Transcriber's Note: Inconsistencies in hyphenation left in as peroriginal text. * * * * * THEDAWN OF REASON OR MENTAL TRAITS IN THELOWER ANIMALS BYJAMES WEIR, JR. , M. D. New YorkTHE MACMILLAN COMPANYLONDON: MACMILLAN & CO. , LTD. 1899 _All rights reserved_ * * * * * COPYRIGHT, 1899, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Norwood PressJ. S. Cushing & Co. --Berwick & SmithNorwood Mass. U. S. A. * * * * * To My Father WHO, WHILE NOT A SCIENTIST, HAS YET TAKEN AN INTELLIGENT AND APPRECIATIVE INTEREST IN MY WORK THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED * * * * * PREFACE Most works on mind in the lower animals are large and ponderous volumes, replete with technicalities, and unfit for the general reader; thereforethe author of this book has endeavored to present the evidences of mentalaction, in creatures lower than man, in a clear, simple, and brief form. He has avoided all technicalities, and has used the utmost brevityconsistent with clearness and accuracy. He also believes that metaphysicshas no place in a discussion of psychology, and has carefully refrainedfrom using this once powerful weapon of psychologists. Many of the data used by the authors of more pretentious works aresecond-hand or hearsay; the author of this treatise, however, has noconfidence in the accuracy of such material, therefore he has not madeuse of any such data. His material has been thoroughly sifted, and thereader may depend upon the absolute truth of the evidence herepresented. The author does not claim infallibility; some of his conclusions may beerroneous; he _believes_, however, that future investigation willprove the verity of every proposition that is advanced in this book. Thesepropositions have been formulated only after a twenty-years study ofbiology in all of its phases. Some of the data used in this volume have appeared in _Appleton's PopularScience Monthly_, _Lippincott's Magazine_, _Worthington's Magazine_, _NewYork Medical Record_, _Recreation_, _Atlantic Monthly_, _AmericanNaturalist_, _Scientific American_, _Home Magazine_, _Popular ScienceNews_, _Denver Medical Times_, and _North American Review_; therefore theauthor tenders his thanks to the publishers of these magazines for theirkindness in allowing him to use their property in getting out this work. "WAVELAND, " OWENSBORO, KY. , January 9, 1899. * * * * * CONTENTS INTRODUCTION CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS MIND PAGEDefinition of mind--The correlation of physiology, morphology, and psychology--The presence of nerve-elements in _monera_--Conscious and unconscious mind--Unconscious ("vegetative") mind in the jelly-fish--Anatomy, physiology, and psychology of the jelly-fish --The origin of conscious mind. 1 CHAPTER I THE SENSES IN THE LOWER ANIMALS The sense of touch--The senses of taste and smell--Actinophryans having taste--The sense of sight--Modification of sight organs by surroundings --Sight in Actinophryans--Blind fish sensitive to light--Blind spiders --Blind man--Primitive eyes in _Cymothoe_--In the jelly-fish, sea-urchin, _Alciope_, _Myrianida_--The sight organs of the snail--Power of vision in the snail--Eyes of crayfish--Compound eyes--Vision in "whirligig beetle"--In _Periophthalmus_--In _Onchidium_--In _Calotis_--Organs of audition--In _Lepidoptera_--_Hymenoptera_--_Orthoptera_--_Diptera_ --_Hemiptera_--_Dyticus marginalis_--_Corydalus_--Ears of grasshopper and cricket--Of the "red-legged locust"--Of flies--Of gnats--Auditory vesicles of horse-fly--Ears of butterflies--Cerambyx beetle--Long-horned beetle--_Cicindelidæ_--_Carabidæ_. 7 CHAPTER II CONSCIOUS DETERMINATION Definition--How conscious determination is evolved from the senses--The presence of nerve-tissue in _Stentor polymorphus_--The properties of nerve-tissue--Romanes' experiment with anemone--Action of stimuli on nerve-tissue--Reflection--Origin of consciousness--Time element in consciousness--Conscious determination in _Stentor polymorphus_--In _Actinophrys_--In _Amoeba_--In _Medusa_--In a water-louse--In a garden snail--In the angle-worm--In oysters--In a ground wasp. 39 CHAPTER III MEMORY Discussed under four heads, viz. _Memory of Locality_ (_Surroundings_), _Memory of Friends_ (_Kin_), _Memory of Strangers_ (_Other animals not kin_), and _Memory of Events_ (_Education_, _Happenings_, etc. )--Memory of locality in _Actinophrys_--In the snail--In the ant--In sand wasps--In beetles--In reptiles--_Memory of Friends_--In ants --Experiments with ants, _Lasius flavus_, _Lasius niger_, and _Myrmica ruginodis_--Memory of kin in wasps and bees--Experiments --_Memory of Strangers_ (_Animals other than kin_)--Recognition of enemies--By bumblebees--Memory of individuals not enemies--By the toad--By the spider--By ants--By snakes--By chameleons--By birds --By cattle--By dogs--By monkeys--_Memory of Events_ (_Education_, etc. ) --In the wasp--In fleas--In the toad--In other insects. 60 CHAPTER IV THE EMOTIONS The higher animals--Laughter--In monkeys--In the dog--In the chimpanzee --In the orang-utan--Fear, dismay, consternation, grief, fortitude, joy shown by bees--Affection for the individual evinced by house wren --Anger, hate, fear, revenge, in the higher animals--Forgiving disposition in the monkey--Sympathy--In ants--Care of young by ants --Solicitude of butterflies--Of gadfly--Of the ichneumon fly--Of the mason wasp--Of the spider--Of the earwig--Anger and hate evinced by ants, centipedes, tarantulas, weevils. 88 CHAPTER V ÆSTHETICISM The love of music--In spiders--In quail--In dogs--Origin of love of music in the dog--Dog's knowledge of the echo--Love of music in rats --In mice--Singing mice--Love of music in lizards--In salamanders--In snakes--In pigeons--In the barnyard cock--In the horse--Amusement and pastime--In _Actinophrys_--In the snail--In _Diptera_--In ants--In lady-bugs (_Coccinellæ_)--Æsthetic taste in birds--The snakeskin bird--Humming-bird--Bower bird--The love of personal cleanliness--In birds--In insects--In the locust. 107 CHAPTER VI PARENTAL AFFECTION Origin of parental feeling--Evidence of this psychical trait in spiders --In earwigs--In crayfish--In butterflies--In fish--In toads--In snakes--Instance of pride in parents--In the dog--In the cat--Parental affection in birds--Animals seeking the assistance of man when their offspring is in danger--The evolution of parental affection. 134 CHAPTER VII REASON Definition of reason--Origin of instincts--Instances of intelligent ratiocination--In the bee--The wasp--The ant--Mental degeneration in ants occasioned by the habit of keeping slaves--The honey-making ant filling an artificial trench--Other evidences of reason in the insect --_Termes_--Division of labor--The king and queen--Bravery of soldier ants--Overseer and laborers--Blind impulse and intelligent ideation --Harvester ants--Their habits and intelligence--Their presence in Arkansas believed to be unique--Animals able to count--This faculty present in the mason wasps--Experiments--Certain birds able to count --Also dogs and mules--Cat recognizing the lapse of time--Monkey's ability in computing--Huber's experiment with glass slip and bees --Kirby and Spence's comment--Summary. 147 CHAPTER VIII AUXILIARY SENSES The color-changing sense and "homing instinct" so-called--These faculties not instincts but true senses--The chromatic function --Tinctumutation--Chromatophores and their function--Various theories--Experiments of Paul Bert with axolotls--Semper's contention--The difference between plant coloring and animal coloring--Effects of light--Experiments with newts--Lister's observations--Pouchet's experiments--Sympathetic nerves--Author's experiments with frogs--The sense-centre of tinctumutation--Effects of atropia--Experiments with fish--With katydid--The "homing instinct" a true sense--Evidences of the sense in a water-louse--Author's experiments with snails--Location of sense-centre in snails--Evidences of the homing sense in the limpet--In beetles--In fleas--In ants--In snakes--In birds--In fish. 181 CHAPTER IX LETISIMULATION Not confined to any family, order, or species of animals--Death-feigning by rhizopods--By fresh-water annelids--By the larvæ of butterflies and beetles--By free-swimming rotifers--By snakes--By the itch insect (_Sarcoptes hominis_)--By many of the _Coleoptera_--The common "tumble bug" (_Canthon Lævis_) a gifted letisimulant--The double defence of the pentatomid, "stink-bug"--Reason coming to the aid of instinct-- Death-feigning an instinct--Feigning of death by ants--By a hound--Not instinctive in the dog and cat--The origin of this instinct--Summary. 202 CONCLUSION Instinct and reason--Specialized instincts and "intelligent accidents" --Abstraction in the dog--In the elephant--The kinship of mind in man and the lower animals shown by the phenomenon of dreaming--By the effects of drugs--The action of alcohol on rhizopods--On jelly-fish --On insects--On mammals--Animals aware of the medical qualities of certain substances--Recognition of property rights--Animals as tool users--Instinct and reason differentiated--Summary. 215 BIBLIOGRAPHY 225 INDEX 227 * * * * * DAWN OF REASON MENTAL TRAITS IN THE LOWER ANIMALS INTRODUCTION. --CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS MIND Mind is a resultant of nerve, in the beginning of life, neuro-plasmic, action, through which and by which animal life in all its phases isconsciously and unconsciously, directly and indirectly, maintained, sustained, governed, and directed. This definition of mind is widely different from the definition of thosemetaphysical scientists who directed psychological investigation andobservation a decade ago. They held that psychology had nothing incommon with physiology and morphology; that _psychos_ stood upon anindependent pedestal, and was not affected by, and did not affect, anyof the phenomena of life. In these days it is becoming an accepted fact that morphology, physiology, and psychology are intimately related and connected, andthat a thorough knowledge of the one implies an equally thoroughknowledge of the others. Morphology and physiology, until a comparatively recent time, leddivergent paths; but, thanks to such men as Haeckel, Romanes, Huxley, Wolff, and many others, this erroneous method of investigation, to agreat extent, has ceased. "The two chief divisions of biological research--Morphology andPhysiology--have long travelled apart, taking different paths. This isperfectly natural, for the aims, as well as the methods, of the twodivisions are different. Morphology, the science of forms, aims at ascientific understanding of organic structures, of their internal andexternal proportions of form. Physiology, the science of functions, onthe other hand, aims at a knowledge of the functions of the organs, or, in other words, of the manifestations of life. "[1] [1] Haeckel, _Evolution of Man_, Vol. I. P. 20. Indeed, physiology has so diverged from its sister science, morphology, that it completely and entirely ignores two of the most importantfunctions of evolution, heredity and adaptation. This has been clearlyshown by Haeckel, who has done much towards bringing about a change ofopinion in these matters. [2] [2] _Ibid. _, p. 21 _et seq. _ Morphology and physiology are interdependent, correlated, and connectedone with the other; and, as I will endeavor to point out as my argumentdevelops itself, psychology is, likewise, intimately associated withthese two manifestations of life. It will be noticed that as forms take on more complexity, and as organsdevelop new and more complex functions, _psychos_ becomes less simplein its manifestations, and more complex in its relations to the internaland external operations of life. Keeping in view the definition of mind as advanced in the openingparagraph of this chapter, it at once becomes evident that even the verylowest forms of life possess mind in some degree. It is true that in the_monera_, or one-celled organisms, the nerve-cell is not differentiated;consequently, if I were to be held to a close and strict accountability, my definition of mind would not embrace these organisms. Yet, some smalllatitude must be allowed in all definitions of psychological phenomena, especially in those phenomena occurring in organisms which typify thevery beginnings of life. I am confident that, notwithstanding the fact that the nerve-_cell_ isnot differentiated in these primal forms, nerve-elements are, nevertheless, present in them, and serve to direct and control life. Mind makes itself evident in two ways--consciously and unconsciously. The conscious manifestations of mind are volitional, while theunconscious, "vegetative, " reflex operations of mind are whollyinvoluntary. Although the unconscious mind plays fully as prominent a rôle in theeconomy of life as does the conscious mind, this treatise will notdiscuss the former, except indirectly. Yet, an outline sketch as to whatis meant by the _unconscious_ mind will be necessary, in order that thereader may more fully comprehend my meaning when discussing _conscious_mind. A brief investigation of the anatomy, physiology, and psychology of themedusa, or jelly-fish, will serve to illustrate the operations of theunconscious mind as it is to be noticed in its reflex and "vegetative"phases. The higher and more evolved phases of the unconscious mind willnot be discussed in this work, except incidentally, perhaps, as they mayappear, from time to time, as my propositions are advanced, and thescheme of mental development is elaborated. The medusa (the specimen that I take for study is a very commonfresh-water individual) has a well-developed nervous system. Itstransparent, translucent nectocalyx, or swimming-bell, has a centralnervous system which is localized on the margin of the bell, and whichforms the so-called "nerve-ring" of Romanes. [3] This nerve-ring isseparated into an upper and lower nerve-ring by the "veil, " an annularsheet of tissue which forms the floor of the swimming-bell, or"umbrella, " and through a central opening in which the manubrium, or"handle, " of the umbrella passes down and hangs below the margin of thebell. [3] Romanes, _Jelly-Fish_, _Star-Fish_, _and Sea-Urchins_, p. 16. The nerve-ring is well supplied with epithelial and ganglionicnerve-cells; their function is wholly reflex and involuntary; theypreside over the pulsing or swimming movements of the nectocalyx. Thispulsing is excited by stimulation, and is analogous, so far as movementis concerned, to the peristaltic action of the intestines. Situated onthe margin of the bell are a number of very minute, round bodies, theso-called "eyes. " These eyes are supplied with nerves, one of whosefunctions is volitional, as I will endeavor to show in my chapter onConscious Determination. The manubrium, or handle, is also the centre of a nerve-system. Nervesproceed from it and are spread out on the inner surface of the bell. These nerves preside over digestion, and are involuntary. Certainganglia in the manubrium appear to preside over volitional effort. Ihave never been able, however, to locate their exact position, nor todetermine their precise action. They will be discussed more fully in thenext chapter. The nervous system of the nectocalyx is exceedingly sensitive, responding with remarkable quickness to stimulation. When two or threeminims of alcohol are dropped into a pint of water in which one of thesecreatures is swimming, the pulsing of the nectocalyx is notablyincreased in frequency and volume. Romanes determined that the centres governing pulsation were located inthe nerve-ring of the swimming-bell, and that each section of thenectocalyx had its individual nerve-centre. [4] [4] _Jelly-Fish_, _Star-Fish_, _and Sea-Urchins_, p. 65 _et seq. _ The pulsing of the nectocalyx occasions a flow of water into and out ofthe bell. This current brings both food and air (oxygen) to the animal, which is enabled to take these necessary life-sustainers into its systemthrough the agency of vegetative nerve-action, a phase of theunconscious mind. The unconscious mind made its appearance in animal life many thousandsof years before the conscious mind came into existence. The latterpsychical manifestation had its origin in sensual perception, which, inturn, gave rise to mental recepts and concepts. In order fully to understand the origin of mind, it will be necessary toinvestigate the senses as they are observed in the lower animals. Thefirst manifestation of conscious mind, which is, as I believe, consciousdetermination, or, volitional effort, is directly traceable to stimuliaffecting the senses. This primal operation of conscious mind, and themanner in which it is developed from sensational perceptions, will nowbe discussed. CHAPTER I THE SENSES IN THE LOWER ANIMALS I am inclined to believe that the primal, fundamental sense, --the senseof touch, --from which all the other senses have been evolved ordeveloped, has been in existence almost as long as life. It is quite probable that it is to be found in the very lowest animalorganisms; and, if our own senses were acute enough, it is more thanprobable that we would be able to demonstrate its presence, beyondperadventure, in such organisms. The senses of taste and smell, according to Graber, Lubbock, Farre, andmany other investigators, seem to be almost as old as the sense oftouch. My own observations teach me that certain actinophryans, [5]minute, microscopic animalcules, can differentiate between the starchspores of algæ and grains of sand, thus showing that they possess taste, or an analogous sense. [5] Vide the writer, _N. Y. Medical Record_, August 15, 1896. On one occasion I was examining an actinophrys (_ActinophrysEichornii_), which was engaged in feeding. It would seize a rotifer(there were numerous _Brachioni_ in the water) with one of itspseudopodia, which it would then retract, until the captured Brachionuswas safely within its abdominal cavity. On the slide there were severalgrains of sand, but these the actinophrys passed by without notice. I thought, at first, that this creature's attention was directed to itsprey by the movements of the latter, but further investigation showed methat this was not the case. After carefully rinsing the slide, I placed some alga spores (some ofwhich were ruptured, thus allowing the starch grains to escape) and someminute crystals of uric acid upon it. Whenever the actinophrys touched astarch grain with a pseudopod, the latter was at once retracted, carrying the starch grain with it into the abdominal cavity of theactinophryan; the uric acid crystals were always ignored. I conclude from this experiment, that the actinophrys, which isexceedingly low in the scale of animal life, recognizes food by taste, or by some sense analogous to taste. Many species of these little animals, however, are not as intelligent asthe Eichorn actinophrys; they very frequently take in inert and uselesssubstances, which, after a time, they get rid of by a process thereverse of that which they use in "swallowing. " By the latter processthey put _themselves_ on the outside of an object--in fact, theysurround it; by the former, they put the _object_ outside by allowingit to escape through their bodies. The sense of sight makes its appearance in animals quite low in thescale, therefore the reader will pardon me if, while discussing thissense, I prove to be a bit discursive. The subject is, withal, so veryinteresting that it calls for a close and minute investigation. One of the immutable laws of nature declares that animals which areplaced in new surroundings, not fatal to life, undergo certain changesand modifications in their anatomical and physiological structures tomeet the exigencies demanded by such a modification of surroundings. Thus, the flounder and his congeners, the turbot, the plaice, the sole, etc. , were, centuries and centuries ago, two-sided fishes, swimmingupright, after the manner of the perch, the bass, and the salmon, witheyes arranged one on each side of the head. From upright fishes, swimming, probably, close to the surface of the sea, they becamedwellers on its bottom, and, in order to hide themselves moreeffectually from their enemies or their prey, they acquired the habit ofswimming with one side next to the ground, and of partially or whollyburying themselves in the mud, always, however, with one side down. Theythus became flat fishes, losing the coloring of their under surfaces, and their eyes migrating across their foreheads and taking up positionson the upper surfaces of their heads. Again, when animals are placedamong surroundings in which there is no need for some special organ, this organ degenerates, and passes wholly or partially into arudimentary condition, or, entirely out of existence. These lattereffects of changed conditions on animals are especially noticeable inthe effect of continual darkness on the organs of sight of thosecreatures which, owing to said mutations, have been compelled to dwellin darkness for untold ages. The mole, far back in the past, had eyes, and gained its livelihoodabove ground in the broad light of day; but, owing to some change in itssurroundings, it was forced to burrow beneath the surface of the earth;consequently its organs of sight have degenerated, and are nowpractically worthless as far as _vision_ is concerned. All moles, however, can tell darkness from light, consequently, are not whollyblind--a certain amount of _sight_ remains. This is due to the factthat, although the optic nerve, on examination, is invariably found tobe atrophied or wasted, there yet remain in the shrivelled nerve-cordtrue nerve-cells; these nerve-cells transmit light impressions to thebrain. Even if the optic nerves, and, in fact, all of the structures of theeye, were absent, I yet believe that the mole could differentiatebetween daylight and darkness. The sensitive tufts and filaments ofnerve in the skin, undoubtedly, in many instances, respond to thestimulation of light, so that totally blind animals, animals with norudimentary organs of vision whatever, and the inception of whoseancestors, themselves wholly blind, probably took place thousands ofyears ago, show by their actions that light is exceedingly unpleasant tothem. Thus, I have seen actinophryans taken from the River Styx inMammoth Cave (which is their natural habitat), seeking to hidethemselves beneath a grain of sand which happened to be drawn up in thepipette and dropped upon the glass slide beneath the object-glass of mymicroscope. I have repeatedly seen the blind fish of Mammoth Cave seeking out thedarkest spots in aquaria. In point of fact, I think it can bedemonstrated that light is directly fatal to these fishes; they soon diewhen taken from the river and placed in aquaria where there is anabundance of light. These fish, although they have rudimentary eyes, never have theslightest remaining trace of nerve-cells in the wasted optic nerve (thatis, I have never been able to discover any), thus showing that theirappreciation of light is not derived through the agency of their eyes. An eyeless spider (_Anthrobia_) taken from the same cavern showed a likedistaste for light, and yet, in this insect, there is absolutely novestige of an eye or its nerves. Finally, a friend of mine, a youth of eighteen, totally blind sincebirth, can differentiate between daylight and darkness. On one occasionI carefully blindfolded him and led him into the well-lighted office ofa brewery (he had never been in a brewery before), and asked him if itwere light or dark. He answered that it was almost as light as day. Ithen conducted him into the dark beer vaults, and as soon as he passedthe door he exclaimed, "How cold and dark it is here!" Thinking that hemight possibly associate darkness with coldness, I asked him if thiswere the case. "No, " he replied, "I _see_ the darkness and I _feel_ thecold; they are not the same. " In these animals--and I include man--continuous darkness has modifiedsensibility (sense of touch) to such an extent that it has partiallytaken on the functions of the useless organs--the eyes; these creatures_see_ with their skins. I do not believe that there is a creature in existence to-day, whetherit has eyes or not, which cannot tell the difference between night andday. Professor Semper says that in the Pelew Islands he found a smallfresh-water creature, whose generic name is _Cymothoe_, in pools wheredaylight penetrated, that was absolutely blind. [6] We have fresh-waterCymothoe living in our own waters that are close kin to the Pelewislander mentioned by Semper, and which are not blind. Along the middleof their backs, over the edge of each segment, there is an oblong darkspot. This little collection of coloring-matter is covered by atransparent membrane, the cornea, and has a special nerve leading to thebrain, if I may use the word. These spots are primitive eyes, theanalogues of which are preserved by many of the true worms. I aminclined to believe that Semper would find primitive eyes of some formor other in the Cymothoe he mentions, if he were again to examine it. The insects, etc. , which dwell in caves, and which have eyes, are newarrivals; they have not dwelt long enough in total darkness to haveexperienced the full effects of changed surroundings. They show, however, that they are beginning to feel such effects, for there is moreor less diminution in the color-cells of the eyes and body coverings. Myexperiments on fish and frogs show, conclusively, that thecolor-producing function is directly due to light stimulation. Thelonger fish and frogs are kept in total darkness, the lower is thenumber of color-cells and the smaller is the amount of coloring-matter. This accounts for the fact that all animals which have dwelt in darknessfor untold ages are absolutely colorless. Pigmented or colored fishes, nevertheless, having well-developed organs of vision, have been takenfrom such depths (over a mile) as to preclude the possibility of asingle ray of daylight. [7] These fishes, however, are phosphorescent, and thus furnish their own light. Moreover, I am inclined to believethat the vast depths of the ocean, in certain localities, lie bathed ina continuous phosphorescent glow, so that creatures living there neitherlose their color nor their eyes, sufficient light being present toprevent degeneration. Where eyeless and colorless fishes are brought upfrom great depths, there the ocean is not phosphorescent, but is inabsolute darkness. [6] Semper, _Animal Life_, p. 83. [7] Hickson, _The Fauna of the Deep Sea_, p. 150 _et seq. _ The preceding observations indicate that the sense of sight is a veryold sense, and that it is to be found in a primitive form (ocelli) inanimals of exceedingly low organization. That this is true, I will nowattempt to demonstrate. Sight is the result of the conversion of one form of motion intoanother--a conservation, as it were, of energy. Thus, waves of lightcoming from a luminous body are arrested by the pigment-cells of theretina in our eyes and are transmuted into another form of motion, whichis called nerve energy (in this instance, sight). It would seem that asfar as sight (_vision_ is not included) is concerned, eyes of verysimple construction would amply satisfy the needs of thousands ofcreatures whose existence does not depend upon vision. This suppositionis undoubtedly correct; there are many creatures in existence to-daywith eyes so exceedingly simple that they can form no visual picture ofobjects--they are only able to discriminate between light and darkness. Primitive eyes appear in animals very low in the scale of life; probablythe most remarkable of these early organs of sight are to be found inthe medusa, or jelly-fish. This creature, with its bell-shaped body andpendent stem, bears a striking resemblance to an umbrella; noting thisresemblance, naturalists have given the name _manubrium_, "handle, " tothe stem. Around the edge of the umbrella, and situated at regularintervals, are certain round, cell-like organs, which vary considerablyin number. Some species have only eight, while others have sixty, eighty, and even (in OEquorea) as high as six hundred. [8] Theseso-called "marginal bodies" are the eyes of the jelly-fish. By manybiologists these organs are considered to be ears; they contain withintheir capsules transparent bodies, which some scientists deem otoliths, or "hearing-stones. " Experimentation and microscopical examinations, however, have taught me very recently to believe otherwise. In thesemarginal bodies there is always a deposit of pigment; this is, unquestionably, a primitive retina, while the transparent disk is, indubitably, a primitive lens. That these creatures can tell thedifference between light and darkness is a fact easily demonstrated. Time and again have I made them follow a bright light around the wall ofthe aquarium in which they were confined. On one occasion I made somemedusæ tipsy, and their drunken gravity as they rolled and staggeredthrough the water in pursuit of the light was as sorrowful as it wasinstructive; their actions in this respect were those of intoxicatedmen. After I had siphoned off the alcoholized water and replaced it withpure, they rapidly regained their normal status; whether or not any ofthem felt any evil effects from their involuntary debauch, I am notprepared to state. [8] Lubbock, _Senses, Instincts, and Intelligence of Animals_, p. 84. The eyes of sea-urchins are rather highly developed, having corneæ, retinæ, and lenses. The lens generally lies in a mass of pigment, and, as Lubbock remarks, looks like a brilliant egg in a scarlet nest. [9] Theeyes are scattered over the dorsal surface of the creature's body, andare commonly situated just beneath the skin; they are, however, sometimes elevated on pear-shaped bulbs. The eyes of starfish aregenerally quite primitive in character, as far as I have been able todetermine, being simply pigmented spots which are supplied with nerves;in several species, however, I have been able to make out lenses. Theeyes are arranged along the rays or arms, and vary in number. [9] "In Solaster or Asteracanthion the lenses look like brilliant eggs, each in its own scarlet nest. "--LUBBOCK, _Senses, Instincts, and Intelligence of Animals_, p. 132 _et seq. _ Even the stay-at-home and humble oyster has eyes (not the round, fleshymuscle called the "eye" by gourmands and epicures, but bright spotsaround the edge of the mantle)--primitive eyes, it is true, yet amplysufficient for the needs of a domestic, non-travelling, home body likethe oyster. In most of the worms the eyes are simple ocelli--spots of pigmentsupplied with nerves. These eyes can discriminate between light anddarkness, which is all that is required of them; but in the Alciope, asmall sea-worm, these organs are brought to a high degree of perfection. This worm is exceedingly transparent, so that when observing it, it isdifficult to make out more than its large orange eyes and the violetsegmental organs of each ring. It looks like an animated string ofviolet disks surmounted by a pair of orange-colored eyeglasses. The eyeof this creature is strikingly like that of a human being; it has acornea, an "eye-skin, " a lens, vitreous humor (posterior chamber), andretina. Another aquatic worm, Myrianida, is still more remarkable, not only onaccount of its eyes, but also on account of the wonderful way in whichit reproduces its young. When seen swimming in the water it presents theappearance of a long, many-ringed worm, which impels itself through andby the aid of its hundreds of flat, oar-like legs. Closer inspectionreveals the startling fact that this seemingly single worm is really amultiple worm--six or more individuals being joined together, thusforming a living chain. This creature reproduces itself byfissigemation; that is, when the young worms arrive at a certain agethey separate from the parent worm and begin life as individuals. Thesein turn eventually become multiple worms and divide into individuals, and so on _ad infinitum_. The tail worm, or that section farthest fromthe head, is the oldest and is always the first to leave its comradesand take up a separate existence. The adverb _always_ in the abovesentence is, strictly speaking, not exactly accurate, for on oneoccasion I saw the separation occur at the second head from the tail, thus producing twins. The two sections came apart, however, in a veryfew seconds after their departure from the colony. I am inclined tobelieve that this deviation from the normal was due to accident;probably to manipulation. This annelid is really "many in one" until thevery moment of division; the alimentary canal, nerves, blood-vessels, etc. , extend in unbroken continuity from the head of the parent worm tothe tail of the last section. In every fourth (sometimes fifth) ring tworound, dark-colored spots will be observed; these spots are ocelli, andsome of them eventually become the eyes of young worms. These organseven in their embryonic state possess sight, for they have specialnerves and pigment-cells; they can differentiate between light anddarkness. The snail carries its eyes in telescopic watch-towers. This animal is, for the most part, nocturnal in its habits, and, since prominent andcommanding view points are assigned to its organs of sight, one wouldnaturally expect to find a comparatively high degree of development inthem; and this supposition is correct. The eyes of the creature are inthe extreme tips of its "horns, " and consist of (1) a cornea, (2) alens, and (3) a retina. Lubbock is rather disposed to decry the visualpowers of the snail;[10] my conclusions, drawn from personalobservations, are, however, directly the opposite. The position of theeyes at the extreme tips of the horns naturally indicates that theysubserve a very useful purpose; otherwise they would not have attainedsuch prominence and such a high degree of development. Actualexperimentation declares that the garden snail can see a moving whiteobject, such as a ball of cotton or twine, at a distance of two feet. Inmy experiments I used a pole ten feet in length, from the tip of which awhite or dark ball was suspended by a string. The ball was made todescribe a pendulum-like movement to and fro in front of the snail on alevel with the tips of its horns. Time and again I have seen a snaildraw in its horns when it perceived the white ball, to it an unknown andterror-inspiring object. I have likewise seen it change its line ofmarch, and proceed in another direction, in order to avoid themysterious white stranger dancing athwart its pathway. Dark-coloredobjects are not so readily perceived; at least, snails do not give anyevidence of having seen them until they are brought within a foot of thecreatures under observation. A snail will generally see a black ball attwelve or fourteen inches; sometimes it will not perceive the ball, however, until it has been brought to within six or eight inches of itseyestalks. During the season of courtship snails easily perceive oneanother at the distance of eighteen or twenty inches. I have oftenwatched them at such times, and have been highly entertained by theiractions. The emotional natures of snails, as far as love and affectionare concerned, seem to be highly developed, and they show plainly bytheir actions, when courting, the tenderness they feel for each other. This has been noticed by many observers of high authority, notablyDarwin, Romanes, and Wolff. [11] Mantagazza, a distinguished Italianscientist, in his _Physiognomy and Expression_, writes as follows: "Aslong as I live I shall never see anything equal to the loving tendernessof two snails, who, having in turn launched their little stone darts (asin prehistoric times), caress and embrace each other with a grace thatmight arouse the envy of the most refined epicurean. "[12] [10] Lubbock, _loc. Cit. Ante_, p. 140. [11] Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 27. [12] Mantagazza, _loc. Cit. _, p. 97. Darwin tells us that two snails, one of them an invalid, the other inperfect health, lived in the garden of one of his friends. Becomingdissatisfied with their surroundings, the healthy one went in search ofanother home. When it had found it, it returned and assisted its sickcomrade to go thither, evincing toward it, throughout the entirejourney, the utmost tenderness and solicitude. [13] The healthy snailmust have used its sight, as well as its other senses, to some purpose, for, if my memory serves me correctly, we are told that the sick snailrapidly regained its health amid its new surroundings. [13] Darwin, _Descent of Man_, pp. 262, 263. The crayfish also has its eyes at the tips of eyestalks, but the eyes ofthis creature are very different, indeed, from the eyes of the snail. They are what are known as compound eyes, a type common to the crayfishand lobster families. Viewed from above, the cornea of a crayfish isseen to be divided into a number of compartments or cells, and looks, inthis respect, very much like a section of honeycomb. The microscopeshows that in each one of these cell-like compartments there is atransparent cone-shaped body; this is called the crystalline cone. Theapex of this cone is prolonged into an exceedingly small tube, thatenters a striped spindle-like body called the striated spindle; theentire structure is called a visual rod. Nerve-fibrils emanating fromthe optic nerve enter the striated spindle at its lower extremity, andin this way nervously energize the visual rod. There is a deposit ofpigment about the visual rod which arrests all rays of light save thosewhich strike the cornea parallel to the long axis of the crystallinecone. We see from this that the visual picture formed by a crayfish'seye must be made up of many parts; it is, in fact, a mosaic of hundredsof little pictured sections, which, when united, form the picture as awhole. Each visual rod receives its impression from the ray or rays oflight reflected from the object viewed which strike it in the line ofits long axis; the other rays are stopped by the layer of pigment-cells. When the impressions of all the visual rods are added together, the sumwill be a mosaic of the object, but such a perfect one that the junctionof its many portions will be absolutely imperceptible. The crayfish can see quite well. It has been thought that this creatureuses its sense of smell more than its sense of sight in the procurementof its food. This is undoubtedly true where the animal is surrounded bywater that is muddy, or that is otherwise rendered opaque. Theodoriferous particles coming from the food being carried to the creatureby the water, it follows them until it arrives at this source. It is different, however, in clear water and on land. I have seencrayfish rush down stream after bits of meat thrown to them, thus showingthat here, at least, the sense of sight directed them. Again, I haveenticed crayfish from clear streams by slowly dragging a baited hook infront of them. Moreover, when high and dry on land, I have seen themfollow with their eyes and bodies the tempting morsel as it waved to andfro in the air above their heads. The female crayfish carries her eggs beneath her tail, and, when theyhave hatched out, the young find this sheltering member a safe and coseydwelling-place until they have grown strong enough to enter life'sstruggle. At such times, the mother crayfish is quite brave, and will dobattle with any foe. With her eyestalks protruded to their utmost extent, she vigilantly watches her enemy. Her eyes follow his movements, and hersharp nipper is held in readiness for immediate use. Actual experimentation has taught that these animals can descry a man atthe distance of twenty or twenty-five feet. When approaching a crayfish"town" for the purpose of making observations, I use the utmost caution;otherwise, each inhabitant will retreat into its burrow before I cancome close enough to observe them, even with my field-glasses. The gyrinus, or "whirligig beetle, " whose dwelling-place during thegreater portion of its life is, like that of the crayfish, in ponds andstreams, has remarkably acute vision. This insect is a true cosmopolite, however, and is as much at home on dry land as it is in the water. Allseasons seem to be alike to it, just so the sun shines; for, during thehottest days of summer and the coldest days of winter (that is, if thereis sunlight and no ice on the water), it may be seen on the surface ofponds and streams, gyrating hither and thither in a seemingly mad andpurposeless manner. Several of these creatures will be seen at one moment floating on thewater, still and motionless; the next moment they will be darting hereand there over the surface of the water, their black and burnished backsshining in the sunlight like brilliant gems. Suddenly, it is "heels upand heads down, " and they disappear beneath the surface, each of themcarrying a bubble of air caught beneath the wing-tips; or, as the lateWilliam Hamilton Gibson expresses it, "they carry a brilliant lanternthat goes gleaming like a silver streak down into the depths, for abubble of air is caught beneath their black wing-covers, and a diamondof pure sunlight accompanies their course down among the weeds untilthey once more ascend to the surface. "[14] This little beetle is wellprovided with eyes, for it has a large pair beneath its head, with whichit sees all that is going on in the water below, and another pair on thesides of its head, with which it keeps a bright lookout above. That ithas remarkably keen vision with the latter pair, any one who has triedto steal upon them unawares can testify. [15] [14] William Hamilton Gibson, _Sharp Eyes_, p. 307. [15] I have a distinct purpose in introducing these and other queer-eyed individuals while discussing the sense of sight. I wish to demonstrate through one or more of them the correlation of morphology, physiology, and psychology, as formulated in the first chapter of this work. This is one of the most important