is especially true of catarrhal and middle ear affections, thoughtheir results may more often be partial rather than total deafness. 

[42] In a part of such deafness, and also in a portion of that occurringshortly after birth, the cause is said to be syphilis. See Proceedingsof International Otological Congress, ix. , 1913, p. 49; _Volta Review_, xiv. , 1912, p. 348; xv. , 1913, p. 209. 

[43] Special Reports, pp. 125, 236. There were 3, 341 who failed toanswer, and if all had made reply, our percentage would probably behigher yet. 

[44] P. 108. 

[45] In the Louisiana School 10 per cent of the pupils are said to haveparents who were blood relatives; in the Illinois, 5 per cent; and inthe Kansas, from 5 to 5. 5 per cent. Report of Louisiana School, 1906, p. 17. See also Transactions of American Medical Association, xi. , 1858, pp. 321-425; Proceedings of Conference of Principals, iii. , 1876, p. 204; _Annals_, xxii. , 1877, p. 242. 

[46] On this subject, see Francis Galton. "Natural Inheritance", 1889, p. 132ff. See also G. B. L. Arner, "Consanguineous Marriages", 1908, p. 65ff. ; C. B. Davenport, "Heredity in Relation to Eugenics", 1911, p. 124ff. 

[47] Special Reports, pp. 128, 235, and _passim_. 

[48] These proportions are further indicated in the succeeding section. 

[49] Special Reports, p. 135ff. 

[50] Report, 1908, p. 31. 

[51] Out of 107 children born to former pupils of the Minnesota Schoolup to 1892, 2, or 1. 9 per cent, were deaf. Report, 1892, p. 39. Out of811 children born to former pupils of the American School up to 1891, 105, or 12. 9 per cent, were deaf. Report, 1891, p. 20. 

[52] The study had been originally planned by Dr. F. H. Wines for the_International Record of Charities and Corrections_. See issue forOctober, 1888. The work was published by the Volta Bureau. For adiscussion of the results, see _Association Review_, ii. , 1900, p. 178;Publications of American Statistical Association, vi. , 1899, p. 353;_Biometrika_ (London), iv. , 1904-5, p. 465. See also charts in currentnumbers of _Volta Review_. 

[53] From the total number of marriages, 974 were deducted, being casesconcerning the offspring of which no information could be obtained, andalso 434 cases where there were no offspring. 

[54] From p. 134. It has also been computed by Dr. Fay from his datathat of 5, 455 married deaf persons, 300, or 5. 5 per cent, have deafoffspring. _Annals_, lii. , 1907, p. 253. 

[55] The proportions for the general population are hardly over 0. 3 percent and 0. 05 per cent respectively. 

[56] The proportion of the married deaf who are married to deaf partnersis found by Dr. Fay to be 72. 5 per cent, and of those married to hearingpartners, 20 per cent, there being no information for the remaining 7. 5per cent. The census returns, however, give the respective proportionsas 51. 3 per cent and 48. 7 per cent. 

[57] See Proceedings of National Conference of Charities andCorrections, 1879, p. 214; A. G. Bell, "The Formation of a Deaf Varietyof the Human Race", Memoirs, 1883, ii. , part 4, p. 177; Proceedings ofConference of Principals, i. , 1868, p. 91; v. , 1884, p. 205; A. G. Bell, "Marriage, an Address to the Deaf", 1898; Evidence before the RoyalCommission on the Deaf, etc. , 1892, ii. , pp. 74-129; _Annals_, xxix. , 1884, pp. 32, 72; xxx. , 1885, p. 155; xxxiii. , 1888, pp. 37, 206;_Popular Science Monthly_, xvii. , 1885, p. 15; _Science_, Aug. , 1890, toMarch, 1891 (xvi. , xvii. ); _Arena_, xii. , 1895, p. 130; _AssociationReview_, x. , 1908, p. 166; _Volta Review_, xiv. , 1912, p. 184;Proceedings of Reunion of Alumni of Wisconsin School for the Deaf, vi. , 1891, p. 46; National Association of the Deaf, iv. , 1893, p. 112; ix. , 1910, p. 69; Report of Board of Charities of New York, 1911, i. , p. 150. 

[58] No statutory action seems ever to have been taken in the matter. InConnecticut, however, in 1895 when a law (Laws, ch. 325) was enactedforbidding the marriage of the feeble-minded and epileptic, a provisionrespecting the congenitally deaf and blind came near being included. _Annals_, xl. , 1895, p. 310. 

[59] Census Reports, 1880. Report on Defective, Dependent and DelinquentClasses of the Population of the United States, 1888, p. 402ff. ; CensusReports, 1890. Report on Insane, Feeble-minded, Deaf and Dumb and Blind, 1895, pp. 108ff. , 684; Special Reports, 1906, p. 122. The ages of thedeaf were reported less fully in 1880 than in 1890, and less fully in1890 than in 1900; and if we take the numbers of those whose ages werereported in these three censuses, we have the following table, showingthe proportion of the congenitally deaf. 

THE CONGENITALLY DEAF ACCORDING TO NUMBERS IN WHICH AGE WAS REPORTED

 NUMBER WHOSE AGE CONGENITALLY PER WAS REPORTED DEAF CENT

 1880 22, 473 12, 155 54. 7 1890 37, 204 16, 866 45. 8 1900 35, 479 12, 609 35. 3

If we assume that the proportion of the congenitally deaf to all thedeaf in each census was the same that it was among the cases in whichthe age of the occurrence of deafness was reported, we have this tableto show the number of the congenitally deaf and the ratio of the deafamong the population. 

THE CONGENITALLY DEAF ACCORDING TO NUMBERS ASSUMED

 ASSUMED NUMBER OF RATIO PER CONGENITALLY MILLION OF DEAF POPULATION

 1880 18, 531 369 1890 18, 375 293 1900 13, 286 175

These tables are taken from _Annals_, li. , 1906, p. 487. 

[60] In the three schools where an increase in congenital deafnessappears to be found, namely, those of Michigan, Wisconsin and Ohio, apartial explanation probably lies in the fact that in these states anumber of day schools have been created of late years, which are notlikely to draw congenitally deaf pupils to the extent that theinstitutions do, thus leaving a larger proportion for the latter. Seealso E. A. Fay, _op. Cit. _, p. 125. 

CHAPTER III

TREATMENT OF THE DEAF BY THE STATE

GENERAL ATTITUDE OF THE LAW TOWARDS THE DEAF

After examination of the question of how long the deaf are to be anelement of the population, our discussion turns to their position atpresent as an actual part of society. The first relation to beconsidered is that of the state to them. 

The state acts on men through the law, and in the law is represented notonly its authority, but its attitude as well towards the problems thatconfront society, including the treatment of the various elements of itspopulation. In this chapter it is our purpose by a study of the law inrespect to the deaf to discover the attitude of the state towards themand the treatment which it has accorded them. 

Generally in ancient and even in more modern days the deaf, especiallythe congenitally deaf without education, have been held in the eyes ofthe law more or less as though they were an abnormal element in thestate, at times being regarded as though they were of defective minds, and now and then being considered practically as idiots. Though therewas usually meditated no unduly harsh treatment of the deaf, they werefor the most part deemed incapable of performing the full duties ofcitizenship, certain of the rights that belonged to their fellowmen weredenied to them, and they were held in considerable degree in whatamounted to legal bondage. It was only in the course of time in mostcountries that the law came to look upon the deaf differently, to regardthem more as normal persons, and to grant them in greater measure therights of other men. [61]

In America the attention of the law has been directed to the deaf bothby legislation relating to them, and by court decisions affecting them. In addition, in the constitutions of a number of states, as we shallsee, provision is made for institutions for the education of the deaf;and in one state, Mississippi, [62] a provision is found exempting thedeaf from the payment of a poll tax. The law cannot be said to haveconcerned itself extensively with the deaf, but the light in which theyhave been viewed has been indicated fairly clearly. Judicial _dicta_ andopinions have been of less frequency and importance than legislation, and have rather dealt with the mental capacity of the deaf in certainlegal relations and proceedings, as in their responsibility for crimes, the making of wills, the appointment of interpreters, etc. Legislationitself has not often been engaged in providing for the deaf as a specialclass, beyond maintaining schools for the education of the young. Wherethis legislation has taken place, it may be said to be of three kinds. First, the deaf have been regarded as mentally deficient or incapable ofcertain civic acts, and discriminatory laws have been enacted. Next, thedeaf have been thought to need special consideration or protection onthe part of the state, and laws have been passed for the appointment ofguardians or otherwise for their security or benefit. The third class oflegislation is where the state bases its action upon the supposedweakness of the deaf, their "physical disability, " as it is frequentlytermed, and here we have a series of what may be called negativebenefactions, designed to make less hard the way of the deaf. Suchspecial provision has consisted chiefly in the remission of taxes incertain instances or of some other form of more or less directassistance. 

LEGISLATION DISCRIMINATORY RESPECTING THE DEAF

Legislation which may be termed discriminatory in respect to the deafhas really been of but slight extent. [63] In Georgia we find anenactment of 1840, [64] in which the deaf were to be regarded _pro tanto_as idiots, so far as concerned the managing of their estates, thoughthis was in fact intended for their protection. In New Mexico a law hasbeen enacted, forbidding those deaf by birth from making wills, unlesstheir intention is declared in writing;[65] and in Louisiana a deaf manis incapable of acting as a witness to a testament. [66] In severalstates, as New York and Massachusetts, there have been enactments inregard to deaf-mute immigrants together with other classes who might belikely to become a public charge, with the exaction of bond assecurity. [67] In Georgia[68] there is an enactment in reference tovarious itinerant concerns which might leave deaf persons, as well asothers, in the state as public charges. [69]

LEGISLATION IN PROTECTION OF THE DEAF

Legislation of the second class, where the deaf are thought to requireparticular consideration or protection, has likewise been infrequent. The first instance is an enactment of Massachusetts in 1776, [70]relating to the appointment, on certain occasions, of guardians for thedeaf, especially those deaf "from their nativity, " together with otherpersons--which is probably the earliest statutory reference to the deafin America. A later example is an enactment in Georgia in 1818, [71] andstill in force, providing for the appointment of guardians, on somewhatthe same order as that which we have indicated, for deaf and dumbpersons incapable of managing their estates. In New Jersey in 1838[72] alaw was enacted, forbidding deaf persons under seventeen years of age tobe bound out as apprentices. In Ohio a statute also of 1838[73] providedfor guardians for the deaf, and several modern statutes are somewhat ofthis nature. In Maine the deaf cannot be sent to the reform school. [74]In Arkansas[75] and Missouri[76] it is provided that the court mayappoint guardians for deaf persons from fourteen to twenty-one years ofage in case of the death of a parent. Of somewhat different character, but still for the protection of the deaf, is the enactment in severalstates, as Wisconsin[77] and Virginia, [78] where injury or abuse of thedeaf is made a matter of special attention in the law. 

LEGISLATION IN AID OF THE DEAF

Examples of legislation designed to be of material aid to the deaf arerather more common, the chief of which, as we have noted, is theexemption from the payment of some personal or property tax. [79] Thus inMissouri we find a statute of 1843[80] allowing a deaf man to be exemptfrom the poll tax and the tax on property up to $300. Indiana in1848[81] exempted its deaf and blind citizens from a poll tax and aproperty tax up to $500. Mississippi[82] exempted these classes from theroad duty in 1878, and two years later from the poll tax as well, thisexemption being incorporated in the state constitution, as we have seen. Tennessee[83] in 1895 also exempted from the poll tax the deaf, theblind and those incapable of labor. In Pennsylvania legislation seems tohave gone the furthest in its desire to be of material help to the deaf, for here we find the deaf with the blind exempted from the penaltieswhich usually apply to tramps. [84] Such are instances of this form oflegislation, but similar legislation has been enacted in other states. 

Very rare are instances where the state makes special provision for thecare of, or extends special poor relief to, any of its deaf population. The chief example seems to be the action of some of the New Englandstates with their so-called "missions for the deaf. " These areassociations, composed in great part of the deaf and engaged in variousforms of mission work, and to them state funds are granted to aid theaged, infirm and helpless deaf. By this plan Maine is said to have beenwithout a deaf-mute pauper in ten years. The amounts allowed, however, for this purpose are not large, being $200 a year in Maine and $150 inNew Hampshire. [85] In Ohio the counties are allowed to contract withprivate homes for the maintenance of the aged and infirm deaf--therebeing but one such in the state, that supported by the deafthemselves--and the state board of charities is given power to removedeaf persons thereto from the county infirmaries. [86]

Instances are likewise rare where the state makes a distinctappropriation of money for the benefit of the deaf other than forschools. We have one instance in New York where the state for a certainnumber of years allowed a small sum to the publishers of a paper for thebenefit of poor deaf-mutes. [87]

As a last species of legislation in aid of the deaf, we have a singleenactment of quite different character from that which we have hithertofound, and of later appearance. This is the law enacted in Minnesota in1913, [88] which provides for a division for the deaf in the state bureauof labor. Its duties are to

 Collect statistics of the deaf, ascertain what trades or occupations are most suitable for them and best adapted to promote their interests, . .. Use [its] best efforts to aid them in securing such employment as they may be best fitted to engage in, keep a census and obtain facts, information and statistics as to their condition in life with a view to the betterment of their lot, and endeavor to obtain statistics and information of the conditions of labor and employment and education in other states with a view to promoting the general welfare of the deaf in this state. 

Such legislation may prove highly beneficial to the deaf, not only inrendering very desirable aid to them, but also in offering means oflearning very important facts as to their condition. 

TENOR OF COURT DECISIONS AFFECTING THE DEAF

The opinions of the courts of law in regard to the deaf have, as we havenoted, rather revolved upon the mental capacity of the deaf in certainproceedings, and upon their competence in certain legal relations. Thesejudicial expressions have in the main referred to four relations of thedeaf in the law: 1. In their responsibility for crime; 2. In acting aswitnesses; 3. In requiring guardians; and 4. In the making of wills andcontracts generally. 

As to the responsibility of the deaf man for his misdeeds, there hasbeen in times past more or less presumption against it, especially if hewere born deaf and were without education; but to-day he is quitegenerally held fully answerable for his crimes and misdemeanors, and hisdeafness cannot mitigate his punishment. [89] As a witness, the deaf manunder proper circumstances is now allowed to appear without hindrancebefore virtually any court. [90] As to special guardians, these will beaccorded the deaf when there appears sufficient need, though there isless of this than formerly. [91] With respect to the testamentarycapacity of the deaf, we find that in times past the deaf were oftensaid to be more or less incapable of making wills, though thispresumption could always be overcome. Naturally their wills weresubjected to considerable scrutiny for the purpose of preventing fraud;but if written and apparently genuine, they could usually stand. To-daythe deaf are practically everywhere held to be quite capable in thisrespect, and probably nowhere would a will be set aside for reason ofthe deafness of the testator alone. Likewise the deaf are now generallyheld capable of entering into all contractual relations. [92]

PRESENT TREND OF THE LAW IN RESPECT TO THE DEAF

In most of the statutes and decisions to which we have referred thereappears a distinct trend towards treating the deaf quite as normalpersons, and the tendency may be considered to be general to-day to holdthem very much as other citizens. The greater part of all the speciallegislation has ceased of late years, and it is seldom now that aparticular enactment is placed upon the statute books. Where such doesoccur, it arises chiefly where some peculiar protection of the deaf hasbeen felt to be needed. Discriminatory legislation has practicallydisappeared, as has also beneficial legislation of the old sort, theonly kind likely to be enacted in the future being along the new linespointed out. 

In judicial proceedings likewise particular usage in respect to the deafhas almost entirely passed away, and the deaf to-day receive littledistinctive treatment. Practically the sole special consideration nowaccorded them is in the procurement of interpreters for properoccasions. On the whole, then, the present attitude of the law may besaid to be to regard the deaf more and more fully as citizens, to allowthem all the rights and duties of such, and to consider them in littleneed of particular aid or attention. [93]

FOOTNOTES:

[61] The legal treatment of the deaf, however, in past times has notbeen as severe as has been often supposed. Both the Justinian Code andthe Civil Law, as well as the Common Law, granted a number of rights tothe deaf, these being in some cases as far as the policy of the lawwould permit. In a few instances a not unsympathetic attitude wasdisplayed towards them. In the early Roman law and in some other systemsword of mouth was necessary to accomplish certain legal acts, and thisof course bore hardly upon the deaf. In all cases it was the deaf-mutefrom birth who suffered most. On this subject, see A. C. Gaw, "The LegalStatus of the Deaf, " 1907; H. P. Peet, "Legal Rights andResponsibilities of the Deaf, " 1857 (Proceedings of Convention ofAmerican Instructors, iv. , p. 17). 

[62] Constitution, 1890, sec. 243. The blind are also included in theexemption. 

[63] In New York we find an early reference to the deaf in the rulesadopted in 1761 by the state assembly regarding suffrage qualificationsin the election of its own members, one of which rules declared that "noman deaf and dumb from his nativity has a vote, " though this may havebeen partly due to the fact that nearly all voting then was _viva voce_. William Smith, "History of the Late Province of New York, " 1830, ii. , p. 358. 

[64] Laws, p. 110. A Kentucky statute refers to "idiots and those byspeech or sign incapable" of understanding (Stat. , 1894, § 2149), butthe deaf may not necessarily be included. 

[65] Cod. Laws, 1865, ch. 3, § 2; 1884, § 1378. 

[66] Civ. Code, 1838, § 1852; 1898, § 1591. 

[67] In 1849 New York required the masters of ships landing in New YorkCity to report to the mayor what passengers were deaf, blind or insane. Laws, ch. 350. See also Laws, 1851, ch. 523; 1881, ch. 427. See PublicStatutes of Massachusetts, 1882, p. 468. The present United Statesimmigration laws do not directly exclude the deaf, but they have beenthought at times to have been made to bear unduly upon them. 

[68] Code, 1911, § 559. The application is to "proprietors of circusesand other migratory companies. "

[69] In a few states, as California and New York, attempts have beenmade to secure laws barring the deaf from licenses to run automobiles. Such measures, however, are to be regarded less as discriminationagainst the deaf than for the public safety. 

[70] Laws, 1776, ch. 20. 

[71] Laws, 1818, p. 342; 1840, p. 345; Code, 1911, § 3089. 

[72] Laws, p. 128. 

[73] Laws, 1838, p. 40; 1841, p. 573. 

[74] Rev. Stat. , 1883, ch. 142, § 2. 

[75] Digest, 1894, § 3571; 1904, § 3760. 

[76] Stat. , 1872, p. 672; Rev. Stat. , 1909, § 407. In Kansas by opinionof the attorney-general, the juvenile court laws do not apply to thedeaf. 

[77] Gen. Stat. , 1898, p. 2672. Abuse or ill-treatment of an inmate of astate institution for the deaf, the blind and other classes may bepunished by fine or imprisonment. 

[78] Laws, 1908, p. 55. It is made a misdemeanor to abduct or kidnapinmates of "deaf and dumb and blind hospitals". 

[79] In several states there are provisions in regard to the employmentof interpreters for the deaf. See Code of Georgia, 1911, § 5864; Gen. Laws of Rhode Island, 1909, § 3855. 

[80] Laws, p. 202. 

[81] Laws, ch. 76. 

[82] Laws, 1878, ch. 52; 1880, p. 20. 

[83] Laws, 1895, ch. 120; Ann. Code, 1896, § 686. 

[84] Purdon's Digest, 1903, p. 5023. In Georgia persons deaf and blindare expressly permitted to make wills if properly scrutinized. Code, 1911, § 3844. 

[85] See Laws of New Hampshire, 1895, ch. 131. This relief is here knownas the "Granite State Mission". See also _Deaf-Mutes' Journal_, Feb. 9, 1911. 

[86] See Laws, 1896, p. 419; 1898, p. 212; 1900, p. 369. 

[87] This seems to have been begun in 1839, and continued nearly fiftyyears. See Laws, 1839, ch. 329; 1858, ch. 546; 1886, ch. 330. The sum of$100 was first granted to the _Radii_, and later appropriations tosucceeding publications. 

[88] Laws, p. 330. The law was secured by the efforts of the deafthemselves. See _Deaf-Mutes' Journal_, May 22, 1913. 

[89] See Houst. Crim. Cas. (Del. ), 291; 8 Jones L. (N. C. ), 136; 14Mass. , 207. This last case was one of larceny. See also I. L. Peet, "Psychical Status and Criminal Responsibility of the Totally UneducatedDeaf and Dumb, " 1872 (_Journal of Psychological Medicine_, Jan. , 1872);_Annals_, xvii. , 1872, p. 65. 

[90] 37 S. W. (Tex. ), 440; 118 Mo. , 127; 39 S. C. , 318; 1 Den. (N. Y. ), 19; 23 Col. , 314; 3 N. M. , 134. 

[91] See 16 Ohio St. , 455, where a guardian was allowed; 41 N. J. Eq. , 409, where the deaf were said to be liable to guardianship. 

[92] See 1 Jones Eq. (N. C. ), 221. In 4 Johns. Ch. , 441, a New York casein 1820, it was said by Chancellor Kent that the deaf and dumb wereconsidered _prima facie_ as insane, incapable of making a will and fitsubjects for guardianship, by the civil law. The presumption was due, hesaid, to the fact that "want of hearing and speech exceedingly crampsthe powers of the mind, " but it was to be overcome by proof. In thiscase the presumption was overruled. The implication, however, neverapplied to the deaf not born so. At present there is no presumption inconnection with wills, deeds, witnessing, or guardianship. See 3 Conn. , 299; 27 Gratt. (Va. ), 190; 6 Ga. , 324; 3 Ired. (N. C. ), 535. In theMissouri case, quoted above, it was said: "Presumption of idiocy doesnot seem to obtain in modern practice, at least not in the UnitedStates. "

[93] The deaf as a class may be said to be strongly opposed to nearlyall forms of legal treatment different from those of theirfellow-citizens. In Texas, where they have been exempted from a personalor property tax, they have made formal protest against the exemption. _Annals_, l. , 1905, p. 263; Report of Mississippi School, 1911, p. 72. They have, as another instance, voiced opposition to the release ofcriminals on the ground of their deafness. See Proceedings of Conventionof National Association of the Deaf, ii. , 1883, p. 16. 

CHAPTER IV

ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE DEAF

EXTENT TO WHICH THE DEAF ARE A WAGE-EARNING AND SELF-SUPPORTING ELEMENTOF THE POPULATION

In the want of the sense of hearing, and with it oftentimes the facultyof speech, the deaf are deprived of most important powers, and, it mightappear, of an essential equipment for work among men. It is not to bedenied that the deaf start out into life severely handicapped, nor canthe difficulties which they must face in meeting the world passunregarded. 

Yet notwithstanding the particular adversity under which the deaf haveto labor, they remain in full possession of all their other physicalforces, and it may be a question whether on the whole they are to beconsidered disqualified from engaging in the industrial pursuits of men. It may be that there are occupations in which their deafness will notprove of material consequence, and that in such fields they will be ableto enter without serious impediment. In the present chapter we shallattempt to see how far these possibilities seem to be realized in theactual industrial life of the community. In other words, we shallconsider what is the place of the deaf as economic factors in thislife, and how far they are independent wage-earners, at the same timecomparing their economic standing with that of the general population. 

The returns of the census, covering the entire country and presentingthe results of a careful investigation, will furnish our most completesource of information. Here[94] are reported in gainful occupations12, 678 deaf persons over ten years of age, or 38. 1 per cent of thenumber of the deaf over this age. [95] This is somewhat less than thepercentage for the general population, which is 50. 2. Of the deaf twentyyears of age and over, however, the percentage gainfully employed is50. 1, embracing 11, 670 persons. In the following table is shown thenumber of the deaf over ten years of age in the five great occupations, with the respective percentages, and also the percentages for thegeneral population. 

GENERAL OCCUPATIONS OF THE DEAF

 PER CENT PER OF GENERAL OCCUPATION NUMBER CENT POPULATION

 Agricultural pursuits 4, 761 37. 5 35. 7 Manufacturing and mechanical 4, 583 36. 1 24. 4 Domestic and personal 2, 395 18. 9 19. 2 Trade and transportation 552 4. 4 16. 4 Professional 387 3. 1 4. 3

It is seen from this that the proportions are very nearly the same forthe deaf and the general population in agricultural pursuits, domesticand personal service, and professional service. In manufacturing andmechanical occupations the proportion of the deaf is indeed considerablyhigher. In trade and transportation, on the other hand, the proportionfor the deaf is far lower than that for the general population--acondition to be accounted for by the very evident need of hearing insuch pursuits. 

Of the deaf engaged in agricultural pursuits, 3, 366, or aboutthree-fourths, are in a position of ownership or direction, beingfarmers, planters, or overseers; 1, 218 are agricultural laborers, while75 are gardeners, florists, or nursery-men. The large number of the deafin professional occupations is in part explained by the fact that 206are themselves engaged in the instruction of the deaf. Other specifiedoccupations where fifty or more of the deaf are employed in each are asfollows:

SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS OF THE DEAF

 Laborers not specified 1, 217 Servants and waiters 712 Boot and shoemakers and repairers 559 Printers, lithographers and pressmen 382 Carpenters and joiners 371 Dressmakers 314 Seamstresses 306 Tailors 236 Painters, glaziers and varnishers 223 Launderers 210 Cigar and tobacco operators 162 Cabinet-makers 119 Merchants and dealers (retail) 115 Iron and steel workers 106 Clerks and copyists 105 Housekeepers and stewards 91 Machinists 87 Blacksmiths 84 Miners and quarrymen 81 Cotton mill operators 78 Barbers and hairdressers 74 Bakers 61 Agents 61 Artists and teachers of art 60 Harness and saddle makers and repairers 59 Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc. 56 Manufacturers and officials 55 Masons 52

So far, then, as appears from the findings of the United States census, the deaf are seen to be distributed among the chief industries verygenerally, and in very many of what are known as "trades" they are ableto be profitably employed. In some activities of life deafness is ofcourse an effectual barrier, but these are rather restricted ones. Thereis but one great division of employment in which the deaf cannot enterextensively, namely, commercial and mercantile pursuits. With theseexceptions, the deaf are found to be industrially occupied like the restof the community, and to be able to engage, and actually engaging, inmost of the employments of men. [96]

In respect to the general economic status of the deaf, a second sourceof information, at the bottom of the scale, as it were, is to be foundin the proportion of the deaf cared for in public alms-houses. Though amuch greater proportion of the deaf are discovered here than of thegeneral population, the deaf do not on the whole constitute a large partof the alms-house population of the country. In 1910 the census reported540 deaf-mutes to be in alms-houses, or six-tenths of one per cent ofall their inmates. [97] That is to say, a little over one per cent (1. 2)of the total number of the deaf in the United States are found to-day inalms-houses. [98]

Such is the evidence we have in respect to the economic standing of thedeaf. Yet the fact that the deaf are usually found capable of takingcare of themselves should not be, after all, a matter either of doubt orof wonder. They are for the most part, as we have indicated, quite"able-bodied, " and but for their want of hearing are perfectly normalin respect to "doing a job. " If they are skillful and efficient, theirdeafness proves comparatively little of a drawback. Another contributingcause in the situation lies in the fact that most of the deaf haveattended the special schools provided for them, where industrialpreparation with the opportunity to learn a trade is offered and largelyavailed of. [99] When they go out into the world, they may be supposed tohave an industrial equipment, which, besides taking in view theirhandicap, is one in many respects fully equal to that of their hearingfellow-laborers; and though many of the deaf, apparently the greaternumber, do not follow the trade learned at school, yet there is no doubtthat the training and lessons in industry there acquired prove ofdecided practical advantage. [100]

VIEWS OF THE DEAF AS TO THEIR ECONOMIC STANDING

To what extent the deaf hold themselves able to stand alongside thegeneral population may well be indicated by what they themselves have tosay. Of the adult deaf who have had schooling, it is claimed thateighty-one per cent are gainfully employed;[101] and that of the adultmale deaf ninety per cent are self-supporting. [102] A large proportionare said to be the heads of families and the possessors of homes. [103]In respect to the conditions of their employment, including that ofwages, they are usually ready to declare that they are little differentfrom those of the general population, sometimes taking pains to pointout the substantial equality of the two. [104]

The views of the deaf in the whole matter of their industrial footingmay be expressed as summed up in the following resolutions, which werereported by a special committee on industrial conditions of the deaf atthe convention of the National Association of the Deaf in 1904:[105]

 1. There are few ordinary occupations in which the deaf do not or cannot engage. 

 2. Employers and foremen treat deaf workmen as they do hearing workmen. 

 3. Deafness is a hindrance to a great extent, but it is not such a formidable barrier as has popularly been supposed. 

 4. The deaf workman usually has steady work. Those that do not generally have only themselves to blame. 

 5. The deaf invariably get the same wages for the same class of work as the hearing. 

 6. Employers and foremen are glad to have deaf workmen who can show that they have the ability to do the work expected of them, and take them on a basis equal to that of the hearing. If they are competent, their services secure ready recognition. [106]

THE DEAF AS ALMS-SEEKERS

It might be thought that the deaf might sometimes find their infirmity auseful means of soliciting alms from the public. But it is gratifying tolearn that very few of them ever try to make capital out of theiraffliction. That a deaf man merely as such is in no wise to beconsidered a special beneficiary of charity is a principle spiritedlyendorsed by nearly all the deaf themselves; and they are found to be thelast to lend encouragement to any appeals for aid from the charitablydisposed. [107]

On the other hand, it is a fact, perhaps not as widely known as itshould be, that there are persons able to hear who often pretend to bedeaf and dumb in order to work on the sensibilities of the public. Tosuch appeals a far more ready response is met with than should be thecase. The deaf themselves usually do what they can to prevent this, acertain number indeed going to considerable lengths in this direction, and not infrequently running such impostors down. [108] In nearly all thestate associations of the deaf as well as in the national organizationit is made a particular object to investigate and prosecute mendicantssimulating deafness, while in their papers a vigorous war is beingwaged. [109] At the same time by many of the deaf a campaign of educationis being conducted for the enlightenment of the public. The followingresolutions, adopted by the National Association of the Deaf in 1910, attest their feeling in the matter:[110]

 _Whereas_, There is no necessity for an educated deaf person to beg or solicit alms on account of deafness; and

 _Whereas_, There are many cases of persons who are not really deaf, but hearing people, who prey on the sympathy of the public to the injury of the respectable and self-supporting deaf; therefore be it

 _Resolved_, That it is the sense of the Association that stringent laws should be enacted, making it a penal offense to ask pecuniary aid on account of deafness or on pretense of being "deaf and dumb. "

Only very rarely, however, has legal cognizance been taken of this evil, though it may sometimes be included under the general charge of"vagrancy" or "imposture. " In a few states there have been specialenactments, as in New York[111] and Minnesota, [112] in the former theimpersonation of a deaf man being expressly added to the offenses thatconstitute imposture, and in the latter to those that constitutevagrancy. 

HOMES FOR THE DEAF

Homes for the deaf in America have never been organized on other than asmall scale, and in the main they may be said to serve a purpose similarto that of homes for the aged and infirm generally. Though there islittle call for such establishments to a wide extent, and though theproportion of the deaf to be benefited by them is small, [113] yet for anumber of the deaf there is a peculiar need. These are deaf persons, usually the old and decrepit, who are without means to supportthemselves, and have no family or friends to look to for help. To them aspecial retreat in association with others in similar condition provesan immeasurable blessing, and in such their last years may be spent intranquillity and comparative happiness. 

The object of a home for the deaf is thus given for one of them. [114]

 To take care of such of the deaf of the state as are incapacitated by reason of old age or other infirmity from taking care of themselves, to the end that they may have the comforts of a home, where they can associate with each other, and have the consolation of religious services in their own language of signs, instead of being sent to a county infirmary. 

The purpose of another home is thus described:[115]

 This home is unique, being the only institution of its kind in the state, owned and controlled by the deaf, who have formed themselves into an association, known as the Pennsylvania Society for the Advancement of the Deaf. Like our Ohio cousins, who have already established a similar home, we pride ourselves upon our ability to own and control such a responsible institution. The home owes its existence entirely to the charitable impulse of the deaf themselves, aided by the generosity of their hearing friends. It exists because of the desire to provide a home of rest for the infirm of our class during their declining years, so that they may find here comfort and happiness in congenial companionship and intelligent conversation. 

At present there are five homes for the deaf. [116] They are found in thestates of Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, there beingtwo in New York. [117] The first to be created was the Gallaudet Home atWappinger's Falls, New York, founded in 1885; the second the Ohio Homeat Westerville in 1896; the third the home of St. Elizabeth'sIndustrial School in New York City in 1897; the fourth the New EnglandHome at Everett, Massachusetts, in 1901;[118] and the fifth thePennsylvania Home at Doyleston in 1902. The homes in Ohio andPennsylvania are owned and controlled by the societies for the deaf inthese respective states, the management being in the hands of trustees, in the former of twenty, and in the latter of nine. The Gallaudet Homeis under the Church Mission to Deaf-Mutes of the Protestant EpiscopalChurch, with the direction vested in a board of twenty-five trustees. The home in Massachusetts is controlled by a private society organizedfor the purpose, with a board of fifteen trustees in charge. The home inNew York City is a part of St. Elizabeth's Industrial School of theRoman Catholic Church. [119]

The homes are for the most part for the deaf of restricted areas, thosein Pennsylvania and Ohio being for the deaf in these respective states. With but one exception, [120] they are open to the "aged and infirm, " insome there being an age limitation of sixty years. The homes are ingeneral free to those qualified to enter, and though a charge may beexacted from persons able to pay, this is seldom done, the homes beingintended for the destitute and friendless. 

The total number of inmates in the homes is 106, ranging in differentones from 13 to 30, and averaging about 20. The total annual cost ofmaintenance is $30, 190, making the average cost of each inmate$290. [121] The value of the property of the homes is about $375, 000, onehome having two-thirds of this, and two homes four-fifths. 

As little is received in the way of pay from inmates, [122] the homeshave to depend for the most part upon private benevolence for theirsupport. In the case of the Ohio and Pennsylvania homes this supportcomes largely from the deaf themselves. [123] In nearly all the homesthere are a certain number of inmates, but usually a very small number, cared for at public expense. Private contributions to the homes areseldom large, though in one case these have amounted to a considerablesum. [124] They usually range from three or four thousand dollars a yearto several times as much. [125]

CONCLUSIONS WITH RESPECT TO THE ECONOMIC POSITION OF THE DEAF

From all the foregoing we may conclude the following with respect to theeconomic position of the deaf:

1. The deaf are not a burden upon the community. 

2. They are wage-earners in a degree that compares well with the generalpopulation. 

3. The occupations open to them and in which they are successfullyemployed are much larger in number than is generally thought, and inmany their infirmity is very little of a drawback. 

4. The deaf hold themselves on an economic equality with the rest oftheir fellow-citizens, and ask no alms or favors of any kind. 

5. Beyond homes for certain of the aged and infirm, which are called forin not a few quarters, the deaf stand in need of little distinctiveeconomic treatment from society. 

FOOTNOTES:

[94] Special Reports, p. 146ff. 

[95] The proportion for the deaf would no doubt be higher but for thelarge number in the schools. It should also be noted that "keepinghouse", the most usual occupation reported by females, is not listedamong the occupations. 

[96] Several of the deaf have won distinction as artists, and there havebeen not a few inventors. In the civil service of the Nationalgovernment there are said to be nearly two score. In 1908 an order wasissued by the Civil Service Commission, debarring deaf persons from thisservice. So great was the protest, however, made by the deaf and theirfriends that the decision was reversed by the President, and the deafwere allowed to compete for any position where their deafness would notinterfere. See _Annals_, liii. , 1908, p. 249; liv. , 1909, p. 387; _VoltaReview_, x. , 1908, p. 224; _Silent Worker_, Feb. , 1909; Proceedings ofNational Association of the Deaf, ix. , 1910, pp. 26, 70. 

[97] Paupers in Alms-houses, 1913, p. 76. In 1911 there were in thealms-houses of Illinois, according to the Report of the state board ofcharities, 38 deaf-mutes, or 0. 5 per cent of the entire alms-housepopulation; in Indiana, 81, or 2. 6 per cent; in New York, 191, or 1. 8per cent; and in Virginia, 17, or 0. 7 per cent. In Michigan, accordingto the annual Abstract of Statistical Information Relating to theInsane, Deaf and Dumb, etc. , for 1912, of the 1, 059 deaf personsreported, 32, or 3 per cent, were cared for at public expense. 

[98] The percentage for the general population is 0. 1. 

[99] In many schools it is said that few of their former pupils havefailed to be self-supporting, especially those who have taken the fullprescribed course. Of the New York Institution the proportion is statedto be as low as four per cent. Report, 1907, p. 37. Of the MichiganSchool it is asserted that out of 1, 800 former pupils, only three arenot self-supporting. Proceedings of Michigan Conference of Charities andCorrections, 1907, pp. 32, 63. Similar claims are made for other schoolsin respect to the condition of the deaf. By the head of the New JerseySchool it is stated: "Inquiry at the state prison elicits the fact thatthere is not among its vast number of inmates a single deaf man orwoman, and, indeed, I know of no educated deaf convict or pauper in thestate. " Report of Board of Education of New Jersey, 1904, p. 323. In1911 a committee of the Convention of American Instructors of the Deafwas appointed to collect information and statistics as to theoccupations and wages of the deaf. Proceedings, xix. , p. 217. 

[100] A special committee on the industrial condition of the deaf of theNational Association of the Deaf stated as a conclusion: "More deafworkmen learn a new trade when they leave school than follow the onethey were taught at school. " Proceedings, vii. , 1904, p. 216. InMinnesota the division for the deaf in the state bureau of labor worksin connection with the state school. See _Deaf-Mutes' Journal_, March 7, 1912. On the general industrial training of the deaf and its results, see _Annals_, l. , 1905, p. 98; lvii. , 1912, p. 364; _Volta Review_, xi. , 1909, p. 311 (Proceedings of American Association to Promote theTeaching of Speech to the Deaf); xiii. , 1912, pp. 542, 595; Proceedingsof American Instructors, xv. , 1898, p. 86; xvi. , 1901, p. 238; xvii. , 1905, p. 93; Report of Special Committee of Board of Directors ofPennsylvania Institution to Collect Information as to Lives andOccupations of Former Pupils, 1884; Report of Pennsylvania Institution, 1885, p. 30; Mississippi School, 1893, p. 9; 1911, pp. 36, 52; Manualand History of Ohio School, 1911, p. 16; Report of United StatesCommissioner of Education, 1885, p. Ccxxxv. ; _Journal of SocialScience_, xxvi. , 1889, p. 91. 

[101] Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, viii. , 1907, p. 41; Indiana Bulletin of Charities and Corrections, June, 1912. 

[102] Proceedings of National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1906, pp. 232, 239. 

[103] _Ibid. _; Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, _loc. Cit. _

[104] In New York the deaf are said to "earn from $2500 a year to $6 or$7 a week", most being "journeymen at their trades or skilled factoryoperatives". Proceedings of Empire State Association of Deaf-Mutes, xx. , 1899, p. 7. In Missouri the earnings of the graduates of the stateschool are reported as ranging up to $1300 a year. Report of MissouriSchool, 1912, p. 28. In Massachusetts, in an investigation of the stateboard of education, it has been found that of 84 deaf men who had leftschool between 1907 and 1912, the average wage was $7. 78 a week. _VoltaReview_, xv. , 1913, p. 183. The deaf when opportunity offers oftenbecome members of labor unions. They are said "quite generally to joinlabor unions where the nature of their occupation permits", though, onthe whole, it does not seem that a large proportion do. Proceedings ofNational Association of the Deaf, vii. , 1904, pp. 143, 218. For otherviews of the deaf on their employment and its returns, see _ibid. _, i. , 1880, p. 10; iv. , 1893, pp. 122, 167; v. , 1896, p. 35; vi. , 1899, p. 64;viii. , 1907, p. 53; Empire State Association of Deaf-Mutes, xi. , 1887, p. 9; Illinois Gallaudet Union, v. , 1897, p. 25; Reunion of Alumni ofWisconsin School for the Deaf, vii. , 1895, p. 2; _Louisiana Pelican_, ofLouisiana School, Oct. 17, 1908. 

[105] Proceedings, vii. , p. 190ff. Questionnaires were submitted to deafworkmen and their employers, and the conclusions (p. 227) were based ontheir replies. These resolutions were confirmed by further findingsreported in 1907, especially as to the similarity of the wages of thedeaf and the hearing, and as to the satisfaction of employers with deafworkmen. Proceedings, viii. , p. 48. 

[106] Another conclusion was that rural pursuits are better for the deafthan factory work. 

[107] See Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, v. , 1858, p. 351; Report of Kentucky School, 1867, p. 13n. ; _Annals_, x. , 1858, p. 161; xxiv. , 1879, p. 194. 

[108] In the year 1911 the number of impostors whose arrest was securedby the deaf was 38. _Deaf-Mutes' Journal_, Sept. 4, 1913. 

[109] In many issues this is made a prominent feature. 

[110] Proceedings, ix. , p. 89. See also Proceedings of PennsylvaniaSociety for the Advancement of the Deaf, xxiv. , 1910, pp. 12, 32; IowaAssociation for the Advancement of the Deaf, vi. , 1895, p. 29. Theaction on the part of the deaf is worthy of the highest praise, andspeaks volumes for them. The real cause for wonder, however, is that thepublic should ever allow itself to be deceived by those asking alms onthe pretexts given. By no disease known to medical science, saveparalysis alone, can a man lose his speech and hearing at one and thesame time. It may be safely estimated that of such gentry 98, perhaps100, per cent are rank frauds. 

[111] Rev. Stat. , 1896, p. 1242. See also _Annals_, xxxi. , 1886, p. 295. On the other hand, it would seem that such statutes as that inPennsylvania which we have noted, exempting the deaf from the provisionsagainst tramps, would lend encouragement to alms-seeking. 

[112] Laws, 1911, p. 356. The law in this state was secured by theaction of the deaf. 

[113] It is said that less than 400, or less than one per cent of theentire number of the deaf, are in need of special homes. Proceedings ofNational Association of the Deaf, ix. , 1910, p. 51. 

[114] Report of Ohio Home for Aged and Infirm Deaf, 1912, p. 15. 

[115] From an address given at opening of Pennsylvania Home for theDeaf, 1902. On the objects of a home, see also Proceedings of Reunion ofAlumni of Wisconsin School for the Deaf, vii. , 1895, p. 10. 

[116] In three other states funds are being collected to establishhomes: Illinois, Indiana and Missouri. To that in Indiana 20 acres ofland have been donated. A private home was opened in New Jersey in 1854for colored deaf, blind and crippled, lasting but a short time, andhaving less than a dozen inmates. See Report of New Jersey School forthe Deaf, 1893, pp. 3, 7. 

[117] A national home for the deaf has also been proposed. For argumentsfor and against it, see Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, ix. , 1910, p. 51. In 1872 such a home was projected, to be located inNew York City, some $4, 000 being collected for it. Little encouragement, however, was met from outside, and the plan was abandoned for a localinstitution. See Report of Church Mission to Deaf-Mutes, 1874, p. 18;1875, p. 17 ("Report of Committee on Building and Fund of National Homefor the Aged and Infirm Deaf"); New York _Times_, Sept. 1, 1875. Seealso _International Record of Charities and Corrections_, June, 1886. 

[118] This home was at Roxbury till 1905. 

[119] In one or two cases there are ladies' auxiliary societies. 

[120] The home in New York City receives only women from sixteen tofifty years of age. 

[121] One home is exceptionally provided for, however. Without it theaverage is $252. 

[122] In 1903 the amount from pay inmates was $1, 600. Special Report ofthe Census. Benevolent Institutions, 1904. The nominal charge is usually$250. 

[123] Over $3, 000 was contributed by the deaf of Ohio for theestablishment of a home in this state. 

[124] The Gallaudet Home has an endowment fund of $153, 150, of which$107, 000 came from one legacy. 

[125] See Appendix A for table in respect to the homes for the deaf. Inconnection with the scheme of homes for the deaf, it is interesting tonote that there have been one or two suggestions for colonies for them, though such have never been taken seriously. One was by a deaf man in1860 in the form of a memorial to Congress for the creation of adeaf-mute commonwealth. See _Annals_, viii. , 1856, p. 118; x. , 1858, pp. 40, 72, 136; xxix. , 1884, p. 73. See also "Facts and Opinions Relatingto the Deaf from America", 1892, p. 182; Proceedings of NationalAssociation of the Deaf, i. , 1880, pp. 36-39. Farm colonies on a smallscale for poor deaf-mutes have also been considered occasionally, butlittle further has ever been attempted. See _Deaf-Mutes' Journal_, Aug. 8, 1912; Sept. 12, 1912. 

CHAPTER V

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF THE DEAF

SOCIAL CLEAVAGE FROM THE GENERAL POPULATION

The preceding chapter has dealt with the economic possibilities of thedeaf, and the extent to which they stand alongside the populationgenerally. The other side of the shield in relation of the deaf tosociety is now to be presented, that is, how far their want of hearingwill count in their participation in the social life of the community. 

While the deaf man may be an active component in the economic andindustrial life of society, yet his inability to hear and his frequentlyconsequent inability to speak stand in the way of his prompt andcontinuous partaking in its social life. He may, and does, have manyfriends among his neighbors and acquaintances, but in the discoursebetween man and man which forms such a large part of the interest anddelight in living, he is unable to join. There is usually at hand noready and rapid means of communication as there is between two hearingpersons in conversation, and his intercourse must necessarily be slowand tedious. The privileges of his church he cannot enjoy; in his lodgehe misses the fellowship which is one of its fundamental ends; in fewforms of convivial entertainment can he take part. Thus seeking anoutlet for those social instincts which charge through his being, thedeaf man finds himself among men, but as though surrounded by a greatimpenetrable wall against which their voices break in vain. 

Placed, however, with his deaf fellows, he discovers himself in adifferent situation. He soon learns that by the use of that language ofsigns so largely employed by other deaf men, and of which he in a shorttime becomes master, he is able to converse with an ease and quicknessfully as great as by that means of which he has been deprived. Hence heceases in large measure to carry on his social intercourse with thehearing, and turns to his deaf comrades; in them he builds up anapproximately congenial companionship and fellowship, and to them helooks largely for his means of social diversion. With them he feels aclose bond of sympathy, and is moved to co-operate with them, and tostand with them when their mutual interests are concerned. In timeassociations in various forms come to be organized among them. In suchwise is realized the desire of the deaf as of all men to commune withtheir fellows. 

DESIRABILITY OF ORGANIZATIONS COMPOSED OF THE DEAF

By some people societies or organizations composed exclusively of thedeaf have been opposed, or at least looked upon with disfavor. This isbecause it has been felt that it is not well for the deaf to form aclass apart in the community, and that unless discouraged the practicewill cause intermarriage among the deaf, which may result in anincreasing number of deaf people--a matter to which we have alreadygiven attention. 

But in combating this tendency of the deaf to organize among themselves, we are really unmindful of an elemental sociological principle, thatlike-minded persons are prone to congregate, and will seek to formpurposive societies and associations, exemplified as well in a boys'athletic club, in a church sewing circle, in a lodge of free andaccepted masons, as in a "league of elect surds. "[126] If "clannishness"is the outcome, it must be accepted only as the necessary consequence ofthe infirmity of the deaf, in the practical affairs of life such menbeing bound to seek out and associate with others of like condition. Bythe deaf themselves it is claimed that the good readily outweighs thepossible evils, and that, as the fact of their deafness forbids thembelonging generally to societies for the hearing, they are thus forcedto band together, or almost entirely to go without the socialamalgamations which form such a conspicuous and valuable part oflife. [127]

PURPOSES, ACTIVITIES AND EXTENT OF SUCH ORGANIZATIONS

The organizations of the deaf are of several kinds: termed clubs, leagues, societies, associations and the like; and wherever a number ofdeaf persons are congregated, some such organization is likely to beeffected. [128] In large cities not a few may be found, planned perhapson different lines or appealing to different kinds of people. Themajority of the societies are formed for the mutual pleasure and cultureof the members. [129] A part are organized on fraternal principles, somewith benefit features, paying out so much in case of illness and thelike; while in a few a certain amount of relief may be dispensed tothose discovered to be in need. In most of the societies, as with thebody of the deaf generally, there is a considerable amount ofsolidarity, and the members are usually quick to act in a common causeor to apply the principle that the concern of one is the concern ofall. [130]

While these societies of the deaf are usually local in theircomposition, there exists more or less communication with bodies inother cities and communities. In over a fourth of the states there arestate societies, while in most of the states there are also alumniassociations of the special schools, which are of state-wideextent. [131] A national body is likewise in existence, the NationalAssociation of the Deaf, founded in 1880, and incorporated in 1900; andthere is a National Fraternal Society of the Deaf, with benefits forsickness, injury and death, which has many local branches, this beingprobably the largest organization of the deaf in the country. [132] Aninternational organization has also been formed, known as the World'sCongress of the Deaf. 

