THE COMMUNISTIC SOCIETIES OF THE UNITED STATES

_FROM PERSONAL VISIT AND OBSERVATION_

BY CHARLES NORDHOFF

TO MY FRIENDS, DOCTOR AND MRS. JOHN DAVIS, OF CINCINNATI. 

[Illustration: VIEWS IN ZOAR. ]

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

 SUBJECTS OF THE INQUIRY THE CONDITION AND NECESSITIES OF LABOR MISTAKE OF THE TRADES-UNIONS REASONS FOR IT LABOR SOCIETIES, AS AT PRESENT MANAGED, MISCHIEVOUS

THE AMANA SOCIETY

 ITS HISTORY AND ORIGIN AMANA IN 1874 SOCIAL HABITS AND CUSTOMS RELIGION AND LITERATURE

THE HARMONISTS AT ECONOMY

 ECONOMY IN 1874 HISTORY OF THE HARMONY SOCIETY ITS RELIGIOUS CREED PRACTICAL LIFE SOME PARTICULARS OF "FATHER RAPP"

THE SEPARATISTS OF ZOAR

 ORIGIN AND HISTORY THEIR RELIGIOUS FAITH PRACTICAL LIFE AND PRESENT CONDITION

THE SHAKERS

 "MOTHER ANN" THE ORDER OF LIFE AMONG THE SHAKERS A VISIT TO MOUNT LEBANON DETAILS OF ALL THE SHAKER SOCIETIES SHAKER LITERATURE "SPIRITUAL MANIFESTATIONS"

THE ONEIDA AND WALLINGFORD PERFECTIONISTS

 ORIGIN AND HISTORY THEIR RELIGIOUS BELIEF DAILY LIFE AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION SUNDAY AT ONEIDA "CRITICISM" AND "PRAYER-CURES"

THE AURORA AND BETHEL COMMUNES

 AURORA IN OREGON BETHEL IN MISSOURI THEIR HISTORY AND RELIGIOUS FAITH

THE ICARIANS

THE BISHOP HILL COLONY

 ITS ORIGIN AND HISTORY CAUSES OF ITS FAILURE

THE CEDAR VALE COMMUNE

THE SOCIAL FREEDOM COMMUNITY

THREE COLONIES--NOT COMMUNISTIC

 ANAHEIM, IN CALIFORNIA VINELAND, IN NEW JERSEY SILKVILLE PRAIRIE HOME, IN KANSAS

COMPARATIVE VIEW AND REVIEW

 STATISTICAL COMMUNAL POLITICS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE INFLUENCES OF COMMUNISTIC LIFE CONDITIONS AND POSSIBILITIES OF COMMUNISTIC LIVING

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

 VIEWS IN ZOAR MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF COMMUNISTIC SOCIETIES GRACE BEFORE MEAT--AMANA SCHOOL-HOUSE--AMANA AMANA, A GENERAL VIEW CHURCH AT AMANA INTERIOR VIEW OF CHURCH PLAN OF THE INSPIRATIONIST VILLAGES ASSEMBLY HALL--ECONOMY CHURCH AT ECONOMY A STREET VIEW IN ECONOMY FATHER RAPP'S HOUSE--ECONOMY CHURCH AT ZOAR SCHOOL-HOUSE AT ZOAR A GROUP OF SHAKERS THE FIRST SHAKER CHURCH, AT MOUNT LEBANON SHAKER ARCHITECTURE--MOUNT LEBANON SHAKER ARCHITECTURE--ENFIELD, N. H. SHAKER WOMEN AT WORK SHAKER COSTUMES SHAKER WORSHIP. --THE DANCE SISTERS IN EVERY-DAY COSTUME ELDER FREDERICK W. EVANS VIEW OF A SHAKER VILLAGE THE HERB-HOUSE--MOUNT LEBANON MEETING-HOUSE AT MOUNT LEBANON INTERIOR OF MEETING-HOUSE AT MOUNT LEBANON SHAKER TANNERY--MOUNT LEBANON SHAKER OFFICE AND STORE AT MOUNT LEBANON A SHAKER ELDER A GROUP OF SHAKER CHILDREN SHAKER DINING-HALL A SHAKER SCHOOL SHAKER MUSIC-HALL J. H. NOYES, FOUNDER OF THE PERFECTIONISTS COSTUMES AT ONEIDA THE BETHEL COMMUNE, MISSOURI CHURCH AT BETHEL, MISSOURI

[Illustration: MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF COMMUNISTIC SOCIETIES. ]

INTRODUCTION

Though it is probable that for a long time to come the mass of mankindin civilized countries will find it both necessary and advantageous tolabor for wages, and to accept the condition of hired laborers (or, asit has absurdly become the fashion to say, employees), every thoughtfuland kind-hearted person must regard with interest any device or planwhich promises to enable at least the more intelligent, enterprising, and determined part of those who are not capitalists to become such, andto cease to labor for hire. 

Nor can any one doubt the great importance, both to the security of thecapitalists, and to the intelligence and happiness of thenon-capitalists (if I may use so awkward a word), of increasing thenumber of avenues to independence for the latter. For the character andconduct of our own population in the United States show conclusivelythat nothing so stimulates intelligence in the poor, and at the sametime nothing so well enables them to bear the inconveniences of theirlot, as a reasonable prospect that with industry and economy they mayraise themselves out of the condition of hired laborers into that ofindependent employers of their own labor. Take away entirely the groundsof such a hope, and a great mass of our poorer people would graduallysink into stupidity, and a blind discontent which education would onlyincrease, until they became a danger to the state; for the greater theirintelligence, the greater would be the dissatisfaction with theirsituation--just as we see that the dissemination of education among theEnglish agricultural laborers (by whom, of all classes in Christendom, independence is least to be hoped for), has lately aroused thesesluggish beings to strikes and a struggle for a change in theircondition. 

Hitherto, in the United States, our cheap and fertile lands have actedas an important safety-valve for the enterprise and discontent of ournon-capitalist population. Every hired workman knows that if he choosesto use economy and industry in his calling, he may without great orinsurmountable difficulty establish himself in independence on thepublic lands; and, in fact, a large proportion of our most energetic andintelligent mechanics do constantly seek these lands, where with patienttoil they master nature and adverse circumstances, often make fortunateand honorable careers, and at the worst leave their children in animproved condition of life. I do not doubt that the eagerness of some ofour wisest public men for the acquisition of new territory has arisenfrom their conviction that this opening for the independence of laboringmen was essential to the security of our future as a free and peacefulstate. For, though not one in a hundred, or even one in a thousand ofour poorer and so-called laboring class may choose to actually achieveindependence by taking up and tilling a portion of the public lands, itis plain that the knowledge that any one may do so makes those who donot more contented with their lot, which they thus feel to be one ofchoice and not of compulsion. 

Any circumstance, as the exhaustion of these lands, which shouldmaterially impair this opportunity for independence, would be, Ibelieve, a serious calamity to our country; and the spirit of theTrades-Unions and International Societies appears to me peculiarlymischievous and hateful, because they seek to eliminate from thethoughts of their adherents the hope or expectation of independence. Themember of a Trades-Union is taught to regard himself, and to act towardsociety, as a hireling for life; and these societies are united, not asmen seeking a way to exchange dependence for independence, but ashirelings, determined to remain such, and only demanding betterconditions of their masters. If it were possible to infuse with thisspirit all or the greater part of the non-capitalist class in the UnitedStates, this would, I believe, be one of the gravest calamities whichcould befall us as a nation; for it would degrade the mass of ourvoters, and make free government here very difficult, if it did notentirely change the form of our government, and expose us to lastingdisorders and attacks upon property. 

We see already that in whatever part of our country the Trades-Unionleaders have succeeded in imposing themselves upon mining ormanufacturing operatives, the results are the corruption of ourpolitics, a lowering of the standard of intelligence and independenceamong the laborers, and an unreasoning and unreasonable discontent, which, in its extreme development, despises right, and seeks onlychanges degrading to its own class, at the cost of injury and loss tothe general public. 

The Trades-Unions and International Clubs have become a formidable powerin the United States and Great Britain, but so far it is a power almostentirely for evil. They have been able to disorganize labor, and toalarm capital. They have succeeded, in a comparatively few cases, intemporarily increasing the wages and in diminishing the hours of laborin certain branches of industry--a benefit so limited, both as toduration and amount, that it cannot justly be said to have inured to thegeneral advantage of the non-capitalist class. On the other hand, theyhave debased the character and lowered the moral tone of theirmembership by the narrow and cold-blooded selfishness of their spiritand doctrines, and have thus done an incalculable harm to society; and, moreover, they have, by alarming capital, lessened the wages fund, seriously checked enterprise, and thus decreased the general prosperityof their own class. For it is plain that to no one in society is theabundance of capital and its free and secure use in all kinds ofenterprises so vitally important as to the laborer for wages--to theTrades-Unionist. 

To assert necessary and eternal enmity between labor and capital wouldseem to be the extreme of folly in men who have predetermined to remainlaborers for wages all their lives, and who therefore mean to bepeculiarly dependent on capital. Nor are the Unions wiser or morereasonable toward their fellow-laborers; for each Union aims, bylimiting the number of apprentices a master may take, and by otherequally selfish regulations, to protect its own members againstcompetition, forgetting apparently that if you prevent men from becomingbricklayers, a greater number must seek to become carpenters; and thatthus, by its exclusive policy, a Union only plays what Western gamblerscall a "cut-throat game" with the general laboring population. For ifthe system of Unions were perfect, and each were able to enforce itspolicy of exclusion, a great mass of poor creatures, driven from everydesirable employment, would be forced to crowd into the lowest and leastpaid. I do not know where one could find so much ignorance, contempt forestablished principles, and cold-blooded selfishness, as among theTrades-Unions and International Societies of the United States and GreatBritain--unless one should go to France. While they retain their presentspirit, they might well take as their motto the brutal and stupid sayingof a French writer, that "Mankind are engaged in a war for bread, inwhich every man's hand is at his brother's throat. " Directly, they offera prize to incapacity and robbery, compelling their ablest members to dono more than the least able, and spoiling the aggregate wealth ofsociety by burdensome regulations restricting labor. Logically, to theTrades-Union leaders the Chicago or Boston fire seemed a more beneficialevent than the invention of the steam-engine; for plenty seems to them acurse, and scarcity the greatest blessing. [Transcriber's Note: Lengthyfootnote relocated to chapter end. ]

Any organization which teaches its adherents to accept as inevitable forthemselves and for the mass of a nation the condition of hirelings, andto conduct their lives on that premise, is not only wrong, but an injuryto the community. Mr. Mill wisely says on this point, in his chapter on"The Future of the Laboring Classes": "There can be little doubt thatthe _status_ of hired laborers will gradually tend to confine itselfto the description of work-people whose low moral qualities render themunfit for any thing more independent; and that the relation of mastersand work-people will be gradually superseded by partnership in one oftwo forms: in some cases, association of the laborers with thecapitalist; in others, and perhaps finally in all, association oflaborers among themselves. " I imagine that the change he speaks of willbe very slow and gradual; but it is important that all doors shall beleft open for it, and Trades-Unions would close every door. 

Professor Cairnes, in his recent contribution to Political Economy, goesfurther even than Mr. Mill, and argues that a change of this nature isinevitable. He remarks: "The modifications which occur in thedistribution of capital among its several departments, as nationsadvance, are by no means fortuitous, but follow on the whole awell-defined course, and move toward a determinate goal. In effect, whatwe find is a constant growth of the national capital, accompanied with anearly equally constant decline in the proportion of this capital whichgoes to support productive labor. .. . Though the fund for theremuneration of mere labor, whether skilled or unskilled, must, so longas industry is progressive, ever bear a constantly diminishingproportion alike to the growing wealth and growing capital, there isnothing in the nature of things which restricts the laboring populationto this fund for their support. In return, indeed, for their mere labor, it is to this that they must look for their sole reward; but _they mayhelp production otherwise than by their labor: they may save, and thusbecome themselves the owners of capital;_ and profits may thus bebrought to aid the wages-fund. " [Footnote: "Some Leading Principles ofPolitical Economy Newly Expounded. " By J. E. Cairnes, M. A. New York, Harper & Brothers. ]

Aside from systematized emigration to unsettled or thinly peopledregions, which the Trades-Unions of Europe ought to organize on a greatscale, but which they have entirely neglected, the other outlets for themass of dissatisfied hand-laborers lie through co-operative orcommunistic efforts. Co-operative societies flourish in England andGermany. We have had a number of them in this country also, but theirsuccess has not been marked; and I have found it impossible to getstatistical returns even of their numbers. If the Trades-Unions had useda tenth of the money they have wasted in futile efforts to shorten hoursof labor and excite their members to hatred, indolence, and waste, inmaking public the statistics and the possibilities of co-operation, theywould have achieved some positive good. 

But while co-operative efforts have generally failed in the UnitedStates, we have here a number of successful Communistic Societies, pursuing agriculture and different branches of manufacturing, and I havethought it useful to examine these, to see if their experience offersany useful hints toward the solution of the labor question. Hithertovery little, indeed almost nothing definite and precise, has been madeknown concerning these societies; and Communism remains loudly but veryvaguely spoken of, by friends as well as enemies, and is commonly a wordeither of terror or of contempt in the public prints. 

In the following pages will be found, accordingly, an account of theCOMMUNISTIC SOCIETIES now existing in the United States, made frompersonal visit and careful examination; and including for each itssocial customs and expedients; its practical and business methods; itssystem of government; the industries it pursues; its religious creed andpractices; as well as its present numbers and condition, and itshistory. 

It appears to me an important fact that these societies, composed forthe most part of men originally farmers or mechanics--people of verylimited means and education--have yet succeeded in accumulatingconsiderable wealth, and at any rate a satisfactory provision for theirown old age and disability, and for the education of their children orsuccessors. In every case they have developed among their membershipvery remarkable business ability, considering their original station inlife; they have found among themselves leaders wise enough to rule, andskill sufficient to enable them to establish and carry on, not merelyagricultural operations, but also manufactures, and to conductsuccessfully complicated business affairs. 

Some of these societies have existed fifty, some twenty-five, and somefor nearly eighty years. All began with small means; and some are nowvery wealthy. Moreover, while some of these communes are still livingunder the guidance of their founders, others, equally successful, havecontinued to prosper for many years after the death of their originalleaders. Some are celibate; but others inculcate, or at least permitmarriage. Some gather their members into a common or "unitary" dwelling;but others, with no less success, maintain the family relation and theseparate household. 

It seemed to me that the conditions of success vary sufficiently amongthese societies to make their histories at least interesting, andperhaps important. I was curious, too, to ascertain if their successdepended upon obscure conditions, not generally attainable, asextraordinary ability in a leader; or undesirable, as religiousfanaticism or an unnatural relation of the sexes; or whether it mightnot appear that the conditions absolutely necessary to success were onlysuch as any company of carefully selected and reasonably determined menand women might hope to command. 

I desired also to discover how the successful Communists had met andovercome the difficulties of idleness, selfishness, and unthrift inindividuals, which are commonly believed to make Communism impossible, and which are well summed up in the following passage in Mr. Mill'schapter on Communism:

"The objection ordinarily made to a system of community of property andequal distribution of the produce, that each person would be incessantlyoccupied in evading his fair share of the work, points, undoubtedly, toa real difficulty. But those who urge this objection forget to how greatan extent the same difficulty exists under the system on which ninetenths of the business of society is now conducted. The objectionsupposes that honest and efficient labor is only to be had from thosewho are themselves individually to reap the benefit of their ownexertions. But how small a part of all the labor performed in England, from the lowest paid to the highest, is done by persons working fortheir own benefit. From the Irish reaper or hodman to the chief justiceor the minister of state, nearly all the work of society is remuneratedby day wages or fixed salaries. A factory operative has less personalinterest in his work than a member of a Communist association, since heis not, like him, working for a partnership of which he is himself amember. It will no doubt be said that, though the laborers themselveshave not, in most cases, a personal interest in their work, they arewatched and superintended, and their labor directed, and the mental partof the labor performed, by persons who have. Even this, however, is farfrom being universally the fact. In all public, and many of the largestand most successful private undertakings, not only the labors of detail, but the control and superintendence are entrusted to salaried officers. And though the 'master's eye, ' when the master is vigilant andintelligent, is of proverbial value, it must be remembered that in aSocialist farm or manufactory, each laborer would be under the eye, notof one master, but of the whole community. In the extreme case ofobstinate perseverance in not performing the due share of work, thecommunity would have the same resources which society now has forcompelling conformity to the necessary conditions of the association. Dismissal, the only remedy at present, is no remedy when any otherlaborer who may be engaged does no better than his predecessor: thepower of dismissal only enables an employer to obtain from his workmenthe customary amount of labor, but that customary labor may be of anydegree of inefficiency. Even the laborer who loses his employment byidleness or negligence has nothing worse to suffer, in the mostunfavorable case, than the discipline of a workhouse, and if the desireto avoid this be a sufficient motive in the one system, it would besufficient in the other. I am not undervaluing the strength of theincitement given to labor when the whole or a large share of the benefitof extra exertion belongs to the laborer. But under the present systemof industry this incitement, in the great majority of cases, does notexist. If communistic labor might be less vigorous than that of apeasant proprietor, or a workman laboring on his own account, it wouldprobably be more energetic than that of a laborer for hire, who has nopersonal interest in the matter at all. The neglect by the uneducatedclasses of laborers for hire of the duties which they engage to performis in the present state of society most flagrant. Now it is an admittedcondition of the communist scheme that all shall be educated; and thisbeing supposed, the duties of the members of the association woulddoubtless be as diligently performed as those of the generality ofsalaried officers in the middle or higher classes; who are not supposedto be necessarily unfaithful to their trust, because so long as they arenot dismissed their pay is the same in however lax a manner their dutyis fulfilled. Undoubtedly, as a general rule, remuneration by fixedsalaries does not in any class of functionaries produce the maximum ofzeal; and this is as much as can be reasonably alleged againstcommunistic labor. 

"That even this inferiority would necessarily exist is by no means socertain as is assumed by those who are little used to carry their mindsbeyond the state of things with which they are familiar. .. . 

"Another of the objections to Communism is similar to that so oftenurged against poor-laws: that if every member of the community wereassured of subsistence for himself and any number of children, on thesole condition of willingness to work, prudential restraint on themultiplication of mankind would be at an end, and population would startforward at a rate which would reduce the community through successivestages of increasing discomfort to actual starvation. There wouldcertainly be much ground for this apprehension if Communism provided nomotives to restraint, equivalent to those which it would take away. ButCommunism is precisely the state of things in which opinion might beexpected to declare itself with greatest intensity against this kind ofselfish intemperance. Any augmentation of numbers which diminished thecomfort or increased the toil of the mass would then cause (which now itdoes not) immediate and unmistakable inconvenience to every individualin the association--inconvenience which could not then be imputed to theavarice of employers or the unjust privileges of the rich. In suchaltered circumstances opinion could not fail to reprobate, and ifreprobation did not suffice, to repress by penalties of somedescription, this or any other culpable self-indulgence at the expenseof the community. The communistic scheme, instead of being peculiarlyopen to the objection drawn from danger of over-population, has therecommendation of tending in an especial degree to the prevention ofthat evil. "

It will be seen in the following pages that means have been found tomeet these and other difficulties; in one society even the prudentialrestraint upon marriage has been adopted. 

Finally, I wished to see what the successful Communists had made oftheir lives; what was the effect of communal living upon the characterof the individual man and woman; whether the life had broadened ornarrowed them; and whether assured fortune and pecuniary independencehad brought to them a desire for beauty of surroundings and broaderintelligence: whether, in brief, the Communist had any where becomesomething more than a comfortable and independent day-laborer, andaspired to something higher than a mere bread-and-butter existence. 

To make my observations I was obliged to travel from Maine in thenortheast to Kentucky in the south, and Oregon in the west. I havethought it best to give at first an impartial and not unfriendly accountof each commune, or organized system of communes; and in severalconcluding chapters I have analyzed and compared their different customsand practices, and attempted to state what, upon the facts presented, seem to be the conditions absolutely requisite to the successful conductof a communistic society, and also what appear to be the influences, forgood and evil, of such bodies upon their members and upon theirneighbors. 

I have added some particulars of the Swedish Commune which latelyexisted at Bishop Hill, in Illinois, but which, after a flourishingcareer of seven years, has now become extinct; and I did this to show, in a single example, what are the causes which work against harmony andsuccess in such a society. 

Also I have given some particulars concerning three examples ofcolonization, which, though they do not properly belong to my subject, are yet important, as showing what may be accomplished by co-operativeefforts in agriculture, under prudent management. 

It is, I suppose, hardly necessary to say that, while I have given animpartial and respectful account of the religious faith of each commune, I am not therefore to be supposed to hold with any of them. Forinstance, I thought it interesting to give some space to the verysingular phenomena called "spiritual manifestations" among the Shakers;but I am not what is commonly called a "Spiritualist. "

[Relocated Footnote: Lest I should to some readers appear to use toostrong language, I append here a few passages from a recent Englishwork, Mr. Thornton's book "On Labor, " where he gives an account of someof the regulations of English Trades-Unions:

"A journeyman is not permitted to teach his own son his own trade, nor, if the lad managed to learn the trade by stealth, would he be permittedto practice it. A master, desiring out of charity to take as apprenticeone of the eight destitute orphans of a widowed mother, has been told byhis men that if he did they would strike. A bricklayer's assistant whoby looking on has learned to lay bricks as well as his principal, isgenerally doomed, nevertheless, to continue a laborer for life. He willnever rise to the rank of a bricklayer, if those who have alreadyattained that dignity can help it. "

"Some Unions divide the country round them into districts, and will notpermit the products of the trades controlled by them to be used exceptwithin the district in which they have been fabricated. .. . At Manchesterthis combination is particularly effective, preventing any bricks madebeyond a radius of four miles from entering the city. To enforce theexclusion, paid agents are employed; every cart of bricks coming towardManchester is watched, and if the contents be found to have come fromwithout the prescribed boundary the bricklayers at once refuse towork. .. . The vagaries of the Lancashire brick makers are fairlyparalleled by the masons of the same county. Stone, when freshlyquarried, is softer, and can be more easily cut than later: menhabitually employed about any particular quarry better understand theworking of its particular stone than men from a distance; there is greateconomy, too, in transporting stone dressed instead of in rough blocks. The Yorkshire masons, however, will not allow Yorkshire stone to bebrought into their district if worked on more than one side. All therest of the working, the edging and jointing, they insist on doingthemselves, though they thereby add thirty-five per cent, to itsprice. .. . A Bradford contractor, requiring for a staircase some steps ofhard delf-stone, a material which Bradford masons so much dislike thatthey often refuse employment rather than undertake it, got the stepsworked at the quarry. But when they arrived ready for setting, hismasons insisted on their being worked over again, at an expense of from5s. To 10s. Per step. A master-mason at Ashton obtained some stone readypolished from a quarry near Macclesfield. His men, however, in obedienceto the rules of their club, refused to fix it until the polished parthad been defaced and they had polished it again by hand, though not sowell as at first. .. . In one or two of the northern counties, theassociated plasterers and associated plasterers' laborers have come toan understanding, according to which the latter are to abstain from allplasterers' work except simple whitewashing; and the plasterers inreturn are to do nothing except pure plasterers' work, that the laborerswould like to do for them, insomuch that if a plasterer wants laths orplaster to go on with, he must not go and fetch them himself, but mustsend a laborer for them. In consequence of this agreement, a Mr. Booth, of Bolton, having sent one of his plasterers to bed and point a dozenwindows, had to place a laborer with him during the whole of the fourdays he was engaged on the job, though any body could have brought himall he required in half a day. .. . At Liverpool, a bricklayer's laborermay legally carry as many as twelve bricks at a time. Elsewhere ten isthe greatest number allowed. But at Leeds 'any brother in the Unionprofessing to carry more than the common number, which is eight bricks, shall be fined 1s. '; and any brother 'knowing the same without givingthe earliest information thereof to the committee of management shall befined the same. '. .. During the building of the Manchester Law Courts, the bricklayers' laborers struck because they were desired to wheelbricks instead of carrying them on their shoulders. "]

THE INSPIRATIONISTS, AT

AMANA, IOWA

THE AMANA COMMUNITY. 

I. 

The "True Inspiration Congregations, " as they call themselves ("_WahreInspiration's Gemeinden_"), form a communistic society in Iowa, seventy-four miles west of Davenport. 

The society has at this time 1450 members; owns about 25, 000 acres ofland; lives on this land in seven different small towns; carries onagriculture and manufactures of several kinds, and is highly prosperous. 

Its members are all Germans. 

The base of its organization is religion; they are pietists; and theirreligious head, at present a woman, is supposed by them to speak bydirect inspiration of God. Hence they call themselves "Inspirationists. "

They came from Germany in the year 1842, and settled at first nearBuffalo, on a large tract of land which they called Eben-Ezer. Here theyprospered greatly; but feeling the need of more land, in 1855 they beganto remove to their present home in Iowa. 

They have printed a great number of books--more than one hundredvolumes; and in some of these the history of their peculiar religiousbelief is carried back to the beginning of the last century. Theycontinue to receive from Germany accessions to their numbers, and oftenpay out of their common treasury the expenses of poor families whorecommend themselves to the society by letters, and whom their inspiredleader declares to be worthy. 

They seem to have conducted their pecuniary affairs with eminentprudence and success. 

II. --HISTORICAL. 

The "Work of Inspiration" is said to have begun far back in theeighteenth century. I have a volume, printed in 1785, which is calledthe "Thirty-sixth Collection of the Inspirational Records, " and gives anaccount of "Brother John Frederick Rock's journeys and visits in theyear 1719, wherein are recorded numerous utterances of the Spirit by hisword of mouth to the faithful in Constance, Schaffhausen, Zurich, andother places. "

They admit, I believe, that the "Inspiration" died out from time totime, but was revived as the congregations became more godly. In 1749, in 1772, and in 1776 there were especial demonstrations. Finally, in theyear 1816, Michael Krausert, a tailor of Strasburg, became what theycall an "instrument" (_werkzeug_), and to him were added severalothers:

Philip Moschel, a stocking-weaver, and a German; Christian Metz, acarpenter; and finally, in 1818, Barbara Heynemann, a "poor andilliterate servant-maid, " an Alsatian ("_eine arme ganz ungdehrteDienstmagd_"). 

Metz, who was for many years, and until his death in 1867, the spiritualhead of the society, wrote an account of the society from the time hebecame an "instrument" until the removal to Iowa. From this, and from avolume of Barbara Heynemann's inspired utterances, I gather that thecongregations did not hesitate to criticize, and very sharply, theconduct of their spiritual leaders; and to depose them, and even expelthem for cause. Moreover, they recount in their books, without disguise, all their misunderstandings. Thus it is recorded of Barbara Heynemannthat in 1820 she was condemned to expulsion from the society, and herearnest entreaties only sufficed to obtain consent that she should serveas a maid in the family of one of the congregation; but even then it wasforbidden her to come to the meetings. Her exclusion seems, however, tohave lasted but a few months. Metz, in his "Historical Description, "relates that this trouble fell upon Barbara because she had too friendlyan eye upon the young men; and there are several notices of her desireto marry, as, for instance, under date of August, 1822, where it isrelated that "the Enemy" tempted her again with a desire to marry GeorgeLandmann; but "the Lord showed through Brother Rath, and also to her ownconscience, that this step was against his holy will, and accordinglythey did not marry, but did repent concerning it, and the Lord's gracewas once more given her. " But, like Jacob, she seems to have wrestledwith the Lord, for later she did marry George Landmann, and, though theywere for a while under censure, she regained her old standing as an"inspired instrument, " came over to the United States with her husband, was for many years the assistant of Metz, and since his death has beenthe inspired oracle of Amana. 

In the year 1822 the congregations appear to have attracted theattention of the English Quakers, for I find a notice that in Decemberof that year they were visited by William Allen, a Quaker minister fromLondon, who seems to have been a man of wealth. He inquired concerningtheir religious faith, and told them that he and his brethren at homewere also subject to inspiration. He persuaded them to hold a meeting, at which by his desire they read the 14th chapter of John; and he toldthem that it was probable he would be moved of the Lord to speak tothem. But when they had read the chapter, and while they waited for theQuaker's inspiration, Barbara Heynemann was moved to speak. At thisAllen became impatient and left the meeting; and in the evening he toldThe brethren that the Quaker inspiration was as real as their own, but that they did not write down what was spoken by their preachers;whereto he received for reply that it was not necessary, for it wasevident that the Quakers had not the real inspiration, nor the properand consecrated "instruments" to declare the will of the Lord; and so theQuaker went away on his journey home, apparently not much edified. 

The congregations were much scattered in Germany, and it appears to havebeen the habit of the "inspired instruments" to travel from one to theother, deliver messages from on high, and inquire into the spiritualcondition of the faithful. Under the leadership of Christian Metz andseveral others, between 1825 and 1839 a considerable number of theirfollowers were brought together at a place called Armenburg, wheremanufactures gave them employment, and here they prospered, but fellinto trouble with the government because they refused to take oathsand to send their children to the public schools, which were underthe rule of the clergy. 

In 1842 it was revealed to Christian Metz that all the congregationsshould be gathered together, and be led far away out of their own country. Later, America was pointed out as their future home. To a meeting of theelders it was revealed who should go to seek out a place for settlement;and Metz relates in his brief history that one Peter Mook wanted to beamong these pioneers, and was dissatisfied because he was not among thosenamed; and as Mook insisted on going, a message came the next day fromGod, in which he told them they might go or stay as they pleased, butif they remained in Germany it would be "at their own risk;" and as Mookwas not even named in this message, he concluded to remain at home. 

Metz and four others sailed in September, 1842, for New York. They foundtheir way to Buffalo; and there, on the advice of the late Mr. Dorsheimer, from whom they received much kindness, bought five thousand acres of theold Seneca Indian reservation at ten dollars per acre. To this they addedlater nearly as much more. Parts of this estate now lie within thecorporate limits of Buffalo; and though they sold out and removed to theWest before the land attained its present value, the purchase was a mostfortunate one for them. Metz records that they had much trouble at firstwith the Indians; but they overcame this and other difficulties, and byindustry and ingenuity soon built up comfortable homes. Three hundred andfifty persons were brought out in the first year, two hundred andseventeen in 1844; and their numbers were increased rapidly, until theyhad over one thousand people in their different villages. 

[Illustration: Amana, a general view. ]

Between 1843 and 1855, when they began to remove to Iowa, they turnedtheir purchase at Eben-Ezer (as they called the place) into a garden. Ivisited the locality last year, and found there still the large, substantial houses, the factories, churches, and shops which they built. Street cars now run where they found only a dense forest; and the eightthousand acres which they cleared are now fertile fields andmarket-gardens. Another population of Germans has succeeded the AmanaSociety; their churches now have steeples, and there is an occasionaldram-shop; but the present residents speak of their predecessors withesteem and even affection, and in one of the large stores I found theproducts of the Iowa society regularly sold. A few of the former membersstill live on the old purchase. 

They appear to have had considerable means from the first. Among themembers were several persons of wealth, who contributed large sums tothe common stock. I was told that one person gave between fifty andsixty thousand dollars; and others gave sums of from two to twentythousand dollars. 

They were not Communists in Germany; and did not, I was told, when theyfirst emigrated, intend to live in community. Among those who came overin the first year were some families who had been accustomed to labor infactories. To these the agricultural life was unpleasant, and it wasthought advisable to set up a woolen factory to give them employment. This was the first difficulty which stared them in the face. They hadintended to live simply as a Christian congregation or church, but thenecessity which lay upon them of looking to the temporal welfare of allthe members forced them presently to think of putting all their meansinto a common stock. 

Seeing that some of the brethren did not take kindly to agriculturallabor, and that if they insisted upon a purely agricultural settlementthey would lose many of their people, they determined that each should, as far as possible, have employment at the work to which he wasaccustomed. They began to build workshops, but, to carry these onsuccessfully, they had business tact enough to see that it was necessaryto do so by a general contribution of means. 

"We were commanded at this time, by inspiration, to put all our meanstogether and live in community, " said one to me; "and we soon saw thatwe could not have got on or kept together on any other plan. "

Eben-Ezer is a wide plain; and there, as now in Iowa, they settled theirpeople in villages, which they called "Upper, " "Lower, " and "Middle"Eben-Ezer. From the large size of many of the houses, I imagine they hadthere, commonly, several families in one dwelling. At Amana each familyhas its own house; otherwise their customs were similar to those stillretained in Iowa, which I shall describe in their proper place. 

In 1854 they were "commanded by inspiration" to remove to the West. Theyselected Iowa as their new home, because land was cheap there; and in1855, having made a purchase, they sent out a detachment to prepare theway. 

It is a remarkable evidence of the prudence and ability with which theyconduct their business affairs, that they were able to sell out thewhole of their eight-thousand-acre tract near Buffalo, with all theirimprovements, without loss. Usually such a sale is extremely difficult, because the buildings of a communistic society have peculiarities whichdetract from their value for individual uses. The Rappists, who sold outtwice, were forced to submit to heavy loss each time. I do not doubtthat several of the northern Shaker societies would have removed beforethis to a better soil and climate but for the difficulty of sellingtheir possessions at a fair price. 

The removal from Eben-Ezer to Amana, however, required ten years. Asthey found purchasers in one place they sent families to the other;meantime they do not appear to have found it difficult to maintain theirorganization in both. 

III. --AMANA--1874. 

"The name we took out of the Bible, " said one of the officers of thesociety to me. They put the accent on the first syllable. The nameoccurs in the Song of Solomon, the fourth chapter and eighth verse:"Come with me from Lebanon, my spouse, with me from Lebanon: look fromthe top of Amana, from the top of Shenir and Hermon, from the lions'dens, from the mountains of the leopards. "

Amana in Iowa, however, is not a mountain, but an extensive plain, uponwhich they have built seven villages, conveniently placed so as tocommand the cultivated land, and to form an irregular circle withintheir possessions. In these villages all the people live, and they arethus divided:

 Name Population Business

 Amana 450 Woolen-mill, saw and grist mill, and farming East Amana 125 Farming. Middle Amana 350 Woolen-mill and farming. Amana near the Hill 125 Farming, saw-mill, and tannery. West Amana 150 Grist-mill and farming. South Amana 150 Saw-mill and farming Homestead 135 Railroad station, a saw-mill, farming, and general depot. 

The villages lie about a mile and a half apart, and each has a store atwhich the neighboring farmers trade, and a tavern or inn for theaccommodation of the general public. Each village has also itsshoemakers', carpenters', tailors', and other shops, for they aim toproduce and make, as far as possible, all that they use. In Middle Amanathere is a printing-office, where their books are made. 

The villages consist usually of one straggling street, outside of whichlie the barns, and the mills, factories, and workshops. The houses arewell built, of brick, stone, or wood, very plain; each with a sufficientgarden, but mostly standing immediately on the street. They use nopaint, believing that the wood lasts as well without. There is usually anarrow sidewalk of boards or brick; and the school-house and church arenotable buildings only because of their greater size. Like the Quakers, they abhor "steeple-houses"; and their church architecture is of theplainest. The barns and other farm buildings are roomy and convenient. On the boundaries of a village are usually a few houses inhabited byhired laborers. 

Each family has a house for itself; though when a young couple marry, they commonly go to live with the parents of one or the other for someyears. 

As you walk through a village, you notice that at irregular intervalsare houses somewhat larger than the rest. These are either cook-housesor prayer-houses. The people eat in common, but for convenience' sakethey are divided, so that a certain number eat together. For Amana, which has 450 people, there are fifteen such cooking and eating houses. In these the young women are employed to work under the supervision ofmatrons; and hither when the bell rings come those who are appointed toeat at each--the sexes sitting at separate tables, and the childrenalso by themselves. 

"Why do you separate men from women at table?" I asked. 

"To prevent silly conversation and trifling conduct, " was the answer. 

Food is distributed to the houses according to the number of personseating in each. Meal and milk are brought to the doors; and eachcooking-house is required to make its own butter and cheese. For thosewhom illness or the care of small children keeps at home, the food isplaced in neat baskets; and it was a curious sight to see, when thedinner-bell rang, a number of women walking rapidly about the streetswith these baskets, each nicely packed with food. 

When the bell ceases ringing and all are assembled, they stand up intheir places in silence for half a minute, then one says grace, and whenhe ends, all say, "God bless and keep us safely, " and then sit down. There is but little conversation at table; the meal is eaten rapidly, but with decorum; and at its close, all stand up again, some one givesthanks, and thereupon they file out with quiet order and precision. 

They live well, after the hearty German fashion, and bake excellentbread. The table is clean, but it has no cloth. The dishes are coarsebut neat; and the houses, while well built, and possessing all that isabsolutely essential to comfort according to the German peasants' idea, have not always carpets, and have often a bed in what New-Englanderswould call the parlor; and in general are for use and not ornament. 

They breakfast between six and half-past six, according to the season, have supper between six and seven, and dinner at half-past eleven. Theyhave besides an afternoon lunch of bread and butter and coffee, and insummer a forenoon lunch of bread, to which they add beer or wine, bothhome-made. 

They do not forbid tobacco. 