facts in the doctrine of evolution, and upon it is based the law of progressive psychical development from the simple manifestations of conscious determination in the lowest organisms to the most complex operations of the mind in man. The queerest of all queer-eyed animals is, probably, the Periophthalmus, a fish inhabiting the coasts of China, Japan, India, the MalayanArchipelago, and East Africa. [16] [16] Semper, _Animal Life_, p. 374 _et seq. _ I use the word coasts advisedly, for this strange creature when inpursuit of its prey leaves the sea and comes out on the sands, thusexisting, for the greater portion of its life, in an element which, according to the general nature of things, ought to be fatal to it. Thelaws of evolution have, however, eminently prepared it for its peculiarmode of life, for its gill-cavities have become so enlarged that when itabandons the sea it carries in them a great quantity of water whichyields up the necessary supply of oxygen. Its locomotion has been provided for likewise, for continued use alongcertain lines has so developed its pectoral fins that the creature usesthem as legs, and jumps along at a surprising rate of speed. Its eyes are very large and prominent, and possess, for a fish, thepeculiar faculty of looking around on all sides, hence its name, "periophthalmus, " which is derived from the Greek words, περί, around, and ὀφθαλμός, eye. These eyes are situated on top of the animal's head, and present a very grotesque appearance. The favorite food of this fish is Onchidium, a naked mollusk. And, inthe matter of eyes, this last-mentioned creature is itself worthy ofremark. Its cephalic, or head, eyes are like those of other mollusks ofits genus, and are not worthy of special mention, but its dorsal eyes, sometimes several dozen in number, are truly remarkable. These eyes, although they are very simple in structure, in type are the same asthose of vertebrates, having corneæ, lenses, retinæ, and "blind spots. "(In the vertebrate eye, the spot where the optic nerve pierces theexternal layer of the retina is not sensitive to light impressions;hence, it is called the "blind spot. ") When this mollusk sees periophthalmus bounding over the sands (and thatit does see is beyond all question), what does it do? It contracts athousand or so of little bladder-like cells in the skin of its back, thereby discharging a hailstorm of minute concretions in the face of itsenemy. The fish, terrified and amazed by the volley, often turns aside, and the mollusk is saved. Thus we see that its dorsal eyes are of greatservice to onchidium. The Greeks were, unwittingly, very near an anatomical truth when theyascribed to certain monsters, called cyclopes, only one eye apiece, which was placed in the centre of their foreheads. The cyclopean eyeexists to-day in the brains of men in a rudimentary form, for in thepineal gland we find the last vestiges of that which was once a thirdeye, and which looked out into the world, if not from the centre of theforehead, at least from very near that point. There is alive to-day alittle creature which would put to shame the one-eyed arrogance andpride of Polyphemus, and Arges, and Brontes, and Steropes, and all therest of the single-eyed gentry who, in the days of myths andmyth-makers, inhabited the "fair Sicilian Isle. " The animal in questionis a small lizard, called Calotis. Its well-developed third eye issituated in the top of its head, and can be easily seen through themodified and transparent scale which serves it as a cornea. Many otherlacertilians have this third eye, though it is not so highly organizedas it is in the species just mentioned. A tree lizard, which is to befound in the mountains of East Tennessee and Kentucky, has its third eyequite well developed. This little animal is called the "singingscorpion" by the mountaineers (by the way, all lizards are scorpions tothese people), and is a most interesting creature. I heard its plaintive"peep, peep, peep, " on Chilhowee Mountain a number of times before Ibecame aware of the fact that a lizard was the singer. On dissection, the third eye will be found lying immediately beneath the skin; it has alens, retina, and optic nerve. Thus we see that the sense of sight is to be found in animals very lowin the scale of life. From a simple accumulation of pigment-cells whichserves to arrest light rays (in simple organisms such as rotifers) tothat complex and beautiful structure--the human eye--the organs ofvision have been developed, step by step. We will also see in the course of this discussion that, just as thesesimple and primal organisms have given place to more complex forms, justso have the operations of mind become higher and more involved. We see, in periopthalmus, a creature exceedingly well adapted by form, function, and intelligence to its manner of life. We must admit, in fact, thecorrelation and interdependence of morphology, physiology, andpsychology in the evolution of this creature from its ancestral form toits present status. The primitive organ of audition as it is to be observed in creatures ofsimple, comparatively speaking, organization is as simple as is theanatomy of the animals in which it is found. Commonly, it is a hollowhair, which is connected by a minute nerve-filament with the sensorium. Sound vibrations set the hair to vibrating, which in turn conveys thevibrations to the nerve-filament, and so on to the auditory centre. Sometimes the hair is not hollow; in this case, the root of the hair isintimately associated with nerve-filaments which take up vibrations. It is highly probable that the majority of the lower animals, especiallythose which are sound-producers, can hear just as we hear. It is alsohighly probable that the so-called deaf animals can hear, just as wehear when we have either been born deaf, or through disease have lostthe power of hearing--by _feeling_ the sound waves. Owing to our own lack of acuteness, all of the problems involved in thisquestion of audition in the lower animals will, probably, never bedefinitely settled; yet, reasoning by analogy, we can, approximately, solve some of them. By far the larger number of entomologists locate the auditory organs ofinsects in their antennæ. I have only to mention the names of such menas Kirby, Spence, Burmeister, Hicks, Wolff, Newport, Oken, Strauss, Durkheim, and Carus, who advance this opinion, to show what a formidablearray of talent maintains it. Yet my observations lead me to believeotherwise, though these authorities are in part correct. As far asLepidoptera are concerned, and certain of Hemiptera, they are right--theantennæ in these creatures are the seat of the organs of audition. Butin Orthoptera, in most of Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera, and incertain bugs (Hemiptera), they are located elsewhere. The habit thatalmost all insects have of retracting their antennæ when alarmed bynoise, or otherwise, has done much to advance and strengthen the opinionthat these appendages are the seat of insect ears; yet I am confidentthat in nine cases out of ten the antennæ are retracted through fear ofinjury to them, and not through any impression made on them by sound. The antennæ are the most exposed and least protected of any of theappendages or members of the insect body; hence their retraction byinsects when alarmed is an instinctively protective action. They shelterthem as much as possible in order to keep them from being injured. Again, although the antennæ of most insects are provided with numeroussensitive hairs, or setæ, we have no right to assume that these hairsare auditory; no "auditory rods, " otoliths, etc. , are to be foundgenerally in antennæ, yet there are exceptional instances. Leydig foundauditory rods in the antennæ of _Dyticus marginalis_ (Furneaux[17]), thegiant water-beetle, and I myself have observed them in _Corydaliscornuta_ and other neuropterous insects. I am inclined to believe thatthe entire order of Neuroptera has antennal ears, and should thereforein this respect be classed with Lepidoptera. [17] Consult Furneaux, _Life in Ponds and Streams_, p. 325. In grasshoppers and crickets the ears are situated in the anterior pairsof legs. If the tibia of a grasshopper's anterior leg be examined, two(one before and one behind) shining, oval, membranous disks, surroundedby a marginal ridge, will be at once observed. These are the tympana orear-drums of the ear of that leg. Where the trachea, or air-tube, entersthe tibia it becomes enlarged and divides into two channels; these twochannels unite again lower down in the shaft of the tibia. The tracheæof non-stridulating grylli are much smaller than those ofsound-producing grasshoppers. The same may be said of the tibialair-tubes of the so-called dumb crickets. In grasshoppers and cricketsthe ear-drums lie bathed in air on both sides--the open air on theexternal side and the air of the air-tube, or trachea, on the inside. Lubbock calls attention to the fact that "the trachea acts like theEustachian tube in our own ear; it maintains an equilibrium of pressureon each side of the tympanum, and enables it freely to transmitatmospheric vibrations. " In grasshoppers the auditory nerve, after entering the tibia, divides intotwo branches, one forming the supratympanal ganglion, the other descendingto the tympanum and forming a ganglion known as Siebold's organ. Thislast-mentioned ganglion is strikingly like the organ of Corti in our ownear, and undoubtedly serves a like purpose in the phenomenon of audition. The organ of Corti is composed of some four thousand delicate vesicles, graduated in size, each one of which vibrates in unison with someparticular number of sound vibrations. The organ of Siebold in thegrasshopper's ear begins with vesicles, of which a few of the first arenearly equal in size; these vesicles then regularly diminish in size tothe end of the series. Each of these vesicles contains an auditory rod, and is in communication with the auditory nerve through a delicatenerve-fibril. I have observed that each of these nerve-fibrils swells intoa minute ganglion immediately after leaving its particular vesicle; thefunction of these ganglia is, I take it, to strengthen and reënforcenerve-energy. No other observer mentions these ganglia, as far as I havebeen able to determine; they may have been absent, however, in thespecimens studied by others, yet in the specimens studied by myself--the"red-legged locust" (_Melanoplus femur-rubrum_, Comstock)[18] and the"meadow grasshopper" (_Xiphidium_), they were always present. [18] Consult Comstock, _Manual for the Study of Insects_, p. 110. That grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets can hear, no one who hasobserved these creatures during the mating season will for one instantdeny; they hear readily and well, for in most of them the sense ofhearing is remarkably acute. Immediately behind the wings of flies two curious knobbed organs are tobe observed; these are considered to be rudimentary hinder wings byentomologists, and are called the halteres. Bolles Lee and others ofthe French scientists call them _balanciers_. This latter name Iconsider the correct one, for these organs unquestionably preside overalate equilibrium: they are true balancers. I do not propose to enterinto any discussion as to whether these organs are rudimentary wings ornot; suffice it to say that they appear to me to be organs fullydeveloped and amply sufficient to serve the purposes for which they werecreated. Whether or not in the process of evolution there has occurred achange of function, is a point which will not be discussed in thispaper. As they now exist, I deem them to be auditory organs of Diptera(flies, gnats, etc. ). The semicircular canals are, to a great extent if not entirely, the seatof equilibration in man. Any derangement or disease of these canalsinterferes with equilibration; this is well shown in Ménière's disease, in which there is always marked disturbance of the equilibratingfunction. If the balancers of a horsefly be removed, the insect at once loses itsequilibrium; it cannot direct its flight, but plunges headlong to theground. The same can be said of _Chrysops niger_--in fact, of the entirefamily of Tabanidæ, of the gall gnat (_Diplosis resinicola_, Comstock), and of the March flies (_Bibionidæ_). These widely differing fliesconstitute the material from which I have derived my data; I willventure to assert, however, without fear of contradiction, that whathas been said about the flies mentioned above is equally true of allflies. When the knobbed end of the balancers of the horsefly (_Tabanusatratus_, Comstock)[19] are examined with the microscope, the cuticlewill be found to be set with minute hairs or setæ; some of these hairspenetrate both cuticle and hypoderm, are hollow, and receive into theirhollows delicate nerve-fibrils. These nerve-fibrils pass inward towardthe centre, and enter ganglia, which in turn are in immediate connectionwith the great nerves of the balancers. There is but one nerve in theinsect's body that is larger than the balancer nerve, and that is theoptic nerve; hence, it is natural to infer that the balancer nerve leadsto some special sense centre. This centre in my opinion is, unquestionably, the seat of the auditory function. [19] Consult Comstock, _loc. Cit. Ante_, p. 455. It has been demonstrated beyond doubt that analogous hollow hairs, orsetæ, are prominent factors of audition in many animals, notablycrustaceans, such as the lobster, the crab, and the crayfish, and manyof the insect family; hence, it is logically correct to conclude thatthe hollow hairs on the balancers of flies are likewise auditory hairs. Moreover, there are grouped about the bases of these knobbed organscertain rows of vesicles, which contain auditory rods almost identicalin appearance with the auditory rods of the grasshopper. Indeed, I havefound those in the upper row of vesicles to be precisely similar inappearance to the rods found in Melanoplus. I have determined that in the horsefly (_Tabanus atratus_) there are sixrows of these vesicles, and that they are graduated in size. There arein the knobs of the balancers minute spiracles (I do not think thatthese have been pointed out before by any other observer) through whichair passes into the large, vesicular cells which make up the greaterportion of the knobs; spiracles are also to be found in the shafts ofthe balancers, thus providing an abundance of air to the internalstructures of these organs and allowing for the free transmission ofsound vibrations. I am well aware of the fact that in considering these organs to be theears of flies, I antagonize Lee and others who consider them olfactoryin character. [20] The position I take in regard to these organs is, however, a tenable one, and one that cannot easily be overthrown. [20] Bolles Lee, _Les Balanciers des Dipteres_; quoted also by Lubbock, _Senses, Instincts_, etc. , pp. 110, 111. The ears of Lepidoptera (butterflies) are situated in their antennæ. Thisfact has been clearly demonstrated by Lubbock, Graber, Leydig, and Wolff. Newport has made an especially exhaustive study of the antennæ of insects;and he, too, places the organs of audition in these appendages. [21] But inColeoptera my experiments and microscopical researches compel me toassert that I differ somewhat from the conclusions of the above-mentionedauthorities. These gentlemen locate the ears of beetles also in theirantennæ. Lubbock bases his conclusions on an experiment of Will--anexperiment which, if it had been carried a little further, would havedemonstrated the fact that the ears of beetles are not in their antennæ, but are, on the contrary, in their maxillary palpi. [21] Newport, _The Antennæ of Insects_, Entomol. Society, Vol. II. Will put a female Cerambyx beetle into a box, which he placed on atable; he then put a male Cerambyx on the table, some four inches fromthe box. When he touched the female she began to chirrup, whereupon themale turned his antennæ toward the box, "as if to determine from whichdirection the sound came, and then marched straight toward the female. "Will concluded from this that the ears of the beetle were located in itsantennæ. [22] [22] Will, _Das Geschmacksorgen der Insecten_, Wiss. Zool. ; quoted also by Lubbock, _Senses, Instincts_, etc. , p. 96. Seeing that Will's experiment as described by him was incomplete, I tooka pair of beetles belonging to the same family (genus _Prionus_), anddetermined the true location of their ears by a system of rigidexclusion. These beetles, when irritated, make a squeaking chirrup byrubbing together the prothorax and mesothorax. When I irritated the female she began to chirrup, and the maleimmediately turned toward the small paper box in which she was confined. I then removed the antennæ of the male, and again made the femalestridulate; the male heard her, and at once crawled toward her, althoughhis antennæ were entirely removed. This showed conclusively that the organs of audition were not located inthe antennæ, as Will supposed and as Lubbock advocates. I then removedthe maxillary palpi of the male, after which the insect remained deaf toall sounds emanating from the female. Again, I took an unmutilated male, which at once turned and crawledtoward the chirruping female. I then removed its labial palpi, leavingmaxillary palpi and antennæ intact; it heard the female and made towardher. The maxillary palpi were then removed (the antennæ being left _insitu_), and at once the creature became deaf. If the maxillary palpi of long-horned beetles be examined, certainvesicular organs, each containing a microscopic hair, will be observedin the basal segments; these, I take it, are auditory vesicles. In someof the Coleoptera I have found auditory rods in the apical segments, though this is by no means a common occurrence. In Cicindelidæ andCarabidæ these auditory vesicles are exceedingly small, and require avery high-power objective in order to be clearly seen. In justice to other observers I must say, however, that I am inclined tobelieve that in all beetles the antennæ in some way aid or assistaudition, but they are adjuncts, as it were, and not absolutelynecessary. It is a matter of easy demonstration to show that some ofthese insects hear less acutely where they are deprived of their antennæ. I presume they are about as necessary in audition as are the externalappendages of the human ear; this, however, is mere supposition, and hasno scientific warrant for its verity. I have purposely said but very little about the senses of touch, taste, and smell in this discussion of the senses in the lower animals. Thesethree senses have been so exhaustively treated by Lubbock in his_Senses, Instincts, and Intelligences of Animals_, that I could not hopeto introduce any new data in regard to them. Graber, Frey, Leuckart, Farre, Hertwig, and a host of others have likewise investigated thesesenses most thoroughly. As to the senses of sight and hearing, the matter presented a differentaspect. I was confident that I could add somewhat to the knowledgealready formulated, consequently I have treated these senses at somelength. Technicalities and the details of microscopic investigation, especially microscopic anatomy, have been omitted; they have no place ina work like this. CHAPTER II CONSCIOUS DETERMINATION Conscious determination, or, effort induced by conscious volition, isthe basic mental operation upon which is reared that complex psychicalstructure which is to be found in the higher animals, and especially inman--the highest product of evolutionary development. By conscious volition is not meant that consciousness which appertainsto the child of two or three years, who, at that age, recognizes the_ego_. Ego-knowledge, while undoubtedly present in some of the higheranimals, such as the dog, monkey, horse, cat, etc. , is not a factor inthe psychical make-up of any of the lower animals (insects, crustaceans, mollusks, etc. ). But consciousness, so far as volition or choice isconcerned, enters into the _psychos_ of animals exceedingly low in thescale of animal life. We have seen in the chapter on the senses in the lower animals, thatanimals possess one or all of the five senses--touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing; we will see in a later chapter that some of themlikewise possess certain other senses which man has lost in the processof evolution. Now, let us very briefly discuss the _modus operandi_ through which andby which conscious determination and other psychical manifestationsarise from the physical basis--the senses. [23] I have asserted, and, asI believe, I have demonstrated elsewhere, the interdependence andcorrelation of physiology and psychology. Furthermore, I wish to beplainly understood as also asserting the physical basis and origin ofall psychical operations whatever they may be. [23] "Sensorial impression is at the bottom of all our ideas, all our conceptions, though it may at first conceal itself in the form of a binary, ternary, quaternary compound; and, on our methodically pursuing the inquiry, it is easily recognizable--just as a simple substance in organic chemistry may be always summoned to appear, if we sit down with the resolution to disengage it from all the artificial combinations which hold it imprisoned. "--LUYS, _The Brain and its Functions_, p. 252. Mind is always associated, according to our experience and knowledge(and this question must be studied objectively) with a peculiar tissuewhich is only to be found in animal organisms. This tissue is callednerve, and is made up of cells and, broadly speaking, prolongations ofcells which are called nerve-fibres. Certain accumulations of nerve-cells called ganglions (ganglia) are tobe found scattered throughout the structure of animals. Experiment andobservation teach that these ganglia subserve a governing influenceover nerve-action; hence, they are called nerve-centres. Nerve-tissue is found in all animals above and including Hydrozoa, according to Romanes;[24] I am inclined to believe, however, that it ispresent in animals even lower than Hydrozoa, for I have been able, on morethan one occasion, to verify Professor Clark's observations in regard tothe protozoan, _Stentor polymorphus_, which, as he asserts, [25] has awell-developed nervous system. Moreover, I have seen, in my opinion, unquestionable acts of conscious determination enacted by this littlecreature, as I will point out further along in this chapter. [24] Romanes, _Mental Evolution in Animals_, p. 24. [25] Clark, _Mind in Nature_, p. 64 _et seq. _ Nerve-tissue has the peculiar faculty of transmitting impressions madeupon it by stimuli. When a nerve is acted on by a stimulus, theimpression wave is transmitted along the in-going nerve to the ganglion;here, the stimulus is transferred to the out-going nerve, which, goingto the muscle, causes it to contract. This form of nerve-action is called reflex action, and reflex action is, in the beginning, the germ from which spring volition (choice) and allof the higher psychical attributes. Again, it is to be observed, as animals become more highly organized, that nerves have the power of discriminating between stimuli, and "it isthis power of discriminating between stimuli, " as Romanes puts it, "_irrespective of their relative mechanical intensities_, thatconstitutes the physiological aspect of choice" (volition). It is alsothrough the faculty of discrimination that the special senses, uponwhich the entire psychical structure depends, have been evolved. The fact of this power of discrimination has been so clearly and sobeautifully demonstrated by Romanes, that I present his experiment andobservations, as detailed by him in his magnificent work, _MentalEvolution in Animals_:-- "I have observed that if a sea-anemone is placed in an aquarium tank, and allowed to fasten on one side of the tank near the surface of thewater, and if a jet of sea-water is made to play continuously andforcibly upon the anemone from above, the result of course is that theanimal becomes surrounded with a turmoil of water and air-bubbles. Yet, after a short time, it becomes so accustomed to this turmoil that itwill expand its tentacles in search of food, just as it does when placedin calm water. If now one of the expanded tentacles is gently touchedwith a solid body, all the others close around that body, in just thesame way as they would were they expanded in calm water. That is to say, the tentacles are able to discriminate between the stimulus which isapplied by the turmoil of the water and that which is supplied by theircontact with the solid body, and they respond to the latter stimulusnotwithstanding that it is of incomparably less intensity than theformer. "[26] [26] Romanes, _Mental Evolution in Animals_, pp. 48, 49. When a stimulus passes over a nerve to a ganglion, it leaves upon it animpression which remains for a shorter or longer time as the stimulus isgreat or small. Now, when a stimulus is again applied to the nerve, theimpression wave follows in the footsteps, as it were, of the firstimpression wave, and the ganglion reflects or transfers it just asbefore, thus showing that nerve has another peculiar quality--that of_memory_. Again, when two or more reflexes are excited by the same stimulus orstimuli, the ganglion learns to associate one with the other, thusshowing that it possesses another quality--that of the association ofideas (stimuli and reflexes). All of these operations are, in their beginnings, exceedingly simple;yet, as organisms increase in complexity, these simple beginnings becomemore complex and more highly developed. Heretofore, the operations described have been entirely ganglionic(reflex) and utterly without that which we call consciousness. Now, sinceconsciousness, as I understand it, is simply a knowledge of existence, andsince this knowledge of existence is only to be had through sensualperceptions, and, since sensual perceptions are excited undoubtedly bycoördinated stimuli, then, "there cannot be coördination of many stimuliwithout some ganglion through which they are all brought into relation. In the process of bringing these into relation, this ganglion must besubject to the influence of each--must undergo many changes. And the quicksuccession of changes in a ganglion, implying as it does perpetualexperiences of differences and likenesses, constitute the raw material ofconsciousness. "[27] [27] Spencer, _Principles of Psychology_, Vol. I. P. 435. However quick this succession of changes may be, there must be aninterval of time between the application of the stimulus and theresponse to that stimulus, hence, the element of time enters into allpsychical operations that are not distinctly reflex. Even in thereflexes there is a time element, but it is distinctly shorter than thetime interval that enters into the make-up of a conscious psychicaloperation. This can easily be demonstrated, as has been done, time andagain, by actual experiment. "With this gradual dawn of consciousness as revealed to subjectiveanalysis, we should expect some facts of physiology, or of objectiveanalysis, to correspond; and this we do find. For in our own organisms weknow that reflex actions are not accompanied by consciousness, althoughthe complexity of the nerve-muscular systems concerned in these actionsmay be very considerable. Clearly, therefore, it is not mere complexity ofganglionic action that determines consciousness. What, then, is thedifference between the mode of operation of the cerebral hemispheres andthat of the lower ganglia, which may be taken to correspond with the greatsubjective distinction between the consciousness which may attend theformer and the no-consciousness which is invariably characteristic of thelatter? I think that the only difference that can be pointed to is adifference of rate of time. "[28] [28] Romanes, _Mental Evolution in Animals_, pp. 72, 73. The gradual cultivation of the senses (evolution), during which thespecial adaptations of their motor reactions are gradually developed, is anecessary prerequisite to the formation and elaboration of consciousvolition. [29] In the foregoing pages I have very briefly discussed thiscultivation of the senses and the development of their motor reactions. Ihave likewise outlined the origin of volition from sensual perceptions; itnow becomes necessary in this discussion of mind, in the lower animals, tostudy those organisms in which volition (choice) first makes itsappearance in the shape of conscious determination. [29] Maudsley, _Physiology of Mind_, p. 247. _Stentor polymorphus_ is exceedingly interesting on more than oneaccount. Its queer, trumpet-like shape, with its flaring, bell-like, open mouth (if I may use such a term to indicate its entire cephalicextremity), surmounted by rows of vibratile cilia, its pulsatingcontractile vesicle, its ability to move from place to place byswimming, are all interesting features; but, when it is ascertained tobe the first creature in the entire Animal Kingdom in which a truenervous system is to be found, then it becomes doubly interesting. This protozoan has been a favorite subject for study with microscopists, but Professor Clark of Harvard was the first observer to note and callattention to its nerve-supply. Says he in his note calling attention tothis discovery:-- "The digestive and circulatory systems are the only parts of theorganization essential to life that are known to investigators; butrecently I have been led to believe that I have discovered the _nervoussystem_, or at least a part of it, and that too in the very region ofthe body where there is the most activity, and therefore more likelythan elsewhere to have this system most strongly developed. Immediatelywithin the edge of the disk (_bell_) there runs all around a narrowfaint band, which lies so close to the surface that it is difficult todetermine precisely that it is not actually superficial. From this bandthere arise, at nearly equal distances all round, about a dozenexcessively faint thin stripes, which converge in a general directiontoward the mouth. "[30] [30] Clark, _Mind in Nature_, pp. 64, 65. This band Professor Clark very correctly, as I believe, assumes to be apart of Stentor's nervous system; for, with a medium high-power lens(×500) I have been able to make out ganglionic enlargements both in thecircular band and in the stripes. These ganglia are the brain of thisinfusorian. When the animalcule is stained with eosin, the nervoussystem can very readily be made out and followed throughout all of itsramifications. On one occasion, while I was studying the contractile vesicle (heart) ofone of these animalcules, I saw it evince what seemed to me to beunquestionable evidences of conscious determination. Just above the creature, which was resting in its tube (it builds agelatinous tube into which it shrinks when alarmed or disturbed in anyway), there was a bit of alga, from which ripened spores were being givenoff. Some of these spores were ruptured (probably by my manipulations) andstarch grains were escaping therefrom. The Stentor, from its location below the alga, could not reach thestarch grains without altering its position. I saw it elevate itself inits tube until it touched the starch grains with its cilia. With theseit swept a grain into its mouth, and then sank down in its tube. Ithought, at first, that this was the result of accident, but when thecreature again elevated itself, and again captured a starch grain, I wascompelled to admit design! By some sense, it had discovered the presence of starch, which itrecognized to be food; it could not get at this food without making achange in its position, which, therefore, it immediately proceeded todo! Here was an act which required, so it seemed to me, correlativeideation, and which was doubly surprising, because occurring in ananimal of such extremely simple organization. This observation wassubstantiated, however, by the testimony of Professor Carter, an Englishbiologist, which came to my notice a week or so thereafter. Thisinvestigator witnessed a similar act in an animalcule belonging, it istrue, to another family, but which is almost, if not quite, as simple inits organization as Stentor. He does not designate the particularrhizopods that he had under observation, yet from his language, we areable to classify them approximately. His account is so very interestingthat I take the liberty of quoting him in full. "On one occasion, while investigating the nature of some large, transparent, spore-like elliptical cells (fungal?) whose protoplasm wasrotating, while it was at the same time charged with triangular grainsof starch, I observed some actinophorous rhizopods creeping about them, which had similar shaped grains of starch in their interior; and havingdetermined the nature of these grains by the addition of iodine, Icleansed the glasses, and placed under the microscope a new portion ofthe sediment from the basin containing these cells and actinophryans forfurther examination, when I observed one of the spore-like cells hadbecome ruptured, and that a portion of its protoplasm, charged with thetriangular starch grains, was slightly protruding through the crevice. It then struck me that the actinophryans had obtained their starchgrains from this source; and while looking at the ruptured cell, an_actinophrys_ made its appearance, and creeping round the cell, at lastarrived at the crevice, from which it extricated one of the grains ofstarch mentioned, and then crept off to a good distance. Presently, however, it returned to the same cell; and although there were now nomore starch grains protruding, the _actinophrys_ managed again toextract one from the interior through the crevice. All this was repeatedseveral times, showing that the _actinophrys_ instinctively knew thatthose were nutritious grains, that they were contained in this cell, andthat, although each time after incepting a grain it went away to somedistance, it knew how to find its way back to the cell again whichfurnished this nutriment. "On another occasion I saw an _actinophrys_ station itself close to aripe spore-cell of _pythium_, which was situated on a filament of_Spirogyra crassa_; and as the young ciliated monadic germs issued forthone after another from the dehiscent spore-cell, the _actinophrys_remained by it and caught every one of them, even to the last, when itretired to another part of the field, as if instinctively conscious thatthere was nothing more to be got at the old place. "But by far the greatest feat of this kind that ever presented itself tome was the catching of a young _acineta_ by an old sluggish _amoeba_, as the former left its parent; this took place as follows: "In the evening of the 2d of June, 1858, in Bombay, while lookingthrough a microscope at some _Euglenæ_, etc. , which had been placedaside for examination in a watch-glass, my eye fell upon a stalked andtriangular _acineta_ (_A. Mystacina?_), around which an _amoeba_ wascreeping and lingering, as they do when they are in quest of food. Butknowing the antipathy that the _amoeba_, like almost every otherinfusorian, has to the tentacles of the _acineta_, I concluded that the_amoeba_ was not encouraging an appetite for its whiskered companion, when I was surprised to find that it crept up the stem of the _acineta_, and wound itself round its body. "This mark of affection, too much like that frequently evinced at theother end of the scale, even where there is mind for its control, didnot long remain without interpretation. There was a young _acineta_, tender and without poisonous tentacles (for they are not developed atbirth), just ready to make its exit from its parent, an exit which takesplace so quickly, and is followed by such rapid bounding movements ofthe non-ciliated _acineta_, that who would venture to say, _a priori_, that a dull, heavy, sluggish _amoeba_ could catch such an agile littlething? But the _amoebæ_ are as unerring and unrelaxing in their graspas they are unrelenting in their cruel inceptions of the living and thedead, when they serve them for nutrition; and thus the _amoeba_, placing itself around the ovarian aperture of the _acineta_, receivedthe young one, nurse-like, in its fatal lap, incepted it, descended fromthe parent, and crept off. Being unable to conceive at the time thatthis was such an act of atrocity on the part of the _amoeba_ as thesequel disclosed, and thinking that the young _acineta_ might yetescape, or pass into some other form in the body of its host, I watchedthe _amoeba_ for some time afterwards, until the tale ended by theyoung _acineta_ becoming divided into two parts, and thus in theirrespective digestive spaces ultimately becoming broken down anddigested. "[31] [31] Carter, _Annals of Natural History_, 3d Series, 1863, pp. 45, 46; quoted also by Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, pp. 20, 21. In the discussion of conscious and unconscious mind, I called attentionto the marginal bodies of the nectocalyx of the jelly-fish. These bodiesin the "covered-eyed" species are protected by hoods of gelatinoustissue; in the naked-eyed species the hoods are absent. The marginalbodies in both species are practically identical as far as generalmake-up is concerned, being composed of an accumulation ofbrightly-colored pigment-cells, embedded in which are several minuteclear crystals. Nerve-fibres connect these bodies with the sensorium("nerve-ring"). Jelly-fish seek the light, and they can be made to follow a bright lightfrom one side of the aquarium to the other by manipulating the light inthe proper manner. Even where a slight current is set up in the water, they will swim against it in their efforts to reach the light. When two or more of the marginal bodies are excised, no effect seems tofollow such excision, but as soon as the last of these bodies is cutout, the creature falls to the bottom of the tank without motion. When a point in the nectocalyx is irritated with a point of a needle orby a vegetable or mineral irritant, the tip of the manubrium will turntoward, and endeavor to touch, the spot irritated. It does not turn atonce, as it would were its movements the result of reflex action; itmoves deliberately as though actuated by volition. The above experiments and observation seem to indicate the presence ofconscious determination in the medusa; in fact, there seems to be adistinct element of choice in these psychical manifestations. While engaged in watching a water-louse, I saw it swim to a hydra, tearoff one of its buds, and then swim some distance away to a small bit ofmud, behind which it hid until it devoured its tender morsel. Again itswam back to the hydra and plucked from it one of its young; again itswam back to the little mud heap, behind which it once more ensconceditself until it was through with its meal. When we remember that thislittle creature was among entirely new surroundings (for I dipped itfrom a pond in a tablespoon full of water which I had poured into asaucer), we will appreciate the fact that the water-louse evincedconscious determination and no little memory. It probably discovered thehydra accidentally; it then, as soon as it had secured its prey, swamaway, seeking some spot where it could eat its food without molestation. But when it sought the hydra again and swam back to its sheltering mudheap, it showed that it remembered the route to and from its source offood supply and its temporary hiding-place. At the base of a large terminal ganglion in the neuro-cephalic system ofthe common garden snail, lying immediately below and between its two"horns, " will be found, I am satisfied, the centre governing its senseof direction. For, when this portion of this ganglion is destroyed, thesnail loses its ability of returning to its home when carried only ashort distance away; otherwise, it can find its way back to its domicilewhen taken what must be to it a very great distance away, indeed. Beneath the stone coping of a brick wall surrounding the front of mylawn, and which, on the side toward my residence, is almost flush withthe ground, many garden snails find a cool, moist, and congenial home. Last summer I took six of these snails, and, after marking them with apaint of zinc oxide and gum arabic, set them free on the lawn. In time, four of these marked snails returned to their home beneath the stonecoping; two of them were probably destroyed by enemies. Again, the samenumber of snails were marked, after the base of the above-mentionedganglion had been destroyed, and likewise set free. Although they livedand were to be observed now and then on the trees and bushes of thelawn, none of them ever returned to the place from which they were takenbeneath the stone coping. I have performed this experiment repeatedly, always with like results. These experiments show that the snail is capable of conscious effort;furthermore, they indicate that this little animal is the possessor of aspecial sense which many of the higher animals have lost in the processof evolution. I refer to the sense of direction, or "homing instinct, "so-called, which will be treated at length in the chapter on AuxiliarySenses. Darwin has very beautifully demonstrated the senses of touch, taste, andsmell in the angle-worm; provisionally he denies it, however, the sensesof sight and hearing. [32] I think he is in error as to these last twosenses. [32] Darwin, _Formation of Vegetable Mould_. Angle-worms are nocturnal in their habits, hence, we should expect, fromthe very nature of things, to find them able to differentiate betweenlight and darkness. And experiments show, very conclusively, that theyare very sensitive to light. My vermicularium is made of glass, consequently, when one of its inmates happens to be next to the glasssides, which very frequently occurs, it is easy to experiment on it withpencils of strong light. If a ray of light is directed upon