Among the various associations of the deaf, particular mention may bemade of church organizations in some of the larger cities and towns, which not infrequently serve in some measure the purpose of a socialcenter. These deaf congregations are usually in communion with somedenominational body, often being the result of church "missions" to thedeaf, and are ministered to regularly or at stated times by clergymen, most of whom are themselves deaf. For the use of the deaf, the churchbuilding or rooms in it are generally given over at certain times. In afew cases the deaf are in possession of edifices of their own. [133]

NEWSPAPERS OF THE DEAF

With the deaf there have been a number of special papers, published byand for them, and circulating for the most part only among them. Theirchief purpose is to chronicle the various happenings in deaf circles, and to serve as a medium for the discussion of matters of generalinterest to the deaf. These papers are usually weeklies or monthlies, more often the former, and frequently have correspondents in a greateror smaller number of localities. There have been not a few ventures inthe establishment of such independent papers, but most of them haveproved short-lived for want of sufficient support, some being of verybrief duration, and only an exceptional one continuing over an extendedperiod. As a rule there have been seldom more than two or three inexistence at any one time. [134] In addition, there have been severalreligious papers for the deaf, often under the auspices of somedenominational body, but usually published by the deaf themselves. These, however, have never been numerous, and have been of limitedcirculation. [135]

FOOTNOTES:

[126] The deaf are not usually eligible to regular secret orders. 

[127] On the subject of societies of the deaf, see _Annals_, xviii. , 1873, pp. 200, 255; xxi. , 1876, p. 137; xxxii. , 1887, p. 246; xxxiii. , 1888, p. 28; xlix. , 1904, p. 369; Proceedings of Convention of AmericanInstructors, ix. , 1878, p. 117; National Association of the Deaf, ii. , 1883, p. 12; iv. , 1893, pp. 25, 40; vii. , 1904, p. 132; viii. , 1907, p. 26; Reunion of Alumni of Wisconsin School for the Deaf, v. , 1888, p. 36;Empire State Association of Deaf-Mutes, xiii. , 1890, p. 12; _Deaf-Mutes'Friend_, Aug. , 1869. See also E. A. Hodgson, "The Deaf and Dumb; Facts, Anecdotes and Poetry", 1891; J. E. Gallaher, "Representative DeafPersons in the United States", 1898; _International Review_, ii. , 1875, p. 471. 

[128] The oldest organization of the deaf now existing is the NewEngland Gallaudet Association of the Deaf, which began in 1853. Itresulted largely from the Gallaudet Memorial Association, organized twoyears before to raise funds for a monument to Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. In 1859 was created the Alumni Association of the High Class of the NewYork Institution; in 1865 the Empire State Association; and in 1870 theOhio Alumni Association. See Proceedings of National Association of theDeaf, iv. , 1893, p. 25. 

[129] Some of these have special club rooms for social and literarymeetings, where conversation can be carried on freely without attractingpublic notice. Some of these club rooms are large and well appointed. Innot a few of the younger clubs athletics forms a prominent feature. 

[130] This spirit is illustrated in many ways, perhaps most strikinglyin the case where a deaf man seems likely to be debarred from somepublic position because of his want of hearing, when the deaf promptlyrally to his support. We have already seen their action in connectionwith the order of the Civil Service Commission. Sometimes candidates foroffice have been asked to state their views on this subject. As afurther instance of mutual assistance among the deaf may be mentionedthe raising of relief funds for deaf sufferers in other localities intimes of some great disaster. 

[131] In Ohio and Pennsylvania the state societies manage homes for theaged deaf, as we have seen; and in Virginia the state associationsupports a special missionary to the deaf. In Pennsylvania there aremany county sections of the state body. In a number of centers a leadingassociation is that of the alumni of Gallaudet College. 

[132] There has also frequently been discussion of a federation of thevarious state and local organizations. See Proceedings of NationalAssociation of the Deaf, iii. , 1889, p. 14; ix. , 1910, p. 25. 

[133] Such churches are now in New York, Philadelphia and Wheeling, under Protestant Episcopal auspices; in Milwaukee under Lutheran; and inBaltimore under Methodist. Special church buildings are also incontemplation in other cities. Funds for these churches are raised bythe deaf with the assistance of their hearing friends. In the RomanCatholic Church there is a special organization of the deaf, founded in1910, and known as the Knights of l'Épée. 

[134] There have been about thirty such publications created, the firstof which seems to have been begun in 1839, and the second in 1860. Seeespecially "Periodicals Devoted to the Interests of the Deaf, " by theVolta Bureau, 1913. See also _Volta Review_, xii. , 1910, p. 456;Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, ix. , 1910, p. 45. Thepresent publications are: the _Deaf-Mutes' Journal_, of New York, aweekly; the _Observer_, of Seattle, a bi-weekly; the _Frat_, of Chicago, a monthly; and the _Pennsylvania Society News_, a quarterly. 

[135] Those now existing are: the _Catholic Deaf-Mute_, of New York, under Roman Catholic auspices; the _Silent Churchman_, of Chicago, underProtestant Episcopal; the _Silent Herald_, of Chicago, under Methodist;and the _Deaf Lutheran_, of Milwaukee, under Lutheran. 

CHAPTER VI

POPULAR CONCEPTIONS CONCERNING THE DEAF

VIEWED AS A STRANGE CLASS

The position of the deaf in society is yet to be seen from anotherstandpoint. The question may be asked, How does the public at large, howdoes "the man in the street, " look upon the deaf? Are the deaf viewedmerely as so many people deprived of the sense of hearing, in whom alsothe power of speech is often wanting? Or is there superimposed upon thisa feeling, owing perhaps to the supposed isolation of the deaf, thatthey are in other ways a peculiar class of beings?

Unfortunately, it is the latter of these two conceptions that is theprevailing one--unfortunately for the deaf, for their burden is quitesufficient as it is. The public has been and is under manymisapprehensions and delusions regarding the deaf. [136] Being thrownintimately with them but seldom, people often come to form curiousideas respecting the deaf, but ideas which are more or less unhappyones. There is frequently an attitude towards them combined of wonder, misgiving, fear, aversion--a vague feeling or belief that the deaf aremore or less distinct in their thoughts and actions from other people, that they are somehow "unnatural" or "uncanny. "[137]

VIEWED AS A DEFECTIVE CLASS

Not only are the deaf often looked upon as a strange class in thecommunity, but they are not uncommonly known as "defectives, " and thisis the classification frequently applied to them. It is true that thedeaf are "defective" in that they are deprived of one of the mostimportant of the physical senses; but, in addition, the term oftencarries a connotation of mental, or even of moral, aberrance, andresults in the infliction upon the deaf of an unnecessary brand. In manylibraries such a classification is found, and the deaf are cataloguedunder the heading "defective. " In the "Index of the Economic Material inDocuments of the States of the United States" of the CarnegieFoundation, the deaf and the blind are grouped as "defectives" alongwith the feeble-minded and consumptives. [138] Though in such aclassification, any untoward signification is disclaimed, and it is heldto be merely one of convenience of arrangement, it remains true thatterms are employed and associations involved that to a certain extent doa very real injury to the deaf. [139]

VIEWED AS AN UNHAPPY CLASS

People are also prone to think of the deaf as an unhappy, morose ordejected class. Professor E. T. Devine in his "Misery and its Causes"(1909)[140] enumerates the deaf, among other classes, as embodiments ofmisery--"not for the most part, " he is careful to state, "personallyunhappy, " but rather with reference to their imperfect senses. This viewis clear enough, and in one sense is doubtless correct; but it does notexpress the entire situation in respect to the deaf. While theirdeafness must always be a serious and distressing affliction, and evenhandicap and burden as well, and while the deaf must often bemoan theirfate, it yet seems to be true that the deaf as a lot are not "unhappy. "They are good-natured, see the world from an odd angle sometimes, yetare as much philosophers as the average man; and when in the company oftheir deaf associates are able to derive fully as large a portion ofhappiness as any other group of human beings. The deaf are cheerful, swayed by the same emotions as other mortals, responsive equally to allthe touches of life, and are not, at least in these days of education, amorbid, brooding, passionate folk, as is too often the popular judgment. 

VIEWED AS A DEPENDENT CLASS

In some quarters the deaf continue to be looked upon as one of thedependent classes of society. Mr. Robert Hunter in his "Poverty"(1904)[141] under the head of "Dependents and their Treatment" placesthe deaf and dumb as "absolute dependents. " Such views, however, are nolonger general, the deaf having themselves demonstrated to what extentthey are a self-supporting part of the community. But where this beliefis still shared, the deaf are thought in many cases to be in need of aidor public charity; or at any rate to be economically inferior to therest of society. Deaf pupils in the schools, for instance, are oftenreferred to as "inmates" or even as "patients, " not only by the publicbut by newspapers as well; and the schools themselves are often spokenof as "asylums" or as charitable institutions. [142] This nomenclature ishardly defensible on any ground, and by it the education of the deaf isnot even given its true status. 

As a further illustration of the general feeling, though rather ofdifferent order, may perhaps be cited the attitude of the generalinsurance companies toward the deaf. Though some of the companies acceptthe deaf at their regular rates, a number refuse them altogether, whileothers limit their liability or demand an extra premium. [143] This islargely because of the fear that the deaf are more liable to accidentsthan other people; but in point of fact the deaf seem to be a long-livedpeople, and it is likely that with greater statistical knowledgeconcerning them, most of the discrimination would cease. [144]

NEED OF A CHANGED REGARD FOR THE DEAF

Thus in many ways are the deaf made to suffer from popularmisconceptions, and quite unnecessarily. Too long have designations beenemployed regarding them that call up undeserved associations. Too longhave they been set down as a strange and uncertain body of human beings, removed in their actions, manners and modes of thought from the rest ofsociety. The interests of the deaf require a different consideration andtreatment. They demand that the deaf be regarded exactly as otherpeople, only unable to hear. Theirs will be a great boon when they arelooked upon no more as a distinct and different portion of the race, butentirely as normal creatures, equally capable and human as all othermen. [145]

FOOTNOTES:

[136] Very often in the public mind the deaf and the blind areassociated, the two classes sometimes becoming more or less merged theone into the other, and the problems of the one are not infrequentlyassumed to be those of the other. As a matter of fact, there is but onepoint of similarity in the two classes--both are "defective" in thatthey are deprived of a most important physical sense. The gulf thatreally separates the blind from the deaf is far deeper than that whichlies between either of the two classes and the normal population. 

[137] In this connection it may be interesting to note the regard forthe deaf as has been indicated by the deaf characters that have beencreated in fiction. Though not a large number are found, there isdisplayed towards them an attitude largely of kindly sympathy, in somecases mingled with wonder. Such characters appear in Lew Wallace's"Prince of India", where three deaf-mutes are instructed to speak;Scott's _Fanella_ in "Peveril of the Peak"; Dickens' _Sophy_ in "Dr. Marigold" (an unusually attractive and lovable character); Collins'_Madonna Mary_ in "Hide and Seek"; Caine's _Naomi_ in "The Scapegoat";Haggard's "She"; Maarten's "God's Fool"; de Musset's "Pierre andCamille"; and elsewhere. Thomas Holcroft's "Deaf and Dumb; or the OrphanProtected" is an adaptation from the French play "Abbé de l'Épée" of J. N. Bouilly, in 1802, in which the founder of the first school for thedeaf and his pupils are touchingly portrayed. Feigned characters arealso found, as Scott's mute in "The Talisman"; in Moliere's "Le Médecinmalgré Lui"; Jonson's "Epicoene"; and John Poole's "Deaf as a Post". Defoe has a character, _Duncan Campbell_, which is possibly based on onefrom real life, being referred to by Addison in the _Spectator_ and the_Tatler_. On the subject of the deaf in fiction, see _Silent Worker_, Dec. , 1893; _Annals_, xxxix. , 1894, p. 79; Indiana Bulletin of Charitiesand Corrections, June, 1897; _Athenaeum_, Feb. , April, 1896. 

[138] It may be recorded here that in the present compilation of theBibliography of the United States Bureau of Education, the expressionformerly used, "Delinquents, Dependents and Defectives", has beendropped in favor of the term, "Special Classes of Persons". On thissubject, see Proceedings of National Educational Association, 1901, p. 876. 

[139] A possibly more serious misapprehension respecting the deaf arisesfrom the impression often current among a large number of people, andapparently encouraged not infrequently in the proceedings of somescientific bodies, to the effect that nearly all deaf-mutes are soeither because of a similar condition in their parents or because of theexistence in the parents of some physical disease, sometimes of animmoral character. This is in a great part due to the increasingemphasis upon eugenics, with the desire to weed out from the populationas many as possible of the "unfit" or "defective". In consequence hasbeen the belief that if there were proper regulation of certainmarriages, especially of the deaf and of others suffering fromparticular maladies, "deaf-mutism", which is looked upon as anexcrescence upon society, would in the course of a short time be stampedout. An illustration of this conception is the following extract fromthe Handbook of the Child Welfare Exhibit held in New York in 1911 (p. 38): "Mating of the Unfit. 'The Law'. Marriages of cousins, insane orfeeble-minded, alcoholic, syphilitic parents and effects. Thecost--7, 369 blind infants, 89, 287 deaf and dumb, 18, 476 feeble-minded". See also Proceedings of National Conference of Charities andCorrections, 1912, p. 277; Report of Philadelphia Baby Saving Show, 1912, p. 37; _Annals_, lvii. , 1912, p. 284. As a matter of fact, as wehave already seen, the question of deafness is not one so much ofeugenics as of medical science, although eugenics may well be called inplay in respect to the marriages of persons under unfavorableconditions, including to an extent the congenitally deaf and thosehaving deaf relatives. The total number of the deaf, however, marryingunder unfavorable conditions, is not large. Every effort to remove ordiminish deafness is entitled only to the highest praise; but when it ismade to appear that deafness generally results from such causes as areoften ascribed, it is seen how wrongly the deaf, upon whom a greataffliction is already resting, may be made to suffer. 

[140] P. 45. See also Proceedings of Empire State Association ofDeaf-Mutes, xii. , 1888, p. 35; National Conference of Charities andCorrections, 1883, p. 416. 

[141] P. 76. See also p. 96. Similarly Professor C. R. Henderson in his"Dependents, Defectives and Delinquents" says (p. 170): "Many of thedeaf and blind are so deficient in industrial efficiency, owing to theirinfirmity, that they must be cared for in adult life and old age". 

[142] In the special census report of Benevolent Institutions of 1904schools for the deaf and the blind are included, because they contain"free homes for care and maintenance". In some charity directoriesschools for the deaf are listed. 

[143] It is claimed that 95 per cent of the general fraternalorganizations consider the deaf as "hazardous" or "undesirable". Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, ix. , 1910, p. 53. Accident insurance is usually refused by all. When an extra rate ischarged in life insurance, this is usually one-half of one per cent. Onthe subject of insurance and the mortality of the deaf, see _Annals_, xxxiii. , 1888, p. 246; xlix. , 1904, p. 274; Proceedings of Convention ofAmerican Instructors, ii. , 1851, p. 168; iii. , 1853, p. 85; xi. , 1886, p. 67; Empire State Association of Deaf-Mutes, xii. , 1888, p. 35; xiii. , 1890, p. 30: xvi. , 1894, p. 28; xix. , 1897, p. 93; National Associationof the Deaf, ii. , 1883, p. 12; vii. , 1904, p. 183; Report of New YorkInstitution, 1853, p. 70. 

[144] The foregoing illustrate some of the most striking misconceptionsregarding the deaf. On the other hand, no doubt the deaf as well as theblind suffer from sentiment on the part of the public, and from thesensational accounts which appear from time to time in the newspapersand magazines concerning what the deaf have been found able toaccomplish. Many things are referred to as "wonders", as though it werestrange that they could be done by people without hearing, some of theachievements of the deaf being set down as most remarkable. Suchwritings are usually in a kindly spirit, and may often serve a usefulpurpose in making known the similarity of the capabilities of the deafand of the hearing; but when they make the deaf appear as a peculiar andunlike part of the race, their effect may be most misleading. The worstresult is that the public becomes ready and willing to believe almostany thing about the deaf. 

[145] In 1908 the Convention of American Instructors of the Deafappointed a committee to consider the question of the dissemination ofknowledge regarding the attainments of the deaf. Proceedings, xviii. , p. 210. 

CHAPTER VII

PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN THE DEAF

GENERAL SOCIETIES INTERESTED IN THE DEAF

We have now considered the interest of society in the deaf in itsseveral relations, together with the treatment that has been extended tothem. It remains to be noted whether there have been any privateundertakings organized in behalf of the deaf or interested in theirwelfare, and what has been done by such bodies. 

In America virtually the only organizations composed of persons not deafand formed for the purpose of advancing the interests of the deaf havebeen those more or less closely related to the education of deafchildren, and with their exception practically no movements in respectto the deaf may be said to have been undertaken. [146]

These organizations interested in the instruction of the deaf are of twodivisions: bodies actively engaged in the work of this instruction, andbodies only indirectly concerned. The first division includes, on theone hand, associations of instructors of the deaf, and, on the other, societies or corporations formed to promote and establish schools, whichhave either passed out of existence, their mission being fulfilled, onthe taking over of the school by the state, or have remained in controlof certain schools--to be considered when we come to the generalprovisions for the education of the deaf. In the second division arethree kinds of organizations: the Volta Bureau, an organization in aclass of its own; associations of parents concerned mainly with theinstruction of their own children; and undertakings interested in theextension of religious knowledge to the deaf, usually in the form ofchurch missions. 

THE VOLTA BUREAU

The one organization in America of large compass and concerned solelywith the interests of the deaf is the Volta Bureau, located inWashington. This has resulted from the gift of Dr. Alexander Graham Bellin 1880, who having received 50, 000 francs from the French government inrecognition of his services in the field of invention, decided to usethe money to establish the bureau for the "increase and diffusion ofknowledge relating to the deaf. " The bureau now contains muchinformation regarding the deaf as a class, as well as carefully compileddata regarding many individuals; and also publishes works on the deaf, including the "Volta Review, " a monthly periodical. It is muchinterested in the methods of instruction of the deaf, while anotherimportant aim may be said to be the elimination of deafness as far aspossible, or the removal of many of the effects of deafness. Dr. Bell'stotal benefactions to this bureau, together with the Association toPromote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, to which it is now joined, have amounted to more than a quarter of a million dollars. [147]

PARENTS' ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE DEAF

Associations of parents have been organized chiefly in relation to theeducation of their own deaf children, though in some cases friends aswell as parents are included. They have often been particularlyconcerned in the creation of day schools for the deaf, but have alsoshown an interest in other ways. [148] These associations have beenmostly confined to cities, and have been organized in a dozen or so ofthem, as Boston, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, St. Paul, New York, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. [149] State associationshave been rare, being found in only two or three states, as Ohio, Wisconsin and Nebraska. [150]

CHURCH MISSIONS TO THE DEAF

Practically all the religious denominations have shown more or lessconcern in the spiritual welfare of the deaf, so far as individuals havebeen affected, and many churches have deaf members on their rolls. Someof the church bodies have, in addition, given more particular attentionto the deaf, and have instituted special activities to embrace as manyof them as possible. Such movements have their greatest opportunitiesin the cities, where it is easier to reach the deaf than in thescattered districts of the country, though some efforts have been madethere too. On the whole, however, only a small part of the religiousduty towards the deaf is found to have been done; and it remains beyondquestion that they have been neglected in this regard far too much, andthat there is indeed a field "white unto the harvest" for the spiritualwell-being of the deaf. Perhaps also there is no sphere of religiousendeavor where the need of mutual understanding and co-operation is somanifest as with the deaf. 

The denominations that have taken special action usually maintain whatare called "missions to the deaf, " and have clergymen, both deaf andhearing, who give part or all of their time to the work. In a few of thelarger cities, as we have seen, special churches for the deaf have beenorganized, supported with the aid of the denominational body, while inother cases the use of the church building is allowed to the deaf atcertain times. Visits are also made from time to time to smaller placeswhen a number of deaf people may be assembled together, and specialmeetings are arranged for them. [151] In such missions, while the aimsare largely spiritual, there are often in addition operations of amaterial character, with appropriate attention to individual cases ofneed. [152]

Among Protestant Churches, the Protestant Episcopal may be consideredthe pioneer, and it has taken up the work with considerable zeal andeffectiveness. In 1850 work was begun in the East, and in 1871 formallyorganized. In 1873 it was extended to the Mid-west, and in 1875 to theNorth-west and South-west. In a number of the dioceses the work is nowgiven attention, in some of the large cities, as New York, Philadelphiaand Chicago, its labor being notable. [153] The Lutheran Church has beenactive particularly in some of the states of the Middle West, as in thesynods of Missouri, Ohio, and others, and in a few cities of the East. The Methodists have likewise been engaged in certain sections of thecountry, especially in the South and in the Mid-west. The Baptists havealso taken up work, especially in the South and in New England. Together with the Congregationalists, they started action in the lattersection in 1884, though most of the work in New England is now done by aunion organization of several denominations, called the "EvangelicalAlliance. " In other Protestant bodies little has been attempted beyondlocal undertakings in a few places. The work of the Roman CatholicChurch in respect to the deaf is well organized in a number of centers, and many of the Catholic deaf are carefully looked after. With theHebrews most of the attention has been confined to certain largecities. [154]

ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF

There are in America three large bodies interested in the education ofthe deaf, and composed for the most part of those directly connectedwith the work of education. These are the Convention of AmericanInstructors of the Deaf, the Conference of Superintendents andPrincipals, and the American Association to Promote the Teaching ofSpeech to the Deaf, all meeting, as a usual thing, triennially indifferent years. Of these the oldest is the Convention of AmericanInstructors, which was organized in 1850. [155] It is a large andrepresentative body, and has manifested its interest from the beginningin the general welfare of the deaf, as well as in the particular demandsof education. The Conference of Superintendents and Principals, as itsname implies, is composed of the heads of schools, and was organized in1868. [156] The Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deafwas incorporated as such in 1890, though it was not the first bodyconcerned in this work. [157] It is now countrywide, and embraces a largenumber of those interested in the teaching of speech to the deaf, whether active educators or not. A large section of its members are"pure oralists, " that is, believing in the exclusive use of speech withthe deaf. In 1908 the Volta Bureau was taken over by this body. [158] Itmay be mentioned here also that the educators of the deaf arerepresented in the National Educational Association. [159]

PUBLICATIONS DEVOTED TO THE INTERESTS OF THE DEAF

There are two publications devoted to the interests of the deaf: the"American Annals of the Deaf" and the "Volta Review, " both published inWashington. The former was begun in 1848. It appears bi-monthly, and isunder the direction of the Conference of Principals. [160] It has longbeen known as the standard periodical relating to the deaf in America, and represents current thought and opinion of practical educators of thedeaf, as well as constituting a general record of the work. The "VoltaReview, " formerly known as the "Association Review, " was begun in 1899, and was published by the Association to Promote the Teaching of Speechto the Deaf. It is now published conjointly by the Association and theVolta Bureau, and appears as an illustrated monthly. It is "devoted tothe problems of deafness, " but deals in the greatest measure with thematters pertaining to the education of the deaf. [161] In most of theresidential schools, or institutions, there are also papers, whichoften serve to keep parents and others informed of the work of therespective schools. We have already referred to the publications by thedeaf themselves, both secular and religious. 

FOOTNOTES:

[146] General organizations of a philanthropic or other character haveseldom extended activities to include the deaf, though at times someinstitution, as the Young Men's Christian Association or a socialsettlement, has manifested an interest, chiefly in providing a place formeeting. 

[147] The bureau contains a card catalogue of more than 50, 000 deafchildren who have been in the special schools from 1817 to 1900;authentic manuscript respecting 4, 471 marriages of the deaf; and thespecial schedules of the census of 1900 respecting the deaf. It serves, moreover, as a bureau of information and advice, with suggestions forthe hard of hearing also, and as a teachers' agency. On the work of thebureau, see _Deaf-Mute Advance_, of Illinois School, March 14, 1891;_Silent Worker_, May, 1895; and current numbers of the _Volta Review_, especially that for Jan. , 1913 (xiv. , p. 605). 

[148] The purpose of the Boston Parents' Education Association for DeafChildren is "to encourage home instruction, aid schools for the deaf inBoston, help deaf children to continue their education in schools orcolleges for hearing persons, aid them in acquiring a practicalknowledge of useful trades and business, assist them in obtainingremunerative employment, bring them into more extensive social relationswith hearing persons, and employ such other means for their advancementas may be deemed advisable. " See "Offering in behalf of the Deaf", bythis association, 1903, p. 8. See also _Association Review_, ii. , 1900, p. 146. Most of the associations have also been interested in theemployment of the oral method of instruction. Dues in such associationsare usually only one or two dollars, and there is often a board ofdirectors appointed. 

[149] The first seems to have been the Boston Association, formed in1894. 

[150] In several of these associations membership is over a hundred. InMilwaukee there is also a similar society known as the WisconsinPhonological Institute to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, which was organized in 1878, and incorporated in 1879, as aphilanthropic society. See Report, 1878, p. 5. 

[151] On the subject of church work among the deaf, see Proceedings ofNational Association of the Deaf, i. , 1880, p. 19; iv. , 1893, p. 53;vi. , 1899, p. 58; vii. , 1904, p. 153; Empire State Association ofDeaf-Mutes, xii. , 1888, p. 31; Conference on Church Work among the Deaf(Protestant Episcopal), i. , 1881, p. 5; ii. , 1883, p. 4; iv. , 1887, p. 3; v. , 1888, p. 23; Report of Diocesan Commission on Church Work amongthe Deaf, 1886; Church Mission to the Deaf (New York), 1873, p. 14;1886, p. 3; 1888, p. 3; _Annals_, xxix. , 1884, p. 24. 

[152] Direct relief may be afforded in some cases, and in others visitsmade to hospitals, prisons and the like, where deaf persons may befound, without regard to religious affiliation. Assistance is also oftenrendered in acting as interpreters in court, though this work isfrequently shared in by instructors of the deaf. In one or twoinstances, as we have seen, homes for the deaf have been established byreligious bodies. 

[153] In the Protestant Episcopal Church there are now some twelveclergymen engaged in this work, ten of whom are deaf, and more thantwice this number of lay helpers. 

[154] In New York there is a Society for the Welfare of the Jewish Deaf, which was organized in 1910, and incorporated in 1913. Laws, ch. 313. Itis controlled by a board of from seventeen to thirty governors, and isinterested in the educational, industrial, social and religious concernsof the deaf. See _Hebrew Standard_, March 15, 1912; _Jewish Charities_, Jan. , 1912. See also Proceedings of National Conference of JewishCharities, 1908, p. 28. 

[155] Its first meeting was at the New York Institution, after a callhad been issued by several of the leading educators. In 1897 this bodywas incorporated. 

[156] The organization was effected at Washington. See Report ofColumbia Institution, 1868, p. 16. 

[157] A convention of articulation teachers was held as early as 1874. Another meeting was held in 1884. See _Annals_, xix. , 1874, pp. 90, 217;xxix. , 1884, pp. 154, 237; _Volta Review_, xiv. , 1913, p. 394. In 1894was formed the Association to Promote Auricular Training of the Deaf, which was subsequently merged with the larger organization. 

[158] The Association has a board of fifteen directors, and an advisoryboard of twelve. 

[159] This was organized in 1897. Proceedings, p. 36. It is known asDepartment XVI, or the Department of Special Education. Both instructorsof the deaf and of the blind are represented, those interested in theeducation of the feeble-minded having also been included up to 1902. Inaddition to the three general organizations of educators of the deaf, there have been several local conferences, as of the principals ofschools in the Southern states and in New York, and of teachers in thestate of Michigan and of the city of New York. 

[160] Its first publication was by the instructors of the HartfordSchool. Publication was omitted in 1849, and from 1861 to 1868. 

[161] For other publications that have appeared in the interest of thedeaf, see "Periodicals Devoted to the Interests of the Deaf, " by theVolta Bureau, 1913. 

PART II

PROVISION FOR THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF

CHAPTER VIII

THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF PRIOR TO ITS INTRODUCTION INTO THE UNITEDSTATES

Among the ancient peoples generally the deaf and dumb, especially thoseso by birth, were deemed as of deficient mentality, and were accounted, intellectually, as little better than children, or, indeed, as idiots. Though treated, it seems, for the most part humanely, they were regardednot without some aversion; and their affliction was not infrequentlylooked upon as a visitation of the gods, some of the hardy races evendestroying their deaf offspring. For a long period there were scarcelyany serious attempts to give instruction to the deaf. 

Allusions to the deaf and their state with respect to education arefound in certain of the Greek and Latin writers, and occasionally inthose of other languages. Herodotus speaks of the deaf son of Cr[oe]sus, and Hippocrates has reference to the deaf as a class. Plato andAristotle also make mention of the deaf, the latter considering themincapable of education because of the absence of the sense of hearing. Among Latin authors we find an account by Pliny the Elder of a deaf manwho had learned painting. 

It is only after the fifteenth century that we have more or lessauthenticated accounts of the instruction of the deaf, and many of theseare hardly more than a passing reference here and there. It was, moreover, well after Europe had taken its present political appearancethat the modern attitude towards the deaf and their instruction began. Before this their education as a class was not thought of, and while nodoubt there have always been sporadic instances of the instruction ofthe deaf, it is only since the middle of the eighteenth century that thedeaf have come generally into the birthright of their education. 

Yet it is not so great a matter of wonder that the movements for theinstruction of the deaf took organized shape so late in the world'scivilization. Learning or schooling was in no sense popular till sometime after the passing away of the so-called dark ages. For long it wasrather the privilege of the rich and powerful. The great mass of thepeople were not deemed worthy of learning, and education itself in anygeneral application did not have a recognized standing in society. Afterthe Renaissance, however, had ushered in a new age, and when the desirefor learning was the master passion among many men in Southern andWestern Europe, it is natural to suppose that efforts should have morefrequently been made to instruct the deaf child; and after this time weare prepared to find an increasing number of instances of theinstruction of the deaf. This was all the more true when an air ofmystery was felt to surround these silent ones, and to bring the lightof the new learning to these afflicted creatures was considered wellworth the attempt. 

The earliest instance recorded of instruction given to the deaf in theEnglish language is that of the Venerable Bede about the year 691, whotells of a deaf person taught to speak by Bishop John of York, relatedas though it were a miracle. After many years we meet accounts of othercases. Rudolph Agricola (1443-1485) of Gröningen, Holland, and later aprofessor at Heidelberg, cites in his "_De Inventione Dialecta_" a deafman who could write. In Italy a little later we find certain deafchildren whose instruction is mentioned by Pietro de Castro; while inthe sixteenth century Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), the distinguishedphysician of Pavia, attempted to state the principles of the educationof the deaf, demonstrating the use of a written language for them, andadvocating the teaching of speech. He further invented a manualalphabet, which was one of the first of its kind. In 1616 GiovanniBonifaccio also wrote regarding the "art of signing" and speech for thedeaf. 

But it is to Spain that credit is to be given as being the first countryof Europe where there are recorded accounts of successful instruction ofthe deaf. In 1550, or perhaps earlier, Pedro Ponce de Leon of the Orderof St. Benedict taught, chiefly by oral methods, several deaf childrenin the convent of San Salvador de Oña. Great success must have attendedhis efforts, for in addition to the Spanish language and arithmetic, hispupils are reported to have mastered Latin, Greek and astrology. Aboutthis time there lived a deaf artist, known as _El Mudo_, and he had verylikely received instruction in some way. In 1620 Juan Pablo Bonet, whohad had several deaf pupils, instructing them largely in articulationmethods, published a treatise on the art of instructing the deaf, called"_Reduccion de las Letras y Arta para Enseñer a Hablar los Mudos_;" andhe was the inventor of a manual alphabet, in considerable part like thatused in America to-day. Sir Kinelm Digby of England, visiting Spainabout this time, saw Bonet's work and wrote an account of his pupils. 

In 1644 appeared in England "_Chirologia_, or the Natural Language ofthe Hand" by a physician, Dr. John Bulwer, who had perhaps also observedthe results in Spain. This was followed in 1648 by his more importantwork, "_Philocophus_, or the Deaf and Dumb Man's Friend, " mostlydescribing a kind of process in articulation and lip-reading. Bulwer'sfriend, John Wallis, a professor at Oxford, seems to have been the firstpractical teacher here, instructing two deaf persons by writing and inspeech, and showing them to the King. In 1653 his "_Tractatus deLoquela_" was published. Along the same line was the writing of Dr. William Holder on the "Elements of Speech, " published in 1669, in whichhe advocated articulation teaching. In 1670 there appeared a treatise byGeorge Sibscota on "The Deaf and Dumb Man's Discourse, " but this wasreally a translation from the writings of a German named Deusing. In1680 Dr. George Dalgarno of Scotland published his "_Didascalocophus_, the Deaf and Dumb Man's Tutor, " in which preference was given to the useof a written language and a manual alphabet, of one of which he washimself the inventor. In 1698 appeared "_Digiti Lingua_, " written "by aperson who had conversed no otherwise in above nine years. " Some half acentury later we find the name of Henry Baker, son-in-law of DanielDefoe, who gave instruction in speech. 

Other countries of Europe were hardly behind England in their interestin the deaf and their instruction. Spain, besides the names we havementioned, had notably Ramirez de Carion, himself a deaf man, who livednot long after Bonet. Italy had in particular Padre Lana Terzi, who in1670 published a work on articulation; and also Fabrizio d'Acquapendenteand Affinité, who in their writings threw out references to speech forthe deaf. In Holland there were Peter Montans, who about 1635 issuedseveral tracts on speech; Jan Baptista Van Helmont, who in 1667 wrote onspeech and an alphabet; and John Conrad Amman, formerly a Swissphysician, who in 1692 gave out his "_Surdus Loquens_, " which wasenlarged and republished in 1700 as "_Dissertatio de Loquela_. " The nameof Amman is especially notable, not only for his instruction in speechof several deaf children, but for his influence on later oral methods. In Switzerland we find at Basel in 1531, or perhaps a few years sooner, an account of a deaf person who was instructed in speech by[OE]colampadius, the Reformer and friend of Luther; at Geneva in 1604 ofa deaf child instructed by St. Francis de Sales; and also in Geneva in1685 of a deaf person who had probably received instruction. 

In Germany we have a regular succession of names of those who eitherattempted to instruct the deaf or who wrote of this instruction, some ofthese names being among the earliest of those in Europe who showed aninterest in the matter. In the year 1578 we meet the name of Pasch, aclergyman of Brandenburgh, who taught his daughter by means of pictures. In 1621 Rudolph Camerarius wrote a book on speech, and in 1642 GaspardSchott mentions a case of successful instruction. In 1701 or 1704 Kergerat Liegnitz in Silesia taught some pupils orally, having what seemed atemporary school. In 1718 Georges Raphel, who had taught his three deafdaughters, wrote a book explaining his process of instruction. Amongother names appearing earlier or later were those of Morhoff, Mallenkrot, Wild, Niederoff, Lichwitz, Shulze, Ettmuller, Arnoldi, Lasius, Heinicke, and Nicolai. Of all these much the most renowned isthat of Samuel Heinicke. In 1754 at Dresden he became interested in thedeaf, and a few years later started a school near Hamburg. In 1778, atthe instance of the state, he moved to Leipsic, his school thus beingthe first public school for the deaf to be established. He was also theauthor of several books on the education of the deaf. Heinicke wasinstrumental in bringing the oral method into favor, and in manyrespects, so far as its present use is concerned, may be said to be itsfather. He was in fact one of the greatest teachers of the deaf, and theinfluence of his work has been felt in no small measure in America. 

In France, too, there were great names, though they were late inappearing; Père Vanin, Rousset, Ernaud, de Fay, Pereire, Abbé de l'Épée, Abbé Deschamps, and others. [162] Of these Vanin, Pereire, Deschamps, andde l'Épée are the most notable. Vanin about 1743 instructed somechildren by means of pictures and a manual alphabet. Rodriguez Pereire, a Portuguese Jew, had several pupils at Bordeaux before the middle ofthe eighteenth century, and though his methods were kept secret for themost part, he appeared to have met considerable success, in 1749 givingan exhibition before the Academy of Sciences. Abbé Deschamps in 1779published at Orleans a work on the instruction of the deaf, largelyfavoring the oral method. It is to Charles Michel abbé de l'Épée, however, that is given the highest reverence of all the initial workersfor the deaf, being the founder of the first regular school, andreceiving nearly equal distinction for his impression on early methodsof instruction--this being especially true in respect to America, wherehis influence in the introduction of the sign language has been greaterthan any other man's. The abbé had become interested in two deaf orphansin Paris, whom he attempted to teach, and in 1755 established a schoolnear the city, conducting it at his own expense. This proved a success, and he decided to give his whole life to the instruction of the deaf. Hewrote several works on their education, the chief one being "_LaVeritable Manière d'Instruire les Sourds et Muets_, " published in 1784. The achievements of de l'Épée were soon far-famed, and the people weretaken with their novelty. Many honors were offered him, and his work wasbrought to the notice of the French Academy and approved. In 1791 hisschool was adopted by the state. The successor of abbé de l'Épée wasabbé Sicard, and the work continued to flourish in France. 

Not long after de l'Épée and Heinicke had started their schools inFrance and Germany respectively, Thomas Braidwood, in 1760, opened aschool in Edinburgh, Scotland. In 1784 a school was established in Rome, in 1788 in Madrid, and in 1801 in Genoa. In the early years of thenineteenth century other schools were started over Western Europe. Thusby the time that the work for the education of the deaf was to enterAmerica, in the establishment of the first school in the second decadeof the century, there were already in Europe a number of schools inexistence. [163]

FOOTNOTES:

[162] In 1751 Diderot published his "_Lettre sur les Sourds et Muets_, "in which there is reference to the education of the deaf. 

[163] For accounts of the early work for the education of the deaf, bothbefore and after it was taken up in the United states, the following maybe referred to: Thomas Arnold, "A Method of Teaching the Deaf and DumbSpeech, Lip-Reading and Language", 1881; "The Education of Deaf-Mutes", 1888; E. M. Gallaudet, "Life of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet", 1888; H. N. Dixon, "A Method of Teaching Deaf-Mutes to Speak, with a HistoricalIntroduction" (including a translation of Bonet's work), 1890; J. K. Love, "Deaf-Mutism", 1896; Henry Barnard, "A Tribute to Gallaudet", withother papers, 1852; Heman Humphrey, "Life and Labors of T. H. Gallaudet", 1857; H. W. Syle, "Retrospect of the Education of the Deaf", 1886; J. A. Seiss, "The Children of Silence", 1887; J. R. Burnet, "Talesof the Deaf and Dumb", 1835; E. J. Mann, "Deaf and Dumb", 1836; J. N. Williams, "A Silent People", 1883; W. R. Scott, "The Deaf and Dumb, their Education and Social Position", 1870; History of First School forDeaf-Mutes in America, 1883; Addresses delivered at the New YorkInstitution, 1847; H. P. Peet, Address at Laying of Corner Stone ofNorth Carolina Institution, 1848; Proceedings of Laying of Corner Stoneof Michigan Institution, 1856; Collins Stone, "Address on History andMethods of Deaf-Mute Instruction", 1869; Addresses Commemorative of theVirtues and Services of Abraham B. Hutton, 1870; _American Annals of theDeaf_ (especially early numbers, often giving accounts of individualschools as well as of the general work); _North American Review_, vii. , 1818, p. 127; xxxviii. , 1834, p. 307; lxxxvii. , 1858, p. 517; civ. , 1867, p. 512; _American Journal of Education_, (n. S. ) i. , 1830, p. 409;_American Annals of Education_, iv. , 1834, p. 53; _Literary andTheological Review_, ii. , 1835, p. 365; _American Biblical Repository_, viii. , 1842, p. 269; _De Bow's Review_, xvii. , 1854, p. 435; _NationalMagazine_, ix. , 1856, pp. 385, 487 (Sketches of Humane Institutions);_Scribner's Magazine_, xii. , 1892, p. 463; _Association Review_, ii. -v. , 1900-1904 ("Historical Notes concerning the Teaching of Speech to theDeaf"); Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf, i. , 1850, p. 99; v. , 1858, p. 275 (H. P. Peet, "Memoirs on the Originand Early History of the Art of the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb");iii. , 1853, p. 277; iv. , 1856, p. 17; ix. , 1878, p. 195; AmericanAssociation to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, v. , 1896, p. 27 (P. G. Gillet, "Some Notable Benefactors of the Deaf"); NationalAssociation of the Deaf, iii. , 1889, p. 21; National Conference ofCharities and Corrections, 1907, p. 512; _Californian_, iv. , 1881, p. 376; Iowa Bulletin of State Institutions, viii. , 1906, p. 175; xii. , 1910, p. 24; Transactions of Royal Historical Society, viii. , 1880;Encyclopedia Americana, 1883 (History of the Education of the Deaf inthe United States, given in _Annals_, xxxi. , 1886, p. 130); variousreports of the several schools for the deaf in America (as that of NewYork Institution, 1839, p. 8; 1843, p. 11; 1876, p. 48; American School, 1844, p. 25; 1867, p. 13; Pennsylvania Institution, 1843, p. 9; 1892, p. 64; Kentucky School, 1857, p. 8; 1867, p. 13; Michigan School, 1858, p. 40; Illinois School, 1868, p. 42; New York Institution for ImprovedInstruction, 1869, p. 26; Mississippi School, appendices, 1907, 1909, 1911); "Histories of American Schools for the Deaf", edited and with anintroduction by Dr. E. A. Fay, 1893 (containing accounts of individualschools, and a most valuable work). 

CHAPTER IX

HISTORY OF EDUCATION OF THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES

EARLY ATTEMPTS AT INSTRUCTION

The first instance of which we have record in America of an attempt toteach the deaf was in 1679[164] when a man named Philip Nelson ofRowley, Massachusetts, tried to instruct a deaf and dumb boy, IsaacKilbourn by name, in speech, though with what success we do notknow. [165] These, however, were the witchcraft days, and the work ofNelson seemed such an extraordinary thing that the ministers of thecommunity are said to have made an investigation, fearing that witchesmight be involved in the affair. The next instance of which we havemention occurred in Virginia a century later, when John Harrower, aschool-master of Fredericksburg, had in his school from 1773 to 1776 adeaf boy named John Edge, reference to whose instruction is made in hisdiary. [166]

The earliest effort for the establishment of a school for the deaf inAmerica of which we know was made almost contemporaneously with theopening of the nineteenth century, and at the time that such schoolswere being created over Europe. There lived at this time in Boston a mannamed Francis Green, who had a deaf son. This boy he sent to the schoolin Scotland which Braidwood had started; while he himself became muchinterested in the subject of the education of the deaf. In 1783 hepublished in England a work entitled "_Vox Oculis Subjecta_. " In 1803 hehad, with the help of some of the ministers, a census made of the deafin Massachusetts, when 75 were found, and it was estimated that therewere 500 in the United States. Green felt the need of a school, and inseveral of the publications of the time appeared his writings, in whichhe urged the creation of one. [167]

It was in 1810, however, and in the city of New York that the realbeginning of deaf-mute education in the United States was marked. Thiswas when John Stanford, a minister, found several deaf children in thecity almshouse and attempted to teach them. Though his efforts continuedbut a short time, it was these from which resulted the establishment afew years later of a school in the city, the New York Institution. [168]

In Virginia shortly afterwards a second school was started, which initself is to be set down as an important stage in the course of theearly attempts to create schools for the deaf in America. In 1812 therecame to the United States John Braidwood, a member of the family whichwas in control of the institution at Edinburgh, Scotland, in the hope ofestablishing a school. He began plans for one at Baltimore, but beforeit had gotten under headway, he was called to Virginia to undertake theinstruction of the deaf children of William Bolling, of GoochlandCounty. This private school continued, with seemingly satisfactoryresults in the progress of the pupils, for two and a half years. In1815 it was moved to Cobbs, Chesterfield County, [169] to be open to thepublic. The school now promised well, and there were already severalpupils. However, Braidwood was looking about for other opportunities, and had been in touch with several parties in regard to the employmentof his services. [170] In 1816 he went to New York, where he proposed tostart a school, and collected a few pupils, only to return to Virginiaagain after a few months. In 1817 he began operations anew, this time ata private classical school at Manchester under John Kilpatrick, aminister. In less than a year this too was abandoned by Braidwood, whosoon after met his death. Kilpatrick attempted to continue the schoolonly a year or two longer, possibly even taking a few pupils with himwhen he moved to Cumberland County in 1819; and so was brought to an endthe checkered career of this early school for the deaf in Virginia. [171]

Such were the beginnings of the instruction of the deaf in America. With the exception of these undertakings, barely touching the surface inthe number of children reached, the only means of education possible inthe land was in sending children to a school in Europe, which was donein the case of a few wealthy parents. For the great mass of the deaf, isolated and scattered though they were at the time, there was noinstruction to be had. 

But this period was now nearly passed. Attention in more than onequarter was being directed to the deaf and the possibilities of theireducation; and in the breasts of not a few men a feeling was astir thatinstruction was somehow to be brought to them. [172] The seed was alreadysown, and by the time the school in Virginia was broken up, others werebeginning to arise elsewhere. When the work was finally to be taken up, it was to be upon a solid foundation which should last with thelastingness of education. 

BEGINNING OF THE FIRST SCHOOLS

The seat of the first permanent school to be established in the UnitedStates for the education of the deaf was Hartford, Connecticut; and thename of the one man with which the beginning work will forever becoupled is that of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. America, however, was notto commence the work of itself: the spirit and the method had to bebrought from Europe. 

Early in the nineteenth century there lived at Hartford a young deafgirl, Alice Cogswell by name, the daughter of a physician, and in her agroup of men had become interested. An investigation of the number ofthe deaf had been made in 1812 by a body of clergymen, when 84 werefound, and it was estimated that there were 400 in New England, and2, 000 in the United States; and the question of a school had beenconsidered. [173] In 1815 the friends of Alice Cogswell decided toorganize a society for the purpose of providing means to instruct someof these, and to secure an instructor. To take up this work, attentionwas directed to Gallaudet, then a young theological student. He wasfixed upon as the man to go to Europe and acquaint himself with themethods there employed. Gallaudet responded at once to the appeal madeto him, and proceeded to prepare himself forthwith. 

The same year, 1815, saw Gallaudet start upon his errand, his expensesbeing defrayed by the society. [174] He first visited England, butfinding there a monopoly composed of the Braidwood and Watson families, he betook himself to France. In this country he met with a warmreception, and here he eagerly set upon his labors of study andinvestigation at the school which de l'Épée had established. He observedclosely, and then the following year turned his face towards America, equipped for the great work before him, and bringing with him one of thedeaf teachers from Paris named Laurent Clerc. 