Each business has its foreman; and these leaders in each village meettogether every evening, to concert and arrange the labors of thefollowing day. Thus if any department needs for an emergency an extraforce, it is known, and the proper persons are warned. The trusteesselect the temporal foremen, and give to each from time to time hisproper charge, appointing him also his helpers. Thus a member showed mehis "ticket, " by which he was appointed to the care of the cows, withthe names of those who were to assist him. In the summer, and when thework requires it, a large force is turned into the fields; and the womenlabor with the men in the harvest. The workmen in the factories are, ofcourse, not often changed. 

The children are kept at school between the ages of six and thirteen;the sexes do not sit in separate rooms. The school opens at seveno'clock, and the children study and recite until half-past nine. Fromthat hour until eleven, when they are dismissed for dinner, they knitgloves, wristlets, or stockings. At one o'clock school reopens, and theyonce more attend to lessons until three, from which hour till half-pastfour they knit again. The teachers are men, but they are relieved bywomen when the labor-school begins. Boys as well as girls are requiredto knit. One of the teachers said to me that this work kept them quiet, gave them habits of industry, and kept them off the streets and fromrude plays. 

They instruct the children in musical notation, but do not allow musicalinstruments. They give only the most elementary instruction, the "threeRs, " but give also constant drill in the Bible and in the Catechism. "Why should we let our youth study? We need no lawyers or preachers; wehave already three doctors. What they need is to live holy lives, tolearn God's commandments out of the Bible, to learn submission to hiswill, and to love him. "

The dress of the people is plain. The men wear in the winter a vestwhich buttons close up to the throat, coat and trousers being of thecommon cut. 

The women and young girls wear dingy colored stuffs, mostly of thesociety's own make, cut in the plainest style, and often short gowns, inthe German peasant way. All, even to the very small girls, wear theirhair in a kind of black cowl or cap, which covers only the back of thehead, and is tied under the chin by a black ribbon. Also all, young aswell as old, wear a small dark-colored shawl or handkerchief over theshoulders, and pinned very plainly across the breast. This peculiaruniform adroitly conceals the marks of sex, and gives a singularlymonotonous appearance to the women. 

The sex, I believe, is not highly esteemed by these people, who think itdangerous to the Christian's peace of mind. One of their most esteemedwriters advises men to "fly from intercourse with women, as a veryhighly dangerous magnet and magical fire. " Their women work hard anddress soberly; all ornaments are forbidden. To wear the hair loose isprohibited. Great care is used to keep the sexes apart. In their eveningand other meetings, women not only sit apart from men, but they leavethe room before the men break ranks. Boys are allowed to play only withboys, and girls with girls. There are no places or occasions for eveningamusements, where the sexes might meet. On Sunday afternoons the boysare permitted to walk in the fields; and so are the girls, but thesemust go in another direction. "Perhaps they meet in the course of thewalk, " said a member to me, "but it is not allowed. " At meals and intheir labors they are also separated. With all this care to hide thecharms of the young women, to make them, as far as dress can do so, lookold and ugly, and to keep the young men away from them, love, courtship, and marriage go on at Amana as elsewhere in the world. The young man"falls in love, " and finds ways to make his passion known to its object;he no doubt enjoys all the delights of courtship, intensified by thedifficulties which his prudent brethren put in his way; and he marriesthe object of his affection, in spite of her black hood and hersad-colored little shawl, whenever he has reached the age of twenty-four. 

For before that age he may not marry, even if his parents consent. Thisis a merely prudential rule. "They have few cares in life, and wouldmarry too early for their own good--food and lodging being securedthem--if there were not a rule upon the subject;" so said one of theirwise men to me. Therefore, no matter how early the young people agree tomarry, the wedding is deferred until the man reaches the proper age. 

And when at last the wedding-day comes, it is treated with a degree ofsolemnity which is calculated to make it a day of terror rather than ofunmitigated delight. The parents of the bride and groom meet, with twoor three of the elders, at the house of the bride's father. Here, aftersinging and prayer, that chapter of Paul's writings is read wherein, with great plainness of speech, he describes to the Ephesians and theChristian world in general the duties of husband and wife. On thischapter the elders comment "with great thoroughness" to the youngpeople, and "for a long time, " as I was told; and after this lecture, and more singing and prayer, there is a modest supper, whereupon allretire quietly to their homes. 

The strictly pious hold that marriages should be made only by consent ofGod, signified through the "inspired instrument. "

While the married state has thus the countenance and sanction of thesociety and its elders, matrimony is not regarded as a meritorious act. It has in it, they say, a certain large degree of worldliness; it is notcalculated to make them more, but rather less spiritually minded--sothink they at Amana--and accordingly the religious standing of the youngcouple suffers and is lowered. In the Amana church there are three"classes, " orders or grades, the highest consisting of those members whohave manifested in their lives the greatest spirituality and piety. Now, if the new-married couple should have belonged for years to this highestclass, their wedding would put them down into the lowest, or the"children's order, " for a year or two, until they had won their slow wayback by deepening piety. 

The civil or temporal government of the Amana communists consists ofthirteen trustees, chosen annually by the male members of the society. The president of the society is chosen by the trustees. 

This body manages the finances, and carries on the temporalitiesgenerally, but it acts only with the unanimous consent of its members. The trustees live in different villages, but exercise no specialauthority, as I understand, as individuals. The foremen and elders ineach village carry on the work and keep the accounts. Each village keepsits own books and manages its own affairs; but all accounts are finallysent to the head-quarters at Amana, where they are inspected, and thebalance of profit or loss is discovered. It is supposed that the laborof each village produces a profit; but whether it does or not makes nodifference in the supplies of the people, who receive every thing alike, as all property is held in common. All accounts are balanced once ayear, and thus the productiveness of every industry is ascertained. 

The elders are a numerous body, not necessarily old men, but presumablymen of deep piety and spirituality. They are named or appointed byinspiration, and preside at religious assemblies. 

In every village four or five of the older and more experienced eldersmeet each morning to advise together on business. This council acts, asI understand, upon reports of those younger elders who are foremen andhave charge of different affairs. These in turn meet for a few minutesevery evening, and arrange for the next day's work. 

Women are never members of these councils, nor do they hold, as far as Icould discover, any temporal or spiritual authority, with the singleexception of their present spiritual head, who is a woman of eightyyears. Moreover, if a young man should marry out of the society, and hiswife should desire to become a member, the husband is expelled for ayear--at the end of which time both may make application to come in, ifthey wish. 

They have contrived a very simple and ingenious plan for supplying theirmembers with clothing and other articles aside from food. To each adultmale an annual allowance is made of from forty to one hundred dollars, according as his position and labor necessitates more or less clothing. For each adult female the allowance is from twenty-five to thirtydollars, and from five to ten dollars for each child. 

All that they need is kept in store in each village, and is sold to themembers at cost and expenses. When any one requires an article ofclothing, he goes to the store and selects the cloth, for which he ischarged in a book he brings with him; he then goes to the tailor, whomakes the garment, and charges him on the book an established price. Ifhe needs shoes, or a hat, or tobacco, or a watch, every thing is in thesame way charged. As I sat in one of the shops, I noticed women comingin to make purchases, often bringing children with them, and each hadher little book in which due entry was made. "Whatever we do not use, isso much saved against next year; or we may give it away if we like, " oneexplained to me; and added that during the war, when the societycontributed between eighteen and twenty thousand dollars to variousbenevolent purposes, much of this was given by individual members out ofthe savings on their year's account. 

Almost every man has a watch, but they keep a strict rule over vanitiesof apparel, and do not allow the young girls to buy or wear ear-rings orbreastpins. 

The young and unmarried people, if they have no parents, are dividedaround among the families. 

They have not many labor-saving contrivances; though of course theeating in common is both economical and labor-saving. There is in eachvillage a general wash-house, where the clothing of the unmarried peopleis washed, but each family does its own washing. 

They have no libraries; and most of their reading is in the Bible and intheir own "inspired" records, which, as I shall show further on, arequite voluminous. A few newspapers are taken, and each calling amongthem receives the journal which treats of its own specialty. In generalthey aim to withdraw themselves as much as possible from the world, andtake little interest in public affairs. During the war they voted; "butwe do not now, for we do not like the turn politics have taken"--whichseemed to me a curious reason for refusing to vote. 

Their members came originally from many parts of Germany andSwitzerland; they have also a few "Pennsylvania Dutch. " They have muchtrouble with applicants who desire to join the society; and receive, thesecretary told me, sometimes dozens of letters in a month from personsof whom they know nothing; and not a few of whom, it seems, write, notto ask permission to join, but to say that they are coming on at once. There have been cases where a man wrote to say that he had sold all hispossessions, and was then on the way, with his family, to join theassociation. As they claim to be not an industrial, but a religiouscommunity, they receive new members with great care, and only afterthorough investigation of motives and religious faith; and these randomapplications are very annoying to them. Most of their new members theyreceive from Germany, accepting them after proper correspondence, andunder the instructions of "inspiration. " Where they believe them worthythey do not inquire about their means; and a fund is annually set apartby the trustees to pay the passage of poor families whom they havedetermined to take in. Usually a neophyte enters on probation for twoyears, signing an obligation to labor faithfully, to conduct himselfaccording to the society's regulations, and to demand no wages. 

If at the close of his probation he appears to be a proper person, he isadmitted to full membership; and if he has property, he is then expectedto put this into the common stock; signing also the constitution, whichprovides that on leaving he shall have his contribution returned, butwithout interest. 

There are cases, however, where a new-comer is at once admitted to fullmembership. This is where "inspiration" directs such breach of thegeneral rule, on the ground that the applicant is already a fit person. 

Most of their members came from the Lutheran Church; but they have alsoCatholics, and I believe several Jews. 

They employ about two hundred hired hands, mostly in agriculturallabors; and these are all Germans, many of whom have families. For thesethey supply houses, and give them sometimes the privilege of raising afew cattle on their land. 

They are excellent farmers, and keep fine stock, which they care forwith German thoroughness; stall-feeding in the winter. 

The members do not work hard. One of the foremen told me that threehired hands would do as much as five or six of the members. Partly thiscomes no doubt from the interruption to steady labor caused by theirfrequent religious meetings; but I have found it generally true that themembers of communistic societies take life easy. 

The people are of varying degrees of intelligence; but most of thembelong to the peasant class of Germany, and were originally farmers, weavers, or mechanics. They are quiet, a little stolid, and very wellsatisfied with their life. Here, as in other communistic societies, thebrains seem to come easily to the top. The leading men with whom Iconversed appeared to me to be thoroughly trained business men in theGerman fashion; men of education, too, and a good deal of intelligence. The present secretary told me that he had been during all his early lifea merchant in Germany; and he had the grave and somewhat precise air ofan honest German merchant of the old style--prudent, with a heavy senseof responsibility, a little rigid, and yet kindly. 

At the little inn I talked with a number of the rank and file, andnoticed in them great satisfaction with their method of life. They were, on the surface, the commoner kind of German laborers; but they hadevidently thought pretty thoroughly upon the subject of communal living;and knew how to display to me what appeared to them its advantages intheir society: the absolute equality of all men--"as God made us;" thesecurity for their families; the abundance of food; and the independenceof a master. 

It seems to me that these advantages are dearer to the Germans than toalmost any other nation, and hence they work more harmoniously incommunistic experiments. I think I noticed at Amana, and elsewhere amongthe German communistic societies, a satisfaction in their lives, a pridein the equality which the communal system secures, and also in theconscious surrender of the individual will to the general good, which isnot so clearly and satisfactorily felt among other nationalities. Moreover, the German peasant is fortunate in his tastes, which arefrugal and well fitted for community living. He has not a great sense ofor desire for beauty of surroundings; he likes substantial living, butcares nothing for elegance. His comforts are not, like the American's, of a costly kind. 

I think, too, that his lower passions are more easily regulated orcontrolled, and certainly he is more easily contented to remain in oneplace. The innkeeper, a little to my surprise, when by chance I told himthat I had spent a winter on the Sandwich Islands, asked me with thekeenest delight and curiosity about the trees, the climate, and the lifethere; and wanted to know if I had seen the place where Captain Cook, "the great circumnavigator of the world, " was slain. He returned to thesubject again and again, and evidently looked upon me as a prodigiouslyinteresting person, because I had been fortunate enough to see what tohim was classic ground. An American would not have felt one half thisman's interest; but he would probably have dreamed of making the samejourney some day. My kindly host sat serenely in his place, and was notmoved by a single wandering thought. 

They forbid all amusements--all cards and games whatever, and allmusical instruments; "one might have a flute, but nothing more. " Alsothey regard photographs and pictures of all kinds as tending toidol-worship, and therefore not to be allowed. 

They have made very substantial improvements upon their property; amongother things, in order to secure a sufficient water-power, they dug acanal six miles long, and from five to ten feet deep, leading a largebody of water through Amana. On this canal they keep a steam-scow todredge it out annually. 

As a precaution against fire, in Amana there is a little tower upon ahouse in the middle of the village, where two men keep watch all night. 

They buy much wool from the neighboring farmers; and have a highreputation for integrity and simple plain-dealing among their neighbors. A farmer told me that it was not easy to cheat them; and that they neverdealt the second time with a man who had in any way wronged them; butthat they paid a fair price for all they bought, and always paid cash. 

In their woolen factories they make cloth enough for their own wants andto supply the demand of the country about them. Flannels and yarn, aswell as woolen gloves and stockings, they export, sending some of theseproducts as far as New York. The gloves and stockings are made not onlyby the children, but by the women during the winter months, when theyare otherwise unemployed. 

At present they own about 3000 sheep, 1500 head of cattle, 200 horses, and 2500 hogs. 

The society has no debt, and has a considerable fund at interest. 

They lose very few of their young people. Some who leave them returnafter a few years in the world. Plain and dull as the life is, itappears to satisfy the youth they train up; and no doubt it has itsrewards in its regularity, peacefulness, security against want, andfreedom from dependence on a master. 

It struck me as odd that in cases of illness they use chieflyhomeopathic treatment. The people live to a hale old age. They had amongthe members, in March, 1874, a woman aged ninety-seven, and a number ofpersons over eighty. 

They are non-resistants; but during the late war paid for substitutes inthe army. "But we did wrongly there, " said one to me; "it is not rightto take part in wars even in this way. "

To sum up: the people of Amana appeared to me a remarkably quiet, industrious, and contented population; honest, of good repute amongtheir neighbors, very kindly, and with religion so thoroughly andlargely made a part of their lives that they may be called a religiouspeople. 

IV. --RELIGION AND LITERATURE. 

"If one gives himself entirely, and in all his life, to the will of God, he will presently be possessed by the Spirit of God. "

"The Bible is the Word of God; each prophet or sacred writer wrote onlywhat he received from God. "

"In the New Testament we read that the disciples were 'filled with theHoly Ghost. ' But the same God lives now, and it is reasonable to believethat he inspires his followers now as then; and that he will lead hispeople, in these days as in those, by the words of his inspiration. "

"He leads us in spiritual matters, and in those temporal concerns whichaffect our spiritual life; but we do not look to him for inspireddirections in all the minute affairs of our daily lives. Inspirationdirected us to come to America, and to leave Eben-Ezer for Iowa. Inspiration sometimes directs us to admit a new-comer to fullmembership, and sometimes to expel an unworthy member. Inspirationdiscovers hidden sins in the congregation. "

"We have no creed except the Bible. "

"We ought to live retired and spiritual lives; to keep ourselvesseparate from the world; to cultivate humility, obedience to God's will, faithfulness, and love to Christ. "

"Christ is our head. "

Such are some of the expressions of their religious belief which thepious and well-instructed at Amana gave me. 

They have published two Catechisms--one for the instruction of children, the other for the use of older persons. From these it appears that theyare Trinitarians, believe in "justification by faith, " hold to theresurrection of the dead, the final judgment, but not to eternalpunishment, believing rather that fire will purify the wicked in thecourse of time, longer or shorter according to their wickedness. 

They do not practice baptism, either infant or adult, holding it to be auseless ceremony not commanded in the New Testament. They celebrate theLord's Supper, not at regular periods, but only when by the words of"inspiration" God orders them to do so; and then with peculiarceremonies, which I shall describe further on. 

As to this word "Inspiration, " I quote here from the Catechism theirdefinition of it:

"_Question_. Is it therefore the Spirit or the witness of Jesuswhich speaks and bears witness through the truly inspired persons?

"_Answer_. Yes; the Holy Ghost is the Spirit of Jesus, which bringsto light the hidden secrets of the heart, and gives witness to ourspirits that it is the Spirit of truth. 

"_Q_. When did the work of inspiration begin in the later times?

"_A_. About the end of the seventeenth and beginning of theeighteenth century. About this time the Lord began the gracious work ofinspiration in several countries (France, England, and, at last, inGermany), gathered a people by these new messengers of peace, anddeclared a divine sentence of punishment against the fallen Christianworld. 

"_Q_. How were these 'instruments' or messengers called?

"_A_. Inspired or new prophets. They were living trumpets of God, which shook the whole of Christendom, and awakened many out of theirsleep of security. "

 * * * * *

"_Q_. What is the word of inspiration?

"_A_. It is the prophetic word of the New Testament, or the Spiritof prophecy in the new dispensation. 

"_Q_. What properties and marks of divine origin has thisinspiration?

"_A_. It is accompanied by a divine power, and reveals the secretsof the heart and conscience in a way which only the all-knowing andsoul-penetrating Spirit of Jesus has power to do; it opens the ways oflove and grace, of the holiness and justice of God; and theserevelations and declarations are in their proper time accuratelyfulfilled. 

"_Q_. Through whom is the Spirit thus poured out?

"_A_. Through the vessels of grace, or 'instruments' chosen andfitted by the Lord. 

"_Q_. How must these 'instruments' be constituted?

"_A_. They must conform themselves in humility and child-likeobedience to all the motions and directions of God within them; withoutcare for self or fear of men, they must walk in the fear of God, and withattentive watchfulness for the inner signs of his leading; and they mustsubject themselves in every way to the discipline of the Spirit. "

Concerning the Constitution of the Inspiration Congregations orcommunities, the same Catechism asserts that it "is founded upon thedivine revelation in the Old and New Testament, connected with thedivine directions, instructions, and determinations, general andspecial, given through the words of the true inspiration. "

"_Question_. Through or by whom are the divine ordinances carriedout in the congregations?

"_Answer_. By the elders and leaders, who have been chosen andnominated to this purpose by God. 

"_Q_. What are their duties?

"_A_. Every leader or elder of the congregation is in duty bound, byreason of his divine call, to advance, in the measure of the grace andpower given him, the spiritual and temporal welfare of the congregation;but in important and difficult circumstances the Spirit of prophecy willgive the right and correct decision. 

"_Q_. Is the divine authority to bind and loose, entrusted, according to Matt, xvi. , 19, to the apostle Peter, also given to theelders of the Inspiration Congregations?

"_A_. It belongs to all elders and teachers of the congregation ofthe faithful, who were called by the Lord Jesus through the power of hisHoly Spirit, and who, by the authority of their divine call, and of thedivine power within them, rule without abuse the congregations or flocksentrusted to them. 

"_Q_. What are the duties of the members of the InspirationCongregations?

"_A_. A pure and upright walk in the fear of God; heartfelt love anddevotion toward their brethren, and childlike obedience toward God andthe elders. "

These are the chief articles of faith of the Amana Community. 

They regard the utterances, while in the trance state, of theirspiritual head as given from God; and believe--as is asserted in theCatechism--that evils and wrongs in the congregation will be thusrevealed by the influence, or, as they say, the inspiration or breath ofGod; that in important affairs they will thus receive the divinedirection; and that it is their duty to obey the commands thus deliveredto them. 

There were "inspired instruments" before Christian Metz. Indeed, thepresent "instrument, " Barbara Landmann, was accepted before him, but byreason of her marriage fell from grace for a while. It would seem thatMetz also was married; for I was told at Amana that at his death in1867, at the age of sixty-seven, he left a daughter in the community. 

The words of "inspiration" are usually delivered in the public meetings, and at funerals and other solemn occasions. They have always beencarefully written down by persons specially appointed to that office;and this appears to have been done so long ago as 1719, when "BrotherJohn Frederick Rock" made his journey through Constance, Schaffhausen, Zurich, etc. , with "Brother J. J. Schulthes as writer, who wrote downevery thing correctly, from day to day, and in weal or woe. "

When the "instrument" "falls into inspiration, " he is often severelyshaken--Metz, they say, sometimes shook for an hour--and thereupon followthe utterances which are believed to proceed from God. The "instrument"sits or kneels, or walks about among the congregation. "Brother Metzused to walk about in the meeting with his eyes closed; but he alwaysknew to whom he was speaking, or where to turn with words of reproof, admonition, or encouragement"--so I was told. 

The "inspired" words are not always addressed to the generalcongregation, but often to individual members; and their feelings arenot spared. Thus in one case Barbara Landmann, being "inspired, " turnedupon a sister with the words, "But you, wretched creature, follow thetrue counsel of obedience;" and to another: "And you, contrary spirit, how much pain do you give to our hearts. You will fall into everlastingpain, torture, and unrest if you do not break your will and repent, sothat you may be accepted and forgiven by those you have offended, andwho have done so much for you. "

The warnings, prophecies, reproofs, and admonitions, thus delivered bythe "inspired instrument, " are all, as I have said, carefully writtendown, and in convenient time printed in yearly volumes, entitled"Year-Books of the True Inspiration Congregations: Witnesses of theSpirit of God, which happened and were spoken in the Meetings of theSociety, through the Instruments, Brother Christian Metz and Sister B. Landmann, " with the year in which they were delivered. In this countrythey early established a printing-press at Eben-Ezer, and after theirremoval also in Iowa, and have issued a considerable number of volumesof these records. They are read as of equal authority and almost equalimportance with the Bible. Every family possesses some volumes; and intheir meetings extracts are read aloud after the reading of theScriptures. 

There is commonly a brief preface to each revelation, recounting thecircumstances under which it was delivered; as for instance:

"No. 10. _Lower Eben-Ezer_, November 7, 1853. --Monday morning theexamination of the congregation was made here according to the commandof the Lord. For the opening service five verses were sung of the hymn, 'Lord, give thyself to me;' the remainder of the hymn was read. Afterthe prayer, and a brief silence, Sister Barbara Landmann fell intoinspiration, and was forced to bear witness in the following graciousand impressive revival words of love. "

The phrase varies with the contents of the message, as, on anotheroccasion, it is written that "both 'instruments' fell into inspiration, and there followed this earnest admonition to repentance, and words ofwarning;" or, again, the words are described as "important, " or"severe, " or "gentle and gracious and hope inspiring. "

During his wanderings in Germany among the congregations, Metz appearsto have fallen into inspiration almost daily, not only in meetings, butduring conversations, and even occasionally at dinner--whereupon thedinner waited. Thus it is recorded that "at the Rehmühle, near Hambach, June 1, 1839--this afternoon the traveling brethren with Brother Petercame hither and visited friend Matthias Bieber. After conversation, asthey were about to sit down to eat something, Brother Christian Metzfell into inspiration, and delivered the following words to his friend, and Brother Philip Peter. "

The inspired utterances are for the most part admonitory to a holierlife; warnings, often in the severest language, against selfishness, stubbornness, coldness of heart, pride, hatred toward God, grieving theSpirit; with threats of the wrath of God, of punishment, etc. Humilityand obedience are continually inculcated. "Lukewarmness" appears to beone of the prevailing sins of the community. It is needless to say thatto a stranger these homilies are dull reading. Concerning violations ofthe Ten Commandments or of the moral law, I have not found any mentionhere; and I do not doubt that the members of the society live, on thewhole, uncommonly blameless lives. I asked, for instance, whatpunishment their rules provided for drunkenness, but was told that thisvice is not found among them; though, as at Economy and in other Germancommunities, they habitually use both wine and beer. 

When any member offends against the rules or order of life of thesociety, he is admonished (_ermahnt_) by the elders; and if he doesnot amend his ways, expulsion follows; and here as elsewhere in thecommunities I have visited, they seem vigilantly to purge the society ofimproper persons. 

The following twenty-one "Rules for Daily Life, " printed in one of theircollections, and written by one of their older leaders, E. L. Gruber, give, I think, a tolerably accurate notion of their views of the conductof life:

"I. To obey, without reasoning, God, and through God our superiors. 

"II. To study quiet, or serenity, within and without. 

"III. Within, to rule and master your thoughts. 

"IV. Without, to avoid all unnecessary words, and still to study silenceand quiet. 

"V. To abandon self, with all its desires, knowledge, and power. 

"VI. Do not criticize others, either for good or evil, neither to judgenor to imitate them; therefore contain yourself, remain at home, in thehouse and in your heart. 

"VII. Do not disturb your serenity or peace of mind--hence neither desirenor grieve. 

"VIII. Live in love and pity toward your neighbor, and indulge neitheranger nor impatience in your spirit. 

"IX. Be honest, sincere, and avoid all deceit and even secretiveness. 

"X. Count every word, thought, and work as done in the immediatepresence of God, in sleeping and waking, eating, drinking, etc. , andgive him at once an account of it, to see if all is done in his fear andlove. 

"XI. Be in all things sober, without levity or laughter; and withoutvain and idle words, works, or thoughts; much less heedless or idle. 

"XII. Never think or speak of God without the deepest reverence, fear, and love, and therefore deal reverently with all spiritual things. 

"XIII. Bear all inner and outward sufferings in silence, complainingonly to God; and accept all from him in deepest reverence and obedience. 

"XIV. Notice carefully all that God permits to happen to you in yourinner and outward life, in order that you may not fail to comprehend hiswill and to be led by it. 

"XV. Have nothing to do with unholy, and particularly with needlessbusiness affairs. 

"XVI. Have no intercourse with worldly-minded men; never seek theirsociety; speak little with them, and never without need; and then notwithout fear and trembling. 

"XVII. Therefore, what you have to do with such men, do in haste; do notwaste time in public places and worldly society, that you be not temptedand led away. 

"XVIII. Fly from the society of women-kind as much as possible, as avery highly dangerous magnet and magical fire. 

"XIX. Avoid obeisance and the fear of men; these are dangerous ways. 

"XX. Dinners, weddings, feasts, avoid entirely; at the best there issin. 

"XXI. Constantly practice abstinence and temperance, so that you may beas wakeful after eating as before. "

These rules may, I suppose, be regarded as the ideal standard towardwhich a pious Inspirationist looks and works. Is it not remarkable thatthey should have originated and found their chief adherents amongpeasants and poor weavers?

Their usual religious meetings are held on Wednesday, Saturday, andSunday mornings, and every evening. On Saturday, all the people of avillage assemble together in the church or meeting-house; on other daysthey meet in smaller rooms, and by classes or orders. 

The society consists of three of these orders--the highest, the middle, and the lower, or children's order. In the latter fall naturally theyouth of both sexes, but also those older and married persons whosereligions life and experience are not deep enough to make them worthy ofmembership in the higher orders. 

The evening meeting opens a little after seven o'clock. It is held in alarge room specially maintained for this purpose. I accompanied one ofthe brethren, by permission, to these meetings during my stay at Amana. I found a large, low-ceiled room, dimly lighted by a single lamp placedon a small table at the head of the room, and comfortably warmed withstoves. Benches without backs were placed on each side of this chamber;the floor was bare, but clean; and hither entered, singly, or by twos orthrees, the members, male and female, each going to the proper placewithout noise. The men sat on one side, the women on the other. At thetable sat an elderly man, of intelligent face and a look of someauthority. Near him were two or three others. 

When all had entered and were seated, the old man at the table gave outa hymn, reading out one line at a time; and after two verses were sungin this way, he read the remaining ones. Then, after a moment ofdecorous and not unimpressive silent meditation, all at a signal roseand kneeled down at their places. Hereupon the presiding officer uttereda short prayer in verse, and after him each man in his turn, beginningwith the elders, uttered a similar verse of prayer, usually four, andsometimes six lines long. When all the men and boys had thus prayed--andtheir little verses were very pleasant to listen to, the effect being ofchildlike simplicity--the presiding elder closed with a brief extemporaryprayer, whereupon all arose. 

Then he read some verses from one of their inspired books, admonishingto a good life; and also a brief homily from one of Christian Metz'sinspired utterances. Thereupon all arose, and stood in their places insilence for a moment; and then, in perfect order and silence, and with akind of military precision, benchful after benchful of people walkedsoftly out of the room. The women departed first; and each went home, Ijudge, without delay or tarrying in the hall, for when I got out thehall was already empty. 

The next night the women prayed instead of the men, the presidingofficer conducting the meeting as before. I noticed that the boys andyounger men had their places on the front seats; and the whole meetingwas conducted with the utmost reverence and decorum. 

On Wednesday and Sunday mornings the different orders meet at the samehour, each in its proper assembly-room. These are larger than thosedevoted to the evening meetings. The Wednesday-morning meeting began athalf-past seven, and lasted until nine. There was, as in the eveningmeetings, a very plain deal table at the head, and benches, this timewith backs, were ranged in order, the sexes sitting by themselves asbefore; each person coming in with a ponderous hymn-book, and a Bible ina case. The meeting opened with the singing of six verses of a hymn, theleader reading the remaining verses. Many of their hymns have from tento fourteen verses. Next he read some passages from one of theinspirational utterances of Metz; after which followed prayer, each man, as in the evening meetings, repeating a little supplicatory verse. Thewomen did not join in this exercise. 

Then the congregation got out their Bibles, the leader gave out thefifth chapter of Ephesians, and each man read a verse in his turn; thenfollowed a psalm; and the women read those verses which remained afterall the men had read. After this the leader read some further passagesfrom Metz. After the reading of the New Testament chapter and the psalm, three of the leaders, who sat near the table at the head of the room, briefly spoke upon the necessity of living according to the words ofGod, doing good works and avoiding evil. Their exhortations were verysimple, and without any attempt at eloquence, in a conversational tone. Finally another hymn was sung; the leader pronounced a blessing, and weall returned home, the men and women going about the duties of the day. 

On Saturday morning the general meeting is held in the church. Thecongregation being then more numerous, the brethren do not all pray, butonly the elders; as in the other meetings, a chapter from the NewTestament is read and commented upon by the elders; also passages areread from the inspired utterances of Metz or some other of theirprophets; and at this time, too, the "instrument, " if moved, falls intoa trance, and delivers the will of the Holy Spirit. 

They keep New-Year's as a holiday, and Christmas, Easter, and theHoly-week are their great religions festivals. Christmas is a threedays' celebration, when they make a feast in the church; there are noChristmas-trees for the children, but they receive small gifts. Most ofthe feast days are kept double--that is to say, during two days. Duringthe Passion-week they have a general meeting in the church every day atnoon, and on each day the chapter appropriate to it is read, andfollowed by prayer and appropriate hymns. The week ends, of course, onSunday with the ascension; but on Easter Monday, which is also kept, thechildren receive colored eggs. 

At least once in every year there is a general and minute"Untersuchung, " or inquisition of the whole community, including eventhe children--an examination of its spiritual condition. This is done byclasses or orders, beginning with the elders themselves: and I judgefrom the relations of this ceremony in their printed books that it lastslong, and is intended to be very thorough. Each member is expected tomake confession of his sins, faults, and shortcomings; and if any thingis hidden, they believe that it will be brought to light by the inspiredperson, who assumes on this occasion an important part, admonishingindividuals very freely, and denouncing the sins and evils which existin the congregation. At this time, too, any disputes which may haveoccurred are brought up and healed, and an effort is made to revivereligious fervor in the hearts of all. 

[Illustration: CHURCH AT AMANA]

[Illustration: INTERIOR VIEW OF CHURCH]

[Illustration: PLAN OF THE INSPIRATIONIST VILLAGES]

Not unfrequently the examination of a class is adjourned from day today, because they are found to be cold and unimpressible; and I noticethat on these occasions the young people in particular are a cause ofmuch grief and trouble on account of their perverse hardness of heart. 

The celebration of the Lord's Supper is their greatest religious event. It is held only when the "inspired instrument" directs it, which may nothappen once in two years; and it is thought so solemn and important anoccasion that a full account of it is sometimes printed in a book. Ihave one such volume: "_Das Liebes- und Gedächtniszmahl des Leidens undSterbens unsers Herrn und Heilandes Jesu Christi, wie solches von demHerrn durch Sein Wort und zeugnisz angekündigt, angeordnet und gehaltenwarden, in Vier Abtheilungen, zu Mittel und Nieder Eben-Ezer, im Jahr_1855" ("The Supper of Love and Remembrance of the suffering and death ofour Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ: How it was announced, ordered, andheld by his word and witness, in four parts, in Middle and LowerEben-Ezer, in the year 1855"). It is a neatly printed volume of 284pages. 

The account begins with the announcement of the Lord's command: "MiddleEben-Ezer, April 21st, 1855, Saturday, in the general meeting, in thebeginning, when the congregation was assembled, came the followinggracious word and determination of the Lord, through Brother Chr. Metz. "Thereupon, after some words of preface, the "instrument" kneeled down, the congregation also kneeling, and said: "I am commanded humbly toreveal, according to the sacred and loving conclusion, that you are tocelebrate the supper of love and remembrance in the presence of yourGod. The beginning and the course of it shall be as before. There willbe on this occasion humiliations and revelations, if in any the trueWorker of righteousness and repentance has not been allowed to do hiswork. The Lord will make a representation of the lack of hisunderstanding in many of you; his great love will come to light, andwill light up every one. " After more of this kind of address, the"instrument" said: "You are to begin the Lord's Supper on Ascension-day, make ready then all your hearts, clean out all filth, all that is rottenand stinks, all sins and every thing idle and useless; and cherish piousthoughts, so that you shall put down the flesh, as you are commandedto, " and so on. 

On a following Sunday, the "instrument" recurred to the subject, and inthe course of his remarks reproved one of the elders for disobedience tothe Lord and resistance to grace, and displaced him in the assembly, calling another by name to his place. At the close, he spoke thus, evidently in the name and with the voice of God: "And I leave it to you, my servants, to take out of the middle order here and there some intothe first, and out of the third into the second, but not according tofavor and prejudice, but according to their grace and conduct, of whichyou are to take notice. "

A day was given to admonitions and preparation; the "instrument"speaking not only to the congregation in general, in the morning andafternoon meetings, but to a great many in particular--admonishing, exhorting, blaming, encouraging them by name. The next morning there wasa renewal of such hortatory remarks, with singing and prayer; and in theafternoon, all being prepared, the elders washed the feet of thebrethren. This is done only in the higher orders. 

Thereupon tables are brought in, and bread and wine are placed. Aftersinging, the "inspired" person blesses these, and they are then receivedby the brethren and sisters from the hands of the elders, who pronouncethe customary words of Scripture. 

This being accomplished, the assembly temporarily adjourns, and personspreviously appointed for this office spread on the tables a modestsupper of bread and cake, coffee, chocolate, and a few other articles offood, and to this all sit down with solemn joy. At the conclusion ofthis meal, a hymn is sung, and the assembly retire to their homes. 

When the three regular orders have gone through this celebration, thereis a fourth, consisting of children under sixteen years, and of certainadult members who for various reasons have been thought unworthy topartake with the rest; and these also go through a thorough examination. 

I asked one of their leading elders whether they believed in a"prayer-cure, " explaining what the Oneida communists understand by thisphrase. He replied, "No, we do not use prayer in this way, to curedisease. But it is possible. But if God has determined death, tendoctors cannot help a man. "

The present inspired instrument being very aged, I asked whether anotherwas ready to take her place. They said No, no one had yet appeared; butthey had no doubt God would call some one to the necessary office. Theywere willing to trust him, and gave themselves no trouble about it. 

It remains to speak of their literature. 

They have a somewhat ponderous hymnology, in two great volumes, onecalled "The Voice from Zion: to the Praise of the Almighty, " by "JohnWilliam Petersen (A. D. 1698), " printed at Eben-Ezer, N. Y. , in 1851, andcontaining 958 pages. The hymns are called Psalms, and are not in rhyme. They are to be sung in a kind of chant, as I judge from the musicprefixed to them; and are a kind of commentary on the Scripture, onepart being taken up with the book of Revelation. 

The other volume is the hymn-book in regular use. It contains 1285pages, of which 111 are music--airs to which the different hymns maybe sung. The copy I have is of the third edition, and bears theimprint, "Amana, Iowa, 1871. " Its title is "Psalms after the manner ofDavid, for the children of Zion. " It has one peculiarity which mightwith advantage be introduced in other hymn-books. Occasional versesare marked with a *, and it is recommended to the reader that these betaught to the children as little prayers. In practice, I found that intheir evening meetings the grown persons as well as the childrenrecited these simple and devotional little verses as their prayers:surely a more satisfactory delivery to them and the congregation thanrude and halting attempts at extemporary utterance. 

Many of the hymns are very long, having from twelve to twenty-fourverses; and it is usual at their meetings to sing three or four versesand then read the remainder. They do not sing well; and theirtunes--those at least which I heard--are slow, and apparently in a styleof music now disused in our churches. The hymns are printed as prose, only the verses being separated. I was told that they were "all given bythe Spirit of God, " and that Christian Metz had a great gift ofhymn-writing, very often, at home or elsewhere, writing down an entirehymn at one sitting. They are all deeply devotional in spirit, and havenot infrequently the merit of great simplicity and a pleasing quaintnessof expression, of which I think the German language is more capable thanour ruder and more stubborn English. 