anangle-worm, it at once begins to show discomfort, and, in a very fewmoments, it will crawl away from the source of annoyance, and hide insome tunnel deep in the earth of the vermicularium. Again, when theworms are out of their tunnels at night, a strong light shining on themwill at once cause them to seek their holes. If the back of an earthworm be examined with a high-power lens (×500), small points of pigment will be seen here and there in its dorsalintegument; these, I believe, are primitive eyes (ocelli). I think thatthe worm is enabled to tell the difference between light and darknessthrough the agency of these minute dark spots, which serve to arrest therays of light, thus conveying a stimulus to nerve-fibrils, which, inturn, carry it to the sensorium. Any country schoolboy will tell you that worms can hear. He points tohis simple experiment (pounding on the earth with a club) in proof ofhis assertion. For, as soon as he begins to pound the ground in afavorable neighborhood, the worms will come to the surface "to see whatmakes the noise. " Darwin assumes that the worms feel the vibrations, which are disagreeable to them, and come to the surface in order toescape them. I do not deny the possibility or the probability of thisassumption; I do deny, however, that it proves that worms are deaf. If the third anal segment (abdominal aspect) of a worm be examined, tworound, disk-like organs incorporated in the integument will be found;these organs are supplied with special nerves which lead to the centralnerve-cord. Experiments lead me to believe that these are organs ofaudition. When I tap the earth of my vermicularium with a pencil, the unmutilatedworms will come to the surface; but, when the organs described above areremoved, the worms so mutilated will not respond to the tapping, butwill remain in their tunnel. The worms are not appreciably impaired bysuch mutilation; on the contrary, they seem to thrive as well as thoseto which the knife has not been applied. In creatures which possess, in all probability, the senses of touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing, we would naturally expect to find someevidences of conscious determination; and we do. Certain leaves are the favorite food of earth-worms, while certain otherleaves are eaten by them, but not with avidity. When these two kinds ofleaves are given to worms, they will carefully select the favorite foodand will ignore the other, thus unmistakably evincing conscious choice. Their avoidance of light is probably the result of consciousdetermination, and not reflex, as some observers maintain. Oysters taken from a bank never uncovered by the sea, open their shells, lose the water within, and soon die; but oysters kept in a reservoir andoccasionally uncovered learn to keep their shells closed, and live muchlonger when taken out of the water. This is an act of intelligence duedirectly to experience without even the factor of heredity. [33] It is aninstance of almost immediate adaptation to surrounding circumstances. [33] Dicquemase, _Journal de Physique_, Vol. XXVIII. P. 244; quoted also by Darwin, MS. ; by Bingley, _Animal Biography_, Vol. III. P. 454; and by Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 25. A gentleman fixed a land-snail, with the mouth of the shell upward, in achink of a rock. The animal protruded its foot to the utmost extent, and, attaching it above, tried to pull the shell vertically in astraight line. Then it stretched its body to the right side, pulled, andfailed to move the shell. It then stretched its foot to the left side, pulled with all of its strength, and released the shell. There wereintervals of rest between these several attempts, during which the snailremained quiescent. [34] Thus we see that it exerted force in threedirections, never twice in the same direction, which fact showsconscious determination and no slight degree of intelligence. [34] Consult Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 26. A ground wasp once built a nest beneath the brick pavement in front ofmy door. The entrance of the nest was situated in the little sulcus, orditch, between two bricks. While the wasp was absent, I stopped theentrance with a pellet of paper, and, when the little housekeeperreturned, she was nonplussed for a moment or two, when she discoveredthat her doorway had been closed. The wasp, after examining the pelletof paper, seized it with her jaws and tried to pull it away; but, sinceshe stood on the brick and pulled backwards (toward herself), the edgeof the brick interposed, and she could not dislodge the obstacle. Finally, she got down into the little gully between the two bricks, andpulled the pellet away from the opening of the nest without any furthertrouble. Three times I performed the experiment, the wasp going throughlike performances each time. At the fourth time, however, she went atonce into the little space between the bricks, and then removed the wadof paper without difficulty. I stopped the hole five or six times afterthis, but she had learned a lesson; she always got into the sulcusbetween the bricks before attempting to remove the paper. She haddiscovered the fact that she could not remove it when she stood upon thesurfaces of the bricks, owing to the interposition of their sides, andthat she could drag it away if she got down into the little ditch andpulled the paper in a direction where nothing opposed. In this instancethere was not only conscious determination, but also a distinctexhibition of memory. It took the wasp some time to learn that she hadto pull in a certain direction before she could remove the pellet ofpaper; but when she had once learned this fact, she remembered it. Andthis brings us to another quality of mind--memory--which will bediscussed in the next chapter. CHAPTER III MEMORY In discussing memory as it is to be observed in the lower animals, Ithink it best to divide the subject into four parts; viz. , _Memory ofLocality_ (_Surroundings_), _Memory of Friends_ (_Kindred_), _Memory ofStrangers_ (_Other Animals not Kin_), and _Memory of Events_(_Education_, _Happenings_, _etc. _). _Memory of Locality. _--There can be no doubt but that the rhizopodsobserved by Carter displayed memory of locality. He distinctly assertsthat he saw the actinophrys, after it had incepted a starch grain, "crawl away to a good distance" and then return to the spore-cell fromwhich it was taking the grains of starch. The creature must haveremembered the route to and from the spore-cell. The same must be saidof the water-louse observed by myself, which not only came back to thesource of its food-supply, but also returned to a certain lurking-spotat which it hid itself each time until it had eaten the hydra buds. Itmust be remembered that a journey of one inch, to these minute littlecreatures, is, comparatively speaking, an immense distance. Each grainof sand, each particle of decayed vegetable matter, etc. , is, to thesemicroscopic animalcules, a gigantic boulder, a mighty muck heap. Theseobstacles in the path undoubtedly serve as landmarks to the wanderingmyriads of microscopic animalcules. It can be demonstrated that the snail has memory of locality. Thiscreature is essentially a homing animal, as I will show in the chapteron Auxiliary Senses, consequently we would naturally expect to find itpossessing memory of locality. An interesting observation by Mr. Lonsdale, an English observer, which has been often quoted, clearlyproves that this creature does possess this psychical function. Mr. Lonsdale placed two snails in a small and badly kept garden. One of themwas weak and poorly nourished, the other strong and well. The strong onedisappeared and was traced by its slimy track over a wall into aneighboring garden where there was plenty of food. Mr. Lonsdale thoughtthat it had deserted its mate, but it subsequently appeared andconducted its comrade over the wall into the bountiful food-supply ofthe neighboring garden. It seemed to coax and assist its feeblecompanion when it lingered on the way. [35] [35] Darwin, _Descent of Man_, pp. 262, 263. Marked bees and ants invariably return to places where they have foundfood-supplies, thus showing the possession of a memory of locality androute. It is very interesting to watch a marked ant during her journeyback to her nest, after she has been carried away and placed amongunfamiliar scenes and surroundings. At first, owing to her fright, shewill dash away helter-skelter; but soon recovering, she will head in thedirection of home, and moderate her pace until she creeps along at avery cautious and circumspect gait, indeed. Every now and then she willclimb a tall grass-blade or weed and take observations. After a whileshe sees certain landmarks, and her speed becomes faster; soon thesurrounding country becomes familiar, and she ceases to climb blades ofgrass, etc. , now she is in the midst of well-known scenes, and at lastshe fairly races into her nest. In this instance the ant is led at first by her sense of directionalone; as soon, however, as she comes to country which she has huntedover, and with which she is familiar, memory comes into play and thesense of direction ceases to act, or, if it acts at all, it actsunconsciously. Sand-wasps build their nests in the ground, and, when leaving theirtunnels in search of food for the prospective grubs, always circle aboutthem and observe the lay of the land before taking their departure. Numerous sand-wasps build in the interstices between the bricks of apavement in front of my house. When one leaves her tunnel she will flyabout the orifice for several seconds (taking observations) before shefinally flies away. When she returns, she hovers about the orifice, or, rather, in its neighborhood, until she is quite certain that it is theentrance to her home, when she will dart in with such rapidity that theeye can scarcely follow her movements. On one occasion, I covered the pavement surrounding the entrance withnewspapers, leaving, however, about three inches on all sides of theorifice uncovered. When the wasp returned she seemed to be completely ata loss what to do. She hovered about for at least an hour, and then flewaway. Thinking that this experiment was too great a tax on the wasp'sintelligence, I tried the following, which seemed to me to be nearer anatural happening than the former experiment. I believe that, instudying mind in the lower animals, one's experiments should be as nearnature as they can possibly be. As soon as the wasp had left her tunnel, I covered the surface of thebricks and the interstices between them, for several feet around theorifice of the tunnel, with sand. This might have happened, naturally, through the agency of the wind. When the wasp returned, it was perfectly apparent that she did notrecognize her domicile. She flew here and there and round about, but shewould not alight. Finally, I swept the sand away, when she at once flewto her nest and entered. In my opinion, these experiments prove very clearly the presence ofmemory of locality in these insects. The sense of direction, which avast majority of the lower animals possess in some degree, is, however, of material assistance to their memory; this special sense will be fullydiscussed in another chapter. Most of the beetles are homing animals; that is, they have certain spotsto which they will return after excursions in search of food. Heretofore, observers have held to the opinion that beetles made theirhomes wherever they happened to be; but close study of markedindividuals, especially of _Carabidæ_ and _Cicindelidæ_ has taught meotherwise. Some of the long-horned beetles appear to be rovers, butthese are always males, and their roving habits are due to sexualpromptings. The females are, however, to a great extent, homing animals, and do not wander far after they have once established a home. Beingcreatures which recognize certain surroundings as home, they must, necessarily, have some memory of locality. This proposition is new, being formulated and advanced by myself alone, therefore I expect thatit will be negatived by many investigators. All that I ask, however, isthat _marked_ specimens of the different genera be closely watched; I amconfident that if this plan be followed, the truthfulness of thisproposition will soon be universally acknowledged. Reptiles and certain fishes are homing animals, and this habit isespecially noticeable in the land or box terrapin. One of these animalshad its home for many years in my lawn, and I have often satisfiedmyself in regard to its knowledge of locality. I have frequently takenit several hundred yards (its usual "using-place" is circumscribed atabout one hundred yards) away from its home and set it free. At first, led by its sense of direction, it would turn towards home andslowly crawl in that direction. It would not feed _en route_, but seemedintent only on arriving at its home as quickly as possible. Finally, when it arrived among familiar surroundings, it would begin to feed, butwould still make its way homeward. It clearly and unmistakably indicatedby its actions that it had a memory of locality. This treatise on mind in the lower animals is, mainly, a study ofpsychical manifestations as they are to be observed in insects;therefore, the higher animals will only be studied incidentally. Sufficeit to say that, among the higher animals, evidences of memory oflocality are very abundant, and are so patent that they do not needdiscussion. _Memory of Friends_ (_Kindred_). --This phase of mind in ants has beenclosely studied and graphically described by Sir John Lubbock. Most ofhis experiments and observations have been verified by myself, thereforethe reader will pardon me if I quote freely from his valuable work, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_. The observations of Huber, Ford, Lubbock, and other observers declarethat ants can remember and recognize their kindred after having beenseparated from them for several months. "Huber mentions that some antswhich he had kept in captivity having accidentally escaped, met andrecognized their former companions, fell to mutual caresses with theirantennæ, took them up by their mandibles, and led them to their ownnests; they came presently in a crowd to seek the fugitives under andabout the artificial ant-hill, and even ventured to reach thebell-glass, where they effected a complete desertion by carrying awaysuccessively all the ants they found there. In a few days, the ruche wasdepopulated. These ants had remained four months without anycommunication. "[36] [36] Huber, p. 172; quoted by Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, p. 120; also by Kirby and Spence, _Introduction to Entomology_, Vol. III. P. 66; also by Newport, _Trans. Ent. Soc. _, London, Vol. II. P. 239. On one occasion, I took ten _Lasius niger_ and confined them in aspecially constructed formicary so that they could not possibly leavethe nest. I supplied these colonists with a gravid queen, so they veryquickly became satisfied with their new home. Four months thereafter, Iput three of these ants, previously marked with a paint of zinc oxideand gum arabic, into their former nest. They were at once recognized bytheir kindred, which began to caress them with their antennæ and toremove the paint from their bodies. In the course of a half hour, thepaint had all been removed, and I lost sight of them among the otherants. A month after the performance of this experiment, I took three markedants from the parent nest and placed them in the new nest. They were atonce recognized by the colonists, which received them, as it were, withopen arms and began to cleanse their bodies by removing the paint. Inboth of these experiments the recognition appeared to be instantaneous;there was no hesitancy whatever. On the other hand, when performing like experiments with _Lasiusflavus_, it took the ants (on two occasions) some little time torecognize their kindred; when the marked ants were put into the nestthey were at once seized by the other ants, which pulled them about thenest for some time. They were finally recognized, however, and the paintremoved from their bodies by the busy little tongues of their kindred. This would seem to indicate that _Lasius niger_ had a better memory than_Lasius flavus_; whether the failure of the latter to recognize theirfriends at once was due, however, to faulty memory or not, is apsychical problem that will, probably, never be solved. Lubbock's experiments with _Myrmica ruginodis_ clearly demonstrate thatthese ants can recognize their kin. Says he:-- "On August 20, 1875, I divided a colony of _Myrmica ruginodis_ so thatone half were in one nest, A, and the other half in another, B, and werekept entirely apart. "On October 3, I put into nest B a stranger and an old companion fromnest A. They were marked with a spot of color. One of them immediatelyflew at the stranger; of the friend they took no notice. "October 18. --At 10 A. M. I put in a stranger and a friend from nest A. In the evening the former was killed, the latter was quite at home. "October 19. --I put one in a small bottle with a friend from nest A. They did not show any enmity. I then put in a stranger, and one of themimmediately began to fight with her. "[37] [37] Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, p. 121 _et seq. _ These experiments show that _Myrmica ruginodis_ recognize their kin atsight, and that they are able to remember and recognize one anotherafter long separations. Lubbock states that _Lasius flavus_ accept others of the same species astheir friends, no matter how great a distance lies between the nests. His experiments were made with ants taken from contiguous nests as wellas those located some distance apart, and, in one instance, with antstaken from a nest in another part of the country. He states that, inthe last-mentioned experiment, "in one or two cases they seemed to beattacked, though so feebly that I could not feel sure about it; but inno case were the ants killed. "[38] [38] Lubbock, _loc. Cit. Ante_, p. 124. My experiments and observations with this ant are directly the reverse. As long as the individuals experimented with belonged to contiguousnests, and were, probably, derived from the same root-stock, there wasno fighting; but, in the case of ants taken from opposite sides of thehouse, which, probably, sprang from two different sources, there was, invariably, much fighting, in which not a few of the combatants losttheir lives. Whether or not the American species of _Lasius flavus_ arenaturally more pugnacious than the English species, I know not; if theyare, then this fact will account for the difference in behavior of thetwo species to a certain extent, though not entirely. Others of the social Hymenoptera--for instance, bees and wasps--rememberkindred. On one occasion, I clipped the wings of a wasp, and, after shehad learned that she could no longer fly, placed her on a strange nest. She was at once attacked, and was soon stung to death. I kept a waspconfined in a glass for three weeks, carefully feeding her meanwhile, and then placed her on the nest from which she had been taken. She wasat once recognized by the other wasps, which caressed her with theirantennæ, and licked her with their tongues. Bees, though they seem able to recognize kindred, and to remember themalso for some time, do not show these faculties of the mind as plainlyas do wasps and ants. This is probably due to the fact that bees are alater development, socially speaking, and are not as psychically matureas the other social insects. In the higher animals the memory of kindred, especially in monkeys, isquite well developed, and is so well known that it does not needdemonstration. _Memory of Strangers_ (_Animals other than Kin_). --The recognition ofenemies can be noticed in animals quite low in the scale of life, and, although this psychical phase is almost universally instinctive, itcarries with it certain elements of consciousness. As we ascend thescale, however, we discover that certain animals are capable ofremembering other animals after a hostile encounter with them; thus, apet squirrel remembered the turtle which had bitten him after two yearshad elapsed, and a white mouse showed, very plainly, that he had notforgotten the pet crow from whose clutches he had been rescued, evenafter three years had passed by. I might enumerate quite a number ofinstances like these, but think it hardly necessary; any one who haspaid any attention to natural history has seen evidences of this phaseof memory in animals. I will, however, give one more illustration ofthis form of memory, which, in my opinion, is quite remarkable. In myfront yard, last summer, there dwelt a large colony of bumblebees. Oneday, in a moment of idleness, I tossed a tennis ball, with which I wasteaching a young dog to retrieve, into the nest. The dog dashed afterit, scratching up the ground and barking loudly; immediately the beessallied forth, pounced upon the dog and stung him severely. During theentire summer this dog could never come near the nest without beingstung; his companions, two in number, trotted to and fro on the pathnear which the nest was located without being noticed in the slightestdegree by the bees. The disturber, and, to them, would-be ravisher anddestroyer of their home, however, was always assailed and put to flight. He eventually learned to give that portion of the yard a wide berth, andcould not be coaxed into coming within thirty yards of the home of hissavage little foes. Instances of memory of individuals, incited by friendship or regard, between animals of different species is quite rare among the loweranimals (insects, reptiles, etc. ), yet, I have fortunately been able tonote this phase of memory as occurring in several animals, comparativelyspeaking, low in the scale of intellectual development. I have everyreason for believing that even the toad remembers individuals, atleast, it remembers the sound of some particular voice or whistle. Itmost certainly remembers localities and places, and that, too, whenunaided by its sense of direction which it possesses in a high degree. Atoad which I had under observation, and which I was in the habit offeeding, would come at my call or whistle, and this it learned to doafter only two weeks of teaching. It would do this even in the middle ofa hot summer day (toads feed at dusk and during the night), showing, thereby, that it remembered that this call meant food. I have strong reasons for believing that certain spiders possess thisphase of memory; at least, a certain lycosid once evinced suchunmistakable evidences of a recognition of my individual person, thatmore than one observer became convinced that she knew me from otherpeople. At the time these observations were made, I was confined to thehouse by sickness. In my room and dwelling beneath my table was a large black spider, oneof the most beautiful of her species. When I first made her acquaintanceshe was very timid, and would run to her den if I made the slightestmotion. As time passed, however, she grew bolder and would come to theedge of the table which was close beside my bed, and regard me intentlywith her beady black eyes. Finally she became so tame that she wouldtake flies and insects from my fingers. She learned to know me so wellthat she could easily tell the difference when others came into theroom. When I would leave the room for a short outing, on my return Iwould find her waiting for me on the top of the table. When othersentered the room, she would hide herself in her den, and remain there, very frequently, until they took their departure. It has been known for quite a while that in the nests of ants there arealways to be found other insects, which appear to dwell in perfectharmony with the real builders and owners of the domiciles. Some ofthese creatures (the aphides, for instance) are brought into the nestsby the ants themselves, which use them as we do cows, milking from theirbodies a clear, sweet fluid, which they greedily lap up with theirtongues. But there are other animals in the teeming formicary which seemto subserve no useful purpose other than that of ministering to theants' love of pets or playmates. One notable little alien in certain antcommunities is a minute claviger beetle (so called from its peculiarclaviger, or club-shaped antennæ), which seems to be a well-belovedfriend and companion, and which is always treated with greatkindness. [39] These little beetles sometimes leave the nest, and may beobserved sunning themselves at the entrance. The busy workers are neverso busy but that they can spend a fraction of a second for the purposeof caressing their diminutive playmates. On one occasion, a swarm wasabout to take place in one of my formicaries. The young princes andprincesses had emerged and had congregated about the entrance; theyseemed loath to take wing and fly away on their honeymoon jaunt out intothe unknown world. The workers were gently urging them to depart, sometimes even nipping them slightly with their mandibles. Severallittle clavigers could be seen running here and there and everywherethrough the crowd of anxious workers and timid young males and females. They irresistibly reminded me of a lot of little dogs in a crowd of menaround some centre of excitement or attraction. I have seen dogs, onmore than one occasion, act in just such a manner. The ants, notwithstanding their evident worry and excitement, seemed to noticetheir little pets, and to give them, every now and then, an encouragingpat, as it were, on their backs or heads. [39] Consult Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, pp. 75, 76. The clavigers are not the only pets in a formicary; several otherspecies of beetles and one bug also live in ants' nests, and seem tooccupy places in the affection of the masters of the home akin to thosewhich dogs, cats, and other pets occupy in our own affections. It has been asserted, most frequently by superficial observers, however, that the reptilian _psychos_ is exceedingly low; this is a popular error, for many reptiles give evidence, on occasions, of a, comparativelyspeaking, high degree of intelligence. Especially is this true in regardto their memory of individuals. I kept for some time in my room, some years ago, a male black snake(_Bascanion constrictor_). Whenever this creature became hungry, hewould follow me about the room like a dog or a cat. He would wind hisway up my legs and body, until his head was on a level with my own; hewould then bow repeatedly, darting out his tongue with inconceivablerapidity. He would never attempt to crawl up the legs of a visitor (some visitorsknew "Blacky" quite well and were not at all afraid of him), thusshowing that he knew me personally. Again, a friend sent me two Floridian chameleons, which dwelt in mydesk, and which, in course of time, became very tame. My desk is acombination bookcase and writing-table, and these creatures passed mostof their time among the books, changing color so perfectly, especiallywhen alarmed, that it took a very sharp eye indeed to descry them whenthey were quiescent. When I sat at my desk writing they would jump downon my head or shoulders and explore my entire body, running here andthere and everywhere about me, sometimes tickling me with their sharplittle claws until I, too, was forced into making a tour of discovery, in order to bring them once more to the light. But let a stranger enterthe room, and, presto! they were gone in the twinkling of an eye. Ileft home on one occasion and was gone for two months. When I came to myroom and sat down at my desk, I looked about for my little pets, andcould not see them. I had come to the conclusion that they had eitherdied or escaped from the room, when suddenly I saw a tiny little headpeep out from between two books and as suddenly disappear. I pulled outa writing-pad and went to work, keeping a watch, however, for my shylittle friends. They gradually became bolder and bolder, until all atonce they seemed to recognize me, first one and then the other leapingto my shoulders. In a few moments they were making their usual tour overmy person. In this instance these lizards remembered me after an absenceof at least two months; it took them about two hours fully to recall mypersonality, yet they did it in the end. Birds remember individuals, and testify their love or hatred for suchindividuals in actions that are unmistakable. Thus, an eagle in CentralPark, for some--to me--unknown reason, took a great dislike to myself, and, whenever I approached its cage, would erect its crest and regard mein the most belligerent manner. On several occasions it even left itsperch and flew to the bars in its desire to attack me. A large, handsomegobbler belonging to my mother has shown the house boy that it is war tothe death between them. This turkey never fails to attack the boywhenever opportunity offers; no other person is ever molested by him. A lady writes me as follows: "Last week my brother" (a lad of twelve)"killed a snake which was just in the act of robbing a song-sparrow'snest. Ever since then, the male sparrow has shown gratitude to George ina truly wonderful manner. When he goes into the garden the sparrow willfly to him, sometimes alighting on his head, at other times on hisshoulder, all the while pouring out a tumultuous song of praise andgratitude. It will accompany him about the garden, never leaving himuntil he reaches the garden gate. George, as you know, is a quiet boy, who loves animals, and this may account, in a degree, for the sparrow'sextraordinary actions. " I am perfectly convinced that the nesting birds on my place know me, andthat they remember me from one nesting-time to another. I haverepeatedly approached my face to within a foot of setting birds withoutalarming them. On one occasion I even placed my hand on a broodingcardinal, which merely fluttered from beneath it without showing furtheralarm; yet no wild bird has ever evinced toward myself any specialdegree of friendship. When I was a lad I remember that a certaindecrepit old drake would follow me like a dog, and appeared to enjoyhimself in my society. I could not appreciate his friendship then, andgreatly fear that I was, at times, rather cruel to the old fellow. One of the queerest friendships that ever came under my observation wasthat which existed between a bantam cock and a pekin drake. The cock wasthe most diminutive specimen of his kind that I ever saw, being hardlylarger than a quail, while the drake was almost as large as a full-grownfemale goose. These two birds, so widely dissimilar as to genus andspecies, were always together. If "One Lung" (the cock) took it into hishead to go into the garden and flew over the fence, "Chung" (the drake)would solemnly waddle to a certain hole in the fence well known tohimself, and, by dint of much pushing with his strong, yellow feet, would squeeze himself through, and rejoin his companion with many aguttural quack and flirt of his tail. If "Chung" desired to take a bath, he would make for the brook, where "One Lung" would soon join him, always remaining, however, on the bank, where he would strut about andcrow continuously. On one occasion, a chicken-hawk attacked the cock, which, though it defended itself valiantly, was in great danger of beingdestroyed. The drake soon became aware of what was happening, and hurledhimself, with many a squawking quack, like a white avalanche against thehawk, and, with one quick blow of his horny, flat bill, laid this pirateof the air dead at his feet! He then examined the cock, with low-voicedexclamations issuing from his throat all the while. Then, finding himuninjured, he flapped his wings and quacked loud and long, as if inthankfulness. As for "One Lung, " he pecked the dead hawk several times, then hopped up on its body and crowed as loud as he could, as if to say, "Look-what-I-have-do-o-o-ne!" "One Lung" was taken to a neighboring farm for breeding purposes by hisowner, and "Chung" moped and appeared utterly inconsolable during hisabsence. When the bantam was finally brought home, the drake recognizedhim "afar off" and came hurrying to meet him with flapping wings andmuch vociferation. He caressed him with his bill, and appeared to make aclose examination of his person. These birds have always passed thenight close together, the bantam roosting among the branches of a lowbush, while his faithful companion squatted on the ground at its root. Several years ago I knew a hen which was devotedly attached to an oldwhite horse. When the horse was confined to the stable, the hen wasalways to be found in his stall, either in the manger, on the floor, orperched upon his back. This last position was a favorite one, and it wasonly abandoned when the hen was in search of food. When the horse wasout on pasture, the hen went with him and stayed close beside him untilnightfall, when she always returned and roosted on one of the stallpartitions. Many cow owners of my town are in the habit of turning out their cows inthe morning, allowing them to roam about in the search of grass duringthe day. As there are many large open commons in the immediateneighborhood of town, the cows easily find an abundance of food. In myearly morning walks I repeatedly noticed a large red cow which wasalways accompanied by a small black dog. When the cows came back intotown in the evening, many of them passed my house, and among the numberwas the red cow and the dog in attendance. I became very much interestedin the cow and dog, and, one evening, followed the former to her home. Iasked her owner if he had trained the dog to follow the cow, whereuponhe disclaimed all knowledge of any dog, declaring that he had notallowed a dog on his premises for many years. The next morning I was athis cow-house before the animal was turned out. When this occurred Ifollowed her. A few blocks from her home, she was met by the dog, whichbounded about her and showed his delight by wagging his tail. When shereturned home in the evening he accompanied her until he arrived at hisown home (the place where he met her in the morning), when he left herand crawled through a hole in the fence. His owner declared that his doghad been leaving home early in the morning and returning in the eveningduring the entire spring and summer (it was then September), and that hehad often wondered where he stayed during the day. This queer friendshipcontinued until November, when some miscreant put an end to it byshooting the dog. Neither the favored cow nor any of her companions(there were, sometimes, at least a hundred cows on the commons grazingtogether) appeared to pay the slightest attention to the dog or tonotice him in any way. The dog kept close to his friend, the red cow, during the day, sometimes sitting gravely on his haunches and watchingher eat, at other times frisking about her, as though asking for a romp. When she started to return home he followed close at her heels. Another of my dog acquaintances struck up a friendship with a hog, andseemed to be highly pleased when he was allowed to play with his porcinefriend. What is more wonderful, the hog appeared to be just as fond ofhis dog friend, and always greeted him with a series of delightedgrunts. If permitted, they would play together for hours at a time. Thedog was the bitter enemy of other hogs, and would worry them at everyopportunity. [40] [40] These animals sometimes did not meet for months, yet they never forgot each other, and their friendship continued for several years. I have had many friends among the lower animals, but have always gainedand retained their good-will through their appetite. Some of thesecreatures will be considered queer pets, for instance, grasshoppers, spiders, and crickets, yet they were very interesting and often showedmuch intelligence. The lower animals, with the single exception of thedog (I do not include the cat, for I doubt her friendship), rarelyaccept man as a companion and friend spontaneously. Their appetites orthe exigencies of their surroundings very frequently occasion them toact in a friendly manner towards man, simply in order to induce him tobefriend them. It is the rarest thing in the world for them toexperience disinterested friendship for him. As I have said elsewhere inthis paper, a few instances of disinterested and spontaneous affectionof animals, other than dogs, for human beings are, however, on record, and I am happy in being able to record another. In 1882 there was received at the Fair Grounds in St. Louis, Missouri, aconsignment of South American monkeys. Among the lot were several largeindividuals of a species then unknown to me, and which remain unknown tome to this day. When I entered the monkey house I went at once to thecage of the newcomers. One of the creatures, after examining me verycarefully, uttered a peculiar cry, and then leaped to the bars and beganjabbering at a great rate. I told the keeper that I believed that themonkey wished to make friends with me; that the tones of its voice weredecidedly pacific. He laughed at the idea, and declared that this sameanimal had bitten him severely when he was removing it from the box inwhich it had been shipped to the cage in which it was then confined. Isaid nothing more, but, going behind the rail, inserted my hand betweenthe bars of the cage. The monkey immediately seized it with its paws, kissed it, and then licked it with its tongue. It then drew its headdown beside it, murmuring all the while in low tones. It showed greatpleasure when I scratched its head and body, and, in fact, seemed toregard me with the greatest affection. When the keeper, in hisastonishment, drew near, the monkey bounded toward him, chattering andshowing every indication of great anger. This animal never forgot me, but always recognized me the very moment I entered the monkey house. In the same house there was a large dog-faced ape (chacma) named "Joe, "whose friend and companion was a little white and black kitten. "Joe"called no living thing, except the cat, his friend; he had manyacquaintances, but only one friend. He would tolerate me, and eveninvented a name for me, so the keeper declared, yet his friendship nevergot beyond tolerance. But he loved the cat, and the cat seemed to lovehim--that is, as much as a cat could love. He could not bear to have hertaken from his cage; whenever this was done he would rage up and downhis den, coughing, growling, and yelling like a mad creature. When shewas restored to him he would seize her by the nape of the neck and carryher to the back of his cage, from which coign of vantage he would growlforth maledictions on the heads of his tormentors. In order to test this monkey's memory, the cat was removed from thecage, and another cat was substituted. "Joe" at first appeared to beafraid of the new cat, and retired to the rear of his den. He wouldavoid the cat, whenever she approached him, by moving about the cage. Finally, he became very angry, and seizing poor puss, he broke her backand then pulled her head from her body! This was done so quickly thatthe tragedy was over before we could make a move to prevent it. At the end of three months his pet was returned to him. The kitten hadgrown considerably during this interval, yet "Joe" recognized her atonce, and welcomed her with many extravagant acts denoting joy andsatisfaction. All of the higher animals, such as the dog, horse, cat, ox, elephant, monkey, etc. , possess this phase of memory. _Memory of Events_ (_Education_, _Happenings_, _etc. _). --The memory ofevents and their sequences is a faculty of the mind that is to benoticed in animals very low in the scale of life. In fact, psychicaldevelopment is based almost wholly upon this mental attribute. The vastmajority of what are now entirely instinctive habits were, in thebeginning, the results of sensual perceptions formulated and remembered(consciously and unconsciously), which gave rise to conscious ideation;this conscious ideation, in turn, became instinct. This part of my subject is treated at length in the chapter on Reason, therefore I will only introduce here certain evidence of this phase ofmemory as it is to be observed in the lower animals, especially ininsects. A wasp of the variety commonly called "mud-dauber" last summerbuilt her nest on the ceiling of my room in one corner. The windows ofthis room remained open night and day during the hot summer months, soher nest was easy of access. One day, while the wasp was busy about herhome, I closed all the windows and awaited developments. At length sheflew toward a window, against which she landed with a thump which for amoment or two completely dazed her. The wasp soon discovered that shewas barred from the outer world by some transparent, translucentsubstance; she then proceeded on a voyage of discovery, flying aroundthe room and searching here and there and everywhere for an exit. Shefinally found a small hole in a window casing which communicated withthe outside; through this she made her escape from the room. Uponopening the window I saw her examining the passage through which she hadcome, going through it repeatedly. She finally flew away, but shortlyreturned with a pellet of mud. Notwithstanding the fact that all thewindows were then open, the wasp went at once to the hole in the casing, through which she made her way into the room and thence to her nest onthe ceiling. She never again, so far as I was able to ascertain, madean exit or an entrance through the windows, but always made use of thehole in the casing. This little creature undoubtedly gave unmistakableevidences of ratiocination; she found that a transparent barrier hadbeen placed in her way--a barrier so translucent and transparent thatshe could not see it until she actually felt it. She therefore concludedthat she would never again risk injury by flying through the windows. What is most remarkable about this instance