On Gallaudet's return the second part of the undertaking for thecreation of a school was to be accomplished, namely, the securing offunds, which required half a year more. For this purpose Gallaudet and afew others set about soliciting contributions. New York, Philadelphia, Albany, New Haven, and other cities were visited, and the interest inthe new undertaking was shown by the response made. [175] By the time theschool was ready to open, over $12, 000 had been obtained, which was soonafter more than doubled. [176] The contributions came from varioussources, including individuals, societies and churches, and were fromnot a few states, and even foreign countries. A charter was granted thesociety in 1816 by the legislature of Connecticut; and $5, 000 wasappropriated for the school, [177] which was probably the firstappropriation of public money for education not in regular schools. [178]

On April 15, 1817, the new school threw open its doors, and thus wasestablished the first institution for the instruction of the deaf--infact, the first for any of the so-called "defective classes. " Itssuccess was assured from the start, and there were many applicants, coming from different parts of the country. The school had to dependmainly upon private contributions, and for its maintenance efforts hadto be continued to collect funds, pupils being taken for this purpose toseveral cities for exhibition, especially before church assemblies andthe legislative bodies of New England. [179] It was not long inappearing, however, that, as the school was really to be national inscope, the United States government might be appealed to for aid. Visitswere accordingly made to Washington in 1819, and the interest of certainof the members of Congress was secured. Among these was Henry Clay, whoshowed a particular regard for the new undertaking, and it was largelythrough his influence that Congress was prevailed upon to bestow uponthe school 23, 000 acres of the public land, from which in time $300, 000was realized. [180] It was the understanding, there being no census ofthe deaf at this time, that any state or individual might participate inthe benefit of this grant, and that the school was to be open on equalterms to all. [181]

Though the school was regarded as national in one sense, it was alsofelt to be particularly New England's from the share that these statestook in its development. Very soon after it had commenced operations alively interest had been manifested; and in 1825 a meeting was held atHartford of official representatives of all these states except RhodeIsland, to discuss the possibilities of co-operation in its work. [182]Hardly, indeed, had the school entered upon its labor when, withoutsolicitation, Massachusetts began sending its deaf children to it. Itwas followed in turn by the others, all the states of New England thuscoming to provide for their children here as at a common school--apolicy continued with all for many years. By this arrangement a certainamount from the state treasury was allowed for each pupil. The action ofMassachusetts was taken in 1819, of New Hampshire in 1821, of Vermontand Maine in 1825, of Connecticut in 1828, and of Rhode Island in 1842. Two other states, far removed from New England, also by speciallegislative grants provided for pupils in this school for a time. Thesewere Georgia and South Carolina, both beginning in 1834. [183] Inaddition, there were private pupils sent here from a number ofstates. [184]

The school at Hartford was now in full operation, with a nation-wideinterest upon it. [185] But scarcely had it received its first pupilwhen other schools began to be established, and indeed New York andPennsylvania are hardly to be considered behind Connecticut at all, schools in these states being in the course of formation when theHartford school was opened. From the concern now apparent in manysections, it was soon evident that the new work was to spread over theland, and that the education of the deaf had achieved for itself anestablished position. 

In New York, as we have seen, the Rev. John Stanford had found severaldeaf children in the almshouse of the city, and, moved by theircondition, had sought to teach them. Interest was felt by other men, andthe agitation for a school was furthered by letters from the Americanconsul at Bordeaux in 1816, one of which was written by a French teacherand addressed to the "Philanthropists of the United States. " A censuswas made of the deaf in the city, [186] meetings were held in theirbehalf, a notable one taking place at Tammany Hall, and private fundscollected. In 1817 a charter was secured from the legislature, and thefollowing year the school was opened. The city of New York displayed awarm interest in it, making a special appropriation at its beginning, and undertaking the support of a number of pupils for a time, besidesfurnishing quarters free of cost. In 1819 the state legislature, afteran exhibit of pupils, decided to assist, making an appropriation for thebenefit of the school, and soon afterward allowing a certain amount foreach pupil. In 1821 New Jersey began sending children to the school, action being taken in this state by a unanimous vote. 

Pennsylvania followed close upon Connecticut and New York. A committeehad been organized in Philadelphia in 1816 to secure contributions for aschool, and meetings had been held, though without immediate result. Late in the year 1819, or early in 1820, David Seixas, a Jew, findingseveral poor deaf-mute children to whom he gave shelter, made attemptsto teach them. In the latter year a society was formed by certaincitizens, after a meeting in the rooms of the American PhilosophicalSociety; and being pleased with the work of Seixas, it decided to adopthis school. The following year, after an exhibit of pupils, the schoolwas incorporated by the legislature, and granted a _per capita_appropriation of $160, while contributions from friends were numerous. In 1821, also, pupils were admitted from New Jersey, this stateproviding for them both at the New York and Philadelphia schools. In1827 Maryland, and in 1835 Delaware, authorized the sending of childrento the Pennsylvania Institution, exhibits of pupils having been madebefore the legislatures of these states. [187]

Kentucky in 1823 was the fourth state in the Union to establish aschool. In this case, however, action was taken directly by thelegislature, and the school has always been the property of the state. In 1826[188] Congress granted to it a township of land in Florida, onthe theory that this school would be the center for pupils from thewestern and southern states; and it was for some years the place ofeducation for many of the children from the southern states, [189] andalso for a number from western states. With the establishment of thisschool directly by the state begins a new policy in the provision forthe education of the deaf--the work no longer being entrusted to privateindividuals and societies. All the states that followed Kentucky in thecreation of schools, with the exception of Maryland and some of the NewEngland states, adopted this policy. 

Ohio came next in 1829, although an attempt had been made to establish aschool in Cincinnati as early as 1821. [190] Pupils were also receivedinto it from neighboring states. [191] In 1838 Virginia established ajoint school for the deaf and the blind, after exhibitions of pupils hadbeen given in the state. In Indiana a private school was started in1841, and three years later the state institution, action being taken bythe legislature without a single dissenting vote. In this state anotherstage is reached in the work of educating the deaf: education which hadhitherto been, by statute, free to the "indigent" only is in positiveterms made free to all. This was done in 1848, and the action has beenthus described:[192]

 The doors of all asylums built at public expense for mutes, for the blind, and for lunatics were thrown open to all, that their blessings, like the rain and dew of heaven, might freely descend on these children of misfortune throughout the state, without money and without price. 

Well might this paean break forth, for this is probably the broadestbenevolent legislation ever enacted up to this time. 

In Georgia a private school was opened in 1842, and in 1846 the stateschool was established, after a visit of pupils from the Hartfordschool. In 1845 a school was started in Tennessee, after an exhibit ofpupils from Kentucky. The same year in North Carolina, after an exhibitof pupils from Virginia, a school was opened for the deaf and the blind, though one had been projected as early as 1828. [193] In 1846 a schoolwas established in Illinois, the bill passing the legislature by aunanimous vote. To it came pupils from Missouri, Iowa and Wisconsin. In1849 a school was established in South Carolina. Thus by the middle ofthe nineteenth century, or thirty-two years after the founding of thefirst school in America, there were schools in a dozen states. In thenext quarter century schools were created in nineteen other states, andsince in nearly all the remainder. 

EARLY IDEAS CONCERNING THE SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF

It was but natural that for some years the providing of schools for theeducation of the deaf should be looked upon with wonder. To many thevery thought of their instruction seemed strange. Curious notions hadbeen held as to the deaf-mute's mind, and it was not certain how far itwas capable of instruction. 

By some the idea of the education of the deaf was received with scarcelyconcealed skepticism, and despite the enthusiasm of the promoters anddespite the cordial interest manifested in many quarters, there were nota few doubters. Efforts to educate the deaf were even declared quixoticand absurd. When the state of Illinois was erecting a building to beused as a school, it was by some called "the state's folly. "[194] Thelegislatures themselves occasionally had misgivings, and now and then anappropriation was voted for a school more in hope than otherwise. [195]The work was thus with many often misunderstood, and a few of theschools did not have altogether easy sailing. 

But when it was found that the deaf could be, and were being, educated, not only were all doubts dispelled, but the astonishment almost goesbeyond bounds, and even passes into a rapture of thanksgiving. Visitors, in some cases, flocked to the places where these wonderful things weretranspiring. They came to convince themselves, and stood hushed inadmiration at the spectacle before them. 

The accounts of a number of the early schools attest the greeting givento the new work. The New York Institution in its first report[196]speaks of the "numerous visitors" and their "expressions of mingledsurprise and delight. " In the new Pennsylvania Institution interest wasmarkedly aroused. By _Poulson's American Daily Advocate_ of Philadelphiait was stated that 1, 600 people crowded into a church to witness anexamination of pupils, and by the _Columbian Observer_ it was declaredthat this scene "was impressive beyond description, " and that "theexercises excited wonder mingled with the acutest sensations ofcompassion for these isolated beings. "[197] An early report of theTennessee School[198] speaks of the interest "evinced by the greatnumbers of persons" who visited the school, which was shown "by thesympathy warmly expressed with the great affliction" of the pupils, andthe "surprise at the attainments made by them. "

Indeed, the new work is more than once referred to in the accounts ofthe period as a miracle. The age of miracles, we are told, was notpast. [199] When a private school was opened in Kansas, the advertisementran: "Behold the educational miracle of the nineteenth century. The deafhear, the dumb speak, the blind see. "[200] The wonders of education hadbecome all the more marked and expectations were aroused to a highpitch, when it was seen about this time that the blind and other classesas well were being instructed. Great things were believed to be in storefor the human race. 

With the schools for the deaf there was now general approbation andsupport. Doubters were silenced, and the promoters took heart. Soon thenew institutions had won for themselves a place in the intelligent andaffectionate regard of all; and to those instrumental in their creationthe people universally "pledged their gratitude. "

AIMS OF THE FOUNDERS

Though the first schools for the deaf in the United States were foundedto a considerable extent with the idea of charity or benevolencepresent, yet this was not so much the uppermost purpose as to provideinstruction for them; or rather, it may be said that the benevolenceitself was prompted by the desire to see the deaf led from the darknessof ignorance to the light of education. It is true that many of thepupils were recognized as entitled to material assistance as well asinstruction. Some of the schools were chartered as benevolentinstitutions, while several even avowed themselves as charitableaffairs. [201] It is also true that the promoters were in part concernedwith deaf children found in poverty, these being likely to engage not alittle attention. It was desired to furnish homes for a number withoutcharge; and early accounts and statutes speak of the "care, " "aid, ""maintenance" or "support"[202] of these children. But it is none theless true that the great purpose in establishing institutions waseducational, and the instruction of the children was the primary andchief thing guiding the hands of the men who created the schools. In theprospectuses of some of the schools any object is disclaimed other thanthat of education. In a circular describing the proposed school inKansas were the words: "This is not an asylum, but a school for theeducation of the deaf. "[203] Homes, or institutions, were providedlargely for the reason that this plan appeared the only practicablemeans of reaching a considerable number of pupils. 

With the early workers, then, the purpose was to give the children aneducation. But this was not all. In their vision, a far greater openingpresented itself. Heretofore the deaf had been outcasts from society, had no place among civilized beings, and were a dead weight in thecommunity. Now all was to be changed. Eyes saw a glorioustransformation: the deaf were to be restored to society, and educationwas the magic by which it was to be done. In full measure were thefounders thrilled with this prospect; and to reclaim the deaf from theircondition was the great resolve. 

Many of the early reports, charters and organic acts express such apurpose, and speak of the "lonely and cheerless condition" of the deaf, and the hope to "restore them to the ranks of their species. " In thepreamble of an "Address to the Inhabitants of Pennsylvania, " prepared bythe society to establish the school in this state, [204] the deaf aresaid to be in "entire and invincible separation from the vast stores ofknowledge which human talent has accumulated--ignorant of the truths ofRevelation, her glorious assurances and unspeakable consolations, " allbeing "among the bitter ingredients which fill up the vast measure ofthe affliction to the deaf and dumb;" and that "among the variousefforts of philanthropy and learning to enlarge the circle of humanhappiness and knowledge, none should perhaps rank higher than thosewhich have been directed to the discovery and application of means forthe instruction of the deaf and dumb. "

In language glowing and impassioned the condition of the deaf withouteducation is described. Almost universally they are thought of asabiding in impenetrable silence and deep darkness. In an addressdelivered before the New York Forum in behalf of the New YorkInstitution[205] in its early days, it is asserted that the deaf dwellin "silence, solitude and darkness, " and in the second report of thisschool[206] they are declared to be "wrapt in impenetrable gloom ofsilence, sorrow and despair. " In an Ohio report[207] they are said to bein "intellectual and moral midnight;" and in a Michigan report[208] tobe "groping in thick darkness. " In a Louisiana report[209] they arecalled "sorrow-stricken children of silence;" and in a Kentuckyreport[210] their lives are described as "dark, dreary and comfortless. "The _Southern Literary Messenger_[211] of Richmond, Virginia, characterizes their existence as "intellectual night. " The New York_Commercial Advertiser_[212] in the year the first school was openedaffirms that "their intellectual faculties . .. Are . .. Locked in thedarkness of night and shrouded in silence. " In an address deliveredshortly after the opening of the Tennessee School[213] they are referredto as "entombed in a prison. " The _Albany Argus_ and _Daily CityGazette_[214] points to the deaf man as "abandoned to his hard fate, towander in darkness, the pitiable object of dismal despair. " In anaddress delivered in the Capitol in Washington[215] the deaf are said tobe "doomed to wear out their lives in intellectual darkness. "

The results of education were to be great beyond measurement, and thepassing of the deaf from ignorance to education is likened even to theglories of the Resurrection. A Committee of Congress[216] inrecommending the granting of land to the Kentucky School speaks ofeducation as "the only means of redeeming this unfortunate portion ofour species from the ignorance and stupidity to which they wouldotherwise be consigned by the partial hand of nature, and, indeed; oftransferring them from a state of almost mental blindness to that ofintellectual and accountable beings. " The New York _Statesman_[217]speaks of the effects in "improving the moral principle, which is torpidand almost obliterated, and opening the way to moral and religiousinstruction and knowledge of the Deity which is almost void. " An earlyreport of the American School[218] tells of the transition of their"imprisoned minds which have too long been enveloped in the profoundestshade of intellectual and moral darkness to the cleansing and purifyinglight of Divine Truth. " An Ohio report[219] states that they "have comeforth into the light of truth, that truth that teaches them that theypossess a rational and immortal spirit. " In the address in behalf of theNew York Institution before noted, [220] it is said of the deaf that the"powers of torpid and dormant intellects are resurrected from an eternalnight of silence. " The first report of the Minnesota School[221] refersto the deaf as "liberated from the winding sheets of silence andignorance, " and tells how "their souls vibrate with such joy as Lazarusfelt when he stepped forth from the gloom of the grave. "

In the first report of the Indiana School[222] the state of the deafwithout education is thus contrasted with that of the deaf witheducation:

 Indeed, the difference between the uneducated and the educated mute is almost incredible. The former "winds his weary way" through life in ignorance and obscurity, often an object of charity, and almost a burden to himself; but the latter, gladdened by the genial rays of knowledge and fitted for the discharge of duty, becomes a blessing to his friends and to society, acts well his part as a member of the great human family, enjoys the present, and looks forward to the future with cheerfulness and hope. 

The charter of the Pennsylvania Institution refers to the desire ofcertain citizens "to restore the deaf and dumb to the ranks of theirspecies;" and the preamble of the statutes creating schools in Kentuckyand other states contains similar language. The purpose of the Illinoisschool is given in the organic act, the language of that of Nebraska andother states being almost identical:

 To promote by all proper and feasible means the mental, moral and physical culture of that portion of the community, who by the mysterious dispensations of Providence, have been born, or by disease have become deaf, and of course dumb, by a judicious and well adapted course of education, to reclaim them from their lonely and cheerless condition, to restore them to the ranks of their species, and to fit them to discharge the social and domestic duties of life. 

The object of the schools in Wisconsin, South Dakota, and other statesis declared to be:

 To afford the deaf and dumb of the state, so far as possible, an enlightened and practical education, that may aid them to obtain the means of instruction, discharge the duties of citizenship, and secure all the happiness they are capable of obtaining. 

The early educators of the deaf felt themselves that they were indeedcarrying the light to shine in a dark place. In the language of one ofthe foremost of them:[223]

 Then the great triumph of science and benevolence over one of the most terrible of human calamities will be complete, and the deaf and dumb, objects of interest, but hardly of compassion, will stand forth among their kindred who hear, heirs of all the hopes, the privileges and the lofty aspirations of their race. 

EXTENSION OF THE MEANS OF INSTRUCTION OVER THE COUNTRY

Interest in the education of the deaf had thus become general, publicconcern was awakened, and movements were early on foot in not a fewstates to start schools. The enthusiasm aroused by the success of thefirst schools only increased the hopes that others would be provided toreach the deaf children in all the states. A writer in the _NorthAmerican Review_ in 1834[224] declared that there were "no doubts thatthe wants of the deaf and dumb will soon be supplied, and that thepublic beneficence already extended to a portion will, before the lapseof many years, be extended to all. "

Nor were these hopes to be shattered, for the states followed each otherin rapid succession in providing means for the instruction of their deafyouth. Indeed, when we consider how early some of the newly settledstates began to devote attention to the education of the deaf--a workthat was undertaken in Europe only after the middle of the eighteenthcentury--we are persuaded that it speaks no less for the regard for anddevotion to education implanted in the breasts of the American people, than for the bigness and benevolence of their hearts. The credit remainsjust as deep, even though it has ever been the mission and spirit ofAmerica to bring education to the door of every one of its children, andthough what it has done for the deaf is but a part of this greatprinciple. 

The early workers, despite the preliminary journeys to Europe, werelargely pioneers, and this country owes an immeasurable debt to thefounders and directors of the first schools. Many of them were ministersof the Gospel, and all of them were men of high ideals. Possibly therehas never been a movement undertaken for the good of humanity that hasdrawn to it a more capable or earnest band of men. These early workerswere possessed of a determination, an ardor, a resourcefulness, combinedwith scholarship and understanding of no common order, that would havegraced any human cause. They were truly of those in America that haveblazed trails, and to them belonged those elements of character that area pride to any people. [225]

The first schools were created by societies of private citizens, fundsbeing contributed from "membership fees" in the societies, fromsubscriptions and from other private donations. [226] To the aid of theseschools the state later came with appropriations; but while an oversightand general control were assumed by it, the schools were left asprivate corporations. With the establishment, however, of the KentuckySchool in 1823, a second stage is reached in the extension of the newwork, the state now undertaking the task itself and providing theschools at its own initiative and expense. At first admission into theschools was restricted to a certain number of pupils, often based uponsome political division of the state, as a senatorial district inTennessee, or a judicial in Ohio. When such limitations were swept away, we have the third stage in the provision for the education of the deaf. The fourth and last stage--though not necessarily in this order in anyone particular state, and not in every case formally accomplished--isattained when in Indiana all charges are removed, and education is madefree to all. [227] In the schools created in later times all these stepswere usually merged into one: limitations of any kind were mostlyomitted, and the schools were in general thrown open to all from thebeginning. 

Thus is reached the culminative point in the course of the provision forthe education of the deaf in America. No longer was private benevolenceto inaugurate and carry on the work, but the state was coming to see itsresponsibility in part, finally to realize its full duty in makingeducation free to all its deaf population, just as it was free to therest of its citizens. [228]

In many instances, before action by the state, instruction of a smallcollection of deaf children was taken up by a group of citizens;[229]but hardly had this been done when as a rule the state proved itselfready and willing to move in and shoulder the responsibility. Theseprivate schools were thus often the nuclei of the state institutions, atfirst aided to an extent, and then taken over. In fact, the privateschools were not infrequently started more or less as experimentalaffairs, but with the expectation that the state would speedily come totheir help. "The idea of the founders seemed to be to give barely enoughto keep the school going, and to depend upon getting support of asubstantial character in the course of time. "[230]

In some cases there were exhibitions of pupils, either from the schoolwhich was hoped to be aided, or from an already established school inanother state. These were designed to awaken interest in the public, andespecially among the legislators, and to quicken the desired action. Inmore than one instance the school was established at or near the statecapital to show the legislatures what could be done and to influencetheir proceedings. Not infrequently memorials or petitions, in somecases containing a great number of names, were presented to thelegislatures, praying for the establishment of the schools. Sometimes ifdoubt as to the wisdom of the proposed course seemed to delay matters, apoint was to be gained in the dispatch as a preliminary procedure of aspecial committee or agent to some existing school in another state, toexamine and report upon its work, this report being, as was expected, nearly always highly favorable. [231]

But appeals to these bodies, whatever their nature, were rarely turnedaway, and usually secured prompt response. When action was finally to beobtained, the measure relating to the deaf was passed with fewdissenting votes, sometimes with none at all. So eager had therepresentatives of the people now become, that, if it was not deemedpracticable at once to create a state institution, haste was made toprovide for the children in a school in another state till one withintheir own borders could be established. In some cases steps were takento this end by the legislative assemblies of territories beforestatehood had been bestowed upon them. [232]

At the same time not to be forgotten, in the narration of the extensionof the means of education to the deaf of the country, is the real debtto private action. It was private initiative that often brought theschools into being, and it was private solicitude that often won theirfinal endorsement and adoption by the state. In not a few places therewere citizens found who were willing to give of their substance toforward the new work. [233] For some of the schools money was not onlysubscribed, but it came also from the proceeds of fairs and concerts, and for a few also from lectures, debates, exhibits of pictures, andsimilar affairs; while exhibitions of the pupils themselves from theschools seldom failed to draw a generous offering. [234] Indeed, manywere glad of the opportunity to lend a hand, and contributions weretendered not only by various individuals, but also by differentsocieties and organizations[235]--churches probably among the latterproving the most ready givers, with aid, in addition, at time fromnewspapers, and now and then from a school or college. In some casesfunds were collected by citizens with which to purchase a site, andsometimes the land required was given by the cities themselves. Indirectaid was extended as well of not a few kinds; and in the early schoolsthere was seldom great difficulty in securing reduced transportation onrailroads and steamboats. [236]

However, except in a few instances, private assistance in the aggregatedid not prove great: as a rule in most schools it was limited, usuallysufficing only to tide them over their nascent stage, and in large partceasing upon their full establishment. From then on the maintenance wasassumed practically entirely as a public charge, the legislatures of theseveral states undertaking themselves to provide for the schools. In afew cases, however, there was public aid of another sort. In severalschools there were allowances for a longer or shorter period frommunicipal funds, as in Maryland, Pennsylvania and New York, and fromcounty, as in North Carolina and Utah. [237] But much the most importantassistance of this character came from the national government; andwhile only a few schools were favored by its action, the benefactions tothose were hardly less than munificent. For the benefit of theConnecticut and Kentucky schools early in their careers Congress grantedgreat areas of the public domain; and later, on the admission of half adozen or so states in the West into the Union, set apart extensivetracts for the schools to be established in them. [238]

When the school for the deaf had been formally recognized by the state, its first act of assistance as a rule was in the form of _per capita_allowances for the pupils, with only occasionally a specificappropriation. These allowances were in the beginning small, but in timewere gradually increased. It was usually some years before the policywas adopted of making regular appropriations. In a few cases, as inIndiana and Illinois, when it was decided to create a state institution, the first proceedings were, in lieu of a direct appropriation, thelevying of a small mill tax upon the assessed property of the state. InNew York benefit was allowed from the fines or licenses on lotteries, and in Ohio from the receipts of a tax on auctions in one of thecounties of the state. In a few cases the schools were even locatedwhere there appeared the greatest financial inducement, [239] as with therequirement that a certain number of acres of land should be donated forthe school. [240]

For the organization of the new schools a small body of citizens wasappointed, often the original promoters of the undertaking, to act astrustees, and to them was confided its direction, with the support andgeneral oversight of the state back of them. [241] Now and then thetrustees of an existing educational or other institution were givencharge as a temporary arrangement. [242]

In the material projection of the schools, little was to be expected atthe beginning. With the meagre resources at their disposal, thedirectors had small choice in what was to be provided. In not a fewcases the schools started out under conditions far from auspicious, andin some the circumstances in connection with their origin were quitediscouraging. [243] The quarters secured for the schools were nearlyalways of unpretentious, and sometimes of humble, type. Many began in asingle rented room, and a few in a church building lent for the purpose. It was only in the course of the years, as the communities grew inpopulation and wealth, that the establishments for the deaf assumedappearances in keeping with their character. 

The schools for the deaf were now in being, and were ready for thereception of their pupils. But what of these pupils, and where werethey? Were they found at the doors of the new institutions, clamoringfor admission? The situation was hardly this. In point of fact, innearly every case the schools were ahead of the pupils. Though inpractically every community where a school was created, there were agreater or less number of children in need of an education, thesechildren, or rather their parents, were slow in availing themselves ofthe privilege. It was thus that the schools when established had towait, as it were, for the coming of their pupils, and indeed, in not afew instances, to go out after them. 

On the opening of the schools, none was found to have a large number ofpupils, and in most there were only a handful, as three, four orfive. [244] It was discovered that it was a far from easy task to get thechildren in. [245] The parents were in no small measure ignorantthemselves, and the real value of the school was not always readilyunderstood. Besides, in many sections the country was new, the roadsbad, and the facilities for travel scant. 

Oftentimes in the course of the founding of the schools, before anydirect act was attempted, a census was taken of the deaf of the state. It was also frequently made the duty of certain local officers as countyclerks, assessors, etc. , to register and report prospective pupils. Bymany of the schools circulars were distributed to postmasters, tax-collectors, ministers, school-teachers and others to enlist theirhelp in reaching deaf children;[246] and by certain of the schools thenewspapers were even availed of to carry their advertisements. Sometimesspecial agents were sent out to scour the state and gather in pupils. 

In many of the schools at the same time the terms of admission werecarefully prescribed, [247] and in some, especially the older ones, theseterms were often published. Notices of vacancies were also in a fewcases put in the newspapers, while in one or two instances, as inMassachusetts, it was provided that lots should be drawn when it wasfound that the number of applicants exceeded the number allowed. In alarge portion of the schools at first the pupils were individuallycommitted, or were "appointed, " as it was called. [248] It was usuallysome years before the greater part of such formalities ceased. Chargeswere also occasionally made at the beginning, [249] later to be reducedand in time to be abolished. [250]

In most of the schools in their first days the period of attendanceallowed to the pupils was very short, often being three or four years, and sometimes only two. Usually, however, after a time one or two yearswere added to the number permitted, which procedure was repeated aftercertain intervals, and the length of residence was thus graduallyincreased. In few of the schools, moreover, was an early age heldessential; and, indeed, in a considerable number pupils were notadmitted at an early age, the limit not infrequently being ten ortwelve. [251] The upper limit was high as well, and in some cases pupilsmight enter up to thirty. These age limitations were also in turnlowered in the course of time. Thus eventually we find the ages ofattendance as well as the general rules and regulations of admissionconforming more and more to those of the regular schools. 

The various schools that have been created for the deaf have been forthe most part boarding institutions, in which the pupils have livedduring the school year. But beginning in 1869, and increasing rapidlysince 1890, a system of day schools has been brought into being, more onthe order of the regular common schools, and more distinctly an integralpart of the state's educational economy. Such schools, now over threescore in number, have been established in fourteen states, and belongespecially to large cities. They may be regarded in many respects asdenoting a new departure in the educational treatment of the deaf, andas marking the latest development in the course of the instruction ofthe deaf in the country. 

In addition, there have been created a class of schools, numbering somescore at present, which are of denominational or private character, andare not affected by state control. Finally, there has been establishedby the United States government a national college for the deaf of allthe country--which may be called the crowning feature in the provisionfor the education of the deaf in America. 

For the great number of the deaf--over five-sixths of the total--theinstitutional schools remain the one means of instruction. They havebeen created in all but a few of the states, and in those without themthe children are sent to a school in a neighboring state. In some of themore populous states two or more schools have been established. Theseschools are as a rule supported entirely from the public treasury, andare controlled by the legislatures, the actual administration beingdelegated to boards of trustees or other bodies. In half the states aregard of an enduring kind has been manifested for the schools in thatprovision for them has been included in the constitutions, and thesestates are thus committed to their maintenance. 

In the schools themselves not only is education presented in the usualsense, but in practically all industrial training has also been providedto no mean extent, and constitutes a prominent feature of the work. 

We have now traced the origin and development of the schools for thedeaf in the United States. The present organization and arrangements areto be considered in the following chapters. We have found that the dutyof the education of the deaf has been recognized in all the states ofthe Union; that to-day everywhere in America provision has been made forthe instruction of the deaf; and that to all the deaf children of theland the doors of education are open wide. [252]

FOOTNOTES:

[164] There is, however, a case reported before this of a deaf personwho had received instruction, though hardly in America. This was a womanwho was blind as well as deaf, and who lived at Ipswich, Massachusetts, in 1637. She had come from England; but whether or not she had beentaught before the coming on of her affliction, we are left in ignorance. All that we are sure of is that communication could be had with her. SeeJohn Winthrop, "History of New England", ed. 1853, i. , p. 281; _Annals_, xlv. , 1900, p. 91. 

[165] _Association Review_, ii. , 1900, p. 34 ("Historical Notesconcerning the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf"). No little debt is owedto Dr. Alexander Graham Bell for his researches into the early attemptsat instruction in America. 

[166] _American Historical Review_, vi. , 1900, pp. 65, 81, 82, 95. Seealso _Association Review_, ii. , 1900, p. 527. 

[167] See A. G. Bell, "A Philanthropist of the Last Century Identifiedas a Boston Man", 1900; _North American Review_, civ. , 1867, p. 512;_Annals_, i. , 1848, p. 189; ix. , 1857, p. 169; xii. , 1860, p. 258;xiii. , 1861, p. 1; _Association Review_, ii. , 1900, pp. 42, 119. In someof these are given letters of Green appearing in the _New EnglandPalladium_ and _Columbian Centinel_, of Boston, and the _MedicalRepository and Review of American Publications on Medicine, Surgery andthe Auxiliary Branches of Science_, of New York. Green also published atranslation of de l'Épée's main work and extracts from his otherwritings. A review of "_Vox Oculis Subjecta_" appeared in the_Gentleman's Magazine_, Sept. , 1783, and in the _Boston Magazine_, Dec. , 1784, Jan. , 1785. 

[168] Report of New York Institution, 1843, p. 17; _Annals_, ix. , 1857, p. 168. 

[169] At this time the United States and England were at war, andBraidwood's adventure received official notice in a permit from theCommissary General of Prisoners to the Marshal of Virginia. 

[170] Braidwood was in communication with the promoters of the schoolsnow being organized in Hartford and New York. 

[171] On these schools, see History of Virginia School, 1893, p. 3;Report, 1853, p. 25; Report of New York Institution, 1856, p. 17;_Annals_, ix. , 1857, p. 170; xxi. , 1876, p. 130; _Association Review_, ii. , 1900, pp. 257, 385, 489; v. , 1903, p. 400. In the last are givenadvertisements and notices concerning the school from the Richmond_Enquirer_, the Petersburg _Republican_, and _Niles' Weekly Register_, of Baltimore. 

[172] Among those who had given the matter thought was Dr. WilliamThornton of Philadelphia, who in 1793 published "Cadmus: a Treatise onthe Elements of Written Language", there being an appendix on "A Mode ofTeaching the Deaf, or Surd, and Consequently Dumb, to Speak". Transactions of American Philosophical Society, iii. , p. 262, as citedin _Association Review_, ii. , 1900, p. 113. See also _ibid. _, v. , 1903, p. 406; _Annals_, i. , 1848, p. 190. He was the first writer in Americaupon the education of the deaf. 

[173] By some at this time there were not believed to be a sufficientnumber of the deaf to justify a school, and it was due to this mainlythat the investigation was made. 

[174] Funds to the amount of $2, 278 were subscribed before the departureof Gallaudet. _Association Review_, iii. , 1901, p. 329. 

[175] It is said that Stephen Girard declined to contribute becausePhiladelphia was not chosen as the site of the school. Tribute toGallaudet, p. 114. 

[176] _Ibid. _, p. 155. 

[177] This grant seems to have been used later for the benefit ofConnecticut pupils. 

[178] This, however, was not the first appropriation to a benevolentinstitution. The colony of Pennsylvania in 1751 had voted anappropriation for certain of its insane in a hospital to be opened thefollowing year, while New York in 1806 granted $15, 000 for the care ofits insane in a hospital. Virginia established its insane asylum atWilliamsburg in 1773. 

[179] See Laws of Maine, 1829, p. 24. 

[180] _Annals_, iv. , 1851, p. 63; _National Magazine_, ix. , 1856, p. 489. 

[181] Tribute to Gallaudet, p. 136. This was also expressed in the_Missionary Herald_, Sept. , 1826, quoted in _American Journal ofEducation_, i. , 1826, p. 631. At the same time caution was advised as tothe result, as the benefit was to depend upon the sale of the land. 

[182] Report of American School, 1825, p. 5; 1836, p. 22. 

[183] In 1821 steps were taken to establish a school in South Carolina. A census of the deaf children in the state was made, 29 being found. Theschool here, however, was not started till some years later. See Reportof South Carolina School, 1904, p. 7. In neither the case of this statenor that of Georgia was the number of pupils annually sent to Hartfordlarge, ranging from 2 to 8 in each. See Report of American School, 1835, p. 9; Georgia School, 1874, p. 11; _American Annals of Education_, v. , 1835, p. 93. A joint school for the south-eastern states was alsocontemplated at this time. 

[184] There were several pupils here supported by the United Statesgovernment, who were the children of deceased veterans, the first comingfrom Maryland in 1819. History of Maryland School, 1893, p. 11. 

[185] Gallaudet remained at the head of the American Asylum, as it wasthen called, till 1828, when he resigned. He was engaged thereafter invarious philanthropic activities, and was invited to lead in the workfor the education of the blind, towards which attention was now beingdirected. Notwithstanding the impairment of his health, his differentlabors were continued, not the least of which was his office as chaplainof the Connecticut Asylum for the Insane. To Thomas Hopkins GallaudetAmerica owes a rare debt. Without him the work for the deaf would havebeen taken up eventually by other hands, but he brought to his task adisregard for obstacles, a splendid idealism, a fine conception of duty, a complete forgetfulness of self, a singular beauty of character, and agreat human love that could have existed in but few other men. 

[186] There were 66 found in a very short time. 

[187] Volumes iii. And iv. Of the _Association Review_ (1901 and 1902)contain most interesting accounts of these first schools, with extractsfrom early reports, letters of Dr. Cogswell, Gallaudet and others;extracts from the Hartford _Courant_ and the _Connecticut Mirror_, bothurging the importance of the school established at Hartford and the needof contributions, and the latter (in the issue of March 24, 1817) givingthe conditions and terms of admission; also extracts from other papers, as the Albany _Daily Advertiser_, the New York _Commercial Advertiser_, the _General Aurora Advertiser_, _Poulson's American Daily Advocate_, the _Christian Observer_, the _Freeman's Journal and ColumbianChronicle_, of Philadelphia, and _Niles' Weekly Register_, of Baltimore. See also E. M. Gallaudet, "Life of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. "

[188] Pub. Stat. , ch. 24. 

[189] Pupils were in time received here from all the Southern states. History, 1893, p. 5. 

[190] This was to be called "The Western Asylum for the Education of theDeaf and Dumb". An association was formed, and the legislature was askedto incorporate the school. In 1822 a census was taken for all the stateexcept two counties, when 428 deaf persons were found. The school wasnot established on the ground that it was too far removed from thecenter of the state. See _Annals_, v. , 1853, p. 221; xxv. , 1880, p. 30;Report of Ohio School, 1876, p. 30. 

[191] A school under Roman Catholic auspices was established near St. Louis in 1837. 

[192] Report of Indiana School, 1851, p. 26. See also _Annals_, vi. , 1854, p. 150. This honor is also to be shared in by the state of Ohio. In 1844, or four years before the action of Indiana, the lawsprohibiting the trustees from receiving more than a certain number ofindigent pupils in one year at the expense of the state were repealed, and the trustees were authorized to admit suitable pupils, as they mightdeem necessary and proper. This probably had the effect of allowing allpupils free attendance, though it remained with the trustees to decide. The formal removal of limitations respecting indigent pupils did nottake place till 1854. 

[193] A society was formed for the purpose, a charter secured from thelegislature, and Congress petitioned for land. _Annals_, xiii. , 1868, p. 233. 

[194] History, 1893, p. 9. 

[195] In Maryland, for instance, we find an early appropriation forthose "teachable". The _American Journal of Education_ tells of thewonder on the part of the legislators of Massachusetts when a class ofdeaf-mutes was exhibited in their presence, iv. , 1829, p. 78. 

[196] P. 5. 

[197] See Sketch of Origin and Progress of the Institution for the Deafand Dumb in Pennsylvania, 1821. 

[198] Report, 1867, p. 12. 

[199] See _Annals_, iii. , 1851, p. 123, quoting from the _BostonCongregationalist_. 

[200] History, 1893, p. 3. 

[201] See Report of American School, 1823, p. 5; 1824, p. 10; 1840, pp. 5, 24; New York Institution, 1829, p. 17; Pennsylvania Institution, 1839, p. 6; Illinois School, 1856, p. 10; Report of Select Committee toVisit Pennsylvania Institution, 1838, p. 3. 

[202] It is interesting to note that of the first four institutionsincorporated in New York, the purposes are thus respectively given: "toafford the necessary means of instruction to the deaf and dumb, and alsoprovide for the support and maintenance of those whose parents areunable"; "to aid and instruct the deaf and dumb"; "to instruct andsupport"; and "to receive, care for, support and educate". 

[203] History, 1893, p. 4. See also _Annals_, vi. , 1853, p. 234. 

[204] Account of Origin and Progress of the Pennsylvania Institution, 1821, pp. 4, 7. See also "Sketch of Origin and Progress, " etc. , 1821, p. 4; Report of Pennsylvania Institution, 1875, p. 22. 

[205] By Silvanus Miller, 1819, p. 15. 

[206] 1819, p. 31 (reprint of 1894). 

[207] 1839, p. 5. 

[208] 1862, p. 5. 

[209] 1853, p. 20. 

[210] 1848, p. 3. 

[211] i. , 1835, p. 136. 

[212] Jan. , 18, 1817. Quoted in _Association Review_, iii. , 1901, p. 434. 

[213] Address at Proceedings of Laying of Corner Stone, 1848, p. 13. 

[214] March 1, 1827. Quoted in Report of New York Institution, 1827, p. 19. 

[215] By Lewis Weld, 1828, p. 3. 

[216] Report of Select Committee of 18th Congress, 1st sess. , upon aMemorial to Give Land, etc. , 1824, p. 12. 

[217] Quoted in _American Journal of Education_, i. , 1826, p. 432. 

[218] 1827, p. 10. 

[219] 1834, p. 5. 

[220] Address of Silvanus Miller, _loc. Cit. _

[221] 1863, p. 17. 

[222] Quoted in History, 1893, p. 6. For other accounts of the conditionof the deaf without education and the blessings to be obtained from it, see Report of Kentucky School, 1824, p. 10; Ohio School, 1842, p. 13;Kansas School, 1870, p. 12; History of Mississippi School, 1893, p. 3;_Southwestern School Journal_ (Tennessee), i. , 1848, p. 49; J. H. Tyler, "Duty and Advantages of the Education of the Deaf", etc. , 1843; Sermonby John Summerfield, in behalf of the New York Institution, 1822;Discourse of Samuel L. Mitchell, Pronounced at Request of Society forInstruction of the Deaf and Dumb, New York, 1818; Addresses of Joseph H. Lane and Ebenezer Demorest, before Legislature of Indiana, 1851. 

[223] Harvey Prindle Peet, at first Convention of American Instructors, 1850, p. 141. See also _Annals_, iii. , 1850, p. 160. 

[224] xxxviii. , p. 357. 

[225] When the accounts of brave endeavor, and the rolls of thoseinflamed for human service, are finally made up, high indeed will standthe names of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, Lewis Weld, John A. Jacobs, Abraham B. Hutton, Harvey P. Peet, Collins Stone, Horatio N. Hubbell, Thomas McIntyre, Luzerne Rae, Barabas M. Fay, David E. Bartlett, WilliamW. Turner, Newton P. Walker, Jacob Van Nostrand, William D. Kerr, andothers both of those who worked with them and who followed in theirsteps. 

[226] Where the institutions were under regularly chartered societies, these dues were usually fixed at $5, with life membership at $50, thoughthe size of the fees varied in the different schools. In the AmericanSchool the office of vice-president was created for those paying $200. In some of these schools the fees proved of considerable assistance. 

[227] The course of provision may be illustrated in the case of the OhioSchool. In 1829, at the beginning, an indigent pupil was to be admittedfrom each of the nine judicial districts of the state, "to be selectedby the board of trustees from persons recommended by the associatejudges of the counties where they reside". In 1830 the number wasincreased to eighteen, in 1832 to twenty-seven, in 1834 to forty-eight, and in 1835 to sixty. In 1844 all suitable applicants were to bereceived, and in 1854 all limitations as to financial ability wereremoved. 

[228] In many instances the school for the deaf was the first"benevolent" or "humane" institution created by the state. 

[229] In several instances a deaf man himself came to a community andorganized a school. 

[230] Mr. E. S. Tillinghast, of the Oregon School, in a letter to thewriter. See also Report of Oregon School, 1880, p. 4. 

[231] On efforts to secure schools, see _Southern Literary Messenger_, i. , 1835, pp. 134, 201. 

[232] It is to be noted that some of the older schools did not look withfavor upon the rapid increase in the number of the schools. The creationof many new ones was sometimes advised against, it being declared thatthe existing ones could answer for all the country, and that pupilswould gain by attending them. See Report of Pennsylvania Institution, 1830, appendix, p. 14; American School, 1824, p. 6; 1826, p. 4. 

[233] In some cases pathetic appeals were made for money. See Addressbefore New York Forum in behalf of New York Institution, 1819; Discoursepronounced at Request of Society for the Instruction of the Deaf andDumb, appendix (address to the public), 1818; Circular of President andDirectors of New York Institution, 1818; Addresses to Contributors tothe Pennsylvania Asylum, 1821; Report of Pennsylvania Institution, 1826, appendix, p. 19. 

[234] In New York exhibits of pupils were given in a score of cities andtowns, in a third of which there were repetitions. _Annals_, xviii. , 1873, p. 80. In Illinois there were more than two score exhibits given, witnessed by some 50, 000 persons. Report of Illinois School, 1868, p. 36. 

[235] In connection with the New York Institution there was a societycalled the New York Female Association, "to aid in giving support andinstruction to the indigent deaf and dumb", which lasted from 1825 to1835. It raised in one year $1200 for "unsuccessful applicants". SeeAddress and Constitution, 1830; Report of New York Institution, 1826, p. 6. 

[236] See Report of Mississippi School, 1872, p. 17; _Annals_, ix. , 1857, p. 178. 

[237] In a few instances, as in North Carolina, the counties wereauthorized to raise funds by a special tax. 

[238] Aid was besought of the national government by a number ofschools. In 1826 Congress was asked for the endowment of theinstitutions then in being which had not already been assisted. SeeAddress of Lewis Weld in the Capitol in Washington, 1828, p. 8. In 1833the Senate passed bills granting land to the schools in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, but these failed to be acted upon in the House. Proceedings of Laying of Corner Stone of Ohio Institution, 1864; Reportof Ohio School, 1869, p. 52. Later there were applications fromindividual schools, most seeking grants of land. Requests came fromVermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Georgia, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Nebraska. A township was usually desired, though Vermont asked for 10, 000 acres for the benefit of a hospital forthe insane and for the education of the deaf and blind. See Laws ofVermont, 1851, no. 81; New Jersey, 1823, p. 124; Report of New YorkInstitution, 1846, p. 14; Michigan School, 1858, p. 46; History ofWisconsin School, 1893, p. 6; Proceedings of Convention of AmericanInstructors, i. , 1850, p. 171. 

[239] In Indiana several cities made efforts to secure the school. InBloomington $4, 000 was raised, and an offer extended of a special localtax levy of one cent on $100 of property for its benefit. _Annals_, vi. , 1854, p. 150. 

[240] Thus in Kansas the school was established on condition that 20acres be granted for a site, and 150 for its benefit; in Minnesota that40 acres be provided; and in Colorado that 5 be provided. In Indiana theschool was first only provisionally located by the statute. 

[241] In one or two instances "contract" schools were provided for, themanagers receiving a certain amount from the state and reserving thebalance left after the payment of expenses as their compensation. Thisplan, however, did not continue long, and was generally condemned. See_Annals_, iii. , 1851, p. 34. 

[242] In Kentucky the school was placed under the trustees of CentreCollege at Danville, and so remained for fifty years. 

[243] The schools in Indiana and Tennessee were compelled for financialreasons to close for six months, and that in Oregon for eight months, shortly after they had been opened. Report of Tennessee School, 1847, p. 9; History of Oregon School, 1893, p. 4; _Annals_, x. , 1858, p. 106. Toadd to the difficulties in some instances, was the belief that notenough deaf children could be assembled for a school. 

[244] The number in the beginning at the Kentucky and Texas schools was3, at the New York and Illinois 4, at the Indiana and Tennessee 6, atthe Hartford 7, and at the Ohio and Missouri 1. 

[245] On the difficulty in getting the pupils in, see Report of IowaSchool, 1865, p. 12; 1868, p. 8; Arkansas School, 1872, p. 15; IndianaSchool, 1877, p. 15; Kentucky School, 1846, p. 1; West Virginia School, 1879, p. 10; Illinois School, 1854, p. 11; Wisconsin School, 1859, p. 15; _Annals_, iv. , 1852, p. 241. 

[246] See Report of Michigan School, 1874, p. 43. 

[247] In many of the schools there was, and still is, a formalrequirement of good character. 

[248] In some of the states the pupils were long known as"beneficiaries". The power of appointment was not infrequently vested inthe governor of the state. 

[249] In Tennessee a charge was at first made for board, with the resultthat no pupil appeared; and after a month or two this was removed. Report of Tennessee School, 1845, p. 14; _Annals_, ix. , 1857, p. 118. See also Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, iii. , 1853, p. 169. As to the desirability of free transportation, see Report ofOhio School, 1843, p. 11. 

[250] At the American School a charge of $200 was laid for each pupil atfirst. This was reduced after a time to $150, then to $115, then to$100, and finally removed altogether. 

[251] In Massachusetts the law for a number of years allowed noapplications under fourteen, while in Georgia the age limits for pupilssent to Connecticut were from ten to forty. At the first Convention ofAmerican Instructors, it was agreed that it was not expedient to receivepupils under ten, while twelve was considered more suitable. Proceedings, i. , 1850, p. 223. On the ages of admission and attendance, see _Annals_, v. , 1852, p. 141; xviii. , 1873, p. 176; Report of AmericanSchool, 1833, p. 23; Iowa School, 1865, p. 11; Indiana School, 1871, p. 19; Missouri School, 1856, p. 14; Proceedings of Conference ofPrincipals, i. , 1868, p. 43; Documents of Senate of New York, 1838, no. 25 (Report of Secretary of State on Relation to Deaf and Dumb). 

[252] How well America has performed its duty towards the deaf has beengenerally recognized in other countries. In the Encyclopedia Britannica(eleventh edition) the deaf of America are referred to as the besteducated deaf in the world. A German opinion is that "America has givenspecial attention to the care and education of deaf-mutes". _AmericanJournal of Sociology_, vii. , 1902, p. 532. See also G. Ferreri, "American Institutions for the Education of the Deaf", 1908; Educationof Deaf Children, Evidence of E. M. Gallaudet and A. G. Bell, Presentedto Royal Commission of the United Kingdom on Condition of the Blind, theDeaf and Dumb, etc. , 1892; E. M. Gallaudet, Report on Deaf-MuteInstitutions in the American Commission at the Vienna InternationalExhibit, 1873, Report of United States Commissioners, 1876, ii. ; J. C. Gordon, "Notes and Observations upon the Education of Deaf Children", 1892; E. E. Allen, "Education of Defectives" in "Education in the UnitedStates", 1900; E. G. Dexter, "History of Education in the UnitedStates", 1906, p. 470; G. G. Smith, "Social Pathology", 1911, p. 245;Cyclopedia of Education, 1911, p. 257; _Education_, xviii. , 1898, p. 417; W. H. Addison, Report of a Visit to Some of the American Schoolsfor the Deaf (the Mosely Commission), 1907; _Association Review_, ii. , 1900, pp. 70, 159, 273; xi. , 1909, p. 495; _Annals_, xliv. , 1899, pp. 177, 342, 439; xlv. , 1900, pp. 16, 126, 205, 297. 

CHAPTER X

ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTITUTIONS AND GENERAL PROVISIONS

ARRANGEMENTS IN THE DIFFERENT STATES

Provision for the education of the deaf is made by the different statesas a general rule in local institutions. In only four states are deafchildren sent at public expense to a school outside for theirinstruction: Delaware, New Hampshire, Nevada, and Wyoming. In these, owing to their comparatively small populations, it has been consideredmore economical and satisfactory to contract with the school in anadjoining state. 