Their writers are greatly given to rhyming. Even in the inspirationalutterances I find frequently short admonitory paragraphs where ruderhymes are introduced. Among their books is one, very singular, called"Innocent Amusement" ("_Unschuldiges Zeitvertreib_"), in a number ofvolumes (I saw the fifth). It is a collection of verses, making piousapplications of many odd subjects. Among the headings I found Cooking, Rain, Milk, The Ocean, Temperance, Salve, Dinner, A Mast, Fog, A Net, Pitch, A Rainbow, A Kitchen, etc. , etc. It is a mass of pious doggerel, founded on Scripture and with fanciful additions. 

Another is called "Jesus's ABC, for his scholars, " and is also in rhyme. Another is entitled "Rhymes on the sufferings, death, burial, andresurrection of Christ. " There are about twelve hundred pages of the ABCbook. 

They have printed also a miniature Thomas a Kempis, "for the edificationof children;" two catechisms; a little work entitled "Treasure for thosewho desire God, " and other works of similar character. A list, notcomplete, but containing all the books I have been able to collect, willbe found in the Bibliography at the end of this volume. 

At the end of the Catechism are some pages of rules for the conduct ofchildren, at home, in church, at school, during play hours, at meals, and in all the relations of their lives. Many of these rules areexcellent, and the whole of them might well be added to the children'scatechisms in use in the churches. Piety, orderly habits, obedience, politeness, cleanliness, kindness to others, truthfulness, cheerfulness, etc. , are all inculcated in considerable detail, with great plainness ofspeech, and in sixty-six short paragraphs, easily comprehended by theyoungest children. The fifty-fourth rule shows the care with which theyguard the intercourse of the sexes: "Have no pleasure in violent gamesor plays; do not wait on the road to look at quarrels or fights; do notkeep company with bad children, for there you will learn onlywickedness. Also, _do not play with children of the other sex_. "

THE HARMONY SOCIETY, AT

ECONOMY, PA. 

THE HARMONY SOCIETY. 

I. --ECONOMY IN 1874. 

Traveling from Cleveland to Pittsburgh by rail, you strike the OhioRiver at Wellsville; and the railroad runs thence, for forty-eightmiles, to Pittsburgh, along the river bank, and through the edge of acountry rich in coal, oil, potters' clay, limestone, and iron, andsupporting a number of important manufactures. 

To a traveler in search of the Rappist or Harmony settlement at Economy, the names of the towns along here seem to tell of the overshadowinginfluence of these communists; for, passing Liverpool, you come toFreedom, Jethro (whose houses are both heated and lighted with gas froma natural spring near by), Industry, and Beaver; you smile at the signof the "Golden Rule Distillery;" and you wonder at the broken fences, unpainted houses, and tangled and weed-covered grounds, and that generalair of dilapidation which curses a country producing petroleum andbituminous coal. 

Presently, however, you strike into what is evidently a large andwell-kept estate: high and solid fences; fields without weeds, and withclean culture or smooth and rich grass; and if you ask the conductor, hewill tell you that for some miles here the land is owned by the"Economites;" and that the town or village of Economy lies among theseneatly kept fields, but out of sight of the railroad on the top of thesteep bluff. 

Economy has, in truth, one of the loveliest situations on the OhioRiver. It stands in the midst of a rich plain, with swelling hillsbehind, protecting it from cold winds in winter; a magnificent reach ofthe river in view below; and tall hills on the opposite shore to give apicturesque outlook. The town begins on the edge of the bluff; and underthe shade-trees planted there benches are arranged, where doubtless theHarmonists take their comfort on summer evenings, in view of the riverbelow them and of the village on the opposite shore. Streets proceed atright-angles with the river's course; and each street is lined with neatframe or brick houses, surrounding a square in such a manner that withineach household has a sufficient garden. The broad streets have neatfoot-pavements of brick; the houses, substantially built butunpretentious, are beautified by a singular arrangement of grape-vines, which are trained to espaliers fixed to cover the space between the topof the lower and the bottom of the upper windows. This manner oftraining vines gives the town quite a peculiar look, as though thehouses had been crowned with green. 

As you walk through the silent streets, and pass the large AssemblyHall, the church, and the hotel, it will occur to you that these peoplehad, when they founded their place, the advantage of a sensiblearchitect, for, while there is not the least pretense, all the buildingis singularly solid and honest; and in the larger houses the roof-lineshave been broken and managed with considerable skill, so as to produce avery pleasing and satisfactory effect. Moreover, the color of the bricksused in building has chanced to be deep and good, which is no slightadvantage to the place. 

Neatness and a Sunday quiet are the prevailing characteristics ofEconomy. Once it was a busy place, for it had cotton, silk, and woolenfactories, a brewery, and other industries; but the most important ofthese have now ceased; and as you walk along the quiet, shady streets, you meet only occasionally some stout, little old man, in a shortlight-blue jacket and a tall and very broad-brimmed hat, lookingamazingly like Hendrick Hudson's men in the play of Rip Van Winkle; orsome comfortable-looking dame, in Norman cap and stuff gown; whosepolite "good-day" to you, in German or English as it may happen, is notunmixed with surprise at sight of a strange face; for, as you willpresently discover at the hotel, visitors are not nowadays frequent inEconomy. 

[Illustration: ASSEMBLY HALL--ECONOMY]

[Illustration: CHURCH AT ECONOMY]

The hotel is one of the largest houses in the place; it is of twostories, with spacious bed-chambers, high ceilings, roomy fire-places, large halls, and a really fine dining-room, all scrupulously clean. Itwas once, before the days of railroads, a favorite stopping-place on oneof the main stage routes out of Pittsburgh; in the well-built stable andbarns opposite there was room for twenty or thirty horses; thedining-room would seat a hundred people; and here during many years wasa favorite winter as well as summer resort for Pittsburghers, and animportant source of income to the Economists. 

When I for the first time entered the sitting-room on a chilly Decembermorning, the venerable but active landlord was dusting chairs andtables, and looked up in some amazement at the intrusion of a traveler. "I can stay here, I suppose, " said I, by way of introduction; and wasanswered: "That depends upon how long you want to stay. We don't takepeople to board here. " My assurance that I meant to remain but two orthree days, and that I had been recommended by Mr. Henrici, the head ofthe society, secured me a room; and the warning, as I went out for awalk, that I must be in by half-past eleven, promptly, to dine; and byhalf-past four for supper, because other people had to eat after me, andought not to be kept waiting by reason of my carelessness. "For whichreason, " added the landlord, "it would be well for you to come in and beat hand a quarter of an hour before the times I have mentioned. " When Ihad dined and supped and slept, I saw what a loss to Pittsburghers wasthe closing of the Economy hotel; for the Harmonists live well, and aresubstantial eaters in their German fashion. Nor was any ceremony omittedbecause of the fewness of guests; and old Joseph, the butler andhead-waiter, who, as he told me, came to serve here fifty years ago, andis now seventy-eight years old, attended upon my meals arrayed in ascrupulously white apron, ordered the lass who was his subordinate, andoccasionally condescended to laugh at my jokes, as befitted his place, with as much precision and dignity as when, thirty or forty years ago, he used to serve a houseful of hungry travelers. 

Later in the afternoon I discovered the meaning of my landlord'swarnings as to punctuality, as well as the real use of the "EconomyHotel. " As I sat before the fire in my own room after supper, I heardthe door-bell ring with a frequency as though an uncommon number oftravelers were applying for lodgings; and going down into thesitting-room about seven o'clock, I discovered there an extraordinarycollection of persons ranged around the fire, and toasting their more orless dilapidated boots. These were men in all degrees of raggedness; menwith one eye, or lame, or crippled--tramps, in fact, beggars for supperand a night's lodging. They sat there to the number of twenty, halfnaked many of them, and not a bit ashamed; with carpet-bags or without;with clean or dirty faces and clothes as it might happen; but allhungry, as I presently saw, when a table was drawn out, about which theygathered, giving their names to be taken down on a register, while tothem came a Harmonist brother with a huge tray full of tins filled withcoffee, and another with a still bigger tray of bread. 

Thereupon these wanderers fell to, and having eaten as much bread andcoffee as they could hold, they were consigned to a house a few doorsaway, peeping in at whose windows by and by, I saw a large, cheerfulcoal fire, and beds for the whole company. "You see, after you haveeaten, the table must be cleared, and then _we_ eat; and then comethese people, who have also to be fed, so that, unless we hurry, thewomen are belated with their work, " explained the landlord of thiscurious inn to me. 

"Is this, then, a constant occurrence?" I asked in some amazement; andwas told that they feed here daily from fifteen to twenty-five suchtramps, asking no questions, except that the person shall not have beena regular beggar from the society. A constant provision of coffee andbread is made for them, and the house set apart for their lodging hasbed accommodations for twenty men. They are expected to wash at thestable next morning, and thereupon receive a breakfast of bread, meat, and coffee, and are suffered to go on their way. Occasionally the verydestitute, if they seem to be deserving, receive also clothing. 

"But are you not often imposed upon?" I asked. 

"Yes, probably; but it is better to give to a dozen worthless ones thanto refuse one deserving man the cup and loaf which we give, " was thereply. 

The tramps themselves took this benevolence apparently as a matter ofcourse. They were quiet enough; some of them looked like decent men outof work, as indeed all professed to be going somewhere in search ofemployment. But many of them had the air of confirmed loafers, and someI should not have liked to meet alone on the road after dark. 

Economy is the home of the "Harmony Society, " better known to theoutside world as the followers of Rapp. It is a town of about onehundred and twenty houses, very regularly built, well-drained, andpaved; it has water led from a reservoir in the hills, and flowing intotroughs conveniently placed in every street; abundant shade-trees; achurch, an assembly hall, a store which supplies also to some extent theneighboring country; different factories, and a number of convenienceswhich villages of its size are too often without. Moreover, it containsa pleasant pleasure-garden, and is surrounded by fine, productiveorchards and by well-tilled fields. 

At present Economy is inhabited by all that remain of the society whichwas founded by George Rapp in 1805. These number one hundred and tenpersons, most of whom are aged, and none, I think, under forty. Besidesthese, who are the owners of the place and of much property elsewhere, there are twenty-five or thirty children of various ages, adopted by thesociety and apprenticed to it, and an equal number living there withparents who are hired laborers; of these hired laborers, men and women, there are about one hundred. The whole population is German; and Germanis the language one commonly hears, and in which on Sunday worship iscarried on. Nevertheless all the people speak English also. 

The Harmonists themselves are sturdy, healthy-looking men and women, most of them gray haired; with an air of vigorous independence;conspicuously kind and polite; well-fed and well-preserved. As Iexamined their faces on Sunday in church, they struck me as a remarkablyhealthy and well-satisfied collection of old men and women; by no meansdull, and very decidedly masters of their lives. Their working dress hasfor its peculiarity the roundabout or jacket I have before mentioned; onSunday they wear long coats. The women look very well indeed in theirNorman caps; and their dress, wholesome and sensible, is not in any wayodd or inappropriate. Indeed, when Miss Rapp, the granddaughter of thefounder of the society, walked briskly into church on Sunday, herbright, kindly face was so well set off by the cap she wore that sheseemed quite an admirable object to me; and I thought no head-dress inthe world could so well become an elderly lady. 

II. --HISTORICAL. 

George Rapp, founder and until his death in 1847 head of the "HarmonySociety, " was born in October, 1757, at Iptingen in Würtemberg. He wasthe son of a small farmer and vine-dresser, and received such a moderatecommon-school education as the child of parents in such circumstanceswould naturally receive at that time in South Germany. When he had beentaught reading, writing, arithmetic, and geography, he left school andassisted his father on the farm, working as a weaver during the wintermonths. At the age of twenty-six he married a farmer's daughter, whobore him a son, John, and a daughter, Rosina, both of whom later becamewith him members of the society. 

Rapp appears to have been from his early youth fond of reading, and of areflective turn of mind. Books were probably not plentiful in hisfather's house, and he became a student of the Bible, and beganpresently to compare the condition of the people among whom he livedwith the social order laid down and described in the New Testament. Hebecame dissatisfied especially with the lifeless condition of thechurches; and in the year 1787, when he was thirty, he had evidentlyfound others who held with him, for he began to preach to a smallcongregation of friends in his own house on Sundays. 

The clergy resented this interference with their office, and persecutedRapp and his adherents; they were fined and imprisoned; and this provedto be, as usual, the best way to increase their numbers and to confirmtheir dislike of the prevailing order of things. They were denounced as"Separatists, " and had the courage to accept the name. 

Rapp taught his followers, I am told, that they were in all things toobey the laws, to be peaceable and quiet subjects, and to pay all theirtaxes, those to the Church as well as to the State. But he insisted ontheir right to believe what they pleased and to go to church where theythought it best. This was a tolerably impregnable platform. 

In the course of six years, with the help of the persecutions of theclergy, Rapp had gathered around him not less than three hundredfamilies; and had hearers and believers at a distance of twenty milesfrom his own house. He appears to have labored so industriously on thefarm as to accumulate a little property, and in 1803 his adherentsdetermined upon emigrating in a body to America, where they were sure offreedom to worship God after their own desires. 

Rapp sailed in that year for Baltimore, accompanied by his son John andtwo other persons. After looking about in Maryland, Pennsylvania, andOhio, they concluded to buy five thousand acres of wild land abouttwenty-five miles north of Pittsburgh, in the valley of theConnoquenessing. Frederick (Reichert) Rapp, an adopted son of GeorgeRapp, evidently a man of uncommon ability and administrative talent, hadbeen left in charge in Germany; and had so far perfected the necessaryarrangements for emigration that no time was lost in moving, as soon asRapp gave notice that he had found a proper locality for settlement. Onthe 4th of July, 1804, the ship _Aurora_ from Amsterdam landed threehundred of Rapp's people in Baltimore; and six weeks later three hundredmore were landed in Philadelphia. The remainder, coming in another ship, were drawn off by Haller, one of Rapp's traveling companions, to settlein Lycoming County, Pennsylvania. 

The six hundred souls who thus remained to Rapp appear to have beenmainly, and indeed with few exceptions, of the peasant and mechanicclass. There were among them, I have been told, a few of moderately goodeducation, and presumably of somewhat higher social standing than thegreat body; there were a few who had considerable property, foremigrants in those days. All were thrifty, and few were destitute. It isprobable that they had determined in Germany to establish a community ofgoods, in accordance with their understanding of the social theory ofJesus; but for the present each family retained its property. 

Rapp met them on their arrival, and settled them in different parts ofMaryland and Pennsylvania; withdrawing a certain number of the ablestmechanics and laborers to proceed with him to the newly purchased land, where he and they spent a toilsome fall and winter in preparinghabitations for the remainder; and on the 15th of February, 1805, these, and such as they could so early in the season gather with them, formallyand solemnly organized themselves into the "Harmony Society, " agreeingto throw all their possessions into a common fund, to adopt a uniformand simple dress and style of house; to keep thenceforth all things incommon; and to labor for the common good of the whole body. Later in thespring they were joined by fifty additional families; and thus theyfinally began with about one hundred and twenty-five families, or, as Iam told, less than seven hundred and fifty men, women, and children. 

Rapp was then forty-eight years of age. He was, according to the bestaccounts I have been able to gather, a man of robust frame and soundhealth, with great perseverance, enterprise, and executive ability, andremarkable common-sense. It was fortunate for the community that itsmembers were all laboring men. In the first year they erected betweenforty and fifty log-houses, a church and school-house, grist-mill, barn, and some workshops, and cleared one hundred and fifty acres of land. Inthe following year they cleared four hundred acres more, and built asaw-mill, tannery, and storehouse, and planted a small vineyard. Adistillery was also a part of this year's building; and it is odd toread that the Harmonists, who have aimed to do all things well, werefamous among Western men for many years for the excellence of the whiskythey made; of which, however, they always used very sparinglythemselves. Among their crops in succeeding years were corn, wheat, rye, hemp, and flax; wool from merino sheep, which they were the first inthat part of Pennsylvania to own; and poppies, from which they madesweet-oil. They did not rest until they had established also awoolen-mill. It was a principle with Rapp that the society should, asfar as possible, produce and make every thing it used; and in the earlydays, I am told, they bought very little indeed of provisions orclothing, having then but small means. 

Rapp was, with the help of his adopted son, the organizer of thecommunity's labor, appointing foremen in each department; he plannedtheir enterprises--but he was also their preacher and teacher; and hetaught them that their main duty was to live a sincerely and rigidlyreligious life; that they were not to labor for wealth, or look forwardanxiously for prosperity; that the coming of the Lord was near, and forthis they were waiting, as his chosen ones separated from the world. 

At this time they still lived in families, and encouraged, or at anyrate did not discourage, marriage. Among the members who married between1805 and 1807 was John Rapp, the founder's son, and the father of MissGertrude Rapp, who still lives at Economy; and there is no doubt thatthe elder Rapp performed the marriage ceremony. During the year 1807, however, a deep religious fervor pervaded the society; and a remarkableresult of this "revival of religion" was the determination of most ofthe members to conform themselves more closely in several ways to whatthey believed to be the spirit and commands of Jesus. Among othermatters, they were persuaded in their own minds that it was best tocease to live in the married state. I have been assured by older membersof the society, who have, as they say, often heard the whole of thisperiod described by those who were actors in it, that this determinationto refrain from marriage and from married life originated among theyounger members; and that, though "Father Rapp" was not averse to thisgrowth of asceticism, he did not eagerly encourage it, but warned hispeople not to act rashly in so serious and difficult a matter, but toproceed with great caution, and determine nothing without carefulcounsel together. At the same time he, I am told, gave it as his ownconviction that the unmarried is the higher and holier estate. In short, there is reason to believe that he managed in this matter, as he appearsto have done in others, with great prudence and judgment. He himself, and his son, John Rapp, set an example which the remainder of thesociety quickly followed; thenceforth no more marriages were contractedin Harmony, and no more children were born. 

A certain number of the younger people, feeling no vocation for acelibate life, at this time withdrew from the society. The remainderfaithfully ceased from conjugal intercourse. Husbands and wives werenot required to live in different houses, but occupied, as before, thesame dwelling, with their children, only treating each other as brotherand sister in Christ, and remembering the precept of the apostle: "ThisI say, brethren, the time is short; it remaineth that both they thathave wives be as though they had none, " etc. These are the words of oneof the older members to the Reverend Dr. Aaron Williams, from whoseinteresting account of the Harmony Society I have taken a number offacts, being referred to it by Mr. Henrici, the present head of Economy. The same person added: "The burden was easier to bear, because it becamegeneral throughout the whole community, and all bore their share alike. "Another member wrote in 1862: "Convinced of the truth and holiness ofour purpose, we voluntarily and unanimously adopted celibacy, altogetherfrom religious motives, in order to withdraw our love entirely from thelusts of the flesh, which, with the help of God and much prayer andspiritual warfare, we have succeeded well in doing now for fifty years. "

Surely so extraordinary a resolve was never before carried out with sosimple and determined a spirit. Among most people it would have beenthought necessary, or at least prudent, to separate families, and toadopt other safeguards against temptation; but the good Harmonists didand do nothing of the kind. "What kind of watch or safeguard did or doyou keep over the intercourse of the sexes, " I asked in Economy, andreceived for reply, "None at all; it would be of no use. If you have towatch people, you had better give them up. We have always depended uponthe strength of our religious convictions, and upon prayer and aChristian spirit. "

"Do you believe the celibate life to be healthful?" I asked; and thereply was, "Decidedly so; almost all our people have lived to a hale oldage. Father Rapp himself died at ninety; and no doubt many of ourmembers would have lived longer than they did, had it not been for thehardships they suffered in Indiana, where we lived in a malariousregion. " I must add my own testimony that the Harmonists now living arealmost without exception stout, well-built, hearty people, the women aswell as the men. 

At the same time that the celibate life was adopted, the communityagreed to cease using tobacco in every form--a deprivation which theseGermans must have felt almost as severely as the abandonment of conjugaljoys. 

The site of the Pennsylvania settlement proved to have been badly chosenin two respects. It had no water communication with the outer world; andit was unfavorable to the growth of the vine. In 1814, after properdiscussion, the society determined to seek a more desirable spot; andpurchased thirty thousand acres of land in Posey County, Indiana, in theWabash valley. Thither one hundred persons proceeded in June 1814, toprepare a place for the remainder; and by the summer of 1815 the wholecolony was in its new home, having sold six thousand acres of land, withall their valuable improvements, in their old home, for one hundredthousand dollars. 

The price they received is said to have been, and no doubt was, verymuch below the real value of the property. It is impossible to sell offa large and expensively improved estate like theirs all at once. It isprobably true that the machinery and buildings were worth all theyreceived for the whole property; and it would not be an overestimate togive the real value of what they sold at one hundred and fifty thousanddollars. They had begun, ten years before, with one hundred andtwenty-five families; as after the second year they had bred nochildren, and as they then lost some members who left on account oftheir aversion to a celibate life, it is probable that they had notincreased in numbers. If they had property worth one hundred and fiftythousand dollars, they would then have been able to divide, at the endof ten years, at the rate of twelve hundred dollars to each head of afamily--a considerable sum, if we remember that they began with probablyless than five hundred dollars for each family; and had not only livedcomfortably for the greater part of ten years, but enjoyed society, hada good school for their children, a church, and all the moral and civilsafeguards created by and incident to a well-settled community or town. Setting aside these safeguards and enjoyments of a thoroughly organizedsociety, it seems to me doubtful if the same number of families, settling with narrow means at random in the wilderness, eachindependently of the others, could at that period, before railroads werebuilt, have made as good a showing in mere pecuniary return in the sametime. So far, then, the Harmony Society would seem to have made apecuniary success--a fact of which they may have made but little account, but which is important to a general and independent consideration ofcommunistic experiments. 

On the Wabash they rapidly built up a town; but, possessing now bothexperience and some capital, they erected larger factories, and rapidlyextended their business in every department. "Harmony, " as they calledthe new town, became an important business centre for a considerableregion. They sold their products and manufactured goods in branch storesas well as at Harmony; they increased in wealth; and, what was ofgreater importance to them, they received some large accessions ofmembers from Germany--friends and relatives of the founders of thecolony. In 1817 one hundred and thirty persons came over at one timefrom Würtemberg. I was told that before they left Indiana they hadincreased to between seven and eight hundred members. 

"Father Rapp" appears to have guided his people wisely. He continued toexhort them not to care overmuch for riches, but to use their wealth ashaving it not; and in 1818, "for the purpose of promoting greaterharmony and equality between the original members and those who had comein recently, " a notable thing was done at Rapp's suggestion. Originally abook had been kept, in which was written down what each member of thesociety had contributed to the common stock. This book was now broughtout and by unanimous consent burned, so that no record shouldthenceforward show what any one had contributed. 

In 1824 they removed once more. They sold the town of Harmony and twentythousand acres of land to Robert Owen, who settled upon it his NewLanark colony when he took possession. Owen paid one hundred and fiftythousand dollars--not nearly the value of the property, it is said; butthe Harmonists had suffered from fever and ague and unpleasantneighbors, and were determined to remove. They then bought the propertythey still hold at Economy, and in 1825 removed to this their new andfinal home. One of the older members told me that the first detachmentwhich came up from Indiana consisted of ninety men, mechanics andfarmers; and these "made the work fly. " They laid out the town, clearedthe timber from the streets and house places; and during some timecompleted a log-house every day. Many of these log-cabins are stillstanding, but are no longer used as residences. The first church, nowused as a storehouse, was a log-house of uncommonly large dimensions. 

I think it probable, from what I have heard from the older members, thatwhen they were comfortably settled at Economy, the Harmony Society wasfor some years in its most flourishing condition. All had come ontogether from Indiana; and all were satisfied with the beauty of the newhome. Those who had suffered from malarious fevers here rapidlyrecovered. The vicinity to Pittsburgh, and cheap water communication, encouraged them in manufacturing. Economy lay upon the main stage-road, and was thus an important and presently a favorite stopping-place; thecolonists found kindly neighbors; there was sufficient young blood inthe community to give enterprise and strength; and "we sang songs everyday, and had music every evening, " said old Mr. Keppler to me, recounting the glories of those days. They erected woolen and cottonmills, a grist-mill and saw-mill; they planted orchards and vineyards;they began the culture of silk, and with such success that soon theSunday dress of men as well as women was of silk, grown, reeled, spun, and woven by themselves. 

In building the new town of Economy they displayed--thanks, I believe, to the knowledge and skill of Frederick Rapp--a good deal of taste, though adhering to their ancient plainness; and their two removals hadtaught them valuable lessons in the convenient arrangement of machinery;so that Economy is even now a model of a well-built, well-arrangedcountry village. As soon as they began to substitute brick for loghouses, they insisted upon erecting for "Father Rapp" a house somewhatlarger and more spacious than the common dwelling-houses, though not inany other way different. This was advisable, because he was obliged toentertain many visitors and strangers of distinction. The house standsopposite the church; and has behind it a spacious garden, arranged in asomewhat formal style, with box-edgings to the walks, and summer-housesand other ornaments in the old geometrical style of gardening. This wasopen to the people, of course; and here the band played on summerevenings, or more frequently on Sunday afternoons; and here, too, flowers were cultivated, I am told, with great success. 

How rapidly they made themselves at home in Economy appears from thefollowing account of the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, who visited the place in1826, only a year after it was founded:

"At the inn, a fine, large, frame house, we were received by Mr. Rapp, the principal, at the head of the community. He is a gray-headed andvenerable old man; most of the members immigrated twenty-one years agofrom Würtemberg along with him. 

"The warehouse was shown to us, where the articles made here for sale oruse are preserved, and I admired the excellence of all. The articles forthe use of the society are kept by themselves; as the members have noprivate possessions, and every thing is in common, so must they, inrelation to all their wants, be supplied from the common stock. Theclothing and food they make use of is of the best quality. Of thelatter, flour, salt meat, and all long-keeping articles, are served outmonthly; fresh meat, on the contrary, is distributed as soon as it iskilled, according to the size of the family, etc. As every house has agarden, each family raises its own vegetables and some poultry, and eachfamily has its own bake-oven. For such things as are not raised inEconomy, there is a store provided, from which the members, with theknowledge of the directors, may purchase what is necessary, and thepeople of the vicinity may do the same. 

"Mr. Rapp finally conducted us into the factory again, and said that thegirls had especially requested this visit that I might hear them sing. When their work is done, they collect in one of the factory rooms, tothe number of sixty or seventy, to sing spiritual and other songs. Theyhave a peculiar hymn-book, containing hymns from the old Würtembergcollection, and others written by the elder Rapp. A chair was placed forthe old patriarch, who sat amid the girls, and they commenced a hymn ina very delightful manner. It was naturally symphonious, and exceedinglywell arranged. The girls sang four pieces, at first sacred, butafterward, by Mr. Rapp's desire, of a gay character. With real emotiondid I witness this interesting scene. 

"Their factories and workshops are warmed during the winter by means ofpipes connected with the steam-engine. All the workmen, and especiallythe females, had very healthy complexions, and moved me deeply by thewarm-hearted friendliness with which they saluted the elder Rapp. I wasalso much gratified to see vessels containing fresh sweet-scentedflowers standing on all the machines. The neatness which universallyreigns is in every respect worthy of praise. " [Footnote: "Travelsthrough North America, during the years 1825-26, by His Highness, Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar Eisenach. " Philadelphia, 1828. ]

This account shows the remarkable rapidity with which they had built upthe new town. 

But perfect happiness is not for this world. In 1831 came to Economy aGerman adventurer, Bernhard Müller by right name, who had assumed thetitle _Graf_ or Count Maximilian de Leon, and had gathered afollowing of visionary Germans, whom he imposed, with himself, upon theHarmonists, on the pretense that he was a believer with them inreligious matters. He proved to be a wretched intriguer, who broughtruin on all who connected themselves with him; and who began at once tomake trouble in Economy. Having secured a lodgment, he began to announcestrange doctrines, marriage, a livelier life, and other temptations toworldliness; and he finally succeeded in effecting a serious division, which, if it had not been prudently managed, might have destroyed thecommunity. After bitter disputes, in which at last affairs came to sucha pass that a vote had to be taken, in order to decide who were faithfulto the old order and to Rapp, and who were for Count Leon, an agreementwas come to. "We knew not even who was for and who against us, " said Mr. Henrici to me; "and I was in the utmost anxiety as I made out the twolists; at last they were complete; all the names had been called; wecounted, and found that five hundred were for Father Rapp, and twohundred and fifty for Count Leon. Father Rapp, when I told him thenumbers, with his usual ready wit, quoted from the book of Revelation, 'And the tail of the serpent drew the third part of the stars of heaven, and did cast them to the earth. '"

The end of the dispute was an agreement, under which the society bounditself to pay to those who adhered to Count Leon one hundred and fivethousand dollars, in three installments, all payable within twelvemonths; the other side agreeing, on their part, to leave Economy withinthree months, taking with them only their clothing and householdfurniture, and relinquishing all claims upon the property of thesociety. This agreement was made in March, 1832; and Leon and hisfollowers withdrew to Phillipsburg, a village ten miles below Economy, on the other side of the river, which they bought, with eight hundredacres of land. 

Here they set up a society on communistic principles, but permittingmarriage; and here they very quickly wasted the large sum of money theyreceived from the Harmonists; and after a desperate and lawless attemptto extort more money from the Economy people, which was happilydefeated, Count Leon absconded with a few of his people in a boat toAlexandria on the Red River, where this singular adventurer perished ofcholera in 1833. Those he had deluded meantime divided the Phillipsburgproperty among themselves, and set up each for himself, and a numberafterward joined Keil in forming the Bethel Community in Missouri, ofwhich an account will be found in another place. 

In 1832, seven years only after the removal to Economy, the society wasable, it thus appears, to pay out in a single year one hundred and fivethousand dollars in cash--a very great sum of money in those days. Thisshows that they had largely increased their capital by their thrift andindustry at New Harmony in Indiana, and at Economy. They had thenexisted as a community twenty-seven years; had built three towns; andhad during the whole time lived a life of comfort and social order, suchas few individual settlers in our Western States at that time couldcommand. 

III. --DOCTRINES AND PRACTICAL LIFE IN ECONOMY; WITH SOME PARTICULARS OF"FATHER RAPP. "

The Agreement or Articles of Association under which the "HarmonySociety" was formed in 1805, and which was signed by all the membersthenceforward, read as follows:

"ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION. 

"_Whereas_, by the favor of divine Providence, an association orcommunity has been formed by George Rapp and many others upon the basisof Christian fellowship, the principles of which, being faithfullyderived from the sacred Scriptures, include the government of thepatriarchal age, united to the community of property adopted in the daysof the apostles, and wherein the simple object sought is to approximate, so far as human imperfections may allow, to the fulfillment of the willof God, by the exercise of those affections and the practice of thosevirtues which are essential to the happiness of man in time andthroughout eternity:

"_And whereas_ it is necessary to the good order and well-being ofthe said association that the conditions of membership should be clearlyunderstood, and that the rights, privileges, and duties of everyindividual therein should be so defined as to prevent mistake ordisappointment, on the one hand, and contention or disagreement on theother;

"_Therefore_ be it known to all whom it may concern that we, theundersigned, citizens of the County of Beaver, in the Commonwealth ofPennsylvania, do severally and distinctly, each for himself, covenant, grant, and agree, to and with the said George Rapp and his associates, as follows, viz. :

"ARTICLE I. We, the undersigned, for ourselves, our heirs, executors, and administrators, do hereby give, grant, and forever convey to thesaid George Rapp and his associates, and to their heirs and assigns, allour property, real, personal, and mixed, whether it be lands andtenements, goods and chattels, money or debts due to us, jointly orseverally, in possession, in remainder, or in reversion or expectancy, whatsoever and where so ever, without evasion, qualification, orreserve, as a free gift or donation, for the benefit and use of the saidassociation or community; and we do hereby bind ourselves, our heirs, executors, and administrators, to do all such other acts as may benecessary to vest a perfect title to the same in the said association, and to place the said property at the full disposal of thesuperintendent of the said community without delay. 

"ARTICLE II. We do further covenant and agree to and with the saidGeorge Rapp and his associates, that we will severally submit faithfullyto the laws and regulations of said community, and will at all timesmanifest a ready and cheerful obedience toward those who are or may beappointed as superintendents thereof, holding ourselves bound to promotethe interest and welfare of the said community, not only by the labor ofour own hands, but also by that of our children, our families, and allothers who now are or hereafter may be under our control. 

"ARTICLE III. If contrary to our expectation it should so happen that wecould not render the faithful obedience aforesaid, and should be inducedfrom that or any other cause to withdraw from the said association, thenand in such case we do expressly covenant and agree to and with the saidGeorge Rapp and his associates that we never will claim or demand, either for ourselves, our children, or for any one belonging to us, directly or indirectly, any compensation, wages, or reward whatever forour or their labor or services rendered to the said community, or to anymember thereof; but whatever we or our families jointly or severallyshall or may do, all shall be held and considered as a voluntary servicefor our brethren. 

"ARTICLE IV. In consideration of the premises, the said George Rapp andhis associates do, by these presents, adopt the undersigned jointly andseverally as members of the said community, whereby each of them obtainsthe privilege of being present at every religious meeting, and ofreceiving not only for themselves, but also for their children andfamilies, all such instructions in church and school as may bereasonably required, both for their temporal good and for their eternalfelicity. 

"ARTICLE V. The said George Rapp and his associates further agree tosupply the undersigned severally with all the necessaries of life, asclothing, meat, drink, lodging, etc. , for themselves and their families. And this provision is not limited to their days of health and strength;but when any of them shall become sick, infirm, or otherwise unfit forlabor, the same support and maintenance shall be allowed as before, together with such medicine, care, attendance, and consolation as theirsituation may reasonably demand. And if at any time after they havebecome members of the association, the father or mother of a familyshould die or be otherwise separated from the community, and shouldleave their family behind, such family shall not be left orphans ordestitute, but shall partake of the same rights and maintenance asbefore, so long as they remain in the association, as well in sicknessas in health, and to such extent as their circumstances may require. 

"ARTICLE VI. And if it should so happen as above mentioned that any ofthe undersigned should violate his or their agreement, and would orcould not submit to the laws and regulations of the church or thecommunity, and for that or any other cause should withdraw from theassociation, then the said George Rapp and his associates agree torefund to him or them the value of all such property as he or they mayhave brought into the community, in compliance with the first article ofthis agreement, the said value to be refunded without interest, in one, two, or three annual installments, as the said George Rapp and hisassociates shall determine. And if the person or persons so withdrawingthemselves were poor, and brought nothing into the community, notwithstanding they depart openly and regularly, they shall receive adonation in money, according to the length of their stay and to theirconduct, and to such amount as their necessities may require, in thejudgment of the superintendents of the association. "

In 1818, as before mentioned, a book in which was recorded the amount ofproperty contributed by each member to the general fund was destroyed. In 1836 a change was made in the formal constitution or agreement abovequoted, in the following words:

1st. The sixth article [in regard to refunding] is entirely annulledand made void, as if it had never existed, all others to remain in fullforce as heretofore. 

2d. All the property of the society, real, personal, and mixed, in lawor equity, and howsoever contributed or acquired, shall be deemed, nowand forever, joint and indivisible stock. Each individual is to beconsidered to have finally and irrevocably parted with all his formercontributions, whether in lands, goods, money, or labor, and the samerule shall apply to all future contributions, whatever they may be. 

3d. Should any individual withdraw from the society or depart this life, neither he, in the one case, nor his representatives in the other, shallbe entitled to demand an account of said contributions, or to claim anything from the society as a matter of right. But it shall be leftaltogether to the discretion of the superintendent to decide whetherany, and, if any, what allowance shall be made to such member or hisrepresentatives as a donation. 

These amendments were signed by three hundred and ninety-one members, being all who then constituted the society. No other changes have beenmade; but on the death of Father Rapp, on the 7th of August, 1847, thewhole society signed the constitution again, and put in office twotrustees and seven elders, to perform all the duties and assume all theauthority which Father Rapp had relinquished with his life. 

Under this simple constitution the Harmony Society has flourished forsixty-nine years; nor has its life been threatened by disagreements, except in the case of the Count de Leon's intrigue. It has sufferedthree or four lawsuits from members who had left it; but in every casethe courts have decided for the society, after elaborate, and in somecases long-continued trials. It has always lived in peace and friendshipwith its neighbors. 

Its real estate and other property was, from the foundation until hisdeath in 1834, held in the name of Frederick (Reichert) Rapp, who was anexcellent business man, and conducted all its dealings with the outsideworld, and had charge of its temporalities generally; the elder Rappavoiding for himself all general business. Upon Frederick's death thesociety formally and unanimously imposed upon Father Rapp the care ofthe temporal as well as the spiritual affairs of the littlecommonwealth, placing in his name the title to all their property. 

But, as he did not wish to let temporal concerns interfere with hisspiritual functions, and as besides he was then growing old, being in1834 seventy-seven years of age, he appointed as his helpers andsubagents two members, R. L. Baker and J. Henrici, the latter of whom isstill, with Mr. Jonathan Lenz, the head of the society, Mr. Baker havingdied some years ago. 