is that this insect derivedher knowledge from a single experience, and at once profited thereby. The wasp remembered the event--her experience with the window glass--andavoided a like occurrence by going through the hole in the casing. Herexperience was a bit of education. There are many people alive to-day, probably, who saw the trained fleaswhich were on exhibition in the large cities of the United States somethirty or forty years ago. These little creatures had been taught toperform military evolutions, to dance, to draw miniature carts, to feigndeath, etc. , at the command or signal of their owner and trainer. Themere fact that they possessed memory enough to learn, retain, andremember their lessons is not proof positive of reason, but the fact oftheir having restrained their natural tendency and desire to escape, when they could so easily gratify such a desire or tendency, is a potentfactor in an argument for their possession of the ratiocinativefaculty. Their teacher explained that he "brought them to reason" bykeeping them at first in a glass vessel, where they jumped and bumpedtheir heads to no purpose against the transparent walls of their prison. Thus their vaulting ambition was held in check, and they learned toreason from cause and effect. It is a well-known fact that many of the higher animals can be taught todo many things entirely foreign to their natures. This is brought aboutentirely through the faculty of remembering events. I am confident thatmany of the lower animals, insects, crustaceans, reptiles, are likewisethe possessors of this faculty, and are capable of being taught. I, myself, have succeeded in teaching a toad to hop over a stick at theword of command. Again, I taught two chameleons to take certainpositions and to retain them at feeding time. These little creaturesremembered their lesson, and at my whistle would "line up" on theparticular book that I had designated as their dining-table. We haveseen that fleas are capable of being highly educated, hence it isreasonable to presume that other insects, specially and generically akinto the flea, likewise possess the faculty of remembering events. Ofcourse, this faculty is necessarily more highly developed in someanimals than in others; it differs in degree of development, not inkind. CHAPTER IV THE EMOTIONS Careful observation and investigation lead me to believe that, in manyof the higher animals, all the fundamental emotions, such as love, hate, fear, anger, jealousy, etc. , are present. Books on natural historyfairly teem with data in support of this proposition. Such authoritiesas Romanes, [41] Darwin, [42] Semper[43] and Hartman[44] give instanceafter instance in support of the dictum that the emotional nature ofmany of the higher animals is highly developed. [41] Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_. [42] Darwin, _Descent of Man_. [43] Semper, _Animal Life_. [44] Hartmann, _Anthropoid Apes_. Man has been called the Laughing Animal, because, so it has beenclaimed, he alone of all animals expresses emotion through the agency ofthe smile or through laughter. This is a grave mistake, for both the dog and the monkey, in certaininstances, have been known to express pleasure through the agency of thesmile. And, in the case of certain monkeys, the action of the facialmuscles was accompanied by cachinnatory sounds. "Tom, " a capuchin monkey of the St. Louis, Missouri, zoölogical garden(Fair Grounds), was quite a noted "laugher, " and his facial expressionsas well as the sounds he uttered were so evidently laughter, pure andsimple, that the most casual observer was able to recognize them assuch. "Stranger, " a half-bred spaniel belonging to my kennel, invariablyexpressed pleasure with smiles. The action of the facial muscles, aswell as the facial expression engendered by this action, was widelydifferent from like phenomena when the dog showed his teeth inanger. [45] [45] Compare Darwin, _Expression of the Emotions_, p. 120. Young chimpanzees chuckle and smile when one they love returns to themafter an absence of some little time. Their eyes sparkle and growbright, while very evident and easily recognized smiles flit over theircountenances. [46] [46] Martin, _Natural History of Mammalia_, Vol. I. Pp. 383, 410; quoted also by Darwin, _loc. Cit. Ante_. Young orang-utans likewise chuckle and grin when tickled, and, asWallace observes, give expression to unmistakable smiles. "Dr. Duchenne--and I cannot quote a better authority--informs me that he kepta tame monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it, duringmeal-times, some choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of itsmouth were slightly raised; thus an expression of satisfaction, partaking of the nature of an incipient smile, and resembling that oftenseen on the face of man, could be plainly perceived in this animal. "[47] [47] Darwin, _loc. Cit. Ante_, p. 133. A dog belonging to Mr. Henry Barklay, of Paducah, Kentucky, not onlysmiles when pleased, but also gives utterance to an unmistakablechuckle. When I first saw and heard this manifestation of delight, Ithought that the animal had been taught the accomplishment; his masterassured me, however, that such was not the case, that both the smile andthe chuckle were natural and inborn traits of the dog. I think it hardly necessary to give more data on this point; suffice itto say that it is a fact beyond dispute that certain monkeys and dogsare "laughing animals, " and that man is _not_ the only animal thatexpresses emotion through the agency of the smile and laughter! On one occasion during very hot weather, one of the combs in mybee-house became loosened at the top through melting of the wax. Theweight on the comb dragged it down, and suddenly it broke from itssupports and sagged over against a neighboring comb. It was perfectlyapparent to me that if something were not done at once, the comb wouldcontinue to sag until it broke away from all its connections, and wouldthen be precipitated to the floor of the hive. The bees likewiserecognized this impending calamity, and clearly showed that they did bythe noise and tumult which arose among them as soon as they discoveredthe precarious situation of the endangered comb. [48] [48] Compare Huber, Vol. II. P. 280. The loud buzzing which they immediately set up clearly indicated theirdismay and consternation. It seemed to me very much like the noisyvociferation of conflicting counsels, which would undoubtedly ariseamong the people in some orderly town were they suddenly threatened bysome unforeseen and unheard-of catastrophe. The tumult among the bees continued for four or five minutes, when, suddenly, order was evolved out of chaos, and they set to work toprevent the fall of the comb, showing almost, if not altogether, as muchintelligence as human beings would evince under like circumstances. They shored up the endangered comb by building a thick pillar of waxbetween it and a neighboring comb, thus effectually fixing it so that itcould sag no further. When this had been done, they re-affixed the topof the comb to the ceiling of the hive by a broad, thick bar of wax; thepillar used in propping up the comb was afterwards removed and the waxused elsewhere. In this instance, these little creatures at first clearly evinced theemotions of fear, dismay, consternation, and grief; afterwards, theyjust as clearly showed fortitude and joy; for, after the supportingpillar had been built, I saw the queen, surrounded by a crowd ofcourtier-bees, on the comb near it, and am fully convinced that she hadbeen brought out by her rejoicing subjects to view the results of theirbrave struggle against an utterly unforeseen but now happily avertedcalamity. On another occasion I witnessed the terrible grief of a community ofbees at the death of their queen, which was seized with illness (asudden and overwhelming diarrhoea, to which bees, at times, are verysubject) while making a progression through her domains, and fell to thefloor of the hive and died before she could be conveyed back to theroyal cell. I was, therefore, able to see the conduct of the bees duringher illness and after her death. When she fell to the floor, the bees seemed to know at once thatsomething out of the ordinary had happened. The sick queen wasimmediately surrounded by a dense circle of her subjects, those next toher licking her with their tongues and endeavoring to raise her to herfeet. When she died they were a little slow in recognizing the fact, but whenthey did realize that she was dead those nearest the dead sovereign setup a loud buzzing. This was transmitted from circle to circle, from beeto bee, until the entire hive was in an uproar. The bees rushed to andfro bewailing their loss, and seemingly crazed by grief. All work wasimmediately suspended, and even the young were abandoned and left, forthe time being, to shift for themselves. Those bees which returned tothe hive laden with honey did not put it into the cells but retained itin their honey-bags. In fact, the entire social economy of the hive wasdisrupted and disarranged, and this confusion lasted for hours. Afterabout twenty-four hours of mourning for the dead queen the beesrecovered their equanimity, and began the work of rearing another queenfrom a worker larva. In another chapter of this book (vid. Memory) I have related aninstance of complex ideation in a bird. I have reference to the sparrowwhose young was saved from a snake, and which remembered the lad whodestroyed its enemy. This bird undoubtedly showed gratitude. Anothercorrespondent writes: "Knowing your love for, and your interest in, allanimals, I think my experience with two house wrens this summer willentertain you. These birds selected for their home an old boot, whichthey discovered on a bench in an outhouse. Here they built their nest, and, in the course of time, had the great pleasure of welcoming into theworld two interesting 'wrenlets. ' "One day, while feeding my pigeons, I noticed that the old wrens weregreatly disturbed by something or other. They kept flying about me, uttering sharp, complaining cries; they would now and then fly to theouthouse, and then back to me. At last it occurred to me that someaccident might have befallen the young wrens, so I proceeded toinvestigate, and soon discovered the trouble. "Some one, in rummaging about the room, had overturned the boot, whichhad fallen in such manner that the top pressed against the wall, thuseffectually barring the way to the nest. I righted the boot, therebyrestoring the children to their parents, much to the delight of allparties concerned. Ever since this episode the male wren has shown hisgratitude in an unmistakable manner. He has followed me into the houseon several occasions; he has learned where I sit when engaged in sewing, and pays me short visits, flying though the window several times a day, and, wonderful to relate, after the young had learned to fly, he broughtthem around to my window and evidently gave them to understand that Iwas their saviour!" The higher animals, such as the horse, the ox, the dog, the monkey, etc. , show the emotions of anger, hate, fear, love, and grief so plainlythat "he who runs may read. " That these animals possess these emotionsis a fact which hardly needs demonstration. They likewise have veryretentive memories, sometimes treasuring up an injury for days, months, and years, until an opportunity arrives for them to "get even, " thusshowing that they are revengeful. Thus, a dog of my acquaintance had been severely thrashed last winterby a larger dog. He bided his time, and, this summer, after hisantagonist had been handicapped by having that atrocious invention, amuzzle, affixed to his head, he fell upon him, "tooth and toe-nail, " andwould have killed him had he not been prevented. Again, some years ago my attention was called to a large mandril by thekeeper of the monkey house in the St. Louis Zoölogical Garden, whoremarked that "That monkey will do me up some day. I had to thrash himseveral days ago, and ever since then he has had it in for me. " Not ten minutes after the conversation, while I was in another part ofthe building, I heard a yell from the keeper, and, on rushing to seewhat had happened, found that the man's thumb had been almost severedfrom his hand by the powerful teeth of the mandril. The keeper had beenexplaining something to some visitors, standing with his back to theanimal, and with his hand resting on one of the bars of the cage. Thebrute saw his opportunity, and, in the twinkling of an eye, seized itand inflicted a severe injury to the individual whom he regarded as hisenemy. During another visit to the above-mentioned monkey house, I accidentallyinflicted an injury to a capuchin monkey, "Tom" by name, who was a greatfriend of mine and who had been taken from his cage and given to me bythe keeper. After playing with him for a time, I had placed him on thefloor and had resumed my conversation with the keeper. Suddenly, "Tom"gave a loud squall and jumped into my lap, wringing one of his hands andmoaning piteously. He held up his hand towards me, calling my attention to it with many agrimace and cry; he even felt it with his other hand, carefullyseparating the fingers and gently stroking them. On examination Idiscovered that the tips of two fingers were bruised and abraded; thelittle fellow had evidently had them caught in some way beneath the heelof my shoe. He quietly and patiently submitted while we dressed hiswounded digits, but removed the bandages just as soon as he was returnedto his cage, evidently having more faith in the curative qualities ofhis own saliva than in the medicaments of man. In this instance, the monkey clearly indicated that he had been hurt; hepointed out the portion of his body where the injury was situated, andthen allowed his friend to "doctor" the injury, although he did notevince an abiding faith in that friend's skill. In contradistinction tothe mandril which evinced revenge, the capuchin showed that he was of aforgiving disposition, for, no sooner was he hurt, than he soughtconsolation from the very person who inflicted the injury. An English observer, Captain Johnson, writes as follows, when speakingof a monkey which he had shot: "He instantly ran down to the lowestbranch of a tree, as if he were going to fly at me, stopped suddenly, and coolly put his paw to the part wounded, and held it out, coveredwith blood, for me to see. I was so much hurt at the time that it hasleft an impression never to be effaced, and I have never since fired agun at any of the tribe. "[49] [49] Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 475. Another observer, Sir William Hoste, records a similar case. One of hisofficers saw a monkey running along some rocks, holding her young one inher arms. He fired, and the animal fell. When he arrived at the placewhere she was lying, she clasped her young one closer, and pointed withher fingers to the hole in her breast made by the bullet. "Dipping herfinger in the blood and holding it up, she seemed to reproach him withhaving been the cause of her pain, and also that of her young one, towhich she frequently pointed. "[50] [50] Romanes, _op. Cit. _, p. 476. These observations would seem to indicate that monkeys are capable offeeling and of expressing sorrow and reproach. "So intense is the griefof female monkeys for the loss of their young, that it invariably causedthe death of certain kinds kept under confinement by Brehm in NorthAmerica. "[51] [51] Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 70. By the observant and analytical mind, the various psychical phenomenaevinced by the lower animals are not regarded as being either wonderfulor extraordinary. Man is a conceited, arrogant individual, and hisplace in nature has done much toward fostering and enlarging thisself-conceit and arrogance. Even in the time of Moses thisself-glorification was _en evidence_. The genesis of the world, asrelated by this famous historiographer, geographer, naturalist, theologian, and lawgiver, plainly shows this. At the present time, science declares, emphatically, that man is but a mammal, whose brainhas undergone exceptional evolutionary development. He is but theyounger kinsman of other mammals whose evolutionary development hassought other channels; these, in turn, are but younger kin of yet olderanimals, and so on backwards, to the beginning of life in bathybianprotoplasm. The resistless forces of evolution have placed him where heis, and no amount of self-adulation can hide the scientific fact that heis _not_ a special creation. All the creatures of the living world arekin, and that force which animated the first moneron, and which we calllife, has been transmitted from creature to creature until the presentday, absolutely unchanged. There is no reason for believing that lifewill ever be entirely extinguished, until conditions arise which willrender the presence of this force impossible. When we recognize the fact that intelligent ratiocination is but theproduct and the result of the psychical action of a certain substancecalled brain matter, and not the product and the result of the action ofan essence or force unconnected with, or outside of, brain; and, furthermore, when we know that these lower animals have receptiveganglia analogous to those possessed by man, analogical deductions forceus to the conclusion that these animals should possess mental emotionsand functions similar to those of man. The microscope shows that these animals have notochords, nervoussystems, and ganglia, or brains. With a one-sixteenth objective, and anachromatic light condenser, I have been able to differentiate the graymatter in the brain of an ant, and even, on two occasions, to bring outthe cells and filaments of the cortex. Here in the brain of an ant, isan anatomical and physiological similarity to the brain of man:therefore, it is reasonable to expect evidences of mental operations inthe ant akin to those of man. That we do find these evidences in abundance can no longer be denied. Sir John Lubbock chloroformed some _Lasius niger_ belonging to hisformicary. The other ants brought their anæsthetized comrades out of thenest and carried them away; they thought that they were dead. He madesome other specimens of the same species intoxicated, and the antscarefully bore their helpless companions back into the nest. The careevinced in helping their intoxicated friends to reach the safe shelterof their nest undoubtedly indicates a sense of sympathy toward theafflicted individuals. Ants frequently display sympathy for mutilated companions. Whether ornot this feeling is ethical or material is not and can not bedetermined; the fact remains, however, that sympathy is evinced. Imyself have observed it on many occasions. I removed the anterior pairof legs from a specimen of _Lasius flavus_, and placed her near theentrance to her nest. In a short time a companion came to herassistance, and, lifting her with her mandibles, carried her into thenest. A specimen of _F. Fusca_, destitute of antennæ, was attacked andseverely injured by an ant of another species. An ant of her own speciessoon came by. "She examined, " says Lubbock, whom I quote, "the poorsufferer carefully, then picked her up tenderly and carried her into thenest. It would have been difficult for any one who witnessed the sceneto have denied to this ant the possession of human feelings. "[52] [52] Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, p. 107. Not only do they display sympathy toward mutilated and helpless friends, but also toward healthy individuals who may accidentally get intotrouble and need assistance. Belt, while watching a column of _Ecitonhamata_, placed a stone upon one of them to secure her. The next ant inline, as soon as she discovered the condition of her friend, ranhurriedly backward and communicated the intelligence to the others. "They rushed to the rescue; some bit at the stone and tried to move it, others seized the prisoner by the legs and tugged with such force that Ithought the legs would be pulled off; but they persevered until they gotthe captive free. I next covered one up with a piece of clay, leavingonly the ends of its antennæ projecting. It was soon discovered by itsfellows, which set to work immediately, and by biting off pieces of theclay soon liberated it. " At another time he found a few of the same ants passing along atintervals. He buried one beneath a lump of clay, leaving only the headprotruding. A companion soon discovered her and tried to release her. Finding this to be impossible, she hurried away. Belt thought that shehad abandoned the unfortunate prisoner, but she had only gone forassistance, and soon returned accompanied by a dozen companions, whichmade directly for the imprisoned ant and soon set her free. "I do notsee how, " says Belt in conclusion, "this action could be instinctive. Itwas sympathetic help, such as man only among the higher mammalia shows. The excitement and ardor with which they carried on their unflaggingexertions for the rescue of their comrade could not have been greater ifthey had been human beings. "[53] I have buried _Lasius flavus_ beneathsand, and in every instance, sooner or later, they have been dug out bytheir companions. [53] Belt, _The Naturalist in Nicaragua_, p. 26; quoted also by Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 48. Rev. Mr. White has noticed the same sympathetic help among _F. Sanguinea_. [54] Lubbock noticed in one of his nests of _F. Fusca_, Jan. 23, 1881, an ant lying on her back and unable to move. She was unableeven to feed herself. Several times he uncovered the part of the nestwhere she was. The other ants at once carried her to the covered part. "On March 4, " says he, "the ants were all out of the nest, probably forfresh air, and had collected together in a corner of the box; they hadnot, however, forgotten her, but had carried her with them. I took offthe glass lid of the box, and after a while they returned as usual tothe nest, taking her in again. On March 5th she was still alive, but onthe 15th, notwithstanding all their care, she was dead. "[55] [54] White, _Leisure Hour_, p. 390, 1880. [55] Lubbock, _loc. Cit. Ante_, p. 107 _et seq. _ Dr. Stimson Lambert of Owensboro, Kentucky, a careful and accurateobserver, informs me that he has frequently observed the large red ants(_F. Rufa_) helping their mutilated or crippled companions. Ants exhibit another emotion that shows the high development of theirpsychical or emotional nature. In the tender watchfulness and care oftheir young they are surpassed by no living creature. As soon as theyoung ant bursts its pupa case, it is carefully assisted into the worldby its foster-mothers. These foster-mothers clean it with their tongues, gently going over the entire surface of its body, and then feed it. Theyoung ant is conducted by them throughout the whole nest, and shown allthe devious passageways and corridors. When it makes its first visitinto the outside world, it is always accompanied by several chaperons. This parental love, if I may use the expression, is even extended to theunhatched eggs. If an ants' nest is disturbed by a stroke of a spade orhoe, the little inhabitants will at once begin to remove eggs, pupæ, andyoung to a place of safety. This parental love is even evinced by insects who never see theiroffspring. The butterfly uses the utmost care in selecting a suitableleaf on which to deposit her eggs. She selects one that will benourishing food for the larvæ when hatched out, and, after carefullyobserving whether it is preoccupied by the eggs of some other butterfly(in which case she abandons it), she proceeds to deposit her eggs. "Having fulfilled this duty, from which no obstacle short of absoluteimpossibility, no danger however threatening, can divert her, theaffectionate mother dies. "[56] [56] Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_, p. 228. The gadfly uses a like forethought in selecting a place for her eggs. The larvæ of the gadfly (_OEstrus equi_) are developed in the stomachof the horse, so the provident mother attaches the eggs to the hairs ofthe foreleg between the knee and the shoulder, a place the horse isalmost certain to lick with his tongue and, in this manner, convey theeggs to his stomach, where they are hatched out. The breeding place ofcertain of the ichneumons is the body of a caterpillar. The ichneumonmay be seen busily searching the bushes for her victim. When she findsit, she inserts her ovipositor into its body and lays her egg. If someother ichneumon has preceded her, she recognizes the fact at once, andwill not deposit her egg, but will go in search of another grub. Whenthe egg is hatched, the larva feeds on the body of its host, carefullyavoiding the vital organs. The caterpillar retains just enough vitalityto assume the pupa state, and then dies. The chrysalis discloses, not abutterfly, but an ichneumon. The mason wasp (_Epipone spinipes_) builds its cells and lays its eggs, one in each cell. It then hunts and procures spiders, which it depositsin the cells and then seals the openings. These spiders are not killedoutright, but are partially paralyzed by the sting of the wasp. Theinsect thus secures for her young a supply of fresh food. This wasp notonly knows the difference between the eggs that will produce femaleyoung, but she also makes this knowledge useful. She always supplies thefemales with more spiders than she does the males. The females arelarger and require more food, hence the discrimination. All of this careand forethought is expended on young which the mother will never see. Human love cannot give greater evidences of complete unselfishness. I once removed a ball of eggs from the web of a spider. The mother clungtenaciously to her treasure, and, when I tried to remove her with a pairof forceps, she bit fiercely at the steel blades of the instrument. Inher great love for her offspring she lost all sense of fear. Time andagain I removed her several inches from the eggs; she would run about ina distracted way, for all the world like a mother who had lost her baby, until she found the ball of eggs. She would then seize it and attempt toremove it to a place of safety. The naturalist, Bonnet, put a spider andher bag of eggs in the pit of an ant-lion. The myrmeleon seized theegg-bag and tore it away from the spider. Bonnet forced the spider outof the pit, but she returned and chose to be dragged in and buried aliverather than leave her eggs. [57] [57] Bonnet, _OEuvres_; quoted also by Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 205. Earwigs lay their eggs, and then incubate them after the manner of thehen. When the young are hatched out, the proud mother leads forth thebrood and shows unmistakable pride and affection in her children. On oneoccasion, when a storm was coming up, I saw an earwig marshal her troopof young ones, and lead them to a place of safety beneath the bark of atree. M. Geer scattered the eggs of an earwig over the bottom of a box: "Theearwig carried them, however, one by one, into a certain part of thebox, and then remained constantly sitting upon the heap without everquitting it for a moment until the eggs were hatched. "[58] This, I takeit, is at least an instance of love of offspring, even if it is not ahigher emotion. From the earwig's habit of watching over her young I aminclined to believe that this insect possesses true mother-love. [58] Romanes, _loc. Cit. Ante_, p. 229; quoted also by Bingley, _loc. Cit. _, Vol. III. Pp. 150, 151. Many of the lower animals give unmistakable evidences of the possessionby them of the emotions of anger and fear. Ants, centipedes, tarantulas, weevils, etc. , as well as many of the crustacea will give battle on theslightest provocation, clearly showing by their actions that anger andhate are their incentives. When alarmed, their actions indicate veryplainly that the emotion of fear has seized them. In the next chapter I hope to show that many of the lower animalspossess one or more of the finer emotions, which I have thought best togroup under the head of Æstheticism. CHAPTER V ÆSTHETICISM "The man that hath not music in himself, nor is not moved with concordof sweet sounds, is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. " The abovequotation is the thought of one of the most acute, profound, andaccurate psychologists that ever lived. That which he observed to betrue among men, strangely enough, a long and systematic course ofobservation leads me to believe to be equally true among the loweranimals; for wherever it can be observed that animals evince anappreciation for musical sounds, or show discrimination in theirperception of harmonious tonal vibrations, such animals, with a singleexception--the spider--will be found to be of kind disposition, and notgiven to "treasons, stratagems, and spoils" other than those required bytheir struggle for existence. So true is this rule, that the singleexception--the spider--proves the verity of the deduction or conclusion. For, like many men, the spider's love for the beautiful, not only inmusic but in decorative effects as well, is intimately associated withmurder-lust; it kills for the love of killing. Many examples of theassociation of great cruelty and profound love for the beautiful innature and the arts might be given; it is necessary for my purpose, however, to give but two--Nero and Catherine de' Medici. That spiders appreciate musical sounds, and that they can differentiatebetween those sounds that are pleasing and those that are disagreeableto them, I have not a scintilla of doubt. The following facts bearing onthis point came under my own observation or were told me by people inwhose veracity I believe implicitly, or are vouched for by scientists ofworld-wide fame. During one entire summer until late in autumn, a large, black huntingspider (_Lycosa_) dwelt in my piano. When I played _andante_ movementssoftly, she would come out on the music rack and seem to listenintently. Her palpi would vibrate with almost inconceivable rapidity, while every now and then she would lift her anterior pair of legs andwave them to and fro, and up and down. Just as soon, however, as Icommenced a march or galop, she would take to her heels and flee away toher den somewhere in the interior of the piano, where she would sulkuntil I enticed her forth with _Träumerei_ or Handel's _Largo_. On one occasion, while standing beside an organist who was improvisingon the swell organ with _viol d'amour_ stop drawn, a spider let herselfdown from the ceiling of the church and hung suspended immediately abovehis hands. He coupled on to great organ and commenced one of Guilmant'sresonant _bravura_ marches; immediately the spider turned and rapidlyclimbed her silken thread to her web high up among the timbers of theceiling. The organist informed me that he had noticed, time and again, that spiders were affected by music. Several days afterwards I went tothe church for the special purpose of experiment; I seated myself at theorgan and commenced to improvise on the swell organ with _flute_, _viold'amour_, and _tremulant_ stops out. In a few moments the spider letherself down from the ceiling and hung suspended before my eyes. Soclose was she that I could see her palpi vibrating rapidly andcontinuously. I suddenly dropped to great organ and burst into a loud, quick galop; the spider at once turned and ascended towards the ceilingwith the utmost rapidity. Again and again I enticed her from her home inthe ceiling, or sent her scurrying back, by playing slow _piano_ orquick _forte_ compositions. She clearly and conclusively indicated thatloud, quick music was disagreeable to her. Professor C. Reclain ofLeipsic, once, during a concert, saw a spider descend from one of thechandeliers and hang suspended above the orchestra during a violin solo;as soon, however, as the full orchestra joined in, it quickly ascendedto its web. [59] This fact of musical discrimination in a creature solow in the scale of animal life is truly wonderful; it indicates thatthese lowly creatures have arrived at a degree of æstheticism that isvery high indeed. [59] Reclain, _Body and Mind_, p. 275; quoted by Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, pp. 205, 206; compare Rabigot, Simonius, and Von Hartmann. Spiders are decorative artists of no little ability. I saw one whichspun a web, beautifully adorned it with a broad, silken pathway, andthen used it as a pleasure resort; I also saw a spider whichintentionally beautified its web by affixing to it hundreds of minuteflakes of logwood dye;[60] thus we see that the æstheticism of spidersis not confined to the love of music, but extends to other fields. Inpassing, I may state that once, while confined to my room for a longtime by sickness, I became intimately acquainted with a wolf-spiderwhich seemed to take an æsthetic delight in her toilet. This lycosidbecame so very tame that she would crawl upon my finger and allowherself to be brought close to my eyes, so that I could observe her deftand skilful movements while beautifying her person. She learned to knowme personally, rapidly running away and hiding herself when visitorsentered my chamber, but never showing fear when I alone was in the room. This spider also showed an appreciation for certain musical sounds (theinstrument used was the paper and comb mouth-organ of childhood); low, soft music would always entice her from her den beneath the table-lid, while loud, quick sounds seemed to frighten and disgust her. [60] Mr. Willard Bates, a druggist of Owensboro, Kentucky, in whose store this instance of decorative æstheticism occurred, called my attention to the insect, which was busily engaged in beautifying her web. Among animal music-lovers this chapter does not embrace those naturalmusicians, the crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, frogs, and birds, whoselove-songs form such a large part of the æsthetic in nature; yet theinstance I am about to relate cannot be omitted, for it clearlyindicates a love for musical sounds other than those produced by thecreature itself or its mates. A gentleman, [61] formerly living in the country, but now anattorney-at-law and residing in the town in which I live, told me that, on one occasion, he succeeded in raising two quails from eggs placedbeneath a brooding barnyard fowl. These birds grew to maturity, and, what is rare indeed, became so exceedingly tame that they ran about thehouse and yard with the utmost freedom, showing not the slightest fear, and, seemingly, taking the greatest pleasure in the caresses bestowedupon them by the children of the household. This gentleman comes of amusical family, and, on pleasant summer nights, he and his sisters andbrothers were in the habit of going to the stiles some distance awayfrom the house and there singing and playing on the guitar and violinfor several hours. The quails roosted on a dresser in the kitchen, but, as soon as the music began, they left their roost and flew to the stilesno matter how late in the night it might be, and there they would stay, perched on the shoulders of the musicians, until the concert was over;they would then go back to roost. They seemed to be passionately fond ofthe singing voice, and would seek out a singer wherever he or she mightbe, whenever they heard the sound of singing. In _timbre_ the humanfemale voice is more nearly akin to that of the quail than to that ofany other animal. When a lad, "before my voice changed, " I could call upthese birds at will by giving their various calls; I did not whistle thesongs; I _sang_ them. The peculiar quality of the female voice referredto above may be considered by some to have been the cause thatinfluenced these birds; yet my informant distinctly states that _thevoice of an adult male equally attracted them_. [61] Martin Yewell, Esq. , Owensboro, Kentucky. The opening movement of Chopin's _Marche Funébre_ affects me verydisagreeably. The music is, to me, absolutely repugnant. The beautifulmelody in the second movement is, however, to me exceedingly agreeableand affords me intense pleasure and gratification. The lower animals arelikewise agreeably or disagreeably affected by certain musical sounds. Close observation has taught me the fact that certain musical keys aremore agreeable to dogs than others. If a composition in a certain key, the fundamental note of which is agreeable to a dog, be played, he willeither listen quietly and intently to the sounds, or will, sometimes, utter low and not unmusical howls in accord or "in tune" with thefundamental note. If the music be in a key not pleasing to him, he willeither show absolute indifference, or will express his dissatisfactionwith discordant yelps not in accord with the fundamental note of thekey. The bell of a certain church in my town sounds G. A collie, which livesnext door to the church, when the bell is rung, never fails to express hisdelight in the sound. He listens intently while the bell is ringing, occasionally giving utterance to low howls, the notes being either B-flat, E-flat, or some other note in accord with G. This dog visits a house nextdoor to another church, the bell of which sounds F. He never shows theslightest interest when this bell is rung. When I play compositions inF-sharp, an English fox-terrier of mine will lie on the floor and listenfor an hour at a time. If I change to the key of E-flat, B-flat, or G, hewill soon leave the room. A question naturally obtrudes itself here in the matter of the dog whichbarks in accord with the church-bell. Does he do this knowingly(consciously), or is it simply an accident? I believe the former, andconsider it the result of an acquired psychical habitude. That the dog is conscious (self-conscious) that his voice is in accordwith the bell, I will not venture to assert, for, knowledge on thispoint, I take it, is beyond the power of man to acquire. I mean by theword, "knowingly, " when I say that the dog knowingly pitches his voicein accord with the bell, not that he has any knowledge whatever ofharmony, such as an educated musician possesses, or such even as theinherited experiences of a thousand years of music-loving ancestorswould naturally impress upon the mind of a civilized European of to-day, but that he has an acquired imitative faculty (a faculty possessed bysome of the negroes of Central Africa as well as by many other savageraces), of attuning his voice to sounds which are pleasing to his ears. In support of this proposition I instance the fact of the dog's acquiredhabit of barking, which has been developed since his domestication. Inhis wild state the dog _never_ barks. Man himself has done much toward arousing and cultivating the imitativefaculty in the dog (which, in the beginning, impelled this highlydeveloped animal to _answer_ his master, thus originating the firstvocables--barking--in the canine language), by conversing with him. Inall probability, it is only an "anatomical barrier and a psychicalaccident" at best, which prevent the dog from addressing his masterthrough the agency of speech itself! The dog's voice is exceedingly pleasing to himself, and, mostfrequently, when "baying the moon, " he is listening to his own singing, _not_ (as is generally supposed) as it pours forth from his throat, butin a more pleasing manner, as it is breathed back to his listening earsfrom the airy lips of Echo! That dogs have discovered that pleasing phenomenon, the echo, I do notquestion for a single instant. If a dog which is in the habit of "bayingthe moon" be watched, it will be observed that he invariably selects thesame spot or spots for his nocturnal concerts. If you happen to bestanding in the neighborhood, you will also notice that there is alwaysan echo, more or less distinct, of his barking; and, if you will observeclosely, you will see that the dog listens for this echo, and that hewill not resume his song until it (the echo) has entirely ceased. Thatthis is the true explanation of "baying the moon" (where there is notanother dog in the distance whose clamorous barkings have aroused a likeperformance on the part of the animal under observation), the followinginstance, coming under my own observation, would seem to indicate. I had frequently noticed that a spaniel crept under a honeysuckle bushin my front yard whenever he gave one of his serenades. Time and again Itried to hear the echo, but in vain, and an almost verified fact seemedin danger of total annihilation. Finally, it occurred to me todispossess the dog and take his place beneath the bush. I called him outand succeeded with much difficulty in getting beneath the bush, fromwhence I, imitating his voice, sent several howling barks. My theory wasno longer merely theory, but was, instead, a verified fact, for, sharp, clear, and distinct, the echoes of my voice came back from somebuildings an eighth of a mile away! Some peculiar acoustic environmentmade it impossible to get the echo at any place, as far as I coulddiscover, other than beneath the bush. [62] [62] These observations are original, and, while I am fully convinced of their truth, I would yet like to have them substantiated by other observers. This habit indicates a high degree of æsthetic feeling in the dog. It is highly probable that the susceptibility of rats and mice to theinfluence of musical sounds has been known for ages. The legend of thePied Piper of Hamelin is by no means recent, nor is it confined toEuropean peoples alone; in one form or another it exists among Asiatic, Indian, and Indo-Malayan races. In all the legends, the rats or mice aredrawn together by sounds emanating from some kind of musical instrument. A celebrated violinist told me that, at one period of his life, he livedin a house that fairly swarmed with rats. He noticed that thesecreatures were peculiarly susceptible to minor chords, or tocompositions played in minors, and that quick, lively music would bringthem forth from their lurking-places in great numbers. A few abrupt, dissonant discords would, invariably, send them scurrying to theirholes. Another violinist informs me that several mice living in his room areinfluenced by the music of his violin; when he plays an _andante_movement very softly, they appear to listen intently and to enjoy themusic; but when he plays an _allegro_ in quick time and loud, theyquickly run away. The organist of the First Presbyterian Church ofOwensboro, Kentucky, [63] tells me that when he lived in Cuba, New York, a mouse dwelt beneath a bookcase in his room, and that he oftenperformed the following experiment: Seating himself at the piano, hewould begin improvising softly. In a few moments the mouse would comefrom beneath the bookcase, approach the centre of the room, and, standing on its hind feet, would listen intently to the music. A loudchord on the piano would send it scampering away to its home. He wouldthen resume his _pianissimo_ improvisation, and the mouse would soonreturn to its former station near the centre of the room, only to vanishagain as soon as the loud chords were struck. [63] Professor L. J. Quigley. A violinist of Louisville, Kentucky, Mr. Karl Benedik, told me, on oneoccasion, that he had repeatedly noticed that several mice, which livedin his room, were influenced by the music of his violin. When he playedan _andante_ movement _pianissimo_, they would appear to listen withpleasure; but when he played an _allegro_ in quick _tempo_ and _forte_, they immediately ran away. Mice not only enjoy the music of others, but sometimes make musicthemselves. My father enjoyed nightly concerts or serenades, for a longtime, from some "singing mice" in his library. I was fortunate enough tohear this novel concert on one occasion. The mice, two in number, cameout from beneath the casing of the fireplace. They took places on thehearth, several feet distant from one another, and first one, and thenthe other, sang. Their songs were low and musical, not unlike the songof the canary, though there were no cadenzas or _fioritura_ passages. They seemed to use six notes, these notes being repeated in melodioussequences. I noticed, several times, a run of four notes in ascendingscale. On another occasion, in my bedroom, I heard a mouse sing hispleasing little song over and over again. Miss Ada Sterling, editor of _Fashions_, writes me as follows:-- "... Anent your paper ... I have had some curious experiences of asimilar nature; one was in an uncarpeted room, the house being desertedat that time. I stood still, planning certain things and humming softlyto myself. Presently, a shadowy something caught my eye, and Idiscovered a little mouse, very young evidently, then another andanother, until four were near. I did not attribute their tameness tomusic, and in surprise turned to see if there were others about. Instantly they scampered off, my action having frightened them. "When I finally arrived at the conclusion that music had attracted them, I sat down and began to hum, this time with an open sound instead of aclosed tone, and in a second the little creatures were out again, standing perfectly still, as if the sound gave them delight. Gradually Iswelled the tone, and yet they were undisturbed until I became too boldand gave a clear, sharp, full sound, and this at once frightened them. "_I experimented in this way for more than a month, never missing myaudience once_, and by this time the little creatures, grown so fat andbold as to cause serious damage, were ruthlessly caught and killed. "I heard Kate Field, about four years ago, when, as the guest of Mr. Stedman, she told several interesting stories, relate an experience ofher own, wherein, one night early in her life, she had leaned againstthe walls of the Campanile, gray and phantom-like in the moonlight, and, singing softly to herself, was surprised at discovering several littlelizards lying about on the stones, their heads held alertly in the airas if entranced by the sound of her voice. She, too, experimented withthe varying sounds, and from time to time, and evidently looked backupon the experiment as one of rare interest to herself. " Tree lizards will listen completely entranced to the music of a goodwhistler, and will allow themselves to be captured while thusinthralled. Some lizards are fairly good musicians themselves, notablythe tree lizards of the East Tennessee mountains. I have repeatedlyheard them singing on the slopes of Chilhowie and adjacent peaks. Burroughs writes very entertainingly of a singing lizard, or, rather, salamander: "... Approach never so cautiously the spot from which thesound proceeds and it instantly ceases, and you may watch for an hourwithout hearing it again. 