In each of the other states there is at least one institution, orsixty-five in all. In Connecticut and the District of Columbia[253]there are two, in Massachusetts three, in Pennsylvania four, and in NewYork eight. In some of these the schools are distributed over the statethe better to reach all the pupils. In the Southern states there areusually separate departments in the regular institutions for children ofthe colored race, [254] but in some there are special arrangements. InVirginia there is one school for the white deaf and blind, and anotherfor the colored. In North Carolina there is a school for the white deaf, and another for the blind with a department for the colored deaf andblind. In Alabama, Maryland, Oklahoma, and Texas each there is a schoolfor the white deaf and another for the colored deaf and blind. [255]

In nearly all the states these schools are strictly public institutions, owned by the state and supported wholly by taxation, and are under thedirect control and supervision of the legislature. In a few of theEastern states the institutions are in private hands and operated undertheir immediate direction, and in some cases supported in part byendowment funds, but at the same time receiving appropriations from thestate, and subject to its authority and general oversight. They are thus"semi-public" or "quasi-public" institutions, and will need a briefseparate treatment, as will also the "dual schools, " where the deaf andblind are educated together. 

SEMI-PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

The semi-public institutions are seventeen in number, and are found insix states: Connecticut, Maryland, [256] Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, [257] and Vermont. Institutions in these states haveremained private corporations from the time they were established, someof them being, as we have seen, the first schools that were created forthe deaf. A certain number were especially favored by privatemunificence at their beginning, and continued to be supported by privatefunds till the state came to their aid and undertook to assist byregular appropriations. Other schools have been similarly organized, buthave always depended largely on the appropriations from the state. Allof them are in the hands of societies, [258] organized and chartered ascorporations under the laws of the state. In some cases membership isopen to those interested on the payment of the regular dues orfees. [259]

These institutions, while corporate bodies, are under the authority andsupervision of the state. Their relation to the state and the conditionsunder which they exist may be understood from their position in NewYork. Here the institutions were chartered by the state as benevolentsocieties, the buildings and grounds being presented, or the money forthem collected, by the trustees, and the property reverting to the stateif alienated to another use. [260] These schools are all subsidized fromthe state treasury in _per capita_ allowances for the pupilsreceived;[261] and to some, especially the newer ones, there are generalappropriations from time to time for buildings and the like. The regulargrants, however, are often not sufficient for the cost of maintenance, which means that the institutions are instructing the children of thestate, and maintaining them, at a cost to which the state contributesonly a part. Such balances are covered from the endowment funds andprivate donations, but it would seem that the state gets a good bargainfrom the transaction. [262]

On the other hand, it is to be remembered in connection with theseschools that in the matter of the education of certain of the childrenof the state this duty is turned over to a private society. An anomaloussituation, it would seem, is thus created, the state abdicating one ofits most important functions as now conceived. The question, however, isnot of great practical moment, and the matter may be likened to thegeneral policy of the state when it contracts out for any of its work tobe done. If economy and efficiency are secured, it is felt that therecan be little ground for objection. A more important question arises inthe matter of the granting of public money to a private institution. Thematter of such state subsidies has already received considerablediscussion, [263] and may receive even more attention in the future. Notwithstanding, these private institutions for the deaf were largelyorganized before the present attitude in the matter: they have in somecases really anticipated the duty of the state, and in a generalconsideration of the subject would probably be the last to be condemned. 

"DUAL SCHOOLS"

"Dual schools, " that is, schools in which there are departments both forthe deaf and the blind, are found in ten states: California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Montana, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, andWest Virginia. [264] In a number of other states the deaf and the blindwere for a certain period educated together, either the two classesbeing provided for jointly from the first or a department for the blindbeing later created; but in time in these the two classes have beenseparated, and distinct schools for the blind set up. [265]

As a general thing, this arrangement of having the deaf and the blindtogether in one school has been regarded as unfortunate, and educatorsof both classes have protested against it. The question has thus beenstated: The deaf and the blind "have nothing in common in the matter ofeducation, and the bringing of the two classes together is a prolificsource of friction and compromise. "[266] The blind, it seems, are theworst sufferers, as they are in a minority, are often considered only adepartment or class in an institution designed primarily for the deaf, and consequently receive less attention than they should. [267] However, this arrangement has not been adopted as a deliberate policy on the partof the state: rather, it was begun when the school was young, pupils ofboth classes few, and one plant was thought adequate; and was allowed tocontinue as a makeshift till separate schools could be created. As thestates have grown in population and resources, most have seen the wisdomof severing the blind from the deaf; and even in the states where thedual school is retained it is probably only a question of time tillprovision will be made for the separate education of the two classes, and eventually there will be independent schools for each in all thestates. 

PROVISION FOR THE DEAF-BLIND

In 1824 at the school for the deaf at Hartford, Connecticut, the firstdeaf-blind pupil in America began to receive instruction. To-day thenames of certain illustrious deaf-blind persons are known over thecivilized world. [268] Such children are provided for at present moreoften in schools for the deaf than in schools for the blind, only one ortwo schools for the latter class instructing them. The deaf-blind, however, do not form a large class, and only in a small number ofschools are they to be found. [269] In certain cases where the school isonly for the deaf, special permission with a special appropriation hasto be obtained, but there has been little difficulty met here from thelegislatures. To certain of the deaf-blind individual benefactions havebeen made, as legacies, donations and subscriptions, sometimes given tothe institutions to hold in trust; and in some cases these funds are forlife. 

PROVISION FOR THE FEEBLE-MINDED DEAF

In many of the schools for the deaf a problem has arisen in connectionwith a number of feeble-minded children more or less defective in speechor hearing who have sought to gain admittance. Educators of the deafhave been called upon to give considerable attention to this class, andit has been a serious question what to do with them. [270] Many of thosewho have applied at the institutions have been denied. Some have beenallowed to enter, and their presence in the schools has constituted adifficult problem. [271] It is felt by those concerned in the educationof the deaf that they are out of place here, and that they should beremoved to a regular institution for the feeble-minded, or shouldotherwise be specially provided for. [272]

GOVERNMENT OF THE DIFFERENT INSTITUTIONS

The government of schools for the deaf is practically the same in thedifferent states. They are, for the most part, in the hands of boards oftrustees, boards of directors, boards of managers, or boards ofvisitors, as they are variously termed. The semi-public institutions, aswe have seen, were started as private concerns under private boards ofdirectors. These boards still exist, and control the affairs of theinstitutions, having full powers but subject to such regulation as thestate may direct. Such boards are usually self-perpetuating bodies, though in some cases the governor has been allowed to name a part. Inthe American School the governors and secretaries of state of the NewEngland states are _ex-officio_ directors. In the case of some schools, as the Pennsylvania Institution, where membership is open to any one onthe payment of the dues, the governing board is elected by the membersof the society or corporation. [273] In all these boards the membersserve without compensation. Their size varies considerably, but they areusually large, having in some cases over twenty members. [274]

Where the school is strictly a state institution, the board is usuallyappointed by the governor, sometimes with the approval of the statesenate. [275] In a few cases the boards are elected by the legislature, as in Georgia and Tennessee. In Montana appointment is made by the stateboard of education. In several of the states the governor or some otherpublic officer, most often the superintendent of public instruction, isa member _ex-officio_. [276] These boards also as a rule serve withoutcompensation, and are paid only for expenses actually incurred. [277] Theirsize is smaller than that of the corporate boards, usually consisting offrom three to seven members, though in a few cases they may go beyondthe latter figure. They are appointed to serve two, three, four or fiveyears, and in a few cases even longer. In states where the members areelected by the legislature, the term is usually indefinite; and in oneor two states, as in Alabama, the board is self-perpetuating. [278]

In eight states the institutions are under special boards of their own, without supervision or regulation from other bodies: Alabama, Districtof Columbia, Georgia, Mississippi, New Mexico, South Carolina, Texas, and Utah. In eighteen states the schools are under special boards oftrustees, while the state board of charities--or whatever the officialtitle--may visit, inspect, supervise, advise, or may otherwise beconnected with them: California, Connecticut, Idaho, Indiana, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, New York, NorthCarolina, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and WestVirginia. It may be noted that such central boards--including the stateboards of control--are found in thirty-nine states, and in all but fivehave some connection with the schools. [279] In eleven states the schoolsare directly under the state boards of control, central boards or bodieswith similar powers, no special or local board intervening: Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, SouthDakota, Washington, and Wisconsin. [280]

In some of the states, on the other hand, the schools are related tothe state department of education. In four states they are under boardsof trustees, with supervision only by this department: Colorado, Kentucky, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. In Idaho and New Jersey theschools are directly under the department, [281] though in the formerthere is also connection with another state board. In Montana the boardof trustees is appointed by the department. In Indiana and Oklahoma theschools have boards of trustees and are under the department ofeducation, but with inspection also by the department of charities. InNew York and North Carolina there is supervision both by the departmentof education and of charities. In several states the board of trusteesincludes the state superintendent of public instruction as a member_ex-officio_, as in Alabama, Louisiana, Minnesota, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. In Kansas the school is under the state boardof administration for educational institutions, including theuniversity, normal school and agricultural college, and in Florida theschool is under the board of control of state educational institutions, while in Arizona the school is a department of the stateuniversity. [282]

PROCEDURE IN STATES WITHOUT INSTITUTIONS

In states where pupils are sent to schools outside the state, appointments and commitments are usually made in the East by therespective governors, and in the West by the boards of education or ofcharities. In Delaware the governor appoints pupils to outside schools, the state supreme court having first recommended. In New Hampshire thegovernor recommends, while the children are placed by the board ofcontrol. [283] In Wyoming the education of deaf children is directed bythe board of charities and reforms, and in Nevada by the statedepartment of education. [284]

FOOTNOTES:

[253] The two institutions here are the Kendall School and GallaudetCollege, though both really form what is known as the ColumbiaInstitution. 

[254] In Louisiana full action has not been taken as yet for thecreation of a special school for the colored deaf, though this may beexpected soon. See Message of Governor, 1908, p. 78. In regard to thevalue of the schools for the colored, the opinion of the heads of theschools in the Southern states has been ascertained by the Board ofCharities of Louisiana. The wisdom of the policy was agreed in by all, and the schools were reported as doing well, as were their graduates. Byone superintendent it was stated that "ignorance is costly to the statein more ways than one". Report, 1907, p. 43. 

[255] In the District of Columbia and West Virginia colored children aresent to Maryland for education. 

[256] The Maryland School approaches more nearly a state institution, though it is under a self-perpetuating body of trustees. 

[257] Two schools in Pennsylvania are entirely state institutions, theHome for the Training in Speech and the Pennsylvania Oral School. 

[258] In a few institutions there are aid or auxiliary societiescomposed of ladies, usually about fifteen in number, as in the New YorkInstitution, the New York Institution for Improved Instruction, and thePennsylvania Institution. 

[259] These fees and dues, as we have seen, are of varying size. Annualmembership dues are often $5, and sometimes as high as $25. Lifemembership fees range from $25 to $100, with corresponding fees forpatrons, vice-presidents and others. The highest fee is that of lifedonor in the New York Institution for Improved Instruction, being$1, 000. 

[260] Dr. I. L. Peet, Proceedings of National Conference of Charitiesand Corrections, 1883, p. 415. 

[261] The annual appropriations are from $265 to $360 for each pupil, but not often over $300 or $325. 

[262] In the case of the Pennsylvania Institution we are advised thatthe _per capita_ appropriation is $32 less than the actual cost. Seealso Report, 1900, p. 9; 1901, p. 10; 1908, p. 10. In the case of theClarke School, the trustees declare that the state has never paid theschool for each pupil the average annual cost of instruction andmaintenance, and the legislature is repeatedly asked to increase itsappropriations. See Report, 1904, p. 8; 1911, p. 9; 1912, p. 8. Of theAmerican School we are told that the state appropriation "has never beenenough to meet the actual cost". Report, 1909, p. 9. In the case of theNew York Institution we are advised that the cost per pupil from 1903 to1913 has ranged from $338 to $415, while the state appropriation hasnever exceeded $325; and that from 1893 to 1913 $357, 579 has beenexpended for educational purposes, and $500, 000 for buildings andequipment, from the school's own funds. 

[263] On this subject, see _American Journal of Sociology_, vii. , 1901, p. 359; Report of Superintendent of Charities of District of Columbia, 1891, p. 11; Proceedings of National Conference of Charities andCorrections, 1911, p. 27. 

[264] As we have noted, Alabama, Maryland, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Texas, and Virginia have similar arrangements for their colored deaf andblind. 

[265] In New Mexico, however, where there are schools for both classes, the governor has advised their consolidation, as one institution "couldadminister to the needs of both". Message, 1907, p. 21. 

[266] Report of Colorado School, 1908, p. 20. See also Report of Boardof Charities of West Virginia, 1910, p. 209. 

[267] The educators of the blind have particularly arraigned this plan. At one of the first conventions of the American Instructors of theBlind, the following propositions were enunciated: 1. Deaf-mutes and theblind differ from each other more widely than either class differs fromthose having all the senses; 2. The methods of instruction peculiar toeach are entirely unlike and incompatible; 3. The deaf engross the mainattention; 4. The development of the blind department is retarded. Proceedings, 1871, p. 87. Educators of the deaf have likewise statedtheir objections. At an early conference of principals, a resolution wasadopted that the arrangement was bad, the methods being entirelydifferent. Proceedings, ii. , 1872, pp. 146, 151. See also Report ofMichigan School, 1855 (first report), p. 1; 1880, p. 62; LouisianaSchool, 1870, p. 30. In times past, however, advantages of thisarrangement have been pointed out. See Report of California Institution, 1869, p. 15; 1873, p. 19. 

[268] See individual accounts in William Wade's monograph on theDeaf-Blind, 1901; see also _National Magazine_, xi. , 1857, p. 27;_Review of Reviews_, xxv. , 1902, p. 435; Ohio Bulletin of Charities andCorrections, xiii. , 1907, p. 47; Proceedings of American Instructors ofthe Deaf, xvi. , 1901, p. 175ff. ; _Annals_, l. , 1905, p. 125. 

[269] The chief schools where they have been of recent years or are nowbeing instructed are the New York Institution, the PennsylvaniaInstitution, the Western Pennsylvania Institution, and the schools inOhio, Mississippi, Kentucky, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, Wisconsin, Colorado, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. The number in any one school at one time seldomexceeds two or three, most often there being but one. 

[270] A considerable proportion of such children are rather dumb thandeaf, having some oral, as well as mental, defect. 

[271] On this question, see especially Report of Illinois School, 1860, p. 15; Michigan School, 1887, p. 25; Maryland School, 1885, p. 13; 1897, p. 13; Mississippi School, 1909, p. 24; _Minnesota Companion_, ofMinnesota School, Nov. 22, 1911; Report of Board of Charities of NewYork, 1912, i. , p. 144. Of the Alabama School, it is said that it "hasturned away a number of these feeble-minded children during the past twoyears". Report, 1904, p. 21. In Ohio there are stated to be a hundredsuch children. Report of Ohio School, 1909, p. 17. In another statethere are said to be 150 feeble-minded deaf. _Annals_, liv. , 1909, p. 444. 

[272] In 1910 the census reported 294 deaf persons in institutions forthe feeble-minded, or 1. 4 per cent of all their inmates. Insane andFeeble-minded in Institutions, 1914, p. 92. It has also been estimatedthat five per cent of the deaf are feeble-minded. Proceedings ofConference of Charities and Corrections, 1906, p. 254ff. On the subjectof the feeble-minded deaf in institutions, Mr. Cyrus E. White, of theKansas School, sent letters to the heads of 55 schools, receivingreplies from 45. No state, it was found, had made special provision forthe feeble-minded deaf. It was the general agreement that they should bein institutions for the feeble-minded, one superintendent declaring that"feeble-mindedness is a better classification than deafness". Anothersuperintendent suggested the establishment of such an institution in acentral state, to which the different states could send suitable cases. See _Annals_, lv. , 1910, p. 133. A committee of the Pennsylvania Societyfor the Advancement of the Deaf has found that all of the threefeeble-minded institutions in this state are crowded, and that there isno hope for the feeble-minded deaf in them. Proceedings, xxiv. , 1910, p. 9. In one institution for the feeble-minded there are said to be twentydeaf feeble-minded. _Annals_, liv. , 1909, p. 444. In the institution forthe feeble-minded in Iowa a special class of such inmates was organizedin 1912. _Ibid. _, lviii. , 1913, p. 107. It is to be remembered in thisconnection that in many states there are no institutions for thefeeble-minded. Educators of the deaf have often been instrumental insecuring the creation of such institutions. See Proceedings ofConvention of American Instructors, iv. , 1857, p. 227. In a few states, as Illinois, Minnesota and Washington, departments for the feeble-mindedhave been created in schools for the deaf, the feeble-minded beingremoved later. In Montana a department is still maintained. 

[273] The Columbia Institution is considered a corporation, itsgoverning board being composed of nine members, one of whom is a senatorappointed by the President of the Senate, and two members of the Houseappointed by the Speaker, while the President of the United States ispatron. 

[274] In the New York Institution and the New York Institution forImproved Instruction the number is 21, and in the Maryland School, thePennsylvania Institution and the Western Pennsylvania Institution, 27. 

[275] Such is the case in Alabama, Mississippi, New Mexico, NorthCarolina, Rhode Island, and Utah. Confirmation by the Senate is alsousual with boards of control. 

[276] On rare occasions a deaf man himself is made a member of theboard. 

[277] In a few states compensation is allowed, as in Indiana, Montana, Oklahoma, Texas, and West Virginia. 

[278] On the arrangements in the several states, see especially_Annals_, xlviii. , 1903, p. 348; lviii. , 1913, p. 327. See alsoProceedings of American Instructors, iv. , 1857, p. 199; vii. , 1870, p. 144; ix. , 1878, pp. 195, 217; Report of Royal Commission on the Blind, Deaf and Dumb, etc. , 1889, iii. , p. 456ff. 

[279] In certain of these states, however, as Idaho, Indiana, Maine, Minnesota, Montana, and West Virginia, the boards of charities orcentral boards have only more or less financial concern, the statutesusually referring to some such connection with the several stateinstitutions, though not always mentioning them by name. In one or twostates, as Rhode Island, there is connection with a board of purchasesand supplies. In Minnesota there is also a board of visitors for stateinstitutions, exerting rather a moral supervision. 

[280] The duties of such boards may be indicated from the followingextract in a letter to the writer from the Secretary of the WisconsinBoard: The board "appoints the chief officers, purchases all thesupplies for the institutions, formulates the provisions under which theinstitutions are managed, and has almost unlimited power with referenceto the institutions". The boards thus have practically complete controlof the public institutions of the state, and in some cases stateuniversities have come within their direction. The boards have comeespecially into favor in states of the West and Middle West. In theirfavor it is claimed that they secure economy, accuracy, betterdiscipline and more equitable appropriations, introduce businessmethods, relieve the heads of schools from financial problems, visitother states, and keep in touch with the people. See University ofNebraska Studies, Oct. , 1905. The evolution of state control is alsohere traced. See also Bulletin of Ohio Board of Charities, Dec. , 1908, xiv. , 6. 

[281] In Iowa the school for the blind is under the board of education. 

[282] In nearly all the states the schools were placed at first in thehands of special boards of trustees, with connection with no otherbodies, and it was only later that any change was brought about. In somestates there have been various experiments in the organization ofgoverning boards and in the number of members they were to contain. Several schools at their beginning have been put under the direction ofa state educational institution, as the university in Utah, and thenormal school in Oklahoma. In a few states the schools have been placedunder certain state officers, as in New Mexico and Oregon. In Washingtonthe first board of trustees of the school consisted of a physician, alawyer and a practical educator. 

[283] We have already noted that the colored deaf of the District ofColumbia and West Virginia are sent to an outside school. 

[284] In regard to the organization of the several boards that have todo with the education of the deaf, it may be stated that in some states, as in Ohio and Indiana, the law restricts the number that may be of anyone political party. In connection with the government of schools forthe deaf, the saddest feature has too often been the politicalinfluences which have been allowed to become factors in the conductingof some of them. In certain instances the playing of "politics" has beenof serious moment, and with incalculable harm to the work of theschools. In some cases the administration of schools has been consideredlegitimate spoils to the party in power, and appointments have been madeas a matter of reward, and removals as a matter of punishment. The evileffect of such procedure it is hard to overestimate, and indeed in anenlightened land it is even difficult of credence. Public opinion shouldseverely condemn all attempts at political interference in the work ofthe education of the deaf, and those seeking to promote it should bedealt with befittingly. Happily, however, such conduct seems now on thedecline in the schools, and it may earnestly be hoped that the end isnot far in the future. 

CHAPTER XI

THE DAY SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF

INCEPTION AND GROWTH OF THE DAY SCHOOL

A small number of the institutions for the deaf had begun as dayschools, the pupils living away from the school outside school hours, and had continued so for a longer or shorter period. The schools werethen in an experimental stage, and this plan came first to hand. In thecourse of time it was found that this feature was not practicable, asthe pupils were often far scattered, and the boarding arrangement wasaccordingly adopted. [285] This was the policy finally chosen in all thestates having schools. Later, however, when the states had grown inpopulation, and in some of the cities there were found not a few deafchildren, the demand was renewed for day schools. [286] The result hasbeen the beginning and development of a system of day schools in anumber of states; and they have come to occupy part of the fieldformerly covered by the state institutions alone. 

Of the day schools now existing, the Horace Mann School, of Boston, which was established in 1869, is accredited with being the initialone. [287] Two others were opened before 1890, while from 1891 to 1900there were 22 started, and since 1901, 40, making 65 in all now. [288]These schools are found in fourteen states, but the movement has reachedits greatest growth in the Middle West, especially in Wisconsin andMichigan. In some of the states special laws have been enacted, providing for the establishment of day schools. [289]

DESIGN AND SCOPE OF DAY SCHOOLS

The day school for the deaf is still sometimes regarded as anexperiment, while its advocates insist that its success has beendemonstrated. Among school authorities in cities especially, pleas forthe establishment of day schools are often listened to with favor, andthere is frequently a tendency to give them at least a trial. Generalbodies interested in education or the public welfare are likewiseinclined to countenance day schools, largely for the reason that theyare opposed to the institution idea, and would place as many children aspossible in the regular schools. An illustration of this view is foundin the Report on Children of the National Conference of Charities andCorrections in 1906. [290]

 Institutional care of healthy, normal children is objectionable. .. . Institutional care for educational purposes is necessary for a portion of the deaf and blind children . .. But it is recognized that in large cities public schools can be provided for many deaf and blind children. 

By some it is believed that in time the day school will supplant thelarge institution, so far at least as large cities are concerned, andthat the deaf, and the blind as well, will not be differentiated fromthe pupils in the regular schools. Separate apartments and specialteachers will be provided for them, but in all public school systemsthese classes will be actual factors. 

On the other hand, it is maintained that there is an abundant field forboth day school and institution. The former should only supplement thework of the latter, especially in reaching children that cannototherwise be brought into school. The reason why the day school iscalled into being is thus given by an educational authority of onecity:[291]

 Institutions that care for these children throughout the entire year, that feed, clothe and educate them, that render skilful and prompt medical attention, and afford uplifting social advantages--all under one roof--have a worthy place under our social and educational systems; but these institutions cannot care for all the unfortunate children in need of education. 

It is also suggested that it might be arranged that day schools shouldkeep pupils during their early years, as from five to nine years of age, after which time they could enter the institution, and be placed ingraded classes and in a suitable trade school. [292] Hence it is pointedout that the day school and institution should not be antagonistic, thattheir interests are common at bottom, and that they should work hand inhand, without friction or misunderstanding. 

The day school plan has not as yet been followed in a large number ofstates; yet as these schools are being looked upon with more and morefavor by city boards of education, and as in the centers of populationthere is said to be a need for them, it is not improbable that they maybe extended much farther in the future. It is doubtful, however, if verysoon they will spread beyond the large cities; and states without greatcities may be without such schools for many years at least. [293]

EXTENT AND ORGANIZATION OF DAY SCHOOLS

The day schools, numbering 65 in all, as we have seen, are found in thestates of California, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin. In Georgia, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, and Oregon each there is but one school, in NewJersey and Washington each 2, in New York 3, in California 4, in Ohioand Illinois each 5, in Michigan 14, and in Wisconsin 24. Where only oneday school is found in a state, it is located usually in the largestcity (Atlanta, New Orleans, Boston, St. Paul, St. Louis, and Portland), while the two schools of New Jersey are in Newark and Jersey City, thetwo of Washington in Seattle and Tacoma, and the three of New York inNew York City. Of the five schools in Illinois, four are in Chicago. 

In six of these states, namely, California, Illinois, Michigan, NewJersey, Ohio, and Wisconsin, there are special state laws under whichthe schools are established and operated. [294] By such laws it isgenerally provided that where there are a certain number of deafchildren, usually three, [295] a school may, on application of the localschool trustees or district board, be organized by the state departmentof education. [296] The minimum age for such children is often three. Astated sum is frequently allowed for each pupil, as $150. [297] In theremaining eight states the schools are organized and directed by localschool authorities, without assistance from legislative statute. 

These schools are supported by local funds or by state and local fundstogether. The latter is the more common procedure, and in the case ofschools operating under a state law, it is the usual, but not thenecessary, practice. The schools in six states, namely, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Minnesota, Missouri, and New York, are thusmaintained only by local funds of the city or county, the remainderreceiving aid in whole or in part from the state. [298] The school inMinnesota and one in California are aided by private contributions. Innearly all cases carfare is provided to and from school when necessary. 

In the day schools special buildings are not usually provided, separateclasses being created in the regular school buildings; but in some ofthe larger cities there are special buildings, known as distinctschools, in which the class-rooms are for the different grades of deafpupils. 

The number of pupils in the day schools in 1912-1913 was 1, 942. Thesmallest schools have but three pupils, while the largest one, inChicago, has 307, the number usually depending on the size of the city. The method employed in the day schools is exclusively the oral with buttwo exceptions. [299] In all but a few certain industries are alsotaught, or more or less of manual training is given. 

ARGUMENTS FOR THE DAY SCHOOL

The great argument for the day school is that it is not well thatchildren be "institutionalized. " The institution life is said not to bethe normal life, and its habits and associations are not in accord withthe principles now being largely held in America. It is coming to bemore and more realized that the home should always be the center ofinterest and attachment in the well established community, and that thecharacter and influence of the family should be maintained unimpaired. In connection with orphan and other child-caring agencies, a greateremphasis than ever before is being put on the question of how to reducethe life to one of normality, and the "placing-out" of dependentchildren in homes where they can grow up as normal children is now apopular faith. The great watchword to-day in intelligent andconstructive philanthropy is the "ideal of the normal, " and it is onthis ground that the institution is declared to be removed from thestandard of the highest interests of society. Even though a child shouldprofit in the institution, and even though he should be sent out intothe world strong and self-reliant, yet while in the institution, he isout of line, and is just so far displaced from the ideal of the normal;and even though the institution is cleanlier, more sanitary andotherwise better equipped than the quarters from which the child comes, still the institution cannot be justified, for no solution can beacceptable if in the end it results in the breaking up of the home. [300]

More specific charges are also brought against the institution. Herelife for the inmates is made too easy, and little can be known by themof the actual struggles of the world. The life is machine-like, and allis routine clockwork. By the discipline, which is necessary, much of thespontaneity of growing children is destroyed, and the surroundings arepervaded with the spirit of uniformity, "solidarity" and "deadlevelism. " On the other hand, the children fail to learn many importantlessons in domestic economy which would be before them every day in thehome; and they lose the attitude towards life, morally and socially, which is given by the home. [301]

The arguments for the day school may be stated more concretely yet. Thespecial day school may be co-ordinated with, or made a part of, thestate's educational system, standing on a level with its other schools. Deaf children here come to feel their place in the normal world, whilepeople in general become more ready to regard them in a proper manner. These children at the same time are not made strangers to their ownfamily circles and communities; and certain ones, by a school nearerhome and consequently more acceptable to their parents, may be reachedwho would otherwise possibly never enter an institution. 

In the way of cost the balance is distinctly on the side of the dayschool. With no costly special plant necessary, and with no charges tobe incurred for food supplies, attendants and the like, it appears todecided advantage in the matter of economy in comparison with aninstitution; and its normal expenditures approach nearer those of theregular schools. At present the difference between the cost per pupil inthe day schools and in the institutions is the difference between $120and $277. [302]

ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE DAY SCHOOL

The argument against the day school rests upon the fact that the deafform, educationally, a special class, very small in most communities, who have to be reached by unusual methods. To them the large institutionoffers advantages not likely to be had outside. For this reason the caseagainst the institution, however cogent and logical it may be ingeneral, cannot well apply. 

In the institution the children may be under intelligent supervision anddirection their entire time, and they may be able to get, outside schoolhours, a part of the education which the hearing child so naturallyacquires, for in an institution learning continues outside the classroomas well as within. The "picking up" of knowledge and bits ofinformation, which the hearing child begins to make use of from the timehe first hears human words, and the importance and value of which thegeneral public cannot be expected to appreciate, is lost in the greatestmeasure to the deaf in the home. Here ready means of communication arelacking, and the necessary care and attention cannot be expected to begiven in the household. Even though deaf children can and do mingle withtheir hearing acquaintances, they cannot get so much happiness or zestout of their sports and intercourse as they can with their own deafcomrades; and while, no matter what their surroundings are, thedifficulties of most of them in mastering language will never beovercome, still in associations with similar deaf children there will befar more stimuli to react on their consciousness, and the tendency willbe for them to become more and more in their mental actions like thenormal. In the home there can be no great assurance of study andsupervision; and the growing deaf child, not being able to appreciatethe forces that surround him as the hearing child does, may the moreeasily fall under unwholesome influences. In the institution there canbe suitable discipline, regular attendance, enlightened generaloversight, and co-ordination of all that is concerned in the child'sproper development. Furthermore, although there may be a growing feelingagainst the institution life, there is, on the other hand, an increasingsocial questioning as to the advisability of a child's remaining in aparticular home if his welfare is not properly safeguarded. 

In many day schools there are comparatively few pupils, and in most ofthese we cannot expect to find the carefully graded classes, with aplace for every pupil according to his needs, bright or dull, quick tolearn or slow. A pupil in a day school, if not neglected to someextent, may be required to do work for which he is quite unfitted, beingeither beyond it or incapable of it. The backward child will here be theworst sufferer, for if there are but few classes, he can get little ofthe special attention he needs; and his progress cannot be the same aswhen in a class of like pupils and under an appropriate and patientteacher. 

Again, the attention that is given in an institution with a considerablenumber of pupils to the learning of a trade--accounting in strongmeasure for success in after life--means much more to a deaf child thanit could to any other. In an institution there will usually be foundlarger equipment, fuller apparatus and more varied lines than in any buta very large day school; and in its trade department habits of industrywill be formed, talents developed, a knowledge of mechanism and the useof tools implanted, an ardor enkindled for the mastership of a trade, and an appreciation of the part to be played in the great world ofindustrial activity, besides the incentive of being in a great workshopwith other workers--all in far greater measure and more effectively thanwould be possible anywhere else, save in a great trade school, in whichthere could not be expected to be taken the special care and provisionnecessitated by the want of hearing of the pupils. 

Finally, it may be said that we have no evidence, as respectsinstitutions for the deaf, to show that they have in any way underminedthe character or mission of the home, or that their results have beenother than desirable in a well-ordered state. Hence we are told, in aword, that no matter how strong and valid are the theoretical objectionsto an institution, yet so far as the practical issues are concerned, inthe preparation of the deaf for the world, and in what really counts fortheir development and progress, the institution, for many at least, occupies a position of demonstrated usefulness, recognition of whichcannot rightly be withheld. [303]

EVENING DAY SCHOOLS FOR ADULTS

Thus far in this chapter we have discussed day schools in relation tochildren, that is, pupils in the usual sense. But there is another formof day schools to which attention is to be directed. This is in thecreation of evening day schools for the use of adults only, the fieldopen to which is as yet apparently but little realized. 

Occasion for such schools arises chiefly in communities, especiallylarge cities, where a considerable number of adult deaf persons arewithin reach, and where a real need may often be found. The matter is tobe regarded in effect as the extension of the means of education by thestate to include as large a part of the population as possible--amovement which is being so notably evidenced in the opening of eveningschools of not a few kinds in cities to-day. With the deaf the demand isof a peculiar nature. Their avenues for receiving instruction arematerially restricted, and for some, especially the congenitally deaf, the acquisition of correct language always remains a difficult problem, while to others the advantages of the regular schools may have beenlimited. A large number of the deaf will not require such specialopportunities, but for a portion of them the assistance may be of quitesubstantial character. [304]

FOOTNOTES:

[285] The New York Institution, the Pennsylvania Institution and theWestern Pennsylvania Institution notably started out as day schools, thefirst remaining so for eleven years. In some of the institutions alsothere have been at times day school pupils in attendance. 

[286] Day schools have, moreover, been fostered and supported to a greatextent by advocates of what is known as the oral method, in oppositionto the manual, or sign method, which had been largely the methodhitherto employed in the institutions. The day school may even be saidto have entered the field in part as a protest against this method. 

[287] A day school was started in Pittsburg two months previously; butit was soon made into the Western Pennsylvania Institution. _Annals_, xv. , 1870, p. 165. 

[288] A number of day schools which were started have been discontinued, but there were never so many as at present. 

[289] Wisconsin was the first state to have a day school law, which wasenacted in 1885. Bills were offered in 1881 and 1883, but were defeated. The movement in this state has been in large part due to the activitiesof the Wisconsin Phonological Institute to Promote the Teaching ofSpeech to the Deaf, an organization formed in 1879. The question haseven been considered in this state of abolishing the state school as aboarding institution. See _Public Opinion_, xxv. , 1898, no. 16;_Association Review_, iii. , 1901, p. 193. 

[290] Proceedings, p. 88. 

[291] Mr. C. W. Edson, Associate Superintendent of Schools of New York, _Charities and the Commons_, xix. , 1908, p. 1357. See also Report ofIllinois Institution, 1874, p. 65. 

[292] See Report of Washington State School, 1910, p. 6. A like solutionwas offered before the National Educational Association in 1903. Certainchildren might be "trained in special schools and live at home ifpossible up to the age of adolescence, when they may acquire trades atspecial institutions maintained by the state". Proceedings, p. 1004. 

[293] It is to be remembered that in Michigan and Wisconsin schoolshave, under the operation of the state law, been organized incomparatively small towns. 

[294] Efforts have been made in several other states to secure laws. InOhio in 1902 the state law was declared unconstitutional, as being classlegislation in granting special aid to the cities of Cleveland andCincinnati. See Report of Ohio School, 1903, p. 14. 

[295] In California the number is five, and in New Jersey ten. 

[296] In Ohio the state commissioner of education may appoint and removeteachers, and inspect schools. In Wisconsin the state superintendentappoints inspectors, and the county judge may compel the establishmentof schools. 

[297] In Wisconsin $100 additional is allowed for the board of childrenwho move to a town to attend a school. 

[298] In Massachusetts a direct appropriation of $150 _per capita_ ismade by the state. 

[299] The methods employed in the instruction of the deaf are treated ofin Chapter XIX. 

[300] The importance of this is accentuated in the present apprehensionsconcerning the dissolving and loosening of the ties of the home, indicated in more ways than one in present programs of social work. 

[301] See A. G. Warner, "American Charities", rev. Ed. , 1908, p. 283; R. R. Reeder, "How Two Hundred Children Live and Learn", 1910, pp. 57, 88;"Philanthropy and Social Progress", 1893, p. 172ff. 

[302] It is claimed that in Wisconsin with the centralization plan of astate institution one-third of the deaf children failed to be reached, and that by the day school there is a saving to the state of $20, 000 ayear. Proceedings of National Educational Association, 1907, p. 986. Seealso _ibid. _, 1897, p. 96; 1901, p. 870; 1910, p. 1039; Report of UnitedStates Commissioner of Education, 1881, p. Ccxi. ; P. A. Emery, "Plea forEarly Mute Education, " 1884; Improvement of the Wisconsin System ofEducation of Deaf Children, 1894; Public School Classes for DeafChildren: Open Letter from Chicago Association of Parents of DeafChildren, 1897; Michigan Day Schools for the Deaf, 1908; Report ofSuperintendent of Public Instruction of Michigan, 1909, p. 61; Report ofDepartment of Public Instruction of Wisconsin, 1910, p. 60; Report ofBoard of Education of Chicago, 1912, p. 155; A. J. Winnie, "History andHandbook of Day Schools for the Deaf", Wisconsin, 1912; _Annals_, xx. , 1875, p. 34; _Association Review_, ii. , 1900, p. 248; viii. , 1906, p. 136; xi. , 1909, p. 30; _Volta Review_, xiii. , 1911, p. 292;_Independent_, lxxiv. , 1913, p. 1140. 

[303] See _Annals_, xxvii. , 1882, p. 182; xxix. , 1884, pp. 165, 312;xxx. , 1885, p. 121; l. , 1905, p. 70; lvi. , 1911, p. 91; _Volta Review_, xv. , 1913, p. 180; Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, vii. , 1870, p. 114; xiv. , 1895, pp. 130, 350; Conference of Principals, vi. , 1888, p. 202; viii. , 1904, p. 70; Minnesota Conference of Charitiesand Corrections, 1898, p. 88; Report of Iowa School, 1885, p. 16;Pennsylvania Institution, 1903, p. 38; California School, 1904, p. 20. 

[304] One or two evening schools have been started in the past, to bediscontinued after a few years, both under private and under publicauspices. In the consideration, however, of any general scheme forevening schools it should be arranged that the work of the regularschools for the deaf is not infringed upon, and that pupils in theseschools should not have before them the temptation of leavingprematurely, with the expectation of making up later. Probably thesafest plan would be the securing of a satisfactory compulsoryattendance law before evening schools are attempted upon a broad scale. 

CHAPTER XII

DENOMINATIONAL AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS

DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS

In addition to the state institutions and the day schools, there havebeen established in America certain schools for the deaf which arestrictly under private management, and, as a rule, not subject to theimmediate control and direction of the state. These are of two kinds: 1. Denominational schools, maintained by some religious body; and 2. Schools conducted as purely private and secular affairs. Such schoolsnow number twenty-one, ten denominational and eleven private, all in1912-1913 having 638 pupils. Most are of comparatively recent date, thefirst having been established in 1873, and nine since 1901. [305]

The denominational schools are found in California, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, therebeing two in Pennsylvania. They are for the most part boardinginstitutions, in a few cases being departments of larger institutions. Their controlling purpose is to surround their pupils with religiousinfluences, and to provide them with religious instruction. All but oneare under Roman Catholic auspices, as a usual thing in the hands of theSisters. The single Protestant school is in the care of the LutheranChurch, and is controlled by the synod, with the direct managementvested in a board of trustees. These schools are supported bydenominational funds, by voluntary contributions, and in a small measureby tuition fees. In some of the schools, as in Maryland andPennsylvania, there is state aid to a small extent. The fees paid bypupils are never high, and not many in the schools pay the full amount, though inability to pay is never allowed to keep any away who wish toattend. [306]

PRIVATE SCHOOLS

The eleven non-denominational schools may be themselves divided intotwo classes: those which are really homes for very young deaf children, sometimes under the control of a society organized for the purpose; andthose which are purely private enterprises, owned and directed by one ormore individuals. Of the former there are four homes orkindergartens--the Sarah Fuller Home of Boston, the McCowen Homes ofChicago, the Home School near Baltimore, and the Home School of SanFrancisco. [307] Their main object is to give their pupils an early startin the use of speech as well as to provide a home, and children as youngas three, or even younger, may be admitted. The management of theseschools is usually in the hands of trustees. Support is derived largelyfrom the fees of pupils, though some schools are often the recipients ofprivate donations, especially when children are taken without charge;and one or two have aid from public allowances. [308]

The private schools of the second class are almost entirely dependent ontuition fees, though one or two likewise receive some state aid. Withtwo exceptions, [309] they are found in large cities, New York havingtwo, and Philadelphia, Baltimore and Cincinnati one each. These schoolsare both boarding and day schools. 

The method employed in the private schools is nearly always the oral, and this is the method also of some of the denominational schools. Insome of the schools of both classes manual training and instruction intrades are given to an extent. 

FOOTNOTES:

[305] There have been a number of private schools at various times, perhaps a score or more, which have been discontinued--besides thosewhich were the nuclei of the state institutions. There are, moreover, several private schools for the hard of hearing, where instruction andpractice are offered in lip-reading, and attended for the most part byadults. 

[306] Thus in the Michigan Evangelical Lutheran Institute, where theminimum fee is $10 a month, we are advised that only two or three paythe full amount. In St. John's Institute of Wisconsin, where $12 a monthis asked, we are advised that the officials are "contented with whateverpart of this sum the parents or guardians can pay". Voluntarycontributions likewise do not always prove large. Of the ImmaculateConception Institution of St. Louis, we are advised that privatecontributions are "too meagre to support one child". The industry of theSisters often adds much for the maintenance of the Catholic schools. 

[307] Another such home is in Philadelphia, but is now a stateinstitution. 

[308] To the Sarah Fuller Home the state of Massachusetts allows $250_per capita_ for some of the children. 

[309] At Lead, South Dakota, and Macon, Georgia. 

CHAPTER XIII

THE NATIONAL COLLEGE

After our review of the various schools that have been created for thedeaf in the United States, we come to what may be regarded as theculminative feature in the provision for their instruction--aninstitution for their higher education. In this particular the work inAmerica stands unique among the nations of the world. This institutionis Gallaudet College--named after the founder of the first school--whichis maintained at Washington by the national government, and is open toall the deaf of the country. We have seen how the national governmenthas rendered very distinct aid in the work of the education of the deaf;but in establishing the college it has gone far beyond this, and by thisact may be said to have placed the capstone upon the structure of theireducation. 

This college has resulted from a school which was established in theDistrict of Columbia in 1857, known as the Kendall School. Not longafter Congress was asked to create an institution for the highereducation of the deaf as well, and to include all the country. Nolittle interest was aroused in the matter, and zealous advocatesappeared to present the claims of the new undertaking. The chiefobjection was the lack of precedent, while with some members of Congressthe idea seemed strange of conferring college degrees upon the deaf. Opposition, however, did not prove strong, and the measure was finallyenacted in 1864 by a practically unanimous vote. [310]

Thus was the college established, and Congress continues regularly toprovide for it, together with the Kendall School, both being known asthe Columbia Institution for the Deaf. In the college there are nowprovided one hundred full scholarships for students from the severalstates of the Union. [311]

It is not surprising that this action on the part of Congress shouldhave been held without a precedent. In no other instance has thenational government attempted to make provision for the education ofany class or part of the inhabitants of the different states, beyondcertain so-called wards of the nation, as the Indians, for example. Though the national government has very perceptibly encouraged learningin many ways, [312] yet direct provision for the education of the youthof the several commonwealths has universally been regarded as their soleprerogative. In thus establishing a college for certain residents of thevarious states, the federal government has done something that standsout by itself. Though the reason lies in the fact that no other meansfor the higher education of the deaf seemed at hand, it would appearthat thereby the government has signally favored the deaf, as it indeedhas; and in taking under its immediate direction this higher educationof the deaf, the national government has won the gratitude of them all. 

FOOTNOTES:

[310] See E. M. Gallaudet, "Address in behalf of Columbia Institution, "1858; Inauguration of the College for the Deaf and Dumb, 1864; Report ofColumbia Institution, 1866; 1868, p. 104; 1889; 1000, p. 16; 1892;Proceedings of Alumni Association of Gallaudet College, 1889-1899, p. 55; History of Charities in District of Columbia, 1898, part 3;_Annals_, xiv. , 1869, p. 183; xix. , 1874, p. 134; lvi. , 1911, p. 184;_Journal of Social Science_, vi. , 1874, p. 160; _Scribner's Magazine_, iii. , 1872, p. 727; _Harper's Magazine_, lxix. , 1884, p. 181; _Review ofReviews_, xvi. , 1897, p. 57. The college was considerably aided in itsfirst few years by private contributions. The first president was EdwardMiner Gallaudet, son of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, who served more thanfifty years. 

[311] The number was at first small, and has gradually been increased to100. It has also been suggested that the states assist in providingscholarships. Report of Columbia Institution, 1876, p. 20. 

[312] This is done, for instance, in the several bureaus established forinvestigation and the dissemination of knowledge, and in the grants ofland for the benefit of agricultural colleges or state universities. 

CHAPTER XIV

PROVISION FOR EDUCATION BY STATES

Having now considered the plan and organization of the several kinds ofschools for the deaf in America, namely, the institutions, the dayschools, the private schools and the national college, we proceed inthis chapter to examine the work in the several states individually, andto note to what extent and in what manner the education of the deaf hasbeen provided for in each. 

_Alabama. _ A private school was started near Montgomery in 1854, but wasdiscontinued after one or two years. The state school was established atTalladega in 1858. [313] In 1891[314] a school was created for thecolored deaf and blind. The schools are governed by a board of thirteenmembers, including the governor and the superintendent of publicinstruction. [315]

_Arizona. _ Before the opening of a local school the deaf were sent toother states for instruction. [316] The state school was created in1912, [317] and is a part of the state university. On the admission ofArizona as a state, 100, 000 acres of the public land were granted forthe benefit of the school for the deaf and the blind. 

_Arkansas. _ A private school was opened at Clarksville in 1850, whichwas moved to Little Rock in 1861. [318] After a suspension, it wasstarted anew in 1867, and in 1868 was taken over by the state. [319] Theschool is now in the hands of the state board of charitableinstitutions. [320]

_California. _ The state institution for the deaf and the blind wasestablished at Berkeley in 1860, [321] after a society had been formedfor the purpose. The school is controlled by a board of five directors, while the state board of charities supervises. [322] There are four dayschools in the state:[323] at Oakland, opened in 1898, and supported bystate and county; at Los Angeles in 1899, supported by city and privatesubscriptions; at San Francisco in 1901, supported by the city; and atSacramento in 1904, supported by state and city. There is a privateschool in Oakland, the St. Joseph's Home, opened in 1895, and one in SanFrancisco, the Holden Home Oral School, opened in 1913. 

_Colorado. _ The state school was opened at Colorado Springs in1874, [324] and is for the deaf and the blind. It is supported by aone-fifth mill tax on the assessed property valuation of the state. Theschool is in the hands of a board of five trustees, and is connectedwith the state board of education. [325]

_Connecticut. _ The American School was established at Hartford in1817. [326] At the time the state made an appropriation of $5, 000, and in1828 began to allow a certain sum for each state pupil, a policy stillcontinued. The school has remained a private corporation, and its boardis made up of eight vice-presidents and eight elected directors, together with the governors and secretaries of state of the New Englandstates. In 1819 Congress gave the school 23, 000 acres of the publicland, from which almost $300, 000 has been realized. Gifts from privatesources have nearly equalled this, about half coming since 1850. [327] Asecond school is at Mystic, known as the Mystic Oral School, this havingbeen started in 1870 at Ledyard, where it remained four years. [328] Itis under a board of ten corporators. Both these schools receive _percapita_ allowances from the state, and are visited by the state board ofcharities. [329]

_Delaware. _ Deaf children are sent to schools in neighboring states, thefirst provision having been made in 1835. The supreme court judges actas trustees _ex-officio_, and recommend pupils to the governor to beplaced. [330]

_District of Columbia. _ The Kendall School, as it is known, was openedin 1857, [331] and was designed primarily for the children of theDistrict and of persons in the army and navy service. In 1864[332]Congress decided to establish a collegiate department for the deaf ofall the country, which was first known as the National Deaf-MuteCollege, but is now Gallaudet College. The Columbia Institution, embracing both the college and the Kendall School, is supported byCongress, and is in the form of a corporation, of which the President ofthe United States is patron, and of the nine members of which one is aSenator and two are members of the House. [333]

_Florida. _ The state school for the deaf and blind was opened at St. Augustine in 1885. [334] It is now in the hands of the state board ofcontrol of educational institutions, which also directs the stateuniversity. [335]

_Georgia. _ The state began sending some of its deaf children to theHartford school in 1834. [336] A private school was started at CedarSprings in 1842, which continued two years. The state school wasestablished at Cave Spring in 1846. [337] It is under a board of seventrustees. [338] There is a day school in Atlanta, supported by the city, and a private one at Macon, both opened in 1912. 