The theological belief of the Harmony Society naturally crystallizedunder the preaching and during the life of Father Rapp. It has somefeatures of German mysticism, grafted upon a practical application ofthe Christian doctrine and theory. 

At the foundation of all lies a strong determination to make thepreparation of their souls or spirits for the future life thepre-eminent business of life, and to obey in the strictest and mostliteral manner what they believe to be the will of God as revealed anddeclared by Jesus Christ. In the following paragraphs I give a briefsummary of what may be called their creed:

I. They hold that Adam was created "in the likeness of God;" that he wasa dual being, containing within his own person both the sexual elements, reading literally, in confirmation of this, the text (Gen. I. 26, 27):"And God said, Let us make man in _our_ image, after _our_likeness, and let _them_ have dominion;" and, "So God created man inhis own image, in the image of God created he him; male and femalecreated he them;" which they hold to denote that both the Creator and thefirst created were of this dual nature. They believe that had Adam beencontent to remain in his original state, he would have increased withoutthe help of a female, bringing forth new beings like himself to replenishthe earth. 

II. But Adam fell into discontent; and God separated from his body thefemale part, and gave it him according to his desire; and therein theybelieve consisted the fall of man. 

III. From this they deduce that the celibate state is more pleasing toGod; that in the renewed world man will be restored to the dual Godlikeand Adamic condition; and, IV. They hold that the coming of Christ and the renovation of the worldare near at hand. This nearness of the millennium is a cardinal point ofdoctrine with them; and Father Rapp firmly believed that he would liveto see the wished-for reappearance of Christ in the heavens, and that hewould be permitted to present his company of believers to the Saviourwhom they endeavored to please with their lives. So vivid was thisbelief in him, that it lead some of his followers to fondly fancy thatFather Rapp would not die before Christ's coming; and there is atouching story of the old man, that when he felt death upon him, at theage of ninety, he said, "If I did not know that the dear Lord meant Ishould present you all to him, I should think my last moments come. "These were indeed his last words. To be in constant readiness for thereappearance of Christ is one of the aims of the society; nor have itsmembers ever faltered in the faith that this great event is near athand. 

V. Jesus they hold to have been born "in the likeness of theFather"--that is to say, a dual being, as Adam before the fall. 

VI. They hold that Jesus taught and commanded a community of goods; andrefer to the example of the early Christians as proof. 

VII. They believe in the ultimate redemption and salvation of allmankind; but hold that only those who follow the celibate life, andotherwise conform to what they understand to be the commandments ofJesus, will come at once into the bright and glorious company of Christand his companions; that offenders will undergo a probation forpurification. 

VIII. They reject and detest what is commonly called "Spiritualism. "

As the practical application to their daily lives of the religious faithwhich I have concisely stated, Father Rapp taught humility, simplicityin living, self-sacrifice, love to your neighbor, regular andpersevering industry, prayer and self-examination. 

In the admission of new members, they exact a complete confession ofsins to one of the elders of the society, as being a wholesome andnecessary part of true repentance, requisite to secure the forgivenessof God. 

On Sunday two services are held, besides a Sunday-school for thechildren; and the preacher, who is the head of the society, does notstand up when delivering his discourse, but sits at a table on aplatform. The church has two doors, and the men enter at one, the womenat the other, each sex occupying one end of the building by itself; thepulpit being in the middle, and opposite a raised and enclosed spacewherein sit the elders and the choir. 

They observe as holy days Christmas, Good Friday and Easter, andPentecost; and three great festivals of their own--the 15th of February, which is the anniversary of their foundation; Harvest-Home, in theautumn; and an annual Lord's Supper in October. On these festivaloccasions they assemble in a great hall; and there, after singing andaddresses, a feast is served, there being an elaborate kitchen adjacentto the hall on purpose for the preparation of these feasts, while in thecellars of the same building are stores of wine of different ages andkinds. 

They live well; all of them eat meat, and but a few abstain from pork. They rise between five and six, according to the season of the year; eata light breakfast between six and seven; have a lunch at nine; dinner attwelve; an afternoon lunch, called "_vesper brodt_" at three; towhich, when they have labored hard in the fields, they add wine or cider;supper between six and seven; and they go to bed by nine o'clock. 

Father Rapp taught that every one ought to labor with his hands, and atagricultural labor where this was possible. He was himself fond ofout-door employments, and liked to be in the fields, helping the plowmenor harvesters. The women attend to the housekeeping; and as this issimple and quickly done, they are fond of working in the gardensattached to the houses. In the old times, women as well as men laboredin the fields in harvest time, or at other times when work was pressing;and the younger women still follow this habit, which was probablybrought over from Germany. 

Each household consists of men and women to the number of from four toeight, and usually in equal numbers. The houses have but one entrancedoor from the street. They carpet their floors, and generally denythemselves no comforts compatible with simplicity of life. 

Father Rapp taught them to love music and flowers; almost all the peoplecan read music, and there are but few who have not learned to play uponsome instrument. In their worship they use instrumental music; and itforms an important part in their feasts. They do not practice dancing, to which they have always felt opposed. As they study plainness ofdress, they use no jewelry. 

They once had a museum, which has been sold. Father Rapp's housecontains a number of pictures, among them a fine copy of Benjamin West's"Christ Healing the Sick;" the church and assembly hall have no works ofart. The people read the newspapers; and those who wish for books havethem, there being a library; but "the Bible is the book chiefly readamong us, " I was told. 

Father Rapp taught that it was advisable for the society to make all itcould for itself; and he had an intelligent appreciation of the value oflabor-saving machinery. Economy has therefore complete and wellfurnished shops of various kinds. Its steam laundry is admirablycontrived; and its slaughter-house, with piggery and soap-boiling housenear by; its machine shop, with a cider-boiler annexed; its saw-mill, wagon shop, blacksmith shop, tannery, carpenter's shop, bakery, vinegarfactory (where much cider is utilized), hattery, tailor's andshoemaker's shops, tin shop, saddlery shop, and weaver's shop, show howvarious were and are the industries followed here, and how completelyfurnished the society was, from within, for all the wants of daily life. I saw even a shop for the repair of clocks and watches, and a barber'sshop; the barber serving the aged and sick, and being otherwise foremanof the tailor's shop. 

[Illustration: A STREET VIEW IN ECONOMY]

[Illustration: FATHER RAPP'S HOUSE--ECONOMY. ]

In this long list I have not specified the brewery, grist-mill, a largegranary, a cotton and a woolen mill; nor the two great cellars full offine wine casks, which would make a Californian envious, so well-builtare they. 

There is also a school, and the Harmony people have always kept up agood school for the children in their charge. They aim to give eachchild an elementary education, and afterwards a trade; and as the boyslearn also agricultural labors of different kinds, they are generallyself-helpful when they pass into the world. The instruction is in Germanand English; and the small girls and boys whom I examined wrote verywell. 

Each family cooks for itself. There were formerly bake-ovens in everyblock, one being used by several families; but there is now a generalbakery, whence all carry bread in indefinite and unlimited supplies. Milk, too, is brought to the houses, and from what each householdreceives, it saves the cream for butter. When the butcher kills a beef, a little boy is sent around the village, who knocks at each window andcries out "_Sollt fleisch holen_"--"Come and get meat"--and thebutcher serves to each household sufficient for its wants. Other suppliesfor the household are dealt out from the general storehouse at statedperiods; but if any one needs more, he has only to apply. Tea is notgenerally used. 

Clothing is given out as it is needed by each person; and I was toldthat the tailor usually keeps his eye upon the people's coats andtrousers, the shoemaker upon their shoes, and so on; each counting it amatter of honor or pride that the brethren shall be decently andcomfortably clad. 

"As each labors for all, and as the interest of one is the interest ofall, there is no occasion for selfishness, and no room for waste. Wewere brought up to be economical; to waste is a sin; we live simply; andeach has enough, all that he can eat and wear, and no man can use morethan that. " This was the simple explanation I received from a Harmonist, when I wondered whether some family or person would not be wasteful orgreedy. 

In the season, all the people who are not too old labor more or less inthe fields and orchards. This is their habit, and is thought healthfulto body and soul. 

The Harmonists have usually attained a hale and happy old age. I hadaccess to no mortuary records, and there are no monuments in thecemetery, but a great part of the people have lived to be seventy andover; and they die without fear, trusting that they are the chosenpeople of the Lord. 

Such is Economy at this time. Its large factories are closed, for itspeople are too few to man them; and the members think it wiser and morecomfortable for themselves to employ labor at a distance from their owntown. They are pecuniarily interested in coal-mines, in saw-mills, andoil-wells; and they control manufactories at Beaver Falls--notably acutlery shop, the largest in the United States, and one of the largestin the world, where of late they have begun to employ two hundredChinese; and it is creditable to the Harmony people that they look afterthe intellectual and spiritual welfare of these strangers as but too fewemployers do. 

"Is there any monument to Father Rapp?" I asked; and the old man to whomI put the question said, quietly, "Yes, all that you see here, aroundus. "

His body lies in a grave undistinguishable from others surrounding it. There is no portrait of him--for he always refused to sit for one. Buthis memory is most tenderly and reverently cherished by his followersand survivors. From a number of persons I gathered the followingpersonal details, which give a picture of the man: He was nearly if notquite six feet high; well-built, with blue eyes, a somewhat statelywalk, and a full beard, which he was the first in the society to wear. He was extremely industrious, and never wasted even a minute; knewadmirably how to use every spare moment. He was cheerful, kindly, talkative; plain-spoken when he had to find fault; not veryenthusiastic, but somewhat dry and very practical. In his earlier years, in Germany, he was witty; and to the last he was ready and apt inspeech. His conversation centered always upon religion and the conductof life; and no matter with whom he was speaking, or what was thecharacter of the person, Rapp knew very well how to lead the talk tothese topics. 

The young people were very fond of him. "He was a man before whom noevil could stand. " "When I met him in the street, if I had a bad thoughtin my head, it flew away. " He was constantly in the fields or in thefactories, cheering, encouraging, or advising the people. "He knew everything--how to do it, what was the best way. " "Ah, he was a _man_; hetold us what to do, and how to be good. " In his spare moments he studiedbotany, geology, astronomy, mechanics. "He was never idle, not even aquarter of an hour. " He believed much in work; thought hard field-work agood cure for spiritual as well as bodily diseases. He was an"extraordinarily eloquent preacher;" and it is a singular fact that, dying at the great age of ninety, he preached in the church twice buttwo Sundays before his death; and on the Sunday before he died addressedhis people from the window of his sick-room. He was "a good man, withtrue, honest eyes. " He "always labored against selfishness, and to servethe brethren and the Lord. " He appears to have abhorred ostentation andneedless forms and ceremonies, for he sat while preaching; neverprescribed any uniform dress or peculiar form of speech; and neither intheir worship nor in their daily lives taught the people to make merelyformal differences between themselves and the world at large. That hedid not feel the necessity of such outward protests against "the world, "and relied for the bond of union in the community so entirely upon theeffect of his teachings, seems to me one of the surest and mostsignificant proofs of his real power. 

Such is the report of their founder and guide from the older men nowliving, who knew him well. That he was a man of great force and highcharacter it seems to be impossible to doubt. It has often been reportedthat he was tyrannical and self-seeking; and that he chose his peoplefrom among the most ignorant, in order to rule them. But the presentmembers of the Harmony Society cannot be called ignorant: they are asimple and pious people, but not incapable of taking care of their owninterests; and their opinion of their founder is probably the correctone. Their love and reverence for him, their recital of his goodness, ofhis abilities, and of his intercourse with them, are the best testimonyas to his character; and their continuance in the course he laid out forthem, for more than a quarter of a century since his death, shows thatnot only did his teaching and life inspire confidence, but also that histraining bore wholesome fruit in them. 

He made religion the most important interest in the lives of hisfollowers. Not only did he preach on Sundays, but he admonished, encouraged, reproved, and advised constantly during the week; he dividedthe people into companies or classes, who met on week-day evenings formutual counsel in religious matters, and with these he constantly met;he visited the sick; he buried the dead--with great plainness and lackof ceremony. He taught that they ought to purify the body, and he washimself a model of plain and somewhat rigid and practical living, and ofself-abnegation; and I think no thoughtful man can hear his story fromthe older members of the society who were brought up under his rule, andconsider the history of Economy, and the present daily life of itspeople, without conceiving a great respect for Father Rapp's powers andfor the use he made of them. 

Pecuniarily Rapp's experiment has been an extraordinary success. Thesociety is now reported to be worth from two to three millions ofdollars. By an investigation into all its affairs and interests, made inthe Pennsylvania courts in 1854, by reason of a suit brought by aseceding member, it was shown to be worth at that time over a million. In these days of defaulting bank officers and numerous breaches oftrust, it is a singular commentary upon the communal system to know thatthe society has never required from its chiefs any report upon theiradministration of the finances. The investigation in the courts was thefirst insight they had since their foundation into the management oftheir affairs by Rapp and his successors; and there the utmost effortsof opposing lawyers, among whom, by the way, was Edwin M. Stanton, afterward Secretary of War, failed to discover the leastmaladministration or misappropriation of funds by the rulers; and provedthe integrity of all who had managed their extensive and complicatedbusiness from the beginning. 

As Father Rapp grew older, his influence over his people becameabsolute. His long life among them bore fruit in an unwaveringconfidence in his sound judgment and unselfish devotion. He appears tohave led them in right paths; for, though probably few will be found tosubscribe to their peculiar religious tenets, all their neighbors holdthem in the highest esteem, as just, honest, kindly, charitable, patriotic; good citizens, though they do not vote; careful of theirservants and laborers; fair and liberal in their dealings with theworld. 

Of Economy as it now is, what I have written gives a sufficientlyprecise view. The great factories are closed, and the people livequietly in their pretty and simple homes. The energies put in motion bytheir large capital are to be found at a distance from their village. Their means give employment to many hundreds of people in differentparts of Western Pennsylvania; and wherever I have come upon theirtraces, I have found the "Economites, " as they are commonly called, highly spoken of. They have not sought to accumulate wealth; but theirreluctance to enter into new enterprises has probably made them in thelong run only more successful, for it has made them prudent; and theyhave not been tempted to work on credit; while their command of readymoney has opened to them the best opportunities. 

The present managers or trustees ("_verwalter_") are Jacob Henriciand Jonathan Lenz. The first, who is also the religious head, being inthis respect the successor of R. L. Bäker, who was the successor ofFather Rapp, is a German by birth, and a man of culture and of deeppiety. He was educated to be a teacher; and entered the Harmony Societyin 1826, a year after its removal to Economy. Rapp appears to haveappreciated from the first his gentle spirit, piety, and sincere devotionto the community, as well as the importance of his culture and talents. He lived long in the house with Father Rapp, and was his intimate andconfidant. Upon Frederick Rapp's death, Father Rapp appointed Bäker andHenrici to attend to the temporal concerns with which he was thencharged; and upon the Elder Rapp's death, these two were chosen to takehis place. When Mr. Bäker died, Mr. Henrici was chosen to fill hisplace, and he selected Mr. Lenz to be his coadjutor. 

Mr. Lenz was born in the society in 1807, and has lived in it all hislife. He also is a man of some culture, of gentle and pleasant manners, and an excellent business man. 

Both are aged, Henrici being seventy, and Lenz sixty-seven. Both aretall, firmly built, and fine-looking men, with a peculiarly gentle andlovable expression of face. They live together in the house built forFather Rapp, where also live several of the older members, among themMiss Gertrude Rapp, a granddaughter of the founder, a charming old lady, with a very bright, intelligent face. All these old people are so wellpreserved, and have so free and wholesome an air, that intercourse withthem is not a slight argument to the visitor in favor of their simplemanner of life. 

There is a council of seven persons, from among whom the trustees arechosen. 

It is a curious fact that among the hired people of the society, livingin Economy, are a number whom they adopted as children and brought up, and who conform their lives in all respects, even to the celibatecondition, to the rules of the society, but prefer to labor for wagesrather than become members. 

The society does not seek new members, though I am told it would notrefuse any who seemed to have a true vocation. As to its future, littleis said. The people look for the coming of the Lord; they await theappearance of Christ in the heavens; and their chief aim is to be readyfor this great event, when they expect to be summoned to Palestine, tobe joined to the great crowd of the elect. Naturally there are notwanting, among their neighbors in Pittsburgh, people who are tormentedwith curiosity to know what is to become of the large property of theHarmonists when these old people finally, in the course of nature, passaway. "The Lord will show us a way, " is the answer at Economy to suchinquiries. "We have not trusted him in vain so far; we trust him still. He will give us a sign. "

THE SOCIETY OF SEPARATISTS, AT

ZOAR, OHIO. 

THE SOCIETY OF SEPARATISTS AT ZOAR. 

I. --HISTORY. 

The village of Zoar lies in Tuscarawas County, Ohio, about half-waybetween Cleveland and Pittsburgh, on a branch of the railroad whichconnects these two points. It is situated on the bank of the TuscarawasCreek, which affords at this point valuable water-power. The place isirregularly built, and contains fewer houses than a village of the samenumber of inhabitants usually has; but the dwellings are mostly quitelarge, and each accommodates several families. There is a commodiousbrick church, a large and well-fitted brick schoolhouse, an extensivecountry tavern or hotel, and a multitude of sheds and barns. There are, besides, several mills and factories; and in the middle of the village asomewhat elaborate, large, square house, which was the residence of thefounder and head of the society until his death, and is now used in partas a storehouse. 

Zoar is the home of a communistic society who call themselves"Separatists, " and who founded the village in 1817, and have here becomequite wealthy. They originated in Würtemberg, and, like the HarmonySociety, the Inspirationists, and others, were dissenters from theEstablished Church. The Separatists of southern Germany were equivalentto what in New England are called "Come Outers"--protestants against theprevailing religious faith, or, as they would say, lack of faith. 

These German "Come Outers" were for the most part mystics, who had readthe writings of Jacob Boehm, Gerhard Terstegen, and Jung Stilling; theycherished different religious or doctrinal beliefs, were stigmatized asfanatics, but were usually, I judge, simple-hearted, pious people, desirous to lead a more spiritual life than they found in the churches. 

Their refusal to send their children to the schools--which werecontrolled by the clergy--and to allow their young men to serve assoldiers, brought upon them persecution from both the secular and theecclesiastical authorities, resulting in flogging, imprisonment, andfines. The people who finally emigrated to Zoar, after enduring thesepersecutions for ten or twelve years gathered together in an obscurepart of Würtemberg, where, by the favor of a friend at court, they werepermitted to settle. But even from this refuge they were hunted outafter some years; and, finding no other resource left, they at lastdetermined to remove in a body to America, those few among them who hadproperty paying the passage of those who were without means. 

Their persecutions had, it seems, attracted the attention of someEnglish Quakers, who aided them to emigrate, and with kindly forethoughtsent in advance of them to certain Quakers in Philadelphia a sum ofmoney, amounting, I have been told, to eighteen dollars for each personof the company, with which their Philadelphia friends provided for themon their landing. This kind care is still acknowledged at Zoar as an"inestimable blessing. "

They arrived at Philadelphia in August, 1817, and almost immediatelybargained with one Hagar for a tract of five thousand six hundred acresof land, which they were, with the help of their Quaker friends, enabledto buy on favorable terms. It was a military grant in the wilderness ofOhio, and they agreed to give for it three dollars per acre, with acredit of fifteen years, the first three years without interest. 

Joseph Baumeler, whom they had chosen to be their leader, went out totake possession with a few able-bodied men, and these built the firstlog-hut on the 1st of December, 1817. During the following spring theremainder of the society followed; but many were so poor that they hadto take service with the neighboring farmers to earn a support for theirfamilies, and all lived in the poorest possible way. 

At this time they had no intention of forming a communistic society. They held their interests separately; and it was expected that eachmember should pay for his own share of the land, which had beenpurchased in order to be thus subdivided. Their purpose was to worshipGod according to their faith, in freedom, and to live, for that end, ina neighborhood. 

But, having among them a certain number of old and feeble people, andmany poor who found it difficult to save money to pay for their land, the leading men presently saw that the enterprise would fail unless itwas established upon a different foundation; and that necessity wouldcompel the people to scatter. Early in 1819 the leaders afterconsultation determined that, to succeed, they must establish acommunity of goods and efforts, and draw in to themselves all whompoverty had compelled to take service at a distance. This resolution waslaid before the whole society, and, after some weeks of discussion, wasagreed to; and on the 15th of April articles of agreement for acommunity of goods were signed. There were then about two hundred andtwenty-five persons--men, women, and children. The men werefarm-laborers, weavers, carpenters, bakers, but at first they had not ablacksmith among them. 

From this time they began to prosper. "We could never have paid for ourland, if we had not formed a community, " the older people told me; and, from all I could learn, I believe this to be true. 

At first they prohibited marriage, and it was not until 1828 or 1830that they broke down this rule. 

On forming a community, Joseph Baumeler, who had been a leading manamong them, was chosen to be their spiritual as well as temporal head. His name probably proved a stumbling-block to his American neighbors, for he presently began to spell it Bimeler--a phonetic rendering. Thusit appears in deeds and other public documents; and the people came tobe commonly spoken of as "Bimmelers. " Baumeler was originally a weaver, and later a teacher. He was doubtless a man of considerable ability, butnot comparable, I imagine, with Rapp. He appears to have been a fluentspeaker; and on Sundays he delivered to the society a long series ofdiscourses, which were after his death gathered together and printed inGerman in three ponderous octavo volumes. They concern themselves notonly with religious and communistic thoughts, but largely with the minormorals, manners, good order in housekeeping, cleanliness, healthobservances, and often with physiological details. 

In March, 1824, an amended constitution was adopted. Between 1828 and1830 they began to permit marriage, Baumeler himself taking a wife. In1832 the Legislature formally incorporated the "Separatist Society ofZoar, " and a new constitution, still in force, was signed in the sameyear. 

"As soon as we adopted community of goods we began to prosper, " said oneof the older members to me. Having abundance of hands, they set upshops; and, being poor and in debt, they determined to live rigidlywithin their means and from their own products. They crowded at firstinto a few small log-cabins; some of which are still standing, and areoccupied to this day. They kept cattle; were careful and laboriousfarmers; and setting up blacksmith's, carpenter's, and joiner's shops, they began to earn a little money from work done for the neighboringfarmers. Nevertheless their progress was slow, and they accounted it agreat piece of good fortune when in 1827 a canal was built through theirneighborhood. What with putting their own young men upon this work, andselling supplies to the contractors, they made enough money from thisenterprise to pay for their land; and thenceforth, with free hands, theybegan to accumulate wealth. 

They now own in one body over seven thousand acres of very fertile land, including extensive and valuable water-power, and have besides some landin Iowa. They have established a woolen factory, where they make clothand yarn for their own use and for sale. Also two large flour-mills, asaw-mill, planing-mill, machine shop, tannery, and dye-house. They havealso a country store for the accommodation of the neighborhood, a largehotel which receives summer visitors; and for their own use theymaintain a wagon shop, blacksmith's and carpenter's shops, tailors, dressmakers, shoemakers, a cider-mill, a small brewery, and a few loomsfor weaving linen. They employ constantly about fifty persons notmembers of the community, besides "renters;" who manage some of theirfarms on shares. 

They have now (in the spring of 1874) about three hundred members, andtheir property is worth more than a million dollars. 

II. --RELIGIOUS FAITH AND PRACTICAL LIFE. 

The "Principles of the Separatists, " which are printed in the firstvolume of Joseph Baumeler's discourses, were evidently framed inGermany. They consist of twelve articles:

"I. We believe and confess the Trinity of God: Father, Son, and HolyGhost. 

"II. The fall of Adam, and of all mankind, with the loss thereby of thelikeness of God in them. 

"III. The return through Christ to God, our proper Father. 

"IV. The Holy Scriptures as the measure and guide of our lives, and thetouchstone of truth and falsehood. 

"All our other principles arise out of these, and rule our conduct inthe religious, spiritual, and natural life. 

"V. All ceremonies are banished from among us, and we declare themuseless and injurious; and this is the chief cause of our Separation. 

"VI. We render to no mortal honors due only to God, as to uncover thehead, or to bend the knee. Also we address every one as 'thou'--_du_. 

"VII. We separate ourselves from all ecclesiastical connections andconstitutions, because true Christian life requires no sectarianism, while set forms and ceremonies cause sectarian divisions. 

"VIII. Our marriages are contracted by mutual consent, and beforewitnesses. They are then notified to the political authority; and wereject all intervention of priests or preachers. 

"IX. All intercourse of the sexes, except what is necessary to theperpetuation of the species, we hold to be sinful and contrary to theorder and command of God. Complete virginity or entire cessation ofsexual commerce is more commendable than marriage. 

"X. We cannot send our children into the schools of Babylon [meaning theclerical schools of Germany], where other principles contrary to theseare taught. 

"XI. We cannot serve the state as soldiers, because a Christian cannotmurder his enemy, much less his friend. 

"XII. We regard the political government as absolutely necessary tomaintain order, and to protect the good and honest and punish thewrong-doers; and no one can prove us to be untrue to the constitutedauthorities. "

For adhering to these tolerably harmless articles of faith, theysuffered bitter persecution in Germany in the beginning of this century. 

Subject to the above declaration they have a formal constitution, whichdivides the members into two classes, the novitiates and the fullassociates. The former are required to serve at least one year beforeadmission to the second class, and this is exacted even of their ownchildren, if on attaining majority they wish to enter the society. 

The members of the first or probationary class do not give up theirproperty. They sign an agreement, "for the furtherance of theirspiritual and temporal welfare and happiness, " in which they "bindthemselves to labor, obey, and execute all the orders of the trusteesand their successors, " and to "use all their industry and skill inbehalf of the exclusive benefit of the said Separatist Society of Zoar;"and to put their minor children under the exclusive guardianship andcare of the trustees. 

The trustees on their part, and for the society, agree to secure to thesigners of these articles "board and clothing free of cost, the clothingto consist of at any time no less than two suits, including the clothesbrought by the said party of the first part to this society. " Alsomedical attendance and nursing in case of sickness. "Good moral conduct, such as is enjoined by the strict observance of the principles of HolyWrit, " is also promised by both parties; and it is stipulated that "noextra supplies shall be asked or allowed, neither in meat, drink, clothing, nor dwelling (cases of sickness excepted); but such, if anycan be allowed to exist, may and shall be obtained [by the neophytes]through means of their own, and never out of the common fund. "

All money in possession of the probationer must be deposited with thesociety when he signs the agreement; for it a receipt is given, makingthe deposit payable to him on his demand, without interest. 

Finally, it is agreed that all disputes shall be settled by arbitrationalone, and within the society. 

When a member of the first or probationary class desires to be receivedinto full membership, he applies to the trustees, who formally hear hisdemand, inquire into the reasons he can give for it, and if they know nogood cause why he should not be admitted, they thereupon give thirtydays' notice to the society of the time and place at which he is to signthe covenant. If during that interval no member makes charges againsthim, and if he has no debts, and is ready to make over any property hemay have, he is allowed to sign the following COVENANT:

"We, the subscribers, members of the Society of Separatists of thesecond class, declare hereby that we give all our property, of everykind, not only what we already possess, but what we may hereafter comeinto possession of by inheritance, gift, or otherwise, real andpersonal, and all rights, titles, and expectations whatever, both forourselves and our heirs, to the said society forever, to be and remain, not only during our lives, but after our deaths, the exclusive propertyof the society. Also we promise and bind ourselves to obey all thecommands and orders of the trustees and their subordinates, with theutmost zeal and diligence, without opposition or grumbling; and todevote all our strength, good-will, diligence, and skill, during ourwhole lives, to the common service of the society and for thesatisfaction of its trustees. Also we consign in a similar manner ourchildren, so long as they are minors, to the charge of the trustees, giving these the same rights and powers over them as though they hadbeen formally indentured to them under the laws of the state. "

Finally, there is a formal CONSTITUTION, which prescribes the order ofadministration; and which also is signed by all the members. Accordingto this instrument, all officers are to be elected by the whole society, the women voting as well as the men. All elections are to be by ballot, and by the majority vote; and they are to be held on the second Tuesdayin May. The society is to elect annually one trustee and one member ofthe standing committee or council, once in four years a cashier, and anagent whenever a vacancy occurs or is made. The time and place of theelection are to be made public twenty days beforehand by the trustees, and four members are to be chosen at each election to be managers andjudges at the next. 

The trustees, three in number, are to serve three years, but may beindefinitely re-elected. They have unlimited power over all thetemporalities of the society, but are bound to provide board, clothing, and dwelling for each member, "without respect of persons;" and to useall confided to their charge for the best interests of the society. Theyare to manage all its industries and affairs, and to prescribe to eachmember his work; "but in all they do they are to have the generalconsent of the society. " They are to appoint subordinates andsuperintendents of the different industries; are to consult in difficultcases with the Standing Committee of Five, and are with its help to keepthe peace among the members. 

The agent is the trader of the society, who is to be its intermediatewith the outside world, to buy and sell. This office is now held by theleading trustee. 

The standing committee is a high court of appeals in cases ofdisagreement, and a general council for the agent and trustees. 

The cashier is to have the sole and exclusive control of all the moneysof the society, the trustees and agent being obliged to hand over to hiscustody all they receive. He is also the book-keeper, and is required togive an annual account to the trustees. 

The constitution is to be read in a public and general meeting of thesociety at least once in every year. 

The system of administration thus prescribed appears to have workedsatisfactorily for more than forty years. 

"Do you favor marriage?" I asked some of the older members, trustees, and managers. They answered "No;" but they exact no penalty nor inflictany disability upon those who choose to marry. "Marriage, " I was told, "is on the whole unfavorable to community life. It is better to observethe celibate life. But it is not, in our experience, fatally adverse. Itonly makes more trouble; and in either case, whether a community permitor forbid marriage, it may lose members. "

About half of their young people, who have grown up in the society, become permanent members, and as many young men as girls. They do notpermit members to marry outside of the society; and require those who doto leave the place. "Men and women need to be trained to live peaceablyand contentedly in a community. Those who have been brought up outsidedo not find matters to their taste here. "

Baumeler taught that God did not look with pleasure on marriage, butthat he only tolerated it; that in the kingdom of heaven "husband, wife, and children will not know each other;" "there will be no distinction ofsex there. " Nevertheless he married, and had a family of children. 

When a young couple wish to marry, they consult the trustees, whoseconsent is required in this as in the other emergencies of the communitylife; and the more so as they must provide lodgings or a dwelling forthe newly married, and furniture for their housekeeping. Weddings, however, are economically managed, and the parents of the partiesusually contribute of their superfluities for the young couple'saccommodation. 

When marriages began among them, a rule was adopted that the childrenshould remain in the care of their parents until they were three yearsold; at which time they were placed in large houses, the girls in one, boys in another, where they were brought up under the care of personsespecially appointed for that purpose; nor did they ever again comeunder the exclusive control of their parents. This singular custom, which is practiced also by the Oneida communists, lasted at Zoar untilthe year 1845, when it was found inconvenient. 

[Illustration: CHURCH AT ZOAR]

[Illustration: SCHOOL HOUSE AT ZOAR]

The sixty or seventy young persons under twenty-one now in the communitylive with their parents. Until the age of fifteen they are sent toschool, and a school is maintained all the year round. Usually theinstruction has been in German; but when I visited Zoar they had anAmerican teacher. 

On the blackboard, when I visited the school, a pupil had just completedan example in proportion, concerning the division of property amongheirs; and I thought how remarkable it is that the community life everlasts, in any experiment, beyond the first generation, when even theexamples by which children of a community are taught arithmetic refer todivision of property and individual ownership, and every piece ofliterature they read tends to inculcate the love of "me" and "mine. " Ido not wonder that general literary studies are not encouraged in manycommunities. As for the Zoar people, they are not great readers, exceptof the Bible and the few pious books which they brought over fromGermany, or have imported since. 

The Zoar communists belong to the peasant class of Southern Germany. They are therefore unintellectual; and they have not risen in culturebeyond their original condition. Nor were their leaders men above thegeneral level of the rank and file; for Baumeler has left upon thesociety no marks to show that he strove for or desired a higher lifehere, or that he in the least valued beauty, or even what we Americanscall comfort. The little town of Zoar, though founded fifty-six yearsago, has yet no foot pavements; it remains without regularity of design;the houses are for the most part in need of paint; and there is aboutthe place a general air of neglect and lack of order, a shabbiness, which I noticed also in the Aurora community in Oregon, and which shocksone who has but lately visited the Shakers and the Rappists. 

The Zoarites have achieved comfort--according to the German peasant'snotion--and wealth. They are relieved from severe toil, and have driventhe wolf permanently from their doors. Much more they might haveaccomplished; but they have not been taught the need of more. They aresober, quiet, and orderly, very industrious, economical, and the amountof ingenuity and business skill which they have developed is quiteremarkable. 

Comparing Zoar and Aurora with Economy, I saw the extreme importance andvalue in such an experiment of leaders with ideas at least a step higherthan those of their people. There is about Economy a tasteful finishwhich shows a desire for something higher than mere bread and butter, aneatness and striving for a higher kind of comfort, which makes Economya model town, while the other two, though formed by people generally ofthe same social plane, are far below in the scale. 

Yet, when I had left Zoar, and was compelled to wait for an hour at therailroad station, listening to men cursing in the presence of women andchildren; when I saw how much roughness there is in the life of thecountry people, I concluded that, rude and uninviting as the life inZoar seemed to me, it was perhaps still a step higher, more decent, morefree from disagreeables, and upon a higher moral scale, than the averagelife of the surrounding country. And if this is true, the community lifehas even here achieved moral results, as it certainly has material, worthy of the effort. 

Moreover, considering the dull and lethargic appearance of the people, Iwas struck with surprise that they have been able to manage successfullycomplicated machinery, and to carry on several branches of manufactureprofitably. Their machine shop makes and repairs all their ownmachinery; their gristmills have to compete with those of thesurrounding country; their cattle, horses, and sheep--of the latter theykeep no less than 1400 head--are known as the best in the county; theirhotel is a favorite summer resort; their store supplies theneighborhood; and they have found among themselves ability enough toconduct successfully all these and several other callings, all of whichrequire both working skill and business acuteness. 

They rise at six, or in summer at daylight, breakfast at seven, dine attwelve, and sup at six. During the long summer days they have two"bites" between meals. They do not eat pork, and a few refrain entirelyfrom meat. They use both tea and coffee, and drink also cider and beer. Tobacco is forbidden, but it is used by some of the younger people. Inthe winter they labor in their shops after supper until eight o'clock. 

Each family cooks for itself; but they have a general bakehouse, andmake excellent bread. They have no general laundry. They have led waterinto the village from a reservoir on a hill beyond. Most of the housesaccommodate several families, but each manages its own affairs. Tea, coffee, sugar, and other "groceries, " are served out to all householdersonce a week. The young girls are taught to sew, knit, and spin, and todo the work of the household. The boys, when they leave school, aretaught trades or put on the farm. 

In their religious observances they studiously avoid forms. On Sundaythey have three meetings. In the morning there is singing, after whichthe leading trustee reads one of Baumeler's discourses, which they arecareful not to call sermons. In the afternoon there is a children'smeeting, where there is singing, and reading in the Bible. In theevening they meet to sing and hear reading from some work whichinterests them. They do not practice audible or public prayer. There areno religious meetings during the week; but the boys meet occasionally topractice music, as they have a band. The church has an organ, andseveral of the houses have pianos. They do not allow dancing. There isno "preacher, " or clergyman. They have printed a hymn-book, which isused in their worship. 

Baumeler had some knowledge of homoeopathy, and was during his life thephysician of the community, and they still use the system of medicinewhich he introduced among them. Like all the communists I have known, they are long-lived. A number of members have lived to past eighty--theoldest now is ninety-one; and he, strangely enough, is an American, anative of New Hampshire, who, after a roving life in the West, at last, when past fifty, became a Shaker, and after eleven years among thatpeople, came to Zoar twenty-eight years ago, and has lived here eversince. The old fellow showed the shrewd intelligence of the Yankee, asking me whether we New-Yorkers were likely after all to beat theTammany Ring; and declaring his belief that the Roman Catholics were theworst enemies of the United States. He appeared to be, what a person ofhis age usually is if he retain his faculties, a sort ofadviser-general; he sat in the common room of the hotel, and when anyone came in he asked him about his business, and gave him advice what todo. 

The oldest German member is now eighty-six; and there are still betweenthirty and forty people who came over from Germany with Baumeler. Thelatter died in 1853, at the age of seventy-five. 

Most of the members now are middle-aged people, and the society isprosperous. Thirty-five years ago, however, it had double the number itnow counts. Occasionally members leave; and in the society's early daysit had much trouble and suffered some losses from suits for wagesbrought against it by dissatisfied persons. Hence the stringent terms ofthe covenant. 

They use neither Baptism nor the Lord's Supper. 

In summer the women labor in the fields, to get in hay, potatoes, and inharvesting the grain. 

They address each other only by the first name, use no title of anykind, and say thou (_du_) to all. Also they keep their hats on in apublic room. The church has two doors, one for the women, the other forthe men, and the sexes sit on different sides of the house. 