'Is it a frog, ' I said--'the small tree-frog, the piper of the marshes--repeating his spring note but little changedamid the trees?' Doubtless it is, but I must see him in the very act. SoI watched and waited, but to no purpose, till one day, while bee-huntingin the woods, I heard the sound proceeding from the leaves at my feet. Keeping entirely quiet, the little musician presently emerged, andlifting himself up on a small stick, his throat palpitated, and theplaintive note again came forth. 'The queerest frog that ever I saw, 'said a youth who accompanied me and whom I had enlisted to help solvethe mystery. No, it was no frog or toad at all, but the small redsalamander commonly called lizard. "[64] [64] Gibson, _Sharp Eyes_, pp. 105, 106; quotation. The sound of the piccolo is very pleasing to these little creatures, andI have frequently collected about me as many as ten or a dozen bysounding this instrument in the still depths of a wood which I knewthese salamanders frequented. Certain snakes are very susceptible to the charm of harmonious tonalvibration; witness the performance of the Hindu snake charmer, who, while handling that deadly poisonous creature, the cobra-de-capello, plays continuously on flageolets, fifes, or other musicalinstruments. [65] I, myself, have often held tree lizards completelyentranced until grasped in my hand, by whistling shrilly andcontinuously. [65] It has been claimed by some that the cobra is not influenced by the music, but by movements of the Hindu performer, who dances, salaams, etc. , continually while giving exhibitions. Very recently, however, Momsen has proven the contrary by actual experiment. I remember, on one occasion, when I was quite young, that a large blacksnake crawled through a ventilating hole in the wall of the "quarters"or row of brick cottages occupied by the negroes, and took shelterbeneath the floor. It was seen by myself and some of my dusky playmates, who immediately carried the tidings to the negro gardener. He called oneof the hands from the field, and, after placing him with a loadedshotgun at one side of the hole in the wall, took his station justbehind him and commenced to play on his fiddle. In a few moments thesnake came out, and was killed by the discharge of the gun in the handsof the other negro. I have been informed, time and again, by negroesthat they could charm snakes from their holes with music, but theinstance related above is the only one of the snake being led to itsdeath by the bewitching power of musical sounds that has ever come undermy immediate personal observation. Before dismissing the subject of the influence of music on animals, Iwish to call attention to the fact that Romanes declares that pigeonsand parrots evince an æsthetic enjoyment of musical sounds. "Moreover, " writes he, "the pleasure which birds manifest in musicalsounds is not always restricted to the sounds which they themselvesproduce. " Bingley quotes John Lockman, the celebrated composer, who declares thathe once saw a pigeon which could distinguish a particular air. Lockmanwas visiting a Mr. Lee in Cheshire, whose daughter was a fine pianist, "and whenever she played the air of _Speri si_ from Handel's opera of'Admetus, ' a pigeon would descend from an adjacent dovecot to the windowof the room where she sat, 'and listen to the air apparently with themost pleasing emotions, ' always returning to the dovecot immediately theair was finished. But it was only this one air that would induce thebird to behave in this way. "[66] [66] Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 282; quoted by Bingley, _Animal Biography_, Vol. II. P. 220. A correspondent writes me that he has a cock which is passionately fondof the sound of the violin. This bird always flies to the window of themusic-room as soon as he hears the sound of the violin, where he willquietly remain perched as long as the music continues. As soon as themusic ceases, he flies down from the window. Horses very frequently show an appreciation for musical sounds, especially when they are produced by a band of brasses. Amusement and pastime are, unquestionably, æsthetic psychicalcharacteristics, hence, when we see evidences of these mentaloperations, we must acknowledge the presence of æstheticism in theanimals in which they are to be noticed. I propose to show that animals low in the scale of life--animals so lowand so minute that it takes a very high-power lens to make them visible, have their pastimes and amusements. Also, that many insects and even theslothful snail are not so busily engaged in the struggle for existencethat they cannot spare a few moments for play. In our researches in thisfield of animal intelligence we must not attribute the peculiar actionsof the males in many species of animals when courting the females, tosimple pastime, for they are the outward manifestations of sexualdesire, and are not examples of psychical amusement. I have seen, inactinophorous rhizopods, certain actions, unconnected with sexual desireor the gratification of appetite, which lead me to believe that theseminute microscopic organisms have their pastimes and moments of simpleamusement. On several occasions while observing these creatures, I haveseen them chasing one another around and around their miniature sea. They seemed to be engaged in a game of tag. This actinophrys is not veryagile, but when excited by its play, it seems to be an entirelydifferent creature, so lively does it become. These actions were notthose of strife, for first one and then another would act the pursuerand the pursued. There were, generally, four or five actinophryans inthe game. One of the rotifers frequently acts as if engaged in play. On severaloccasions I have observed them perform a kind of dance, a _pas seul_, for each rotifer would be alone by itself. Their motions were up anddown as if exercising with an invisible skipping-rope. They would keepup this play for several minutes and then resume feeding or quietlyremain at rest. This rotifer goes through another performance which Ialso believe to be simply a pastime. Its tail is armed with a doublehook or forceps. It attaches itself to a piece of alga or othersubstance by this forceps, and then moves its body up and down in thewater for several minutes at a time. The snail (_H. Pomatia_) likewise has its moments of relaxation andamusement. The following instance of play may be considered to begallantry by some, but I do not believe that I am mistaken, however, when I consider it an example of animal pastime. Two snails approachedeach other, and, when immediately opposite, began slowly to wave theirheads from side to side. They then bowed several times in courtlysalutation. This performance they kept up for quite a while and thenmoved away in different directions. At no time did they come in contact, and careful observation failed to reveal any excitement in thegenitalia. I have witnessed the embraces of snails, and the performancedescribed above does not resemble, in the slightest degree, themanoeuvres executed at such times by mating individuals. Swarms of Diptera may be seen on any bright day dancing in the sunlight. Naturalists have heretofore considered this swarming to be a mating ofthe two sexes. This is not the case, however, in many instances. Onnumerous occasions, and at different seasons of the year, I havecaptured dozens of these insects in my net and have examined themmicroscopically. I found them all to be unimpregnated females; I havenever yet discovered a male among them. In some of the Diptera the malesemerge from the pupa state after the females; I therefore believe thatthe females await the presence of the males, and, while waiting, passthe time away in aërial gambols. Forel, Lubbock, Kirby, Spence, and other naturalists have declared thatants, on certain occasions, indulge in pastimes and amusements. Hubersays that he saw a colony of _pratensis_, one fine day, "assembled onthe surface of their nest, and behaving in a way that he could onlyexplain as simulating festival sports or other games. "[67] On the 27thof September last, the males and females of a colony of _Lasius flavus_emerged from their nest; I saw these young kings and queens congregateabout the entrance of the nest and engage in playful antics until drivenaway by the workers. The workers would nip their legs with theirmandibles until the royal offspring were forced to fly in order toescape being bitten. The inciting cause of these movements may have beensexual in character, but I hardly think so. [67] Büchner, _Geistesleben der Thiere_, p. 163; quoted also by Romanes, _loc. Cit. Ante_, pp. 87, 88. On the 19th of July, 1894, I saw several _Lasius niger_ come out oftheir nest accompanied by a minute beetle (_Claviger foveolatus_); theants caressed and played with this little insect for some time, and thenconducted it back into the nest. [68] [68] On one occasion several years ago, I saw a number of young ants of _L. Niger_ brought out of the nest by five or six old ants, which watched over the young and kept them from straying away. The young ants played about the nest entrance for some time, and were then conducted back into the hive by the old ants. --W. Many such little animals are kept by the ants as pets. Lubbock says ofone of them, a species allied to _Podura_, and for which he proposes thename _Beckia_, "It is an active, bustling, little being, and I have kepthundreds, I may say thousands, in my nests. They run in and out amongthe ants, keeping their antennæ in a perpetual state of vibration. "[69]I have frequently noticed an insect belonging to the same genus as theabove in the nests of _F. Fusca_ and _F. Rufescens_. They reminded mevery much of the important-looking little dogs one sees running about inthe crowd on election day. [69] Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, p. 74. The females of _Coccinellæ_ ("lady-bugs") frequently congregate andindulge in performances that cannot be anything else save pastimes. Abeech tree in my yard is called "lady-bug tree" because, year afteryear, these insects collect there and hold their curious conventions. They caress one another with their antennæ, and gently "shoulder" oneanother from side to side. Sometimes several will get their headstogether, and seem by their actions to be holding a confidentialconversation. These conventions always take place after oviposition, and careful andrepeated observation has shown me that they are not connected withprocreation or alimentation. I have witnessed many other instances oftrue psychical amusement in the lower animals, but do not think it isnecessary to detail them here. Suffice it to say that I believe thatalmost every living creature, at some period of its existence, has itsmoments of relaxation from the cares of life, when it enjoys thegratification of amusement. Some birds evince æsthetic taste, notably in the building of theirnests, which they ornament and decorate in a manner very pleasing to theeye. The snakeskin bird gets its name from its habit of using the cast-offskins of snakes for decorative purposes. Not long ago I found a nest ina small wood, not far from the town in which I live, which wasbeautifully ornamented with the exuviated skin of a black snake(_Bascanion constrictor_). This skin must have been at least five feetin length, and the little artists had woven it into the walls of theirnest in such a manner that its translucent, glittering scales contrastedvery beautifully with the darker materials of their home. Humming-birds use bits of lichen and moss to decorate their tiny nests. These materials serve a twofold purpose: they not only render the nestbeautiful, but they also serve to protect it by making it resemble thelimb on which it is placed. It takes a very acute and discriminatingeye, indeed, to locate a humming-bird's nest. Probably of all the lower animals, the male satin or bower bird of NewSouth Wales has the decorative feeling the most developed. This birdbuilds a pleasure resort, a summer-house, or, rather, dance hall, whichhe ornaments profusely with every glittering, shining, striking objectthat he can carry to his bower in the depths of the forest. This boweris built of twigs, and, when completed, is an oblong, sugar-loaf-likestructure, open at both ends. The bird decorates his dancing hall (forhe comes here to perform love-dances during the courting season) withbright-colored rags, shells, pebbles, bones, etc. I once saw a pair of bower birds in captivity (they were owned by Mr. George Hahn of St. Louis), which constructed the dance hall frommaterials furnished by their owner. The love of personal cleanliness is, probably, the root and beginning ofmuch that is æsthetic among the lower animals. When quite a small lad, one of the first lessons set down in mycopy-book, after I had graduated in "pot-hooks and hangers, " was thetrite old saw, "Cleanliness is next to godliness. " My Yankee governess, a tall, angular spinster, from Maine, made the meaning of this copyclear to my infant mind, pointing her remarks by calling attention tothe Kentucky real estate which had found a resting-place beneath myfinger-nails, and which seemed to decorate them with perpetual badges ofmourning. I have never forgotten that lesson and firmly believe in itstruth. The love of cleanliness seems to be inherent in the lower animals, withbut few exceptions. We have all noticed the cat, the dog, the squirrel, the monkey, and the birds at toilet-making; and we know that they spenda large portion of their time in cleansing and beautifying their bodies. Some of them are dependent on their own ministrations, while others aregreatly assisted by humble little servants, whose only remuneration isdomicile, the cast-off clothing, or the garbage and refuse from theirhost's table. For instance, the common domestic fowl is greatly assisted in its toiletby certain little animals belonging to the family _Liothe_. These littlecreatures carefully scrape away and eat the scarf-skin, and otherepidermal débris that would otherwise impair the health of theirhosts. [70] Some of the fish family are entirely dependent on theministrations of mutualists, as these little hygienic servitors arecalled, in matters of the toilet. Notably, the gilt catfish, which wouldundoubtedly die if deprived of its mutualist, the _Gyropeltes_. Thisremarkable little creature does not live on the body of its host, butswims free in the water, and only seeks him when it is hungry. The skinof the gilt catfish secretes a thick, glairy, mucous exudate, which, ifleft to itself, would imperil the health of the fish. The Gyropeltes, however, regards this exudate as delicious food and rapidly removes anddevours it. [70] Van Beneden, _Animal Parasites and Messmates_, pp. 71, 72. All insects devote some of their time to the toilet, and there isprobably no one who has not, at some time or other, noticed the fly, orsome other insect, thus engaged. The greatest lover of bodilycleanliness in the whole insect tribe, however, is, I believe, my petlocust, "Whiskers"--so named by a little niece, on account of her long, graceful antennæ. "Whiskers" is one of the smallest of her family, andis a dainty, lovely, agile little creature, light olive-green in color, with red legs. She was reared from the egg, and has lived in my room allher short life. She is quite tame and recognizes me as soon as Iapproach, often hopping two feet or more in order to light on mycoat-sleeve or outstretched hand. [71] [71] Shortly after the above was written, this interesting little creature met an untimely fate at the hands of an Irish chambermaid, who was a recent importation and who did not understand that all life was held sacred in my house. --W. The first thing she does, after reaching my hand, is to seek my littlefinger and try her jaws on a diamond ring. The diamond seems to puzzleher greatly. She sometimes spends several minutes closely examining it. She will stand off at a little distance and pass her antennæ over everyportion of it. Then she will come closer and make a more minuteexamination, finally essaying another bite with her powerful jaws. Agreat water drinker, she evidently thinks the stone is some strange kindof dewdrop, hence her persistent efforts to bite it. "Whiskers" has developed cannibalistic tastes, for the hardened skinaround my finger-nails is a favorite _morceau_ which she digs out withher sharp jaws and masticates with seeming delight. She nips out apiece of skin, cocks her head on one side, and, looking up at me withher clear, emerald-tinted eyes, her masticatory apparatus working like agrist-mill, she seems to say, "Well! old fellow, this is good. " She passes most of her time on a bit of turf, in a box on my table, where the sun shines bright and warm. She is fond of water, however, andmakes frequent excursions to the water-pitcher across the room. How shediscovered that it contained water is more than I can tell; but she did, and she visits it often. It is in her habits of bodily cleanliness, however, that "Whiskers"outshines all other insects. I have watched her at early dawn and havealways found her at her toilet. This is her first undertaking, evenbefore taking a bite to eat. She makes frequent toilets during the day, and it is her last occupation at night before sinking to rest on a bladeof grass. Her method of procedure is very interesting. She commences byfirst carefully cleansing her antennæ, drawing each of them through hermouth repeatedly. Then she treats her fore-legs to a thorough scrubbing, going over every portion with her tongue and jaws. With her fore-legs, using them as hands, she then cleans her head and shoulders, if I mayuse the latter term. Her middle legs and her long "vaulters" are thensubjected to the same careful treatment. Her back and the posteriorportion of her abdomen are next rubbed down, she using the last pair oflegs for this purpose. Finally, standing erect and incurvating herabdomen between her legs, she cleans it and her ovipositor with her jawsand tongue. Her toilet is made twenty or thirty times a day. Invariably, after one of her excursions to the water-pitcher, as soon as she returnsto her box this is her first occupation. Now, having seen that the lower animals possess æsthetic feeling, it isreasonable to suppose that some of them possess some of the acquiredhigher emotions, such, for instance, as parental affection. The evidenceseems to indicate that some of the lower animals do evince suchaffection, as I will now endeavor to point out. CHAPTER VI PARENTAL AFFECTION It has been claimed that one of the main objections to the doctrine ofkinship, which, undoubtedly, exists between all animals, is the widedifference that is to be noted between the solicitude that animalsevince for their young, and the tender love of the human mother andfather for their children. This difference is more apparent than real;for the ethical love, the refined affection of civilized human parentsfor their offspring, is but a psychical culmination of the material andmatter-of-fact solicitude of the lower animals for the preservation oftheir kind. There is a vast difference between the psychical habitudes of acivilized mother and those of an Aleutian squaw or a Niam-niam"pot-boiler": the love of a civilized mother for her child extendsthroughout its life and even beyond the grave, while the solicitude ofher savage sisters (I use the word in its maternal sense) for theiroffspring ceases as soon as the infant toddler is "tall enough to lookinto the pot. " The latter emotion is closely akin to the maternalsolicitude of the higher and lower animals, while the former in itsrefined ethical excellence shows that it is the result of unnumberedthousands of years of evolutionary growth and development. The love of kind-preservation is inherent in all animals; it ranks nextin psychical strength to self-preservation, and, in some instances, evensurpasses this so-called "first law of nature. " For it very frequentlyhappens that the mother, both brute and human (and I use the word_brute_ as the antithesis of the word _human_, and mean it to embraceall creatures other than man), will lay down her life in defence of heryoung, seemingly, utterly forgetting this "first law" in her aim to saveher offspring from destruction. Thus the spider whose egg-bag I hadtaken away ran here and there and everywhere in search of it, seeminglytotally oblivious of my presence. When I extended it to her, claspedbetween the blades of a small forceps, she seized it with her mandiblesand vainly tried to take it away. When she discovered that this wasimpossible, she turned with fury on the forceps' blades and bit and toreat them in a perfect frenzy of despairing agony. I removed two of herfront legs, yet, even when thus maimed and suffering, she never for aninstant forgot her beloved bag in whose silken meshes so many of heryoung lay hidden. She continued her efforts to drag the bag away, andwas so persistent and showed such high courage, that my callousedsensibilities, hardened by much biological research, were touched, and Igave her her treasure, which she bore away in triumph. [72] [72] Vide Chap. IV. , _The Emotions_, p. 105. I, on one occasion, severed an earwig at the injunction of the thoraxand abdomen; the upper portion (the head and thorax) gathered togetherits brood of young and safely conducted them into a haven of safetybeneath the bark of a tree. In crustaceans we probably find the first unmistakable evidences ofmaternal love. The female crayfish, with the under surface of her tailcovered with impregnated eggs or newly hatched young, will fight to thedeath in their behalf. I have, time and again, reared crayfish, and havesucceeded in taming them to such a degree that they would take food frommy fingers; whenever the females of these crustaceans became mothers, however, they became timid and suspicious and would seek out the darkestspots in the tanks where they were kept. If I attempted to handle themthey would nip me with their sharp mandibles at the first opportunitythat offered; they would allow no interference with their preciousoffspring if they could possibly prevent it. This is true of the lobsteralso. This giant crustacean, with her enormous forceps-like claws, generally wages a winning fight with the would-be ravishers of heryoung. I once owned a monkey which was exceedingly fond of shell-fish. On oneoccasion I gave him a gravid lobster and came very near losing himthereby. Usually he seized the lobster or crayfish by its back and thenbroke off its forceps; he would then proceed to suck out its juices andextract its meat. On this occasion, however, the lobster was renderedbold and pugnacious by her burden of young, and managed in some way toclose her forceps on one of the monkey's thumbs. He squalled out, andhammered the lobster on the bars of his cage in a vain endeavor to ridhimself of his painful encumbrance. I finally loosened her grasp, butnot until the flesh on the thumb had been cut to the bone. The woundedhand became inflamed, erysipelas set in, and the poor animal became verysick indeed. He eventually recovered, and ever afterward was exceedinglycareful how he handled shell-fish. He approached them with caution, keeping a watchful eye on the dangerous forceps, until, by a quick andsudden dart of his hand, he could seize and tear them off. It is a mistaken, though quite generally accepted, conclusion that waspsnever behold their young, hence can readily be instanced, along with thebutterfly and some other insects, as being creatures that evincesolicitude for offspring which they never behold. I am quite confidentthat in the tropics certain of the butterflies live to see their young, for, on one occasion, Dr. Filipe Miranda told me that he was absolutelycertain that many of the _Papilioninæ_ and _Euplocinæ_ of the Amazonvalley lived at least a year and a half. I have kept alive in my roomspecimens of _Heliconidæ_ for six and eight months, while mud-dauberwasps have repeatedly wintered in my room, and have witnessed theoutcomings of spring broods. Thus, it not infrequently happens thatthese insect mothers are gratified by a sight of their offspring, thoughsometimes they evince painstaking care and solicitude toward creatureswhich they will never see. The pond catfish, so common to the ponds and creeks of the middle andsouthern states, evinces maternal solicitude in a very marked degree. Ihave frequently seen a school of newly hatched catfish under theguardianship of an anxious and solicitous mother. She would swim aroundand about her frisky and unruly herd, carefully pressing forward allloiterers and bringing back into the school all stragglers. If a stickwere thrown among the little fishes, she would dart toward it, and, seizing it in her mouth, would bear it fiercely away, and would notloose her hold of it until she had borne it some distance from her broodof young ones. Bass, white perch, and goggle-eye carefully guard theireggs and drive away all intruders; they likewise keep watchful eyes onthe young for several days after they have been hatched. During suchtimes these fish can be easily taken, for they will seize anything thatcomes near their nests. Baker says of the stickleback, that when the fry made their appearancefrom the eggs, "Around, across, and in every direction the male fish, asthe guardian, continually moved. " There were three other fish in theaquarium, two tench and a gold carp. As soon as these fish saw the fry, they endeavored to devour them, but were driven off by the brave littlefather, which seized their fins and struck with all his might at theireyes and heads. [73] [73] Baker, _Philosophical Trans. _; quoted also by Romanes, _loc. Cit. Ante_, p. 245. "The well-known habit of the lophobranchiate fish, of incubating theireggs in their pouches, also displays highly elaborated parental feeling. M. Risso says when the young of the pipe-fish are hatched out, theparents show them marked attachment, and that the pouch then serves themas a place of shelter or retreat from danger. "[74] [74] Baker, _Philosophical Trans. _; quoted also by Romanes, p. 246; and Yarrell, _Brit. Fishes_, 2d ed. , Vol. II. P. 436. An experimenter, whose name escapes me, on one occasion caught a numberof recently hatched catfish and placed them in a glass jar, close to thewater's edge. The mother fish soon discovered the presence of her youngones and swam to and fro in front of the jar, evidently much harassedand worried. She eventually came out on dry land and attempted to getinto the jar where her young were imprisoned. Truly, a wonderful exampleor instance of mother love when self was entirely forgotten insolicitude for the offspring! The Surinam toad hatches her eggs and then carries her young about withher on her back until they are old enough to shift for themselves; the"horned toad" of the southwestern states and Mexico acts in a similarmanner toward its young. I had been informed that snakes evinced parental love for theiroffspring, but never until a recent spring had I been able to verifythis information and give it my unqualified endorsement. In March(1896), on one of the bright warm days of that phenomenal month, one ofmy dogs attracted my attention by his manoeuvres on my lawn. I noticedhim walking "stiff legged" about a circumscribed spot, now and thendarting his muzzle towards the ground. On going to him I discovered thathe had found a lot of snakes, which, influenced by the summer-likeweather, had abandoned their den and had crawled out and were enjoying asun-bath. These snakes were knotted together in a ball or roll, but Iquickly discovered that they were all yearlings save one--the mother. Iresolved then and there to test the maternal affection of the mothersnake for her young, so I killed two of them and dragged their bodiesthrough the grass to the paved walk which ran within a short distance ofthe nest. The old snake and the remainder of her brood took shelter inthe den; I then retired to a little distance and awaited developments. In a very short time the mother emerged from the nest, and, aftercasting about for a moment or so, struck the trail of the young oneswhich had been dragged through the grass, and followed it to the deadbodies lying on the pavement. Here she met her fate at the hands of myiceman (whom I had called to witness the great sagacity of this lowlycreature), for he had killed her ere I could prevent him. On one occasion I saw a copperhead (_Ancistrodon contortrix_) in themidst of her young, and they seemed to be subservient to her beck andcall. Before, however, I could satisfy myself positively that the oldsnake really held supervision over her brood, the gentleman with whom Ihappened to be came upon the scene, whereupon the interesting familydisappeared beneath the undergrowth of the forest. The higher animals sometimes show, unmistakably, that the maternal loveof offspring has taken a step upwards, and that it has become, in ameasure, refined by the addition of an æsthetic, if not ethical, element. For instance, a dog acquaintance of mine, on the advent of herfirst puppies seemed to be exceedingly proud of them; she not onlybrought them, one by one, to her mistress for admiration, but she alsobrought them in to show to her master, and yet again, to myself, whohappened to be visiting her owner at the time. She deposited them, oneby one, at the feet of the person whose regard she solicited, and, after they had been admired, she returned them to the kennel. Here, inmy opinion, was an instance of pride, which has its prototype orexemplar in the pride of the young human mother who thinks that her babyis the handsomest child that was ever born! The dog's actions cannot betranslated or interpreted otherwise. Again (and in this instance, strange to relate, the proud parent was the male), a cat brought hisoffspring, one by one, from the basement to my room, two stories above, in order to exhibit them! He brought them, one at a time, and, aftereach had been admired, carried them back to their box in the basement. Loud were his purs and extravagant were the curl of his tail and thearch of his back! No father of the genus Homo could more plainly evincehis pride in his baby than did this cat in his kittens. The mother catcame with him on his first trip; she evidently did not quite comprehend, at first, the intentions of her spouse. She soon found out, however, that he meant no harm to her young, so she allowed him to work off hissuperabundance of pride without let or hindrance. Birds will defend their young to their uttermost abilities and willoften yield up their lives in unequal combats with the ravagers of theirnests. Last summer I saw two jays whip in a fair fight a large cat, which had attempted to rob their nest. They seemed to have arranged theorder of combat with one another before they attacked the would-beravisher of their home. The male bird confined his attack to the cat'shead, while the female went at its body with beak and talons. Thesong-sparrow which remembered the boy who killed the snake which wasabout to devour its young, and whose story I have told elsewhere, undoubtedly cherished and loved its young. The gratitude which couldchange the timid, wild nature of a bird in such a manner must have hadits origin in a feeling, the depths of which can only be equalled in thepsychical habitudes of the most refined of human beings! As we ascendhigher in the scale of animal life, we find that new and refiningelements are added to this love for the preservation of kind, untilfinally, in the civilized human being, it has lost its strictly materialfunction and has become wholly and entirely ethical and æsthetic. Yet, far back in the beginning, the maternal love or parental love of thecivilized human being was, fundamentally, based on no higher emotionthan that engendered by an inherent love for kind-preservation. Animals very frequently turn to man when they find themselves indifficulties and need assistance. The following instance of maternallove and trust in man in a horse was related to me not long ago, by afarmer[75] in whose probity and truthfulness I have implicit confidence. The horse in question, a mare, had been placed in a field some distancefrom the house, in which there was no other stock. The animal wastotally blind, and, being in foal, it was thought best to place herthere in order to avoid accidental injury to the colt when it was born. One night this gentleman was awakened by a pounding on his front porchand a continuous and prolonged neighing. He hastily dressed himself, and, on going out, discovered this blind mare, which had jumped the lowfence surrounding the front yard, and which was pawing the porch withher front feet and neighing loudly. She whinnied her delight as soon asshe heard him, and at once jumped the fence as soon as she ascertainedits locality. She then proceeded toward the field, stopping every nowand then to ascertain if he were following, and, when they arrived atthe field, the horse jumped the fence (a low, rail structure), andproceeded toward a deep ditch which extended across one corner of thelot. When she came to the ditch or gully she stopped and neighed once ortwice. The farmer soon discovered the trouble; the colt had been bornthat night, and, in staggering about, it had accidentally fallen intothe ditch. He got down into the gully and extricated the littlecreature, much to the delight of its loving mother, which testified herjoy and thankfulness by many a grateful and heartfelt whinny. [75] Mr. Hamilton Alexander, Owensboro, Kentucky. As I have indicated in the first part of the chapter, parentalaffection is an acquired emotion which has reached its acme in thecivilized human being; yet the germs of this highly developed psychicalmanifestation are to be observed in creatures low in the scale of animallife. As _psychos_ develops, we observe that this emotion becomes purerand more refined, until, in some of the higher animals, such as themonkey and the dog, it can hardly be distinguished from the parentalaffection of certain savages, who leave their children to shift forthemselves as soon as they are "tall enough to look into the pot"; or, until, as Reclus declares of Apache babies, "they can pluck certainfruit by themselves, and have caught a rat by their own unaided efforts. After this exploit they go and come as they list. "[76] [76] Reclus, _Primitive Folk_, p. 131. We have seen in previous chapters that the lower animals possess one orall of the five senses, --sight, smell, taste, hearing, and touch, --thatthey evince conscious determination; that they possess memory andclearly indicate that the emotions, in the majority of them at least, are highly developed; that they likewise give evidence of æstheticismboth inherited and acquired; and, finally, that they show, unmistakably, that they have acquired, to a certain extent, that most refined of allacquired feeling--parental affection. Now, taking these facts intoconsideration, it would be reasonable to suppose that creatures sohighly endowed psychically would present evidences of ratiocination. That many of the lower animals do present such evidences is a factbeyond dispute, as I will endeavor to show in the following chapter. CHAPTER VII REASON The simplest and truest definition of reason is, I take it, theintelligent correlation of ideation and action for definite purposesnot instinctive. The casual observer and a very large majority of thecreationists deny the presence of reason in the lower animals, and groupall psychical manifestations that are to be observed in animals lowerthan man under the head of instinct, forgetting that almost everyinstinctive habit must have been, in the beginning, necessarily theresult of conscious determination. Instinct is, in a certain sense, a process of ratiocination, though itsimmediate operations may not be due to reason. Instinct involves mentaloperations; if it did not, it would be simply reflex action. It isheredity under a special name; the father transmits his mentalpeculiarities as well as his corporeal individualities to his offspring. The experiences of thousands of years leave their imprint on thesucceeding generations, until deductions and conclusions drawn from theseexperiences no longer require any special act of reason in order to bringabout certain results. These results, which were, at first, the outcomeof special acts of ratiocination, or accidental happenings leading to thegood of the creature or creatures in which they occurred, finally becamehabitual and instinctive. These special acts of ratiocination are of daily, of hourly, occurrencein the lives of countless myriads of the lower animals, and escape ourobservation because of the obtuseness of our senses. Every now and then, however, the observer is able to chronicle such an act of reason, andthus adduce the proposition that if the creature or creatures werecontinually placed in surroundings requiring a like act of reason, thatact would eventually become habitual and instinctive on the part of thatcreature or those creatures. I have witnessed hundreds of acts ofintelligent ratiocination in the lower animals that were not calledforth