_Idaho. _ Before the opening of a state school, deaf children were sentto outside institutions. [339] The school for the deaf and the blind wasopened at Boise in 1906, but in 1910 was removed to Gooding. It is underthe state board of education, and subject to other stateinspection. [340]

_Illinois. _ The state school was opened at Jacksonville in 1846, although steps had been taken several years before for itsestablishment. [341] The school is directed by the state board ofadministration, while the board of charities has moral and auditingsupervision. [342] There are in the state five day schools, four of whichare in Chicago, the first having been established in 1896, and the lastin 1913. The other day school is at Rock Island, opened in 1901. Allthese schools are operated under the state law, and supported by cityfunds. [343] In Chicago there are also two private schools: the Ephpheta, opened in 1884, and maintained by St. Joseph's Home for theFriendless, [344] and the McCowen Homes for Deaf Children, opened in1883. [345]

_Indiana. _ Prior to the opening of the state school, some children weresent to Kentucky and Ohio for education. In 1841 a private school wasstarted in Parke County, which lasted one year. [346] In 1843 anotherprivate school was begun in Indianapolis, which was adopted by the statein 1844. [347] The school is now governed by a board of four trustees, and is under the state board of education, with certain connection alsowith the board of charities. [348]

_Iowa. _ Before the opening of the state school some pupils were sent tothe school in Illinois. In 1853 a private school was started at IowaCity, which in 1855 was taken over by the state, [349] in 1866 beingremoved to Council Bluffs. [350] The school is under the state board ofcontrol. [351]

_Kansas. _ A private school was started in 1861 at Baldwin City. Afterbeing removed to Topeka in 1864 and back again to Baldwin City in 1865, it was taken over by the state in 1866, [352] and permanently located atOlathe. The state board of administration for educational institutionshas the direction of the school. [353]

_Kentucky. _ The state school was established at Danville in 1823. [354]In 1826 it received from Congress a township of land in Florida. [355]The school is in the hands of a board of twelve commissioners, and isrelated to the state department of education. [356]

_Louisiana. _ In 1837 the state began to send some of its children toschools in other states, many being sent to Kentucky. [357] The stateschool was established at Baton Rouge in 1852. [358] It is governed by aboard of trustees, including the governor and the superintendent ofpublic instruction, and is visited by the state board of charities. [359]In New Orleans there is a day school, opened in 1911, and supported bythe city. [360] At Chinchuba there is a private school, the ChinchubaDeaf-Mute Institute, under the Sisters of Notre Dame, opened in 1890. 

_Maine. _ In 1825 the state began to send its children to the AmericanSchool, and later to the schools in Massachusetts as well. [361] In 1876a private school was started in Portland with aid from the city, and thefollowing year from the state also. [362] In 1897 the state assumedcharge, the school being placed under a board of five trustees. [363]Inspection is made by the state board of charities. 

_Maryland. _ In 1827 provision was made for pupils in the PennsylvaniaInstitution, and in 1860 in the District of Columbia. [364] In 1868[365]the Maryland school was established at Frederick. It is under a privatesociety, composed of twenty-seven visitors, but is supported andcontrolled by the state. In 1872 a department for the colored was openedin connection with the institution for the blind, now located atOverlea. [366] Both of these schools are inspected by the state board ofcharities. [367] There are two private schools in Baltimore, the St. Francis Xavier under the Mission Helpers of the Sacred Heart, opened in1897, and a department in the Knapp School, opened in 1877; and atKensington a Home School, opened in 1908. These schools are aided by thestate. [368]

_Massachusetts. _ In 1819, just after the American School had beenestablished, Massachusetts began sending its deaf children to it, whichpolicy was continued till the state had schools of its own. [369] Thefirst of these was the Clarke School at Northampton, which wasestablished in 1867. [370] This had been started at Chelmesford the yearbefore, but removed to Northampton when a citizen whose name it bearsoffered it $50, 000--subsequently adding to this till his total giftsreached $300, 000. [371] In 1868 the legislature provided that statepupils might be sent to it. The school is under a board of twelvecorporators. The New England Industrial School was opened at Beverly in1879, [372] for the purpose of teaching language and industrial training. It is under a board of thirteen incorporators. The Boston School atRandolph was established in 1899, and is under the Sisters of St. Joseph. [373] In Boston there is a day school, known as the Horace MannSchool, opened in 1869, and directed by the city. [374] The Sarah FullerHome is at West Medford, and was opened in 1888. [375] All these schoolsreceive state appropriations, and are supervised by the state departmentof education. [376]

_Michigan. _ Action was taken in 1848 towards the establishment of aninstitution, but it was not till 1854 that the school was opened, Flintbeing chosen as the site. [377] In 1850 the state granted the schoolfifteen sections of its salt spring lands, later increasing the numberto twenty-five, which amounted in all to 16, 000 acres. [378] The schoolis under a board of three trustees, and is visited by the state board ofcharities and corrections. [379] There are fourteen day schools in thestate, operating under the state law:[380] Bay City, opened in 1901;Calumet, 1902; Detroit, 1894; Grand Rapids, 1898; Houghton, 1908; IronMountain, 1906; Ironwood, 1903; Jackson, 1912; Kalamazoo, 1904;Manistee, 1904; Marquette, 1907; Saginaw, 1901; Sault Ste. Marie, 1906;and Traverse City, 1904. There is a private school at North Detroit, theEvangelical Lutheran Deaf-Mute Institute, opened in 1873. [381]

_Minnesota. _ The state school was opened at Faribault in 1863, though ithad been planned in 1858. [382] The school is governed by a board ofseven directors, including the governor and the superintendent of publicinstruction, while the state board of control has the financialadministration. [383] There is a day school in St. Paul, opened in 1913, and supported by the city and with private aid. [384]

_Mississippi. _ The state school was opened at Jackson in 1854. [385] Itis in the hands of a board of six trustees, including the governor. [386]

_Missouri. _ A school under Catholic auspices was established in St. Louis in 1837, to which the state sent some of its children, whileothers were sent to schools in other states. [387] The state school wasopened at Fulton in 1851. [388] It is governed by a board of fivemanagers, and is visited by the state board of charities. [389] There isa day school in St. Louis, founded in 1878, and managed as part of thepublic school system. In the same city is a private school, under theSisters of St. Joseph, opened in 1885 and offspring of the school of1837. It is known as the Immaculate Conception Institute, and is partof a convent and orphans' home. [390]

_Montana. _ Before the establishment of a school, deaf children were sentto schools in other states. [391] The state institution for the deaf andblind was opened at Boulder in 1893, [392] 50, 000 acres of the publicland having been given by Congress for its benefit. It is under a boardof nine trustees, appointed by the state board of education, with alocal executive board of three, there being other state inspectionalso. [393]

_Nebraska. _ Before the establishment of a school, deaf children weresent to Iowa. [394] In 1869 the state school was opened at Omaha. [395] Itis governed by the state board of control of state institutions. [396]

_Nevada. _ Deaf children have been sent since 1869 to California or Utahfor education, the superintendent of public instruction contracting forthem. [397]

_New Hampshire. _ In 1821 the state began sending its deaf children tothe school at Hartford. [398] They are now sent to the schools in theseveral New England states, as the governor and council may direct, onthe recommendation of the board of control. [399]

_New Jersey. _ In 1821 the state began to provide for the education ofits deaf children in the schools in Pennsylvania and New York. [400] In1883 the state school was established at Trenton. [401] It is related tothe state department of education. [402] There are two day schools in thestate, at Newark and Jersey City, both opened in 1910, and operatingunder the state law. [403]

_New Mexico. _ A private school was opened at Santa Fé in 1885, which in1887 was taken over by the territory. [404] It was given 50, 000 acres ofthe public land, and on the admission of New Mexico as a state, this wasincreased to 100, 000. The school is directed by a board of sixtrustees. [405]

_New York. _ There are in this state eight institutions, three dayschools, and two private schools. The institutions are all privatecorporations receiving state aid. The first of these was the New YorkInstitution for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, which was openedin 1818 in New York City. [406] In 1819 the state began to makeappropriations. The school is governed by a board of twenty-onetrustees. [407] The next school was Le Couteulx St. Mary's Institutionfor the Improved Instruction of Deaf-Mutes, organized in Buffalo in 1853by a benevolent society, and opened in 1862. In 1872 it came within thestate law as to public aid. [408] It is controlled by a board of sevenmanagers. In New York City in 1867 the New York Institution for theImproved Instruction of Deaf-Mutes was established, which had resultedfrom a private class. It is in the hands of an association formed forthe purpose, the management being vested in a board of twenty-onetrustees. [409] In 1869 St. Joseph's Institution was opened in New YorkCity, a branch being created in Brooklyn in 1874. [410] It is under thecontrol of the Ladies of the Sacred Heart of Mary, and directed by aboard of seven managers. The Central New York Institution was opened atRome in 1875, and is governed by a board of fifteen trustees. [411] TheWestern New York Institution was established at Rochester in 1876, andhas twenty-one trustees. [412] The Northern New York Institution wasestablished at Malone in 1884, and is under a board of fifteentrustees. [413] The Albany Home School for the Oral Instruction of theDeaf was opened in 1889 as a private affair, and came under the statelaw in 1892. [414] It has a board of eight trustees. The New York lawadmitting children into these several institutions is peculiar, pupilsunder twelve years of age being sent as charges of the counties, andthose over that age as state pupils, who are appointed by the statecommissioner of education. The schools are visited both by thedepartments of education and of charities. [415] The three day schoolsare in New York City, one in Manhattan, opened in 1908, one in Brooklyn, opened in 1910, and one in Queens, opened in 1911, the last two beingannexes of the first. The two private schools are also in this city: theWright Oral, opened in 1894, and the Reno Margulies, opened in1901. [416]

_North Carolina. _ A school was planned in this state in 1828, but it didnot come into being till 1845, when the state institution wasestablished at Raleigh, [417] which was for both the deaf and the blind. In 1894 a school was opened at Morganton for the white deaf, [418] thecolored remaining in a department of the former school. Both schools arecontrolled by boards of directors--eleven for the Raleigh and seven forthe Morganton--and are inspected by the departments of education and ofcharities. [419]

_North Dakota. _ Prior to the opening of a state school, children weresent to schools in other states. In 1890 the state institution wascreated at Devil's Lake. [420] It is in charge of the state board ofcontrol. [421] On the admission of North Dakota as a state, 40, 000 acresof the public land were set aside for the benefit of the school. It isfurther supported by a tax of six per cent of one mill on the assessedproperty valuation of the state. [422]

_Ohio. _ A movement was on foot for the establishment of a school atCincinnati in 1821, but did not succeed. A private school was opened in1827 at Tallmadge, which lasted two years. The state school wasestablished at Columbus in 1829. [423] It is now in the hands of thestate board of administration. [424] Five day schools are in operation inthe state: Cincinnati, opened in 1886; Cleveland, 1892; Dayton, 1899;Ashtabula, 1903; and Toledo, 1911. [425] There are two private schools inCincinnati: one, the Notre Dame, under the Sisters of Notre Dame, openedin 1890, and the other in 1906. [426]

_Oklahoma. _ Before creating an institution of its own, Oklahoma providedfor the education of its deaf children in a private school at Guthrie, which had been opened in 1898. [427] In 1908 the state school wasestablished at Sulphur, [428] and in 1909 a second school was opened atTaft, known as the Industrial Institute for the Deaf, the Blind andOrphans of the Colored Race. [429] The former school is directed by aboard of four trustees, and the latter by a board of five regents, thestate superintendent of public instruction being a member of each. Theschools are related to the state department of education, and areinspected by that of charities. [430]

_Oregon. _ A private school was started at Salem in 1870, which in 1874was taken over by the state. [431] It is now administered by the stateboard of control. [432] There is a day school in Portland, opened in1908, and supported by the city. 

_Pennsylvania. _ There are four institutions and two private schools inthis state. Two of the institutions are private corporations receivingstate aid, and two are state-owned schools. The first to be establishedwas the Pennsylvania Institution, which was opened in 1820 inPhiladelphia. [433] Friends of this school have been generous from thestart, and it has probably received several hundred thousand dollars ingifts. The governing board is composed of twenty-seven members. [434] TheWestern Pennsylvania Institution near Pittsburg was established in 1876, and was the result of a church mission which had begun in 1868 anddeveloped into a day school. It is directed also by a board oftwenty-seven members. [435] The Pennsylvania Oral School was founded atScranton in 1883. It was a private institution till 1913, when it wasmade a state school. It is governed by a board of eighteen trustees, sixof whom are appointed by the governor. [436] The Home for the Trainingin Speech of Deaf Children before they are of school age was started inPhiladelphia in 1892 as a private school, and then adopted by thestate. [437] It is under a board of five trustees. All these schoolsreceive appropriations from the state, and are visited by the stateboard of charities. [438] The private schools are the Forrest Hall inPhiladelphia, opened in 1901, the De Paul Institute of Pittsburg, openedin 1908, and the Archbishop Ryan Memorial Institute in Philadelphia, opened in 1912. To these a certain amount of state aid is granted. [439]

_Rhode Island. _ In 1842 the state began to send its deaf children to theschool at Hartford, a policy continued till a local school wascreated. [440] In 1877 a class for the deaf was started in Providence, for the benefit of which the state made appropriations, and which wassoon taken over as a state school. [441] It is now under a board ofeleven trustees, including the governor and lieutenant-governor, and isrelated to the state board of education. [442]

_South Carolina. _ A school was proposed in this state in 1821, [443] butit was some years later that one was established. In 1834 the statebegan sending deaf children to the Hartford school. [444] In 1849 aprivate school was opened at Cedar Springs as a department in a hearingschool, and in 1857 this was adopted by the state. [445] The school isfor the deaf and blind, and is under a board of five commissioners, oneof whom is the state superintendent of education. [446]

_South Dakota. _ In 1880 a private school was started at Sioux Fallswhich the territory of Dakota soon took over, [447] before this some ofthe deaf having been sent to the schools in Iowa, Nebraska andMinnesota. In 1889 when South Dakota was admitted as a state, the schoolwas retained at the same location; and Congress granted it 40, 000 acresof the public land. The school is under the direction of the stateboard of control. [448] A private school was established at Lead in 1911, known as the Black Hills School. 

_Tennessee. _ The state school was established at Knoxville in 1845. [449]It is under a board of fourteen trustees, including the superintendentof public instruction, and is visited by the state board ofcharities. [450]

_Texas. _ The state school was established at Austin in 1857, [451]receiving 100, 000 acres of the public land which had been set apart bythe state for its several eleemosynary institutions. In 1887 a schoolfor the colored deaf and blind was opened in the same city. [452] Theschools are each under a board of five trustees. [453]

_Utah. _ In 1884 a class for the deaf was begun at the state universityat Ogden, and in 1888 a department was created. In 1892 the state schoolwas established. [454] It is for both the deaf and the blind, and isunder a board of six trustees, including the attorney-general. [455] Onthe admission of Utah as a state, 200, 000 acres of the public land werebestowed upon the school. 

_Vermont. _ In 1825 the state began to send pupils to the AmericanSchool, [456] and later to the schools in Massachusetts as well. [457] In1912 a school for the deaf and blind was established at Brattleboro, known as the Austine Institute. It is a private institution, with aboard of six trustees, but receiving state aid and under statesupervision. [458]

_Virginia. _ A private school was started in 1812 in Goochland County, thence moved to Cobbs, and finally to Manchester, coming to an end in1819. The state school for the deaf and the blind was established atStaunton in 1839, though planned several years before. [459] In 1909 aschool for the colored deaf and blind was created at Newport News. [460]The first school is under a board of seven trustees, including thesuperintendent of public instruction, and the second under a board offive. Both are visited by the state board of charities. [461]

_Washington. _ Before the creation of a state school some of the deafchildren were sent to Oregon for instruction. [462] In 1885 a privateschool was started at Tacoma, which lasted one year. The state schoolwas established at Vancouver in 1886. [463] It is governed by the stateboard of control. [464] At Seattle and Tacoma there are day schoolssupported by the respective cities, the former opened in 1906 and thelatter in 1908. 

_West Virginia. _ The state school for the deaf and the blind was openedat Romney in 1870, [465] before which time children had been sent to theschools in Virginia and Ohio. [466] The school is under a board of nineregents, while the state board of control has charge of financialaffairs. [467]

_Wisconsin. _ Prior to the establishment of a school of its own, Wisconsin sent some of its deaf children to the Illinois School. Thestate institution, which had been planned in 1843, was opened in 1852 atDelavan, resulting from a private school started two yearspreviously. [468] It is under the direction of the state board ofcontrol. [469] There are 24 day schools in the state, operating under thestate law:[470] Antigo, opened in 1906; Appleton, 1896; Ashland, 1898;Black River Falls, 1897; Bloomington, 1906; Eau Claire, 1895; Fond duLac, 1895; Green Bay, 1897; Kenosha, 1913; La Crosse, 1899; Madison, 1908; Marinette, 1895; Marshfield, 1912; Milwaukee, 1898; Mineral Point, 1912; New London, 1906; Oshkosh, 1895; Platteville, 1906; Racine, 1900;Rice Lake, 1907; Sheboygan, 1894; Stevens Point, 1905; West Superior, 1897; and Wausau, 1890. A private school, the St. John's Institute, wasestablished at St. Francis in 1876, and is conducted by the Sisters ofthe Third Order of St. Francis. 

_Wyoming. _ Deaf children have been sent since 1886 to the schools inCalifornia, Utah, Colorado and Montana, the state board of charities andreform having them in charge. [471]

_The American Possessions. _ Outside of the United States proper verylittle has been done for the education of the deaf. In the PhilippineIslands a school has been established, this being opened at Manila in1907. [472] A school under Roman Catholic auspices was started in PortoRico in 1911; and it is possible that one under the direction of thestate will be created in time, a school for the blind having alreadybeen opened. In Alaska there is no school, though the deaf have beenlooked after to some extent by missionaries. [473] No provision has beenmade in the Panama Canal Zone or the Hawaiian Islands. [474]

FOOTNOTES:

[313] Laws, 1843-4, p. 43; 1859-60, p. 344. 

[314] Laws, ch. 209. 

[315] Laws, 1870, p. 95; 1871, p. 89; 1879, p. 34; 1887, p. 70; 1889, p. 29; 1893, p. 943; 1901, p. 25; 1904, p. 45; 1907, p. 11; Code, 1907, §1933ff. The school has received a gift of $5, 000 for shops. 

[316] Laws, 1891, ch. 94; 1895, ch. 10; Rev. Stat. , 1901, §§ 2267-2271. 

[317] Laws, 1912, p. 149. 

[318] To this the legislature appropriated a small sum. Another privateschool was started at Fort Smith in 1860, but lasted only one year. 

[319] Acts, July 17, 1868; April 9, 1869; Digest, 1874, p. 204. Therewere a few gifts at first, and aid came also from the city. The stategranted two tracts of land, one of 100 acres. 

[320] Laws, 1883, p. 182; 1891, ch. 155; 1893, chs. 31, 126; 1895, ch. 151; 1905, ch. 256; 1909, ch. 56; Digest, 1904, § 4129ff. 

[321] Laws, 1860, pp. 211, 277; 1861, p. 81; 1863, p. 583; 1865, p. 579;1874, p. 751; 1875, p. 686. In the beginning there were contributionsfrom friends and proceeds from fairs. The city of San Francisco gave$7, 000 for a site, and the county a lot. 

[322] Laws, 1905, ch. 382; Pol. Code, 1909, § 2236ff. In addition to thefunds given at first, over $50, 000 has been donated to the school, three-fourths coming from one source in 1871. 

[323] Laws, 1903, p. 88; Code, § 1618. Separate classes (oral) may beestablished by city boards or district trustees where there are five ormore pupils, 3 to 21 years of age. There were day schools in Fresno from1904 to 1906, and in San Diego from 1912 to 1913; and private schools inSan Francisco and Oakland from 1898 to 1900. 

[324] Act Feb. 13, 1874; Gen. Laws, 1877, p. 653. The school resultedlargely from the action of some public-spirited men. It was establishedon condition that 5 acres be given, and it received 12. 

[325] Laws, 1885, p. 277; 1891, p. 388; 1895, ch. 98; 1909, p. 333; Ann. Stat, 1908, § 4313ff. ; 1912, § 5009ff. The school has been the recipientof $30, 000 or more, largely from two men. 

[326] A charter was granted in May, 1816. See Laws, 1829, ch. 24; 1837, p. 26; 1843, p. 26. 

[327] At the beginning about $30, 000 was raised for the school. 

[328] This was known as the Whipple School at first. In 1898 it was madea joint stock corporation, capitalized at $8, 500. It began to receivestate aid in 1872. Act July 24; Laws, 1874, p. 8. 

[329] Laws, 1895, p. 145; 1903, ch. 207; 1911, ch. 47; Rev. Laws, 1902, § 1831. The _per capita_ allowance is $275. In 1860 a private school wasopened at Hartford, lasting one year. 

[330] The counties paid the cost at first. Act March 4, 1835; Laws, 1841, p. 418; 1843, p. 418; Rev. Stat. , 1852, p. 138; Laws, 1860, ch. 119; 1875, ch. 58; 1899, ch. 245; 1907, ch. 143; Rev. Code, 1893, pp. 388-390. The president of the state hospital for the insane isauthorized to visit the schools to which pupils are sent. 

[331] Stat. , 1857, ch. 46; 1860, ch. 120. An unsuccessful attempt hadbeen made a year or two before to start a school. To the new school$4, 000 of a former orphans' home was turned over. 

[332] Stat. , 1864, ch. 120; 1868, ch. 262. 

[333] U. S. Comp. Stat. , 1901, pp. 3365-71. Colored children are sent toMaryland for education. To the college and school $25, 000 or more wasgiven at the beginning, funds coming from several cities in the East. Afew acres of land were also given. For two years support largely camefrom private funds. In the college there are now 100 full scholarships. In Washington also an experimental school was opened in 1883, continuingthree years. Another private school was started in 1856, lasting oneyear. 

[334] Laws, 1883, ch. 3450. The school resulted from the work of theAssociation for the Promotion of the Education of the Deaf and theBlind. The city gave 5 acres of land and $1, 000, and in 1905 gave 10acres further. 

[335] Laws, 1895, no. 41; 1903, ch. 104; Gen. Stat. , 1906, §§ 418-425. Adepartment for colored pupils was opened in 1895. 

[336] Laws, 1834, p. 281; 1838, p. 92; 1842, p. 24. An appropriation, first of $3, 500, then of $4, 500, was made. 

[337] Laws, 1845, p. 25; 1847, p. 94; 1852, p. 80; 1854, p. 30; 1856, p. 159; 1858, p. 47; 1860, p. 27. It was first part of an academy. Anotherprivate school was established at Lexington in 1856, but it too wasshort lived. At the school at Cedar Springs there were several statepupils. 

[338] Laws, 1876, p. 30; 1877, p. 32; 1881, p. 96; 1892, p. 83; 1897, p. 83; Code, 1911, § 1416ff. In 1882 a department was created for thecolored. For a time the deaf and the blind were allowed freetransportation on the state-owned railroad. Laws, 1853, p. 97. Theschool has received a gift of $500. 

[339] Laws, 1891, p. 226; 1899, p. 162. 

[340] Laws, 1907, p. 240; 1909, p. 379; Rev. Code, 1908, § 800ff. Theschool has been given 20 acres of land. In this state, 150, 000 acres ofpublic land are granted to the charitable and other institutions, theschool for the deaf not being mentioned by name. 

[341] Laws, 1839, p. 162; 1845, p. 93; 1847, p. 47; 1849, pp. 93, 163;1851, p. 102; 1853, p. 90; 1857, p. 84; 1875, p. 104. It seems that atfirst one-fourth of the interest of the school fund was allowed to theinstitution, but in 1851 a tax of one-sixth mill was laid for itsbenefit, which lasted four years. 

[342] Laws, 1897, ch. 23; 1909, p. 102; Rev. Stat. , 1909, ch. 23. Theschool has been given five acres of land by the city, and a private giftof $2, 000. 

[343] Laws, 1897, p. 290; 1905, p. 373; 1911, p. 502; Rev. Stat. , 1909, p. 2013. The superintendent of public instruction may grant permissionfor teaching one or more classes of not less than three pupils, averageattendance, in the public schools. The amount authorized from the stateis not to exceed $110 for each pupil. The first Chicago school was aprivate one, established in 1870, and lasting one year. In 1874 anotherschool was opened, which was taken over by the city in 1875. The stateallowed it $15, 000, and appropriated $5, 000 a year till 1887, instead ofcreating an institution in the northern part of the state. See Laws, 1879, p. 20; Report of Illinois Institution, 1874, p. 76; P. A. Emery, "Brief Historical Sketch of Chicago Deaf-Mute Schools", 1886. There hasbeen connection between the Chicago schools and the McCowen Homes. Otherday schools in Illinois have been: La Salle, 1898-1899; Streator1898-1905; Derinda, 1899-1900; Rockford, 1901-1905; Moline, 1901-1908;Galena, 1902-1903; Dundee, 1903-1904; Aurora, 1903-1912; and Elgin, 1905-1906. In 1913 there were eleven day schools in Chicago, which wereconsolidated into four. In this city a vacation school is alsomaintained for the deaf. 

[344] This school has received among other gifts a bequest of $43, 000, adonation of $15, 000 from a ladies' society, and of $40, 000 from friends. 

[345] This school is under a board of twelve trustees. It has receivedsome private gifts, in addition to an endowment fund from its firsttrustees. There was in Chicago a private school for adults from 1905 to1913. 

[346] This school was taught by a deaf man largely at his own expense. In 1842 the state granted it $200. A census of the deaf was authorizedin 1839. Laws, p. 58. 

[347] Laws, 1843, ch. 70; 1844, ch. 16; 1845, ch. 69; 1848, ch. 59;1865, p. 124; Rev. Stat. , 1852, p. 243. For the benefit of the school atax levy was laid, first of two mills, then of five, and later offifteen, which continued till 1851, netting the school some $50, 000. 

[348] Laws, 1891, ch. 186; 1895, p. 157; 1899, ch. 118; 1907, ch. 98;1909, ch. 146; Ann. Stat. , 1908, p. 101ff. There was a private school atEvansville from 1886 to 1902. 

[349] Code, 1851, ch. 73; Laws 1853, ch. 26; 1855, chs. 56, 87. Anappropriation was made to the school while still a private one. 

[350] Laws, ch. 136. 

[351] Code, 1897, p. 926ff. ; Laws, 1902, ch. 122; 1909, ch. 175; 1913, p. 255; Code, 1907, p. 622ff. There was a private school at Dubuque from1888 to 1899, which received contributions, proceeds of fairs, etc. , ofseveral thousand dollars. It was hoped that this would be made a stateschool for the children of Eastern Iowa. 

[352] Laws, 1862, p. 95; 1864, ch. 50; 1865, ch. 36; 1866, ch. 48; 1871, ch. 34; 1873, ch. 135; 1877, ch. 130. To the private school the stategranted some aid. The school was located at Olathe on condition that 20acres of land be given for a site, and 150 for its benefit. 

[353] Laws, 1901, ch. 353; 1905, chs. 384, 475; Gen. Stat. , 1909, §8437ff. 

[354] Laws, 1822, p. 179; 1824, p. 452; 1836, p. 379. A private schoolwas opened at Hopkinsville in 1844, which lasted ten years. Pupils werereceived from several states. _Annals_, xliv. , 1899, p. 359. 

[355] This grant seems not to have been wisely administered, but over$57, 000 was realized from it. 

[356] Laws, 1850, p. 23; 1851, ch. 26; 1852, p. 357; 1854, p. 15; 1870, p. 2; 1882, p. 16; 1912, ch. 71; Stat. , 1909, § 270ff. A department forthe colored was created in 1884. Laws, p. 175. There have been someprivate gifts to the school, amounting to about seven thousand dollars. 

[357] See Laws, 1838, p. 9; Digest, 1842, ch. 39; Report of KentuckySchool, 1848, p. 8. 

[358] Laws, 1852, p. 220; 1866, p. 124; 1871, p. 203; 1888, p. 51. 

[359] Laws, 1898, ch. 166; 1908, ch. 239; Rev. Stat. , 1904, pp. 579-582. 

[360] A day school was also maintained here from 1886 to 1891. 

[361] Laws, 1823, p. 233; 1824, p. 353; 1829, p. 25; 1840, ch. 70; 1852, p. 359; 1879, p. 122. 

[362] In 1877 the state made appropriations for pupils outside ofPortland, and in 1881 for the entire state. 

[363] Laws, 1885, ch. 220; 1893, ch. 203; 1897, ch. 446; 1899, ch. 2;Rev. Stat. , 1903, p. 226. The property was conveyed to the state. 

[364] Laws, 1826, ch. 255; 1827, ch. 140; 1833, ch. 125; 1834, ch. 169;1839, ch. 28; 1849, ch. 209; 1854, ch. 224; 1860, ch. 129; 1865, ch. 68. 

[365] Laws, 1867, ch. 247; 1868, chs. 205, 409; 1870, p. 922; 1874, ch. 42. The society was to have power of perpetual succession, and the statewas to appropriate $5, 000 a year till the endowment fund should reach$200, 000. The school was opened in certain barracks belonging to thestate. 

[366] Laws, 1874, p. 483. This school was formed under a board composedof three visitors each from the school for the deaf and that for theblind. 

[367] Laws, 1886, ch. 78; 1892, ch. 272; 1904, ch. 299; 1906, ch. 236;Gen. Laws, 1904, i. , p. 979. The school has received in gifts over sixthousand dollars since 1880. Grants have also been made to it by thecity of Baltimore. 

[368] The first receives $1, 000 a year, and the second $1, 200. 

[369] Laws, 1817, ch. 24; 1818, p. 496; 1825, ch. 83; 1828, ch. 97;1841, ch. 45; 1843, ch. 79; 1855, ch. 84. 

[370] Laws, 1867, chs. 311, 334; 1868, ch. 200; 1869, ch. 333. 

[371] Some other gifts have also been received, including a gymnasiumand two donations of $50, 000 each. 

[372] See Laws, 1886, ch. 42; 1899, p. 554. This school resulted from agift of $1, 500 to the New England Gallaudet Association, a home foradults first being contemplated. See Report, 1881, p. 7; Report ofUnited States Commissioner of Education, 1880, p. Clxviii. The schoolhas received a legacy of $50, 000, and there are annual donations of twoor three thousand dollars. 

[373] This school came within the law as to state pupils. Some giftshave no doubt been received by it. 

[374] Laws, 1869, p. 637; 1885, ch. 201; 1905, ch. 468, The stategranted the land for a building. This school has received gifts ofseveral thousand dollars. 

[375] The home is under an executive committee of twenty-five, withpowers of trustees. Subscriptions and donations average one or twothousand dollars a year, and in all have amounted to some $50, 000. 

[376] Laws, 1871, ch. 300; 1875, ch. 118; 1886, ch. 241; 1887, ch. 179;1888, ch. 239; 1889, ch. 226; 1906, ch. 383; Rev. Stat. , 1902, p. 412. Appointments are made by the governor with the approval of the secretaryof the board of education. The state appropriations are $150 for the dayschool, and from $250 to $350 for the other schools. 

[377] Laws, 1848, pp. 246, 463; 1849, pp. 137, 327; 1850, p. 334; 1853, no. 80; 1857, p. 185. 

[378] The school also received 20 acres of land and $3, 000 from thecity. 

[379] Laws, 1867, p. 128; 1873, chs. 109, 111; 1881, pp. 5, 274; 1891, ch. 169; 1893, ch. 116; 1907, chs. 48, 275; Comp. Laws 1897, §§1990-2008. 

[380] Laws, 1899, ch. 176; 1905, ch. 224. The law reads: "Upon theapplication of a district board or of a board of education of a city inthis state to the Superintendent of Public Instruction, he shall grantpermission to such board to establish, and such board shall be empoweredto establish and maintain, within the limits of its jurisdiction, one ormore day schools, having an average attendance of not less than threepupils, for the instruction of deaf persons over the age of three", etc. The amount allowed for each pupil is $150. There have been other dayschools in this state: Menominee, 1900-1907; Ishpeming, 1904-1909;Flint, 1911-1912; and L'Anse, 1912-1913. The school at Flint was anevening school for adults. 

[381] Ten congregations may be incorporated to organize such aninstitution, and hold property to the value of $50, 000. Laws, 1901, ch. 28. This school was for a time part of an orphan asylum. It has beengiven 20 acres of land. The control is in the hands of a board of ninetrustees. A private school was maintained at Marquette from 1879 to1883. 

[382] Laws, 1858, p. 175; 1863, ch. 9; 1864, ch. 71; 1868, ch. 17; 1874, ch. 18. In 1863 also provision was made for pupils in outside schools. The school was established on condition that the city give it 40 acresof land, and it received 25 acres in addition. 

[383] Laws, 1887, ch. 205; Laws, 1902, ch. 83; 1907, ch. 407; 1909, ch. 396; Rev. Laws, 1905, §§ 1931-1937. There is also a board of visitors ofstate institutions. Departments for the blind and for the feeble-mindedwere created here, but later separated. 

[384] There was another day school here from 1895 to 1898; and a privateschool from 1886 to 1893. A department for the deaf was established atSt. Olaf College at Northfield in 1907, but discontinued in 1912. See_Bulletin_, May, 1909; _Viking_, 1909, p. 56. 

[385] Act, March 1; Laws, 1855, p. 114; 1856-7, ch. 25; 1857, p. 40;1858, p. 230; Stat. L. , 1857, p. 169. The governor had recommended aschool in 1841. 

[386] Ann. Code, 1906, ch. 68. The school has received a gift of $5, 000. A department for the colored was opened in 1882. 

[387] In 1839 $2, 000 was appropriated for the deaf at St. Louis, and$210 for a pupil in the Kentucky school. Laws, pp. 27, 213. Some pupilswere sent to Ohio and Illinois also. See also Laws, 1847, p. 48. 

[388] Laws, 1851, p. 211; 1872, p. 155; 1874, p. 171; 1877, p. 264. Forty acres of land provided for the insane asylum were given to theschool. 

[389] Laws, 1895, p. 188; Rev. Stat. , 1909, § 1484ff. A department forthe colored was opened in 1889. 

[390] A branch of this school was maintained at Hannibal from 1882 to1887, and another branch in St. Louis from 1893 to 1900. In St. Louisthere was also a private school from 1885 to 1891, and from 1890 to1892. 

[391] Comp. Stat. , 1887, p. 917. 

[392] Laws, 1893, p. 181; Code, 1895, § 2330ff. 

[393] Laws, 1903, chs. 9, 10; Rev. Code, 1907, § 1115ff. A departmentfor the feeble-minded has been connected with this school. 

[394] Rev. Stat. , 1866, p. 374. 

[395] Laws, 1867, p. 59; 1871, pp. 94, 231; 1875, p. 146. Ten acres ofland were given by the city of Omaha. 

[396] Laws, 1897, ch. 26; 1901, ch. 70; 1905, ch. 147; 1909, p. 230;1911, p. 209; 1913, p. 537; Ann. Stat. , 1911, § 10, 006ff. A privateschool was opened in Omaha in 1897, lasting one year. 

[397] Laws, 1869, ch. 56; 1905, p. 253; 1907, p. 371; Rev. Laws, 1912, §1702ff. 

[398] In 1819 a committee was appointed to inquire into thecircumstances of the deaf and the blind. Laws, p. 245. See also Laws, 1821, p. 508; 1822, p. 92; 1836, ch. 256. 

[399] Laws, 1875, p. 484; 1879, ch. 58; 1899, ch. 99; 1905, ch. 106;Pub. Stat. , 1901, ch. 86. 

[400] The first appropriation was of $2, 000. Laws, 1821, p. 3; 1830, pp. 113, 314; 1838, p. 82; 1853, p. 140; 1860, p. 240; 1873, p. 45. A fewpupils were sent to the school at Mystic, Connecticut, shortly beforethe state school was created. 

[401] Laws, 1882, p. 259; 1884, p. 160; 1885, p. 177. The property of anold school for the children of soldiers was first made use of. In 1825 aschool was incorporated in this state, and $160 was allowed by thelegislature for each pupil. Laws, pp. 111, 124. Some private donationsseem to have been made, but the school never came into being. In 1875 atract of land was offered for a school. Report of Commission onProposals for Sites and Plans for Buildings for the Deaf, Blind and theFeeble-minded, 1874. In 1860 a private school was opened in Trenton, which continued six years. 

[402] Laws, 1891, ch. 97; 1892, ch. 203; 1893, p. 327; 1895, ch. 411;1910, p. 334; Comp. Stat. , 1910, p. 1896ff. 

[403] Day schools are authorized where there are ten or more Pupils in acity. Laws, 1910, p. 513. 

[404] Laws, 1887, ch. 31. There were a few contributions at first. 

[405] Laws, 1899, ch. 42; 1903, ch. 2; Comp. Laws, 1897, p. 904. 

[406] Laws, 1817, ch. 264; 1819, chs. 206, 238; 1822, p. 247; 1827, p. 329; 1832, ch. 223; 1836, chs. 228, 511; 1841, p. 133; 1849, p. 589. Seealso Cammann and Camp, "Charities of New York", 1868, p. 151; J. F. Richmond, "New York and its Institutions", 1871, p. 287. The citygranted $400 annually for several years, allowed the use of land at anominal rental for twenty-one years, and later gave an acre of land, besides furnishing quarters in a public building for eleven years. Bythe state the Institution was, together with a certain free schoolsociety, allowed for fourteen years one-half of the proceeds from finesor licenses on lotteries, which from 1819 to 1827 netted over $20, 000. In 1827 the legislature granted $10, 000 on condition that an equal sumbe raised from private funds, and that inspection be allowed to thestate. In 1825 a school was established by the state at Canajoharie, butin 1836 its property was ordered sold, and its pupils brought to the NewYork Institution. Laws, 1823, p. 224; 1836, p. 779. 

[407] From 1879 to 1882 a primary department was maintained atTarrytown. In 1857 it was proposed that the buildings and other propertybe conveyed to the state as trustee, but to be used always for theinstruction of the deaf, on condition that the state pay all the debtsand finish the buildings then in course of construction; but this planwas not adopted. Report, 1858, p. 9; Assembly Documents of State of NewYork, 1857, no. 190. The total amount of private gifts to this schoolseems to be about $125, 000, nearly all coming in the first few decadesof its existence. See Report, 1879, p. 101. The institution holds 38names in "perpetual and grateful remembrance". The funds are given in1912 as $1, 030, 059, which are largely due to favorable investments. 

[408] Laws, 1871, ch. 548; 1872, ch. 670. Funds were received in thebeginning from the proceeds of bazaars, etc. , and an acre of land and abuilding were given to it. Contributions are still received from time totime. 

[409] Laws, 1867, ch. 721; 1870, ch. 180. Within a short time afteropening, $70, 000 was donated for the school. See Addresses upon Layingof Corner Stone, 1880. Other considerable gifts have come to it, one in1909 being of $30, 000, while there are annual contributions of severalthousand dollars. Land for a building was granted by the city forninety-nine years at an annual rental of one dollar. This school hasbeen under Hebrew auspices, but there has been discussion of its beingturned over to the city on the payment of its debts, to be kept as apublic non-sectarian school. See Reports, 1909, 1910. 

[410] Laws, 1877, ch. 378. To this school about $150, 000 seems to havebeen donated, to gather from the reports. Several thousand dollars arereceived annually. 

[411] Laws, 1876, ch. 13; 1880, ch. 335; 1890, ch. 469. Six acres ofland and several thousand dollars were given at the beginning. 

[412] Laws, 1876, ch. 331. A few gifts were received at first. 

[413] Laws, 1884, ch. 275; 1890, ch. 280. In the Census Report ofBenevolent Institutions of 1904 this school is given as under the directcontrol of the state. 

[414] Laws, 1892, ch. 36. 

[415] In 1863 it was enacted that county overseers or supervisors shouldplace a deaf child when likely to become a public charge in aninstitution; or a parent or friend of such a child from five to twelveyears of age might prove that the health, morals, or comfort of suchchild was endangered by the want of education or of proper care, andmight apply to the county officer for an order to admit the child to aninstitution. Laws, ch. 325. The _per capita_ allowance to the schools is$350. See Laws, 1851, ch. 272; 1854, ch. 272; 1864, ch. 555; 1875, ch. 213; 1876, ch. 13; 1886, ch. 615; 1894, ch. 556; 1903, chs. 62, 223;1909, ch. 21; 1910, ch. 140; 1912, p. 405; Cons. Laws, 1909, p. 727ff. The state allows $300 a year to a deaf person seeking a highereducation. Laws, 1913, ch. 175. 

[416] There have been a number of private schools in the state: theBartlett Family School, established in New York City in 1852, in 1853moved to Fishkill, in 1854 to Poughkeepsie, and discontinued in 1861; aschool at Niagara, 1857-1860; the Home for the Young Deaf in New YorkCity, organized in 1854, and in operation from 1859 to 1862, which wasintended for those too young to enter the New York Institution, andwhich received a number of contributions; a class in the Cayuga LakeAcademy at Aurora, 1871-1878; Syle's Free Evening Class in New YorkCity, principally for teaching trades to adults, 1874-1878; the KeelerSchool, a private class in New York City, 1885-1897; the WarrenArticulation School, 1890-1895; and the Peet School, 1893-1894. 

[417] Act, Jan. 12, 1845; Rev. Code, 1854, ch. 6; Laws, 1870-1, ch. 35;1873, ch. 134; 1876, ch. 156; 1879, ch. 187; 1880, p. 170; 1881, ch. 211. At first the counties were to raise $75 by taxation for each pupil. In 1876 a tax of 9 cents on $100 was laid for the benefit of the school. This school has received a gift of $4, 000. In 1869 colored deaf andblind were admitted, and in 1872 a department was created for them, thisbeing the first public action in the United States for their education. See Laws, 1872, ch. 134; Report of North Carolina Institution, 1869, p. 13. 

[418] Laws, 1891, ch. 399; 1893, ch. 69. 

[419] Laws, 1901, chs. 210, 707; 1907, chs. 929, 1007; Rev. Code, 1905, § 4187ff. 

[420] Laws, 1890, ch. 161. 

[421] Laws, 1891, chs. 56, 133; 1893, ch. 122; 1897, ch. 72; 1905, chs. 100, 103; Rev. Code, 1905, § 1133ff. 

[422] From this $1, 000 a month is received. 

[423] Laws, 1822, p. 5; 1827, p. 130; 1831, p. 427; 1832, p. 20; 1834, p. 39; 1837, p. 118; 1844, p. 8; 1846, p. 111; 1854, p. 71; 1856, pp. 42, 96; 1866, p. 116; 1867, p. 124. To the school at Tallmadge thelegislature granted $100 a year for two years. The state school was atfirst allowed the benefit from the taxes on auction sales in HamiltonCounty, which netted $2, 000 a year at first, but afterward ofdiminishing amounts. The lots for the school were bought "at a priceconsiderably below their supposed value". A donation of $15, 000 has alsobeen received by this school. In 1910 180 acres of land were bequeathedto the schools for the deaf and the blind. 

[424] Laws, 1885, p. 79; 1902, p. 273; 1908, p. 598; 1911, p. 211; Gen. Code, 1910, § 1872ff. 

[425] There was a school also in Cleveland from 1871 to 1874, and inToledo from 1890 to 1893. In Cincinnati a school was established by thecity in 1875, and in 1888 incorporated with the present one, which hadbeen started as a private school. Both the Cincinnati and Clevelandschools received aid from the state, but in 1902 this was held up by thecourts. Other day schools have been at Elyria from 1898 to 1907; atCanton from 1902 to 1904; and at Conneaut from 1909 to 1912. Accordingto the present law, on the application of a local board, schools may beestablished; $150 may be allowed from the state school funds for eachpupil; and the state commissioner is to appoint teachers, and inspectschools. Laws, 1902, p. 37; 1906, p. 219; 1913, p. 270; Gen. Code, §7755. In 1898 the establishment of day schools was made obligatory incertain cities. Laws, pp. 186, 236. Local tax levies have been ofconsiderable aid in this state. 

[426] A private school was in operation in Cincinnati from 1887 to 1890, and in Columbus from 1902 to 1904. 

[427] Laws, 1897, ch. 16; Rev. Stat. , 1903, § 3960; Governor's Message, 1903, p. 13. In 1899 a tax of two-fifths of a mill was levied for thebenefit of the deaf. Laws, p. 221. There was a private school at Byronfrom 1898 to 1899. 

[428] Laws, p. 617. 

[429] Laws, p. 546. 

[430] Laws, 1909, p. 534; 1913, p. 385; Rev. Laws, 1910, §§ 6986, 7014. The public land for the benefit of the schools is said to be worth$350, 000. The school at Sulphur was given 60 acres of land by the city, and that at Taft 100 acres by citizens. 

[431] Laws, 1872, p. 102; 1874, p. 88; 1880, p. 18. The legislature madean appropriation to the school while it was still in private hands. Itwas largely founded through the efforts of the Society to Promote theInstruction of Deaf-Mutes. Donations amounting to two or three thousanddollars, and four lots, were received at the beginning. 

[432] Laws, 1891, p. 138; 1893, p. 180; 1901, p. 300; 1907, ch. 79;1913, pp. 120, 683; Oregon Laws, 1910, ch. 23. The school was formerlyunder the state board of education. 

[433] A charter was granted in 1821. Laws, ch. 25. See also Laws, 1833, p. 512; 1836, ch. 268; 1838, pp. 263, 398; 1844, p. 221; J. P. Wickersham, "History of Education in Pennsylvania", 1886, p. 443;Report, 1870, appendix; 1875, appendix. 

[434] In 1889 a gift of $200, 000 was received, and in 1892 one of$50, 000, as well as other gifts. There are over 400 life members whohave contributed each $30, while there are 13 scholarships of $5, 000each. The present endowment funds amount to about $400, 000, as we areadvised. See also Reports of State Board of Charities. From 1881 to 1885a day school was conducted as part of the institution. 

[435] Laws, 1872, p. 97; 1881, p. 149. Aid was received from the city ofPittsburg at first. The school has been given over $100, 000, a number ofacres of land, and a Carnegie Library. 

[436] Laws, 1887, p. 238. There have been some gifts, including fiveacres of land. 

[437] Laws, 1891, p. 371; 1893, p. 272. About $7, 000 came at thebeginning as well as some land. Contributions now average severalthousand dollars a year. 

[438] Laws, 1871, p. 245; 1872, p. 9; 1893, p. 250; 1909, p. 405;Purdon's Digest, 1903, p. 1281ff. The _per capita_ appropriations to theseveral schools range from $260 to $357. In school districts of 20, 000population, special schools with eight or more pupils may beestablished. Laws, 1876, p. 157. 

[439] There have been day schools at Pittsburg, 1869-1876; Erie, 1874-1884; Allegheny, 1875-1876; and Philadelphia, 1880-1881. There wasa private school in Philadelphia from 1885 to 1889. 

[440] Rev. Stat. , 1857, p. 158. 

[441] Laws, 1878, p. 200. 

[442] Laws, 1891, ch. 922; 1896, chs. 324, 332; 1893, ch. 1175; 1901, ch. 809; Gen. Laws, 1909, chs. 100, 101. The governor makes theappointments. There is a state board of purchases and supplies inconnection with the school. 

[443] Act, Dec. 20. 

[444] Laws, 1834, p. 513. At first $2, 500 was appropriated. See alsoLaws, 1848, p. 524. 

[445] Laws, 1852, p. 187; 1871, p. 609. 

[446] Laws, 1878, p. 707; 1895, ch. 521; 1902, ch. 546; 1910, ch. 468;Code, 1912, ch. 27. A department for the colored was created in 1883. 

[447] Laws of Dakota, 1881, pp. 16, 65; 1883, ch. 26; 1887, ch. 41;Comp. Laws, 1887, § 261ff. Ten acres of land and a thousand dollars ormore were given to the school. 

[448] Laws, 1907, ch. 137; Comp. Laws, 1910, p. 150ff. 

[449] Act, Jan. 29, 1844; Laws, 1845-6, ch. 157; 1849-50, ch. 127; Code, 1858, p. 338; Laws, 1860, chs. 19, 69; 1866-7, ch. 42. The law creatingthe school was appended to one providing for the blind alone. At thebeginning $6, 400 and two acres of land were given to it. 

[450] Laws, 1877, ch. 49; Ann. Code, 1896, §§ 2660-2670. A departmentfor the colored was created in 1881. Laws, ch. 109. 