The hotel contains a queer, old-fashioned bar, at which the generalpublic may drink beer, cider, or California wine. In the evening thesitting-room is filled with the hired laborers of the society, and withthe smoke of their pipes. 

Such is Zoar. Its people would not attract attention any where; theydress and look like common laborers; their leading trustee, JacobAckermann, who has carried on the affairs of the society for thirtyyears and more, might easily be taken for a German farm-hand. It is themore wonderful to compare the people with what they have achieved. Theirleader and founder taught them self-sacrifice, a desire for heavenlythings, temperance, or moderation in all things, preference of others tothemselves, contentment--and these virtues, together with a prudence inthe management of their affairs which has kept them out of debt sincethey paid for their land, and uprightness in their agents which hasprotected them against defalcations, have wrought, with very humbleintelligence, and very narrow means at the beginning, the result one nowsees at Zoar. 

THE SHAKERS. 

I. 

The Shakers have the oldest existing communistic societies on thiscontinent. They are also the most thoroughly organized, and in somerespects the most successful and flourishing. 

Mount Lebanon, the parent society, and still the thriftiest, wasestablished in 1792, eighty-two years ago. 

The Shakers have eighteen societies, scattered over seven states; buteach of these societies contains several families; and as each "family"is practically, and for all pecuniary and property ends, a distinctcommune, there are in fact fifty-eight Shaker communities, which I havefound to be in a more or less prosperous condition. These fifty-eightfamilies contain an aggregate population of 2415 souls, and own realestate amounting to about one hundred thousand acres, of which nearlyfifty thousand are in their own home farms. 

Moreover, the Shakers have, as will be seen further on, a prettythoroughly developed and elaborate system of theology; and aconsiderable literature of their own, to which they attach greatimportance. 

The Shakers are a celibate order, composed of men and women livingtogether in what they call "families, " and having agriculture as thebase of their industry, though most of them unite with this one or moreother avocations. They have a uniform style of dress; call each other bytheir first names; say yea and nay, but not thee or thou; and theirsocial habits have led them to a generally similar style of housearchitecture, whose peculiarity is that it seeks only the useful, andcares nothing for grace or beauty, and carefully avoids ornament. 

They are pronounced Spiritualists, and hold that "there is the mostintimate connection and the most constant communion between themselvesand the inhabitants of the world of spirits. "

They assert that the second appearance of Christ upon earth has been;and that they are the only true Church, "in which revelation, spiritualism, celibacy, oral confession, community, non-resistance, peace, the gift of healing, miracles, physical health, and separationfrom the world are the foundations of the new heavens. " [Footnote:"Autobiography of a Shaker, " etc. , by Elder Frederick W. Evans. ]

In practical life they are industrious, peaceful, honest, highlyingenious, patient of toil, and extraordinarily cleanly. 

Finally, they are to a large extent of American birth, and English is, of course, their language. 

II. --"MOTHER ANN. "

The "Millennial Church, or United Society of Believers, commonly calledShakers, " was formally organized at New Lebanon, a village in ColumbiaCounty, New York, in September, 1787, three years after the death of AnnLee, whose followers they profess themselves, and whom they revere asthe second appearance of Christ upon this earth, holding that Christappeared first in the body of Jesus. 

Ann Lee, according to the account of her accepted among and published bythe Shakers, was an English woman, born of humble parents in Manchester, February 29th, 1736. Her father was a blacksmith; she was one of eightchildren; in her childhood she was employed in a cotton factory, andlater as a cutter of hatters' fur. She was also at one time cook in aManchester infirmary; and to the day of her death she could neither readnor write. 

[Illustration: A GROUP OF SHAKERS]

About the year 1747, some members of the Society of Quakers, under theinfluence of a religious revival, formed themselves into a society, atthe head of which was a pious couple, Jane and James Wardley. To thesepeople Ann Lee and her parents joined themselves in 1758, Ann being thentwenty-three years of age and unmarried. These people sufferedpersecution from the ungodly, and some of them were even cast intoprison, on account of certain unusual and violent manifestations ofreligious fervor, which caused them to receive the name of "ShakingQuakers;" and it was while Ann Lee thus lay in jail, in the summer of1770, that "by a special manifestation of divine light the presenttestimony of salvation and eternal life was fully revealed to her, " andby her to the society, "by whom she from that time was acknowledged as_mother_ in Christ, and by them was called _Mother Ann_. "[Footnote: "Shakers' Compendium of the Origin, History, etc. , withBiographies of Ann Lee, " etc. By F. W. Evans, 1859. ]

She saw the Lord Jesus Christ in his glory, who revealed to her thegreat object of her prayers, and fully satisfied all the desires of hersoul. The most astonishing visions and divine manifestations werepresented to her view in so clear and striking a manner that the wholespiritual world seemed displayed before her. In these extraordinarymanifestations she had a full and clear view of the mystery of iniquity, of the root and foundation of human depravity, and of the very act oftransgression committed by the first man and woman in the garden ofEden. Here she saw whence and wherein all mankind were lost from God, and clearly realized the only possible way of recovery. [Footnote: "ASummary View of the Millennial Church, " etc. Albany, 1848. ]

"By the immediate revelation of Christ, she henceforth bore an opentestimony against the lustful gratifications of the flesh as the sourceand foundation of human corruption; and testified, in the most plain andpointed manner, that no soul could follow Christ in the regenerationwhile living in the works of natural generation, or in any of thegratifications of lust. " [Footnote: "A Summary View of the MillennialChurch, " etc. ]

In a volume of "Hymns and Poems for the Use of Believers" (Watervliet, Ohio, 1833), Adam is made to confess the nature of his transgression andthe cause of his fall, in a dialogue with his children:

 "_First Adam being dead, yet speaketh, in a dialogue with his children_. 

 "_Children_. First Father Adam, where art thou? With all thy num'rous fallen race; We must demand an answer now, For time hath stript our hiding-place. Wast thou in nature made upright-- Fashion'd and plac'd in open light?

 "_Adam_. Yea truly I was made upright: This truth I never have deni'd, And while I liv'd I lov'd the light, But I transgress'd and then I died. Ye've heard that I transgress'd and fell-- This ye have heard your fathers tell. 

 "_Ch_. Pray tell us how this sin took place-- This myst'ry we could never scan, That sin has sunk the human race, And all brought in by the first man. 'Tis said this is our heavy curse-- Thy sin imputed unto us. 

 "_Ad_. When I was plac'd on Eden's soil, I liv'd by keeping God's commands-- To keep the garden all the while, And labor, working with my hands. I need not toil beyond my pow'r, Yet never waste one precious hour. 

 "But in a careless, idle frame, I gazed about on what was made: And idle hands will gather shame, And wand'ring eyes confuse the head: I dropp'd my hoe and pruning-knife, To view the beauties of my wife. 

 "An idle beast of highest rank Came creeping up just at that time, And show'd to Eve a curious prank, Affirming that it was no crime:-- 'Ye shall not die as God hath said-- 'Tis all a sham, be not afraid. '

 "All this was pleasant to the eye, And Eve affirm'd the fruit was good; So I gave up to gratify The meanest passion in my blood. O horrid guilt! I was afraid: I was condemn'd, yea I was dead. 

 "Here ends the life of the first man, Your father and his spotless bride; God will be true, his word must stand-- The day I sinn'd that day I died: This was my sin, this was my fall!-- This your condition, one and all. 

 "_Ch_. How can these fearful things agree With what we read in sacred writ-- That sons and daughters sprung from thee, Endu'd with wisdom, power, and wit; And all the nations fondly claim Their first existence in thy name?

 "_Ad_. Had you the wisdom of that beast That took my headship by deceit, I could unfold enough at least To prove your lineage all a cheat. Your pedigree you do not know, The SECOND ADAM told you so. 

 "When I with guile was overcome, And fell a victim to the beast, My station first he did assume, Then on the spoil did richly feast. Soon as the life had left my soul, He took possession of the whole. 

 "He plunder'd all my mental pow'rs, My visage, stature, speech, and gait; And, in a word, in a few hours, He was first Adam placed in state: He took my wife, he took my name; All but his nature was the same. 

 "Now see him hide, and skulk about, Just like a beast, and even worse, Till God in anger drove him out, And doom'd him to an endless curse. O hear the whole creation groan! The Man of Sin has took the throne!

 "Now in my name this beast can plead, How God commanded him at first To multiply his wretched seed, Through the base medium of his lust. O horrid cheat! O subtle plan! A hellish beast assumes the man!

 "This is your father in my name: Your pedigree ye now may know: He early from perdition came, And to perdition he must go. And all his race with him shall share Eternal darkness and despair. "

[Footnote: It is curious that the Jewish Talmud (according toEisenmenger) has a somewhat similar theory--namely, that Eve cohabitedwith devils for a period of one hundred and thirty years; and that Cainwas not the child of Adam, but of one of these devils. ]

The same theory of the fall is stated in another hymn:

 "We read, when God created man, He made him able then to stand United to his Lord's command That he might be protected; But when, through Eve, he was deceiv'd, And to his wife in lust had cleav'd, And of forbidden fruit receiv'd, He found himself rejected. 

 "And thus, we see, death did begin, When Adam first fell into sin, And judgment on himself did bring, Which he could not dissemble: Old Adam then began to plead, And tell the cause as you may read; But from his sin he was not freed, Then he did fear and tremble. 

 "Compell'd from Eden now to go, Bound in his sins, with shame and woe, And there to feed on things below-- His former situation: For he was taken from the earth, And blest with a superior birth, But, dead in sin, he's driven forth From his blest habitation. 

 "Now his lost state continues still, In all who do their fleshly will, And of their lust do take their fill, And say they are commanded: Thus they go forth and multiply, And so they plead to justify Their basest crimes, and so they try To ruin souls more candid. "

The "way of regeneration" is opened in another hymn in the samecollection:

 "_Victory over the Man of Sin_. 

 "Souls that hunger for salvation, And have put their sins away, Now may find a just relation, If they cheerfully obey; They may find the new creation, And may boldly enter in By the door of free salvation, And subdue the Man of Sin. 

 "Thus made free from that relation, Which the serpent did begin, Trav'ling in regeneration, Having pow'r to cease from sin; Dead unto a carnal nature, From that tyrant ever free, Singing praise to our Creator, For this blessed jubilee. 

 "Sav'd from passions, too inferior To command the human soul; Led by motives most superior, Faith assumes entire control: Joined in the new creation, Living souls in union run, Till they find a just relation To the First-born two in one. 

 "But this prize cannot be gained. Neither is salvation found, Till the Man of Sin is chained, And the old deceiver bound. All mankind he has deceived, And still binds them one and all, Save a few who have believed, And obey'd the Gospel call. 

 "By a life of self-denial, True obedience and the cross, We may pass the fiery trial, Which does separate the dross. If we bear our crosses boldly, Watch and ev'ry evil shun, We shall find a body holy, And the tempter overcome. 

 "By a pois'nous fleshly nature, This dark world has long been led; There can be no passion greater-- This must be the serpent's head: On our coast he would be cruising, If by truth he were not bound: But his head has had a bruising, And he's got a deadly wound. 

 "And his wounds cannot be healed, Light and truth do now forbid, Since the Gospel has revealed Where his filthy head was hid: With a fig-leaf it was cover'd, Till we brought his deeds to light; By his works he is discover'd, And his head is plain in sight. "

It should be said that Ann Lee had married previously to thesemanifestations, her husband being Abraham Stanley, like her father, ablacksmith. By him she had four children, all of whom died in infancy. It is related that she showed from girlhood a decided repugnance to themarried state, and married only on the long-continued and urgentpersuasion of her friends; and after 1770 she seems to have returned toher parents. 

She and her followers were frequently abused and persecuted; and in 1773"she was by a direct revelation instructed to repair to America;" and itis quaintly added that "permission was given for all those of thesociety who were able, and who felt any special impressions on their ownminds so to do, to accompany her. " [Footnote: "Shakers' Compendium. "]

She had announced, says the same authority, that "the second ChristianChurch would be established in America; that the colonies would gaintheir independence; and that liberty of conscience would be secured toall people, whereby they would be able to worship God without hinderanceor molestation. " Accordingly Ann Lee embarked at Liverpool in May, 1774, eight persons accompanying her, six men and two women, among them herhusband and a brother and niece. They landed in New York in August; and, after some difficulties and hardships on account of poverty, finallysettled in what appears to have been then a wilderness, "the woods ofWatervliet, near Niskeyuna, about seven miles northwest of Albany. " Inthe mean time Ann Lee had supported herself by washing and ironing inNew York, and her husband had misconducted himself so grossly toward herthat they finally separated, he going off with another woman. 

At Niskeyuna, Ann Lee and her companions busied themselves in clearingland and providing for their subsistence. They lived in the woods, andAnn was their leader and preacher. She foretold to them that the timewas near when they should see a large accession to their numbers; butthey had so long to wait that their hearts sometimes failed them. Theysettled at Watervliet in September, 1775, and it was not until 1780that, by a curious chance, their doctrines were at last brought to theknowledge of persons inclined to receive them. 

In the spring of that year there occurred at New Lebanon a religiousrevival, chiefly among the Baptists, who had a church in thatneighborhood. Some of the subjects of this revival wandered off, seekinglight and comfort from strangers, and found the settlement of which AnnLee was the chief. Her doctrines, which inculcated rigid self-denialand repression of the passions, were at once embraced by them; theybrought others to hear Ann Lee's statements, and thus a beginning was atlast made. 

New Lebanon, where the new converts lived, lies upon the border ofMassachusetts and Connecticut; and into these states, particularly thefirst, the new doctrine spread. Ann Lee, now called by her people MotherAnn, or more often Mother, traveled from place to place, preaching andadvising; in Massachusetts she appears to have remained two years. It isasserted, too, that she performed miracles at various places, healingthe sick by laying on of hands, and revealing to others their wickednessand concealed sins. For instance:

"Mary Southwick, of Hancock [in Massachusetts, where there was a colonyof Ann Lee's followers], testifies: That about the beginning of August, 1783 (being then in the twenty-first year of her age), she was healed ofa cancer in her mouth, which had been growing two years, and which forabout three weeks had been eating, attended with great pain and acontinual running, and which occasioned great weakness and loss ofappetite. 

"That she went one afternoon to see Calvin Harlowe, to get someassistance; that Mother being at the house, Calvin asked her to look atit. That she accordingly came to her, and put her finger into her mouthupon the cancer; at which instant the pain left her, and she wasrestored to health, and was never afflicted with it afterward. 

"Taken from the mouth of the said Mary Southwick, the 23d day of April, 1808. In presence of Jennet Davis, Rebecca Clarke, Daniel Cogswell, Daniel Goodrich, and Seth Y. Wells. (Signed) MARY SOUTHWICK. "

The volume from which this formal statement is extracted contains anumber of similar affidavits, which show that miraculous powers ofhealing diseases are claimed to have been exercised during Ann Lee'slife, not only by her, but by her chief followers, Elder William Lee herbrother, John Hocknell, Joseph Markham, and others. [Footnote:"Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing, " etc. Published by the UnitedSociety of Shakers. Albany, 1856. [The first edition was printed in1808. ]]

It does not appear that Ann Lee made any attempts to settle herfollowers in colonies or communities, or that she interrupted the familylife, except that she insisted on celibacy. But she seems to havegathered her followers in congregations, because she from the firstrequired, as a sign of true repentance and a condition of admission, that "oral confession of all the sins of the past life, to God, in thepresence of an elder brother, " which is still one of the most rigorousrules of the order. 

She is reported to have said: "When I confessed my sins, I labored toremember the time when and the place where I committed them. And when Ihad confessed them [to Jane and James Wardley, in Manchester], I criedto God to know if my confession was accepted; and by crying to Godcontinually I traveled out of my loss. " [Footnote: "Shakers'Compendium. "]

Also she said: "The first step of obedience that any of you can take isto confess your sins to God before his witnesses. " "To those who came toconfess to her she said: 'If you confess your sins, you must confessthem to God; we are but his witnesses. ' To such as asked herforgiveness, she used to say: 'I can freely forgive you, and I pray Godto forgive you. It is God that forgives you; I am but yourfellow-servant. '" [Footnote: "Summary View, " etc. ]

Ann Lee died at Watervliet, N. Y. , on the 8th of September, 1784, in theforty-ninth year of her age. 

In the "Summary View of the Millennial Church, " as well as in some otherworks published by the Shakers, there are recorded details of her lifeand conversation, from which one gets the idea that she was a woman ofpractical sense, sincerely pious, and humble-minded. She was "ratherbelow the common stature of woman, thickset but straight, and otherwisewell-proportioned and regular in form and feature. Her complexion waslight and fair, and her eyes were blue, but keen and penetrating; hercountenance mild and expressive, but grave and solemn. Her manners wereplain, simple, and easy. She possessed a certain dignity of appearancethat inspired confidence and commanded respect. By many of the world whosaw her without prejudice she was called beautiful; and to her faithfulchildren she appeared to possess a degree of dignified beauty andheavenly love which they had never before discovered among mortals. "[Footnote: "Summary View. "] She never learned to read or write. Asidefrom her strictly religious teachings, she appears to have inculcatedupon her followers the practical virtues of honesty, industry, frugality, charity, and temperance. "Put your hands to work and giveyour hearts to God. " "You ought never to speak to your children in apassion; for if you do, you will put devils into them. " "Do all yourwork as though you had a thousand years to live; and as you would if youknew you must die to-morrow. " "You can never enter the kingdom of Godwith hardness against any one, for God is love, and if you love God youwill love one another. " "Be diligent with your hands, for godliness doesnot lead to idleness. " "You ought not to cross your childrenunnecessarily, for it makes them ill-natured. " To a woman: "You ought todress yourself in modest apparel, such as becomes the people of God, andteach your family to do likewise. You ought to be industrious andprudent, and not live a sumptuous and gluttonous life, but labor for ameek and quiet spirit, and see that your family is kept decent andregular in all their goings forth, that others may see your example offaith and good works, and acknowledge the work of God in your family. "To some farmers who had gathered at Ashfield, in Massachusetts, in thewinter, to listen to her instructions: "It is now spring of the year, and you have all had the privilege of being taught the way of God; andnow you may all go home and be faithful with your hands. Every faithfulman will go forth and put up his fences in season, and will plow hisground in season, and put his crops into the ground in season; and sucha man may with confidence look for a blessing. "

These are some of the sayings reported of her. They are not remarkable, except as showing that with her religious enthusiasm she unitedpractical sense, which gave her doubtless a power over the people withwhom she came in contact, mostly plain farmers and laborers. 

[Illustration: THE FIRST SHAKER CHURCH, AT MOUNT LEBANON, NOW ASEED-HOUSE. ]

Mother Ann was succeeded in her rule over the society, or "Church, " asthey preferred to call it, by Elder James Whittaker, one of those whohad come over with her. He was called Father James; and under hisministry was built, in 1785, "the first house for public worship everbuilt by the society. " He died at Enfield in July, 1787, less than threeyears after Mother Ann; and was succeeded by Joseph Meacham, anAmerican, a native of Connecticut, in early life a Baptist preacher; andwith him was associated Lucy Wright, as "the first leading character inthe female line, " as the "Summary" quaintly expresses it. She was anative of Pittsfield, in Massachusetts. Joseph Meacham died in 1796, atthe age of fifty-four, and it seems that Lucy Wright then succeeded tothe entire administration and "lead of the society. " She died in 1821, at the age of sixty-one. "During her administration the severalsocieties in the states of Ohio and Kentucky were established, and largeaccessions were made to the Eastern societies. " [Footnote: "Shakers'Compendium. "] While Joseph Meacham was elder, and in the period between1787 and 1792, eleven societies were formed, of which two were in NewYork, four in Massachusetts, two in New Hampshire, two in Maine, and onein Connecticut. 

Meantime, in the first year of this century broke out in Kentucky aremarkable religious excitement, lasting several years, and attendedwith extraordinary and in some cases horrible physical demonstrations. Camp-meetings were held in different counties, to which people flockedby thousands; and here men and women, and even small children, fell downin convulsions, foamed at the mouth and uttered loud cries. "At firstthey were taken with an inward throbbing of the heart; then with weepingand trembling; from that to crying out in apparent agony of soul;falling down and swooning away, until every appearance of animal lifewas suspended, and the person appeared to be in a trance. " "They lie asthough they were dead for some time, without pulse or breath, somelonger, some shorter time. Some rise with joy and triumph, others cryingfor mercy. " "To these encampments the people flocked by hundreds andthousands--on foot, on horseback, and in wagons and other carriages. " AtCabin Creek, in May, 1801, a "great number fell on the third night; andto prevent their being trodden under foot by the multitude, they werecollected together and laid out in order in two squares of themeetinghouse; which, like so many dead corpses, covered a considerablepart of the floor. " At Concord, in Bourbon County, in June, 1801, "nosex or color, class or description, were exempted from the pervadinginfluence of the Spirit; even from the age of eight months to sixtyyears. " In August, at Cane Ridge, in Bourbon County, "about twentythousand people" were gathered; and "about three thousand" suffered fromwhat was called "the falling exercise. " These brief extracts are fromthe account of an eye-witness, and one who believed these manifestationsto be of divine origin. The accuracy of McNemar's descriptions is beyondquestion. His account is confirmed by other writers of the time. [Footnote: "The Kentucky Revival, or a Short History of the lateextraordinary Outpouring of the Spirit of God in the Western States ofAmerica, " etc. By Richard McNemar. Turtle Hill, Ohio, 1807. ]

Hearing of these extraordinary events, the Shakers at New Lebanon sentout three of their number--John Meacham, Benjamin S. Youngs, andIssachar Bates--to "open the testimony of salvation to the people, provided they were in a situation to receive it. " They set out onNew-Year's day, 1805, and traveled on foot about a thousand miles, through what was then a sparsely settled country, much of it awilderness. They made some converts in Ohio and Kentucky, and were, fortunately for themselves, violently opposed and in some cases attackedby bigoted or knavish persons; and with this impetus they were able tofound at first five societies, two in Ohio, two in Kentucky, and one inIndiana. The Indiana society later removed to Ohio; and two moresocieties were afterward formed in Ohio, and one more in New York. 

All these societies were founded before the year 1830; and no new oneshave come into existence since then. 

Following the doctrines put forth by Ann Lee, and elaborated by hersuccessors, they hold:

I. That God is a dual person, male and female; that Adam was a dualperson, being created in God's image; and that "the distinction of sexis eternal, inheres in the soul itself; and that no angels or spiritsexist who are not male and female. "

II. That Christ is a Spirit, and one of the highest, who appeared firstin the person of Jesus, representing the male, and later in the personof Ann Lee, representing the female element in God. 

III. That the religious history of mankind is divided into four cycles, which are represented also in the spirit world, each having itsappropriate heaven and hell. The first cycle included theantediluvians--Noah and the faithful going to the first heaven, and thewicked of that age to the first hell. The second cycle included the Jewsup to the appearance of Jesus; and the second heaven is called Paradise. The third cycle included all who lived until the appearance of Ann Lee;Paul being "caught up into the third heaven. " The heaven of the fourthand last dispensation "is now in process of formation, " and is tosupersede in time all previous heavens. Jesus, they say, after hisdeath, descended into the first hell to preach to the souls thereconfined; and on his way passed through the second heaven, or Paradise, where he met the thief crucified with him. 

IV. They hold themselves to be the "Church of the Last Dispensation, "the true Church of this age; and they believe that the day ofjudgment, or "beginning of Christ's kingdom on earth, " dates from theestablishment of their Church, and will be completed by its development. 

V. They hold that the Pentecostal Church was established on rightprinciples; that the Christian churches rapidly and fatally fell awayfrom it; and that the Shakers have returned to this original and perfectdoctrine and practice. They say: "The five most prominent practicalprinciples of the Pentecost Church were, first, common property; second, a life of celibacy; third, non-resistance; fourth, a separate anddistinct government; and, fifth, power over physical disease. " To allthese but the last they have attained; and the last they confidentlylook for, and even now urge that disease is an offense to God, and thatit is in the power of men to be healthful, if they will. 

VI. They reject the doctrine of the Trinity, of the bodily resurrection, and of an atonement for sins. They do not worship either Jesus or Ann Lee, holding both to be simply elders in the Church, to be respected and loved. 

VII. They are Spiritualists. "We are thoroughly convinced of spiritcommunication and interpositions, spirit guidance and obsession. Ourspiritualism has permitted us to converse, face to face, with individualsonce mortals, some of whom we well knew, and with others born before theflood. " [Footnote: "Plain Talks upon Practical Religion; being CandidAnswers, " etc. By Geo. Albert Lomas (Novitiate Elder at Watervliet). 1873. ] They assert that the spirits at first labored among them; butthat in later times they have labored among the spirits; and that inthe lower heavens there have been formed numerous Shaker churches. Moreover, "it should be distinctly understood that special inspired giftshave not ceased, but still continue among this people. " It follows fromwhat is stated above, that they believe in a "probationary state in theworld of spirits. "

VIII. They hold that he only is a true servant of God who lives aperfectly stainless and sinless life; and they add that to this perfectionof life all their members ought to attain. 

IX. Finally, they hold that their Church, the Inner or Gospel Order, asthey call it, is supported by and has for its complement the world, or, as they say, the Outer Order. They do not regard marriage and property ascrimes or disorders, but as the emblems of a lower order of society. Andthey hold that the world in general, or the Outer Order, will have theopportunity of purification in the next world as well as here. 

In the practical application of this system of religious faith, theyinculcate a celibate life; "honesty and integrity in all words anddealings;" "humanity and kindness to friend and foe;" diligence inbusiness; prudence, temperance, economy, frugality, "but not parsimony;""to keep clear of debt;" "suitable education of children;" a "unitedinterest in all things, " which means community of goods; suitableemployment for all; and a provision for all in sickness, infirmity, and old age. 

III. --THE ORDER OF LIFE AMONG THE SHAKERS. 

A Shaker Society consists of two classes or orders: the Novitiate andthe Church Order. There is a general similarity in the life of thesetwo; but to the Novitiate families are sent all applicants for admissionto the community or Church, and here they are trained; and the elders ofthese families also receive inquiring strangers, and stand in somewhatnearer relations with the outer world than the Church families. 

To the Church family or commune belong those who have determined toseclude themselves more entirely from contact with the outer world; andwho aspire to live the highest spiritual life. Except so far asnecessary business obliges deacons and care-takers to deal with theworld, the members of the Church Order aim to live apart; and they donot receive or entertain strangers or applicants for membership, butconfine their intercourse to members of other societies. 

Formerly there was a considerable membership living in the world, maintaining the family relation so far as to educate children andtransact business, but conforming to the Shaker rule of celibacy. Thiswas allowed because of the difficulty of disposing of property, closingup business affairs, and perhaps on account of the unwillingness ofhusband or wife to follow the other partner into the Shaker family. There are still such members, but they are fewer in number thanformerly. The Novitiate elders and elderesses keep some oversight, bycorrespondence and by personal visits, over such outside members. 

The Shaker family, or commune, usually consists of from thirty to eightyor ninety persons, men and women, with such children as may have beenapprenticed to the society. These live together in one large house, divided as regards its upper stories into rooms capable of accommodatingfrom four to eight persons. Each room contains as many simple cot-bedsas it has occupants, the necessary washing utensils, a smalllooking-glass, a stove for the winter, a table for writing, and aconsiderable number of chairs, which, when not in use, are suspendedfrom pegs along the wall. A wide hall separates the dormitories of themen from those of the women. Strips of home-made carpet, usually of veryquiet colors, are laid upon the floors, but never tacked down. 

On the first floor are the kitchen, pantry, store-rooms, and the commondining-hall; and in a Novitiate family there is also a small separateroom, where strangers--visitors--eat, apart from the family. 

Ranged around the family house or dwelling are buildings for the variouspursuits of the society: the sisters' shop, where tailoring, basket-making, and other female industries are carried on; the brothers'shop, where broom-making, carpentry, and other men's pursuits arefollowed; the laundry, the stables, the fruit-house, wood-house, andoften machine shops, saw-mills, etc. 

If you are permitted to examine these shops and the dwelling of thefamily, you will notice that the most scrupulous cleanliness is everywhere practiced; if there is a stove in the room, a small broom anddust-pan hang near it, and a wood-box stands by it; scrapers and mats atthe door invite you to make clean your shoes; and if the roads are muddyor snowy, a broom hung up outside the outer door mutely requests you tobrush off all the mud or snow. The strips of carpet are easily lifted, and the floor beneath is as clean as though it were a table to be eatenfrom. The walls are bare of pictures; not only because all ornament iswrong, but because frames are places where dust will lodge. The bedsteadis a cot, covered with the bedclothing, and easily moved away to allowof dusting and sweeping. Mats meet you at the outer door and at everyinner door. The floors of the halls and dining-room are polished untilthey shine. 

[Illustration: SHAKER WOMEN AT WORK. ]

Moreover all the walls, in hall and rooms, are lined with rows of woodenpegs, on which spare chairs, hats, cloaks, bonnets, and shawls are hung;and you presently perceive that neatness, order, and absolutecleanliness rule every where. 

The government or administration of the Shaker societies is partlyspiritual and partly temporal. "The visible Head of the Church of Christon earth is vested in a Ministry, consisting of male and female, notless than three, and generally four in number, two of each sex. Thefirst in the Ministry stands as the leading elder of the society. Thosewho compose the Ministry are selected from the Church, and appointed bythe last preceding head or leading character; and their authority isconfirmed and established by the spontaneous union of the whole body. Those of the United Society who are selected and called to the importantwork of the Ministry, to lead and direct the Church of Christ, must beblameless characters, faithful, honest, and upright, clothed with thespirit of meekness and humility, gifted with wisdom and understanding, and of great experience in the things of God. As faithful embassadors ofChrist, they are invested with wisdom and authority, by the revelationof God, to guide, teach, and direct his Church on earth in its spiritualtravel, and to counsel and advise in other matters of importance, whether spiritual or temporal. 

"To the Ministry appertains, therefore, the power to appoint ministers, elders, and deacons, and with the elders to assign offices of care andtrust to such brethren and sisters as they shall judge to be bestqualified for the several offices to which they may be assigned. Suchappointments, being communicated to the members of the Church concerned, and having received the mutual approbation of the Church, or the familyconcerned, are thereby confirmed and established until altered orrepealed by the same authority. " [Footnote: "Summary View, " etc. ]

"Although the society at New Lebanon is the centre of union to all theother societies, yet the more immediate duties of the Ministry in thisplace extend only to the two societies of New Lebanon and Watervliet. [Groveland has since been added to this circle. ] Other societies areunder the direction of a ministry appointed to preside over them; and inmost instances two or more societies constitute a bishopric, beingunited under the superintendence of the same ministry. "

Each society has ministers, in the Novitiate family, to instruct andtrain neophytes, and to go out into the world to preach when it may bedesirable. Each family has two elders, male and female, to teach, exhort, and lead the family in spiritual concerns. It has also deaconsand deaconesses, who provide for the support and convenience of thefamily, and regulate the various branches of industry in which themembers are employed, and transact business with those without. Underthe deacons are "care-takers, " who are the foremen and forewomen in thedifferent pursuits. 

It will be seen that this is a complete and judicious system ofadministration. It has worked well for a long time. A notable feature ofthe system is that the members do not appoint their rulers, nor are theyconsulted openly or directly about such appointments. The Ministry areself-perpetuating; and they select and appoint all subordinates, beingmorally, but it seems not otherwise, responsible to the members. 

Finally, "all the members are equally holden, according to their severalabilities, to maintain one united interest, and therefore all labor_with their hands_, in some useful occupation, for the mutualcomfort and benefit of themselves and each other, and for the generalgood of the society or family to which they belong. Ministers, elders, and deacons, all without exception, are industriously employed in some_manual_ occupation, except in the time taken up in the necessaryduties of their respective callings. " So carefully is this rule observedthat even the supreme heads of the Shaker Church--the four who constitutethe Ministry at Mount Lebanon, Daniel Boler, Giles B. Avery, Ann Taylor, and Polly Reed--labor at basket-making in the intervals of their travelsand ministrations, and have a separate little "shop" for this purposenear the church. They live in a house built against the church, and eatin a separate room in the family of the first order; and, I believe, generally keep themselves somewhat apart from the people. 

The property of each society, no matter of how many families it iscomposed, is for convenience held in the name of the trustees, who areusually members of the Church family, or first order; but each family orcommune keeps its own accounts and transacts its business separately. 

The Shaker family rises at half-past four in the summer, and fiveo'clock in the winter; breakfasts at six or half-past six; dines attwelve; sups at six; and by nine or half-past all are in bed and thelights are out. 

They eat in a general hall. The tables have no cloth, or rather arecovered with oil-cloth; the men eat at one table, women at another, andchildren at a third; and the meal is eaten in silence, no conversationbeing held at table. When all are assembled for a meal they kneel insilence for a moment; and this is repeated on rising from the table, andon rising in the morning and before going to bed. 

When they get up in the morning, each person takes two chairs, and, setting them back to back, takes off the bed clothing, piece by piece, and folding each neatly once, lays it across the backs of the chairs, the pillows being first laid on the seats of the chairs. In the men'srooms the slops are also carried out of the house by one of them; andthe room is then left to the women, who sweep, make the beds, and putevery thing to rights. All this is done before breakfast; and bybreakfast time what New-Englanders call "chores" are all finished, andthe day's work in the shops or in the fields may begin. 

Each brother is assigned to a sister, who takes care of his clothing, mends when it is needed, looks after his washing, tells him when herequires a new garment, reproves him if he is not orderly, and keeps ageneral sisterly oversight over his habits and temporal needs. 

In cooking, and the general labor of the dining-room and kitchen, thesisters take turns; a certain number, sufficient to make the work light, serving a month at a time. The younger sisters do the washing andironing; and the clothes which are washed on Monday are not ironed tillthe following week. 

[Illustration: SHAKER COSTUMES. ]

Their diet is simple but sufficient. Pork is never eaten, and only apart of the Shaker people eat any meat at all. Many use no food producedby animals, denying themselves even milk, butter, and eggs. At MountLebanon, and in some of the other societies, two tables are set, onewith, the other without meat. They consume much fruit, eating it atevery meal; and the Shakers have always fine and extensive vegetablegardens and orchards. 

After breakfast every body goes to work; and the "caretakers, " who aresubordinate to the deacons, and are foremen in fact, take theirfollowers to their proper employments. When, as in harvest, an extranumber of hands is needed at any labor, it is of course easy to divertat once a sufficient force to the place. The women do not labor in thefields, except in such light work as picking berries. Shakers do nottoil severely. 

They are not in haste to be rich; and they have found that for theirsupport, economically as they live, it is not necessary to make laborpainful. Many hands make light work; and where all are interested alike, they hold that labor may be made and is made a pleasure. 

Their evenings are well filled with such diversions as they regardwholesome. Instrumental music they do not generally allow themselves, but they sing well; and much time is spent in learning new hymns andtunes, which they profess to receive constantly from the spirit world. Some sort of meeting of the family is held every evening. At MountLebanon, for instance, on Monday evening there is a general meeting inthe dining-hall, where selected articles from the newspapers are read, crimes and accidents being omitted as unprofitable; and the selectionsconsisting largely of scientific news, speeches on public affairs, andthe general news of the world. They prefer such matter as conveysinformation of the important political and social movements of the day;and the elder usually makes the extracts. At this meeting, too, lettersfrom other societies are read. On Tuesday evening they meet in theassembly hall for singing, marching, etc. Wednesday night is devoted toa union meeting for conversation. Thursday night is a "laboringmeeting, " which means the regular religious service, where they "laborto get good. " Friday is devoted to new songs and hymns; and Saturdayevening to worship. On Sunday evening, finally, they visit at eachother's rooms, three or four sisters visiting the brethren in each room, by appointment, and engaging in singing and in conversation upon generalsubjects. 

In their religious services there is little or no audible prayer; theysay that God does not need spoken words, and that the mental aspirationis sufficient. Their aim too, as they say, is to "walk with God, " aswith a friend; and mental prayer may be a large part of their liveswithout interruption to usual avocations. They do not regularly read theBible. 

The Sunday service is held either in the "meeting-house, " when two orthree families, all composing the society, join together; or in thelarge assembly hall which is found in every family house. In themeeting-house there are generally benches, on which the people sit untilall are assembled. In the assembly hall there are only seats rangedalong the walls; and the members of the family, as they enter, taketheir accustomed places, standing, in the ranks which are formed forworship. The men face the women, the older men and women in the front, the elders standing at the head of the first rank. A somewhat broadspace or gangway is left between the two front ranks. After the singingof a hymn, the elder usually makes a brief address upon holiness ofliving and consecration to God; he is followed by the eldress; andthereupon the ranks are broken, and a dozen of the brethren and sisters, forming a separate square on the floor, begin a lively hymn tune, inwhich all the rest join, marching around the room to a quick step, thewomen following the men, and all often clapping their hands. 

The exercises are varied by reforming the ranks; by speaking from menand women; by singing; and by dancing as they march, "as David dancedbefore the Lord"--the dance being a kind of shuffle. Occasionally one ofthe members, more deeply moved than the rest, or perhaps in sometribulation of soul, asks the prayers of the others; or one comes to thefront, and, bowing before the elder and eldress, begins to whirl, asingular exercise which is sometimes continued for a considerable time, and is a remarkable performance. Then some brother or sister isimpressed to deliver a message of comfort or warning from thespirit-land; or some spirit asks the prayers of the assembly: on suchoccasions the elder asks all to kneel for a few moments in silentprayer. 