by experience and which had not a single faculty of heredity. Forinstance, several years ago I noticed that one of the combs in abeehive, owing to the extreme heat, had become melted at the top and wasin great danger of falling to the floor. The bees had noticed thisimpending calamity long before I had, and had already set about avertingit. They rapidly threw out a buttress or supporting pillar from the combnext to the one in danger, and joined it firmly to it, thus shoring itup and preventing its fall in a most effectual manner. When they hadmade everything strong and secure, they went to the top of the comb andreattached it to the ceiling of the hive. After this had been done totheir satisfaction, they removed the shoring pillar and used the waxelsewhere. In this instance, there was an immediate adaptation ofthemselves to surrounding circumstances, in which they averted andprevented an utterly unforeseen and unheard-of catastrophe by means aseffectual as they were intelligent. Could man do more or reason better?Here was an experience which had not happened to them in hundreds andhundreds of generations, perhaps; which, perhaps, had never happened tothem before, and yet, when it did happen, their quick intelligencereadily grasped the situation, and they at once set about remedying theevil. [77] [77] Compare Huber, Vol. II. P. 280; see also Chap. IV. Of this work. A mud-dauber wasp built a nest in my room, and used an open ventilatingwindow as an entrance and exit. On one occasion this window happened tobe closed, and the wasp, not noticing the clear glass, flew against itwith great violence. She fell to the floor stunned, but when she hadrecovered from the effects of the blow, she flew here and there aboutthe room as if looking for another exit. Finally, she discovered a smallcrevice in the casing, through which she at once crawled. She then wentback and forth through this crack until she had become thoroughlyfamiliar with the new road. She never again essayed the window, thoughit was left open the entire summer. In this instance the wasp was taught by a single experience to seek outa new road. This experience was wholly new to her, consequently, shemust have used correlative ideation for definite purposes in formulatingher method of procedure. Although ants, bees, and wasps have highlydeveloped memories, and seem to be likewise in possession of thatpeculiar function of the mind called by some psychologists "unconsciousmemory, " through which they are, probably, enabled to transmitimpressions of comparatively recent experiences to their offspring, Ihardly think that the mud-dauber was influenced in her actions by anysuch inherited instinct. Such a conclusion seems to be unwarranted bythe facts in the case. Mud-daubers may have bumped their heads againstwindows ever since windows came into existence, but not with sufficientfrequency to cause them to possess an instinct that taught them to avoidwindows. Again, the ground wasp, whose hole between the bricks of a pavement Istopped with a wad of paper, and which learned to go down into thesulcus between the bricks and to pull the paper in the direction of itslong axis in order to remove the obstruction, must have used correlativeideation in order to grasp the problem that was set her to solve. From certain observation I am inclined to believe that psychical traitswhich are the result of thousands of years of experience before theybecome part and parcel of the human _psychos_ may become psychicactualities in ants, bees, and wasps in the course of a few generations. The facility with which these creatures adapt themselves to newenvironments--in which their very organisms, physical and psychical, arechanged to a certain extent--is abundant proof of the truth of thisconclusion. All experiments with the Hymenoptera amid changedsurroundings indicate an intelligent adaptation of themselves to suchenvironment. The ant is the only animal, except man, which has slaves and domesticanimals. Their intelligence is so highly developed that they make aperfect success in rearing their cattle and capturing their slaves. Thecattle of the ants are of the order _Aphididæ_. The herdsmen of theseaphidian cattle can be seen patrolling the shrubs on which the aphidesare grazing. On them devolves the care of the herds. They bring them outin the morning and carry them back at night. They gather the eggs of theaphides, carry them into a specially built nursery, attend themcarefully until the young aphides are hatched out, and then carry themto the shrubs most liked by them for food. Some strange sense enablesthem to recognize one another--an ant of the same species, but comingfrom another nest, is immediately recognized as a stranger, and at onceattacked. If the eggs of one ant colony are hatched out in another ofthe same species, the young ants are at once known to be strangers andintruders. This far transcends our intelligence. What mother couldrecognize her infant if it were born in the dark and she had never seenit? Again, if the larvæ of ants are removed, hatched outside of thenest, and then returned, the ants at once recognize them as kinsmen andreceive them into the nest. When we take into the consideration that an ant's brain has gray matteranalogous to the gray matter found in the cortex of the human brain, weshould not feel surprised when we find striking evidences ofratiocination in these little creatures. The better creatures are ableto communicate ideation or thought, the stronger and more frequent arethe evidences of their possession of reason. Ants can undoubtedlycommunicate; how and in what manner, it is not generally agreed. Some time ago I crushed an ant in a path usually taken by theinhabitants of a nest (which was situated in a hollow tree) in theirjourneys to and fro. A soldier ant came along presently, and, smellingthe blood[78] of her murdered companion, was seized by a sudden terrorand fled away into the nest. She soon returned, however, with thirteenother soldier ants, and made a careful examination of the body and itssurroundings. Her companions also examined the corpse, and, havingsatisfied themselves that their comrade was dead, and that her murdererwas not to be found, returned to the nest. Soon afterwards a largeworker ant, guarded by two soldier ants, came out, and, proceeding tothe body, picked it up, carried it down the tree and away beneath thegrass, where I lost sight of them. [78] In order to avoid technicalities I think it best to use synonyms with which the general student is familiar. The non-technical reader will know at once what is meant by the "blood" of the ant. --W. In this instance there is every evidence of complex reasoning; thediscoverer of the murder hurried away into the nest, where she gave thealarm; the police of the community--the soldier ants--went immediatelyto the scene of the tragedy, made an examination, and then returned andgave in their report; the undertaker, in the shape of the large workerant, then went out, got the body, carried it away and buried it; the twosoldier ants followed the body to the grave in order to protect it fromcannibal ants. It has been my good fortune to have witnessed several pitched battlesbetween large bodies of ants. In a battle between some black ants and someyellow antagonists of another species, I saw many evidences of intelligentcommunication. The yellow ants had a commissariat and an ambulance corps;and I frequently saw them drop to the rear during the battle, and partakeof refreshments or have their wounds attended to. The blacks, whichcomposed the attacking army, were in light marching order, and had neitherof these conveniences and necessary adjuncts. The yellow ants frequentlysent back to their village for reënforcements; the ants that had been outon hunting expeditions when the battle was joined were notified as soon asthey arrived at the nest, and immediately hurried off to join in the fray. The blacks had discovered a herd of aphides belonging to the yellows, andhad sought to surprise the guards and steal the herd; hence the battle. Iam glad to report that the black horde was defeated by the brave yellowwarriors and had to decamp, leaving many of its number dead upon the fieldof battle. On another occasion I saw an army of red ants besieging a colony ofsmall black ants. The object of the red ants was the theft of the pupæor young of the black ants. These pupæ they take to their own nest andrear as slaves, the enslaved ants to all appearances becoming entirelysatisfied with their condition, and working for their masters willinglyand without demur. The besieged ants evinced a high degree of reason andforethought, for, as soon as the presence of the besiegers was noticed, strong guards were posted in all of the approaches to the nest, bothfront and rear. The red ants sent a detachment to surprise the colonyfrom the rear; but they found that surprise was impossible, for theywere met by a strong party of their gallant foes which vigorouslyopposed them. The red ants were, however, eventually victorious, andsacked the town, carrying away with them a large number of pupæ. I cheerfully bear witness to the fact that the great myrmecologist, Huber, was correct in his description of his experiment with the blackslave. [79] [79] Huber, _The Natural History of Ants_, p. 249; quoted also by Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, p. 83; Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 65; Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_, p. 369 _et seq. _ Our species of blacks and reds differ but very little in form and habits from their European kin; so the experiment may be easily performed by any one at all interested in this remarkable instance of "slave master, and master slave. "--W. Like Huber, I put some of these red slave-owners into a glass jar inwhich I placed an abundance of food. Notwithstanding the fact that thisfood was easy of access, being in fact immediately beneath their jaws, they would not touch it! I then placed a black slave in the jar; she atonce went to her masters, and, after thoroughly cleansing them with hertongue, gave them food. These red ants would have starved to death inthe midst of plenty, if they had been left to themselves. This, at first glance, would seem to indicate an utter absence of reasonin these red slave-owners. Such a conclusion, however, is by no meanstrue. The facts indicate mental degeneration. So utterly subservienthad they become to the ministration of the slaves, that they had evenlost the faculty of feeding themselves! Here, we have an example of degeneration in the mentality of an animalincident to the enervating influence of slavery. Sir John Lubbock'sremarks anent the four genera of slave-making ants are so interestingthat I may be pardoned for quoting them entire. Says he:-- "These four genera" (_Formica sanguinea_, _Polyergus_, _Strongylognathus_, _and Anergates_) "offer us every gradation fromlawless violence to contemptible parasitism. "_Formica sanguinea_, which may be assumed to have comparativelyrecently taken to slave-making, has not yet been materially affected. "_Polyergus_, on the contrary, already illustrates the lowering tendencyof slavery. They have lost their knowledge of art, their naturalaffection for their young, and even the instinct of feeding. They are, however, bold and powerful marauders. "In _Strongylognathus_ the enervating influence of slavery has gonefurther, and told even on the bodily strength. They are no longer ableto capture their slaves in open warfare. Still they retain a semblanceof authority, and, when aroused, will fight bravely, though in vain. "In _Anergates_, finally, we come to the last scene of this sad history. We may safely conclude that in distant times their ancestors lived, asso many ants do now, partly by hunting, partly on honey; that bydegrees they became bold marauders, and gradually took to keepingslaves; that for a time they maintained their strength and agility, though losing by degrees their real independence, their arts, and manyof their instincts; that gradually even their bodily force dwindled awayunder the enervating influence to which they had subjected themselves, until they sank to their present degraded condition--weak in body andmind, few in numbers and apparently nearly extinct, the miserablerepresentatives of far superior ancestors, maintaining a precariousexistence as contemptible parasites of their former slaves. "[80] [80] Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, pp. 88, 89. This is truly a wonderful picture of mental and physical degenerationincident to the enervating influences of slavery. That it is a true one, an abundance of data most emphatically declares. The influence ofslavery on the human race (the masters) shows very plainly that manhimself quickly, comparatively speaking, loses his stamina whensubjected to it. This fact is but another proof of the kinship of all animals, and thesimilarity, nay, the sameness, of mind in man and the lower animals;mind is the same in kind, though differing in degree. When an animal is placed amid new and unfamiliar surroundingsnecessitating the evolvement of intelligent action in order to meet thenecessities of such environment, such an animal evinces ratiocination. I have seen many instances of such action on the part of ants. Thefollowing data concerning the natural history of the honey-making ant(_Myrmecocystus mexicanus_) are taken from my note-book. During the summer of 1887 I spent several weeks in New Mexico, and whilethere had the great good fortune to discover a colony of honey-makingants. I found these ants in a little valley debouching out of HuerfanosPark, a government reservation, I believe, at that time. The nest wassituated on the sandy shore of a small creek, and was a perfect squareof three or four feet, from which all grass, weeds, etc. , had beencarefully removed. Around three sides of this square, viz. , north, east, and west, a column of black soldier ants continually patrolled night andday. Near the southeast corner of this open space the entrance to the nestwas situated. The south side of the square was not guarded, but was leftopen for the entrance and exit of the hundreds of dark yellow workerswhich were engaged in bringing food to the village. No sooner was aburden put down than it was seized by black workers, which then carriedit into the nest. At no time did I see a black worker bringing food tothe centre of the square, nor did I ever see a yellow worker carryingfood into the nest; the blacks and the yellows never interfered with oneanother's business. To test the reasoning powers of these ants, I partially disabled acentipede and threw it into the square a short distance from the patrolline. For a moment or two the line was broken by the warriors hurryingout to do battle with the squirming intruder. But only for a moment ortwo, for orders were issued by some ant in authority (so it seemed, andso I believe), and the line was established, though somewhat thinned bythe absence of soldiers. The messenger was sent to headquarters andreënforcements were sent out, and soon the line was as strong as ever, though hundreds of soldiers were warring with the centipede. The latterwas soon killed, and its body was removed piecemeal by the yellowworkers, which carried the fragments far beyond the boundaries of thesquare. Again, with my hunting-knife I dug a deep trench across the border ofone side of the square. The ants seemed dazed at first, but rapidlyadapted themselves to their new surroundings. They extended their patrolline until it embraced the entire trench; then a countless horde ofyellow workers went to work, and in a day's time filled up the deepexcavation level with the surrounding surface! The patrol was thenreëstablished on the old line as though nothing had occurred tointerrupt the ordinary routine of the colony. Before leaving the valleyI dug up the nest and examined the peculiar individuals whose enforcedhabits give to these interesting ants the name of "honey-makers. " Eachone of these curious creatures was confined in a separate cell, theentrance to which was very small. Here they lived in absolute seclusion, being fed by the black workers with pollen, the nectar of flowers, tender herbs, etc. Through some wonderful chemical process this food was turned into adelicious honey, the flavor of which (I ate of it freely) was distinctlywiny and aromatic. Apparently, they had no anal orifices, these passages probably havingbeen obliterated. These imprisoned honey-makers were merely animatedbags of honey, and were kept by the other ants solely for the purpose offurnishing a never failing supply of sweet and wholesome food. [81] [81] Compare Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 111 _et seq. _ At the time when these details were written in my note-book I was unacquainted with Captain Fleeson's and Mr. Edwards's observations, nor had I read Romanes's work on _Animal Intelligence_. I had heard of _Myrmecocystus_, of course, but knew nothing of its natural history. Comparison will show that my observations differ from those of the gentlemen mentioned above. I saw nothing whatever of the web described by Captain Fleeson: the honey-making _solitaires_ were simply confined in cells, where they rested on the bare ground; they were not perched upon "a network of squares, like a spider's web. " The "outside" workers observed by me were not black, but very dark yellow, while the "inside" workers were bright yellow in color. --W. The rapidity with which these ants set to work to fill in the trenchmade by my hunting-knife showed that they recognized, at once, thecalamity that had befallen them, and that they used rational methods inremedying the evil. The fact that they have evolved the idea of setting aside certainmembers of the colony as honey-makers, and that there is a distinctrecognition of a division, or divisions, in the labor of the inhabitantsof the nest, evinces very high psychical development. In a colony of _Termes_, or white ants, so-called, there are five kinds ofindividuals. _First_, the workers. These do all the work of the nest, collecting provisions, waiting on the queen, carrying eggs to thenurseries, feeding the young until they are old enough to care forthemselves, repairing and erecting buildings, etc. _Second_, the nymphs. These differ in nothing from the workers, except that they haverudimentary wings. _Third_, the neuters. These are much less in numbersthan the workers, but exceed them greatly in bulk. They have long and verylarge heads, armed with powerful mandibles, and are the sentinels andsoldiers of the colony. These neuters are blind. _Fourth_ and _Fifth_, themales and females. These are the perfect insects, capable of continuingthe species. There is only one each in every separate society. They areexempted from all labor, and are the common father and mother of thecommunity. Termes inhabit tropical countries, and the first establishment of newcolonies takes place in this way: In the evening, at the end of the dryseason, the males and females, having arrived at their perfect state, emerge from their nest in countless thousands. They have two pairs ofwings, and with their aid mount immediately into the air. The nextmorning they are found covering the ground, and deprived of their wings. They then mate. Scarcely a single pair in many millions escape theirenemies--birds, reptiles, beasts, fishes, insects, especially the otherants, and even man himself. The workers, which are continually prowlingabout their covered ways, occasionally meet one of these pairs. Theyimmediately salute them, render them homage, and elect them father andmother of a new colony. All other pairs not so fortunate perish. As soon as they are chosen king and queen, or rather, father and mother, they are conducted into the nest, where the workers build around them asuitable cell, the entrances to which are large enough for themselvesand the neuters or soldiers to pass through, but too small for the royalpair. Thus they remain in prison as long as they live. They arefurnished with every delicacy, but are never allowed to leave theirprison. The female soon begins to oviposit--the eggs, as fast as theyare dropped, being carried away into the nurseries by the workers. Asthe queen increases in dimensions, they keep enlarging the cell in whichshe is confined. Her abdomen begins to extend until it is two thousandtimes the size of the rest of the body, and her bulk equals that oftwenty thousand workers. She becomes one vast matrix of eggs. I once sawa queen which measured three and one quarter inches from one extremityof her body to the other. There is continual oviposition, the queenlaying over eighty thousand eggs in twenty-four hours, or one egg everysecond. As these females live about two years, they will lay some sixtymillion eggs. In the royal cell there are always some soldiers on guard and workersadministering to the royal pair. The activity and energy of theseworkers is truly wonderful. In New Mexico, where I found a family ofinsects closely resembling true _Termes_, I once had an opportunity ofobserving this extraordinary energy. I broke off a portion of theirdome-shaped nest, and in an incredibly short time they had mended thebreach and restored their domicile to the same condition it was before Ihad molested it. If you attack a termite building and make a slightbreach in its walls, the laborers immediately retire into the inmostrecesses of the nest and give place to another class of its inhabitants, the warriors. Several soldiers come out to reconnoitre, they then retireand give the alarm. Then several more come out as quickly as possible, followed in a few moments by a large battalion. Their anger and fury areexcessive. If you continue to molest them, their anger leaps all bounds. They rush out in myriads, and, being blind, bite everything with whichthey come in contact. [82] If, however, the attack is not continued, theyretire into the nest, with the exception of two or three which remainoutside. The workers then appear and begin to repair the damaged wall. One of the soldiers remaining outside acts as overseer and superintendentof construction. At intervals of a minute or two it will strike the wallwith its mandibles, making a peculiar sound. This is answered by theworkers with a loud hiss and a marked acceleration in their movements. Should these ants again be disturbed, the laborers would vanish, and thewarriors would take their places, ready and willing to fight to the deathin defence of their community. [82] [82] Compare Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_. While it is undoubtedly true that instinct can be highly differentiated, so that in its action it seemingly approaches reason, it is also equallytrue that instinct, fundamentally, is but a blind impulse. The impulseto fight on the part of these soldier termites is, unquestionably, instinctive, but the psychical habitudes which originate division andpartition of labor, which set apart certain individuals (in no wisedifferent from their fellows) as officers and overseers, which, beyondperadventure, are able to incite the laborers to greater effort bycommands that are clearly understood and intelligently obeyed, surelysuch psychical characteristics cannot be embraced in the category ofinstinctive impulses--mere blind followings-out of inheritedimpressions! Instinct is the bugbear of psychology and does more to retardinvestigation than any other factor. As long as people of the creationiststamp wield the instinct-club, just so long will they be unable to graspthe idea of intelligent ratiocination in the lower animals. A company ofmen rebuilding a wall which has been overthrown by a tempest are said tobe governed and directed by reason, while a company of ants doingprecisely the same thing, and with just as much intelligence, are said tobe directed by instinct![83] [83] It is often the case that animals find themselves amid surroundings in which they are required to evince original ideation and fail so to do. But, is man any different? How often do we find ourselves checkmated and puzzled by trivial circumstances, which, on being explained, are seen to be exceedingly simple!--W. In the neighborhood of Hell's-Half-Acre, a desolate and rocky valley ashort distance from Hot Springs, Arkansas, in 1887, I discovered severalcommunities of harvester ants, and closely and carefully observed theirhabits. The first time I noticed them was early in the spring, when theyseemed to be engaged in planting their grain. They were bringing out thelittle grass-seeds by the hundreds and thousands, and carrying them somedistance from the nest, where they were dropped on the turf. It ispossible that these ants were only getting rid of spoiled grain, but Ithink not, for several of the seeds secured and planted by me germinated. I observed them again in about a month, and the grass was growing finelyon the plat where they had deposited the seeds. Not a single stalk of anyother kind of grass and not a single weed were to be seen in this modelgrain-field. The ants had evidently removed every plant that mightinterfere with the growth of their grain. I saw them again in August when they were reaping the crop and storingthe grain away in their nests. The ants would climb the grass-stemsuntil they came to the seeds; these they would then seize in theirmandibles, outer sheath and all, and, by vigorously twisting them fromside to side, would separate them from the stalk; they would then crawldown and carry them into the nest. I did not notice here the roads andpathways so generally found leading to the nests of the Texas variety ofthe harvester. Around the nests the surface of the ground was smooth andbare, but there were no highways or roads leading to them. Among the workers I saw some ants whose heads and mandibles were verylarge. These ants never engaged in any of the agricultural pursuits oftheir sisters; they were the soldiers and the sentinels of the community. One nest migrated while I had them under observation, and I had thepleasure of witnessing the behavior of these fearless little warriorswhen on the march. The ants were moving nearer to their grain-fields, and were carrying with them their young, etc. The route, from the oldhome to the new, was patrolled on either side by soldiers. Every nowand then I saw one of these individuals rush aside, elevate herself onher hind legs, shake her head, and clash her mandibles. She acted as ifshe saw some danger menacing the marching column and would ward it off. Others climbed little twigs or tufts of grass and scanned the surroundingcountry from these elevated and commanding positions. Others hurried upthe laggards and stragglers, and even carried the weak and infirm. These ants winnow or husk the grain after it has been carried into thenest. All during the harvesting I observed workers bringing chaff from thenest and carrying it some distance away. It is said by Texan observersthat the harvesters of that state bring the grain to the surface and dryit, if, perchance, it becomes wet. I have never observed this myself, butaccept it as an established fact. [84] [84] I believe that these observations on the presence of the harvester ant in Arkansas are unique; at least I have been unable to find any data corroborative of this fact. How did a fecundated queen arrive at a spot so far from her usual habitat?--W. The faculty of computing is among the very last of the psychical habitudesacquired by man, and is an evidence of high ratiocinative ability. Many ofthe savage races are unable to count above three, --some not abovefive, --thus demonstrating the truthfulness of the above assertion. Yet Ibelieve that it can be clearly shown that some of the lower animals andmany of the higher animals are able to count. The mason wasps, or mud-daubers, build their compartment houses generallyin places easily accessible to the investigator; therefore the experimentsand observations which I am about to detail can be duplicated and verifiedwithout difficulty. These interesting members of the Hymenoptera, the_avant-couriers_ of the social insects, can be seen any bright day inAugust or September busily engaged on the margins of ponds, ditches, andpuddles in the procurement of building materials. They will alight closeto the water's edge, and, vibrating their wings rapidly, will run hitherand thither over the moist clay until they arrive at a spot which, intheir opinion, will furnish suitable mortar. Quickly biting up a pellet ofmud, they moisten it with saliva, all the while kneading it and rolling itbetween maxillæ and palpi. When it has reached the proper consistency theybear it away to some dry, warm place, such as the rafters of an outhouseor a garret, and there use it in the construction of their adobe or mudnests. There may be dozens of these nests in the process of construction, andarranged on the rafters, side by side, yet these busy little masonsnever make the mistake of confounding the houses; after securing mortarthey invariably return, each to her own structure. This statement can beeasily verified. While the insect is engaged in applying the mortar, take a camel's-hair brush and quickly paint a small spot on hershoulders with a mixture of zinc oxide and gum arabic; then mark thenest. The marked wasp will always return to the marked nest. As soon as the cells are completed, the wasp deposits an egg in each, and immediately begins to busy herself about the future welfare of thecoming baby wasps. Just here these remarkable creatures show that theypossess a mental faculty which far transcends any like act of humanintelligence; they are able to tell which of the eggs will produce malesand which females. Not only are they able to do this, but, seeminglyfully aware of the fact that it takes a longer time for the female larvæto pupate than it does the male larvæ, they provide for this emergencyby depositing in the cells containing female eggs a larger amount offood. It is in the procurement and storage of this food-supply thatthese insects give unmistakable evidence of the possession by them ofthe faculty of computing. The knowing little mother is well aware of the fact that as soon as theegg hatches the young grub will need food, and an abundance of food atthat; so, before closing the orifice of the cell, she packs away in itthe favorite food of her offspring, which is spiders. She knows that inthe close, hot cell the spiders, if dead, would soon become putrid andunfit for food: therefore, she does not kill them outright, but simplyanæsthetizes them by instilling a small amount of poison through thatsharp and efficacious hypodermic needle, her sting. [85] [85] As a matter of fact I have kept Argiope under observation in this anæsthetized condition for _thirteen weeks_. --W. Each variety of masons uses a different spider; the common blue mason ispartial to the beautiful Argiope, which, banded as it is with gray andyellow, is a very conspicuous object when seen on its glistening, upright web. The wasp larva, as soon as it emerges from the egg-membrane, finds freshand palatable food before its very nose, and at once begins to eat. In the case of the male larvæ, five spiders are deposited in each cell, while eight are always placed in the female compartments. [86] If one ormore spiders are removed from the cell, the mother wasp does not appearto notice that her food-supply has been tampered with; she completes herquota, five for the males and eight for the females, and then closes thecell, no matter if there remains in the compartment one, two, or threespiders. Her count calls for five or eight, as the case may be, and, when she has put on top of the egg the requisite number according to hercount, her responsibility ceases. [86] Compare Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_, pp. 231, 232, habits of _Epipone spinipes_ in regard to small grubs. I have never known a mud-dauber to make a mistake in her computation, although I have endeavored to puzzle this little arithmetician time andagain. If a wad of paper be placed in a cell after two or three spidershave been deposited, thus partially filling it, the insect knows at oncethat something is wrong, and will proceed to investigate. She willremove the spiders on top of the paper, will extract the wad, and willthen proceed with her count. On the other hand, if several spiders betaken out when the count calls for only one or two more, the wasp doesnot appear to notice that the cell is almost empty; she finishes hercount as if everything were correct, and then seals up the opening withmud. The quail lays some twelve or fifteen eggs, and seems to be aware of thefact that some of her eggs are missing when several have been removedfrom the nest. When one of these birds has laid six or eight eggs, iftwo or three be removed she will abandon the nest and deposit theremainder of her eggs elsewhere. This behavior on the part of the birdhas been attributed to her sense of smell; she, detecting the presenceof an enemy by the scent of his hand left behind in the nest, recognizesthe danger, and therefore abandons the nest. But numerous experimentsalong this line teach me that smell has nothing to do with it whatever. I have removed eggs with a long iron ladle, the bowl of which I hadcarefully refrained from touching, and also with sticks freshly cut inthe wood, and yet the birds would invariably abandon their nests. On thecontrary, when all, or nearly all, the eggs have been laid, several maybe removed either with the ladle or with the naked hand, and yet thebird will not abandon her nest. She seems to be able to count up to sixor eight; beyond this latter number her faculty of computing does notextend. After the full laying has been deposited in the nest and theprocess of incubation has become established, a large number of the eggsmay be removed, and yet the bird will continue to set until theremaining eggs have been hatched out. The faculty of computing seems to be present in other birds to someextent; the domesticated guinea-fowl and the turkey sometimes possess itin a marked degree, though in most of these fowls domestication hasalmost entirely eradicated it. The domestic barnyard hen has had hernest robbed for such a long period of time that she has lost the facultyof counting. But even this meek provider of food for mankind is able, insome instances, to count one: she will not lay in her nest unless anest-egg be left to delude her. The nest-egg may be wholly factitiousand made of china, marble, chalk, stone or iron painted white; the hendoes not seem to care so long as it bears some resemblance to an egg. That the turkey-hen can count, the following instance occurring undermy own observation would seem to indicate. The bird had a nest in mygarden in which she had deposited three eggs. One day another turkey, seized with a desire of ovipositing, spied this nest and laid an eggtherein. The original owner of the nest came along soon after theinterloper had left her egg; she examined the nest carefully, and turnedthe eggs with her beak. Finally she thrust her beak through the shell ofan egg and bore it far from the nest before dropping it on the ground. Now, as far as I could tell, the eggs were alike, but the sharper andmore discriminating eyes of the turkey undoubtedly saw, on closeexamination, some peculiarity in color or shape in the stranger's egg, and therefore bore it away and destroyed it. I believe, however, thather attention was arrested at first by the unexpected number of eggs inthe nest, and that she was enabled to detect the stranger's egg onlyafter much inspection and comparison. Many animals have been taught to count, but none of them show that theyfully appreciate the value of numerical rotation. Of course, in the vastmajority of trained animals, the seeming appreciation is only a trickfounded on the sense of smell, sight, touch, or taste. An instance recently came under my personal observation in which a dog, a high-bred collie, seemingly evinced an abstract idea of numbers. Theanimal in question received an injury a year or so ago through whichshe became permanently and totally blind. Recently she gave birth to alitter of six puppies, all of which were uniform in size and markings. Immediately after the birth of the puppies, the dog's owner had motherand young removed from the dark cellar in which they then were, andcarried to a warm and well-ventilated room in his stables. In the darkness of the cellar one of the puppies was overlooked and leftbehind. As soon as the mother entered the box in which her young hadbeen placed, she proceeded to examine them, nosing them about andlicking them. Suddenly she appeared to become very much disturbed aboutsomething; she jumped out of the box and then jumped back again, nosingthe puppies as before. Again she jumped from the box and then made herway toward the cellar, followed by her astonished owner, who had begunto have an inkling as to what disturbed her. She had counted her youngones, and had discovered that one had been left behind. Sure enough, theabandoned puppy was soon found and carried in triumph to the new home. So astonished was the gentleman[87] at this blind creature'sintelligence that he resolved to experiment further; he removed anotherpuppy and walked away with it in his arms. It was not long before theblind mother showed her distress so plainly, that I begged him toreturn the puppy, which, having been returned to her, she caressed for amoment or so, and then gave herself up to the chief function ofmaternity, suckling her young. [87] Karl Becker, Esq. , St. Louis, Mo. It is beyond reason to suppose that this dog discovered the absence ofher young one through her sense of smell. Granted that to the maternalnose each puppy had an individual and particular odor (which I do notbelieve), it is hardly possible, nay, it is impossible, that the dog'ssensorium had recognized and retained these different scents in theshort time which had elapsed since their birth. It is much morereasonable to suppose that the dog knew that she had given birth to sixyoung ones, and that she had counted them when they had been removed totheir new home. Again, it is a well-known fact that a dog can retainonly one scent at a time; hence, this fact alone would militate somewhatagainst the idea that the sense of smell was the detecting agent in thiscase. Nor could it have been the sense of touch; the mother could nothave possibly familiarized herself with the individual form of eachpuppy in so short space of time. It is folly to suppose that each youngone had a distinctive taste or flavor; hence the sense of taste mustalso be eliminated. Thus, by exclusion, there remains but one faculty, the faculty of computing, to account for the dog's actions. Several years ago there lived in Cincinnati a mule which was employedby a street railway company in hauling cars up a steep incline. Thisanimal was hitched in front of the regular team, and unhitched as soonas the car arrived at the top of the hill. It made a certain number oftrips in the forenoon (I have forgotten the number, but will say fiftyfor the sake of convenience), and a like number in the afternoon, resting for an hour at noon. As soon as the mule completed its fiftiethtrip, it marched away to its stable without orders from its driver. Toshow that it was not influenced by the sound of factory whistles andbells, the following remarkable action on the part of this animal isvouched for by the superintendent of the line, who gave me these data. On a certain occasion, during a musical festival, this mule wastransferred to the night shift, and the very instant it completed itsfiftieth trip it started for the stables. It took the combined effortsof several men to make it return to its duty. At night there were nobells or whistles to inform the creature that "quitting-time" had come;it thought the time for rest and food had arrived as soon as it hadcompleted its fifty trips. [88] [88] These data were given to me at a certain club banquet where I had no facilities for noting them down. I have endeavored to locate the superintendent in question, but without success; I believe, however, that he gave the facts just as they occurred. --W. My meals are always served at regular appointed hours, which never varythroughout the year; and, since my cook "prides herself" on herpunctuality, they are always served on the stroke of the clock. Themoment the bell rings, my cat, a large and very intelligent male, takesup a position at the door, and is generally the first to enter thedining room. A few moments before meal-time, Melchizedek (for he is ofroyal blood and bears a royal name) becomes uneasy, jumping from chairto floor or from floor to chair, and sometimes mewing gently. The momentthe bell rings, he is all animation, and shows by his actions that hefully understands its meaning. He never mistakes the sound of thedressing-bell for that of the tea-bell, though the same bell is used. This cat may not be able to count, but that he notes the passage of timeI do not for an instant doubt. Some monkeys give unmistakable evidences of the possession by them ofthe computing faculty. In 1889 I made the acquaintance of a veryintelligent chimpanzee which could count as high as three. That this wasnot a trick suggested by sensual impulses I had ample opportunity ofsatisfying myself. The owner of the animal would leave the room, no onebeing present but myself, and when I would call for two marbles, or onemarble, or three marbles, as the case might be, the monkey would gravelyhand over the required number. Romanes mentions an ape that could countthree, the material used in his experiment being straws from theanimal's cage. The fact that monkeys can count does not appear so remarkable when it isagreed by the best authorities that they are capable of understandinghuman speech. [89] [89] Romanes, _Mental Evolution in Man_, p. 369; Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 87; Whitney, _Enc. Brit. _, "Philology, " Vol. XVIII. P. 769, quoted by Romanes, _super_. Returning for a moment to insects, we find that bees and ants give manyevidences of intelligent correlative ideation and action for definitepurposes not instinctive. In regard to bees, Huber's experiment with theglass slip proves conclusively, in my opinion, that these creatures_reason_. This experiment is so interesting that it will bear recital. Huber placed a slip of glass in front of a comb that was underconstruction. The bees, as if perfectly aware of the fact that it wouldbe difficult to affix the comb to the slippery surface of the glass, curved it at a right angle around the slip of glass and fastened it tothe wooden wall of the hive![90] [90] Huber, Vol. II. P. 230; quoted also by Kirby and Spence, _loc. Cit. Ante_, p. 582. It is folly to suppose that bees have an instinctive knowledge of glass, hence we are forced to conclude that they were governed in this instancesolely by reason. Furthermore, as the inner surface of the comb was concave, and the outersurface convex, the bees made the cells on the former much smaller, andthose on the latter much larger, than usual! "How, as Huber asks, can we comprehend the mode in which such a crowd oflaborers, occupied at the same time on the edge of the comb, could agreeto give it the same curvature from one extremity to the other; or howcould they arrange together to construct on one face cells so small, while on the other they imparted to them such enlarged dimensions?"