[451] Laws, 1856, p. 66; 1875, p. 66; 1883, p. 109. 

[452] Laws, p. 150. 

[453] Laws, 1902, ch. 10; 1905, p. 47; Rev. Stat. , 1911, p. 68. 

[454] Laws, 1888, pp. 33, 44; 1890, pp. 44, 68; Comp. Stat. , 1888, p. 662. For two years the school was conducted as a day school. It receivedsome county assistance at first, and there were some private donations. 

[455] Laws, 1892, p. 10; 1894, ch. 26; 1896, p. 100; 1897, p. 36; 1898, ch. 20; 1903, p. 51; 1907, pp. 14, 59; 1911, ch. 98; Comp. Laws, 1907, p. 789ff. 

[456] In 1817 a census of the deaf was taken. Laws, no. 25. 

[457] Laws, 1823, no. 40; 1825, no. 21; 1833, no. 21; 1839, p. 121; Rev. Stat. , 1840, p. 121; Laws, 1841, no. 22; 1842, no. 16; 1858, no. 3;1872, nos. 16, 19; 1892, no. 27; 1898, chs. 29, 30; 1899, no. 27; 1906, chs. 55, 56; Pub. Stat. , 1906, ch. 60. 

[458] Laws, 1908, p. 490; 1910, p. 84. The governor is commissioner forthe deaf, and designates and commits them. This school resulted from afund of $50, 000, which was bequeathed for a "hospital for the temporarytreatment of strangers and local invalids peculiarly situated", butwhich the court allowed to be used for the school. 

[459] Laws, 1838, ch. 19; 1839, p. 205; 1845, p. 385; 1846, p. 17; 1849, p. 385; 1856, p. 81. In 1825 a committee was sent to Kentucky to examinethe school. In 1835 a private association was formed to organize aschool. 

[460] Laws, ch. 164. 

[461] Laws, 1875, ch. 177; 1879, ch. 244; 1896, ch. 702; 1898, p. 276;1903, ch. 266; 1904, p. 75; Code, 1904, ch. 74. The Staunton schoolreceived some private donations at first, and 5 acres of land, besides alater legacy of $3, 000 for poor deaf children; and the Newport Newsschool has received a few gifts, including some land. 

[462] Laws, 1881, p. 211. 

[463] Laws, 1886, p. 136. At the beginning 100 acres of land weredonated. The school seems not to have profited by the gift from Congressof 200, 000 acres for charitable and reformatory institutions. 

[464] Laws, 1890, p. 497; 1897, p. 443; 1903, p. 266; 1905, ch. 139;1907, p. 238; 1909, p. 258; 1912, ch. 10; Code and Stat. , 1910, §4387ff. There was a department for the feeble-minded till 1906, and forthe blind till 1912, all being known as the "school for defectiveyouth". 

[465] Laws, 1870, ch. 116; 1871, ch. 71. A building and 15 acres of landwere given by the city. 

[466] Laws, 1868, ch. 71. 

[467] Laws, 1887, ch. 52; 1895, chs. 25, 39; 1897, ch. 25; 1905, ch. 66;Code, 1906, § 1774ff. Colored pupils are sent to Maryland for education. 

[468] Laws, 1852, ch. 481; 1857, ch. 34; 1858, ch. 102; Rev. Stat. , 1858, ch. 186. Eleven acres of land were given to the school. 

[469] Laws, 1866, ch. 105; 1869, ch. 8: 1880, ch. 116; 1881, ch. 298;1883, ch. 268; 1891, ch. 331; 1893, ch. 290; 1907, ch. 128; Rev. Stat. , 1898, ch. 38. 

[470] Laws, 1885, ch. 315; 1897, ch. 321; 1901, ch. 422; 1903, ch. 86;1907, ch. 128; Rev. Stat. , 1898, § 578. It is provided that on theapplication of a local board of education, the state Superintendent ofPublic Instruction, with the consent of the Board of Control, mayauthorize the establishment of schools. Inspectors are also appointed byhim, and the creation of schools may be compelled by the county judge. For each pupil the amount first allowed was $100, then $125, and now$150. For the board of pupils who do not live near the school, $100additional is allowed. The first day school in the state was a privateone at Milwaukee, founded in 1878 and lasting till 1885, when the lawwas enacted. It was under the auspices of the Wisconsin PhonologicalInstitute, $15, 000 being contributed for it by a ladies' society, and acity allowance being made to it in 1883. There have been other dayschools in the state: Manitowac, 1893-1901; Oconto, 1898-1899;Neilsville, 1898-1905; Sparta, 1899-1909; Tomah, 1899-1900; Rhinelander, 1902-1904; and Waupaca, 1905-1906. There was another school in Oshkoshfrom 1888 to 1889. 

[471] Laws, 1886, ch. 77; 1891, ch. 15; 1893, ch. 32; 1895, ch. 25;1907, ch. 10; Comp. Stat. , 1910, ch. 48. It has been provided that whenthere are as many as 12 applicants, a state school will be organized. Abuilding was erected and designed for the school in 1897, but was setaside for military purposes. By the act of admission to the Union, 30, 000 acres of land were granted for the school. The income from thisfund in 1910 was $2, 849. 

[472] See _Annals_, lii. , 1907, p. 208; liii. , 1908, p. 173; liv. , 1909, p. 193; _Association Review_, ix. , 1907, p. 572. The school opened with22 pupils. 

[473] See report of Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Proceedings of Conference ofCharities and Corrections, 1895, p. 322. In the Report of the Departmentof the Interior for 1908, pp. 274, 278, we have the following: "Congressin its appropriations for the education of the natives has also providedfor their support. Acting under this authority, an effort is being madeto reach the sick and indigent". It is possible that the needs of thedeaf will be discovered in this way. 

[474] In the Report of the Minister of Public Instruction to theHawaiian legislature, April 14, 1854, p. 17, it is stated: "Provisionfor the deaf, dumb and blind: No provision for such sufferers among us, and from the returns of the census there are on the islands 106 deaf anddumb, and 329 blind". No mention of "such sufferers" has been found in alater report. For much of the information concerning the Americanpossessions presented here, the writer is indebted to the ChiefBibliographer of the Library of Congress. 

CHAPTER XV

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR SCHOOLS

EXTENT OF CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS

Not only has provision for the education of the deaf been consummated inall the states, but in some of them this provision has been buttressed, as it were, by a permanent guarantee in the organic law. This regard, while not necessary practically for the continuance of the schools, isnone the less commendable, --and indeed is one that should be declared inevery state. Such provision concerning the education of the deaf, moredirect in some than in others, is found in the constitutions oftwenty-seven, or a little over half of the states. These are Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, SouthDakota, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and West Virginia. [475]

New York in 1846 was the first state to make reference thus to a schoolfor the deaf. Michigan, however, in 1850 was the first state to providedirectly for their education, followed in 1851 by Indiana and Ohio. Ofthe forty-two states adopting constitutions since 1846, twenty-sevenhave made reference to schools, while fifteen have failed to do so. Ofthe twenty states adopting constitutions since 1889, sixteen have madesuch provision. [476] It is to be noted, however, that many of the stateswith special reference to the education of the deaf have comparativelyrecent constitutions, while in others where no such provision is found, the present constitutions often date far back in our national history, and were adopted before attention had been called to the needs of thedeaf and similar classes. Hence, in general, it is not to be concludedfrom the mere presence or absence of a reference in the constitutionthat certain states are more solicitous than others for the education oftheir deaf children. 

LANGUAGE AND FORMS OF PROVISIONS

The language of these constitutional provisions for schools for the deafvaries to some extent. [477] In all of the constitutions, with theexception of that in Minnesota, schools for the deaf are coupled withthose for the blind, and unless the provision is under the caption of"education, " institutions for the insane are likewise provided for inthe same clause. In several instances there is more than one referenceto the school for the deaf. [478]

The most usual statement is that institutions for the deaf and dumb, theblind, and the insane shall be established and maintained, or fosteredand supported, by the state, as in Arizona, [479] Colorado, [480]Florida, [481] Idaho, [482] Kansas, [483] Michigan, [484] Montana, [485]Nevada, [486] Ohio, [487] South Carolina, [488] Utah, [489] andWashington. [490] In the South Carolina constitution the school is alsodeclared to be exempted from taxation; and in the Utah constitution afurther provision establishes the location, and guarantees againstdiversion the lands granted by the United States. [491] In theconstitutions of Arkansas, [492] Indiana, [493] Mississippi, [494] andOklahoma, [495] the statement or its equivalent is that it is the duty ofthe legislature to provide by law for the support of institutions forthe education of the deaf and dumb, and blind, and for the insane. 

In other states less direct or authoritative references are found. InWest Virginia[496] the legislature "may make suitable provision for theblind, mute and insane whenever it may be practicable, " while in NorthCarolina[497] the matter seems also optional. In the Minnesotaconstitution[498] there is an amendment by which the public debt isincreased for the purpose of establishing certain public institutions, including the school for the deaf. In the South Dakota constitution[499]the several charitable and penal institutions are enumerated, amongwhich is the school for the deaf, while direction is also given as tothe sale of land held for the benefit of the school. In New Mexico[500]the school is enumerated among the educational institutions, referencealso being made to the public land; and in Virginia[501] the school ismentioned in connection with the composition of the state board ofeducation. In the Texas constitution[502] a permanent fund is providedfrom the lands which have been granted prior to its adoption, whileanother reference is made to the printing to be done at the school. Inthe North Dakota constitution[503] the lands from Congress are declaredto be a perpetual fund and inviolable, while in another place thelocation of the school is provided for. In the Alabama constitution[504]the legislature is expressly declared not to be empowered to change thelocation of the school. In New York[505] the constitutional provisionshave reference to the subsidies granted to private institutions, itbeing stated that "nothing in the constitution shall prevent thelegislature from making such provision for the education and support ofthe blind, the deaf and dumb, and juvenile delinquents . .. As it maydeem proper, " and that the legislature is not to be prohibited fromaction by the prohibition of the credit or land of the state being"given to private associations, corporations and undertakings. " InLouisiana[506] a similar, though less explicit, reference to state aidis found. 

FOOTNOTES:

[475] The constitutions of most of the states provide for the educationof all their children, and the deaf could well be included here. Moreover, in the constitution of Nebraska (VIII. , 12) there is aprovision for children growing up in mendicancy and crime; and in thatof Wyoming (VII. , 18) that such charitable, penal or reformatoryinstitutions shall be established as the claims of humanity and thepublic good many require. In either of these the provision might beconstrued to apply to schools for the deaf. 

[476] In the constitutions of some states, as Michigan, Mississippi, NewYork, and South Carolina, there were provisions in the preceding as wellas the present drafts. 

[477] In the constitutions no reference is made to the deaf other thanin provisions for schools, except in the case of Mississippi, whereexemption from a certain tax is found. 

[478] In these constitutional references, the provision is as a rulefound under some general head as "public institutions", "stateinstitutions", or "miscellaneous". In the South Carolina constitutionthe provision is found under the caption "charitable", and in the NorthCarolina under "charitable and penal". Under the heading of "education"are the provisions in the constitutions of Arizona (one clause), Colorado (as an amendment), Michigan, Mississippi, New Mexico, Oklahoma(one clause), Texas (though under the sub-title "charitable"), Utah (oneclause), and Virginia. 

[479] XXII. , 15; XI. , 1. 

[480] VIII. , 1. A later amendment classifies it with the educationalinstitutions of the state. 

[481] XIII. , 1. Adopted the same year that the school was established. 

[482] X. , 1. 

[483] VII. , 1. 

[484] XI. , 15. 

[485] X. , 1; XI. , 12. 

[486] XIII. , 1. 

[487] VII. , 1. 

[488] XII. , 1; X. , 4. 

[489] X. , 10; XIX. , 2, 3. 

[490] XIII. , 1. 

[491] It is to be noted that in nearly all the states having governmentdonations of land, reference is made to its inviolability. 

[492] XIX. , 19. 

[493] IX. , 1. 

[494] VIII. , 209. 

[495] XII. , 2; XXI. , 1. 

[496] XII. , 12. 

[497] XI. , 10. 

[498] IX. , 14, as amended. 

[499] XIV. , 1. 

[500] XII. , 11. 

[501] IX. , 130. 

[502] VII. , 9; XVI. , 21. 

[503] IX. , 159; XIX. , 215. See also amendment, 1904, sec. 5. 

[504] XIV. , 267. 

[505] VIII. , 9, 14. 

[506] 53. 

CHAPTER XVI

QUESTION OF THE CHARITY CONNECTION OF SCHOOLS

INSTITUTIONS SOMETIMES REGARDED AS EDUCATIONAL: SOMETIMES AS CHARITABLE

In considering the relation of the state to its schools for the deaf, the question is raised as to the way they are regarded by the state, andin what scheme of classification they have been assigned. We find thatwith many of the states the institutions are held to be charitable, andthe further question is presented as to whether this is proper and just. 

In times past this has been the usual classification, but of late yearsan increasing number of states have made a change and now regard theinstitutions as merely educational. It would be difficult to say withprecision to what scheme of classification the schools in the severalstates should be ascribed; and in quite a number the lines shade off oneinto the other. From what has been said in the preceding chapters andalso from certain legislative classification, it would seem that theschools in the following states are regarded largely, if not entirely, as educational: Alabama, Arizona, Colorado, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Montana, New Jersey, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, RhodeIsland, South Carolina, Texas, Utah, Vermont, and West Virginia. Inabout half of the states, however, the institutions continue to beregarded as charitable to a greater or less extent from their connectionwith charity boards or from some other classification. Some arerecognized as educational, but at the same time not held altogether freefrom the charitable touch. [507]

CHARITY IN CONNECTION WITH SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF

Considerable difficulty at the outset rests with the word charity. Inits best sense, it is the finest word in our language, and from itssprings flow all benevolence, material and spiritual: when looked uponscientifically much of the repugnance and prejudice felt toward it islost, and it becomes the touchstone for the remedy of human ills. Inone sense, education is most surely and deeply charitable, whether ornot it is held to be but the equipment of the state for itsself-preservation. This has long been accepted, and so unanimously havethe states undertaken the instruction of their children that its verydiscussion is now unknown. 

But popularly conceived, charity is still something doled out andgranted by the giver as a matter of grace, and to the recipient arecarried associations that do not comport with independence and manlinessof character. Besides, education has long ceased to be thought of ascharitable, and only such institutions as are for the education of thedeaf and blind are left with the undesirable signification of the word. In addition, the state maintains institutions for certain of itsclasses, as the insane, the feeble-minded and the infirm, which as arule are in no sense educational from our standpoint, and otherinstitutions of a reformatory, corrective or punitive character, andwith them have to be classed the institutions for the deaf, all beingknown as the state's "charitable institutions, " or "state institutions;"while the public rarely makes discrimination, or notes the distinctionsinvolved. 

The chief trouble, then, in classifying the schools for the deaf ascharitable is this connection of the word charity, and the grouping ofthe deaf with certain other parts of the state's population which otherchildren do not have to share. The deaf are thus differentiated fromchildren who have no defect of sense, and the education of the one isthus education, and of the other charity. Schools in which the deaf areeducated would thus seem not to be given their just status. They aremisrepresented by being aligned, on the one hand, with people ofdefective or diseased minds, and on the other, with the state'sdelinquent and criminal classes. The deaf thus become wards of thestate, and constitute one of its dependent classes. They are "inmates"of an "eleemosynary" institution, and the fact that it is all foreducation is lost sight of. [508]

But, we are told, the treatment of deaf children should rest upon analtogether different basis, and they should, even in appearance, receivean education as a right and as nothing else. Education as the paramountprivilege of American children is so deeply established in Americaninstitutions and character that it would seem to be a principle to beapplied to all the children of the state. Admission into schools forthe deaf has become more and more like that in the regular schools. [509]The schools are open, as a general rule, only to those able and fittedto be educated, and the mentally and physically disqualified are oftenrejected. When a child has completed the prescribed number of years ofattendance, he can be provided for no longer, and at vacation time innearly all schools he must depart. The schools, as we are to see, havebecome free to all, while compulsory education laws have also been madeto apply. Hence if schools for the deaf are educational, they can beregarded as charitable only to the extent that all schools are soconsidered; they should not be looked upon in a different light, and thepublic should be as fully alive to their claims. [510]

ARGUMENTS FOR THE CONNECTION WITH THE BOARDS OF CHARITIES

Hitherto we have been discussing the theory in regard to the properplace in which the institutions are to be held, but we are now to seewhat are the actual grounds upon which the connection with the stateboard of charities is to be justified. Much might be said of thepractical workings of schools in connection with such boards, and it isclaimed that the schools get the substance at least in the way ofbeneficial treatment. By one superintendent it has been stated thus: "Intheory it is all wrong, but in practice it could not be improved upon. "Where the boards are composed of capable, broad-minded, sympathetic men, the needs of the schools can be satisfactorily looked into, and theirexperience with other institutions, where the problems are akin in theway of housing a large number of people, can be utilized to greatadvantage, especially in connection with sanitary, hospital and otherarrangements. [511] Such boards may secure supplies on more favorableterms, may systematize all the institutions, may properly apportion theappropriations to be asked of the legislature, may exercise a widersupervision, and may correlate all the means of the state for themaintenance of certain classes of its population. These boards may alsohave peculiar opportunities for coming across poor and neglectedchildren and of getting them in the schools. Lastly, and most importantof all, even though the institutions are educational, there is much alsoto be considered besides education alone, for a home and board arefurnished during the school year, and usually transportation andclothing as well to those in need of them. [512]

By the boards of charity themselves the institutions are not necessarilyregarded as charitable. [513] Many of them hold the institutions to beeducational, despite the charity connection, and few are unwilling togive recognition to their educational features. In none is there adesire to injure or stigmatize the deaf. The aim is to consider thematter in its practical bearings, and the question is held to be largelyone of classification and administration. With all the fact weighs thatboard, lodging, etc. , are given entirely free. [514] The clearest andfullest presentation of the point of view of the charity boards is givenin the following extract from a letter by one board:[515]

 The institutions are doubtless both educational and charitable, or at least ought to be, using these words in their ordinary application. It is not a question of merit or demerit on the part of the unfortunates or their families. It is not a question whether they are entitled to an education as much as normal children. So far as there is any real issue, it is one of classification for purposes of administration. The question seems to be whether the institutions that care for the above mentioned classes can best be administered under the department of charities that has charge of public institutions, or the department of education that usually has to do with institutions that furnish education only in the limited technical sense, where pupils attend school a few hours a day, but are not boarded at the institutions. Because an institution is an educational institution, I think it may be none the less a charitable institution. For example, it would hardly be denied that an orphan asylum is a charitable institution; yet an orphan asylum that was not an educational institution would be deplorable. In the state institutions for the deaf and the blind, throughout the country, the educational side is very properly emphasized. .. . These inmates would properly be classed as public dependents as they usually have been. .. . The whole trouble seems to arise from a feeling of aversion to the word "charity", and probably the word has been degraded. .. . To refer to the institutions under consideration as "educational institutions", without any qualification, would not be in the interest of clearness of thought, and would either lead to confusion or to some qualifying phrases, because the deaf and the blind are certainly different enough from the normal child to be considered, for many purposes, in a separate class, and the institutions which educate and support them, it would seem to me, need some term by which they can be designated, which would distinguish them from the educational institutions designed for the normal child. 

ARGUMENTS IN OPPOSITION TO THE CONNECTION

Yet over against all the arguments for the connection with the boards ofcharities the voice of the educators of the deaf is in unison that theconnection of the schools be completely severed with whatever is ofcharitable signification. [516] This feeling cannot all be ascribed tothe prejudice regarding the words employed. In the dissolving of thecharity connection an issue not to be disregarded is the moral effect onthe public. A right conception is to be obtained respecting theeducation of the deaf, and while in the schools and in after life theyare entitled to the recognition of the true character of this educationand of their status in the community. If the deaf after they have leftthe schools have shown that they are capable of wrestling unaided withthe difficulties of life, and are really not objects of charity at all, then they should be spared all discriminating associations. Indeed, asour new view of charity is the making of men capable of standing alone, and economic units of gain in society, so the deaf should not beconsidered as a distinct or dependent class, when by the use of certainexpressions this is done; and we should hold that if their work in theworld has justified them, then no barriers should be raised which theirfellows in society do not have to meet, and that their education shouldbe offered to them without discrimination or stigma. 

The benefits derived from the relation with the board of charities maybe more than offset by the connection with educational agencies, wherethe school is recognized as part of the state's educational system. Inrespect to the providing of maintenance for the pupils, this can beregarded as but an incidence, when any other plan would beimpracticable. The main, overshadowing purpose in the work of theinstitutions is education, and what are supplied beyond are only torender this the more effective. But after all this is said, theopponents of the charity connection insist that the burden of proof isupon those who advocate the connection. Why, they ask, should the deafchildren of the state who are as capable of being educated as others beconsidered objects of the state's charity? Why any more than otherchildren?

The feeling in the matter may be indicated by two declarations on thesubject, one by the educators of the deaf, and the other by the deafthemselves. The first is in the form of a resolution adopted by theConvention of American Instructors:[517]

 _Resolved_, that the deaf youth of our land unquestionably deserve, and are lawfully entitled to, the same educational care and aid as their more fortunate brothers and sisters; and that this education, the constitutional duty of the state, should be accorded them as a matter of right, not of charity, standing in the law, as it is in fact, a part of the common school system. 

The second is a resolution adopted by the National Association of theDeaf:[518]

 _Whereas_, the privilege of an education is the birthright of every American child . .. ; and

 _Whereas_, the deaf child . .. Has the same inalienable right to the same education as his more fortunate hearing brother; and

 _Whereas_, . .. The [modern] movement . .. [is] giving schools for the deaf their proper place as part of the public school system of the country; and

 _Whereas_, . .. Eighty-one per cent [of the deaf are] gainfully employed of those who have had schooling, thus indicating the value of education . .. ; therefore be it

 _Resolved_, . .. That education of the deaf on the part of the state is simply fulfillment of its duty as a matter of right and justice, not sympathetic charity and benevolence to the deaf; . .. That schools for the deaf should not be known and regarded, nor classified, as benevolent or charitable institutions, . .. [but] as strictly educational institutions, a part of the common school system . .. [and not with such associations as] tend to foster a spirit of dependence in the pupils and mark them as the objects of charity of the state. .. . 

CONCLUSIONS IN RESPECT TO THE CHARITY CONNECTION OF SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF

Certain inferences or conclusions may now be reached regarding ourquestion as to whether schools for the deaf may be regarded andclassified as charitable. 

1. In America the schools have been regarded both as educational andcharitable, but there is an increasing tendency to consider them aspurely educational. At present about half of the states hold thementirely or in the main as educational. 

2. The state boards or public authorities that regard the schools ascharitable are in no wise prompted by any desire to discriminate againstthe deaf, or to deny that they are less capable or worthy of educationthan others. The question is held to be mainly one of administration. 

3. Inasmuch as board and a home are provided in the institutions, and insome cases clothing and transportation also, the charitable element ispresent, and in point of fact the schools must be regarded _ad hoc_ ascharitable. 

4. This charitable feature, however, plays a slight and almostnegligible part in the work of the schools, being in fact onlyincidental, and the educational aims take precedence over all else. 

5. Because of the associations involved in the charity connection, whichare not shared in by the regular schools, and because of the little tosuggest charity in the after lives of the deaf, the schools for thedeaf have reason to protest against the connection. As education is theone purpose of the schools, and as their operations are conducted solelyto this end, they are entitled to an educational classification. 

6. That the schools for the deaf should thus be held and treated, to thefarthest possible extent, as purely educational, is demanded both byjustice and by the regard for the proper effect on the deaf and on thepublic. 

FOOTNOTES:

[507] Thus, in addition to the states named above, in the constitutionsof Michigan, Oklahoma and Virginia the institutions are designatededucational. In certain states also, as we have seen, the statesuperintendent of public instruction is _ex-officio_ member of thegoverning board, and in a few other states report is made to thedepartment of education. In New York and North Carolina the schools arevisited by this department. In a number also an educationalclassification is found in some of the statutory references or captions. See in particular on this subject, _Annals_, xlviii. , 1903, p. 348;lviii. , 1913, p. 327. 

[508] The earlier conception of the schools is in part illustrated bythe name "asylum" given. British schools were often called asylums orhospitals, and were largely founded and supported by charity. Likewisein America the term "asylum" was frequently given to the schools whenfirst started. But the name has now been generally discarded, and in butone state is the title retained, New Mexico. "School" is now mostlyused, while in a few "institution" is employed. See _Annals_, _loc. Cit. _ See also Report of Board of Penal, Pauper and CharitableInstitutions of Michigan, 1878, p. 41. 

[509] In Massachusetts appropriations were once "for beneficiaries inasylums for the deaf and dumb", but now they are "for the education ofdeaf pupils in schools designated by law". 

[510] In a legal sense, nearly all educational institutions can becalled charitable, especially if they are private affairs, and gifts forsuch purposes are held in the law as for charitable purposes. See 4Wheaton, 518; 2 How. (U. S. ), 227; 14 How. , 277; 44 Mo. , 570; 25 O. St. , 229. Not many cases have arisen in regard to the status of institutionsfor the deaf. In 1900 the Columbia Institution was held in the opinionof the Attorney-General to be under the department of charities, butCongress the next year declared it to be educational. See _Annals_, xlvi. , 1901, p. 345. In Colorado an opinion was rendered that the schoolwas educational alone, and not subject to the civil service rules, andthis was later ratified in the constitution and by the legislature. Someof the courts have been inclined to view the institutions as charitable. In Nebraska the school for the deaf was at first considered an asylumand in the same class with almshouses, rather than educational. 6 Neb. , 286. See also 43 Neb. , 184. In New York the provision of the lawallowing the State Board of Charities to inspect the Institution for theBlind was attacked, and it was held that, though the institution waspartly educational and was visited by the department of education, yetthe word charity was to be taken in its usual meaning, and if theinstitution as a private body educated, clothed and maintained indigentpupils, it was charitable. 154 New York, 14 (1897). 

[511] See Report of Illinois Board of Charities, 1872, pp. 13ff. , 32ff. 

[512] In a few cases a home during vacation is afforded to the indigentor unprotected. 

[513] In order to discover how these institutions are regarded by thedepartments of charities, letters of inquiry were sent by the writer toall the states of the Union. Replies were received in 45 out of 49cases, coming from boards of charities, boards of control, or in theirabsence from commissioners of education or other state officials, --andin a few cases from individuals or societies to whom the communicationwas turned over. In the answers, the institutions were called charitableby 6, educational by 13, both charitable and educational by 12, while by14 the question was not specifically answered. In some instances, thesereplies were only private opinions, but they represent none the less theviews of those most in touch with the charity activities of the states. In a few cases the replies were at variance with what has been acceptedregarding certain states. It was also found that boards of control donot necessarily consider the institutions as charitable. 

[514] By one board, while such schools are admitted to be partlyeducational, they are held "charitable in that they afford a home forcertain defective persons during the time of their dependence". By oneboard the pupils are called "charity patients". 

[515] The District of Columbia. 

[516] Many of the schools in their reports take pains to disclaim anybut a strictly educational character. Of the Michigan school it isexpressly stated that it is "not an asylum, reformatory or hospital"; ofthe Colorado that it is "not an 'asylum' or 'home' for the afflicted; itis not a hospital for the care and treatment of the eyes and ears; andit is not a place for the detention and care of imbeciles"; of theIllinois that it is "not a reformatory, poor house, hospital or asylum";of the Indiana that it is "not an asylum, place of refuge, reformschool, almshouse, children's home or hospital"; of the Georgia that itis "in no sense an asylum . .. Or charitable institution"; and of theMississippi that it is "in no sense an asylum . .. A home . .. [nor aplace] for medical treatment. " See also Report of Commissioner of PublicLands and Buildings of Nebraska, 1896, p. 356; Education Department ofNew York, 1912, p. 81. 

[517] Proceedings, xvii. , 1905, p. 168. See also _ibid. _, xv. , 1898, p. 216; _Annals_, lv. , 1910, p. 133. The schools are also said to be"maintained solely for the instruction of a large and interesting classof children who, by reason of a physical infirmity, the loss of hearing, are denied instruction in the public schools". Dr. A. L. E. Crouter, Proceedings of National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1906, p. 249. See also Report of Kentucky School, 1909, p. 17. 

[518] Proceedings, viii. , 1907, p. 40. See also _ibid. _, v. , 1896, p. 47. 

CHAPTER XVII

PROVISIONS CONCERNING ADMISSION OF PUPILS INTO SCHOOLS

RULES AS TO THE PAYMENT OF FEES

Hitherto we have considered the several forms of provision for theschools for the deaf, and the general treatment accorded them. We nowturn our examination to the schools themselves in their relation to thepupils who enter them. Our first concern is with the provisions as tothe admission of pupils into the schools. 

We find that the schools, to all intents and purposes, are free to allapplicants mentally and physically qualified to enter. [519] Usually, when started, the schools were free to the indigent only, though some, especially in the West, were made free to all from the very beginning. However, there was little attempt to observe closely these limitations, and in time, as we have seen, they were for the most part givenup. [520] At present limitations of any kind are found in the smallernumber of states, and exist in these in form rather than in practice, sothat to-day laws or regulations of a restrictive nature may be regardedas but nominal. 

In all the states the schools are by statute free to the indigent atleast, and in less than a score is there a regulation short of universaladmittance prescribed. By the wording of the statute, either directly orby implication, it would seem to be indicated that the schools, or, intheir absence, the proper public authorities, in the following stateswere still empowered to demand a charge in whole or in part from thoseable to pay: Alabama, Arizona, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, Nevada, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Virginia--thesestates at least making reference in some place to the indigent. [521] Butwith or without such reference, as we have noted, in but few instancesis there a charge to any, indigent or not. [522] In some states proof ofindigence is still formally necessary, [523] and in others payment may bemade if desired. [524]

Little effort, then, is made to collect fees in American schools for thedeaf. The circumstances of the deaf themselves are usually such as todemand for them education without cost; while at the same time thegeneral American feeling that education should be a free gift of thestate to its youth would be sufficient to prevent attempts to securepayment, even if such action should be considered proper. 

PROVISION FOR COLLATERAL SUPPORT OF PUPILS

The state thus supplies the means for the education and maintenance ofpupils without cost to them; but to insure the attendance of those whoby reason of poverty might be prevented from availing themselves of itsbounty, it assists even further. Where no other means are provided, clothing and transportation to and from the schools are furnished freeof expense. Such charges are usually paid by the counties from which thepupils come, though a few states undertake this directly. A given summay be allowed for this purpose, or the actual cost may becollected. [525]

AGE LIMITS OF ATTENDANCE

With most of the schools the age limits of attendance are fixed, andpupils may be admitted only within the time prescribed by the law. Insome the age permitted is the common school age; in others pupils areadmitted who are of "suitable age and qualifications, " or "capacity;"and in some cases, no limits being set down, the matter seems to be leftto the discretion of the authorities. [526]

In schools where the limits of attendance are specified, the minimum ageis usually six, seven or eight, while a few schools admit at five. In afew of the day schools, and in most of the oral home schools, childrenmay be received as early as three, or even two, to make an earlybeginning in the use of speech, some of the home schools being designedexpressly to receive children under five, or before the regular schoolperiod. The age limit for the completion of the school period is oftentwenty or twenty-one, while a few schools may keep pupils longer, as totwenty-five. The most frequent age period at present, where age limitsare stated, is from six to twenty-one, but the period often begins andends at other ages. [527]

In some cases pupils are allowed to remain a certain number of years, but none beyond a certain limit, while in many the period may beextended two, three or five years, when it appears that the progress ofthe pupil justifies a more protracted residence. [528] Finally, it is tobe noted that the limits of attendance have in general been lowered, andhave been made to conform more and more with those of the regularschools. [529]

FOOTNOTES:

[519] Certain of the schools receive a few pay pupils, but these areusually from outside the state or are otherwise exceptionally providedfor. Receipts from such sources are inconsiderable, and have littleeffect on the revenues of the schools. According to the Census ofBenevolent Institutions of 1905, less than $55, 000 came to the schoolsin this way, the greater amount being for pupils of other states. 

[520] The statutes of some states, as of Maine and Massachusetts, evengo so far as distinctly to declare that no discrimination shall be madeon account of wealth. On this subject, see Report of Clarke School, 1885, p. 8. 

[521] In Florida tuition at least seems to be provided free by thestatute, and in Georgia free admission seems to be provided only for theindigent blind, while education is made free to all the deaf. On thissubject, see _American Journal of Sociology_, iv. , 1898, p. 51ff. 

[522] On this subject the superintendent of the Mississippi Schooladdressed letters to heads of Southern schools, and found onlytwo--those in Texas and Mississippi--having any requirement as topayment. In Mississippi there had been only two payments in the courseof a considerable number of years. In the Texas school for the year 1909we find the sum of $1, 546 collected as a "reasonable amount" forboard, --an unusual item in the receipts of a school. 

[523] Wherever a formal regulation is stated, we are advised that theschools are "free to the indigent", "free if parents are unable to pay", "free under certain circumstances", etc. In a few states, "certificatesof inability" have been demanded. 

[524] In Maine, for instance, the law states that the school is free, "provided, however, that nothing herein contained shall be held toprevent the voluntary payment of the whole or part of such sum by theparent or the guardian". 

[525] Some states, notably Washington, Minnesota, Mississippi, SouthCarolina, Arkansas, Utah, Nebraska, and Oklahoma allow funds to pay thetransportation of students who enter the college at Washington, and insome cases an even further allowance is made. In Minnesota and Nebraska, for instance, the amount is $300 a year. See _Annals_, lvi. , 1911, p. 180. 

[526] Even where the age period is fixed by law, it is not alwaysrigidly adhered to, and considerable elasticity may be allowed. Of theMichigan school we are told that the state "wisely allows the board oftrustees the privilege of admitting those [pupils] who are older oryounger, if they see fit". Report, 1908, p. 32. For discussion of theage period, see Report of New York Institution for Improved Instruction, 1870, p. 28; Ohio School, 1872, p. 17; Clarke School, 1888, p. 8;American School, 1893, p. 32; Michigan School, 1894, p. 22; New JerseySchool, 1898, p. 20; Pennsylvania Institution, 1901, p. 35; Proceedingsof Convention of American Instructors, xviii. , 1908, p. 156;_Association Review_, v. , 1903, p. 380. 

[527] The formal age period is from 6 to 21 in Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Maryland, Montana, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Washington; from 7 to 21in Kansas, Michigan, Nebraska and New Mexico; 7 to 25 in Georgia andNorth Dakota; 7 to 20 in Wisconsin; 8 to 20 in Minnesota; 8 to 21 inIndiana; 8 to 25 in West Virginia; 8 to 26 in California; 5 to 21 inIowa and Maine; 5 to 20 in Vermont; and in North Carolina at one school6 to 21, and at the other 8 to 23. In Alabama pupils between the ages of7 and 21 may remain 10 years, with an extension of 4, but none beyond25. In Arkansas the limits are 6 and 21, and the time of residence maybe extended to 13 years. In Texas they are 7 and 20, with a residence of12 years permitted. In Missouri they are 8 and 21, with a residence of12 years. In Kentucky and Virginia they are the same, with a residenceof 10 years. In Rhode Island they are 3 and 20, with a stay of 10 years, which may be extended. In New Jersey the limits are 8 and 21, and apupil is entitled to a stay of 8 years, which may be extended 3, and 3more in addition. In Louisiana the limits are 8 and 22, pupils under 14being allowed to stay 10 years; between 14 and 17, 8; and over 17, 5--with an extension in each case of 4 years. In Delaware a pupil maystay 5 years, with a further extension of 5. In Ohio the lower limit is7, and none may remain more than 13 years. In New York pupils may enterat 5, but after 12, the period is 5 years, with an extension of 3, and afurther one of 3. In Wyoming pupils may enter at 6; and in Connecticutat 6, with a residence of 12 years and an extension of 6. InMassachusetts a residence of 10 years is permitted, which may beextended, but here the Clarke School has no fixed time, and the HoraceMann takes pupils over 5. In Pennsylvania, though the statute seems tohave provided from 10 to 20 years as the period, there are no strictlimits, the Pennsylvania Institution receiving from 5 to 21, the WesternPennsylvania from 6 to 20, and the Pennsylvania Oral none under 6, except in special circumstances. In Utah there seems to be only an upperlimit of 30. 

[528] It sometimes happens that there are found a small number of deafpersons who are beyond the age allowed, but who are in need of a certainamount of schooling. Their condition is said to be "due to theirenvironments, to merciless and exacting parents, to sickness, and toother causes. " Report of Iowa School, 1812, p. 13. See also Report, 1910, p. 8. Under special arrangements, some of these might be benefitedno little by a few years of instruction. In Iowa such persons may now bereceived up to the age of thirty-five, if the State Board of Controlconsents. 

[529] We have already noticed that in the first schools an early age wasnot insisted upon, some pupils entering at 10 or 12, while theirattendance was also of short duration. The period was often from 9 to30. The latter age has been allowed in some states till recent years, asin Texas, Arkansas and Missouri. It may be stated here that the law asto residence applies usually only at the time of entrance, and theremoval of the parent may not always effect a change. For a case inpoint, see 4 R. I. , p. 587. 

CHAPTER XVIII

ATTENDANCE IN SCHOOLS

THE PROPORTION OF THE DEAF IN THE SCHOOLS

The question now arises as to whether the deaf generally attend theseschools provided for them. This inquiry really resolves itself into twoparts: how far the deaf have at some time and for a longer or shorterperiod had recourse to the schools; and how far they may be found to bein attendance at a given time. The one has relation rather to how widelythe schools are extending their educational opportunities, and the otherto how effectively they are accomplishing their ends. 

As to the first consideration, the schools are found to reach most ofthe deaf children with the privileges of an education to a greater orless extent. From the returns of the census[530] we find that nearlyfour-fifths (78. 4 per cent) of the deaf have attended school, overthree-fourths (77. 5 per cent) of these having attended the specialschools. The proportion would be greater still but for the number of thedeaf too young to enter school. The proportion of the deaf of schoolage who have attended school may likewise be estimated by comparing thetotal number of approximate school age with the number who were reportedto have been in attendance. There were, according to the census, 13, 905deaf children from five to twenty years of age. Of these, 10, 640, or76. 5 per cent, were reported to have attended school. [531] In 1912-1913the total number in attendance was 14, 474, which probably means a higherproportion. On the whole, then, it would seem that, in respect to thenumber of deaf children actually reached at one time or another, theschools make a really commendable showing, and one that is becomingbetter from year to year. 

The second matter, however, cannot be disposed of nearly sosatisfactorily. It is difficult to determine with any approach toexactness the respective proportions of the deaf in the several statesof school age who are out of school. The census does not give usdefinite information on this point; and though the school authoritiesthemselves are usually aware of conditions in their respective states, they seldom have the means of fully ascertaining. But we may learnsomething of the general situation. In the reports of some of theschools complaint is not infrequently made as to the number of deafchildren out of school who should be in, and in a portion the number issaid to be large. [532] The proportions, furthermore, found in attendancein the different states in comparison with their total population, orwith their total deaf population under twenty years of age, indicatethat the attendance in some states is far greater than in others, whichmeans that in the latter a relatively smaller part are in school. [533]It would appear, then, that the number of the deaf out of school whoare of school age is probably not negligible in any of the states, andthat in some it is very considerable. [534]

The fact that the schools do not have their full quota of pupils is notall due to the refusal of deaf children to avail themselves of theopportunity for a schooling. It is in good part owing also to thefailure of some of the pupils who attend to remain a sufficient lengthof time. In the preceding chapter we have seen what are the limits ofattendance prescribed in the schools; but as a matter of fact a largeproportion of the pupils do not remain the full period allotted, and insome of the schools an appreciable number do not remain the better or asubstantial part of the term. [535] As in all schools, there is in thepassing of the pupils from the years of childhood an increasing tendencyto leave, and with the deaf this applies with no less force;[536] sothat on no small portion of the pupils the work of the schools is notpermitted to have full effect. 

THE NEED OF COMPULSORY EDUCATION LAWS FOR THE DEAF

It is thus quite evident, however large the true proportion of the deafwho attend the school may be, and whatever the proportion remaining asatisfactory period may be, that in practically every state there are acertain number of deaf children not in the schools who should be there, and that the offer of the state to provide an education for all its deafchildren is not availed of as it should be. [537] For the existence ofthis condition of affairs the schools are not to be held responsible. They are usually doing all they can to get the children in, and all thedeaf if they will may receive an education. The cause lies further back:most often in the ignorance or short-sightedness of the parent. 

For it all there is but one remedy--the enactment of a strong compulsoryeducation law and its uncompromising enforcement. No matter howstrenuous and diligent may be the efforts to reach the children, [538] itis only when such a law is on the statute books that the state's reallyeffective weapon is at hand to secure attendance. [539]

However urgent are the needs of compulsory education laws for childrengenerally, there are special reasons for them with the deaf. The deafstand in particular need of an education, and without it their conditionis peculiarly helpless and pitiable. Compelling reason is also found inthe fact that, besides the ordinary schooling, industrial training islikewise afforded to the deaf, which is hardly possible elsewhere, andwhich may mean no little towards success in after life. Even though itsometimes seems hard to take a deaf child from his home, and separatehim from his parents for a number of months at a time, especially if thechild is in his tender years, the greater necessity of the law is butindicated if such children are to be kept from growing up in ignorance. The hardship in separation is rather apparent only and is temporary, while the gains are not to be measured. 

Not only should the deaf child be required to attend school, but forreasons equally strong it should be seen that he remains at school asufficient number of years, and a sufficient length of time each year. It is a difficult matter as it is to secure full attendance, but toooften also the temptation is at hand for pupils to leave early to takeup work on their own account, or because the school routine seemsirksome; and too often is a pupil called away to help on the farm or inthe shop by what is sometimes hardly less than the greed of the parent, or by what is sometimes miscalled his poverty. The state should allownothing at all to stand in the way of the child's best interests. 

PRESENT EXTENT OF COMPULSORY EDUCATION LAWS

How important are compulsory education laws for the deaf is beinggenerally seen, and the demand has become practically unanimous fortheir enactment, the feeling not being confined to educators of the deafbut shared in by others interested in them. [540] Such laws have begun tofind their way upon the statute books, and are now being increasinglyenacted. Already practically half of the states have them, nearly all ofwhich were enacted since 1900. In other states the matter is also beingagitated, with the likelihood that provisions will be extended to themin time. States with such laws now number at least twenty-three:California, Colorado, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, NorthCarolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, SouthDakota, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin. [541]

With respect to the provisions of these statutes, we find that in somecases the general compulsory education law applies with itsage-periods, fines, etc. , while in others there are special enactmentsfor the deaf. In most states an exception is made if there isinstruction at home, or with equal facilities, and at the same time andin the same branches. In certain ones truancy officers are expresslydesignated to enforce the law. [542] Fines for violation are placed atsums varying from $5 to $200. [543] The period of attendance required maybe the school year, but more often a part, as five, six or eightmonths;[544] and the term for which attendance is required is either adesignated number of years, as five or eight, or a period betweencertain age limits, as from eight to sixteen or from seven to eighteen, etc. [545]

FOOTNOTES:

[530] Special Reports, 1906, pp. 145, 146, 242. Of the colored deaf lessthan one-half--1, 169 out of 2, 836--had been to school. 

[531] In 1890 the proportion of deaf children between five and twentyyears found to be in school was only 40 per cent, to be accounted for inpart by the fact that only those children actually in school at the timethat the census was taken were included. Census Reports, 1890. Report onInsane, Feeble-minded, Deaf and Dumb and Blind, 1895, p. 102. 

[532] In the case of the Alabama School it is said that "there are manydeaf children of school age in the state not in school". Report, 1900, p. 24. In the case of the Kentucky School it is stated that "there arestill 200 [children] of school age in the state who have not receivedthe benefit of the school". Report, 1903, p. 13. See also Report, 1887, p. 98. In Tennessee it is stated that there are "doubtless quite anumber of deaf children of whom we have no knowledge in certaincounties". Report of Tennessee School, 1910, p. 11. In Texas there aresaid to be "300 deaf children in the state within scholastic age who arenot in school", this proportion possibly being 50 per cent. Report ofTexas School, 1912, pp. 5, 12. See also Report of Board of Charities ofNew York, 1910, i. , p. 151; Arkansas School, 1890, p. 44; WesternPennsylvania Institution, 1888, p. 19; 1908, p. 19; Maryland School, 1893, p. 8. 

[533] It has been found that, by comparing the number of the deaf inschool in the several states with the total population of 1910, the bestrecord is 26. 0 per 100, 000 of population, which belongs to Wisconsin;and if this ratio be accepted as an approximate standard, the averageproportion for all the United States is only one-half, with a ratio of13. 6 per 100, 000, while in a few of the states it is only one-third, thelowest ratio being 6. 1 per 100, 000. If all the states had as high aratio as 26, the number in attendance would be 23, 913. The finding ofthese results is due to Mr. F. W. Booth, _Volta Review_, xii. , 1911, p. 786. If we compare the number of the deaf reported by the census undertwenty years of age with the number found at school. In 1912-1913, thelowest proportion is seen to be 45 per cent, though only half a dozenstates have proportions under 60. 

[534] The proportion of children generally out of school is found by theRussell Sage Foundation to average 21. 8 per cent in all the states, ranging from 7. 3 to 44. 7 per cent. Comparative Study of Public SchoolSystems in 48 States, 1912. 

[535] In respect to the ages most common in the schools for the deaf, ithas been found by Dr. Harris Taylor, of the New York Institution forImproved Instruction, that of 2, 634 pupils in 38 schools for whomreturns were made, 19. 8 per cent were seven years of age; 17. 3 per cent, eight; 10. 9 per cent, six; 10. 2 per cent, nine; and 9. 6 per cent, ten. Only 1. 4 per cent were over nineteen. _Volta Review_, xiv. , 1912, p. 177. 

[536] See Report of Western New York Institution, 1888, p. 28; KentuckySchool, 1889, p. 14. In the regular schools 85 per cent of the pupilsare said to drop out between the twelfth and fifteenth years. F. M. Leavitt, "Examples of Industrial Education", 1912, p. 54. See alsoReport on Condition of Women and Children Wage Earners in the UnitedStates, 1910, vol. 7. 

[537] In some cases it happens that the school is already crowded, butthe need is no less, and it should be the business of the state toprovide sufficient accommodations for all those who seek an education. 

[538] Great credit is often due to the schools for their efforts to getall the children in. Of the Kentucky School it is said that "thereremain but few deaf children whom we have not seen personally". Report, 1907, p. 14. 

[539] We do not have sufficient data to enable us to make comparisonbetween the attendance in states with a compulsory education law andthose without it, though the former have in general apparently thebetter record. In Michigan it is stated that the compulsory educationlaw has brought in many who otherwise would not have come. Report, 1908, p. 14. 

[540] See Proceedings of National Conference of Charities andCorrections, 1907, p. 498; Report of Commissioner of Charities andCorrections of Oklahoma, 1912, p. 430; Proceedings of Convention ofAmerican Instructors, vii. , 1870, p. 137; x. , 1882, p. 164; xi. , 1886, p. 34; Conference of Principals, ii. , 1872, p. 178; National Associationof the Deaf, iii. , 1889, p. 52; _Annals_, xv. , 1870, p. 216; xliv. , 1899, p. 152; liv. , 1909, p. 356; lviii. , 1913, p. 347; _AssociationReview_, v. , 1903, p. 181; Report of Clarke School, 1888, pp. 8, 19;North Carolina School (Raleigh) 1896, p. 6; Illinois School, 1898, p. 13; Colorado School, 1898, p. 18; Indiana School, 1900, p. 20; OregonSchool, 1901, p. 9; Nebraska School, 1912, p. 9; and current reports ofschools generally. 

[541] In a certain number of states, moreover, as Connecticut and WestVirginia, town and county authorities are required to make report of thedeaf at fixed times, and this may sometimes have the effect of a regularlaw. In addition, in some states with the full law, as Wisconsin, Michigan and North Carolina, it is the duty of certain county officials, as superintendents of education, assessors, etc. , to send in the namesof possible pupils to the schools. In North Carolina many countysuperintendents of education are said to take an interest in thusgetting the children in. Report of North Carolina School, 1908, p. 10;1910, p. 9. By the secretary of the state board of charities ofCalifornia, however, we are advised that the state does not compel aparent to send his deaf or blind child to an institution. 