In their marching and dancing they hold their hands before them, andmake a motion as of gathering something to themselves: this is calledgathering a blessing. In like manner, when any brother or sister asksfor their prayers and sympathy, they, reversing their hands, push towardhim that which he asks. 

[Illustration: SHAKER WORSHIP--THE DANCE]

All the movements are performed with much precision and in exact order;their tunes are usually in quick time, and the singers keep timeadmirably. The words of the elder guide the meeting; and at his biddingall disperse in a somewhat summary manner. It is, I believe, an objectwith them to vary the order of their meetings, and thus give life tothem. 

New members are admitted with great caution. Usually a person who ismoved to become a Shaker has made a visit to the Novitiate family ofsome society, remaining long enough to satisfy himself that membershipwould be agreeable to him. During this preliminary visit he livesseparately from the family, but is admitted to their religious meetings, and is fully informed of the doctrines, practices, and requirements ofthe Shaker people. If then he still desires admission, he is expected toset his affairs in order, so that he shall not leave any unfulfilledobligations behind him in the world. If he has debts, they must be paid;if he has a wife, she must freely give her consent to the husbandleaving her; or if it is a woman, her husband must consent. If there arechildren, they must be provided for, and placed so as not to sufferneglect, either within the society, or with other and proper persons. 

It is not necessary that applicants for admission shall possessproperty. The only question the society asks and seeks to be satisfiedupon is, "Are you sick of sin, and do you want salvation from it?" Acandidate for admission is usually taken on trial for a year at least, in order that the society may be satisfied of his fitness; of course hemay leave at any time. 

The first and chief requirement, on admission, is that the neophyteshall make a complete and open confession of the sins of his whole pastlife to two elders of his or her own sex; and the completeness of thisconfession is rigidly demanded. Mother Ann's practice on this point Ihave quoted elsewhere. As this is one of the most prominentpeculiarities of the Shaker Society, it may be interesting to quote heresome passages from their books describing the detail on which theyinsist. Elder George Albert Lomas writes:

"Any one seeking admission as a member is required, ere we can give anyencouragement at all, to settle all debts and contracts to thesatisfaction of creditors, and then our rule is If candid seekers aftersalvation come to us, we neither accept nor reject them; we _admit_them, leaving the Spirit of Goodness to decide as to their sincerity, tobless their efforts, if such, or to make them very dissatisfied ifhypocritical. After becoming thoroughly acquainted with our principles, we ask individuals to give evidence of their sincerity, if really sickof sin, by an honest confession of every improper transaction or sinthat lies within the reach of their memory. This confession of sin toelders of their own sex, appointed for the purpose, _we_ believe tobe the door of hope to the soul, the Christian valley of Achor, and onewhich every sin-sick soul seizes with avidity, as being far morecomforting than embarrassing. And this opportunity remains a permanentinstitution with us--to confess, retract our wrongs as memory may recallthem; and aids individuals in so thoroughly repenting of past sins thatthey are enabled to leave them in the rear, while they pass on togreater salvations. It often takes years for individuals to completethis work of _thorough confession and repentance_; but upon this, more than upon aught else, depends their success as permanent and happymembers. Those who choose to use deceit, often do so, but _never_make reliable members: always uncomfortable while they remain; and veryfew do or can remain, unless they fulfill this important demand of'_opening the mind. '_ If _we_ do not detect their insincerity, God does, and they are tempted of the devil beyond their wish to remainwith the Shakers; while he that _confesseth_ and _forsaketh_his sins shall find mercy. This is not a confession to mortality, butunto God, witnessed by those who have thoroughly experienced thepractical results of the ordeal. 'My son, give glory to the God ofheaven; _confess unto him_, and _tell_ me what thou hastdone. '" [Footnote: "Plain Talks on Practical Religion, " etc. ]

Another authority says on this subject:

"All such as receive the grace of God which bringeth salvation, firsthonestly bring their former deeds of darkness to the light, byconfessing all their sins, with a full determination to forsake themforever. By so doing they find justification and acceptance with God, and receive that power by which they become dead indeed unto sin, andalive unto God, through Jesus Christ, and are enabled to follow hisexample, and walk even as he walked. " [Footnote: "Christ's First andSecond Appearing. By Shakers. "]

A third writer reasons thus upon confession:

"As all the secret actions of men are open and known to God, therefore aconfession made in secret, though professedly made to God, can bringnothing to light; and the sinner may perhaps have as little fear of Godin confessing his sins in this manner as he had in committing them. Andas nothing is brought to the light by confessing his sins in thismanner, he feels no cross in it; nor does he thereby find anymortification to that carnal nature which first led him into sin; and istherefore liable to run again into the same acts of sin as he was beforehis confession. But let the sinner appear in the presence of a faithfulservant of Christ, and there confess honestly his every secret sin, oneby one, of whatever nature or name, and faithfully lay open his wholelife, without any covering or disguise, and he will then feel ahumiliating sense of himself, in the presence of God, in a manner whichhe never experienced before. He will then, in very deed, find amortifying cross to his carnal nature, and feel the crucifixion of hislust and pride where he never did before. He will then perceive theessential difference between confessing his sins in the dark, where nomortal ear can hear him, and actually bringing his evil deeds to thelight of one individual child of God; and he will then be convinced thata confession made before the light of God in one of his true witnessescan bring upon him a more awful sense of his accountability both to Godand man than all his confessions in darkness had ever done. " [Footnote:"Summary View, " etc. ]

Community of property is one of the leading principles of the Shakers. "It is an established principle of faith in the Church, that all who arereceived as members thereof do freely and voluntarily, of their owndeliberate choice, dedicate, devote, and consecrate themselves, with allthey possess, to the service of God forever. " In accordance with thisrule, the neophyte brings with him his property; but as he is still ontrial, and may prove unfit, or find himself uncomfortable, he is notallowed to give up his property unreservedly to the society; but onlyits use, agreeing that so long as he remains he will require neitherwages for his labor nor interest for that which he brought in. On theseterms he may remain as long as he proves his fitness. But when at lasthe is moved to enter the higher or Church order, he formally makes overto the society, forever, and without power of taking it back, all thathe owns. The articles of agreement by which he does this read asfollows:

"We solemnly and conscientiously dedicate, devote, and give up ourselvesand services, together with all our temporal interest, to God and hispeople; to be under the care and direction of such elders, deacons, ortrustees as have been or may hereafter be established in the Church, according to the first article of this Covenant. 

"We further covenant and agree that it is and shall be the special dutyof the deacons and trustees, appointed as aforesaid, to have theimmediate charge and oversight of all and singular the property, estate, and interest dedicated, devoted, and given up as aforesaid; and it shallalso be the duty of the said deacons and trustees to appropriate, use, and improve the said united interest for the benefit of the Church, forthe relief of the poor, and for such other charitable and religiouspurposes as the Gospel may require and the said deacons or trustees intheir wisdom shall see fit; _Provided nevertheless_, that all thetransactions of the said deacons or trustees, in their use, management, and disposal of the aforesaid united interest, shall be for the benefitand privilege, and in behalf of the Church (to which the said deacons ortrustees are and shall be held responsible), and not for any personal orprivate interest, object, or purpose whatsoever. 

"As the sole object, purpose, and design of our uniting in a covenantrelation, as a Church or body of people, in Gospel union, was from thebeginning, and still is, faithfully and honestly to receive, improve, and diffuse the manifold gifts of God, both of a spiritual and temporalnature, for the mutual protection, support, comfort, and happiness ofeach other, as brethren and sisters in the Gospel, and for such otherpious and charitable purposes as the Gospel may require; _Therefore_we do, by virtue of this Covenant, solemnly and conscientiously, jointlyand individually, for ourselves, our heirs, and assigns, promise anddeclare, in the presence of God and each other, and to all men, that wewill never hereafter, neither directly nor indirectly, make nor requireany account of any interest, property, labor, or service which has been, or which may be devoted by us or any of us to the purposes aforesaid;nor bring any charge of debt or damage, nor hold any demand whateveragainst the Church, nor against any member or members thereof, onaccount of any property or service given, rendered, devoted, orconsecrated to the aforesaid sacred and charitable purpose. "

As under this agreement or covenant no accounts can be demanded, so thesocieties and families have no annual or business meetings, nor is anybusiness report ever made to the members. 

Agriculture and horticulture are the foundations of all the communes orfamilies; but with these they have united some small manufactures. Forinstance, some of the families make brooms, others dry sweet corn, raiseand put up garden seeds, make medicinal extracts; make mops, baskets, chairs; one society makes large casks, and so on. A complete list ofthese industries in all the societies will be found further on. It willbe seen that the range is not great. 

Besides this, they aim, as far as possible, to supply their own needs. Thus they make all their own clothing, and formerly made also their ownwoolen cloths and flannels. They make shoes, do all their owncarpentering, and, as far as is convenient, raise the food they consume. They have usually fine barns, and all the arrangements for working areof the best and most convenient. For instance, at Mount Lebanon thedifferent families saw their firewood by a power-saw, and store it inhuge wood-houses, that it may be seasoned before it is used. In theirfarming operations they spare no pains; but, working slowly year afteryear, redeem the soil, clear it of stones, and have clean tillage. Theyare fond of such minute and careful culture as is required in raisinggarden seeds. They keep fine stock, and their barns are usuallyadmirably arranged to save labor. 

Their buildings are always of the best, and kept in the best order andrepair. 

Their savings they invest chiefly in land; and many families ownconsiderable estates outside of their own limits. In the cultivation ofthese outlying farms they employ hired laborers, and build for themcomfortable houses. About Lebanon, I am told, a farmer who is in theemploy of the Shakers is considered a fortunate man, as they are kindand liberal in their dealings. Every where they have the reputation ofbeing strictly honest and fair in all their transactions with theworld's people. 

The dress of the men is remarkable for a very broad, stiff-brimmed, white or gray felt hat, and a long coat of light blue. The women weargowns with many plaits in the skirt; and a singular head-dress or cap oflight material, which so completely hides the hair, and so encroachesupon the face, that a stranger is at first unable to distinguish the oldfrom the young. Out of doors they wear the deep sun-bonnet known in thiscountry commonly as a Shaker bonnet. They do not profess to adhere to auniform; but have adopted what they find to be a convenient style ofdress, and will not change it until they find something better. 

[Illustration: SISTERS IN EVERY DAY COSTUME]

IV. --A VISIT TO MOUNT LEBANON. 

It was on a bleak and sleety December day that I made my first visit toa Shaker family. As I came by appointment, a brother, whom I later foundto be the second elder of the family, received me at the door, openingit silently at the precise moment when I had reached the vestibule, and, silently bowing, took my bag from my hand and motioned me to follow him. We passed through a hall in which I saw numerous bonnets, cloaks, andshawls hung up on pegs, and passed an empty dining-hall, and out of adoor into the back yard, crossing which we entered another house, and, opening a door, my guide welcomed me to the "visitors' room. " "This, "said he, "is where you will stay. A brother will come in presently tospeak with you. " And with a bow my guide noiselessly slipped out, softlyclosed the door behind him, and I was alone. 

I found myself in a comfortable low-ceiled room, warmed by an air-tightstove, and furnished with a cot-bed, half a dozen chairs, a large woodenspittoon filled with saw-dust, a looking-glass, and a table. The floorwas covered with strips of rag carpet, very neat and of a pretty, quietcolor, loosely laid down. Against the wall, near the stove, hung adust-pan, shovel, dusting-brush, and small broom. A door opened into aninner room, which contained another bed and conveniences for washing. Acloset in the wall held matches, soap, and other articles. Every thingwas scrupulously neat and clean. On the table were laid a number ofShaker books and newspapers. In one corner of the room was a bell, used, as I afterward discovered, to summon the visitor to his meals. As Ilooked out of a window, I perceived that the sash was fitted withscrews, by means of which the windows could be so secured as not torattle in stormy weather; while the lower sash of one window was raisedthree or four inches, and a strip of neatly fitting plank was insertedin the opening--this allowed ventilation between the upper and lowersashes, thus preventing a direct draught, while securing fresh air. 

I was still admiring these ingenious little contrivances, when, with apreliminary knock, entered to me a tall, slender young man, who, hanginghis broad-brimmed hat on a peg, announced himself to me as the brotherwho was to care for me during my stay. He was a Swede, a student of theuniversity in his own country, and a person of intelligence, someliterary culture, and I should think of good family. His attention hadbeen attracted to the Shakers by Mr. Dixon's book, "The New America;" hehad come over to examine the organization, and had found it so much tohis liking that, coming as a visitor, he had remained as a member. Hehad been here six or seven years. He had a fresh, fine complexion, asmost of the Shaker men and women have--particularly the latter; his hairwas cut in the Shaker fashion, straight across the forehead, andsuffered to grow long behind, and he wore the long, blue-gray coat, acollar without a neck-tie, and the broad-brimmed whitish-gray felt hatof the order. His voice was soft and low, his motions noiseless, hisconversation in a subdued tone, his smile ready; but his expression wasthat of one who guarded himself against the world, with which he wasdetermined to have nothing to do. Frank and communicative he was, too, though I do not doubt that my tireless questioning sometimes bored him. Such as I have described him I have found all or nearly all the Shakerpeople--polite, patient, noiseless in their motions except during their"meetings" or worship, when they are sometimes quite noisy; scrupulouslyneat, and much given to attend to their own business. 

[Illustration: ELDER FREDERICK W EVANS]

The Sabbath quiet and stillness which prevailed I attributed to the factthat there had been a death in the family, and the funeral was to beheld that morning; but I discovered afterwards that an eternal Sabbathstillness reigns in a Shaker family--there being no noise or confusion, or hum of busy industry at any time, although they are a mostindustrious people. 

While the Swedish brother was, in answer to my questions, giving me someaccount of himself, to us came Elder Frederick, the head of the North orGathering Family at Mount Lebanon, and the most noted of all theShakers, because he, oftener than any other, has been sent out into theworld to make known the society's doctrines and practice. 

Frederick W. Evans is an Englishman by birth, and was a "reformer" inthe old times, when men in this country strove for "land reform, " therights of labor, and against the United States Bank and other monopoliesof forty or fifty years ago. He is now sixty-six years of age, butlooks not more than fifty; was brought to this country at the age oftwelve; became a socialist in early life, and, after trying life inseveral communities which perished early, at last visited the Shakers atMount Lebanon, and after some months of trial and examination, joinedthe community, and has remained in it ever since--about forty-five years. 

He is both a writer and a speaker; and while not college bred, hasstudied and read a good deal, and has such natural abilities as make hima leader among his people, and a man of force any where. He is a personof enthusiastic and aggressive temperament, but with a practical andlogical side to his mind, and with a hobby for science as applied tohealth, comfort, and the prolongation of life. In person he is tall, with a stoop as though he had overgrown his strength in early life; withbrown eyes, a long nose, a kindly, serious face, and an attractivemanner. He was dressed rigidly in the Shaker costume. 

[Illustration: VIEW OF A SHAKER VILLAGE. ]

Mount Lebanon lies beautifully among the hills of Berkshire, two and ahalf miles from Lebanon Springs, and seven miles from Pittsfield. Thesettlement is admirably placed on the hillside to which it clings, securing it good drainage, abundant water, sunshine, and the easycommand of water-power. Whoever selected the spot had an excellent eyefor beauty and utility in a country site. The views are lovely, broad, and varied; the air is pure and bracing; and, in short, a company ofpeople desiring to seclude themselves from the world could hardly havechosen a more delightful spot. 

As you drive up the road from Lebanon Springs, the first buildingbelonging to the Shaker settlement which meets your eye is the enormousbarn of the North Family, said to be the largest in the three or fourstates which near here come together, as in its interior arrangements itis one of the most complete. This huge structure lies on a hillside, andis two hundred and ninety-six feet long by fifty wide, and five storieshigh, the upper story being on a level with the main road, and the loweropening on the fields behind it. Next to this lies the sisters' shop, three stories high, used for the women's industries; and next, on thesame level, the family house, one hundred feet by forty, and fivestories high. Behind these buildings, which all lie directly on the mainroad, is another set--an additional dwelling-house, in which are thevisitors' room and several rooms where applicants for admission remainwhile they are on trial; near this an enormous woodshed, three storieshigh; below a carriage-house, wagon sheds, the brothers' shop, wheredifferent industries are carried on, such as broom-making and puttingup garden seeds; and farther on, the laundry, a saw-mill and grist-milland other machinery, and a granary, with rooms for hired men over it. The whole establishment is built on a tolerably steep hillside. 

[Illustration: THE HERB HOUSE, MOUNT LEBANON]

A quarter of a mile farther on are the buildings of the Church Family, and also the great boiler-roofed church of the society; and othercommunes or families are scattered along, each having all its interestsseparate, and forming a distinct community, with industries of its own, and a complete organization for itself. 

[Illustration: MEETING HOUSE AT MOUNT LEBANON]

The initiations show sufficiently the character of the differentbuildings and the style of architecture, and make more detaileddescription needless. It need only be said that whereas on Mount Lebanonthey build altogether of wood, in other settlements they use also brickand stone. But the peculiar nature of their social arrangements leadsthem to build very large houses. 

Elder Frederick came to give me notice that I was permitted to witnessthe funeral ceremonies of the departed sister, which were set for teno'clock, in the assembly-room; and thither I was accordingly conductedat the proper time by one of the brethren. The members came into theroom rapidly, and ranged themselves in ranks, the men and women onopposite sides of the room, and facing each other. All stood up, therebeing no seats. A brief address by Elder Frederick opened the services, after which there was singing; different brethren and sisters spokebriefly; a call was made to the spirit of the departed to communicate, and in the course of the meeting a medium delivered some words supposedto be from this source; some memorial verses were read by one of thesisters; and then the congregation separated, after notice had beengiven that the body of the dead sister would be placed in the hall, where all could take a last look at her face. I, too, was asked to look;the good brother who conducted me to the plain, unpainted pine coffinremarking very sensibly that "the body is not of much importance afterit is dead. "

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF MEETINGHOUSE AT MOUNT LEBANON]

Afterwards, in conversation, Elder Frederick told me that the"spiritual" manifestations were known among the Shakers many yearsbefore Kate Fox was born; that they had had all manner ofmanifestations, but chiefly visions and communications through mediums;that they fell, in his mind, into three epochs: in the first the spiritslaboring to convince unbelievers in the society; in the second provingthe community, the spirits relating to each member his past history, andshowing up, in certain cases, the insincerity of professions; in thethird, he said, the Shakers reacted on the spirit world, and formedcommunities of Shakers there, under the instruction of living Shakers. "There are at this time, " said he, "many thousands of Shakers in thespirit world. " He added that the mediums in the society had given muchtrouble because they imagined themselves reformers, whereas they wereonly the mouth-pieces of spirits, and oftenest themselves of a loworder of mind. They had to teach the mediums much, after the spiritsceased to use them. 

In what follows I give the substance, and often the words, of manyconversations with Elder Frederick and with several of the brethren, relating to details of management and to doctrinal points and opinions, needed to fill up the sketch given in the two previous chapters. 

As to new members, Elder Frederick said the societies had not in recentyears increased--some had decreased in numbers. But they expected largeaccessions in the course of the next few years, having prophecies amongthemselves to that effect. Religious revivals he regarded as "thehot-beds of Shakerism;" they always gain members after a "revival" inany part of the country. "Our proper dependence for increase is on thespirit and gift of God working outside. Hence we are friendly to allreligious people. "

They had changed their policy in regard to taking children, forexperience had proved that when these grew up they were oftenestdiscontented, anxious to gain property for themselves, curious to seethe world, and therefore left the society. For these reasons they nowalmost always decline to take children, though there are some in everysociety; and for these they have schools--a boys' school in the winterand a girls' school in summer-teaching all a trade as they grow up. "When men or women come to us at the age of twenty-one or twenty-two, then they make the best Shakers. The society then gets the man's orwoman's best energies, and experience shows us that they have then hadenough of the world to satisfy their curiosity and make them restful. Ofcourse we like to keep up our numbers; but of course we do not sacrificeour principles. You will be surprised to know that we lost mostseriously during the war. A great many of our younger people went intothe army; many who fought through the war have since applied to comeback to us; and where they seem to have the proper spirit, we take them. We have some applications of this kind now. "

A great many Revolutionary soldiers joined the societies in their earlyhistory; these did not draw their pensions; most of them lived to beold, and "I proved to Mr. Lincoln and Mr. Stanton once, when we werethreatened with a draft, " said Elder Frederick, "that our members hadthus omitted to draw from the government over half a million of dollarsdue as pensions for army service. "

With their management, he said, they had not much difficulty insloughing off persons who come with bad or low motives; and in this Ishould say he was right; for the life is strictly ascetic, and has nocharms for the idler or for merely sentimental or romantic people. "Ifone comes with low motives, he will not be comfortable with us, and willpresently go away; if he is sincere, he may yet be here a year or twobefore he finds himself in his right place; but if he has the truevocation he will gradually work in with us. "

He thought an order of celibates ought to exist in every Protestantcommunity, and that its members should be self-supporting, and notbeggars; that the necessities and conscience of many in every civilizedcommunity would be relieved if there were such an order open to them. 

In admitting members, no property qualification is made; and in practicethose who come in singly, from time to time, hardly ever possess anything; but after a great revival of religion, when numbers come in, usually about half bring in more or less property, and often largeamounts. 

As to celibacy, he asserted in the most positive manner that it ishealthful, and tends to prolong life; "as we are constantly proving. " Heafterward gave me a file of the _Shaker_, a monthly paper, in whichthe deaths in all the societies are recorded; and I judge from itsreports that the death rate is low, and the people mostly long-lived. [Footnote: In nine numbers of the _Shaker_ (year 1873), twenty-sevendeaths are recorded. Of these, Abigail Munson died at Mount Lebanon, aged 101 years, 11 months, and 12 days. The ages of the remainder were97, 93, 88, 87, 86, 82, six above 75, four above 70, 69, 65, 64, 55, 54, 49, 37, 31, and two whose ages were not given. ]

"We look for a testimony against disease, " he said; "and even now I holdthat no man who lives as we do has a right to be ill before he is sixty;if he suffer from disease before that, he is in fault. My life has beendevoted to introducing among our people a knowledge of truephysiological laws; and this knowledge is spreading among all oursocieties. We are not all perfect yet in these respects; but we grow. Formerly fevers were prevalent in our houses, but now we scarcely everhave a case; and the cholera has never yet touched a Shaker village. "

"The joys of the celibate life are far greater than I can make you know. They are indescribable. "

The Church Family at Mount Lebanon, by the way, have built and fitted upa commodious hospital, for the permanently disabled of the societythere. It is empty, but ready; and "better empty than full, " said anaged member to me. 

Among the members they have people who were formerly clergymen, lawyers, doctors, farmers, students, mechanics, sea-captains, soldiers, andmerchants; preachers are in a much larger proportion than any of theother professions or callings. They get members from all the religiousdenominations except the Roman Catholic; they have even Jews. Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, and Adventists furnish them the greatestproportion. They have always received colored people, and have some inseveral of the societies. 

"Every commune, to prosper, must be founded, so far as its industrygoes, on agriculture. Only the simple labors and manners of a farmingpeople can hold a community together. Wherever we have departed fromthis rule to go into manufacturing, we have blundered. " For his part, hewould like to make a law for the whole country, that every man shouldown a piece of land and work on it. Moreover, a community, he said, should, as far as possible, make or produce all it uses. "We used tohave more looms than now, but cloth is sold so cheaply that we graduallybegan to buy. It is a mistake; we buy more cheaply than we can make, butour home-made cloth is much better than that we can buy; and we have nowto make three pairs of trousers, for instance, where before we made one. Thus our little looms would even now be more profitable--to say nothingof the independence we secure in working them. "

[Illustration: SHAKER TANNERY, MOUNT LEBANON]

In the beginning, he said, the societies were desirous to own land; andhe thought immoderately so. They bought to the extent of their means;being economical, industrious, and honest, they saved money rapidly, andalways invested their surplus in more land. Then to cultivate thesefarms they adopted children and young people. Twenty years ago theLegislature of New York had before it a bill to limit the quantity ofland the Shakers should be allowed to hold, and the number ofapprentices they should take. It was introduced, he said, by theirenemies, but they at once agreed to it, and thereupon it was dropped;but since then the society had come generally to favor a law limitingthe quantity of land which any citizen should own to not more than onehundred acres. 

[Illustration: SHAKER OFFICE AND STORE AT MOUNT LEBANON]

He thought it a mistake in his people to own farms outside of theirfamily limits, as now they often do. This necessitates the employment ofpersons not members, and this he thought impolitic. "If every out-farmwere sold, the society would be better off. They are of no realadvantage to us, and I believe of no pecuniary advantage either. Theygive us a prosperous look, because we improve them well, and they doreturn usually a fair percentage upon the investment; but, on the otherhand, this success depends upon the assiduous labor of some of ourablest men, whose services would have been worth more at home. We oughtto get on without the use of outside labor. Then we should be confinedto such enterprises as are best for us. Moreover we ought not to makemoney. We ought to make no more than a moderate surplus over our usualliving, so as to lay by something for hard times. In fact, we do not domuch more than this. "

Nevertheless nearly all the Shaker societies have the reputation ofbeing wealthy. 

In their daily lives many profess to have attained perfection: these arethe older people. I judge by the words I have heard in their meetingsthat the younger members have occasion to wish for improvement, and dodiscover faults in themselves. One of the older Shakers, a man ofseventy-two years, and of more than the average intelligence, said tome, in answer to a direct question, that he had for years lived asinless life. "I say to any who know me, as Jesus said to the Pharisees, 'which of you convicteth me of sin. '" Where faults are committed, it isheld to be the duty of the offender to confess to the elder, or, if itis a woman, to the eldress; and it is for these, too, to administerreproof. "For instance, suppose one of the members to possess a hastytemper, not yet under proper curb; suppose he or she breaks out intoviolent words or impatience, in a shop or elsewhere; the rest ought toand do tell the elder, who will thereupon administer reproof. But alsothe offending member ought not to come to meeting before having madeconfession of his sin to the elder, and asked pardon of those who werethe subjects and witnesses of the offense. "

As to books and literature in general, they are not a reading people. "Though a man should gain all the natural knowledge in the universe, hecould not thereby gain either the knowledge or power of salvation fromsin, nor redemption from a sinful nature. " [Footnote: "Christ's Firstand Second Appearing"] Elder Frederick's library is of extremely limitedrange, and contains but a few books, mostly concerning social problemsand physiological laws. The Swedish brother, who had been a student, said in answer to my question, that it did not take him long to weanhimself from the habit of books; and that now, when he felt a temptationin that direction, he knew he must examine himself, because he feltthere was something wrong about him, dragging him down from his higherspiritual estate. He did not regret his books at all. An intelligent, thoughtful old Scotchman said on the same subject that he, while stillof the world, had had a hobby for chemical research, to which he wouldprobably have devoted his life; that he still read much of the newestinvestigations, but that he had found it better to turn his attention tohigher matters; and to bring the faculties which led him naturallytoward chemical studies to the examination of social problems, and touse his knowledge for the benefit of the society. 

The same old Scotchman, now seventy-three years old, and a cheery oldfellow, who had known the elder Owen, and has lived as a Shaker fortyyears, I asked, "Well, on the whole, reviewing your life, do you thinkit a success?" He replied, clearly with the utmost sincerity:"Certainly; I have been living out the highest aspirations my mind wascapable of. The best I knew has been realized for and around me here. With my ideas of society I should have been unfit for any thing in theworld, and unhappy because every thing around me would have workedcontrary to my belief in the right and the best. Here I found my placeand my work, and have been happy and content, seeing the realization ofthe highest I had dreamed of. "

Considering the homeliness of the buildings, which mostly have theappearance of mere factories or human hives, I asked Elder Frederickwhether, if they were to build anew, they would not aim at somearchitectural effect, some beauty of design. He replied with greatpositiveness, "No, the beautiful, as you call it, is absurd andabnormal. It has no business with us. The divine man has no right towaste money upon what you would call beauty, in his house or his dailylife, while there are people living in misery. " In building anew, hewould take care to have more light, a more equal distribution of heat, and a more general care for protection and comfort, because these thingstend to health and long life. But no beauty. He described to meamusingly the disgust he had experienced in a costly New York dwelling, where he saw carpets nailed down on the floor, "of course with piles ofdust beneath, never swept away, and of which I had to breathe;" and withheavy picture-frames hung against the walls, also the receptacles ofdust. "You people in the world are not clean according to our Shakernotions. And what is the use of pictures?" he added scornfully. 

[Illustration: A SHAKER ELDER. ]

They have paid much attention to the early Jewish policy in Palestine, and the laws concerning the distribution of land, the Sabbatical year, service, and the collection of debts, are praised by them asestablishing a far better order of things for the world in general thanthat which obtains in the civilized world to-day. 

They hold strongly to the equality of women with men, and look forwardto the day when women shall, in the outer world as in their ownsocieties, hold office as well as men. "Here we find the women just asable as men in all business affairs, and far more spiritual. " "Suppose awoman wanted, in your family, to be a blacksmith, would you consent?" Iasked; and he replied, "No, because this would bring men and women intorelations which we do not think wise. " In fact, while they call men andwomen equally to the rulership, they very sensibly hold that in generallife the woman's work is in the house, the man's out of doors; and thereis no offer to confuse the two. 

Moreover, being celibates, they use proper precautions in theintercourse of the sexes. Thus Shaker men and women do not shake handswith each other; their lives have almost no privacy, even to the elders, of whom two always room together; the sexes even eat apart; they laborapart; they worship, standing and marching, apart; they visit each otheronly at stated intervals and according to a prescribed order; and in allthings the sexes maintain a certain distance and reserve toward eachother. "We have no scandal, no tea-parties, no gossip. "

Moreover, they mortify the body by early rising and by very plainliving. Few, as I said before, eat meat; and I was assured that acomplete and long-continued experience had proved to them that youngpeople maintain their health and strength fully without meat. They weara very plain and simple dress, without ornament of any kind; and thecostume of the women does not increase their attractiveness, and makesit difficult to distinguish between youth and age. They keep no petanimals, except cats, which are maintained to destroy rats and mice. They have, of course, none of the usual relations to children--and theboys and girls whom they take in are in each family put under charge ofa special "care-taker, " and live in separate houses, each sex by itself. 

Smoking tobacco is by general consent strictly prohibited. A few chewtobacco, but this is thought a weakness, to be left off as standing inthe way of a perfect life. 

[Illustration: A GROUP OF SHAKER CHILDREN]

[Illustration: SHAKER DINING HALL]

The following notice in the _Shaker_ shows that even some very oldsinners in this respect reform:

OBITUARY. 

On Tuesday, Feb. 20th, 1873, _Died, _ by the power of truth, and forthe cause of Human Redemption, at the Young Believers' Order, Mt. Lebanon, in the following much-beloved Brethren, the aged respectively. 

No funeral ceremonies, no mourners, no grave-yard; but an honorableRECORD thereof made in the Court above. Ed. 

 In D. S. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 51 years' duration. In C. M. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 57 " In A. G. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 15 " In T. S. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 36 " In OLIVER PRENTISS . .. 71 " In L. S. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 45 " In H. C. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 53 " In O. K. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 12 "

Reviewing all these details, it did not surprise me when Elder Frederickremarked, "Every body is not called to the divine life. " To a man orwoman not thoroughly and earnestly in love with an ascetic life anddeeply disgusted with the world, Shakerism would be unendurable; and Ibelieve insincerity to be rare among them. It is not a comfortable placefor hypocrites or pretenders. 

The housekeeping of a Shaker family is very thoroughly and effectivelydone. The North Family at Mount Lebanon consists of sixty persons; sixsisters suffice to do the cooking and baking, and to manage thedining-hall; six other sisters in half a day do the washing of the wholefamily. The deaconesses give out the supplies. The men milk in badweather, the women when it is warm. The Swedish brother told me that hewas this winter taking a turn at milking--to mortify the flesh, Iimagine, for he had never done this in his own home; and he used neithermilk nor butter. Many of the brethren have not tasted meat in fromtwenty-five to thirty-five years. Tea and coffee are used, but verymoderately. 

There is no servant class. 

"In a community, it is necessary that some one person shall always knowwhere every body is, " and it is the elder's office to have thisknowledge; thus if one does not attend a meeting, he tells the elder thereason why. 

Obedience to superiors is an important part of the life of the order. 

Living as they do in large families compactly stowed, they have becomevery careful against fires, and "a real Shaker always, when he has goneout of a room, returns and takes a look around to see that all isright. "

The floor of the assembly room was astonishingly bright and clean, sothat I imagined it had been recently laid. It had, in fact, been usedtwenty-nine years; and in that time had been but twice scrubbed withwater. But it was swept and polished daily; and the brethren wear to themeetings shoes made particularly for those occasions, which are withoutnails or pegs in the soles, and of soft leather. They have invented manysuch tricks of housekeeping, and I could see that they acted just as aparcel of old bachelors and old maids would, any where else, in theseparticulars--setting much store by personal comfort, neatness, andorder; and no doubt thinking much of such minor morals. For instance, onthe opposite page is a copy of verses which I found in the visitors'room in one of the Shaker families--a silent but sufficient hint to thecareless and wasteful. 

Like the old monasteries, they are the prey of beggars, who alwaysreceive a dole of food, and often money enough to pay for a night'slodging in the neighboring village; for they do not like to take instrangers. 

The visiting which is done on Sunday evenings is perhaps as curious asany part of their ceremonial. Like all else in their lives, these visitsare prearranged for them--a certain group of sisters visiting a certaingroup of brethren. The sisters, from four to eight in number, sit in arow on one side, in straight-backed chairs, each with her neat hood orcap, and each with a clean white handkerchief spread stiffly across herlap. The brethren, of equal number, sit opposite them, in another row, also in stiff-backed chairs, and also each with a white handkerchiefsmoothly laid over his knees. Thus arranged, they converse upon the newsof the week, events in the outer world, the farm operations, and theweather; they sing, and in general have a pleasant reunion, not withoutgentle laughter and mild amusement. They meet at an appointed time, andat another set hour they part; and no doubt they find great satisfactionin this--the only meeting in which they fall into sets which do notinclude the whole family. 

TABLE MONITOR. 

GATHER UP THE FRAGMENTS THAT REMAIN, THAT NOTHING BE LOST. --Christ. 

 Here then is the pattern Which Jesus has set; And his good example We cannot forget: With thanks for his blessings His word we'll obey; But on this occasion We've somewhat to say. 

 We wish to speak plainly And use no deceit; We like to see fragments Left wholesome and neat: To customs and fashions We make no pretense; Yet think we can tell What belongs to good sense. 

 What we deem good order, We're willing to state-- Eat hearty and decent, And clear out our plate-- Be thankful to Heaven For what we receive, And not make a mixture Or compound to leave. 

 We find of those bounties Which Heaven does give, That some live to eat, And that some eat to live-- That some think of nothing But pleasing the taste, And care very little How much they do waste. 

 Tho' Heaven has bless'd us With plenty of food: Bread, butter, and honey, And all that is good; We loathe to see mixtures Where gentle folks dine, Which scarcely look fit For the poultry or swine. 

 We often find left, On the same china dish, Meat, apple-sauce, pickle, Brown bread and minc'd fish; Another's replenish'd With butter and cheese; With pie, cake, and toast, Perhaps, added to these. 

 Now if any virtue In this can be shown, By peasant, by lawyer, Or king on the throne, We freely will forfeit Whatever we've said, And call it a virtue To waste meat and bread. 

 Let none be offended At what we here say; We candidly ask you, Is that the best way? If not--lay such customs And fashions aside, And take this Monitor Henceforth for your guide. 

[VISITORS' EATING-ROOM, SHAKER VILLAGE. ]

Since these chapters were written, Hervey Elkins's pamphlet, "FifteenYears in the Senior Order of the Shakers, " printed at Hanover, NewHampshire, in 1853, has come into my hands. Elkins gives some detailsout of his own experience of Shaker life which I believe to be generallycorrect, and which I quote here, as filling up some parts of the pictureI have tried to give of the Shaker polity and life:

"The spiritual orders, laws, and statutes, never to be revoked, are insubstance as follows: None are admitted within the walls of Zion, asthey denominate their religious sphere, but by a confession to one ormore incarnate witnesses of every debasing and immoral act perpetratedby the confessor within his remembrance; also every act which, thoughthe laws of men may sanction, may be deemed sinful in the view of thatnew and sublimer divinity which he has adopted. The time, the place, themotive which produced and pervaded the act, the circumstances whichaggravated the case, are all to be disclosed. No stone is to be leftunturned--no filth is suffered to remain. The temple of God, or thesoul, must be carefully swept and garnished, before the new man canenter it and there make his abode. (Christ, or the Divine Intelligencewhich emanated from God the Father, transforms the soul into the new manspoken of in the Scriptures. )

"Those who have committed deeds cognizable by the laws of the land, shall never be admitted, until those laws have dealt with theirtransgressions and acquitted them. 