[91] [91] Kirby and Spence, _loc. Cit. Ante_, pp. 582, 583. Surely, no "variation of instinct, " however complex, can possiblyaccount for such a deviation from the normal! It is hardly necessary to give more evidence as to the presence ofreason in the psychical organisms of the lower animals; I believe that Ihave clearly demonstrated that some of them do make use of intelligentratiocination. To prove that this view, _i. E. _ that the lower animalsreason, is widely held, I need only point to the works of such men asDarwin, Büchner, Forel, Huber, Lubbock, Hartmann, Kirby and Spence, anddozens of others. [92] [92] Darwin, _Descent of Man_; Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, _Mental Evolution in Animals_, _Mental Evolution in Man_; Lubbock, _Senses, Instincts, and Intelligence of Animals_, and _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_; Hartmann, _Anthropoid Apes_; Büchner, _Geistesleben der Thiere_; Huber, _Natural History of Ants_, etc. We have seen that the lower animals seem to possess very near, if notquite, all of the _fundamental_ psychical habitudes of the highestanimal of all--_Homo sapiens_; we will now proceed to study certainpsychical attributes in the possession of the lower animals which manhas lost in the process of evolution. These attributes will be embracedunder the heading of Auxiliary Senses. CHAPTER VIII AUXILIARY SENSES When we come to examine the methods by which, or through which, many ofthe lower animals protect themselves from their enemies, we soondiscover that some of these means are very wonderful indeed. It is notmy purpose to discuss instinctive protective habits in this chapter; Iwish rather to call attention to two _senses_, [93] which are to beobserved in certain of the lower animals, and which man and some of thehigher animals have lost in the process of evolution. I refer totinctumutation, the "color-changing" sense, and the sense of direction, or, as it is commonly and erroneously termed, the "homing instinct. "Neither of these faculties is instinctive, but they are, on thecontrary, true senses, just as hearing, or taste, or smell is a sense. Careful dissections and repeated experiments have shown me, beyondperadventure, that these two psychical habitudes have their centres inthe brains (ganglia) of animals which possess them. [93] I believe that I am the first to claim the _sensual_ importance of tinctumutation and the sense of direction or the "homing sense. " Heretofore they have been regarded, by all authorities as far as I know, as instinctive in character. --W. The chromatic function--and I use this term to designate the faculty ofchanging color according to surroundings--is possessed by a number ofthe lower animals. The chameleon is the best known of all thetinctumutants (_tinctus_, color, and _mutare_, to change), though manyother animals possess this faculty in a very marked degree. In order tounderstand the manner in which these changes or modifications of colortake place, one must know the anatomy of the skin, in which structurethese phenomena have their origin. The frog is a tinctumutant, and amicroscopic study of its skin will clearly demonstrate the structuraland physiological changes that take place in the act of tinctumutation. The skin of a frog consists of two distinct layers. The epidermis orsuperficial layer is composed of pavement epithelium and cylindricalcells. The lower layer, or _cutis_, is made up of fibrous tissue, nerves, blood-vessels, and cavities containing glands and cell elements. The glands contain coloring matter, and the changes of color in thefrog's skin are due to the distribution of these pigment-cells, and thepower they have of shrinking or contracting under nerve irritation. Thepigment varies in individuals and in different parts of the body. Brown, black, yellow, green, and red are the colors most frequently observed. The color-cells are technically known as _chromatophores_. If the webof a frog's foot be placed on the stage of a microscope and examinedwith an achromatic lens, the chromatophores can readily be made out. Artificial irritation will immediately occasion them to contract, or, asis frequently the case, when contracted, will occasion them to dilate, and the phenomena of tinctumutation may be observed _in facto_. Underirritation the orange-colored chromatophores, when shrunk, become brown, and the contracted yellow ones, when dilated, become greenish yellow. When all the chromatophores are dilated, a dark color will predominate;when they are contracted, the skin becomes lighter in color. Besides thepigment-cells just described, Heincke discovered another kind ofchromatophore, which was filled with iridescent crystals. They were onlyvisible, as spots of metallic lustre, when the cells were in a state ofcontraction. He observed these latter chromatophores in a fish belongingto _Gobius_, the classical name of which is _Gobius ruthensparri_. [94] Ihave seen this kind of color-cell in the skin of the gilt catfish, whichbelongs to a family akin to _Gobius_. The skin of this fish retains itsvitality for some time after its removal from the body of the livinganimal, and the chromatophores will respond to artificial irritation forquite a while. In making my observations, however, I prefer to dissectup the skin and leave it attached to the body of the fish by a broadbase. A few minims of chloroform injected hypodermatically rendered theanimal anæsthetic, and I could then proceed at my leisure, without beinginconvenienced by its movements. The causation of tinctumutation is nowdefinitely known. The theory that light acts directly on thechromatophoric cells has been proved to be incorrect. Even the theorythat light occasions pigmentation is no longer tenable. I have, time andagain, reared tadpoles from the eggs in total darkness, yet they differin no respect from those reared in full daylight. The chromatophoreswere as abundant and responded to irritation as promptly in the one asin the other. The distinguished Paul Bert declared that the young of theaxolotl could not form pigment when reared in a yellow light. ProfessorSemper, on the contrary, declares Bert's axolotls to be albinos, andstates that albinism is by no means infrequent in the axolotl; also thatProfessor Kölliker, of Würtzburg, reared a family of white axolotls in alaboratory where there was an abundance of light, and that he (Semper)never succeeded in rearing an albino, though there was less light in hislaboratory than in that of Kölliker, and his axolotls came from the samestock. Bert made the mistake of confounding albinism with the phenomenonof etiolation in plants; in fact, he gives the name "etiolation" to thealbinism noticed in his axolotls. [95] [94] Semper, _Animal Life_, p. 93. [95] _Ibid. _, p. 88 _et seq. _ There is a marked difference between the functions of the chlorophyllbodies found in plants and the chromatophores found in animals. Theformer play one of the most important rôles in the drama of plant life, inasmuch as they subserve a vital function, while the latter act a minorpart, because they serve only as an instrument or means of protection. Light is of great importance in its influence on chlorophyll, which is amicroscopic, elementary body on which the vital strength of the plantdepends, while it is not at all necessary to the chromatophores, --cellbodies secreting pigmentary matter for the purpose of protection. Ofcourse, when animals are subjected to darkness for very long periods oftime, the chromatophores are modified, and, sometimes, are whollyobliterated. They follow a well-known natural law, which declares that, when a function of an organ is no longer of any use to an animal, bothorgan and function become rudimentary, and finally disappear. Many animals live for generations in total darkness before losing theirpigment. I, myself, have seen black beetles in Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, in the neighborhood of Gorin's Dome, which is far within the depths ofthe cave. As beetles rarely range over a hundred yards from their placeof birth, these insects must have been born in the cave and reared inthe dark. When speaking of light, if not otherwise specified, I mean diffuseddaylight which carries no heat rays. I believe that heat is a prominentfactor in the production of color; the discussion of this point, however, does not properly belong to the subject under consideration. Some experiments on newts, made by myself several years ago, show thatthe absence of light does not influence pigmentation, --that is, throughseveral generations. My animals were kept under observation from theextrusion of the eggs until full maturity had been reached, and greatcare was taken to make experiments as accurate and as conclusive aspossible. Those reared in total darkness or in a red light were alwaysdark-colored; those reared in a yellow light[96] were almost but notquite as dark; while those reared in white ironstone crocks and indiffused daylight were very much lighter, being pearl-gray in color. This apparent (for the microscope showed that it was only apparent)absence of color in the last-mentioned specimens was due totinctumutation. [96] Vide Dewar, "The Physiological Action of Light, " _Nature_, p. 433, 1877; quoted also by Semper, _loc. Cit. Ante_, Notes, p. 423. I do not think that the absence of the slight amount of color in the animals reared under the yellow light was due to the "optic current" of Dewar. The microscope showed that the chromatophores were just as large and just as numerous, and that they contained as much pigment, as those reared under the red light. The apparent absence of color was due to tinctumutation. --W. In most viviparous animals the embryo is developed in almost or absolutelytotal darkness, yet when it is born it has bright colors. Kerbert hasfound in the cutis of the embryonic chick, about the fifteenth day, certain pigment-cells. These cells have entirely disappeared by thetwenty-third day. It is probable that little, if any, light can reach thechick through the shell and membranes, yet pigment-cells develop anddisappear again. [97] [97] Karl Semper, _Animal Life_, p. 422. A butterfly emerges from the cocoon arrayed in all the colors of therainbow; yet it was developed, while in the _pupa_ state, in totaldarkness. It is not necessary to mention further instances; we readily seethat pigmentation in animals is not necessarily dependent on light. Neither is tinctumutation the result of the direct influence of light onthe chromatophores. Light, however, if not the direct, is the indirectcause of this phenomenon. Lister, in 1858, showed that animals withimperfect eyesight were not good tinctumutants, notwithstanding the factthat they had the chromatophoric function. He showed, by his experimentson frogs, that the activity of the chromatophores depended entirely on thehealthy condition of the eyes, --that is, so far as the phenomenon oftinctumutation was concerned. So long as the eyes remained intact andconnected with the brain by the optic nerve, the light reflected from thesurrounding objects exerted a powerful influence on the chromatophores. As soon as the optic nerve was severed, the chromatophores ceased torespond to the influence of light and color, no matter how bright andvaried they were. The deductions drawn from these experiments are not tobe controverted or denied. The chromatophores are influenced by lightreflected from objects and transmitted _via_ the optic nerve to the brain;from this organ the impression or irritation goes to the nerve governingthe contractile fibres of these pigment-holding glands. [98] [98] Karl Semper, _Animal Life_, p. 95. Pouchet followed Lister, and confirmed his conclusion by experiments onfishes and crabs. He remarked that the plaice--a fish with a whiteunder-surface and a party-colored back--had the chromatophoric functionhighly developed. Among a number of specimens which appeared pale on thewhite, sandy bottom, he met "one single dark-colored fish, in which, ofcourse, the chromatophores must have been in a state of relaxation; andthis specimen was as distinct from its companions as from the bottom ofthe aquarium. Closer investigation proved that the creature was totallyblind, [99] and thus incapable of assuming the color of the objectsaround it, the eyes being unable to act as a medium of communicationbetween them and the chromatophores of the skin. "[100] Thus far Pouchethad only confirmed Lister's observations, although it is highly probablethat he was unaware of Lister's experiments. But he went a step further. There are two ways in which cerebral impressions may be transmitted fromthe brain to the skin: one, by way of the spinal cord and the pairs ofnerves arising from it and known as spinal nerves; the other, by twonerves running close to the vertebral column--the sympathetic nerves. [99] Mr. Gordon Rett has recently called my attention to a blind "angel fish" which shows, most conspicuously, a lack of tinctumutation. This fish was made blind for experimental purposes. --W. [100] Karl Semper, _Animal Life_, pp. 95, 96. Pouchet cut the spinal cord close to the brain, yet the chromatophoresstill responded to light impression, showing that they did not receivethe message through the cord and spinal nerves. He then divided thesympathetic nerves, and the chromatophores lost at once the power ofcontraction; he thus demonstrated that the sympathetic nerves were thetransmitters of the optical message, and not the cord. This discovery of Pouchet is, psychologically, of great importance, though he failed to recognize it as such. He was satisfied with itsanatomical and physiological significance. When we remember that the actions of the sympathetic nerves are almost, if not entirely, reflex in character, we at once see the psychologicalimportance of this discovery. This fact makes the phenomenon oftinctumutation an involuntary act on the part of the animal possessingthe chromatic function, and thus keeps inviolate the fundamental laws ofevolution, which, were the facts otherwise, would be broken. [101] [101] This simple fact of involuntary action renders the sensual nature of the function all the more apparent. --W. By a series of experiments on frogs I have confirmed the conclusion ofPouchet _in toto_, and have even solved, so I believe and unhesitatinglyassert, the puzzling problem of the physiological _modus operandi_ ofthe wonderful phenomenon of tinctumutation. For a very long time I believed that this function was a distinct sense, and, five years ago, I set to work in search of the sense's centre. After many dissections I found it (in the frog) lying immediately belowthe optic centres and closely connected with them. Nerve-fibres of thesympathetic can easily be traced and can be seen to penetrate thiscentre. When this centre is artificially stimulated either with thepoint of a needle or with a mild electric current, tinctumutation can beincited at will. Again, when this centre is destroyed (which can be done without injuryto the optic centres), the chromatophoric function ceases--thephenomenon of tinctumutation is no longer observable. That the sympathetic nerves are the carriers of the messages from theoptic nerve and the color-changing centre, can be demonstrated by othermeans than by excision of the nerve. Atropine, to a certain extent, paralyzes the sympathetic when given in sufficiently large doses, andinjections of this drug beneath the skin of a frog render the divisionof the sympathetic unnecessary. The chromatophores will not respond tolight impressions if the animal be placed thoroughly under the influenceof atropine. A large number of the lower animals possess the chromatophoric function. Several years ago, I placed in a large cistern several specimens of giltcatfish. This is a pond fish and is quite abundant throughout the middleUnited States. It is of a beautiful golden yellow color on the belly andsides, shading into a lustrous greenish yellow on the back and head. Several months after these fish had been placed in the cistern, itbecame necessary to clean the latter, and the fish were taken out. Theywere of a dusky drab color when first taken out, but soon regained theirvivid tints when placed in a white vessel containing clear water. Theyhad evidently changed color in order to harmonize with the black wallsand bottom of the cistern. Certain katydids are marked tinctumutants. I took one from the darkfoliage of an elm and placed her on the lighter-colored leaves of alocust. She could be easily seen when first placed on the locust; in afew moments, however, she had faded to such an extent that she wasbarely noticeable. The larvæ of certain moths, beetles, and butterflies also possess thechromatophoric function. The chromatophores in the larva of _Vanessa_are very numerous, and this grub is a remarkably successfultinctumutant; the same can be said of the larvæ of certain varieties of_Pieris_. The power of changing color so as to resemble, in coloring, surroundingobjects is evidently one of Nature's weapons of defence. In some animalsit is developed in a wonderful manner. Wherever it is found it becomesto the animal possessing it a powerful means of defence by rendering itinconspicuous, and in some instances wholly unnoticeable. After nine years of careful, systematic, and painstaking investigation, I am prepared to affirm that, besides the senses, sight, smell, taste, touch, hearing, and tinctumutation, certain animals have yet anothersense, the sense of locality, or of direction, commonly called the"homing instinct. " This remarkable function of the mind is not aninstinct any more than the sense of sight or smell is an instinct, butis, on the contrary, a true sense; for I have demonstrated by actualexperiment that it has a centre in the brains (ganglia) of some of theanimals possessing it, just as the other senses have their centres. And, since this centre has been found in certain species, and that, too, increatures very low in the scale of animal life, it is reasonable toinfer that it is present in the brains (ganglia) of all those animalswhich evince the so-called "homing instinct. " In the process of civilization certain of the five senses in man becomedull and blunted; thus, the sense of smell in the Tagals of thePhilippine Islands is much more acute than it is in the civilizedEuropean, and what is true of the sense of smell is also true of theother senses, save that of touch, in all primitive peoples. This lastsense seems to be much more acute in civilized man than it is insavages. This, for certain psychical reasons, unnecessary to detailhere, is a necessary result of evolutionary growth and development. [102] [102] Compare Tyler, _Anthropology_; De Quatrefages, _The Human Species_; Peschel, _The Races of Man_; Lombroso, _L'Uomo Delinquente_; Ellis, _The Criminal_; the writer, "Criminal Anthropology, " _N. Y. Medical Record_, January 13, 1894. As far as I have been able to learn, after much research in naturalhistory, the anthropoid apes do not show that they possess the sense ofdirection in a marked degree; thus we see that the immediate ancestorsof pithecoid man had already begun to lose this sense, which in man isentirely wanting, and the absence of which should not be a matter ofsurprise in the slightest degree, but rather a result that should beexpected. Evidences of this sense are to be observed in animals of exceedingly loworganization. On one occasion, while studying a water-louse, as I havealready described elsewhere in this book, I saw the little creature swimto a hydra, pluck off one of its buds, then swim a short distance awayand take shelter behind a small bit of mud, where it proceeded to devourits tender morsel. In a short while, much to my surprise, the louseagain swam to the hydra, again procured a bud, and again swam back toits hiding-place. This occurred three times during the hour I had itunder observation. The louse probably discovered the hydra the firsttime by accident; but when it swam back to the source of its food-supplythe second time and then returned again to its sheltering bit of mud, itclearly evinced conscious memory of route and a sense of direction. The common garden-snail is a homing animal, and it will always return toa particular spot after it has made an excursion in search of food. Infront of my dwelling there is a brick wall capped by a stone coping; theoverhanging edge of this coping forms a moist, cool home in summer forhundreds of snails. Last summer I took six of these creatures, and, after marking their shells with a paint of gum arabic and zinc oxide, Iset them free on the lawn some distance away from the wall. In course oftime, four of them returned to their homes beneath the stone coping; theother two were probably killed and eaten by blackbirds, numbers of whichI noticed during the day feeding on the sward. The centre of the sense of direction in snails is located at the base ofthe cephalic ganglion (brain); this ganglion lies immediately betweenand below the "horns" (eye-stalks), and is composed of severalcircumscribed and well-marked accumulations or corpuscles of nerve-cellsand nerve-filaments. This sense centre can easily be destroyed without inflicting injury onthe circumjacent sense centres. Whenever this is done, the snail losesits sense of direction and locality, and cannot find its way back to itshome when it is carried thence, and deposited amid new surroundings. Itis not killed by the mutilation, for I have seen marked snails in whichthis sense centre had been destroyed, alive and apparently in goodhealth, several weeks after having undergone this operation; they foundtemporary homes wherever they chanced to be. The limpet is likewise a homing animal, and invariably returns to itshome after journeys in search of food. Lieutenant L----, an officer inthe British navy, once told me that he had repeatedly had specimens ofthis animal under observation for months at a time, and that they alwayshad particular spots, generally depressions in rocks, which theyregarded as homes, to which they would always return after excursions insearch of sustenance. Romanes makes a similar statement. [103] [103] _Animal Intelligence_, pp. 28, 29. Some beetles have their homing sense highly developed; thus, in MammothCave, the blind beetle (_Adelops_) has its particular home, and willalways return to it even when it is set free at a considerable distance. Notwithstanding the fact these insects are blind, and that darknessreigns in this immense cavern, they have periods of rest correspondingwith the diurnal rest-periods of kindred species living in daylight;hence, it is easy to study their habits at home and abroad. I have frequently marked these beetles and then set them free somedistance away from their domiciles; they would hide themselves at oncebeneath stones or clods of earth, but as soon as they had recovered fromtheir fright they would turn towards home, and would not stop, if leftunmolested, until they arrived at their particular and individual homingplaces. Truly a most wonderful exhibition of the homing sense! At first, these beetles are, probably, directed and governed by theirsense of direction alone, but as soon as they arrive among familiarsurroundings, memory comes to their aid. The agile flea is another "homesteader, " and if marked, its favoriteresting-place on a dog or cat can easily be determined. After feeding, it will invariably return to a certain spot in order to enjoy its nap inpeace; for, strange as it may seem, fleas are sound sleepers, and, whatis more, seem to require a great deal of sleep. [104] [104] All insects have periods of rest, during which they seem to be in a state of slumber. Their sleep may not be the physiological slumber of mammals, yet it effects a like purpose in all probability. --W. Ants are, of the entire insect world, probably the most giftedhome-finders. Time and again have I tested them in this, sometimestaking them what must have been, to these little creatures, enormousdistances from their nests before freeing them. Of course the antsexperimented with were marked, otherwise I could not have watched themsuccessfully. When an ant is taken into new surroundings and set free, it at first runs here and there and everywhere. As soon, however, as itregains its equanimity and recovers from its fright, it turns towardhome. At first it proceeds slowly, every now and then climbing tallblades of grass, and from these high places viewing the surroundingcountry in search of landmarks. As soon as it arrives among scenespartially familiar to it, it ceases to climb grass-blades or weeds, andaccelerates its pace. When it arrives among well-known and accustomedsurroundings it runs along at its utmost speed, and fairly races intoits nest. The burying beetle has a regular abode, to which it invariably returnsafter performing the offices of mortician to some defunct bird, beast, or reptile. This insect grave-digger, by the way, is remarkably expertat its business, and will bury a frog or a bird in a very short time. As soon as it has buried the dead animal and deposited its eggs, itreturns to its domicile beneath some log or stone. Some snakes likewise are exceedingly domestic, and have their regulardens, to which they resort on occasions. The homing sense seems to berather highly developed in them, for they can find their way back totheir dens from great distances. I have had under observation for thepast three years a garden snake, locally known as a "spreading viper";this snake was brought to me by a friend[105] when it was only a footlong, so I have known her (for it is a female) ever since her infancy. Owing to some antenatal accident, this reptile has a malformed head, sothat I can readily recognize her at a distance of fifteen, twenty, oreven thirty feet. Last year she reared her first brood of young, which Iwas fortunate enough to see with her on several occasions. Her den is onmy lawn; and in the autumn of last year she conducted her brood to it, where they hibernated until spring. If I remember correctly, on the 29thof March she came out of her den accompanied by a dozen of her progeny, all but four (two pairs) of which I killed. [106] Snakes subserve a veryuseful purpose in the economy of nature, but it is well to keep them inlimits, for, when very numerous, they become dangerous to young birds, especially after they have passed the second year. [105] Silas Rosenfield, Esq. , Owensboro, Kentucky. [106] The above was written in the summer of 1897. This interesting specimen was killed by a day-laborer who had been temporarily employed to assist the gardener. An autopsy revealed a bony tumor of the right orbital arch, which, from a little distance, looked like a horn. --W. With the exception of the anthropoid apes all mammals possess the homingsense in a higher or lower degree; this is true also of birds. Experiments with the nesting robin show conclusively that this bird canfind its way back to its nest when carried fifty miles from its home andthen set free among wholly unknown surroundings. The well-known exploitsof the carrier-pigeon are so familiar that they scarcely need comment. On May 3, 1898, two carrier-pigeons, en route for Louisville, rested fora time at Owensboro, Kentucky; these birds had been set free at NewOrleans, Louisiana. The duck and the goose sometimes have this sensevery highly developed. I once knew a goose to travel back home afterhaving been carried in a covered basket for the distance of eighteenmiles. A drake and duck have been known to return to their home afterbeing carried a distance of nine miles by railway. Instances ofhome-returning by dogs, cats, horses, etc. , are of such commonoccurrence that I hardly need call attention to them; the followinginstance is so unique, however, that I will present it:-- In the fall of 1861, a gentleman of Vincennes, Indiana, visited hisfather at Lebanon, Kentucky; when this gentleman started to returnhome, his father gave him a yoke of young steers, which he drove, _via_Louisville, Kentucky, to Vincennes. Shortly after his arrival at this last-mentioned town, the steers madetheir escape, swam the river at Owensboro, Kentucky, 160 miles belowLouisville, Kentucky, and, in a week or so, were found one morning atthe gate of their old home at Lebanon. Directed by their homing sensealone, these animals had made a journey of several hundred miles overa route they had never seen! Fishermen are aware that certain fish choose localities forlurking-places, which they will share with no other fish. The blackbass, and brook trout, and sturgeon, and goggle-eye are familiarexamples of fish which have this habit. On one occasion, I performed the following experiment: I took a blackbass from its home near a sunken stump, and, after passing a short pieceof thread through the web of its tail and knotting it, replaced it inthe river, two miles below its lurking-place. The next day I saw it inits old home, clearly recognizable by the bit of thread which waved toand fro in the clear water as the fish gently moved its tail! In an examination of phenomena such as have been discussed in thischapter, ay, throughout this book, we must lay aside the dogmaticassertions of our superstitious ancestors, who, to paraphrase Roscoe, "when awed by superstition, and subdued by hereditary prejudices, couldnot only assent to the most incredible proposition, but could act inconsequence of these convictions, with as much energy and perseveranceas if they were the clearest deductions of reason, or the most evidentdictates of truth. "[107] [107] Roscoe, _Life of Leo X. _, p. 3. It will take the human race many, many years to unlearn, and to recoverfrom the effects of the superstitious cult of the shaman, who exists, not only among savages, but also in the most highly civilized races ofthe world! Superstition is the antithesis of knowledge; in fact, it isbut another name for ignorance. There is yet another exceedingly interesting psychical trait to benoticed in the lower animals, especially in insects; I refer to theinstinctive habit, letisimulation (_letum_, death, and _simulare_, tofeign). The word "instinctive" must not be used, however, when thisstratagem is to be observed in the higher animals other than theopossum; for many of these animals sometimes make an occasional and a_rational_ use of it, as I will endeavor to show in the next chapter. CHAPTER IX LETISIMULATION The feigning of death by certain animals for the purpose of deceivingtheir enemies, and thus securing immunity, is one of the greatest of themany evidences of intelligent action on their part. [108] Letisimulation(from _letum_, death, and _simulare_, to feign) is not confined to anyparticular family, order, or species of animals, but exists in many, from the very lowest to the highest. The habit of feigning death hasintroduced a figure of speech in the English language, and has done muchto magnify and perpetuate the fame of the only marsupial found outsideof Australasia and the Malayan Archipelago. "Playing 'possum" is now asynonym for certain kinds of deception. Man himself has known this to bean efficacious stratagem on many occasions. I have only to recall thenumerous instances related by hunters who have feigned death, and havethen been abandoned by the animals attacking them. I have seen thishabit in some of the lowest animals known to science. Some time ago, while examining the inhabitants of a drop of pond water under ahigh-power lens, I noticed several rhizopods busily feeding on theminute buds of an alga. These rhizopods suddenly drew in their hair-likecilia and sank to the bottom, to all appearances dead. I soon discoveredthe cause in the presence of a water-louse, an animal which feeds onthese animalcules. It likewise sank to the bottom, and, after examiningthe rhizopods, swam away, evidently regarding them as dead and unfit forfood. The rhizopods remained quiet for several seconds, and then swam tothe alga and resumed feeding. This was not an accidental occurrence, forseveral times since I have been fortunate enough to witness the samewonderful performance. There were other minute animals swimming in thedrop of water, but the rhizopods fed on unconcernedly until the shark ofthis microscopic sea appeared. They then recognized their danger atonce, and used the only means in their power to escape. Through theagency of what sense did these little creatures discover the approach oftheir enemies? Is it possible that they and other like microscopicanimals have eyes and ears so exceedingly small that lenses of the veryhighest power cannot make them visible? Or are they possessors ofsenses utterly unknown to and incapable of being appreciated by man?Science can neither affirm nor deny either of these suppositions. Thefact alone remains that, through some sense, they discovered thepresence of the enemy, and feigned death in order to escape. [108] Instinct does not preclude intelligent ideation. In the lower animals death-feigning is undoubtedly instinctive; yet the recognition of danger, which sets in motion the phenomena of letisimulation, is undoubtedly due, primarily, to intelligent ideation in a vast majority of animals. Otherwise this earth would be a lifeless waste. --W. There is a small fresh-water annelid which practises letisimulation whenapproached by the giant water-beetle. [109] This annelid, when swimming, is a slender, graceful little creature, about one-eighth of an inchlong, and as thick as a human hair; but when a water-beetle draws near, it stops swimming, relaxes its body, and hangs in the water like a bitof cotton thread. It has a twofold object in this: in the first place, it hopes that its enemy will think it a piece of wood fibre, bleachedalga, or other non-edible substance; in the second place, if the beetlebe not deceived, it will nevertheless consider it dead and unfit forfood. I do not mean to say that this process of ratiocination reallyoccurs in the annelid; its intelligence goes no farther, probably, thanconscious determination. In the beetle, however, conscious determinationis merged into intelligent ideation, for its actions in the premises areself-elective and selective. [109] _Dyticus marginalis. _ Vide Furneaux, _Life in Ponds and Streams_, p. 325; foot-note for orthography. --W. Letisimulation in this animal is by no means infrequent, for I have seenit feign death repeatedly. Any one may observe this stratagem if he beprovided with a glass of clear water, a dyticus, and several of theselittle worms. The annelid is able to distinguish the beetle when it isseveral inches distant, and the change from an animated worm to aseemingly lifeless thread is startling in its exceeding rapidity. Even an anemone, a creature of very low organization indeed, hasacquired this habit. On one occasion, near St. John's, Newfoundland, Inoticed a beautiful anemone in a pool of sea-water. I reached down myhand for it, when, presto! it shrivelled and shrunk like a flash into anunsightly green lump, and appeared nothing more than a moss-coverednodule of rock. Very many grubs make use of this habit when they imagine themselves indanger. For instance, the "fever worm, " the larva of one of our commonmoths, --the Isabella tiger-moth, --is a noted death-feigner, and will"pretend dead" on the slightest provocation. Touch this grub with thetoe of your boot, or with the tip of your finger, or with a stick, andit will at once curl up, to all appearances absolutely without life. A gentleman[110] recently told me that he saw the following example ofletisimulation: One day, while sitting in his front yard, he saw acaterpillar crawling on the ground at his feet. The grub crawled toonear the edge of a little pit in the sandy loam, and fell over, dragging with it a miniature avalanche of sand. It immediately essayedto climb up the north side of the pit, and had almost reached the top, when the treacherous soil gave way beneath its feet, and it rolled tothe bottom. It then tried the west side, and met with a similar mishap. Not discouraged in the least by its failure, it then tried the eastside, and reached the very edge, when it accidentally disturbed theequilibrium of a corncob poised upon the margin of the pit, dislodgedit, and fell with it to the bottom. The caterpillar evidently thoughtthe cob was an enemy, for it at once rolled itself into a ball andfeigned death. It remained quiescent for some time, but finally "came tolife, " tried the south side with triumphant success, and went on its wayrejoicing. This little creature evinced conscious determination and acertain amount of reason; for it never tried the same side of the pit inits endeavors to escape, but always essayed a different side from thatwhere it had encountered failure. [110] Mr. George Mattingly, Owensboro, Kentucky. Many free-swimming rotifers practise letisimulation when disturbed orwhen threatened by what they consider impending danger. If a "pitcherrotifer" (_Brachionus urceolaris_) be approached with a needle point, itwill cease all motion and sink; the same is true of the "skeletonrotifer" (_Dinocharis pocillum_) and numerous others of this largefamily. Again, if a bit of alga on which there is a colony of "bellanimalcules" (_Vorticellæ_) be placed in a live box and then beexamined with a moderate power, they can be seen to feign death. Therapidly vibrating cilia which surround the margin of the "bells" giverise to currents in the water which can be easily made out as they sweepfloating particles toward the creatures' mouths and stomachs. If thetable on which the microscope rests be rapped with the knuckles, thecolony will disappear as if by magic. Now, what has become of it? If themicroscope be readjusted, a group of tubercles will be observed on thealga; these are the vorticellæ. They have simply coiled themselves upontheir slender stems, have drawn in their cilia, and are feigning death. In a few seconds one, and then another, will erect its stem; finally, the entire colony will "come to life" and resume feeding until they areagain frightened, when they will at once resort to letisimulation. Death-feigners are found in four divisions of animal life; viz. , amonginsects, birds, mammals, and reptiles. Indeed, the most giftedletisimulants in the entire animal kingdom are to be observed in thegreat snake family. The so-called "black viper" of the middle UnitedStates is the most accomplished death-feigner that I have ever seen; itsmake-believe death struggles, in which it writhes and twists in seemingagony and finally turns upon its back and assumes _rigor mortis_, cannotbe surpassed by any actor "on the boards" in point of pantomimicexcellence. I do not know of any fish which has acquired this strategic habit, butthe evidence is not all in, and some day, perhaps, death-feigners may befound even among fishes. [111] [111] Letisimulation, apparently, is not confined to animals; we see that certain plants have acquired a habit that is strikingly like death-feigning. We are apt to regard the plants as being non-sentient, yet there is an abundance of evidence in favor of the doctrine that vegetable life is, to a certain extent, percipient. Darwin has shown conclusively that plant life is as subject to the great law of evolution as animal life; he has also demonstrated, in his observations of insectivorous plants--the sun-dew (_Drosera rotundifolia_) especially--that these plants recognize at once the presence of foreign bodies when they are brought in contact with their sensitive glands;[A] he has likewise shown that plants, in the phenomenon known as circumnutation, evince a percipient sensitiveness that is as delicate as it is remarkable. [B] Hence, we need not feel surprised when we find, even in a plant, evidences of such a widespread stratagem as letisimulation. The champion death-feigner of the vegetable kingdom is a South American plant, _Mimosa pudica_. In the United States, where in some localities it has been naturalized, this plant is known as the "sensitive plant. " A wild variety, _Mimosa strigilosa_, is native to some of the Southern States, but is by no means as sensitive as its South American congener. The last-mentioned plant is truly a vegetable wonder. At one moment a bed of soft and vivid green, the next a touch from a finger and, in the twinkling of an eye, it has