[542] As in Kansas, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, Ohio, andOregon. 

[543] The fines in some of the states are as follows: $5 in Maryland, $5-$20 in Minnesota, $5-$25 in Montana and Oregon, $20 in Rhode Island, $25 in Iowa, $5-$50 in Wisconsin, $100 in Kansas, and $50-$200 inWashington. In Utah the offense is a misdemeanor. 

[544] Kansas requires 5 months, Oklahoma, Oregon and Montana 6, andMaryland, North Dakota and Wisconsin 8. 

[545] The number in Montana is 8, and in California 5. The limits inWisconsin are 6 and 16, in North Carolina 7 and 17, in Indiana andMaryland 8 and 16, in North Dakota 7 and 20, in Kansas and Oklahoma 7and 21, in Michigan, Nebraska and Rhode Island 7 and 18, in Montana, Ohio, Oregon and Utah 8 and 18, in Minnesota 8 and 20, and in Iowa 12and 19. In Minnesota it is suggested that the law apply to those over 20as well. Report of Board of Control, 1908, p. 356; Report of MinnesotaSchool, 1909, p. 23. 

CHAPTER XIX

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN SCHOOLS

THE USE OF SIGNS AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

Deaf children cannot be educated as other children, and in the schoolsthere have to be employed special means of instruction. In the presentchapter it is our purpose to consider these methods only as theyrepresent, in a complete study of the provision of the state for theeducation of the deaf, the means which have been found necessary toemploy to attain this end. 

From the beginning of organized instruction of the deaf in America asystem of signs has been in use to a wide extent. At the time when themethods of instruction of the deaf were introduced into the firstschools, the "sign language" was brought in as an essential part fromFrance, where it had largely been formulated. Modified somewhat andconsiderably enlarged--and in conjunction with the manual alphabet, ofSpanish origin--the system has taken its place as a recognized means ofeducation and communication in the great number of the schools. The deafthemselves after passing from the doors of the schools have employedthe sign language mainly in their intercourse with one another, and withmost of them meetings and social affairs are conducted virtuallyentirely in this manner. Thus the sign language has for long been one ofthe vehicles--usually the chief vehicle--of communication among the deafand their instructors. 

With the sign language for practical use goes the manual alphabet, or"finger-spelling, " by which the several letters of the alphabet arerepresented on the hand, the two together really constituting thelanguage. [546] The order of signs itself forms to an extent a universallanguage. It consists of gestures, bodily movements, mimic actions, pantomime, postures--and to carry a close shade of meaning, even theshrugging of shoulders, the raising of eyebrows and the expression ofthe face--all appealing graphically to the accustomed eye. The signs ofwhich it is made up are partly natural, and partly arbitrary orconventional; and the whole system as now practiced has been codified, as it were, for experienced users. By the deaf it can be employedrapidly and with ease, and is readily and clearly understood. Many ofthem become such masters of this silent tongue that it may be used withgrace, warmth and expressiveness. [547]

RISE AND GROWTH OF THE ORAL MOVEMENT

This system of signs, however, has not been looked upon with favor byall parties. The "sign language" is said to be a foreign language, knownand understood by only a very small part of the population, standing asa great barrier to the acquisition of language used by people generally, and tending to make the deaf of a class apart or "clannish. " In itsplace in the schools would be substituted what is known as the "oralmethod, " and speech and lip-reading would be used as the means ofinstruction. It has been sought thus to give all the schools over to theoral method, and summarily to drive out the sign language. [548]

Though the system of signs has been used in America as the prevailingmethod from the beginning, it cannot be said that speech-teaching hadnot been employed at all in the early days. Several schools had startedout as oral schools, [549] and in others speech had been employed to agreater or less extent. [550] But in none of the schools had the oralmethod been retained to the exclusion of all others. 

In time, however, attempts were made to secure the adoption of a pureoral system. Attention was called especially to Germany, which had longbeen known as the home of this method, and it was sought to introduceit into America. [551] In 1843 Horace Mann and Dr. Samuel G. Howe visitedthat country, and on their return reported in favor of the oral method, though no change was then brought about. [552]

A few years later the matter was further agitated, and in 1864 an effortwas made to have an oral school incorporated in Massachusetts, butwithout success. A small oral school was then started at Chelmesford in1866, which after a short time was removed to Northampton, having beenvery liberally endowed, and becoming known as the Clarke School. In 1867the legislature decided to incorporate this, and to allow some of thestate pupils to be sent to it. 

In the meantime--in fact, seven months prior to the actual establishmentof the Clarke School--a school which had resulted from a private classhad been started in New York City, known as the New York Institution forthe Improved Instruction of Deaf-Mutes. This was under a former Austrianteacher, and its stated purpose was to use the oral method as inGermany. Two years later the school board of Boston, having made acanvass of the deaf children of the city, resolved to establish a dayschool, which was to be a pure oral one, and which not long after wascalled the Horace Mann School. These three schools were thus thepioneers in the present oral movement. [553]

The oral method has gained ground steadily since these times. It is nowused exclusively in twelve of the institutions, while it has alwaysremained the prevailing method in the day schools. [554] A greatextension is also found in the institutions employing what is called the"combined system, " and in them more and more attention is given to theteaching of speech. 

The growth in the number of speech-taught pupils may be indicated in thefollowing table, showing the number and percentage of those taughtspeech in different years from 1884, the year we first have record; ofthose taught wholly or chiefly by the oral method since 1892; and alsoof those taught wholly or chiefly by the auricular method since1893. [555]

NUMBER OF THE DEAF TAUGHT SPEECH, NUMBER TAUGHT WHOLLY OR CHIEFLY BYORAL METHOD, AND NUMBER TAUGHT WHOLLY OR CHIEFLY BY AURICULAR METHOD, INDIFFERENT YEARS

 ------+--------+--------+------+---------+------+------------+------ | | | | NUMBER | | NUMBER | | TOTAL | | | TAUGHT | | TAUGHT | | NUMBER | NUMBER | | WHOLLY | | WHOLLY | YEAR | OF | TAUGHT | PER | OR | PER | OR | PER | PUPILS | SPEECH | CENT | CHIEFLY | CENT | CHIEFLY BY | CENT | | | | BY ORAL | | AURICULAR | | | | | METHOD | | METHOD | ------+--------+--------+------+---------+------+------------+------ 1884 | 7, 482 | 2, 041 | 27. 2 | | | | 1890 | 8, 901 | 3, 682 | 41. 3 | | | | 1892 | 7, 940 | 3, 924 | 49. 4 | 1, 581 | 19. 9 | | 1893 | 8, 304 | 4, 485 | 54. 0 | 2, 056 | 24. 7 | 80 | 0. 9 1895 | 9, 252 | 5, 084 | 54. 9 | 2, 570 | 27. 7 | 149 | 1. 6 1900 | 10, 608 | 6, 887 | 63. 0 | 4, 538 | 42. 8 | 108 | 1. 0 1905 | 11, 344 | 7, 700 | 67. 8 | 5, 733 | 50. 5 | 149 | 1. 3 1910 | 12, 332 | 8, 868 | 71. 9 | 7, 562 | 61. 3 | 134 | 1. 1 1913 | 13, 459 | 10, 138 | 75. 3 | 8, 791 | 65. 3 | 135 | 1. 1

It thus appears that in a little over a quarter of a century theproportion of pupils in the schools taught speech has nearly trebled;and that in a score of years the proportion taught chiefly or wholly bythe oral method has more than trebled. The proportion of the pupilstaught wholly or chiefly by the auricular method never rises above twoper cent. 

It should be stated, however, that these figures are not to be taken asmeaning that all the pupils thus enumerated have become proficient inthe employment of speech, or have become able to speak clearly andintelligibly, and well enough for general practical use. It would benearest the truth to say that they are "taught articulation, " or thatthey are instructed by the use of speech and speech-reading. Oftentimesthe greatest success lies in the preservation in fair shape of thespeech of those who have once had it. The speech acquired by the deaf isof varying degrees, as we have seen; but in some it may be such as to beof distinct service, as well as the lip-reading which may be said to gowith it. [556]

PRESENT METHODS OF INSTRUCTION

The methods of instruction at present employed in American schools forthe deaf are known as the manual, the manual alphabet, the oral, theauricular and the combined. They are thus described in the_Annals_:[557]

 I. THE MANUAL METHOD. --Signs, the manual alphabet, and writing are the chief means used in the instruction of the pupils, and the principal objects aimed at are mental development and facility in the comprehension and use of written language. The degree of relative importance given to these three means varies in different schools; but it is a difference only in degree, and the end aimed at is the same in all. 

 II. THE MANUAL ALPHABET METHOD. --The manual alphabet and writing are the chief means used in the instruction of the pupils, and the principal objects aimed at are mental development and facility in the comprehension and use of written language. Speech and speech-reading are taught to all of the pupils in the school (the Western New York Institution) recorded as following this method. 

 III. THE ORAL METHOD. --Speech and speech-reading, together with writing, are made the chief means of instruction, and facility in speech and speech-reading, as well as mental development and written language, is aimed at. There is a difference in the different schools in the extent to which the use of natural signs is allowed in the early part of the course, and also in the prominence given to writing as an auxiliary to speech and speech-reading in the course of instruction; but they are differences only in degree, and the end aimed at is the same in all. 

 IV. THE AURICULAR METHOD. --The hearing of semi-deaf pupils is utilized and developed to the greatest possible extent, and with or without the aid of artificial appliances, their education is carried on chiefly through the use of speech and hearing, together with writing. The aim of the method is to graduate its pupils as hard-of-hearing speaking people, instead of deaf-mutes. 

 V. THE COMBINED SYSTEM. --Speech and speech-reading are regarded as very important, but mental development and the acquisition of language are regarded as still more important. It is believed that in many cases mental development and the acquisition of language can best be promoted by the Manual or Manual Alphabet Method, and so far as circumstances permit, such method is chosen for each pupil as seems best adapted for his individual case. Speech and speech-reading are taught where the measure of success seems likely to justify the labor expended, and in most of the schools some of the pupils are taught wholly or chiefly by the Oral Method or the Auricular Method. [558]

Of these methods the oral and the combined are practically the only onesfound. The auricular is employed only in connection with certain pupilsin some of the schools; while the manual method is found in but twoschools, and the manual alphabet in but one. In the institutions thecombined is by far the preponderating system, being employed in all butfifteen of the sixty-five; while the oral is employed in twelve. On theother hand, the oral method is used in the day schools almostaltogether, there being but two of the sixty-five schools employing thecombined system. In the twenty-one denominational and private schoolsthe oral method predominates, fifteen employing the oral or the oral andauricular, and six the combined. In such schools, the denominationalmore often employ the combined method, while the strictly private areoral. 

In respect to the number of pupils in the schools using the two chiefmethods, we find that 83. 7 per cent of those in institutions are ininstitutions employing the combined system, and 13. 9 per cent in oralinstitutions; that of those in day schools 96. 1 per cent are in oralschools, and 3. 9 per cent in combined; and that of those indenominational and private schools, 54. 8 per cent are in combinedschools, and 45. 2 per cent in oral. Of all the pupils in the schools, 72. 4 per cent are in schools employing the combined system ofinstruction, and 25. 6 per cent in schools employing the oral. Thepercentage taught by the manual or manual alphabet method is 2. 0. Thepercentage given auricular instruction is 1. 1. 

COURSES OF STUDY AND GRADATIONS OF PUPILS

Schools for the deaf have courses of study corresponding in general withthose in regular schools, although special emphasis and drill have to beput upon language--something the congenitally deaf child in particularfinds exceedingly difficult to use properly. Pupils capable of takingthe full course are carried through the kindergarten, primary, intermediate, grammar and high school grades; and on the completion ofthe prescribed course may receive diplomas, while in some cases acertificate may be granted for a certain period of attendance. Not alarge proportion of the pupils, however, really graduate. [559]

In all the schools for the deaf in the United States in the year1912-1913 there were 14, 474 pupils. Of these, 11, 894, or 82. 2 per cent, were in institutions; 1, 942, or 13. 4 per cent, in day schools; and 638, or 4. 4 per cent, in denominational and private schools. [560] Theinstructors employed in all the schools (not including teachers ofindustries, but including superintendents or principals) number 1, 419, or one instructor for every 9. 5 pupils: in the institutions, 1, 090, orone to 10; in the day schools, 223, or one to 7. 9; and in thedenominational and private, 92, or one to 5. 7. [561] The total number ofpupils who have received instruction from the beginning is 72, 453, ofwhom 89. 0 per cent have been in institutions, 7. 7 per cent in dayschools, and 3. 3 per cent in denominational and private schools. 

The following table, based on the figures given in the Report of theUnited States Commissioner of Education will show the number of pupilsin the different grades and classes in the schools for the year1911-1912. [562]

GRADES OF PUPILS IN THE SCHOOLS

 --------------+------------+---------------+-------------+------------- | | CLASSES | CLASSES | CLASSES | | CORRESPONDING |CORRESPONDING|CORRESPONDING KIND OF SCHOOL|KINDERGARTEN|TO GRADES 1 TO | TO GRADES 5 | TO HIGH |DEPARTMENTS |4 IN ELEMENTARY| TO 8 | SCHOOL | | SCHOOLS | | GRADES --------------+------------+---------------+-------------+------------- Institutions | 1, 063 | 5, 040 | 3, 365 | 1, 069 Day Schools | 134 | 1, 195 | 559 | 38 Denominational| | | | and Private | | | | Schools | 63 | 244 | 163 | 16 +------------+---------------+-------------+------------- Total | 1, 260 | 6, 479 | 4, 087 | 1, 123

For 1912 there were reported 133 graduates from the schools: 130 frominstitutions, 2 from day schools, and 1 from denominational or privateschools. [563]

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN THE SCHOOLS

The industrial training given in the American schools for the deaf formsa very important feature of the work--in many respects it may be said tobe the most important. In many of the schools industrial instruction wasrecognized almost from the very start, and in a number it commencedpractically with the beginning of the work of education. [564] It is nowprovided in all the institutions, in nearly all the day schools, and inover half of the denominational and private schools. Many of theinstitutions have large, well-equipped shop and trade departments, withskilled and capable instructors. Nearly every pupil at a suitable age isput at some industry, and encouragement and special opportunity areoften given to those who show a particular bent or aptitude. The valueof this industrial preparation of the schools in the after lives of thedeaf has already been referred to. [565]

The following table will show the number and percentage of the pupils inthe several kinds of schools in industrial departments, according tothe Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for1911-1912. [566]

NUMBER OF PUPILS IN INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENTS IN SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF

 -----------------------------------+--------+-----------+---------- | TOTAL |NUMBER IN | KIND OF SCHOOL | NUMBER |INDUSTRIAL | PER CENT | |DEPARTMENTS| -----------------------------------+--------+-----------+---------- Institutions | 11, 244 | 6, 203 | 55. 2 Day Schools | 1, 928 | 662 | 34. 3 Denominational and Private Schools | 518 | 196 | 37. 8 +--------+-----------+---------- Total | 13, 690 | 7, 061 | 51. 8

In all the schools there are 403 industrial instructors, 373 being ininstitutions. [567]

The industries taught in the schools, as given in the _Annals_, [568] areas follows:

 Art, baking, barbering, basket-making, blacksmithing, bookbinding, bookkeeping, bricklaying, broom-making, building trades, cabinet-making, calcimining, carpentry, chalk-engraving, cementing, chair-making, china-painting, construction work, cooking, clay-modeling, coopery, dairying, domestic science, drawing, dress-making, electricity, embroidery, engineering, fancy work, farming, floriculture, gardening, glazing, harness-making, house decoration, half-tone engraving, housework, horticulture, ironing, knife work, knitting, lace-making, laundering, leather work, manual training, mattress-making, millinery, needlework, nursing, painting, paper-hanging, photography, plastering, plate-engraving, plumbing, pottery, poultry-farming, printing, pyrography, raffia, rug-weaving, sewing, shoemaking, shop work, sign-painting, sloyd, stone-laying, stencil work, tailoring, tin-work, tray work, typewriting, Venetian iron-work, weaving, wood-carving, wood-engraving, wood-turning, wood-working, working in iron, and the use of tools. 

The number and kinds of particular industries taught in the differentschools vary not a little. In a few as many as a score are offered, while in others only three or four are given. The average seems to beabout six or eight. The most usual industries afforded are art, cabinet-making, carpentry, cooking, domestic science, drawing, dress-making, farming, gardening, laundering, painting, printing, sewing, shoemaking, sign-painting, tailoring, wood-working, and the useof tools. The most common of all are carpentry, sewing, printing, farming, shoemaking, and painting. In most of the institutions papersare printed to afford practical instruction in printing, as well as togive local news of interest. These papers are published weekly, bi-weekly or monthly. A number of the schools, especially those inagricultural states, also have small experimental farms in connectionwith their industrial work, and dairy farming and truck gardening areoften given particular attention. [569]

FOOTNOTES:

[546] In America the one-hand alphabet is used practically altogether, which is also the case with most of the countries of Europe. In Englandthe double-hand is employed mainly. Finger-spelling, as well assign-making, is very old with the human race. The Egyptians, Greeks andRomans are said to have made use of a system of finger notation. In theMiddle Ages monks in their enforced silence often resorted to a fingeralphabet. Dalgarno, one of the early English writers on the deaf, had analphabet in which the letters were represented by parts of the hand. SeeJ. C. Gordon, "Practical Hints to Parents concerning the PreliminaryTraining of Young Deaf Children", 1886, p. 34ff. ; W. R. Cullingworth, "ABrief Review of the Manual Alphabet for the Deaf", 1902. 

[547] For a description of the sign language, see J. S. Long, "The SignLanguage: a Manual of Signs", 1910. See also _American Journal ofScience_, viii. , 1824, p. 348; _Annals_, i. , 1847, pp. 55, 79; v. , 1852, pp. 83, 149; vii. , 1855, p. 197; xvi. , 1871, p. 221; xviii. , 1873, p. 1;xxxii. , 1887, p. 141; lvii. , 1911, p. 46; Proceedings of AmericanInstructors, ii. , 1851, p. 193; iv. , 1857, p. 133; vii. , 1870, p. 133;xii. , 1890, pp. 100, 171; Report of New York Institution, 1838, p. 14;1840, p. 17; American School, 1856, p. 18; California School, 1875, p. 24. See also "The Deaf: by their Fruits, " by the New York Institution, 1912. 

[548] Against the arguments to abolish the sign language, it is claimedthat signs are free, and are as natural to the deaf as spoken words tothe hearing; that with certain of the deaf, especially the congenitallydeaf, they are all but indispensable; that they cause mental stimulationas cannot otherwise be done; that the acquisition of speech requires agreat amount of time, which is often needed for other things; that thevoices of many of the deaf are disagreeable and attract notice; thatcommunication readily and with pleasure among the deaf by speech andspeech-reading cannot be accomplished to any wide extent; that only withthe gifted few, and not with the general body of the deaf, can suchproficiency in the use of speech and speech-reading be attained as tocause them to be "restored to society", in that they can with ease andwith any considerable degree of satisfaction carry on intercourse withthe hearing; and that, finally, the great majority of the deafvigorously demand the retention of the sign language. 

[549] The New York Institution, by a resolution adopted at the firstmeeting of its board of directors in 1818, decided for the employment ofarticulation teaching, which policy was continued for some ten years. Report, 1908, p. 30; E. H. Currier, "History of Articulation Teaching inthe New York Institution", 1894 (Proceedings of American Association toPromote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, iv. , sec. 12); _AmericanJournal of Education_, iii. , 1828, p. 397. 

[550] In addition, there have always been sporadic instances of privateinstruction in speech, as by one's family or friends. 

[551] It is also claimed that it was by accident that the sign methodcame into vogue in America, Gallaudet in his trip to Europe having foundthe London and Edinburgh schools closed to him, and having for thisreason been compelled to turn to France, where the sign method was inuse. 

[552] It is interesting to note that after Mann and Howe had made theirreport, the American School at Hartford and the New York Institutionsent special representatives to Europe to investigate, these advisinglittle change on the whole. See Report of American School, 1845, p. 25;New York Institution, 1844, p. 62; 1851, p. 83. 

[553] See "Life and Works of Horace Mann", 1891, iii. , p. 245; "Life andJournals of Samuel G. Howe", 1909, p. 169; Report of Board of Charitiesof Massachusetts, 1867, p. Lxxii. ; 1868, p. Lx. ; Report of Special JointCommittee of the Legislature on Education of Deaf-Mutes, Massachusetts, 1867; _North American Review_, lix. , 1844, p. 329; civ. , 1867, p. 528;American Review, iii. , 1846, p. 497; _Common School Journal_ (Boston), vi. , 1844, p. 65; Nation, iv. , 1867, pp. 249, 339; Report of New YorkInstitution for Improved Instruction, 1868, p. 5; 1870, p. 10; AmericanSchool, 1849, p. 33; 1866, p. 18; 1867, p. 29; 1868, p. 16; ClarkeSchool, 1875, p. 5; Addresses at 25th Anniversary of Clarke School, 1892; Report of Committee of School for Deaf-Mutes (Horace Mann), 1873, p. 3; 1891, p. 8; _Annals_, xxi. , 1876, p. 178; _Lend a Hand_, xiii. , 1894, p. 346; _International Review_, xi. , 1881, p. 503; G. G. Hubbard, "Education of Deaf Mutes", 1867, and "Rise of Oral Method" (in collectedwritings, 1898); A. G. Bell, "The Mystic Oral School: Argument in itsFavor", 1897, and "Fallacies concerning the Deaf", 1883; Boston Parents'Education Association, "Offering in behalf of the Deaf", 1903; FredDeland, "Dumb No Longer: the Romance of the Telephone", 1903;_Educational Review_, xii. , 1896, p. 236; _Century Magazine_, xxxi. , 1897, p. 331; _American Educational Review_, xxxi. , 1910, pp. 219, 281, 415; Proceedings of American Association to Promote the Teaching ofSpeech to the Deaf, i. , 1891, p. 89; _Volta Review_, xiv. , 1912, p. 579(Proceedings of same); Evidence before Royal Commission on the Deaf, etc. , 1892, i. , p. 6; ii. , p. 3; iii. , p. 208. 

[554] In many of the day school laws the use of the oral method isrequired, which is also partly the case in several state institutions. 

[555] These statistics are taken from the Special Reports of the CensusOffice, 1906, p. 86, and the January issues of the _Annals_. See also_Volta Review_, xv. , 1913, p. 90; Proceedings of American Association toPromote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf (Condition of ArticulationTeaching in American Institutions), ii. , 1892; Report of Committee ofHorace Mann School, Massachusetts, 1891, p. 8ff. ; 1895 (Proceedings of25th Anniversary). 

[556] The greatest usefulness of this speech is often found in one's ownfamily circle, or with immediate friends. 

[557] Jan. , 1914, lix. , p. 41. 

[558] The choice of methods for pupils may often depend on theirclassification, as noted before, into deaf-mutes, that is, those whohave never been able to hear; semi-mutes, those who have been able tohear and speak, and retain their speech to some extent; and semi-deaf, those able to hear a little. 

[559] For accounts of possible correspondence or extension courses forthe deaf outside the schools, see Report of California Institution, 1904, p. 18. 

[560] From _Annals_, Jan. , 1914, (lix. , p. 23). For a few schools thefigures refer to the number present on November 10, 1913. The totalnumber on this date was 13, 450. The _Volta Review_ for May, 1913 (xv. , p. 99), gives the total number present on March 1, 1913, as 13, 143. TheReport of the United States Commissioner of Education gives the numberfor 1911-1912 as 13, 690: in institutions, 11, 244; in day schools, 1, 928, and in denominational and private schools, 518. The total number ofvolumes in the libraries of the institutions was reported to be 132, 461. For tables respecting the schools, see Appendix B. 

[561] Normal departments for the training of hearing teachers of thedeaf are maintained at Gallaudet College and the Clarke School, thelatter having a special fund, largely contributed by the AmericanAssociation to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf. Several ofthe institutions also have training classes, and there are normaldepartments in connection with the Chicago and Milwaukee day schools. Onthe subject of pensions for teachers of the deaf, see _Annals_, xxix. , 1884, p. 304; Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, xviii. , 1908, p. 146; Report of California School, 1912, p. 12. 

[562] Report, 1912, ii. , ch. Xiii. 

[563] It is hardly necessary to state that physical education isprovided for in the schools for the deaf quite as fully as in theregular schools. 

[564] The first school to give industrial training was the AmericanSchool at Hartford, this being begun in 1822. See History, 1893, p. 15;Report of New Hampshire Board of Charities, 1908, p. 184. 

[565] On this industrial training, see _Craftsman_, xiii. , 1908, p. 400. 

[566] ii. , ch. Xiii. 

[567] _Annals_, Jan. , 1914 (lix. , p. 23). 

[568] _Ibid. _, p. 42. 

[569] In some of the schools, as we find from the reports, the value ofthe products of the farms and gardens may amount to a tidy sum, as mayalso be the case with the trade schools. 

CHAPTER XX

COST TO THE STATE FOR EDUCATION

VALUE OF THE PROPERTY USED FOR THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF

The various provisions for the education of the deaf have now beenexamined. There is to be considered but one question further. This is, what is the cost of it all? In the present chapter we are to see if wemay not obtain some figures representing this cost to the state. Firstwe shall find what the plants, that is, the grounds and buildings inactual use, are worth in dollars and cents. 

Taking the nearest available statistics, which are those for the year1912-1913, we have the plants of the institutions valued at$16, 856, 338, [570] or, in round numbers, nearly seventeen milliondollars. In all the institutions there were in this year 11, 894 pupils, and we may thus calculate that there is property worth $1, 414 for eachpupil. We do not know the full value of the property used in the dayschools and the denominational and private schools, [571] but this wouldno doubt increase by some two million dollars the value of the propertyemployed in the instruction of the deaf. Hence we have something likenineteen million dollars as the amount invested in plants for theeducation of the deaf in the United States. 

For new buildings, repairs, and general expenditures for lastingimprovements, so far as is reported, there was expended on institutions$848, 068 for the year 1912-1913, which may represent the yearly cost ofthe upkeep of the institutions. [572] For the other schools we have fewfigures, but they would add to this sum somewhat. 

COST OF THE MAINTENANCE OF THE SCHOOLS

For the maintenance of the institutions for the year 1912-1913 there wasexpended $3, 297, 440. [573] In forty-four, or about two-thirds, of the dayschools for the year 1911-1912 there was expended $182, 710, and on thebasis of $120 as the average cost of the pupils in them, we have$225, 720 as the full cost of the support of the day schools. For five ofthe private schools, the cost per pupil was $225, and assuming that thiswill hold for all, we have $133, 550 as the full cost of the support ofsuch schools, a part of course coming from tuition fees. Then our totalexpenditures amount to $3, 656, 710, [574] or to over three and a halfmillion dollars, which represents the annual cost of the education ofthe deaf in the United States. [575]

FORM OF PUBLIC APPROPRIATIONS

Save for certain endowment funds in a few institutions, [576] and forlimited donations in a small number of schools, all the means for thesupport of the schools for the deaf, other than the private ones, comefrom the public treasury. In some of the day schools there are municipalsubventions; in a few states the maintenance of certain pupils is paidfor by the counties from which they come;[577] and in the case of theColumbia Institution at Washington support is received from the nationalgovernment. [578] With these exceptions, the entire maintenance of theschools is undertaken by the legislatures of the respective states. [579]

Appropriations by the legislatures are usually made in lump sums. [580]In the case of the semi-public institutions the allowances are upon a_per capita_ basis, being from $260 to $357, but more often near $300. In a few of the state schools appropriations are also based upon thenumber of pupils, as in Alabama with $230 a year for each pupil, inKentucky with $150 a year, and in Iowa with $35 a quarter, the last twostates having additional annual grants. In the states in which pupilsare sent to schools outside, a sum of from $200 to $300 is allowed foreach pupil thus provided for. In a few cases funds are received from aspecial tax assessment levied for the benefit of the school, as inColorado with a one-fifth mill tax on the assessed property valuation ofthe state, [581] and in North Dakota with six per cent of one mill. 

COST TO THE STATE FOR EACH PUPIL

The average cost for the support of the pupils in the institutions forthe year 1912-1913 was $277. 23. [582] In few of the schools does the costgo as low as $200, while in a number it is between $300 and $400. Thecost per pupil in the day schools averages, where known, $120. 60;[583]and in the private schools, where known, $225. 33. [584] For pupils in thecommon schools of the country, the average cost is $31. 65. [585] Thus itcosts the state eight times as much to educate its deaf children ininstitutions as it does its hearing children in the regular publicschools, and four times as much to educate them in day schools. 

The education of the deaf, then, is not an inexpensive undertaking onthe part of the state. Because of the special arrangements necessary forits accomplishment, it comes high, compared with the cost of educationin general. But considered merely as an investment, the outlay for thisinstruction bears returns of a character surpassed in few other fieldsof the state's endeavor. 

FOOTNOTES:

[570] The figures in this chapter are for the most part from _Annals_for January, 1914 (lix. , pp. 26, 27), usually for the latest fiscalyear, these being supplemented in a few cases from the Report of theUnited States Commissioner of Education for 1912 (ii. , ch. Xiii. ). Inthe institutions where there are departments both for the deaf and theblind, we have ascertained the proportionate part for the deaf of theentire institution. If no allowance is made for the blind in these, theworth of all is $17, 751, 186, and the amount of property for each pupil$1, 492. For 1911-1912 the value of all was $16, 454, 798, or according tothe Report of the Commissioner of Education, $16, 387, 726. In this Reportthe value of scientific apparatus, furniture, etc. , is stated to be$918, 053. 

[571] In most cases, as we have seen, the day schools are housed inpublic school buildings, special establishments being provided only in afew large cities. In the Report of the Commissioner of Education, theproperty value of four day schools, two being large ones, is put at$250, 055, or $525 for each pupil; and if this be accepted as a measure, the property value of all the day schools is $1, 019, 550. The propertyvalue of seven denominational and private schools is likewise given as$324, 717, or $1, 358 for each pupil; and if this is taken as a measure, the property value of all is $865, 404. 

[572] In 1910-1911 this was $503, 323, and in 1911-1912, $772, 245. Ifallowance be made for the dual schools, it is about ten per cent less. In the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education it isplaced at $568, 136 for 1911-1912. 

[573] With no allowance for the dual schools, this is $3, 423, 126. In theReport of the Commissioner of Education it is $3, 285, 099, for all butsix institutions. 

[574] At the Conference of Charities and Corrections in 1906 this wasestimated to be $3, 200, 000. Proceedings, p. 249. 

[575] For tables as to the cost of the support of the schools, seeAppendix B. 

[576] These endowment funds are found for the most part only in certainof the semi-public institutions, and in a few state schools which havereceived land from the federal government. In the Report of theCommissioner of Education the amount of productive funds in thirteenstates for 1911-1912 is given as $3, 372, 565, as follows: Maine, $2, 000;Massachusetts, $193, 674 (in 1910-1911, $369, 723); Connecticut, $403, 000;New York, $1, 002, 633; Pennsylvania, $373, 758; Maryland, $4, 500; Districtof Columbia, $11, 000; Kentucky, $9, 000; North Dakota, $600, 000; SouthDakota, $400, 000; Montana, $160, 000; Utah, $160, 000; California, $53, 000. Thus practically two-fifths belongs in the states ofMassachusetts, Connecticut, New York and Pennsylvania, nearly one-thirdbeing in New York alone; while a little under two-fifths belongs inNorth Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Utah. 

[577] This is especially true of New York, where the counties pay theentire amount up to the age of twelve, and after that the state. 

[578] In this connection it may be noted that Congress has been asked togrant $100, 000 to "encourage the establishment of homes in the statesand territories for teaching articulate speech and vocal language todeaf children before they are of school age". Teachers are to be trainedfor this purpose, and pupils are to enter at two years of age and remaintill the regular school age. See Report of Pennsylvania Home forTraining in Speech of Deaf Children, 1904, p. 5; Proceedings ofConference of National Association for the Study and Education ofExceptional Children, 1911, p. 64. 

[579] Charges for clothing and transportation of indigent pupils are asa usual thing paid for by the county, though this is assumed by somestates. Often a given sum, as thirty dollars, is allowed for clothing, or the actual cost thereof is collected from the county. This is donethrough the proper administrative offices of the county, there beingalso some judicial procedure, as where the county judge or similarofficial certifies by proof. The school is then reimbursed for theexpenditures it may have made. Some such procedure is quite general, especially in the South and West, though in a few states, as Vermont andNew Jersey, the town or township, where this is the political division, plays a similar part. In Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Maine, Louisiana, California, Nevada, and possibly other states, these charges are paid bythe state. In Maryland they may be paid by the county, city or state. 

[580] It happens sometimes that legislatures are inclined to reduce theappropriations to as low a sum as possible, and superintendents mayreceive commendation for efforts to cut down expenditures. There isdanger, however, that such a policy may be carried to a point whereefficiency is sacrificed to seeming economy. On the question of cost, see Report of Mississippi School, 1909, p. 11; Iowa Bulletin of StateInstitutions, June, 1907, ix. , 3; Ohio Bulletin of Charities andCorrections, Nov. , 1907, xiii. , 4. 

[581] On the value of this tax, see Report of Colorado School, 1896, p. 22. 

[582] In 1907-1908 this was $257. 02; in 1909-1910, $253. 92; in1910-1911, $259. 63; and in 1911-1912, $262. 71. Without allowance for theblind in the dual schools, the amount in 1912-1913 is $289. 60. Accordingto the Report of the Commissioner of Education, the average cost is$303. 58. It may be noted in this connection that the _per capita_ costfor the blind in schools is more than that for the deaf, being $359. 

[583] In 1910-1911 this was $130. 28. 

[584] In 1910-1911 this was $264. 06. 

[585] Report of Commissioner of Education for 1909-1910. The figures forsubsequent years have reference rather to average attendance. 

CHAPTER XXI

PUBLIC DONATIONS OF LAND TO SCHOOLS

GRANTS BY THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

To the schools in some of the states land has been donated, either as aninvestment, the proceeds of which should be used for their benefit, oras sites for the erection of buildings. This has been done by thenational government, by the states, by cities and by individuals andcorporations. The most important of such gifts have been the grants ofthe public domain made by Congress for the benefit of certain of thestate institutions. Shortly after the work of the education of the deafhad commenced in the country, it bestowed 23, 000 acres upon the Hartfordschool and a township of land upon the Kentucky. [586] After nearlythree-quarters of a century it came again materially to the aid of thiseducation, this time by directing that certain tracts of the publiclands located in states about to be admitted to the Union should be setapart for the benefit of the schools. Thus in the enabling act of1889[587] for the admission of the states of North Dakota, South Dakotaand Montana, land was set aside for the benefit of the schools for thedeaf and the blind, which are mentioned by name. In North Dakota andSouth Dakota the number of acres allowed to each was 40, 000, and inMontana 50, 000. [588] Likewise when Wyoming was admitted in 1890, [589]30, 000 acres were granted for an institution for the deaf and the blind, though the school has not yet been established. When Utah was admittedin 1896, [590] 100, 000 acres were granted to the school for the deaf. Onthe admission of Arizona and New Mexico in 1910, [591] like amounts wererespectively granted for institutions for the deaf and the blind, 50, 000acres having already been set aside in the latter while aterritory. [592]

GRANTS BY THE STATES

Grants by the states themselves for the schools on a large scale havenot been numerous. The state of Texas has set apart large tracts ofpublic land for its institutions, the school for the deaf coming in for100, 000 acres as its share. The school in Michigan has received a numberof sections of the state salt spring lands, amounting to 16, 000acres. [593]

GRANTS BY CITIES OR CITIZENS

Small tracts of land have been donated in some cases by cities where theschools were to be established, sometimes accompanied by a cash donationas a further inducement for a particular location. Similar gifts havebeen made by individuals and corporations. These donations have occurredin about half of the states, but they have usually been small in size, most being of five or ten acres. [594]

FOOTNOTES:

[586] We have also seen how applications were made to Congress for theendowment of other schools. 

[587] Stat. At Large, 1889, ch. 180. Washington was also admitted bythis act, and there was a grant of 200, 000 acres for "charitable, penaland reformatory institutions". The schools for the deaf and the blind, which were not mentioned by name, seem not to have shared in this grant. 

[588] Similar amounts were allowed to the reform schools, theagricultural colleges and the universities. 

[589] Stat. At Large, ch. 664. When Idaho was admitted the same year(_ibid. _, ch. 656) 150, 000 acres were granted to charitable, educational, penal and reformatory institutions, the school for the deafnot being directly mentioned. 

[590] _Ibid. _, 1894, ch. 138. Similar amounts were allowed for theschool for the blind and other institutions. As the school in Utah isfor both the deaf and the blind, it really has 200, 000 acres. 

[591] _Ibid. _, 1910, ch. 310. In the act admitting Oklahoma, though theschool for the deaf is not mentioned among the institutions upon whichland is bestowed, it has shared in the grant, having land reported to beworth at least $350, 000. _Annals_, lvi. , 1911, p. 206. 

[592] In general with respect to the land granted by Congress, it isprovided that such land is not to be sold at less than $10 an acre. 

[593] The state of Massachusetts granted a small parcel of land to theHorace Mann school in Boston. To the school in Missouri 40 acres weregranted by the state, and to that in Arkansas two tracts of land, onebeing of 100 acres. 

[594] Thus land of perhaps five acres or less has been donated to theschools in California, District of Columbia, Illinois, New York (NewYork Institution, Le Couteulx St. Mary's, and Central New York) Oregon, Pennsylvania (Oral and Pennsylvania Home), Tennessee, Virginia, anddoubtless to other schools. Larger tracts, of ten acres or more, havebeen given in Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Michigan (state school andEvangelical Lutheran Institute), Nebraska, Pennsylvania (Western), SouthDakota, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and perhaps elsewhere. To the Kansasschool 170 acres were presented, to the Minnesota 65, to the Washington100, to the Oklahoma 60, to the school for the colored in Oklahoma 100, and to the school for the deaf, together with that for the blind, inOhio 180. To the New York Institution for Improved Instruction the cityof New York granted the land for ninety-nine years at an annual rentalof one dollar. 

CHAPTER XXII

PRIVATE BENEFACTIONS TO SCHOOLS

DONATIONS OF MONEY TO SCHOOLS

In our final chapter on the provision for the schools for the deaf weare to consider how far they have been assisted by private munificence. We have already seen that certain of the schools in the East--those wehave called "semi-public institutions"--were started by privatesocieties and were supported entirely by private funds till the statecame to their aid, though in no instance was this dependence on privatemeans of long duration. We have also seen that in a number of statesprivate schools were first started, in a brief time to be taken over bythe state, and thus received a modicum of private aid. In addition, there have been from time to time donations from private sources to oneschool or another. 

As to the entire amount of these private donations to the schools, it isof course impossible to say. The full receipts of the various schoolscannot be known, and our reckonings must necessarily be incomplete. [595]However, the data which we have are quite sufficient to enable us todiscern in what measure schools for the deaf have been assisted by meansother than public, and in what proportion the distribution has takenplace; and our calculations, based on the best information to beobtained, may not be altogether without value. [596]

We find, then, that to a considerable number of the schools, apparentlythe majority, there have been gifts large or small from private sources. In most of these cases, however, the gifts have been slight, and havealmost always come when the schools were being started, usually ceasingsoon after their establishment or their taking over by the state. Nearlyall the donations of any importance have been to schools in the East, the greater part also coming in their early days and when still inprivate hands. 

At present in the great number of the schools such gifts are notbestowed. In perhaps a dozen schools--practically all in the East--theyare still received in greater or lesser degree; and come in three forms:1. As membership fees in some half dozen schools; 2. As certain annualdonations, varying in amount, in about the same number; and 3. As anoccasional legacy or similar gift to some school or other. [597]

In respect to the funds already received, we find that the greatpreponderance have fallen in four states, namely, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York and Pennsylvania. In five others there have beengifts of what may be called measurable size: District of Columbia, California, Colorado, Illinois, and Vermont. In the remaining statesprivate benefactions have been few: where they have occurred they havebeen small and infrequent. 

In a score of schools or more there seem to have been gifts of a fewthousand dollars--hardly over ten or fifteen thousand, and in most muchless. [598] In some sixteen, donations appear to have been received ofmore appreciable size--twenty-five thousand dollars and upwards. Inabout half of these the gifts seem to have been from twenty-fivethousand to fifty thousand, in one or two cases possibly more: theCalifornia, Colorado, Columbia, New England (Massachusetts), SarahFuller (Massachusetts), Pennsylvania Home, and Austine (Vermont). [599]To six schools donations seem to have reached a sum between seventy-fiveor one hundred thousand dollars and twice that amount. Four of these arein New York: the New York Institution, the Institution for ImprovedInstruction, St. Joseph's and Le Couteulx St. Mary's; one inPennsylvania, the Western Pennsylvania; and one in Illinois, theEphpheta. In three schools the quarter million mark has been passed: theAmerican in Connecticut, and the Clarke in Massachusetts, both withreceipts well beyond this figure; and the Pennsylvania Institution, which has probably been the largest recipient of all. 

Total private gifts to schools for the deaf in the United States wouldprobably foot up to little under two and a quarter million dollars, andperhaps to two and a half millions, though these figures cannot be fullysubstantiated. 

GIFTS FOR PUPILS IN THE SCHOOLS

There have been gifts for the pupils in the schools as well as for theschools themselves. These have been of various kinds: clothing, books, pictures, magazines, newspapers, Christmas presents, prizes, etc. , aswell as money gifts in a few cases. In many instances reducedtransportation has been allowed on railroads, and there have been anumber of benefactions of like character. We have already referred tothe funds left to certain of the schools in trust for deaf-blindpupils. [600]

PRESENT TENDENCIES OF PRIVATE BENEFACTIONS

Private benefaction, as we see, has not played any great part inproviding the means of education for the deaf in the United States. In afew schools private gifts have been of appreciable aid in the work, buton the whole they have not been of considerable moment, and in the greatmajority of schools they have been practically negligible. To judge frompast experience, it would not seem likely that in the future many of theschools will to any great extent be beneficiaries from private means, or that they will thus be enabled to extend their plants or to makeinnovations as yet unattempted, though of course such a thing ispossible. 

This condition, however, is not to be entirely deplored. Many of theschools, it is true, could receive large money benefactions to mostdesirable ends, and in many cases the work of the schools for the bestresults is hampered for lack of sufficient funds. Yet the schools mayfeel that they are in reality but agencies of the state in carrying outone of its great functions, and as such should have no need to call uponor depend upon means other than the state's. Whether or not in thecourse of time there may be an increased incentive for private gifts, itwould seem that the schools should be entitled to look with fullconfidence to the attention and care of the state, since it is butcontributing to the education of its citizens. 

FOOTNOTES:

[595] In the case of some of the schools, figures of a financial natureare not to be had, and in many little record has been kept, especiallywhen gifts have been small. 

[596] In our discussion, few estimates have been made, and these havebeen conservative. It should be stated that only a part of the figuresgiven are "official", and for the rest the writer alone is responsible. No reference is made to schools that are not now in existence, nor isany money value set on the land which has been donated to some of theschools. 

[597] Now and then a gift has been in the form of a scholarship, usuallyof $5, 000. Some of the schools aided by fees are the PennsylvaniaInstitution, Western Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Oral, New YorkInstitution for Improved Instruction, and Le Couteulx St. Mary's (NewYork). Some that receive annual donations varying in amount are the NewEngland (Massachusetts), Sarah Fuller (Massachusetts), PennsylvaniaHome, New York Institution for Improved Instruction, St. Joseph's (NewYork), and Le Couteulx St. Mary's (New York). It should be remarked thatthe three last named institutions are affiliated to an extent withcertain religious bodies, receiving assistance from this source also. The smaller denominational schools receive similar aid irregularly. 

[598] Some of the schools that seem to have received gifts of from fiveto fifteen thousand dollars, or thereabouts, are the Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Central New York, Pennsylvania Oral, Tennessee, and the dayschools of Milwaukee. Some of those that have received gifts somewhatsmaller are the Alabama, Illinois, Michigan, Mississippi, Horace Mann(Massachusetts), Western New York, North Carolina, Virginia, and the dayschools of Chicago. More trivial or more uncertain amounts have beenreceived in Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Maine, New Mexico, Albany (NewYork), Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, and the day schools of a few cities. 

[599] Gifts to semi-public institutions as the Mystic, Connecticut, andBoston, Massachusetts, have also probably been made, though we do notknow of what size; and also to some of the denominational and privateschools. The McCowen Homes of Illinois have received some gifts, especially at their beginning. 

[600] The American School at Hartford has a fund of $2, 000 to be usedfor the publication of books for the deaf. 

CHAPTER XXIII

CONCLUSIONS WITH RESPECT TO THE WORK FOR THE DEAF IN AMERICA

We have now examined the position of the deaf in society in America andthe course and the extent of the treatment accorded them. It onlyremains for us to inquire if this treatment is well-considered, and howfar it is commensurate with the real, actual needs of the deaf, and atthe same time consonant with the larger interests of society. 

The question of paramount concern to society is in respect to thepossibilities of the prevention of deafness. As yet it would seem thatonly a minor degree of attention had been directed to thisconsideration, though it is likely that in the future much more seriousstudy and thought will be given to it. The problem is for the greaterpart in the hands of medical science, and for much of it we shallprobably have to wait for solution in the laboratory; while no small aidcan be rendered by general measures for the protection of health. Already there can be little doubt that there is less deafness fromcertain diseases than in the past, though the statistics that we haveon the question are not as definite as could be wished. The matter isreally a part of the long battle against disease, and as human skilltakes one position after another, it may be that many of those diseasesbringing deafness will be forced to yield, and that such deafness willthus cease in great part to be an affliction upon human flesh. 

Eugenics also will be looked to for help, and it may in time bring tolight much that is now hidden from our ken. As yet our knowledge of thecauses of deafness from birth is very imperfect. A small part may beascribed to consanguineous marriages, and a larger part to the marriagesof those whose families are affected with deafness, these perhaps notbeing wholly distinct, and together comprising a little over half ofcongenital deafness. Marriages of relatives, even though not of frequentoccurrence so far as deafness is affected, have a relation to it whichis not to be ignored. Intermarriages of the deaf themselves are notfound for the most part to result in deaf offspring; while thelikelihood of such is not always greater when both parents are deaf thanwhen one is deaf and the other hearing. The one distinct fact of whichwe seem altogether certain in this matter is that when there is in theparent congenital deafness, or especially when there are deaf relativesconcerned, the chances are vastly increased of deaf offspring. These arethe danger signals, and not to be passed without heed. As to that formof deafness occurring when consanguinity and antecedent deafness are notinvolved, we are in greater ignorance. For most of it, however, we maybelieve that there is inherited some strain or influence predisposing todeafness; and that in the discovery and application of eugenicprinciples a greater or less portion will be eliminated. 

Though, so far as is discernible from the immediate prospect, we cannotlook to an early disappearance of deafness from the race, there areindications at present that deafness is tending to become less. Theprobabilities are that the future will be able to report advance, and sofar as the ultimate results are concerned, we have no reason to be otherthan hopeful. 

In respect to what has been accomplished for the deaf since America hasbecome concerned in them, we have a record that may well be a distinctcause of pride. The work for the deaf in America is hardly a hundredyears old. Yet in that time there has transpired what, without violencebeing done to language, can be called a revolution. A century ago thedeaf were practically outside the pale of human thought and activities. They were in a measure believed to be without reason, and were littleless than outcasts in society. To-day they have become activecomponents of the state, possessed of education, on a level with theirfellow-men nearly everywhere in the scale of human employment, capableof all the responsibilities of life, and standing in the full stature ofcitizenship. 

Perhaps the first workers for the deaf had not placed their faith toohigh after all, when they declared that the deaf and dumb were to berestored to the ranks of their species. Perhaps, after all, the visionsof these men have come true. Perhaps this that we call education has hadsomething of the power they were trying to articulate. For it has comeabout that a part of society known as the deaf and dumb has been broughtto a place of honor and worth and usefulness in the community in whichthey live. 