"Those who have in any way morally wronged a fellow-creature, shall makerestitution to the satisfaction of the person injured. 

"Wives who have unbelieving husbands must not be admitted without theirhusbands' consent, or until they are lawfully released from the marriagecontract, and vice versa. They may confess their sins, but cannot enterthe sacred compact. 

"All children admitted shall be bound by legal indentures, and shall, ifrefractory, be returned to their parents. 

"There shall exist three Orders, or degrees of progression, viz. : TheNovitiate, the Junior, and the Senior. 

"All adults may enter the Novitiate Order, and then may progress to ahigher, by faithfulness in supporting the Gospel requirements. 

"When at the age of twenty-one, the Church Covenant is presented to allthe young members to peruse, and to deliberate and decide whether or notthey will maintain the conditions therein expressed. To older members itis presented after all legal embarrassments upon their estates aresettled, and they desire to be admitted to full fellowship with thosewho have consecrated _all. _ And whoever, after having escaped theservility of Egypt, shall again desire its taskmasters and flesh-pots, are unfit for the kingdom of God; and in case of secession or apostasyshall, by their own deliberate and matured act (that of placing theirsignatures and seals upon this instrument when in the full possession ofall their mental powers), be debarred from legally demanding anycompensation whatever for the property or services which they haddedicated to a holy purpose. 

"This instrument is legally and skillfully formed, and none arepermitted to sign it until they have counted well the cost; or, atleast, pondered for a time upon its requirements. 

"Members also stipulate themselves by this signature to yield implicitobedience to the ministry, elders, deacons, and trustees, each in theirrespective departments of authority and duty. 

"The Shaker government, in many points, resembles that of the military. All shall look for counsel and guidance to those immediately beforethem, and shall receive nothing from, nor make application for any thingto those but their immediate advisers. For instance: No elder in eitherof the subordinate bishoprics can make application for any amendment, any innovation, any introduction of a new system, of however trivial anature, to the ministry of the first bishopric; but he may desire andask of his own ministry, and, if his proposal meet their concurrence, they will seek its sanction of those next higher. All are to regardtheir spiritual leaders as mediators between God and their own souls;and these links of divine communication, successively descending fromPower and Wisdom, who constitute the dual God, to their Son andDaughter, Jesus and Ann, and from them to Ann's successors of the Zionof God on earth, down to the prattling infant who may have been gatheredwithin this ark of safety--this concatenated system of spiritualdelegation is the river of life, whose salutary waters flow through thecelestial sphere for the cleansing and redemption of souls. 

"Great humility and simplicity of life is practiced by the firstministry--two of each sex--upon whom devolves the charge of subordinatebishoprics, besides that of their own immediate care, the societies ofNiskeyuna and Mount Lebanon. They will not even (and this is goodpolicy) allow themselves those expensive conveniences of life which areso common among the laity of their sect. But extreme neatness is themost prominent characteristic of both them and their subordinates. Theyspeak much of the model enjoined by Jesus, that whosoever would be thegreatest should be the servant of all. 

"A simple song, of a beautiful tune, inculcating this spirit, is oftensung in their assemblies. The words are these:

"'Whoever wants to be the highest Must first come down to be the lowest; And then ascend to be the highest By keeping down to be the lowest. '

"It is common for the leaders to crowd down, by humiliation, andwithdraw patronage and attention from those whom they intend toultimately promote to an official station. That such may learn how itseems to be slighted and humiliated, and how to stand upon their ownbasis, work spiritually for their own food without being dandled uponthe soft lap of affection, or fed with the milk designed for babes. Thatalso they be not deceived by the phantoms of self-wisdom; and that theymartyr not in themselves the meek spirit of the lowly Jesus. Thus, whileholding one in contemplation for an office of care and trust, they firstprove him--the cause unknown to himself--to see how much he can bear, without exploding by impatience or faltering under trial. 

"Virtually for this purpose, but ostensibly for some other, have I knownmany promising young people moved to a back order, or lower grade offellowship. By such trials the leaders think to try their souls in thefurnace of affliction, withdraw them from earthly attachments, and imbuethem with reliance upon God. In fact, to destroy terrestrial idols ofevery kind, to dispel the clouds of inordinate affection andconcentrative love, which fascinatingly float around the mind and screenfrom its view the radiant brightness of heaven and heavenly things, isthe great object of Shakerism. 

"Whoever yields enough to the evil tempter to gratify in the least thesensual passions--either in deed, word, or thought--shall confesshonestly the same to his elders ere the sun of another day shall set toannounce a day of condemnation and wrath against the guilty soul. Thesevile passions are--fleshly lusts in every form, idolatry, selfishness, envy, wrath, malice, evil-speaking, and their kindred evils. 

"The Sabbath shall be kept pure and holy to that degree that no booksshall be read on that day which originated among the world's people, save those scientific books which treat of propriety of diction. No idleor vain stories shall be rehearsed, no unnecessary labor shall beperformed--not even the cooking of food, the ablution of the body, thecutting of the hair, beard, or nails, the blacking and polishing ofshoes or boots. All these things must be performed on Saturday, orpostponed till the subsequent week. All fruit, eaten upon the Sabbath, must be earned to the dwelling-house on Saturday. But the dormitoriesmay be arranged, the cows milked, all domestic animals fed, and food anddrink warmed on Sunday. No one is allowed to go to his workshop, to walkin the gardens, the orchards, or on the farms, unless immediate dutyrequires; and those who of necessity go to their workshops, shall nottarry over fifteen minutes but by the direct liberty of the elders. Thedwelling-house is the place for all to spend the Sabbath; and thitherall concentrate--elders, deacons, brethren, and sisters. If any propertyis likely to incur loss--as hay and grain that is cut and remaining inthe field, and is liable to be wet before Monday, it may be secured uponthe Sabbath. 

"All shall rise simultaneously every morning at the signal of the bell, and those of each room shall kneel together in silent prayer, strip fromthe beds the coverlets and blankets, lighten the feathers, open thewindows to ventilate the rooms, and repair to their places of vocation. Fifteen minutes are allowed for all to leave their sleeping apartments. In the summer the signal for rising is heard at half-past four, in thewinter at half-past five. Breakfast is invariably one and a half hoursafter rising--in the summer at six, in the winter at seven; dinneralways at twelve; supper at six. These rules are, however, slightlymodified upon the Sabbath. They rise and breakfast on this day half anhour later, dine lightly at twelve, and sup at four. Every ordermaintains the same regularity in regard to their meals. 

"In the Senior Order, at the ringing of a large bell, ten minutes beforemeal-time, all may gather into the saloons, and retire the ten minutesbefore the dining-hall alarm summons them to the table. All enter fourdoors and gently arrange themselves at their respective places at thetable, then all simultaneously kneel in silent thanks for nearly aminute, then rise and seat themselves almost inaudibly at the table. Notalking, laughing, whispering, or blinking are allowed while thuspartaking of God's blessings. After eating, all rise together at thesignal of the first elder, kneel as before, and gently retire to theirplaces of vocation, without stopping in the dining-hall, loitering inthe corridors and vestibules, or lounging upon the balustrades, doorways, and stairs. 

"The tables are long, three feet in width, highly polished, withoutcloth, and furnished with white ware and no tumblers. The interdictwhich excludes glass-ware from the table must be attributed toconservatism rather than parsimony, for in _most_ usefulimprovements the Shakers strive to excel. They tremble at adopting the_customs_ of the world. At the tables, each four have all thevarieties of food served for themselves, which precludes the necessity ofcontinual passing and reaching. 

"At half-past seven P. M. In the summer, and at eight in the winter, thelarge bell summons all of every order to their respective dwellings, there to retire, each individual in his own room, half an hour beforeevening worship. To retire is for the inmates of every room--generallyfrom four to eight individuals--to dispose themselves in either one ortwo ranks, and sit erect, with their hands folded upon their laps, without leaning back or falling asleep; and in that position labor for atrue sense of their privilege in the Zion of God--of the fact that Godhas prescribed a law which humbles and keeps them within the hollow ofhis hand, and has favored them with the blessing of worshiping him, withsoul and body, unmolested, and according to the dictation of anenlightened mind and a tender and good conscience. If any chance to fallasleep while thus mentally employed, they may rise and bow four times, or gently shake, and then resume their seats. 

"The man who is now the archbishop of Shakerism was, when a youth, veryapt to fall into a drowsy state in retiring time; but he broke up thathabit by standing erect the half-hour before every meeting for sixmonths. And there are many as zealous as he in supporting every order. No unnecessary walking in the corridors or passing in and out of doorsare in this sacred time allowed. When the half-hour has expired, a smallhand-bell summons all to the hall of worship. None are allowed toabsent themselves without the elder's liberty. If any are unwell ortired, it is but a little matter to rap at the elder's door, or ask acompanion to do it, where any one may receive liberty to retire to restif it is expedient. All pass the stairs and corridors, and enter thehall, two abreast, upon tiptoe, bowing once as they enter, and passdirectly to their place in the forming ranks. 

"The house, of course, is vacated through the day, except by sisters, who take turns in cooking, making beds, and sweeping. When brethren andsisters enter, they must uncover their heads, and hang their hats andbonnets in the lower corridors, and walk softly, and open and shut doorsgently, and in the fear of God. None are allowed to carry money intosacred worship. In a word, the sanctuary and the whole house shall bekept sacred and holy unto the Lord; and all shall spend the timeallotted to be in the house mostly in their own rooms. Three evenings inthe week are set apart for worship, and three for 'union meetings. 'Monday evenings all may retire to rest at the usual meeting time, anhour earlier than usual. For the union meetings the brethren remain intheir rooms, and the sisters, six, eight, or ten in number, enter andsit in a rank opposite to that of the brethren's, and converse simply, often facetiously, but rarely profoundly. In fact, to say 'agreeablethings about nothing, ' when conversant with the other sex, is as commonthere as elsewhere. And what of dignity or meaning could be said? wheretalking of sacred subjects is not allowed, under the pretext that itscatters those blessings which should be carefully treasured up; andbestowing much information concerning the secular plans of economypracticed by your own to the other sex is not approved; and where totalk of literary matters would be termed bombastic pedantry and smalldisplay, and would serve to exhibit accomplishments which might beenticingly dangerous. Nevertheless, an hour passes away very agreeablyand even rapturously with those who there chance to meet with anespecial favorite; succeeded soon, however, when soft words, and kind, concentrated looks become obvious to the jealous eye of a femaleespionage, by the agonies of a separation. For the tidings of suchreciprocity, whether true or surmised, is sure before the lapse of manyhours to reach the ears of the elders; in which case, the one or theother party would be subsequently summoned to another circle of colloquyand union. 

"No one is permitted to make mention of any thing said or done in any ofthese sittings to those who attend another, for party spirit andmischief might be the result. Twenty minutes of the union hour may bedevoted to the singing of sacred songs, if desired. 

"All are positively forbidden ever to say aught against their brother ortheir sister, whatever may be their defects; but such defects shall bemade known to the elders, and to none else. 'If nothing good can be saidof one, say nothing, ' is a Shaker maxim. If one member is known byanother to violate an ordinance of the Gospel, the witness thereto shallgently remind the transgressor, and request him to confess the deed tothe elder. If he refuses, the witness shall divulge it; if he consents, then is the witness free, as having performed his duty. 

"Brethren and sisters shall not visit each other's rooms unless forerrands; and in such cases shall tarry no more than fifteen minutes. Asister shall not go to the brethren's work places unless accompanied byanother. Brethren's and sister's workshops shall not be under one or thesame roof; they shall not pass each other upon the stairs; nor one ofeach converse together unless a third person be present of more than tenyears of age. They shall in no case give presents to each other, norlend with the intention of never again receiving. If a sister desiresany assistance, or desires any article made by the brethren, she mustmake application to the female deaconesses or stewards, and they willconvey her wishes to the male stewards, who will provide the article orassistance requested. The converse is required of a brother; although itis more common for the brother to express his requests direct to thefemale steward, thus excluding one link of the concatenation. In eachorder a brother is generally appointed to aid the sisters in doing theheavy work of the laundry, dairy, kitchen, and similar places. All arerequired to spend their mornings and evenings, and their leisure time, in the performance of some good act. 

"No one shall leave the premises of the family in which he lives withoutthe consent of the elders; and he shall obtain the consent by statingthe purpose or business which calls him away. This interdiction includesthe act of going from one family to another. But on their own grounds_brethren_ may range at pleasure; and the families are so large thatthe territory included in the domain of each extends in some directionsfor miles around. 

"No conversation is allowed between members of different families, unless it be necessary, succinct, and discreet. 

"Before a brother enters a sister's apartment, or a sister enters abrother's, they shall rap and enter by permission. When they enter theapartment of their own sex, they may open the door and ask, 'May I comein?'

"The name of a person shall never be used to designate a dumb beast. Noone is allowed to play with or handle unnecessarily any beast whatever. Brethren and sisters may not unnecessarily touch each other. If abrother shakes hands with an unbelieving woman, or a sister with anunbelieving man, they shall make known the same to the elders beforethey attend worship. Such salutes are admissible, for the sake ofcivility or custom, if the world party first present the hand--neverwithout. All visiting of the world's people, even their own relations, is forbidden, unless there exist a prospect of making converts, or ofgathering some one into the fold. All visiting of other societies oftheir own sect is under the immediate superintendence of the ministry, who prescribe the number, select the persons, appoint the time, definethe length of their stay, and the routes by which they may go and come. 

"The deacons are empowered to change the employment of an individual foran hour, a day, or a week, to perform a necessary piece of labor. But apermanent removal to another vocation can be required only by theelders. 

"No trading is to be done by any save the trustees, and those whom thetrustees may license. No new literary work or new-fangled article can beadmitted, unless it be first sanctioned by the ministry and elders. Trustees may purchase any thing they believe may be admissible, andpresent the same for the inspection of the leaders. If they disapproveit, it must be sold. The property is all legally held by trustees, whomay at any time be removed by the ministry. The trustees are tosupervise all financial transactions with the world and other familiesand societies of their own denomination, and do all by knowledge andunion of the ministry and elders. There must be two trustees in everyorder, and they shall make their financial returns known to each otherevery journey they perform. An exact book account of every cent ofdisbursement and income shall be presented to the ministry at the closeof every year. The deacons are also to keep an exact account of everything manufactured or produced for sale in the family, and these tworegisters are compared by the ministry. 

"Not a single action of life, whether spiritual or temporal, from theinitiative of confession, or cleansing the habitation of Christ, to thatof dressing the right side first, stepping first with the right foot asyou ascend a flight of stairs, folding the hands with the right-handthumb and fingers above those of the left, kneeling and rising againwith the right leg first, and harnessing first the right-hand beast, butthat has a rule for its perfect and strict performance. 

"The children, or all under the age of sixteen, unless very precocious, live, eat, work, play, sleep, and worship, accompanied only by theircaretakers. Once upon the Sabbath do they worship with the adults. Theirmeetings are not so long, neither do they retire but fifteen minutesbefore them. They never attend union meetings until they emerge into theadult's degree. Stubborn children are sometimes corrected with a rod;but any child or beast that requires an extreme severity of coercion toinduce them to conform, the society are not allowed to keep. Thecontumacious child must be returned to his parents or guardian, and theperverse beast must be sold. 

"Prayer, supplication, persuasion, and keen admonition constitute theonly means used to incline the disposition and bend the will of thosearrived to years of understanding and reason. "

 * * * * *

"The boys' shop, so called, is a building two stories in height. In theupper loft is a large room where the care-takers reside, and where theboys who wish to read, write, or reflect may retire from the jabberingand confusion below. Whenever they leave their house or shop, they arerequired to go two abreast and keep step with each other. No loudtalking was allowable in the court-yards at any time. No talking orwhispering when passing through the tasteful courts to their work, theirschool, their meetings, or their meals; a still, soft walk on tiptoe, and an indistinct closing of doors in the house; a gentle, yet a morebrisk movement in the shops; a free and jovial conversation when bythemselves in the fields; but not a word, unless when spoken to, whenother brethren than their care-takers were present--such were the orderswe saw rigorously enforced, and the lenities we freely granted. Weallowed them to indulge in the _innocent_ sports practicedelsewhere. But wrestling and scuffling were rarely permitted. No sportswere allowed in the courtyards, unless all loud talk was suppressed. We afew times permitted them to roll trucks there, but allowed no verbalcommunication only by whispering. 

"All were taught to confess all violations of their instructions, and aportion of every Saturday was set apart for that purpose. They enter oneat a time, and kneel before the care-taker; and, after confessing theirfaults, the care-taker makes some necessary inquiries in relation toother boys, gives them generally some good advice, and they depart. After eighteen years of age they are not required to kneel during theact of confession. To watch over a company of boys like these is, with alittle tact, an easy task. The vigils must be incessant; but there arein so large a number those upon whom the care-taker may rely; and if illconduct or bad habits are creeping in, it may soon be detected by ashrewd observer. "

The contracting of a special liking between individuals of oppositesexes is in some of the societies called "sparking. "

 * * * * *

DETAILS OF THE SHAKER SOCIETIES. 

To describe particularly each of the eighteen Shaker societies wouldinvolve a great deal of unnecessary repetition. In their buildings, their customs, their worship, their religious faith, their extremecleanliness, their costume, and in many other particulars, they are allnearly alike; and the Shaker of Kentucky does not to the cursory viewdiffer from his brother of Maine. But I have thought it necessary, to acomplete view of the order, to present some particulars of each society, as to its location, numbers, the quantity of land it owns, itsindustries, and present and past prosperity, as also peculiarities ofthought or custom; and these details will be found below. 

There are two Shaker societies in Maine--one at Alfred, the other at NewGloucester. 

_Alfred_. 

The society is near Alfred, in York County, about thirty milessouthwesterly from Portland. Its estate of eleven hundred acres lies ina pretty situation, between hills, and includes a large pond and animportant water-power. The land is not very fertile or easilycultivated. They sold off last year an outlying tract of timber-land for$28, 000, and were glad to be rid of it. 

The society consists now of two families, having between sixty-five andseventy members, of whom two fifths are men and the remainder women. They are all Americans but two, of whom one is Irish and one Welsh. 

The society was "gathered" in 1794; there were then three families; andin 1823 it had two hundred members. Twelve years ago one of thefamilies, being small, was drawn in to the others, and the buildings itoccupied have since been let out. The decrease began to be rapid aboutthirty years ago, when the founders, who had become very aged, died off, and new members did not come in in sufficient numbers to take theirplaces. Two thirds of the present members were brought into the societyas children, many being brought by their parents: others, orphans, adopted. Twenty per cent, of the present membership are over fifty yearsof age. 

The two families now raise a few garden seeds, make brooms, hair sieves, dry measures, keep a tan-yard, and make besides most of their homesupplies. They also farm their own land. They have leased to outsidepeople a saw-mill and grist-mill which they own. The young women makesmall baskets, fans, and other fancy articles, which are sold during thesummer at neighboring sea-side watering-places. They hire a few outsidelaborers. 

About a quarter of the people eat no meat. They have improved theirsanitary regulations in the last twenty years, and have almostextirpated fevers. Formerly cancer was a frequent disease among them, but since they ceased to eat pork this has disappeared. 

They take nine or ten newspapers, and encourage reading; have a smalllibrary, and a good school, in which thirteen children are taught. Thepeople have been long-lived; only a few weeks before I visited Alfred, died at the Church Family Lucy Langdon Nowell, aged ninety-eight. Shewas born on the 4th of July, 1776, and had lived almost all her life inthe society, her father having been one of its founders, and the ownerof some of the land on which the society now live. Had she lived longenough, she was to have been taken to the proposed Centennial Exhibitionat Philadelphia. 

In the last ten years this society has maintained its numbers, but hasnot gained. They do not receive many applications for membership; and ofthose who apply, not more than one in ten "makes a good Shaker. "

The Alfred Society desired a year or two ago to remove to a milderclimate; they offered their entire property for $100, 000, but found nopurchaser at the price, and determined to remain. Their buildings are inexcellent order; and they are prosperous, having, besides the incomefrom their different industries, a fund at interest. They have never hadany defalcation or loss from unfaithful agents or trustees, and theyhave no debt. 

I was told that the first circular saw ever made in the United Stateswas invented by a Shaker at Alfred. 

_New Gloucester_. 

The New Gloucester Society lies in Cumberland County, about twenty-fivemiles northwest of Portland. It consists of two families, havingtogether about seventy members, of whom one third are men. In 1823 ithad three families, the third being gathered in 1820, and broken up in1831. The society had in 1823 one hundred and fifty members. 

It was "gathered" in 1794; its members are now all Americans except two, who are Scotch. Among them are persons who were farmers, merchants, printers, wool-weavers, and Some mechanics. 

The Church Family lives in a valley, the Gathering Family on a highridge, about a mile off, and overlooking an extensive tract of country. The society has two thousand acres of land, and owns a saw-mill, grist-mill, and a very complete machine shop. The people raise gardenseeds, make brooms, dry measures, wire sieves, and the old-fashionedspinning-wheel, which, it seems, is still used in Maine and NewHampshire by country-women to make stocking yarn. But its mostprofitable industry is the manufacture of oak staves for molasseshogsheads, which are exported to the West Indies. One of the elders ofthis society, Hewitt Chandler, a man of uncommon mechanical ingenuity, and the inventor of a mowing-machine which was made here for some years, has contrived a way of bending staves without setting them up in thecask, which saves much time and labor, and makes this part of theirbusiness additionally profitable. They made last year also a thousanddollars' worth of pickles; and the women make fancy articles in theirspare time. 

They employ from fifteen to twenty laborers in their mills and otherworks, most of whom are boarded and lodged on the place. 

The meeting-house at this place was built in 1794, and the dwelling ofthe Church Family in the following year. Both are of wood, are still ingood order, and have never been re-shingled. 

The second family at this place was "gathered" in 1808, at Gorham, inMaine, and removed to its present location in 1819. It had then twentybrethren and thirty-two sisters; and has now only twenty members in all. 

Very few of the people here eat meat. Some drink tea, but coffee is notused. They have flower gardens, and would have an organ or melodeon ifthey could afford it. The young people promise well; and they havelately received several young men as members, sons of neighboringfarmers, who had worked for them as hired people for a number of years. 

This society is less prosperous than most of the others. It has met withseveral severe losses by unfaithful and imprudent agents and trustees, who in one case ran up large debts for several years, contrary to thewise rule of the Shakers to "owe no man any thing, " and in another casebrought loss by defalcation. The hill family have built a large stonehouse, but owing to losses have not been able to complete it. Thebuildings at New Gloucester show signs of neglect; but the people arevery industrious, and have in the last three years paid off a large sumwhich they owed through the default of their agents; and they will worktheir way out in the next two years. To prevent their being entirelycrippled, the other societies helped them with a subscription. 

At New Gloucester, also, the people are long-lived, some having died atthe age of eighty-six; and very many living beyond seventy. 

The societies at Alfred and New Gloucester were founded after a"revival" among the Free-will Baptists; and of the present members whocame in later, there were Universalists, Baptists, Methodists, andAdventists or Millerites. 

There are two societies in New Hampshire, both prosperous: one atCanterbury, the other at Enfield. 

_Canterbury. _

The society at Canterbury lies on high ground, about twelve miles northby east from Concord. It consists of three families, of which, however, two only are independent; the third, which has but fifteen members, receiving its supplies from the Church Family, which contains onehundred members. The three families have in all one hundred andforty-five members. In 1823 they had over two hundred, and forty yearsago they had about three hundred. 

Forty of the whole number are under twenty-one; and one third are males, two thirds females. The majority are young and middle-aged people; theoldest member is now eighty-three, and half a dozen are near seventy. The people have been generally long-lived, and one member lived to overone hundred years of age. 

The greater part grew up in the society; but they have five young Scotchpeople, brought over by their parents. Of those who have joined in lateryears, the most were Adventists; others Free-will Baptists andMethodists. They have not gained in numbers in ten years, and fewapplicants nowadays remain with them. 

This society is prosperous. It owns three thousand acres of rather poorfarming land, some of which is in wood and timber. It has also a farm inWestern New York, where it maintains eight hundred sheep. Its industriesare varied: they make large washing-machines and mangles for hotels andpublic institutions, weave woolen cloths and flannels, make sarsaparillasyrup, checkerberry oil, and knit woolen socks. They also make brooms, and sell hay; have a saw-mill; make much of what they use; and they keepexcellent stock, having one enormous and admirably arranged barn. Thesisters also make fancy articles, for which they have a good market fromthe summer visitors to the mountains, with whom the Canterbury Shakersare justly favorites. 

Their buildings are very complete and in excellent order. They have asteam laundry, with mangle, and an admirably arranged ironing-room; afine and thoroughly fitted school-house, with a melodeon, and a specialmusic-room; an infirmary for the feeble and sick, in which there is afearful quantity of drugs; and they take twelve or fifteen newspapers, and have a library of four hundred volumes, including history, voyages, travels, scientific works, and stories for children, but no novels. 

The Canterbury Society was "gathered" in 1792; the leading men owned thefarm on which the buildings now stand, and gave the land to thecommunity. The old gambrel-roofed meeting-house was built in 1792, andstill stands in good order. The founders and early members wereFree-will Baptists, who became Shakers after a great "revival. " They hadsome property originally; and soon began to manufacture spinning-wheels, whips, sieves, mortars, brooms, scythe-snaths, and dry measures; theyestablished also a tannery. As times changed, they dropped some of theseindustries and took up others. One of their members invented thewashing-machine which they now make, and they hold the patent-right forit. 

They employ six mechanics, non-members, and occasionally others. Themembers mostly eat meat, drink tea but not coffee, and a few of the agedmembers are indulged in the use of chewing-tobacco. They take fewerchildren than formerly, and prefer to take young men and women fromeighteen to twenty-four. They take great pains to amuse as well asinstruct the children; for the girls, gymnastic exercises are providedas well as a flower garden; the boys play at ball and marbles, gofishing, and have a small farm of their own, where each has his owngarden plot. Once a week there is a general "exercise" meeting of thechildren, and they are, of course, included in the usual meetings forworship, reading, and conversation. 

The "shops" or work-rooms are all excellently fitted; in the girls'sewing-room I found a piano, and a young sister taking her music-lesson. 

The children are trained to confess their sins to the elders, in theShaker fashion, and this is thought to be a most important part of theirdiscipline. 

In the dwelling-house and near the kitchen I noticed a great number ofbuckets, hung up to the beams, one for each member, and these are usedto carry hot water to the rooms for bathing. The dwellings are notheated with steam. The dining-room was ornamented with evergreens andflowers in pots. 

They have no physician, but in the infirmary the sisters in charge havesufficient skill for ordinary cases of disease. 

The people are not great readers. The Bible, however, is much read. Theyare fond of music. 

In summer they entertain visitors at a set price, and have rooms fittedfor this purpose. In the visitors' dining-room I saw this printednotice:

"At the table we wish all to be as free as at home, but we dislike thewasteful habit of leaving food on the plate. No vice is with us the lessridiculous for being fashionable. 

"Married persons tarrying with us overnight are respectfully notifiedthat each sex occupy separate sleeping apartments while they remain. "

They had at Canterbury formerly a printing-press, and printed a nowscarce edition of hymns, and several books. This press has been sold. 

The trustees here give once a year an inventory and statement ofaccounts to the elders of the Church Family. In the years 1848-9 theysuffered severe losses from the defalcation of an agent or trustee, butthey have long ago recovered this loss, and now owe no debts. 

Agriculture they believe to be the true base of community life, and iftheir land were fertile they would be glad to leave off manufacturingentirely. But on such land as they have they cannot make a living. 

The leading elder of the society remarked to me that, though in numbersthey were less than formerly, the influence of the Canterbury Societyupon the outside world was never so great as now: their Sunday meetingsin summer are crowded by visitors, and they believe that often theirdoctrines sink deep into the hearts of these chance hearers. 

_Enfield, N. H. _

The Society at Enfield lies in Grafton County, about twelve milessoutheast from Dartmouth College, and two miles from Enfield Station, onthe Northern New Hampshire Railroad. It is composed of three families, having altogether at this time one hundred and forty members, of whomthirty-seven are males and one hundred and three females. Thispreponderance arises chiefly, I was told, from the large number of youngsisters. There are thirty-five youth under twenty-one years of age, ofwhom eight are boys and twenty-seven girls. In 1823 the Enfield Societyhad over two hundred members; thirty years ago it had three hundred andthirty members. They do not now receive many applications formembership, and of those who apply but few remain. 

This society was "gathered" in 1793, and consisted then of but onefamily or community. It arose out of a general revival of religion inthis region. A second family was formed in 1800, and the third, the"North Family, " in 1812. They lost some members during the war of theRebellion, young men who became soldiers, and some others who were drawnaway by the general feeling of unrest which pervaded the country. Theylike to take children, but are more careful than formerly to ascertainthe characters of their parents. "We want a good kind; but we can't dowithout some children around us, " I was told. 

The society has about three thousand acres of land, part of it being anoutlying farm, ten or a dozen miles away. The buildings are remarkablysubstantial. The dwelling of the Church Family is of a beautifulgranite, one hundred feet by sixty, and of four full and two atticstories; some of the shops are also of granite, others of brick, and inthe other families stone and brick have also been used. There is anexcellently arranged infirmary, a roomy and well-furnished school-room, a large music-room in a separate building; and at the Church Family theyhave a laundry worked by water-power, and use a centrifugal dryer, instead of the common wringer. 

Nearly the whole of their present real estate was brought into thesociety as a free gift by the founders, who were farmers living there;and many of the early members brought in considerable means, for thosedays. When they gathered into a community they began to addmanufacturing to their farming work, and the Enfield Shakers were amongthe first to put up garden seeds. Besides this, they madespinning-wheels, rakes, pitchforks, scythe-snaths, and had many looms. Until within thirty years they wove linen and cotton as well as woolengoods, and in considerable quantities. 

At present they put up garden seeds, make buckets and tubs, butter-tubs, brooms, dry measures, gather and dry roots and herbs for medicinal use, make maple-sugar in the spring and apple-sauce in the winter; sew shirtsfor Boston, and keep several knitting-machines busy, making flannelshirts and drawers and socks. They also make several patent medicines, among which the "Shaker anodyne" is especially prized by them; andextracts, such as fluid valerian; and in one of the families the womenprepare bread, pies, and other provisions, which they sell in aneighboring manufacturing village. Finally, they own a woolen-mill and agrist-mill; but these they have leased. One of their members hasinvented and patented for the society a folding pocket-stereoscope. 

Besides all these industries, uncommonly varied and numerous even forthe Shakers, they have carpenter, blacksmith, tailor, and shoemakershops, and produce or make up a great part of what they consume. Moreover, as in most of the Shaker societies, the women make up fancyarticles for sale. 

The members of the society are almost all Americans, and the greaterpart of them came in as little children. Of foreigners, there are oneEnglishman, two of Irish birth, one of Welsh, and two French Canadians. As elsewhere, Baptists, Methodists, and Millerites or Second Adventistscontributed the larger part of the membership. 

They hire from twenty to thirty-five laborers, according to the seasonof the year. 

Most of the members are under forty, and almost all are farmers. I heardof one lawyer; and one when he entered had been a law student. Almostall are meat eaters, and they use both tea and coffee. A few of theolder men are allowed to chew tobacco. There are no fevers in thesociety, and their health is excellent, which arises partly I supposefrom the fact that the ground upon which the buildings stand hasthorough natural drainage. Some of their members have lived to the ageof ninety--which is not an uncommon age, by the way, for Shakers--and onthe register of deaths I found these ages: 89, 86, 86, 80, 80, 79, 76, 75, and so on. 

They have a library of about two hundred volumes in each family, exclusive of strictly religious books; and almost all the younger peoplecan read music, one of the members being a thorough teacher and goodmusical drill-master. They read the Bible a good deal, and sometimespray aloud in their meetings. Once or twice a week they hold readingmeetings, at which some one reads either from a book of history orbiography, or extracts from newspapers. 

There was some years ago a defalcation in one of the societies, which"came largely if not entirely through neglect of the rule not to owemoney. " The family which suffered in this case has not entirelyrecovered from the blow; it still owes a small debt. 

An annual business report is now made by the trustees to the ministrywho are set over this society and that at Canterbury. 

There is but one Shaker Society in Connecticut, at _Enfield, Conn. _

The Society is in Hartford County, about twelve miles from Springfield, Massachusetts. It was founded in 1792; and the meeting-house then built, of brick, is still standing, but is now used for other purposes. Therewere formerly five families, and in 1823 this society had two hundredmembers. At present there are but four families, one of which is small, and contains only a few aged people, too much attached to their old hometo be removed. There are in the four families one hundred and fifteenpersons, of whom the Church Family has sixty, and the Gathering Familytwenty-five. One third are males and two thirds females; and there areforty-three children and youth under twenty-one, of whom eighteen areboys and twenty-four girls. So late as 1848 this society numbered twohundred persons. 

They own about three thousand three hundred acres of land, and maketheir living almost entirely by farming. Before the rebellion they hadbuilt up a large trade in the Southern States in garden seeds; but theoutbreak of the war not only lost them this trade, but in bad debts theylost nearly all they had saved in thirty years. They now breed finestock, which they sell; and they sell some hay, but only to buy Indiancorn in its stead. They are careful and excellent farmers. The womenmake some articles of fancy work. They employ fifteen hired menconstantly. 

This society is prosperous. One of the families has just erected a largeand, for Shakers, uncommonly stylish dwelling; and all the buildings arein good repair and well painted. Nevertheless they have not had an easytask to make a living. "If we have got any thing here, " said an elder tome, "it is because we saved it. " They have, however, the advantage of anexcellent farm. In the beginning they raised garden seeds, and wereamong the first in this country to establish this business, and at onetime they made lead pipe--but the invention of machinery drove them outof that business. 

They eat meat, and use tea and coffee moderately; and a few of the oldmembers take snuff. They are mostly Americans, with a few Scotch andEnglish, and more than half of the adult members came in when they werefull-grown. About forty years ago there was in Rhode Island a religiousrevival among a sect of Baptists who call themselves "Christians, " andmany of these entered the Enfield Society. They now adopt a good manychildren, and do not seem displeased at the result. They have a school, and are fond of music, having a cabinet-organ in their music-room, andholding a weekly singing-school for the young people. They take "a greatmany" newspapers and magazines, and have a variety of books, but noregular library. The elders have the selection of reading-matter, and, as in all the societies, exclude what they think injurious. 

They have been, they told me, somewhat careless of sanitary regulations, and have had typhus fever in their houses; but they are now generallyhealthy. 

They make very few articles for themselves, but buy a good deal. 

They make no regular business statement, and owe no debts. They once hada defalcation, but only of a trifling amount. 

There are four Shaker societies in Massachusetts: at Harvard, Shirley, Tyringham, and Hancock. 

_Harvard. _

The Harvard Society lies in Worcester County, about thirty milesnorthwest from Boston. It was founded in 1793; and had in 1823 twohundred members. It has now four families, containing in all ninetypersons, of whom sixteen are children and youth under twenty-one--fourboys and twelve girls. Of the seventy-four adult members, seventeen aremen and fifty-seven women. The Church Family has fifty members, of whomforty-one are women and girls, and nine men and boys. It is usual amongthe Shakers to find more women than men in a society or family, but atHarvard the disproportion of the sexes is uncommonly great. 

The members are mainly Americans, but they have some Scotch, Germans, and Welsh. A considerable proportion of the present membership came inas adults, and these were, before becoming Shakers, for the most partAdventists, some however coming from the Baptist and Methodistdenominations. The elder of the Gathering Family was a Baptist, and theleading minister was an English Wesleyan. The people are mostly inmiddle life. The health of this society has always been good; the_average_ age at death, I was assured, ranged for a great number ofyears between sixty to sixty-eight. One sister died at ninety-three, andother members died at from eighty to eighty-six. 

Their home farm consists of about eighteen hundred acres; and they havebesides a farm in Michigan, and another in Massachusetts. Their livingis made almost entirely by farming; and they have drained verythoroughly a considerable piece of swamp, which yields them large cropsof hay. They make brooms, have a nursery, and press and put up herbs;and employ sixteen or seventeen hired laborers. 

They have a small library, but "do not let books interfere with work;"there is a school, but no musical instrument; most of the people eatmeat, and drink tea and coffee; and a few are indulged in the practiceof chewing tobacco. They are not very musical, but they take a greatmany newspapers. 

"Do you like to take children?" I asked; and an eldress replied, "Yes, we like to take children--but we don't like to take monkeys;" and, ingeneral, the Shakers have discovered that "blood will tell, " and thatthey can do much better with the children of religious parents than withthose whose fathers or mothers were dissolute or irreligious. 

This society has no debt, and is prosperous, though its buildings arenot all in first-rate order according to the Shaker standard, which isvery high. It has suffered from one defalcation. 

The ministry among the Shakers usually occupy their spare time in somemanual labor, as I have explained in a previous chapter. The leadingminister over Harvard and Shirley makes brooms; his predecessor madeshoes. The leading female minister is a dress-maker. 

_Shirley_. 