changed into an unsightly tangle of seemingly dead and withered stems. In this case death-feigning seems absolutely successful as far as protection is concerned; for surely no grass-eating animal would touch this withered stuff, especially if there were other greens in the neighborhood. Death-feigning in plants, and kindred phenomena, are not due, however, to conscious determination; they are, in all probability, simply the result of reflex action. [A] Darwin, _Insectivorous Plants_, Chap. V. _et seq. _ [B] Darwin, _Power of Movement in Plants_, pp. 107-109. Recently, I saw this stratagem perpetrated by a creature so low in thescale of animal life, and living amid surroundings so free from ordinarydangers, that, at first, I was loath to credit the evidence of my ownperceptive powers; and it was only after long-continued observation thatI was finally convinced that it was really an instance ofletisimulation. The animal in question was the itch mite (_Sarcoptes hominis_), which isfrequently met with by physicians in practice, but which is rarely seen, although it is very often felt, by mankind, especially by thoseunfortunates who are forced by circumstances to dwell amid squalid andfilthy surroundings. _Sarcoptes hominis_ is eminently a creature offilth, and is primarily a scavenger living on the dead and cast-offproducts of the skin. It is only when the desire for perpetuating itsrace seizes it that it burrows into the skin, thereby producing theintolerable itching which has given to it its very appropriate name. Itis only the females that make tunnels in the skin; the males move freelyover the surface of the epidermis. The females make tunnels or_cuniculi_ in the cuticle, in which they lay their eggs, and they canreadily be removed from these burrows with a needle. While observing oneof these minute _acarii_ through a pocket lens, as it crawled slowly onthe surface of the skin, I wished to examine the under surface of itsbody. When I touched it with the point of a needle in attempting toturn it upon its back, it at once ceased to crawl and drew in its short, turtle-like legs toward its sides. It remained absolutely without motionfor several seconds, and then slowly resumed its march. Again I touchedit, and again it came to a halt, and took up its onward march only afterseveral seconds had elapsed. Again and again I performed this experimentwith like results; finally, the little traveller became thoroughlychilled, and, after a fruitless endeavor to again penetrate the skin, ceased all motion and died. Many of the coleoptera are good letisimulants. The common tumble-bug(_Canthon lævis_), which may be seen any day in August rolling its ballof manure, in which are its eggs, to some suitable place of interment, is a remarkable death-feigner. Touch it, and at once it falls over, apparently dead. It draws in its legs, which become stiff and rigid;even its antennæ are motionless. You may pick it up and examine itclosely; it will not give the slightest sign of life. Place it on theground and retire a little from it, and, in a few moments, you will seeit erect one of its antennæ and then the other. Its ears are in itsantennæ, and it is listening for dangerous sounds. Move your foot orstamp upon the ground, and back they go, and the beetle again becomesseemingly moribund. This you may do several times, but the little animal, soon discoveringthat the sounds you make are not indicative of peril to it, scramblesto its feet and resumes the rolling of its precious ball. The habit ofmaking use of this subterfuge is undoubtedly instinctive in thiscreature; but the line of action governing the use of the stratagem isevidently suggested by intelligent, correlated ideation. Some animals feign death after exhausting all other means of defence. The stink-bug (_pentatomid_) or bombardier bug (not the "bombardierbeetle") has, on the sides of its abdomen near its middle coxæ ("hipbone"), certain bladder-like glands which secrete an acrid, foul-smelling fluid;[112] it has the power of ejecting this fluid atwill. [112] Comstock, _The Study of Insects_, p. 145. When approached by an enemy, the stink-bug presents one side to the foe, crouching down on the opposite side, thus elevating its battery, andwaits until its molester is within range; it then fires its broadside atthe enemy. If the foe is not vanquished (as it commonly is), but stillcontinues the attack, the bombardier turns and fires another broadsidefrom the opposite side. If this second discharge does not proveefficacious (and I have rarely known it to fail), the little insecttopples over, draws in its legs, and pretends to be dead. Many a man has acted in like manner. He has fought as long as he could;then, seeing the odds against him, he has feigned death, hoping that hisantagonist would abandon him and cease his onslaughts. The stink-bug inthis seems to be governed and directed by _reason_, though the meansused for defence must come under the head of instinct. Many a blind, instinctive impulse in the lower animals is, in all probability, aidedand abetted by intelligent ratiocination when once it has made itsappearance. I have seen ants execute a like stratagem when overcome either bynumbers or by stronger ants. They curl up their legs, draw down theirantennæ, and drop to the ground. They will allow themselves to be pulledabout by their foes without the slightest resistance, showing no signsof life whatever. The enemy soon leaves them, whereupon the cunninglittle creatures take to their feet and hurry away. The most noted and best known letisimulant among mammals is the opossum. I have seen this animal look as if dead for hours at a time. It can bethrown down any way, and its body and limbs will remain in the positionassigned to them by gravity. It presents a perfect picture of death. Thehare will act in the same way on occasions. The cat has been seen tofeign death for the purpose of enticing its prey within graspingdistance of its paws. In the mountains of East Tennessee (Chilhowee) Ionce saw a hound which would "play dead" when attacked by a morepowerful dog than itself. It would fall upon its back, close its eyes, open its mouth, and loll out its tongue. Its antagonist would appearnonplussed at such strange conduct, and would soon leave it alone. Itsmaster[113] declared that it had not been taught the trick by man, butthat the habit was inherited or learned from its mother, which practisedthe same deception when hard pushed. [114] [113] Mr. George Griffiths, Griffiths' Cove, Chilhowee, Blount County, Tennessee. [114] In the case of the cat and dog the use of this stratagem is not instinctive; it is the rational use of means to obtain a certain desired end. The fact that the dog "inherited the act" from its mother is not a proof of inherited instinct. Instincts are not formed in a single generation. --W. Most animals are slain for food by other animals. There is a continualstruggle for existence. The carnivora and insectivora, with certainexceptions, prefer freshly killed food. They will not touch tainted meatwhen they can procure the recently killed, blood-filled bodies of theirprey. The exigencies of their surroundings in their struggle forexistence, however, often compel them to eat carrion. Dogs will occasionally eat carrion, but sparingly, and apparently as arelish, just as we sometimes eat odoriferous and putrid cheeses, and theTurks, assafoetida. Carnivora and insectivora would much prefer to do their own butchery;hence, when they come upon their prey apparently dead, they will leaveit alone and go in search of other quarry, unless they are very hungry. Tainted flesh is a dangerous substance to go into any stomach, unless itbe that of a buzzard. Heredity and environment have made this bird acarrion-eater, hence, like the jackal, the hyena, and the alligator, companion scavengers, it can eat putrid flesh with impunity. Otherflesh-eating animals avoid carrion when they can, for long years ofexperience have taught them that decaying meat contains certainptomaines which render it very poisonous; hence, they let dead, orseemingly dead, creatures severely alone. Again, these creatures can seeno object in mutilating an animal which, in their opinion, is alreadydead. In this discussion of the means and methods of protection that are to beobserved in the lower animals, I have brought forward only those inwhich mind-element was to be discerned. Mimicry and kindred phenomenahardly have a place in this treatise, for they are, undoubtedly, governed and directed by unconscious mind, a psychical phase which, as Iintimated in the introductory chapter of this book, would be discussedonly incidentally. CONCLUSION Judging wholly from the evidence, I think that it can be safely assertedand successfully maintained that mind in the lower animals is the samein kind as that of man; that, though instinct undoubtedly controls anddirects many of the psychical and physical manifestations which are tobe observed in the lower animals, intelligent ratiocination alsoperforms an important rôle in the drama of their lives. [115] [115] Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_, p. 591. The wielders of the instinct club bitterly deny that any of the loweranimals ever show an intelligent appreciation of new surroundings, thatthey ever evince intelligent ratiocination. They close their eyes evento the data collected by the chiefs of their tribe, Agassiz, Kirby, Spence, _et al. _, and go on their way shouting hosannas to omniscient, all-powerful Instinct! When one of the lower animals evinces unusualintelligence, or gives unmistakable evidences of reason, they accountfor it by saying that "it is only instinct highly specialized, or, atleast, a so-called 'intelligent' accident. " So far from being "intelligent accidents" are the ratiocinative acts ofsome of the lower animals (that is, lower than man), that I think thatit can be demonstrated analogically that some of these acts are incitedby one of the highest qualities of the mind--abstraction. I do not mean that abstraction which renders the civilized human beingso immeasurably superior to all other animals, but rather that primal, fundamental abstraction from which the highly specialized function ofman has been developed. The faculty of computing in animals is oneevidence of the presence of this psychical trait in its crude andundeveloped state. The quality of abstraction in such ideation is notvery high, it is true, yet it _is_ abstraction, nevertheless. Man possesses two kinds of consciousness--an active, vigilant, coördinating consciousness (the seat of which is, probably, in thecortical portion of the brain) and the passive, pseudo-dormant, and, toa certain extent, incoherent and non-coördinating consciousness (theso-called sub-liminal consciousness) whose seat is in the great gangliaat the base of the brain (_optic thalami_ and _corpora striata_), and inother ganglia situated in the spinal cord and elsewhere in the body. Myfox terrier has a brain which, in all essential details, does not differfrom that of man, and my observations teach me that his mind is the samein kind as that of man as far as memory, emotions, and reason areconcerned; then why deny him the possession of abstraction in somedegree? I do not mean that abstraction which enables a man to soar intorealms of thought infinitely above any effort of ideation to be attainedby any of the lower animals, but abstraction in its embryonic state. Iam convinced, by actual experimentation, that this dog falls into "brownstudies" just as man does; may he not then claim one kind ofabstraction, if not another? The elephant, unquestionably, is able to formulate abstract ideas, thequality of which is very high, indeed. Jenkins wrote to Romanes asfollows:-- "What I particularly wish to observe is that there are good reasons forsupposing that elephants possess abstract ideas; for instance, I thinkit is impossible to doubt that they acquire through their own experiencenotions of hardness and weight, and the grounds on which I am led tothink this are as follows:-- "A captured elephant after he has been taught his ordinary duty, sayabout three months after he has been taken, is taught to pick up thingsfrom the ground and give them to his mahout sitting on his shoulders. Now the first few months it is dangerous to require him to pick upanything but soft articles, such as clothes, because things are oftenhanded up with considerable force. "After a time, longer with some elephants than others, they appear totake in a knowledge of the nature of the things they are required tolift, and the bundle of clothes will be thrown up sharply as before, but heavy things, such as a crowbar or a piece of iron chain, will behanded up in a gentle manner; a sharp knife will be picked up by itshandle and placed on the elephant's head, so that the mahout may take itby the handle. I have purposely given elephants things to lift whichthey could never have seen before, and they were all handled in such amanner as to convince me that they recognized such qualities ashardness, sharpness, and weight. "[116] [116] Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, pp. 101, 102; see also Kemp, _Indications of Instinct_, pp. 120, 130. Mr. Conklin, the celebrated elephant trainer, once told me that hiselephants not only recognized such qualities as weight, sharpness, andhardness, but also _volume or dimension_. The kinship of mind in man and the lower animals is indicated also bythe phenomenon of dreaming which is to be observed in both. When theactive consciousness is stilled by slumber, subconsciousness organglionic consciousness remains awake, and sometimes makes itselfevident in dreams. I have repeatedly observed my terrier when underdream influence, and have been able to predicate the substance of hisdreams from his actions. Like man, the dog is sometimes unable todifferentiate between his waking and dreaming thoughts; he confoundsthe one with the other, and follows out in his waking state the ideassuggested by his dreams. This, with normal man, is always a momentary delusion; with the dog, however, it may last for some little time. Thus, I have seen my dogchase imaginary rats around my room after having been aroused while inthe midst of a dream. His chagrin when he "came to himself" and saw melaughing was always strikingly apparent. The brains of the lower animals are susceptible to the action of drugs, whose effects on them are identical with the effects noticed when thehuman brain is under drug influence. Alcohol, chloroform, ether, opium, strychnine, arsenic, all produce characteristic symptoms when they areintroduced into the circulatory system of the lower animals. Even thevery lowest animalcules give this evidence as to the kinship of nerveand ganglionic or brain elements in man and the lower animals. I have repeatedly noticed the action of alcohol on rhizopods. When smalland almost inappreciable doses were exhibited, the little creaturesbecame lively and swam merrily through the water; but, when large doseswere given, they soon became stupefied and finally died. I have seendrunken jelly-fish rolling and tacking through the alcohol-impregnatedwater for all the world like a company of drunkards. [117] They soonbecame sober, however, when they were placed in fresh water, butremained listless and inert for some time afterward. [117] Compare Romanes, _Jelly-Fish, Star-Fish, and Sea-Urchins_, p. 227. Coleoptera, hymenoptera, diptera, in fact, all insects exhibit thecharacteristic effects of alcohol when under its influence. Horses, dogs, cats, monkeys--all mammals are affected characteristically byalcohol, and it not infrequently happens that they willingly becomedrunkards. [118] [118] Lindsay, _Mind in the Lower Animals_, pp. 81-93. Animals also appear to become cognizant of the fact that certainsubstances are medicaments, and they will voluntarily search for andtake such substances when they are ill. Bees are perfectly aware of theastringent qualities of the sap of certain trees, notably the dogwoodand wild cherry, and, when afflicted with the diarrhoea, can be seenbiting into, and sucking, the sap from the tender twigs of such trees. Dogs, when constipated, will search for and devour the long, lanceolateblades of couch-grass (_Triticum repens_); horses and mules, when theyhave "scours, " eat clay; cattle with the "scratches" have been seen toplaster hoof and joint with mud, and then stand still until the healingcoating dried out and became firm; and elephants have been known, timeand again, to plug up shot holes in their bodies with moistenedearth. [119] [119] Romanes, Skinner, Sir R. Tennent, Bingley, Forbes, _et al. _ Again, the recognition of the rights of property cannot be attributed toinstinct, neither can it fall under the head of "intelligent accidents, "yet many animals lower than man recognize, to a certain extent, therights of property. For instance, in 1879, two very intelligentchimpanzees were on exhibition at Central Park. One of these animalsclaimed as her property a particular blanket, and, notwithstanding thefact that there were other blankets in the cage in which they wereconfined, always covered herself with this blanket. She would take itaway from her companion whenever she wished to use it. Again, twoturkeys on my place deposited their eggs in the same nest. The hen whichfirst built and used the nest regarded the spot as her individual home;therefore, whenever she found the other hen's egg in the nest, she wouldbreak it with her beak, and then carry it some distance away. This Ihave seen her do repeatedly. Many dogs, cats, and other animals regard certain rugs, cushions, etc. , as their own property, and resent any interference with them. It seemsto me that in all such instances these animals regard themselves asindividuals; that they recognize the psychical as well as the physicaldifference between the _Ego_ and the _Tu_ as soon as they begin torecognize the rights of property. Those who hold that instinct governs all actions of the lower animals, usually claim that man is the only tool-user. This is a grossmistake--elephants, when walking along the road, will break branchesfrom the trees and use them as fly-brushes;[120] these creatures alsomanufacture surgical instruments, and use them in getting rid of certainparasites;[121] monkeys use rocks and hammers to crack nuts too hard fortheir teeth; these creatures also make use of missiles to hurl at theirfoes;[122] chimpanzees make drums out of pieces of dry and resonantwood;[123] the orang-utan breaks branches and fruit from the trees andhurls them at its foes;[124] the gorilla and chimpanzee use cudgels orclubs as weapons of offence or defence;[125] monkeys make use of sticksin order to draw objects within their reach;[126] spiders suspendpebbles from their webs in order to preserve stability, [127] etc. [120] Peal, _Nature_, Vol. XXI. P. 34; quoted also by Romanes. [121] Peal, _Nature_, Vol. XXI. [122] Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 485 _et seq. _ [123] Lindsay, _Mind in the Lower Animals_, Vol. I. P. 410. [124] Wallace, _Malayan Archipelago_, p. 41. [125] Lindsay, _loc. Cit. Ante_, p. 413. [126] Belt, _Naturalist in Nicaragua_, p. 119. [127] Büchner, _Geistesleben der Thiere_, p. 318. I could prolong this list to a much greater length, but think it hardlynecessary. I think that I have demonstrated that man is not the onlytool-user. Even such dyed-in-the-wool creationists as Kirby and Spence are forcedto admit the presence of reason in insects. "Such, then, are the exquisiteness, the number, and the extraordinarydevelopment of the instincts of insects. But is instinct the sole guideof their actions? Are they in every case the blind agent of irresistibleimpulse? These queries, I have already hinted, cannot, in my opinion, be replied to in the affirmative; and I now proceed to show that thoughinstinct is the chief guide to insects, they are endowed also with noinconsiderable portion of _reason_. "[128] [128] Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_, p. 591. Studied both objectively and subjectively, insects present indisputableevidence of reason. Not the higher abstract reason of the human being, however, but reason in its primal, fundamental state. The difference between instinct and reason is not generally understood, and, as I believe that most readers can comprehend an illustration muchquicker than an explanation, I will use the former in order to bring outthis difference. The hen which sits three weeks on a china egg is influenced by blindimpulse--instinct; while the turkey which discovers the eggs of herrival in her nest, and destroys them, is directed by somethinginfinitely higher--by reason. The using of a common nest never occursamong these birds in a wild state, neither is it of so frequentoccurrence among domesticated turkeys as to have formed an instinctivehabit. Again, the honey-making ants which left their patrol line in order toslay the wounded centipede may have been, and probably were, influencedby instinct; another and wholly different psychical trait, however, impelled them to fill up the trench dug with my hunting knife. Thisaccident could not have occurred, perhaps, to them in a state of nature, or if by any possibility it had ever occurred before, the chances arethat such occurrences were few in number, and that they happened at longintervals of time, thus precluding the establishment of an instinctivehabit. Nor do I think it possible for this action to come under the headof "specialized instinct, " for the same reason. By the very nature ofthings there can be no such thing as an "intelligent accident"; the termis itself a contradiction, therefore the performance of these ants mustbe considered an act of intelligent ratiocination. In this discussion of mind in the lower animals I have endeavored toshow that the psychical traits evinced by them indicate that theirmental organisms, taken as a whole, are the same in kind as that ofman. * * * * * BIBLIOGRAPHY Bates. _The Naturalist on the River Amazon. _ Belt. _The Naturalist in Nicaragua. _ Büchner. _Geistesleben der Thiere. _ Carter. _Annals of Natural History. _ Clark. _Mind in Nature. _ Comstock. _The Study of Insects. _ Darwin. _The Descent of Man_; _The Origin of Species_; _InsectivorousPlants_; _Formation of Vegetable Mould_; _The Expression of theEmotions_; _Power of Movement in Plants_. Dewar. _Physiological Action of Light_, Nature, 1877. Figuier. _Reptiles and Birds. _ Furneaux. _Life in Streams and Ponds. _ Gibson. _Sharp Eyes. _ Haeckel. _History of Creation_; _Evolution of Man_. Hartman. _Anthropoid Apes. _ Hickson. _The Fauna of the Deep Sea. _ Huber. _The Natural History of Ants. _ Huxley. _The Study of Zoölogy. _ Kemp. _Indication of Instinct. _ Kirby and Spence. _Entomology. _ Lindsay. _Mind in the Lower Animals in Health_; _Mind in the LowerAnimals in Disease_. Lubbock. _Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects_; _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_;_The Social Hymenoptera_; _The Senses, Instincts, and Intelligence ofAnimals_. Luys. _The Brain and its Functions. _ Mantagazza. _Physiognomy and Expression. _ Maudsley. _The Physiology of Mind_; _Body and Will_. Miller. _Four Handed Folk. _ Peschel. _The Races of Man. _ Pettigrew. _Animal Locomotion. _ Peal. _Nature_, Vol. XXI. Quatrefages. _The Human Species. _ Reclain. _Body and Mind. _ Romanes. _Animal Intelligence_; _Mental Evolution in Animals_; _MentalEvolution in Man_; _The Jelly-Fish, Star-Fish, and Sea-Urchin_. Roscoe. _Life of Leo the Tenth. _ Schmidt. _The Mammalia. _ Schneider. _Thierische Wille. _ Semper. _Animal Life. _ Tuke. _Influence of the Mind upon the Body. _ Van Beneden. _Animal Parasites and Messmates. _ Wallace. _Island Life_; _The Malay Archipelago_. Whitney. _Life and Growth of Language. _ White. _A Londoner's Walk to Edinburgh. _ Yarrell. _British Fishes. _ * * * * * INDEX A ACINETA MYSTACINA, amoeba catches and devours an, 50. ACTINOPHRYS, power of differentiation in A. Eichornii, 7; Brachionus captured by, 7; uric acid crystals and sand grains in an experiment with, 9; taste in, 9; sight in, 11; memory of locality in, 49, 52; lying in wait for, and devouring the young of, a _pythium_, 49; love of pastime in, 123; death-feigning by, 201; effect of alcohol on, 219. ADELOPS, homing sense in blind, 196; author's experiments in demonstrating homing sense of blind, 196. ALBINISM, axolotl affected by, 182; difference between etiolation and, 182, 184. ALCIOPE, eyes of, 17. ALGA, stentor feeding on spores of, 47. AMOEBA, young acineta caught by, 51. ANEMONE, Romanes' experiment with, 42; death-feigning by, 205. ANERGATES, parasitic, 156, 157. ANGLEWORM, differentiation between light and darkness by, 54; experiments with light on, 55; ocelli of, 55; Darwin's theory as to deafness in, 55; organs of audition in, 56; author's experiments with, 56; conscious choice in, 56; taste in, 56, 57. ANT, memory of locality in the, 62; memory of friends (kindred) in the, 65; Huber's observations, 66; author's experiments with _Lasius niger_, 66; claviger beetles recognized and petted by, 73; gray matter in the brain of, 99; nerve-cells and nerve-filaments in the brain cortex of, 99; Lubbock's experiments (chloroform and alcohol) with, 99; sympathy evinced by, 100; parental care of worker ants for young, 103; love of amusement in the, 125; author's observations of _L. Flavus_, 125, 126; _Claviger foveolatus_ fondled by, 126; Huber's observations of _pratensis_, 125; Lubbock's observations of _Beckia_, a pet of, 126; author's observations of _Podura_ in the nests of _F. Fusca_ and _F. Rufescens_, 126; evidence of reason in the, 152; funeral of an, 153; battle between, 153; author's verification of Huber's experiment with slave, 155; degeneration in, 155; Lubbock's summary of degeneration in, 156; homing sense in the, 197; death-feigning in the, 212. ANTHROBIA, eyeless, 11. APE, cat affectionately treated by an, 83. APHIS, ants domesticate the, 73. ARGIOPE, mason wasps for food prefer the spider, 170. ATROPIA, sympathetic nerves paralyzed by, 191. AXOLOTL, color-changing in, 184; Paul Bert's experiments with, 184; Semper's experiments with, 184; Kölliker's experiments with, 184. B BALANCERS, of _Tabanus atratus_, 34; of _Chrysops niger_, 33; of _Diplosis resinicola_, 33. BASCANION CONSTRICTOR, recognition of individuals by, 75; bird decorates its nest with skin of, 127. BASS, parental affection in, 138; homing sense in black, 200. BECKIA, ants domesticate and pet, 126. BIRD, memory of individuals in, 76, 77; gratitude in, 77, 93; homing sense in, 199. BOMBARDIER BUG, death-feigning in, 211. BRACHIONUS, actinophrys captures, 7. BRACHIONUS URCEOLARIS, death-feigning in, 206. BUMBLEBEE, revenge and anger in, 71; recognition of a certain dog by, 71. BURYING BEETLE, homing sense in, 197. BUTTERFLY, suitable food for larva selected by, 103; age of tropical, 137; Miranda's observations, 137, 138. C CALOTIS, third eye of, 27. CANTHON LÆVIS, death-feigning in, 210. CAPUCHIN MONKEY, surgical operation on a, 95; faith in man's ability to aid evinced by a, 96. CARABIDÆ, auditory vesicles of, 37; memory of locality in, 64. CAT, pride of offspring in a male, 142; idea of time shown by a, 177. CATFISH, parental affection in, 138, 139. CERAMBYX, sense of hearing in, 36; Will's experiment with, 36. CHACMA, cat chosen as friend by, 83; author's test for memory of individuals in, 84. CHAMELEON, educated, 75; recognition of individual by, 75. CHICK, pigment cells in embryonic, 186, 187. CHIMPANZEE, laughter and smiles evinced by, 89; faculty of computing in, 177; recognition of property rights by, 221. CHRYSOPS NIGER, balancers of, 33; organs of hearing in, 33. CICINDELIDÆ, auditory vesicles of, 37; memory of locality in, 64. CLAVIGER FOVEOLATUS, ants make a pet of, 73. COCCINELLÆ, peculiar assemblages of female, 126, 127. COCK, friendship between a drake and a, 78; fondness for violin music in a, 122. CONSCIOUSNESS, definition of, 43; time element in, 44; the probable location of active, 216; the probable location of the sub-liminal, 216. CORYDALIS, auditory rods of, 30. COW, dog the guardian and friend of a, 80. CRAB, Pouchet's experiment on the chromatophores of, 189. CRAYFISH, eyes of, 21; power of vision in, 23; pugnacity of, 23. CRICKET, ears of, 31. CYMOTHOE, eyes of fresh-water, 13. D DETERMINATION, the origin of conscious, 40. DINOCHARIS POCILLUM, death-feigning in, 206. DIPLOSIS RESINICOLA, balancers of, 33. DIPTERA, ears of, 33; love of pastime in, 125. DOG, cow chosen as a friend by a, 78; laughter in, 90; fondness for certain musical keys in the, 112; author's experiments with the, 113; origin of musical discrimination in the, 114; knowledge of the echo in the, 115; author's observations of an echo-loving, 115; parental affection in the, 141; abstract idea of numbers in the, 173, 174; phenomenon of dreaming in the, 218; medication by sick, 220. DROSERA ROTUNDIFOLIA, insectivorous, 208. DUCK, friendship between bantam cock and, 78; hawk attacked and killed by, 78; sense of direction in, 199. DYTICUS MARGINALIS, auditory rods of, 30; death-feigning in a fresh-water annelid when approached by, 204. E EAGLE, recognition of individuals by, 76. EAR, Dyticus, 30; corydalis, 30; grasshopper's, 31; Tabanus, 34. EARWIG, method of incubation practised by, 105; care of young by, 105; M. Geer's experiment with, 105; love of offspring in, 106; author's experiments in testing parental affection in the, 136. ECITON HAMATA, ants of the same species rescue an imprisoned, 100; Belt's experiments in testing the sympathy of, 101. ELEPHANT, abstract ideation in the, 217; Conklin's testimony as to abstract ideation in, 218; mud used to stop bullet holes by, 220; a branch of a bush used as a fan by, 221. EPIPONE SPINIPES, method of supplying larva with fresh food used by, 104; differentiation in the amount of food for male and female grub, 104. ETIOLATION, definition of, 184, 185. EUPLOCINÆ, length of life in tropical, 137. EYE, flounder's, 9; plaice's, 9; sole's, 9; mole's, 10; fresh-water _Cymothoe's_, 13; OEquorea's, 15; sea-urchin's, 16; oyster's, 17; _Alciope's_, 17; snail's, 19; crayfish's, 21; _Gyrinus'_, 23; _Periophthalmus'_, 25; _Onchidium's_, 26; calotis', 27. F FISH, phosphorescent and pigmented, 13; parental affection in, 138; sense of direction in, 200. FLEA, memory in the, 86; dancing and military evolutions by, 86; method of educating the, 87. FLOUNDER, the origin of unilateral eyes in, 9. FORMICA FUSCA, sympathy in, 100; species of _Podura_ domesticated by, 126. FORMICA RUFA, sympathy evinced by, 102. FORMICA RUFESCENS, pet beetles in the nest of, 126. FORMICA SANGUINEA, slave-making habit in, 155; sympathy evinced by, 102; Lubbock's observations of a sick, 102. FROG, tinctumutation in the, 182; chromatophores of, 182; Heincke's observations, 183; location of color-changing sense in, 190. G GADFLY, selection of suitable spot for oviposition by, 103. GILT CATFISH, _gyropeltes_ make the toilet of, 130; color-changing in, 183; author's experiments on the color-changing function of, 191. GOBIUS RUTHENSPARRI, tinctumutation in, 183. GOGGLE-EYE PERCH, love of offspring in, 138; homing sense in, 200. GOOSE, homing sense in the, 199. GORILLA, use of cudgel by, 222. GRASSHOPPER, ears of, 30. GYRINUS, indifference to seasons shown by, 23; eyes of, 24. GYROPELTES, health of gilt catfish dependent on, 130. H HELICONIDÆ, length of life in, 138. HELIX POMATIA, love of amusement in, 123; author's observations, 124. HEMIPTERA, organs of audition in, 29. HOG, friendship between a dog and a, 81. HONEY BEE, recognition of impending calamity by, 90; consternation and dismay manifested by, 90; remarkable engineering feat by, 91; joy evinced by, 91; grief shown by, 91, 92; Huber's experiment demonstrating reason in, 178. HORSE, love of offspring in the, 143; seeking man's aid when in trouble, 144; self-medication by, 220. HOUND, death-feigning by, 212. HUMMING-BIRD, decorative instinct in, 128. HYDRA, water-louse feeding on the buds of, 52. HYDROZOA, nerve-tissue in, 41. HYMENOPTERA, recognition of kindred in social, 69. I ICHNEUMON, method of ovipositing in the bodies of caterpillars used by, 104. INSTINCT, definition of, 147, 148. J JAY, parental love in the, 142; battle between cat and, 143. JELLY-FISH, anatomy, physiology, and psychology of, 4; nerve-ring in nectocalyx of, 5; "eyes" of, 5; manubrium or "handle" of, 5; sensitiveness of nervous system in, 5; pulsing of nectocalyx in, 5; intoxicated, 15; light sought by, 15; effect of the excision of the marginal bodies of, 52; conscious determination in, 52; effect of alcohol on, 219. K KATYDID, color-changing function in, 191, 192. L LAND TERRAPIN, memory of locality in, 65; homing sense in, 65; author's experiments with, 65. LASIUS FLAVUS, author's experiments with, 67; slow in recognizing kin, 67; ants of the same species disinter buried, 101. LASIUS NIGER, memory of kindred in, 66. LEPIDOPTERA, organs of hearing in, 35. LETISIMULATION, definition of, 202; origin of, 206. LIMPET, homing sense in, 194; Romanes on the homing sense in, 195. LIOTHE, fowls cleaned by, 129. LIZARD, Ada Sterling's account of Kate Field's music-loving, 119; fondness for music in the tree, 119; Chilhowie "singing, " 120; author's experiment with the piccolo on, 120. LOBSTER, love of offspring in the, 137; battle between monkey and gravid, 137. LOCUST, love of cleanliness in, 130; diamond mistaken for dewdrop by, 131; carnivorous tastes in the, 131; description of the toilet of a, 132. LYCOSA, love of music in, 108; tameness of, 110. M MAMMOTH CAVE, eyeless spider of, 11; eyeless fish of, 11; homing sense in the beetles of, 196. MANDRIL, a revengeful, 95. MEDUSA, intoxicated, 15. MELANOPLUS, reënforcing auditory ganglia of, 32. MEMORY, its discussion under four heads, 60. MIMOSA PUDICA, death-feigning by, 208. MIMOSA STRIGILOSA, death-feigning by, 208. MIND, definition of, 1. MOLE, degeneration of sight organs in, 10. MONERON, non-differentiation of nerve-cells in, 3; nervoid elements in, 3. MONKEY, author chosen as a friend by, 82; a laughing, 89; sorrow and reproach manifested by, 97; faculty of computing in the, 177; use of hammer by a, 222. MORPHOLOGY, its correlation with physiology, 2. MOUSE, love of music in, 116; musical discrimination in, 117; Quigley's observations, 117; Benedick's experiments with, 117; author's observations and analysis of the song of "singing, " 118; Ada Sterling's observations of music-loving, 118, 119. MULE, idea of time evinced by a, 175, 176. MYRIANIDA, eyes of, 17; reproduction in, 18. MYRMECA RUGINODIS, memory of friends (kindred) in, 68; experiments with, 68. MYRMECOCYSTUS, the honey-making, 157; natural history of, 158; author's experiments in testing the reasoning powers of, 158, 159; division of labor in a colony of, 161. N NECTOCALYX, marginal bodies in jelly-fish's, 51. NERVE, transmission of impressions through, 41; the power of discrimination in, 41; the association of ideas (impressions) in, 43; memory in, 43. NEWT, tinctumutation in, 186; author's experiments with, 186. O OEQUOREA, eyes of, 15. OESTRUS EQUI, selection of foreleg of horse for oviposition by, 103. ONCHIDIUM, cephalic eyes of, 26; dorsal eyes of, 26. OPOSSUM, letisimulation in the, 202, 212. ORANG-UTAN, laughter in the, 89; use of missiles by, 222. OX, homing sense in the, 199, 200. OYSTER, eyes of, 16. P PAPILIONINÆ, length of life in tropical, 137. PERCH, love of offspring in the white, 138. PERIOPHTHALMUS, habitat of, 25; peculiar mode of life of, 25; eyes of, 25; food of, 26. PIGEON, love of music in the, 122; Lockman's account of a music-loving, 122; musical discrimination in, 122. PIPE-FISH, parental affection in the, 139; Risso's observations, 139. PLAICE, the origin of unilateral eyes in the, 9; absence of color-changing faculty in blind, 188; Pouchet's demonstration of the color-changing function of the sympathetic nerves in, 189. PODURA, _F. Fusca_ and _F. Rufescens_ make pets of, 126; author's observations of, 126. POLYERGUS, lowering tendency of slavery shown by, 155, 156. PRIONUS, author's experiments in locating organs of hearing in, 36. Q QUAIL, domesticated, 111; love of caresses in, 111; love of instrumental music in, 111; fondness for the singing voice in, 112. R RAT, fondness for instrumental music in, 116; power of musical discrimination in, 116. REASON, definition of, 147; difference between instinct and, 148. RHIZOPOD, sense of direction in, 48; Carter's observations of, 49; memory in, 60. ROBIN, homing sense in, 199. S SAND-WASP, memory of locality in, 62; author's experiments with, 63. SARCOPTES HOMINIS, death-feigning in, 209. SATIN BIRD, æstheticism in the male, 128; author's observations of, 128. SEA-URCHIN, eyes of, 16. SNAIL, eyes of, 19; visual powers of, 19; courtship of, 20; location of sense of direction in, 194; author's experiments with, 194; author's experiments in demonstrating homing sense in the, 194. SNAKE, love of young in, 140; author's experiment in testing parental affection of, 140; sense of direction and "homing instinct" in, 198; author's observations of "homing instinct" in, 198. SOLE, the origin of unilateral eyes in the, 9. SONG-SPARROW, memory of individuals in, 77; parental affection in, 143. SPANIEL, a laughing, 89. SPIDER, memory in, 72; recognition of individuals by, 73; love of music in the, 108; author's experiments with piano on, 108; author's experiments with pipe organ on, 109; Reclain's observations on the love of music in, 109; decorative instinct present in, 110; peculiar web spun by, 110; parental affection in, 135; author's experiment in testing parental love of, 135; use of implement (pebble anchor) by, 222. SQUIRREL, memory in the, 70. STENTOR POLYMORPHUS, nervous system of, 46; observations of and experiments with, 47; conscious determination in, 47; ganglia of, 47. STRONGALOGNATHUS, degeneration caused by the habit of slave-making in, 155, 156, 157. T TABANUS ATRATUS, balancers of, 33; loss of equilibrium in, 33; anatomy of balancers of, 34; auditory hairs of, 34. TERMES, kinds of individuals in a colony of, 161; number of eggs laid by queen of, 162; size of gravid queen, 162; New Mexican, 163; soldiers and workers of, 163; instincts and reasoning powers of, 164. TERRIER, love of music in, 113; musical discrimination in, 113; abstract ideation in, 216. TINCTUMUTATION, definition of, 182; location of color-changing sense centre in, 183. TOAD, memory in the, 87; a performing, 87; parental affection in the Surinam, 140. TRITICUM REPENS, sick dogs medicate themselves with, 220. TURKEY, memory of individuals in the, 76; recognition of property rights by the, 221. V VANESSA, tinctumutation in the larva of, 192. VIPER, death-feigning in the, 207. VOLITION, definition of conscious, 39; physiological aspect of, 40. W WASP, memory in the, 62; author's experiments in testing memory in the, 63, 69; memory of kindred in the, 65, 69; memory of locality and of events in the, 85; knowledge derived from a single experience by a, 85; length of life in the mud-dauber, 138; evidence of reason in the mud-dauber, 149, 150; psychic actualities of easy acquirement in the ant, the bee, and the, 151; faculty of computing in the mason, 169; author's experiments in testing the computing faculty in the, 170; method of preparing food for the male and female grubs used by the mason, 170. WATER-LOUSE, sense of direction in the, 194. WREN, distress and grief evinced by, 93; recognition of individuals by, 93; gratitude shown by, 94. * * * * * ECONOMICS. BYEDWARD THOMAS DEVINE, Ph. D. , _General Secretary of The Charity Organization Society of the City ofNew York; Sometime Fellow in the University of Pennsylvania; and StaffLecturer of the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching. _ * * * 16mo. Cloth. $1. 00. * * * "Long experience in the popular exposition of the principles ofpolitical economy has given Dr. Edward Thomas Devine peculiarqualifications for the preparation of a text-book upon this subject, andhis recently published 'Economics' is an excellent book of its kind. Itmay be warmly recommended. "--_Dial. _ "It is a lucid, and entertaining exposition of the subject. "--_St. LouisGlobe-Democrat. _ "Every young man and woman on the verge of the real life that comes withgaining their majority should read a good work on this subject, and wecould recommend no better than this particular volume. "--_Iowa StateRegister. _ "Mr. Devine's will undoubtedly be found a handbook suited to itspurpose. "--_Milwaukee Sentinel. _ * * * THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. * * * A HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TOTHE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OFITS PROBLEMS AND CONCEPTIONS. By DR. W. WINDELBAND, _Professor of Philosophy in the University of Strassburg. _ Authorized Translation by JAMES H. TUFTS, Ph. D. , _Associate Professor of Philosophy in the University of Chicago. _ 8vo. Cloth. $4. 00, net. * * * "The work commends itself to every student of philosophy. "--_BostonTranscript. _ "As a book of reference it will not supersede Ueberweg's History, but itis more readable and gives a much better view of the connection ofphilosophic thought from age to age and of the logical relation of thevarious schools and thinkers to each other. There is no other workavailable in English which presents these aspects of a subject so well, and both English and American students who do not read German will thankProfessor Tufts for giving them the book in their own language. "--_Critic. _ "No preceding history so fully occupies its field and answers itspurpose. It should have a place in the library of every student ofPhilosophy. "--_Chicago Tribune. _ "We believe that this is as nearly perfect a book in the form of ahistory of philosophy as has ever been produced. "--_Boston Herald. _ * * * THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.