However much of what was claimed has been achieved, it is certain that agreat part has been realized. It has been by a slow, silent process, keeping time with the years, but none the less wonderful things havebeen wrought; and through it all the advance of the deaf has beenconstant and onward. It might be said with all truth that this wholeprogress has been simply the march of events. Education has ever beenthe master passion of Americans, and in its wide sweep the deaf too havebeen gathered in, and have been borne to the place where all the statehad to offer as instruction was laid before them. Yet it remains thatby and through all this the deaf have been the gainers as no otherpeople in the world have ever been, and their story is as no other's inthe rise of a section of mankind towards the richness and fullness ofliving which are the fruits of humanized society. 

Great indeed can be the rejoicing of the deaf, for they are those towhom the way has been hard and long, but who have come from the darknessinto the light. 

Yet the victory of the deaf is not complete. They have not reached thefull position among men to which they are entitled. So long as peoplelook upon them as an unnatural portion of the race, view them withsuspicion or hold them as of peculiar temperament and habits, orotherwise consider them distinct from the rest of their kind, and byvoice or in their own consciousness make use of terms or associationsthat give fixedness to such a classification or differentiation: just solong will the deaf be strangers in the land in which they dwell; andjust so far will they be removed from the place in society which shouldbe theirs, and which is accorded to all the rest of their fellow-men. 

With regard to their economic position in the world, the deaf have, onthe whole, fared well. Their own achievements have thrown out of courtthe charge that they are a burden upon society. It has been proved bythemselves that they are not a dependent class, or a class that shouldexist to any degree on the bounty of the state. They are wage-earners toan extent that compares well with the rest of the population, and, economically, they form generally a self-sustaining part of society. Fora certain number who are aged and infirm and are otherwise uncared for, special homes are to be desired--and with such the need is peculiarlystrong. These, however, do not comprise a large part of the deaf; andwith their exception there is practically no portion, at least of thosewith an education, that demands particular economic attention. 

The community for the most part has been quite ready and willing torecognize the status of the deaf in this respect. Here the deaf areaccepted on equal terms with the people collectively, and are in factlost in the mass of the world's workers. 

The state has perhaps displayed more reluctance to admit the deaf to thestanding of its other citizens, largely no doubt due to the fact that inthe sphere of law action is usually slow-moving, and responds lessreadily to newly recognized conditions. Though on the statute booksthere are found few examples of legislation directed to the deaf as ifthey were peculiarly in need of the state's attention, and though suchare hardly more than reminders of the past legal attitude, they aremostly an anachronism to-day, and should in great part be removed. 

The courts have quite generally adopted the true view in regard to thedeaf, and hardly anywhere now differentiate them. There is always oneparticular kind of provision which may be made for the deaf at law, andthis is in the employment of interpreters on proper occasion. But evenhere the matter may be left to the ordinary rules of the court, as wellas to the good sense and justice of the law-makers and thelaw-dispensers. 

In most things, special attention of the law in relation to the deaf isnot often required, and they should, in nearly all respects, be left inits eyes exactly as the rest of their fellow-citizens. When particularlegislation is called for in respect to them, it is needed rather tomeet some peculiar or unusual situation, which would probably arise mostfrequently in connection with some special abuse of the deaf, thoughsuch is really seldom likely to occur. Provision for young deaf childrenwho are otherwise without protection may well be included in "children'scodes, " or in other statutes of similar kind. Useful legislation is alsofeasible in connection with departments for the deaf in state bureaus oflabor, the procedure possible being already indicated; and it may bethat a considerable field will be revealed, not only in assisting thedeaf in securing employment but also in securing information as to theircondition. Opportunity is open to the national government likewise inthis regard, and valuable statistics and other information may becollected for the country generally. 

In one further direction the law can be invoked very materially in aidof the deaf, and just where very little has been attempted. In everystate there should be enactments, backed up by vigorous public opinionand the co-operation of all citizens, providing severe punishment forthose who go about begging alms on the pretense that they are deaf anddumb. For such creatures the law should have no mercy. The deafthemselves demand that such impostors be put out of business, for a realand cruel injury is done to them. They ask this as a great boon, but itshould be accorded them absolutely as a right. 

The deaf do not want alms or pity. But in unnumbered ways can theyreceive good at the hands of their fellow-men. They need friends as doall others, and power is never lost to the right hand of fellowship. Tobe desired above all else is the gaining of the right attitude on thepart of the community. As one great need, there should be far moreattention to the social and spiritual concerns of the deaf, even thoughthey are often found scattered and far apart. There is much that can bedone in many communities of a social nature for the deaf, and inmanifold forms can life be made more abundant for them. Most importantof all, there should be no longer in any place a neglect of theministrations for the cure of souls, and it should be seen that all ofthe deaf are made to know the religion of the Man of Galilee, with itsuntold blessings and consolations. 

In our present review of the work for the deaf in America, most of ourattention has been directed to the provisions for their education. Itmay be said that to-day this work is as a rule of a high order, and thatin many respects, considering the problems involved, it can compare wellwith the work of education in general. There is still more or lessconflict as to methods, but this does not seem vital to the success ofthe schools, and their character has in general advanced. 

In the beginning of instruction in some of the states we read of thestruggles of the early schools, but eager hands came to push on the newwork. This work was taken up with an enthusiasm and earnestness scarcelyparalleled elsewhere in the history of education, or in any other of thegreat movements for the betterment of human kind. Strong and brave soulsmanned the new enterprise, and these early workers are well worthy ofhonor at our hands. 

Oftentimes, at the first, private societies came forward as volunteersin the task of education, but the states early recognized their duty, and usually established schools as soon as they were deemed practicable, either taking over the existing private school or creating one of theirown. After a time, as another stage in their development, the schoolswere made free by express provision, or have become so to all practicalpurpose. In time also all restrictions or limitations as to theadmission of pupils have been in general swept away, and rules andregulations have come more and more to conform with those in the regularschools. Now education is offered to every deaf child, and to the poorand destitute the state provides all collateral necessaries as well, sothat instruction may be denied to none. 

At present much the larger part of the deaf are educated ininstitutions. But alongside this plan there has grown, especially oflate years, a day school system with the pupils living in their ownhomes, and the result is that in a number of states such schools havenow been established. Their main field is recognized to be in largecities, and it is here that they are able to be of the greatestusefulness. It is still a mooted point, however, how far they havepassed the experimental stage, and it probably remains to be determinedto what extent they really offer advantages to the deaf over theinstitutions. As a part of this activity, and as an extension of thegeneral public facilities for education to the entire community, we havealso the question of evening schools for adult deaf. There seems to be adefinite need for them in certain centers, and it may well be hoped thatmuch greater attention will be given to the matter. 

All the schools are really parts of the public school system, with theexception of a comparatively small number of private schools which havebeen created in certain communities. In addition, the work in America ischaracterized by a national college, which represents the completingmark in the system of their instruction. By this the education of thedeaf is made not only to stand all along the way parallel with educationin general, but also to assume a place accorded it in no other land. 

In the schools one of the great features is the industrial instruction, and this is rightly emphasized. As much as the need of vocationaltraining is insisted upon on all sides to-day, with the deaf it isessential to a greater degree than it can be anywhere else. The pupilsof the schools who have had this industrial training as a rule do wellin the world, and in many cases put their training to most practicalaccount. It could be wished, however, that we had a careful and detailedrecord, uniform over the country, of the former pupils, which would be atest, demonstrative as well as suggestive, of the efficiency of theindustrial training of the schools, and which would be equally of valuein other spheres of industrial education. 

Though in the work of the education of the deaf in America, industrialinstruction occupies a very prominent part, yet in the schools there isan abundance of "schooling" in the strictest sense. The problems of theeducation of the deaf are peculiar, and their instructors have to facedifficulties of a kind not found in any other lines of education. Yetearnest thought and study are being given to these problems, and effortsmade to solve them as far as it is possible. In the conventions andconferences of instructors notable work has been accomplished, and thesebodies are insistent upon progress and better results. 

For the greater efficiency and success of the schools, the law as wellas public sentiment can be called in aid. Deaf children everywhereshould be prevailed upon or compelled to enter the schools, and shouldbe required to remain as long as their best interests demand it. Education should be a matter, forced if need be, for every deaf child, for terrible as ignorance always is, in the deaf it is the most dreadfulof all. 

In America private assistance to schools for the deaf has not beengreat, and very few schools have been beneficiaries from resources otherthan the state's. To-day, with the exception of a few cases, aid fromprivate means has ceased to be expected, and calls for such bounty arenow seldom made. 

At present nearly all the schools are public institutions, and relyentirely upon the care of the state. The state has in general recognizedits duty towards the education of the deaf, and has engaged to providefor it. In half of the states this responsibility is recognized, andprovision guaranteed in the organic law. In all the states thelegislatures have undertaken to see that means of instruction areoffered to all their deaf children, and it is found that, all thingsconsidered, the states have in general taken a keen interest in theireducational welfare. Few schools can boast of overgenerousappropriations; many not infrequently have failed to receive all thathas been asked for, and have thus often been prevented from doing theirbest work. Yet it may be said that if the legislatures have not alwaysresponded with alacrity, or always bounteously, or at all times with afull sense of their responsibility, they have responded at least withcheerfulness, and mindful of all the calls upon the state's treasury, and often according to the best of their light. It has been realizedthat the education of the deaf is an expensive undertaking, far more sothan the education of ordinary children; but it is none the lessrealized also that this education pays--pays from every possible pointof view. 

That the school for the deaf is not given its full educationalrecognition is a grievance in some states, and this cannot be regardedotherwise than unfortunate. In time, however, this will most likely bechanged, and the schools everywhere will come into their properstanding, and be considered only as the agencies of the state for theeducation of its children. 

The most deplorable thing in the treatment of the schools by the stateis that in some quarters politics with its baneful influence has beenallowed to interfere. But as hideous and disgraceful as is this action, we may now believe that in most places its back has been broken, andthat hereafter men everywhere will think better of themselves than toallow it in a single instance. 

Finally, in respect to the work for the deaf in America as a whole, itmay be said that the state makes but one form of provision in theirbehalf. This is in allowing to all its deaf children a means ofeducation. Even this is hardly to be called "provision for the deaf. " Itis rather the attention that is paid to a certain portion of thepopulation for its education. It is to be distinguished from theprovision for general education only in that special means and methodsare necessary for its accomplishment. 

This being done, the state may practically let the deaf alone. Nodistinctive form of public treatment is usually to be called for inrespect to them as a class. They demand little in the way of specialcare or oversight, they are able as a rule to look after themselves, asking few odds not asked by other men, they have become citizenswithout reservation or qualification, and economically they form nodistinct class, but are absorbed into the industrial life of the state. They have assumed the responsibilities of life in a highly organizedcommunity, and in turn reap the benefits that belong to all men in suchan order. But though this is true, their affliction bestowed upon themby the partial hand of nature, is not to be minimized, nor its effectslightened by any human words. Their deafness rests indeed upon them as avery material, tangible burden, so sharp and pointed in its operationsthat they are in great measure cut off socially from the rest of theirkind. Because of this their concern becomes great in respect to the formof consideration from the community about them, and their need turns toone not so much of material character as of the attention of the goodneighbor. From their condition all the more does it avail that nofurther load should be placed upon them, and that their prayer should beheard that they be treated fully as men. For even with their evermissing sense, the power of the deaf is only retarded, and not seriouslydiminished, to derive from life much of its richness and color andwell-being. 

APPENDIX A

HOMES FOR THE DEAF IN AMERICA

 --+------------------+-------------+-------------+-------+-------+------- | | | | YEAR |NUMBER |ANNUAL | NAME | STATE | LOCATION |FOUNDED| OF |COST OF | | | | |INMATES|SUPPORT --+------------------+-------------+-------------+-------+-------+------- | | | | | | 1 |Gallaudet Home |New York |Wappinger's | | | | | |Falls | 1885 | 24 | $7, 311 | | | | | | 2 |Ohio Home for |Ohio |Westerville | 1896 | 30 | 6, 710 |Aged and Infirm | | | | | |Deaf | | | | | | | | | | | 3 |St. Elizabeth's |New York |New York City| 1897 | 20 | 8, 435 |Industrial School | | | | | | | | | | | 4 |New England Home |Massachusetts|Everett | 1901 | 13 | 3, 198 |for Deaf-Mutes | | | | | | | | | | | 5 |Pennsylvania |Pennsylvania |Doyleston | 1902 | 19 | 4, 536 |Home for the Deaf | | | | |

APPENDIX B

TABLES WITH RESPECT TO SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF IN AMERICA

I. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 

 SCHOOL |LOCATION |DATE OF OPENING | | |NUMBER OF PUPILS | | |1912-1913 | | | |EXPENDITURE | | | |FOR SUPPORT | | | |1912-1913 --------------------------------------+-------------+----+----+----------- Alabama | | | | School for the Deaf |Talladega |1858|162}| $ 39, 800 School for the Negro Deaf and Blind |Talladega |1892| 29}| Arizona, University of, Department for|Tucson |1912| 25 | 10, 000 the Deaf | | | | Arkansas Deaf-Mute Institute |Little Rock |1868|270 | 67, 500 California Institution for the Deaf |Berkeley |1860|180 | 54, 629 and the Blind | | | | Colorado School for the Deaf and the |Colorado |1874|176 | 59, 176 Blind | Springs | | | Connecticut | | | | American School for the Deaf |Hartford |1817|142 | 57, 991 Mystic Oral School for the Deaf |Mystic |1870| 60 | 13, 244 District of Columbia, | | | | Columbia Institution for the Deaf | | | | Kendall School for the Deaf |Washington |1857| 54}| 86, 184 Gallaudet College |Washington |1864| 82}| Florida School for the Deaf and the |St. Augustine|1885|108 | 16, 877 Blind | | | | Georgia School for the Deaf |Cave Spring |1846|188 | 45, 339 Idaho State School for the Deaf and |Gooding |1906| 58 | 20, 000 the Blind | | | | Illinois School for the Deaf |Jacksonville |1846|415 | 124, 957 Indiana State School for the Deaf |Indianapolis |1844|345 | 85, 980 Iowa School for the Deaf |Council |1855|227 | 60, 500 | Bluffs | | | Kansas School for the Deaf |Olathe |1861|243 | 56, 494 Kentucky School for the Deaf |Danville |1823|353 | 82, 325 Louisiana State School for the Deaf |Baton Rouge |1852|145 | 30, 500 Maine School for the Deaf |Portland |1876|134 | 27, 000 Maryland | | | | School for the Deaf and Dumb |Frederick |1868|114 | 33, 461 School for the Colored Blind and Deaf|Overlea |1872|44 | 10, 059 Massachusetts | | | | Boston School for the Deaf |Randolph |1899|145 | 21, 660 Clarke School for the Deaf |Northampton |1867|156 | 65, 255 New England Industrial School for |Beverly |1879| 36 | 9, 098 Deaf-Mutes | | | | Michigan School for the Deaf |Flint |1854|297 | 93, 872 Minnesota School for the Deaf |Faribault |1863|308 | 70, 229 Mississippi Institution for the Deaf |Jackson |1854|188 | 33, 577 Missouri School for the Deaf |Fulton |1851|344 | 99, 000 Montana School for Deaf, Blind and |Boulder |1893| 59 | 20, 024 Backward Children | | | | Nebraska School for the Deaf |Omaha |1869|175 | 44, 150 New Jersey School for the Deaf |Trenton |1883|185 | 60, 000 New Mexico Asylum for the Deaf and the|Santa Fé |1885| 44 | 11, 000 Dumb | | | | New York | | | | New York Institution for the |New York |1818|517 | 181, 153 Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb | | | | Central New York Institution for |Rome |1875|117 | 31, 347 Deaf-Mutes | | | | Western New York Institution for |Rochester |1876|192 | 60, 362 Deaf-Mutes | | | | Northern New York Institution for |Malone |1884|110 | 29, 745 Deaf-Mutes | | | | Institution for the Improved |New York |1867|241 | 88, 455 Instruction of Deaf-Mutes | | | | Le Couteulx St. Mary's Inst'n for the|Buffalo |1862|188 | 52, 349 Imp'd Instruction of Deaf-Mutes | | | | St. Joseph's Institute for the |West Chester |1869|515 | 122, 962 Improved Instruction of Deaf-Mutes| | | | Albany Home School for the Oral |Albany |1889| 58 | 16, 052 Instruction of the Deaf | | | | North Carolina | | | | State School for the Deaf and Dumb |Morganton |1894|263 | 62, 500 State School for the Blind and the |Raleigh |1845|117 | 16, 062 Deaf | | | | North Dakota School for the Deaf and |Devils Lake |1890| 94 | 26, 977 Dumb | | | | Ohio State School for the Deaf |Columbus |1829|542 | 118, 000 Oklahoma | | | | School for the Deaf |Sulphur |1898|221 | 50, 000 Industrial Institute for the Deaf, |Taft |1909| 18 | 11, 053 Blind, and Orphans of the Colored | | | | Race | | | | Oregon School for Deaf-Mutes |Salem |1870| 90 | 22, 500 Pennsylvania | | | | Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf|Philadelphia |1820|621 | 172, 572 and Dumb | | | | Western Pennsylvania Institution for |Edgewood Park|1876|282 | 62, 653 the Instruction of the Deaf and | | | | Dumb | | | | Pennsylvania Oral School for the Deaf|Scranton |1883|100 | 51, 000 Home for the Training in Speech of |Philadelphia |1892| 65 | 26, 790 Deaf Children | | | | Rhode Island Institute for the Deaf |Providence |1877| 91 | 33, 000 South Carolina Institution for the |Cedar Spring |1849|156 | 21, 780 Education of the Deaf and the | | | | Blind | | | | South Dakota School for the Deaf |Sioux Falls |1880| 90 | 26, 000 Tennessee Deaf and Dumb School |Knoxville |1845|326 | 47, 800 Texas | | | | School for the Deaf |Austin |1857|417 | 100, 000 Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Institute for |Austin |1887| 94 | 17, 652 Colored Youth | | | | Utah School for the Deaf |Ogden |1884|115 | 42, 857 Vermont, The Austine Institution for |Brattleboro |1912| 25 | 11, 487 the Deaf and Blind | | | | Virginia | | | | School for the Deaf and the Blind |Staunton |1839|193 | 36, 748 School for Colored Deaf and Blind |Newport News |1909| 85 | 11, 824 Children | | | | Washington State School for the Deaf |Vancouver |1886|132 | 36, 178 West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and|Romney |1870|159 | 34, 700 the Blind | | | | Wisconsin State School for the Deaf |Delavan |1852|169 | 65, 010

II. PUBLIC DAY SCHOOLS

 SCHOOL |DATE OF OPENING | |NUMBER OF PUPILS | |1912-1913 | | |EXPENDITURE | | |FOR SUPPORT | | |1911-1912 ----------------------------------------------------+----+----+----------- California | | | Los Angeles Day School for the Deaf |1899| 45| $ 6, 048 Oakland Public School Oral Classes |1898| 11| -- Sacramento Day-School for the Deaf |1904| 12| 2, 520 San Francisco Oral School for the Deaf |1901| 23| 2, 350 Georgia | | | Atlanta Day-School for the Deaf |1912| 10| -- Illinois | | | Chicago | | | Delano School for the Deaf |1913|} | Kozminski Public Day-School for the Deaf |1896|} | Parker Practice Public Day-School for the Deaf |1905|}307| 30, 474 Waters School for the Deaf |1913|} | Rock Island Day-School for the Deaf |1901| 8| 720 Louisiana | | | New Orleans Day-School for the Deaf |1911| 24| 2, 150 Massachusetts | | | Boston, Horace Mann School |1869| 167| 29, 040 Michigan | | | Bay City Day-School for the Deaf |1901| 7| 1, 005 Calumet Day-School for the Deaf |1902| 13| 1, 566 Detroit Day-School for the Deaf |1894| 92| -- Grand Rapids Oral School for Deaf and |1898| 23| 4, 600 Hard-of-Hearing | | | Houghton Day-School for the Deaf |1908| 4| 800 Iron Mountain Day-School for the Deaf |1906| 3| 900 Ironwood Day-School for the Deaf |1903| 9| 875 Jackson Day-School for the Deaf |1912| 7| -- Kalamazoo Day-School for the Deaf |1904| 4| -- Manistee Day-School for the Deaf |1904| 10| 1, 100 Marquette Day-School for the Deaf |1907| 7| 1, 020 Saginaw Oral Day-School for the Deaf |1901| 11| 1, 050 Sault Ste. Marie Day-School for the Deaf |1906| 3| -- Traverse City Day-School for the Deaf |1904| 7| 900 Minnesota | | | St. Paul Day-School for the Deaf |1913| --| -- Missouri | | | St. Louis, Gallaudet School |1878| 62| 5, 321 New Jersey | | | Jersey City Public Day-School for the Deaf |1910| 14| -- Newark School for the Deaf |1910| 58| -- New York | | | Public School 47, Manhattan |1908| 279| -- Public School, Brooklyn, (Annex to School 47, |1910| 24| 3, 000 Manhattan) | | | Public School, Queens, (Annex to School 47, |1913| 10| -- Manhattan) | | | Ohio | | | Ashtabula Day-School for the Deaf |1903| 5| 810 Cincinnati Oral School |1886| 45| 4, 150 Cleveland Public School for the Deaf |1892| 99| 10, 000 Dayton School for the Deaf |1899| 10| 1, 500 Toledo Day-School for the Deaf |1911| 13| 1, 200 Oregon | | | Portland Day-School for the Deaf |1908| 31| 3, 800 Washington | | | Seattle Public-Day-School for the Deaf |1906| 27| 2, 800 Tacoma Day-School for the Deaf |1908| 13| 1, 114 Wisconsin | | | Antigo Day-School for the Deaf |1906| 17| 1, 850 Appleton Day-School for the Deaf |1896| 13| 980 Ashland Day-School for the Deaf |1898| 15| 3, 016 Black River Falls School for the Deaf |1897| 10| -- Bloomington Day-School for the Deaf |1906| 8| 930 Eau Claire Day-School for the Deaf |1895| 31| 6, 000 Fond du Lac Day-School for the Deaf |1895| 16| 1, 803 Green Bay Day-School for the Deaf |1897| 24| 3, 600 Kenosha Day-School for the Deaf |1913| 10| -- La Crosse Day-School for the Deaf |1899| 6| 1, 060 Madison Day-School for the Deaf |1908| 15| 2, 272 Marinette Day-School for the Deaf |1895| 9| 1, 582 Marshfield School for the Deaf |1912| 5| -- Milwaukee School for the Deaf |1898| 146| 23, 292 Mineral Point School for the Deaf |1912| 13| -- New London Day-School for the Deaf |1906| 10| 1, 200 Oshkosh School for the Deaf |1895| 15| 1, 439 Platteville Day-School for the Deaf |1906| 9| 1, 397 Racine Day-School for the Deaf |1900| 21| 1, 751 Rice Lake Day-School for the Deaf |1907| 8| 1, 243 Sheboygan Day-School for the Deaf |1894| 13| 1, 476 Stevens Point Day-School for the Deaf |1905| 12| 2, 646 Superior Day-School for the Deaf |1897| 8| 970 Wausau Day-School for the Deaf |1890| 11| 885

III. DENOMINATIONAL AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS

 SCHOOL |LOCATION |DATE OF | |OPENING | | |NUMBER | | |OF PUPILS | | |1912-1913 ---------------------------------------------+-------------+----+--------- California | | | Holden Home Oral School |San Francisco|1913| 6 St. Joseph's Home for the Deaf |Oakland |1895| 26 Georgia | | | Miss Arbaugh's School for Deaf Children |Macon |1912| 9 Illinois | | | Ephpheta School for the Deaf |Chicago |1884| 95 The McCowen Homes for Deaf Children |Chicago |1883| 40 Louisiana | | | Chinchuba Deaf-Mute Institute |Chinchuba |1890| 40 Maryland | | | Home School for Little Deaf Children |Kensington |1908| 10 F. Knapp's English and German Institute |Baltimore |1877| 25 St. Francis Xavier's School for the Deaf |Irvington |1897| 31 Massachusetts | | | The Sarah Fuller Home for Little Deaf |West Medford |1888| 16 Children | | | Michigan | | | Evangelical Lutheran Deaf-Mute Institute |North Detroit|1873| 29 Missouri | | | Immaculate Conception Institute for the Deaf|St. Louis |1885| 70 New York | | | Reno Margulies School for the Deaf |New York |1901| 18 The Wright Oral School |New York |1894| 28 Ohio | | | Notre Dame School for the Deaf |Cincinnati |1890| 10 Miss Breckinridge's School |Cincinnati |1906| 3 Pennsylvania | | | Archbishop Ryan Memorial Institute for |Philadelphia |1912| 19 Deaf-Mutes | | | De Paul Institute for Deaf-Mutes |Pittsburgh |1908| 64 Forrest Hall |Philadelphia |1901| 7 South Dakota | | | Black Hills School for the Deaf |Lead |1911| 2 Wisconsin | | | St. John's Institute for Deaf-Mutes |St. Francis |1876| 90

INDEX

 Accidents as a cause of deafness, 17. 

 Admission into schools, 157, 166-168, 262-267. _See_ Fees; Restrictions. 

 Adult deaf in schools, 267n. _See_ Evening schools; Homes. 

 Adventitious deafness, 16-40; ages of occurrence of, 18; action for the prevention of, 21-26; as an increasing or decreasing phenomenon, 27-40; causes of, 17-21; conclusions respecting, 59, 60, 309. 

 Age of occurrence of deafness, 7-10, 12, 17, 18. 

 Agricola, Rudolph, 121. 

 Aid to the deaf, _see_ Homes for the deaf; Legislation; Private organizations. ---- for schools, _see_ Clothing and transportation; Private benefactions. 

 Aims of first schools, 147-154. 

 Alabama, education in, 172, 176n, 182, 184, 209, 297. 

 Alms-houses, deaf in, 79. 

 Alms-seekers, deaf as, 83-85, 316. 

 Alphabet for deaf, _see_ Manual alphabet. 

 American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, 109, 113, 114. 

 American possessions, education in, 240. 

 American School, 132n, 134-139, 141n, 156n, 181, 299, 306. _See_ Connecticut. 

 Amman, John, 124. 

 Ancient treatment of deaf, 63, 119. 

 "Annals of the Deaf, American", 115. 

 Appropriations for schools, state, 136, 161, 163, 295, 321. _See_ Day schools; Semi-public schools. 

 Arizona, education in, 185, 209, 300. 

 Arkansas, education in, 183, 210. 

 Associations of the deaf, _see_ Societies. 

 "Asylums", use of term, 104, 148, 251n, 256n. 

 Attendance in schools, 165, 268-276. _See_ Age limits. 

 Auricular instruction, 283, 285-287. 

 Austine Institution, 306. _See_ Vermont. 

 Baker, Henry, 123. 

 Baptist Church, work of, _see_ Church work. 

 Bartlett, David E. , 156n. 

 Bede, Venerable, 121. 

 Bell, A. G. , 5n, 108. 

 Benefactions, _see_ Private benefactions; Endowment funds. 

 Blind associated with deaf, 99n. _See_ Dual schools. 

 Boarding institutions, 168, 169, 187. 

 Bolling, William, 131. 

 Bonet, Juan, 122. 

 Bonifaccio, Giovanni, 121. 

 Braidwood, John, 131, 132. 

 Braidwood, Thomas, 127. 

 Bulwer, John, 122. 

 California, education in, 176, 183, 191, 192, 193, 202, 204, 210, 305. 

 Camerarius, Rudolph, 125. 

 Carion, Ramirez de, 123. 

 Cardano, Girolamo, 121. 

 Castro, Pietro de, 121. 

 Catholic Church, work of, _see_ Church work; Denominational schools. 

 Causes of deafness, _see_ Adventitious deafness; Congenital deafness. 

 Census of deaf, how taken, 5n, 14. 

 Charges to pupils, _see_ Fees; Restrictions. 

 Charities, boards of, 182, 183. _See_ Charity; States, provision in. 

 Charity in connection with schools, 104, 147, 248-261, 322; conclusions respecting, 260; in best sense, 249; in legal sense, 252n; opposition to connection, 256; popular conceptions of charity, 250; regard by states, 248; views of boards of charities, 254; views of deaf, 259; views of instructors, 259. 

 Church work for deaf, 96, 110-113. _See_ Private benefactions. 

 Cities, aid of to schools, 161-163, 301. _See_ Day schools; States, provision in. 

 Clarke School, 281, 306. _See_ Massachusetts. 

 Classes of pupils, _see_ Gradations. 

 Classical allusions to the deaf, 119. 

 Clerc, Laurent, 135. 

 Clothing and transportation provided for pupils, 255, 264, 265, 296, 307. 

 Clubs of deaf, _see_ Societies. 

 Cogswell, Alice, 134. 

 College for the deaf, _see_ Gallaudet College. 

 Colorado, education in, 176, 184, 211, 297, 305. 

 Colonies for the deaf, 89n. 

 Combined method of instruction, 283, 285-287. 

 Communication, methods of among deaf, 11, 12, 277-287. 

 Compulsory education, 272-276, 320. 

 Conference of Principals, 113, 114. 

 Congenital deafness, 41-60; as an increasing or decreasing phenomenon, 57; conclusions respecting, 60-62, 310; consanguineous marriages affecting, 42; deaf parents affecting, 46; deaf relatives affecting, 45; possible action for the prevention of, 52. 

 Congregational Church, work of, _see_ Church work. 

 Congress, action of, _see_ National government. 

 Connecticut, education in, 136, 138, 171, 173, 183, 211, 305. _See_ American School. 

 Consanguineous marriages, 42, 54, 60. _See_ Congenital deafness. 

 Constitutional provisions, 64, 169, 242-247, 321. 

 Control, boards of, 183. 

 Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf, 113, 114. 

 Corporations, _see_ Semi-public schools. 

 Cost of education, 293-298, 322; for maintenance, 295; for new buildings, 294; in day schools, 192; per pupil, 298; to states sending outside, 297. _See_ Property, value of; Semi-public schools. 

 County aid to schools, 162, 265, 296; officers, work of, 166, 275n. 

 Courses of study, 287. 

 Court decisions relating to deaf, 65, 71. _See_ Law, attitude of. 

 Crimes, responsibility of deaf for, 65, 72. 

 Dactylology, _see_ Manual alphabet. 

 Dalgarno, George, 123. 

 Day schools, 168, 187-201, 318; arguments against, 197; arguments for, 194; co-operation with institutions, 189, 190; co-ordination with public schools, 190, 193; design of, 188; equipment of, 193, 196; evening schools as part of, 200, 201; institutions as, 187; laws for, 192; number, 187, 191; pupils in, 193; support, 192, 193. _See_ Methods of instruction; States, provision in. 

 "Deaf", meaning of term, 3. 

 "Deaf-and-dumb", _see_ "Deaf". 

 Deaf-blind, 5n, 178-179, 307. 

 "Deaf-mute", 9n, 286n. _See_ "Deaf". 

 "Deaf-mutism", 101n. 

 Deafness in different states, 5. 

 "Defective" class, the deaf as a, 100. 

 Delaware, education in, 141, 171, 185, 212. 

 Denominational and private schools, 168, 202-205, 319. _See_ Methods of instruction; States, provision in. 

 Dependent class, the deaf as a, 103. _See_ Economic condition. 

 Deschamps, 126. 

 Difficulties of early schools, 144, 145, 164, 165. 

 Diseases, effect of, _see_ Adventitious deafness. 

 District of Columbia, education in, 171, 172n, 182, 185n, 212, 213, 296, 305. _See_ Gallaudet College. 

 Dual schools, 173, 176, 177, 293n, 294n, 295n. 

 Dues, _see_ Fees. 

 "Dumbness", _see_ "Deaf". 

 Ear, diseases of, _see_ Adventitious Deafness. 

 Early attempts at instruction, 129-133. ---- workers, character of, 155, 156. 

 Economic condition of deaf, 75-90, 314, 316; conclusions respecting, 90; deafness, effect of, 75, 80, 83; occupations of deaf, 76, 77; unions, members of, 82n; views of deaf, 81; wage-earners, extent as, 76-78, 81, 82. _See_ Alms-houses; Dependent class; Homes; Industrial training. 

 Education, associations for, 113, 114; boards of, 184, 185, 248, 258; _See_ States, provision in. ----, condition of deaf before, 146, 148-154, 312. 

 Employment of deaf, _see_ Economic condition. 

 Endowment funds, 172, 174, 295. _See_ Private benefactions. 

 England, early education in, 121-123, 127. 

 Épée, abbé de l', 126, 127. 

 Ephpheta School, 306. _See_ Illinois. 

 Eugenics, _see_ Congenital deafness. 

 Europe, first schools in, 119-128; recognition in of work in America, 170n. 

 Evening schools for adults, 200, 201. 

 Exhibits of deaf pupils, 136, 142, 158, 159, 160. 

 Farming as an industry, 83n, 90n, 291, 292. _See_ Economic condition. 

 Fay, Barnabas M. , 156n. 

 Feeble-minded deaf, 179, 180. 

 Fees for pupils, 143, 157. _See_ Admission into schools; Denominational schools; Restrictions. ---- in semi-public schools, membership, 156, 173, 181, 304. 

 Fiction, deaf in, 100n. 

 Finger-spelling, _see_ Manual alphabet; Sign language. 

 First schools, 131, 134-144. 

 Florida, education in, 176, 183, 184, 213. 

 France, early education in, 125-127. 

 Fraternal organizations of deaf, 95, 96. 

 Gallaudet College, 168, 206-208, 265n, 319. _See_ District of Columbia. 

 Gallaudet, Edward Miner, 207n. 

 Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins, 134-136, 138n, 156n. 

 Georgia, education in, 138, 143, 182, 191, 193, 204n, 214. 

 Germany, early education in, 121, 124, 125. 

 Gifts, _see_ Private benefactions. 

 Government of institutions, 180-185. _See_ States, provision in. 

 Gradations of pupils, 287-289. 

 Graduates of schools, 80, 288, 289. 

 Green, Francis, 130. 

 Guardians for deaf, 67, 68. 

 "Hard of hearing", 3n; schools for, 202n. 

 Harrower, John, 129. 

 Hearing in school children, defective, 24. 

 Hebrew work for deaf, _see_ Church work. 

 Heinicke, Samuel, 125. 

 Heredity, _see_ Congenital deafness. 

 Holder, William, 123. 

 Holland, early education in, 124. 

 Homes for deaf, 85-89, 314; extent of, 87, 88; purpose, 86; support, 89. ---- for children, 254n, 296n. _See_ Denominational and private schools; Boarding institutions. 

 Horace Mann School, 188, 282. _See_ Massachusetts. 

 Hubbell, Horatio N. , 156n. 

 Hutton, Abraham B. , 156n. 

 Idaho, education in, 176, 183, 184, 214. 

 Ideas of early schools, 144-147. 

 Illinois, education in, 144, 183, 191, 192, 193, 202, 204, 214, 215, 305. 

 Immigration in respect to deaf, 66. 

 Impostors simulating deafness, 82-84, 316. 

 Increase of deafness, _see_ Adventitious deafness; Congenital deafness. 

 Indiana, education in, 142, 157, 183, 184, 216. 

 Indigent pupils, _see_ Admission into schools; Clothing and transportation; Fees; Restrictions. 

 Industrial training, 80, 169, 193, 199, 205, 290-292, 319. 

 Institutions, general arrangements of, 171-186; government, 180-185; arguments against, 194; arguments for, 197. _See_ Boarding institutions; Methods of instruction; States, provision in. 

 Instructors, associations of, 113, 114; number of, 288; training schools for, 289n. 

 Insurance companies and the deaf, 104; among the deaf, 95, 96. 

 Interpreters for deaf, 65, 74, 112n. 

 Iowa, education in, 144, 183, 216. 

 Italy, early education in, 121, 124. 

 Jacobs, John A. , 156n. 

 Kansas, education in, 184, 217. 

 Kendall School, _see_ Gallaudet College; District of Columbia. 

 Kentucky, education in, 141, 142, 157, 164n, 184, 217, 297, 299. 

 Kerger, 125. 

 Kerr, William D. , 156n. 

 Kilpatrick, John, 132. 

 Kindergarten departments, _see_ Denominational and private schools; Gradations of pupils. 

 Labor bureaus for deaf, 71, 81n. 

 Ladies' societies, 88n, 161n, 173n. 

 Land given for schools, 137, 141, 162, 299-302. _See_ States, provision in. 

 Language, difficulty of for deaf, 198, 201, 287. 

 Law, general attitude of toward deaf, 63-74; trend of, 73; need of changed regard, 314. _See_ Legal exceptions; Legislation. 

 Le Couteulx St. Mary's Institution, 306. _See_ New York. 

 Legal exceptions, views of deaf respecting, 74n. 

 Legislation in aid of deaf, 68-71; discriminatory, 66; in protection, 67, 68. 

 Legislatures, appeals to, 159, 160. _See_ Appropriations; Law, attitude of; States, provision in. 

 Lip-reading, 10, 284. _See_ Speech. 

 Location of schools, 163, 301. 

 Louisiana, education in, 172n, 183, 184, 191, 193, 202, 218. 

 Lutheran Church, work of, _see_ Church work; Denominational schools. 

 McIntyre, Thomas, 156n. 

 Maine, education in, 138, 183, 218. 

 Mann, Horace, 281. 

 Manual alphabet, 11, 12, 277, 278. _See_ Sign language. 

 Manual alphabet method, 285-287. 

 Manual method, 285-287. 

 Maryland, education in, 141, 172, 173, 176n, 183, 202-205, 219. 

 Marriages of deaf, advisability of, 46, 54-56; laws to prohibit, 56n; partners in, 55; possibilities of deaf offspring, 46-52. _See_ Congenital deafness. 

 Massachusetts, education in, 130, 138, 171, 173, 184, 191, 193n, 219, 305. _See_ Clarke School; Horace Mann School; New England Industrial School; Sarah Fuller Home. 

 Medical bodies and prevention of deafness, 25, 26. _See_ Adventitious deafness. 

 Mendicancy, _see_ Alms-seekers. 

 Methodist Church, work of, _see_ Church work. 

 Methods of instruction, 193, 205, 277-287. 

 Michigan, education in, 183, 191, 192, 202, 221, 301. 

 Middle ages, education in, 120. 

 Minnesota, education in, 183, 184, 191, 193, 222. 

 Mississippi, education in, 182, 223. 

 Missions, _see_ Church work for deaf; Legislation in aid of deaf. 

 Missouri, education in, 142n, 144, 183, 191, 193, 202, 223. 

 Montana, education in, 176, 182, 183, 184, 224, 300. 

 Montans, Peter, 124. 

 "Mute", _see_ "Deaf". 

 National college, _see_ Gallaudet College. 

 National Educational Association, 114. 

 National government, granting land for schools, 137, 141, 162, 299, 300; creating Gallaudet College, 206-208. _See_ District of Columbia. 

 Nebraska, education in, 183, 224. 

 Negroes, education of, 172, 176n, 185n, 268n. 

 Nelson Philip, 129. 

 Nevada, education in, 171, 185, 224. 

 New England School, 306. _See_ Massachusetts. 

 New England states, interest in American School, 136, 137, 138. 

 New Hampshire, education in, 138, 171, 185, 225. 

 New Jersey, education in, 140, 141, 184, 191, 192, 225. 

 New Mexico, education in, 182, 185n, 225. 

 New York, education in, 131, 139, 140, 148n, 171, 173, 183, 184, 191-193, 204, 226-229, 305. _See_ Le Couteulx St. Mary's Institution; New York Institution; New York Institution for Improved Instruction; St. Joseph's Institution. 

 New York Institution, 131, 132n, 139, 140, 161n, 187n, 280n, 306. _See_ New York. 

 New York Institution for Improved Instruction, 281, 306. _See_ New York. 

 North Carolina, education in, 143, 172, 176n, 183, 184, 229. 

 North Dakota, education in, 183, 230, 297, 300. 

 Occupations of deaf, _see_ Economic condition. 

 [OE]colampadius, 124. 

 Offspring, deaf, _see_ Marriages of deaf. 

 Ohio, education in, 142, 143n, 157n, 183, 191, 192, 202, 205, 230. 

 Oklahoma education in, 172, 176, 183, 184, 185n, 231. 

 Opinions of deaf, _see_ Charity; Economic condition; Legal exceptions. 

 Oral method, 187n, 193, 205, 279-287, 296n. 

 Oregon, education in, 183, 185n, 191, 232. 

 Papers of deaf, 97, 116; of schools, 116, 292. _See_ Publications for deaf. 

 Parents, deaf, and offspring, _see_ Marriages of deaf. 

 Parents' associations, 109. 

 Partially deaf, 3n. 

 Pasch, 125. 

 Pay pupils, _see_ Fees. 

 Peet, Harvey P. , 156n. 

 Pereire, 126. 

 Pennsylvania, education in, 140, 141, 171, 173, 183, 202-204, 233, 234, 305. _See_ Pennsylvania Institution; Western Pennsylvania Institution. 

 Pennsylvania Institution, 140, 141, 181, 187n, 306. _See_ Pennsylvania. 

 Politics in schools, 185n, 322. 

 Ponce de Leon, Pedro, 122. 

 Popular conceptions of deaf, 99-106, 313, 314. 

 Prevention of deafness, _see_ Adventitious deafness; Congenital deafness. 

 Principals, Conference of, 113, 114. 

 Private benefactions, 135, 136, 140, 142, 158, 160, 161, 163, 173-176, 179, 181, 281, 295, 296, 301, 303-308, 321. _See_ Denominational and private schools; Homes; Private organizations; States, provision in. 

 Private organizations for deaf, 107-116. _See_ Denominational schools; Semi-public schools. 

 Private schools, _see_ Denominational and private schools. 

 Property, value of, 293. 

 Protestant Episcopal Church, work of, _see_ Church work. 

 Public appropriations, _see_ Appropriations. 

 Public schools, deaf in, _see_ Day schools. 

 Publications for deaf, 115, 307n. _See_ Papers; Volta Bureau. 

 Pupils, at beginning, 165; number of, 288; proportion in attendance, 268-270. _See_ Clothing; Fees; Gradations; Restrictions. 

 Quasi-public schools, _see_ Semi-public schools. 

 Rae, Luzerne, 156n. 

 Raphel, Georges, 125. 

 Relatives, deaf, _see_ Congenital deafness. 

 Relief for needy deaf, 69, 95, 112. 

 Religious work, _see_ Church work; Denominational schools. 

 Restrictions, 157, 166, 262, 263, 318. _See_ Fees; Age-limits. 

 Rhode Island, education in, 138, 184, 234. 

 St. Francis de Sales, 124. 

 St. Joseph's Institution, 306. _See_ New York. 

 Sarah Fuller Home, 306. _See_ Denominational and private schools; Massachusetts. 

 Schott, Gaspard, 125. 

 Seixas, David, 140. 

 Self-supporting, the deaf as, _see_ Economic condition. 

 "Semi-deaf", 9n, 286n. 

 "Semi-mute", 9n, 286n. 

 Semi-public schools, 156, 172-176, 180, 181, 295n, 297, 303. 

 Sensational accounts of deaf, 105n. 

 Settlements, social, work of, 107n. 

 Sibscota, George, 123. 

 Sicard, 127. 

 Sign language, 11, 12, 92, 187n, 277-279. _See_ Manual alphabet. 

 Societies for deaf, _see_ Private organizations. 

 Social organization of deaf, 91-98. 

 Societies of the deaf, 92-96; desirability, 93; purposes, 94-96. 

 Solidarity of deaf, 78n, 94, 95. 

 South Carolina, education in, 138, 144, 176, 182, 184, 235. 

 South Dakota, education in, 183, 204n, 235, 300. 

 Spain, early education in, 122, 123. 

 Speech, 8-12, 279-284; ability of deaf in, 8, 9, 284; growth of teaching of, 282-284; relation to sense of hearing, 3, 4. _See_ Oral method. 

 Stanford, John, 131, 139. 

 State, action of, _see_ Law, attitude of. 

 States, provision in, 209-241; lands given by, 301; without schools, procedure in, 169, 171, 185, 297. _See_ Appropriations; Charity; Constitutional provisions; Government of institutions. 

 Stone, Collins, 156n. 

 Strange class, deaf as a, 99. 

 Subsidies, _see_ Appropriations; Semi-public schools. 

 Support of schools, _see_ Cost. 

 Tax, exemptions of deaf from, 65, 69. 

 Taxation for schools, special, 163, 172, 297. 

 Teachers, _see_ Instructors. 

 Tennessee, education in, 143, 182, 183, 184, 236. 

 Terms, _see_ Admission into schools. 

 Terzi, Lana, 124. 

 Texas, education in, 172, 176n, 182, 236. 

 Thornton, William, 133n. 

 Totally deaf, _see_ "Deaf". 

 Trades, _see_ Industrial training; Economic condition. 

 Transportation, _see_ Clothing. 

 Trustees of schools, 163, 169, 180-184, 185n. _See_ Homes; Denominational schools; States, provision in. 

 Turner, William W. , 156n. 

 Unhappy class, deaf as, 102. 

 United States, number of deaf in, 5. _See_ American possessions. 

 Utah, education in, 176, 182, 185n, 236, 300. 

 Vagrants, _see_ Impostors. 

 Value of property, _see_ Property. 

 Van Helmont, Jan Baptista, 124. 

 Van Nostrand, Jacob, 156n. 

 Vanin, 126. 

 Vermont, education in, 138, 173, 176, 237. 

 Virginia, education in, 131-133, 142, 172, 176, 183, 184, 237. 

 Volta Bureau, 108, 109, 115. 

 "Volta Review", 109, 115. 

 Wages paid to deaf, _see_ Economic condition. 

 Walker, Newton P. , 156n. 

 Wallis, John, 123. 

 Washington, education in, 183, 185n, 191, 192, 238. 

 Weld, Louis, 156n. 

 West Virginia, education in, 172n, 176, 183, 185n, 238. 

 Western Pennsylvania Institution, 187n, 188n, 306. _See_ Pennsylvania. 

 Wills of deaf, 65, 72, 73. 

 Wisconsin, education in, 144, 183, 188n, 191, 192, 202, 239. 

 Witness, the deaf as, 72. 

 Writing as means of communication, 11, 12, 285, 286. 

 Wyoming, education in, 171, 185, 240. 

 Young Men's Christian Association, work of, 107n. 

Transcriber's Corrections:

 Page 19. Chapter II. "ceramen" to _cerumen_. Impacted cerumen

 Page 19n. Chapter II. "ceramen" to _cerumen_. . .. Ear trouble, impacted cerumen is usually found . .. 

 Page 28. Chapter II. "1800" to _1880_. NUMBER OF THE ADVENTITIOUSLY DEAF IN 1880, 1890 AND 1900

 Page 32. Table IV. 8th column "1902/1901" to _1901/1902_. 

 Page 69. Chapter III. "is" to _in_. Thus in Missouri we find a statute of 1843 allowing . .. 

 Page 128n. Chapter VIII. "appendicies" to _appendices_. . .. Mississippi School, appendices, 1907, 1909, 1911 . .. 

 Page 158. Chapter IX. "nucleii" to _nuclei_. . .. Schools were thus often the nuclei of the . .. 

 Page 202n. Chapter XII. "nucleii" to _nuclei_. . .. Which were the nuclei of the state . .. 

 Page 222. Chapter XIV. "Saulte" to _Sault_. . .. Sault Ste. Marie, 1906; . .. 

 Page 253. Chapter XVI. "superintendant" to _superintendent_ . .. By one superintendent it has been stated . .. 

 Page 259. Chapter XVI. "Rosolved" to _Resolved_. Resolved, that the deaf youth of our land . .. 

 Page 304. Chapter XXII. "suffcient" to _sufficient_. . .. Are quite sufficient to enable us to . .. 

 Page 320. Chapter XXIII. "educaton" to _education_. . .. Work of the education of the deaf . .. 

 Page 329. Appendix B. "Annez" to _Annex_. Public School, Queens, (Annex to School 47, Manhattan)

 Page 333 & 339. Index. No entry for "Age Limits". Relevant information can be found in Ch. XVII, pp. 265-267, under the heading "Age Limits of Attendance". 

 Page 334. Index. "Giralamo" to _Girolamo_. Cardano, Girolamo, 121. 

 Page 335, 337 & 340. Index. "provisions" to _provision_. _See_ . .. States, provision in . .. 

 Page 340. Index. "schools" to _institutions_. _See_ . .. Government of institutions. 

 Page 340. Index. "of pupils" to _into schools_. Terms, _see_ Admission into schools.