The Society of Shirley lies about two miles from Shirley Station, on theFitchburg Railroad. It was gathered in 1793, the meeting-house havingbeen built the year before. Mother Ann Lee passed nearly two years amongthe people in this vicinity, preaching to them; and this accounts forthe early building of the meeting-house. In 1823 the Shirley Society hadone hundred and fifty members. At present it has two families, numberingaltogether forty-eight persons; of these twelve are children and youthunder twenty-one--eight girls and four boys. Of the adults, six are menand thirty women. Until a year ago there were three families, butdecreasing numbers led them to call in one; and they now let thebuildings formerly used by that one. Thirty-five years ago this societynumbered one hundred and fifty persons; twenty-four years ago, seventy-five; twenty years ago it had sixty. As the old people, thefounders, died off, new members did not come in. They have not now manyapplications for membership; and of the children they adopt and bringup, not one in ten becomes a Shaker. 

The society owns two thousand acres of land, which includes severaloutlying farms. They employ nine or ten hired laborers; and their mainbusiness is to make apple-sauce, of which they sell from five to sixtons every year. One family makes brooms; and they all preserve fruit, make jellies and pickles, dry sweet corn, and in the spring makemaple-sugar. The women make fancy articles for sale. Farming is also aconsiderable business with them, and they have good orchards. 

Most of the members grew up in the society, and the greater number ofthem are, I believe, past middle age. Like all the Shakers, they arelong-lived--one sister, a colored woman, is eighty, and anothereighty-eight--and their mortality rate is low. Most of the members areAmericans, but they have a few Nova-Scotians. Most of them eat meat, anddrink tea, but no coffee; and they are especially fond of oatmeal. Oneold member both smokes and snuffs, but none others use tobacco in anyshape. They are fond of flowers, but do not cultivate any; have "plenty"of books and newspapers, but no regular library; like music, but have nomusical instrument; and they are fond of the Bible. Among their meetingsis one for singing. 

Their buildings are not so large as those of a Shaker settlement usuallyare, but they are in excellent order, and include an infirmary, a housefor aged and feeble members, a nice school-room, and a laundry. Theyhave the reputation in the neighborhood of being wealthy; and had theenterprise once to build a large cotton factory, on the shore of a pondwhich they then owned. This building they have sold. It ran them intodebt; and this they did not like. They were poor at first; have neverhad any defalcation; have no debt now; and make no regular businessstatement, trusting to the ministry to keep a proper oversight of theiraccounts. 

In the school at Shirley physiology was taught, and with remarkablesuccess as it seemed to me, with the help of charts; the children seemeduncommonly intelligent and bright. The school is open three months inthe summer and three in the winter--two hours in the forenoon and two inthe afternoon; and the teacher, a young girl, was also the care-taker ofthe girls. Singing-school is held, for the children, in the evening. 

The societies at Hancock and Tyringham lie near the New York State line, among the Berkshire hills. They are small, and have no noticeablefeatures. 

There are three Shaker societies in New York: at Mount Lebanon, Watervliet, and Groveland. 

_Mount Lebanon_. 

The Mount Lebanon Society lies in Columbia County, two miles from NewLebanon. It is the parent society among the Shakers, and its ministryhas a general oversight over all the societies. It is also the mostnumerous. 

The Mount Lebanon Society was founded in 1787. In 1823 it numberedbetween five hundred and six hundred persons; at this time it has threehundred and eighty-three, including forty-seven children and youth underfifteen. This society is divided into seven families; and its membershiphas one hundred and thirty-six males and two hundred and forty-sevenfemales, including children and youth. 

It owns about three thousand acres of land within the State of New York, besides some farms in other states; and several of its farms in its ownneighborhood are in charge of tenants. The different families employ aconsiderable number of hired laborers. They raise and put up gardenseeds, make brooms, dry medicinal herbs and make extracts, dry sweetcorn, and make chairs and mops. The women in all the families also makemats, fans, dusters, and other fancy articles for sale; and one of thefamilies keep some sheep. 

In a previous chapter I have given so many details concerning the MountLebanon Society that I need here say nothing further about it, exceptthat it is in a highly prosperous condition. 

_Watervliet_. 

The society at Watervliet lies seven miles northwest from Albany, andupon the ground where Ann Lee and her followers first settled when theycame to America. Her body lies in the grave-yard at Watervliet. Nomonument is built over it. 

The society there has now four families, containing two hundred andthirty-five persons, of whom sixty are children and youth undertwenty-one. Of the adult members, seventy-five are men and one hundredwomen. In 1823 it had over two hundred members; between 1837 and 1850 ithad three hundred and fifty. 

It has in its home estate twenty-five hundred acres of land, and ownsbesides about two thousand acres in the same state, and thirty thousandacres in Kentucky. Its chief industry is farming, and the families keepa large number of sheep and cattle. They shear wool enough to supply alltheir own needs in cloth and flannel, but have these woven by an outsidemill; they raise large crops of broom-corn and sweet corn: the firstthey make into brooms, and the other they put up dry in barrels forsale; they put up fruits and vegetables in tin cans, and also sellgarden seeds. They have given up their tan-yard, which was once a sourceof income. Finally, they make in their own shops, for the use of thesociety, shoes, carpets, clothing, furniture, and almost all thearticles of household use they require. 

They hire about seventy-five laborers. 

Most of the members are Americans, and three quarters of them grew upfrom childhood in the society. Among the membership are some Germans, English, Irish, Swedes, Scotch, and two or three French people. Someamong them were originally clergymen, others lawyers, mechanics, andgardeners; but the greater number are farmers by occupation. Some ofthose who came in as adults had been "Infidels, " some Adventists, othersMethodists. The society at this time contains more young than oldpeople. 

Most of the people eat meat, and drink tea and coffee. Some use tobacco, but this is discouraged. 

They had formerly a good many colored members; and have still some, aswell as several mulattoes and quadroons. 

One colored sister is ninety years of age. 

The members here have been long-lived; the register proves this: itshows deaths at ninety-seven, ninety-four, ninety-three, ninety, and soon. They are careful to have thorough drainage and ventilation, and payattention to sanitary questions. They were formerly subject to biliousfevers; but since rejecting the use of pork, these fevers havedisappeared. 

They take a number of newspapers, and have a library of four hundredvolumes, but the people are not great readers, and are fonder ofreligious books and works of popular science than of any otherliterature. There is a school; and the children are now to haveinstruction in music, as one of the families has bought an organ, andasked a musical brother from New Hampshire to come down and givelessons. Instrumental music, however, has been opposed by the oldermembers, and here as in some of the other societies it has beenintroduced only after prolonged discussion. 

This society has no debts, and has never suffered from theunfaithfulness of agents or trustees. It is in a very prosperouscondition. Each family makes a detailed annual report to the presidingministry, and a _daily_ diary of events is kept. 

They have baths in the dwellings, and well-arranged laundries. 

The Watervliet and Mount Lebanon Societies have a number of membersliving in the outer world, but holding to Shaker principles, andmaintaining by correspondence a connection with them. Some of these areinhabitants of cities, and "above the average in wealth and culture, " Iwas told. The Watervliet Society has also a branch at Philadelphia, consisting of twelve colored women, who live together in one house underthe leadership of an old woman, who was moved about twenty years ago toleave this society and go to Philadelphia to preach among her people. The members find employment as day servants in different families, goinghome every night. They mainly support themselves, and have never askedfor help from the society; but this occasionally makes them presents, and keeps a general oversight over them. 

_Groveland_. 

The Groveland Society lies near Sonyea, in Livingston County, thirty-seven miles from Rochester on the Dansville and Mount Morrisbranch of the Erie Railway. This society Was founded at Sodus Point in1826, and removed from there to its present location in 1836. They hadat that time one hundred and fifty members; and were most numerous abouttwenty-five years ago, when they had two hundred members. At presentthey have two families, with fifty-seven members in all, of whom nineare children under twenty-one; of these last, six are girls and threeboys. Of the adults, thirty are females and eighteen males. 

They own a home farm of two thousand acres, and an outlying farm of twohundred and eighty acres, mostly good land, and very well placed, acanal and two railroads running through their home farm. They have asaw-mill and grist-mill, which are sources of income to them; and theyraise broom-corn, make brooms, and dry apples and sweet corn. The womenmake fancy articles for sale. They also keep fine cattle, and sell agood deal of high-priced stock. Farming and gardening are their chiefemployments, as they have a ready sale for all they produce. They employeight hired laborers. 

The members are mostly Americans, raised in the society; but they haveFrench Canadians, Dutch, German, Irish, and English among them. TheFrench Canadians were Catholics, and some of their other members wereEpiscopalians, Presbyterians, and Methodists. Most of those who came inas adults were farmers. They are long-lived--living to beyond seventyin a considerable number of cases. 

They eat meat, drink tea and coffee, and some aged members who came inlate in life, with confirmed habits, are allowed to use tobacco. Onesister smokes. 

They have a school, and a good miscellaneous library of about fourhundred volumes, in a case in the dwelling-house of the Church Family. They sing finely, but are opposed to the introduction of musicalinstruments. In some of their evening meetings they read aloud, and thelast book thus read was Mr. Seward's "Journey around the World. "

They do not adopt as many children as formerly, and experience hastaught them the necessity of knowing something of the parentage ofchildren, in order to make judicious selections. 

"Formerly we had one or two physicians among our members, and then therewas much sickness; now that we have no doctor there is but littleillness, and the health of the society is good. "

One of the families is in debt, through an imprudent purchase of landmade by a trustee, without the general knowledge of the society. Moreover they have suffered severely from fires and by a flood. Onceseven of their buildings were burned down in a night. In this way a fundthey had at interest was expended in repairs. But the society seems nowto be prosperous; its buildings are in excellent order, and the brickdwelling of the Church Family, built in 1857, is well arranged and afine structure. They have a steam laundry and a fine dairy. In theirshops they carry on blacksmithing, carpentry, tailoring, anddress-making. 

They make a regular annual business statement to the presiding ministry. 

At intervals they send out one or two brethren to preach to the outerworld upon Shakerism. 

There are four Shaker societies in Ohio: Union Village, near Lebanon;North Union, near Cleveland; Watervliet, near Dayton; and Whitewater, near Harrison. 

_Union Village_. 

The society at Union Village lies four miles from Lebanon, in WarrenCounty, Ohio. It is the oldest Shaker settlement in the West; the three"witnesses" sent out from Mount Lebanon in 1805 were here received by aprosperous farmer named Malchas Worley, who became a "Believer, " andwhose influence greatly helped to spread the Shaker doctrines among hisneighbors. His small dwelling still stands near the large house of oneof the families, and is kept in neat repair; it lies in the heart of thesociety's present estate. 

The ministry of Union Village, while subordinate to that at MountLebanon, rules or has a general oversight of the western societies inOhio and Kentucky; and in former times there has been a good deal ofprinting done there, a number of Shaker publications having been writtenand published at Union Village. 

The society at Union Village consists of four families, containing atthis time two hundred and fifteen persons, of whom ninety-five are malesand one hundred and twenty females. Of the whole number, forty-eight arechildren and youth under twenty-one, and of these twenty are boys andtwenty-eight girls. Between 1827 and 1830 it had six hundred members, and at that time there were six families. It had, however, about thattime received sudden and considerable accessions from the dissolution ofthe Shaker Society in Indiana, which left that state on account of theunhealthfulness of the country, and whose members were divided among theOhio societies. In the last ten years I was told there had been neithergain nor loss of numbers, taking the average of the year; for here, aselsewhere, there is usually a swelling of the ranks in the fall, fromwhat are called "winter Shakers. "

The society at Union Village was "gathered" between 1805 and 1810. Theoldest building dates from 1807, and others, of brick and still inexcellent preservation, bear the dates of 1810 and 1811. All thebuildings are in good order; and this society is among the mostprosperous in the order. Its families own a magnificent estate of fourthousand five hundred acres lying in the famous Miami bottom, a soilmuch of which is so fertile that after sixty years of cropping it willstill yield from sixty to seventy bushels of corn to the acre, andwithout manuring. They have also some outlying farms. They have no debt, and one of the families has a fund at interest. 

They let much of their land to tenants, having not less than forty thussettled and working the soil on shares. Besides this, the differentfamilies employ about thirty hired laborers. Their industries arebroom-making, raising garden seeds and medicinal herbs, and preparingmedicinal extracts. They also make a syrup of sarsaparilla, and one ortwo other patent medicines: they have a saw and a grist mill; the womenmake small fancy articles and baskets. But their most profitablebusiness is the growth of fine stock--thoroughbred Durham cattlechiefly. They have, of course, shops in which they make and mend whatthey need for themselves--tailor's, shoemaker's, blacksmith's, wagon-maker's, etc. Formerly they manufactured more than atpresent--having made at one time, for the general market, steel, leather, hollow-ware, pipes, and woolen yarn. Prosperity has lessenedtheir enterprise. Three of the families have very complete laundries. 

They eat meat, but no pork; and only a very few of the aged members usetobacco. They have an excellent school, of which one of the ministry, anintelligent and kindly man, is the teacher. They have a smalllibrary--"not so many books as we would like;" and one of the sisterstold me that she got books from a circulating library at Lebanon, and asa special indulgence was allowed to read novels sometimes, which, sheremarked, she found useful to set her to sleep. They have twocabinet-organs, and believe in cultivating music. 

The founders of this society were mostly Presbyterians. Their successorshave been Methodists, Baptists, Quakers, and I found, to my surprise, several Catholics, one of whom was originally a Spanish priest. Almostall are Americans, but there are a few Germans and English. 

They do not care to take children unless they are accompanied by theirparents; and refuse to take any under nine years, unless they come aspart of a family. Not more than ten per cent of the children they trainup remain with them; but they said it was not uncommon to see themreturn after spending some years in the world, and in such cases theyoften made good Shakers. During the war a number of their young men wentoff to become soldiers. Several of those who survived returned, and arenow among them. 

They have no provision for baths. 

In 1835 they suffered from the defalcation of a trustee, to the amountof between forty and fifty thousand dollars. 

I looked over a list of deaths during the last thirty years, and wassurprised to find how many members had lived to ninety and past, and howlarge a proportion died at over seventy. 

"Are you all Spiritualists, " I asked, and was answered, "Of course;" butpresently one added, "We are all Spiritualists, in a general sense; butthere are some _real_ Spiritualists here;" and I judge that here asin some of the other societies Spiritualism is not much thought of. I sawthe "Sacred Roll and Book" on a table, but was told it was not much readnowadays, but that they read the Bible a good deal. 

I found that for the last three years they have had here what they calla Lyceum: a kind of debating club which meets once a week, for thediscussion of set questions, reading, and the criticism of essayswritten by the members. The last question discussed was, "Whether it isbest for the Shaker societies to work on cash or credit. "

This Lyceum has produced another meeting in the Church Family, in which, once a week, all the members--male and female, young and old--aregathered to overhaul the accounts of the week, and to discuss all theindustrial occupations of the family, agricultural and mechanical, aswell as housekeeping and every thing relating to their practical life. These weekly meetings are found to give the younger members a greaterinterest in the society, and they were established because it wasthought necessary to make efforts to keep the youth whom they bring up. "We will never change the fundamental principles and practices ofShakerism, " said one of the older and official members, an uncommonlyintelligent Shaker, to me. "Celibacy and the confession of sins arevital; but in all else we ought to be changeable, and may modify ourpractices; and we feel that we must do something to make home morepleasant for our young people--they want more music and more books, andshall have them; they are greatly interested in these weekly businessmeetings; and I am in favor of giving them just as much and as broad aneducation as they desire. "

The business meeting lasts an hour, and the "Elder Brother in theMinistry" presides. I saw some evidences that this meeting arousedthought. Any member may bring up a subject for discussion; and I heardsome of the sisters say that one matter which had occupied theirthoughts was the too great monotony of their own lives--they desiredgreater variety, and thought women might do some other things besidescooking. One thought it would be an improvement to abolish the caps, andlet the hair have its natural growth and appearance--but I am afraid shemight be called a radical. 

The founders of Union Village were evidently men who did their workthoroughly; the dwellings and houses they built early in the century, all of brick, have a satisfactory solidity, and are not without thehomely charm which good work and plain outlines give to any building. Two of these old houses in the Church Family are now used as the boys'and the girls' houses, and are uncommonly good specimens of earlyWestern architecture. The whole village is a pattern of neatness, withflagged walks and pleasant grassy court-yards and shade-trees; but Inoticed here and there a slackness in repairs which seemed to show thewant of a deacon's sharp eyes. 

_North Union. _

The North Union Shaker Society lies eight miles northeast fromCleveland. It was founded in 1822, in what was then a thickly timberedwilderness, and the people lived for some years in log cabins. Thesociety was most numerous about 1840, when it contained two hundredmembers. It is now divided into three families, having one hundred andtwo persons, of whom seventeen are children and youth under twenty-one. Of these last, six are boys and eleven girls. Of the adult members, forty-four are women and forty-one men. Their numbers have of lateincreased, but there was a gradual diminution for fifteen years beforethat. 

About a third of the present members were brought up in the society; ofthe remainder, the most were by religious connection Adventists, Methodists, and Baptists. They have among them persons who were weavers, whalemen, and sailors, but most of them were farmers. The greater numberare Americans, but they have some Swiss, Germans, and English. They donot like to take in children unless their parents come with them. Thehealth of the society has been very good. Many of their people havelived to past eighty; one sister died at ninety-eight. In the last fiftyyears they have buried just one hundred persons. 

They eat but little meat; use tea and coffee, but moderately, and "bearagainst tobacco, " but permit its use in certain cases. But they allow noone to both smoke and chew the weed. They have a school, and like tosing, but do not allow musical instruments. 

Less than a quarter of the young people whom they bring up remain withthem. 

They own 1355 acres of land in one body, and have no outlying farms. They have a saw-mill, and make brooms, broom-handles, and stockingyarn. But their chief sources of income arise from supplying milk andvegetables to Cleveland, as well as fire-wood, and some lumber, and theykeep fine stock. They used to make wooden ware. Their dairy brought themin $2300 last year. They employ nine hired men. 

The buildings of this society are not in as neat order as those ofGroveland or others eastward. I missed the thorough covering of paint, and the neatness of shops. They have no steam laundry, and make noprovision for baths. But they have the usual number of "shops, " amongthem an infirmary, or in Shaker language a "nurse-shop. " They have asmall library, and take two daily newspapers, the New York _World_and _Sun_. They read the Bible "when they have a gift for it, " butdepend much upon their own revelations from the spirit-land. 

They owe no debts, and have a fund at interest. They make a detailedannual report to the presiding ministry. They have never sufferedserious loss from mismanagement and defaulting agents or trustees. 

_Watervliet and Whitewater_. 

The two societies of Watervliet and Whitewater, in Ohio, I did notvisit. They are small, and subordinate to that of Union Village. 

The society at Watervliet has two families, containing fifty-fivemembers, of whom nineteen are males and thirty-six females; and sevenare under twenty-one. They own thirteen hundred acres of land, much ofwhich they let to tenants. They have a wool-factory, which is theironly manufactory. 

This society was founded a year after that at Union Village; it had in1825 one hundred members; and is now prosperous, pecuniarily, having nodebt, and money at interest. One of its families once suffered a slightloss from a defalcation. 

The society at Whitewater has three families, and one hundred members, of whom fifteen are under twenty-one. There are forty males and sixtyfemales. It was founded in 1827, and many among its members came fromthe society which broke up in Indiana. It had at one time one hundredand fifty members. 

It owns fifteen hundred acres of land, and has no debt, but a fund atinterest in each family. The families put up garden seeds, make brooms, raise stock, and farm. 

There are two societies in Kentucky, one at South Union, in LoganCounty, on the line of the Nashville Railroad, and one at Pleasant Hill, in Mercer County, seven miles from Harrodsburg. They are bothprosperous. 

_South Union. _

The society at South Union was founded nearly on the scene of the wild"Kentucky revival" in the year 1807, the gathering taking place in 1809. Some of the log cabins then built by the early members are stillstanding, and the first meetinghouse, built in 1810, bears that date onits front. I judge that the early members were poor, from the fact thatthey lived for some time in cabins. Some who came into the society at anearly date were slaveholders; and as the Shakers have alwaysconsistently opposed slavery, these set their slaves free, but inducedthem to the number of forty to join them. For many years there was acolored family, with a colored elder, living upon the same terms as thewhites. From time to time some of these fell away and left the society;but I was told that a number became and remained "good Shakers, " anddied in the faith; and when the colored family became too small, theremnant of members was taken in among the whites. There are at presentseveral colored members. 

There were originally three families, but now four, one of which, however, is small. The society numbers two hundred and thirty persons, of whom one hundred are males and One hundred and thirty females, andforty of these are under twenty-one--twenty-five girls and fifteen boys. In 1827 they were most numerous, having three hundred and forty-ninepersons in all the families; they had at one time but one hundred andseventy-five, and have risen from that in the last twenty years to theirpresent number. For some years they have neither increased nordiminished, except by the coming and going of "winter Shakers, " and "wesift pretty carefully, " they told me. [Footnote: The "Millennial Church"gives their number at four hundred about 1825, but I follow the accountgiven me at South Union. ] Most of the members are Americans, but theyhave some Germans and a few English, and they had at one time severalFrench Catholics. 

They own nearly six thousand acres of land, of which three thousand fivehundred acres are in the home farm, the remainder about four miles off. The South Union Shakers were early famous for fine stock, which theysold in Missouri and in the Northwestern states and territories. Theystill raise fine breeds of cattle, hogs, sheep, and chickens, and thisis a considerable source of income to them. Some of their land they letto tenants, among whom I found several colored families; they have alsoextensive orchards; the remainder they cultivate, raising--besides thepasturage of their stock--corn, wheat, rye, and oats. They have also agood grist-mill, from which they ship flour; they own a large brickhotel at the railroad station, which, I was told, is a summer resort, there being a sulphur spring near it, also a store, both of which theyrent to "world's people;" and they make brooms, put up gardenseeds--which was formerly an important business with them--and preparecanned and preserved fruits, which they sell largely in the SouthernStates. I saw here on the table those very sweet "preserves" which aquarter of a century ago were to be found on every farmer's table in NewEngland, if he had a thrifty wife, and which, after breeding a kind ofepidemic of dyspepsia, have now, I think, entirely disappeared from ourNorthern tables. It seems they are still served on "company occasions"in the South. 

They have for their home use a tannery, and shops for tailoring, shoemaking, carpentering, and blacksmithing; and they employ fifteenhired people, all Negroes. 

Their buildings, which are both brick and frame, are all in excellentcondition; and the large pines and Norway spruces growing near thedwellings (and "trimmed up"--or robbed of their lower branches, as theabominable fashion has too long been in this country), show that thefounders provided for their descendants some grateful shade. Near theChurch Family they showed me two fine old oaks, under which Henry Clayonce partook of a public dinner, while at another time James Monroe andAndrew Jackson stopped for a day at the country tavern which once stoodnear by, when the stage road ran near here. "Monroe, " said one of theolder members to me, "was a stout, thickset man, plain, and with butlittle to say; Jackson, tall and thin, with a hickory visage. "Naturally, this being Kentucky, Clay was held to be the greatestcharacter of the three. 

Here, too, as I am upon antiquities, I saw old men who in their youthhad taken part in the great "revival, " and had seen the "jerks, " whichwere so horrible a feature of that religious excitement, and of which Ihave previously quoted some descriptions from McNemar's "KentuckyRevival. " To dance, I was here told, was the cure for the "jerks;" andmen often danced until they dropped to the ground. "It was of no use totry to resist the jerks, " the old men assured me. "Young men sometimescame determined to make fun of the proceedings, and were seized beforethey knew of it. " Men were "flung from their horses;" "a young fellow, famous for drinking, cursing, and violence, was leaning against a treelooking on, when he was jerked to the ground, slam bang. He swore hewould not dance, and he was jerked about until it was a wonder he wasnot killed. At last he had to dance. " "Sometimes they would be jerkedabout like a cock with his head off, all about the ground. " The dancingI judge to have been an involuntary convulsive movement, which was theclose of the general spasm. Of course, the people believed the whole wasa "manifestation of the power of God. " There is no reason to doubt thatMcNemar's descriptions are accurate; from what I have heard at SouthUnion, I imagine that his account is not complete. 

The South Union Shakers have no debt, and mean to obey the rule in thisregard; they have a very considerable fund at interest. They eat meat, but no pork; drink tea and coffee, and some of them use tobacco--eventhe younger members. They have as their minister here a somewhatremarkable man, who studied Latin while driving an ox team as ayoungster, and later in life acquired some knowledge of German, French, and Swedish while laboring successively as seed-gardener, tailor, andshoemaker. His mild face and gentle manners pleased me very much; and Iwas not surprised to find him a man greatly beloved in other societiesas well as at South Union. Nevertheless his example does not appear tohave been catching, for I was told that they have no library. They reada number of newspapers, but the average of culture is low. 

They have no baths; have lately bought a piano, and had a brother fromCanterbury to instruct some of the sisters in music. The singing was notso good as I have heard elsewhere among the Shakers. They have a schoolduring five months of the year; and they like to take children--"wouldrather have bad ones than none. " They have brought children from NewOrleans and from Memphis after an epidemic which had left many orphans. The young people "do tolerably well. "

The founders of this society were "New-Light Presbyterians;" since thenthey have been reinforced by "Infidels, " Spiritualists, Methodists, andothers. 

It is certainly to their credit that, living in a slave state, andhaving up to the outbreak of the war a great part of their business withthe states farther south, these Shakers were always anti-slavery andUnion people. Formerly they hired Negro laborers from their masters, which, I suppose, kept the masters quiet; it did not surprise me to hearthat they always had their choice of the slave population near them. ANegro knew that he would nowhere be treated so kindly as among theShakers. During the war they suffered considerable losses. A saw-milland grist-mill, with all their contents, were burned, causing a loss ofseventy-five thousand dollars. They fed the troops of both sides, andtold me that they served at least fifty thousand meals to Union andConfederate soldiers alike. There was guerrilla fighting on their owngrounds, and a soldier was shot near the Church dwelling. "The war costus over one hundred thousand dollars, " said one of the elders; andbesides this they lost money by bad debts in the Southern States. Sincethe war they lost seventy-five thousand dollars in bonds, which, deposited in a bank, were stolen by one of its officers; but the greaterpart of this they hope to recover. Like all the Shakers, they arelong-lived. A man was pointed out to me, now eighty-seven years of age, who plowed and mowed last summer; two revolutionary soldiers died in thesociety aged ninety-three and ninety-four; one member died atninety-seven; and they have now people aged eighty-seven, eighty-five, eighty-two, eighty, and so on. 

During "meeting" on Sunday I saw the children, many of them small, andall clean and neat, and looking happy in their prim way. They came in, as usual, the boys by one door, the girls by another, each side with itscare-taker; and took part in the marching, kneeling, and other forms ofthe Shaker worship. After the war, the South Union elders sought outtwenty orphans in Tennessee, whom they adopted. Last fall, when Memphissuffered so terribly from yellow fever, they tried to get fifty childrenfrom there, but were unsuccessful. Considering the small number who staywith them after they are grown up, this charity is surely admirable. Andthough the education which children receive among the Shaker people islimited, the training they get in cleanliness, orderly habits, andmorals is undoubtedly valuable, and better than such orphans wouldreceive in the majority of cases among the world's people. Nor must itbe forgotten that the Shakers still, with great good sense, teach eachboy and girl a trade, so as to fit them for earning a living. 

_Pleasant Hill. _

The Pleasant Hill Society lies in Mercer County, seven miles fromHarrodsburg, on the stage road to Nicholasville, and near the KentuckyRiver, which here presents some grand and magnificent scenery, deservingto be better known. 

They have a fine estate of rich land, lying in the midst of the famousblue-grass region of Kentucky. It consists of four thousand two hundredacres, all in one body. They have five families; but the three Churchfamilies have their property in common. In 1820 they had eight families, and between 1820 and 1825 they had about four hundred and ninetymembers. At present the society numbers two hundred and forty-fivepersons, of whom seventy-five are children or youth under twenty-one. About one third are males and two thirds females. 

Pleasant Hill was founded in 1805, and "gathered into society order" in1809; at which time community of goods was established. 

The members are mostly Americans, but they have in one family a goodmany Swedes. These are the remnant of a large number whom the societybrought out a number of years ago at its own expense, in the hope thatthey would become good Shakers. The experiment was not successful. Theyhave also two colored members, and some English. They have among thempeople who were Baptists, Methodists, Adventists, and Presbyterians. Aconsiderable number of the people, however, have grown up in thesociety, having come in as children of the founders; and one old ladytold me she was born in the society, her parents having entered threemonths before she came into the world. 

They eat meat, but no pork; use tea and coffee, and tobacco, but "notmuch;" have baths in all the families; have no library, except of theirown publications, of which copies are put into every room, and a goodsupply is on hand, especially of the "Sacred Roll and Book, " and the"Divine Book of Holy Wisdom, " which appear to be more read here thanelsewhere. They have no musical instruments, but mean to get an organ"to help the singing. " They receive twenty newspapers of differentkinds; and they are Spiritualists. 

The buildings at Pleasant Hill are remarkably good. The dwellings havehigh ceilings, and large, airy rooms, well fitted and very comfortablyfurnished, as are most of the Shaker houses. Most of the buildings areof stone or brick, and the stone houses in particular are well built. Inmost of the dwellings I found two doorways, for the different sexes, aswell as two staircases within. The walks connecting the buildings arehere, as at South Union, Union Village, and elsewhere, laid withflagging-stones--but so narrow that two persons cannot walk abreast. 

Agriculture, the raising of fine stock, and preserving fruit in summerare the principal industries pursued at Pleasant Hill for income. Theymake some brooms also, and in one of the families they put up gardenseeds. They have, however, very complete shops of all kinds for theirown use, as well as a saw and grist mill, and even a woolen-mill wherethey make their own cloth. Formerly they had also a hatter's shop; andin the early days they labored in all their shops for the public, andkept besides a carding and fulling mill, a linseed-oil mill, as well asfactories of coopers' ware, brooms, shoes, dry measures, etc. At presenttheir numbers are inadequate to carry on manufactures, and their wealthmakes it unnecessary. They let a good deal of their land, the renterspaying half the crop; and they employ besides fifteen or twenty hiredhands, who are mostly Negroes. 

Hired laborers among the Shakers are usually, or always so far as Iknow, boarded at the "office, " the house of the trustees; and this oftenmakes a good deal of hard work for the sisters who do the cooking there. At Pleasant Hill they had two colored women and a little boy in the"office" kitchen, hired to help the sisters; and this is the only placewhere I saw this done. 

They have a school for the children, which is kept during five months ofthe year. They do not like to take children without their parents; andvery few of those they take remain in the society after they are grownup. They are troubled also with "winter Shakers, " whom they take "forconscience' sake, " if they show even very little of the Shaker spirit, hoping to do them good. They were Union people during the war, and a fewof their young men entered the army, and some of these returned afterthe war ended, and were reinstated in the society after examination andconfession of their sins. During the war both armies foraged upon them, taking their horses and wagons; and they served thousands of meals tohungry soldiers of both sides. Their estate lies but a few miles fromthe field of the great battle of Perryville, and this region was for awhile the scene of military operations, though not to so great an extentas the country about South Union. The Confederate general John Morgan, who was born near here, always protected them against his own troops, and they spoke feelingly of his care for them. 

This society has no debt, and has never suffered from a defalcation orbreach of trust. Some years ago they lost nearly ten thousand dollarsfrom the carelessness of an aged trustee. 

They are long-lived, many of their members having lived to past ninety. They have one now aged ninety-eight years. 

 * * * * *

SHAKER LITERATURE, SPIRITUALISM, ETC. 

"It should be distinctly understood that special inspired gifts have notceased, but still continue among this people:" so reads a brief note tothe Preface of "Christ's First and Second Appearing, " the edition of1854. 

In the "Testimonies concerning the Character and Ministry of Mother AnnLee, " a considerable number of her followers who had known herpersonally, being her contemporaries, relate particulars of her teachingand conduct, and not a few give instances of so-called miraculous curesof diseases or injuries, performed by her upon themselves or others. 

The hymns or "spiritual songs" they sing are said by the Shakers to bebrought to them, almost without exception, from the "spirit-land;" andthe airs to which these songs are sung are believed to come from thesame source. There are, however, two collections of Hymns, to most ofwhose contents this origin is not attributed, though even in these someof the hymns purport to have been "given by inspiration. "

[Illustration: A SHAKER SCHOOL]

[Illustration: SHAKER MUSIC HALL]

In the older of these collections, "A Selection of Hymns and Poems forthe Use of Believers, " printed at Watervliet, in Ohio, 1833, one cantrace some of the earlier trials of the societies, and the evils theyhad to contend with within themselves. The Western societies, forinstance, appear to have early opposed the drinking of intoxicatingbeverages. Here is a rhyme, dated 1817, which appeals to the members inthe cause of total abstinence:

 "From all intoxicating drink Ancient Believers did abstain; Then say, good brethren, do you think That such a cross was all in vain?

 "Inebriation, we allow, First paved the way for am'rous deeds; Then why should poisonous spirits now Be ranked among our common needs?

 "As an apothecary drug, Its wondrous virtues some will plead; And hence we find the stupid _Slug_ A morning dram does often need. 

 "Fatigue or want of appetite At noon will crave a little more, And so the same complaints at night Are just as urgent as before. 

 "By want of sleep, and this and that, His thirst for liquor is increased; Till he becomes a bloated sot-- The very scarlet-colored beast. 

 "Why, then, should any soul insist On such pernicious, pois'nous stuff? Malignant _spirits_, you're dismissed! You have possessed us long enough. "

As a note to this temperance rhyme, stands the following:

"CH. RULE. --All spirituous liquors should be kept under care of thenurses, that no drams in any case whatever should be dispensed topersons in common health, and that frivolous excuses of being unwellshould not be admitted. Union Village, 1826. "

"Slug, " in the third of the preceding verses, seems to have been a cantterm among the early Shakers for a sluggard and selfish fellow, a kindof creature they have pretty thoroughly extirpated; and presumably bysuch free speech as is used in the following amusing rhymes:

 "The depth of language I have dug To show the meaning of a Slug; And must conclude, upon the whole, It means a stupid, lifeless soul, Whose object is to live at ease, And his own carnal nature please; Who always has some selfish quirk, In sleeping, eating, and at work. 

 "A lazy fellow it implies, Who in the morning hates to rise; When all the rest are up at four, He wants to sleep a little more. When others into meeting swarm, He keeps his nest so good and warm, That sometimes when the sisters come To make the beds and sweep the room, Who do they find wrap'd up so snug? Ah! who is it but Mr. Slug. 

 "A little cold or aching head Will send him grunting to his bed, And he'll pretend he's sick or sore, Just that he may indulge the more. Nor would it feel much like a crime If he should sleep one half his time. 

 "When he gets up, before he's dress'd He's so fatigued he has to rest; And half an hour he'll keep his chair Before he takes the morning air. He'll sit and smoke in calm repose Until the trump for breakfast blows-- His breakfast-time at length is past, And he must wait another blast; So at the sound of the last shell, He takes his seat and all is well. "

"Slug" at the table is thus satirized:

 "To save his credit, you must know That poor old Slug eats very slow; And as in justice he does hate That all the rest on him should wait, Sometimes he has to rise and kneel Before he has made out his meal. Then to make up what he has miss'd, He takes a luncheon in his fist, Or turns again unto the dish, And fully satisfies his wish; Or, if it will not answer then, He'll make it up at half-past ten. 

 "Again he thinks it quite too soon To eat his dinner all at noon, But as the feast is always free, He takes a snack at half-past three. He goes to supper with the rest, But, lest his stomach be oppress'd, He saves at least a piece of bread Till just before he goes to bed; So last of all the wretched Slug Has room to drive another plug. 

 "To fam'ly order he's not bound, But has his springs of union round; And kitchen sisters ev'ry where Know how to please him to a hair: Sometimes his errand they can guess, If not, he can his wants express; Nor from old Slug can they get free Without a cake or dish of tea. "

"Slug" at work, or pretending to work, gets a fling also:

 "When call'd to work you'll always find The lazy fellow lags behind-- He has to smoke or end his chat, Or tie his shoes, or hunt his hat: So all the rest are busy found Before old Slug gets on the ground; Then he must stand and take his wind Before he's ready to begin, And ev'ry time he straights his back He's sure to have some useless clack; And tho' all others hate the Slug, With folded arms himself he'll hug. 

 "When he conceits meal-time is near, He listens oft the trump to hear; And when it sounds, it is his rule The first of all to drop his tool; And if he's brisk in any case, It will be in his homeward pace. "

Here, too, is a picture of "Slug" shirking his religious duties:

 "In his devotions he is known To be the same poor lazy drone: The sweetest songs Believers find Make no impression on his mind; And round the fire he'd rather nod Than labor in the works of God. 

 "Some vain excuse he'll often plead That he from worship may be freed-- He's bruis'd his heel or stump'd his toe, And cannot into meeting go; And if he comes he's half asleep, That no good fruit from him we reap: He'll labor out a song or two, And so conclude that that will do; [And, lest through weariness he fall, He'll brace himself against the wall], And well the faithful may give thanks That poor old Slug has quit the ranks. 

 "When the spectators are address'd, Then is the time for Slug to rest-- From his high lot he can't be hurl'd, To feel toward the wicked world; So he will sit with closed eyes Until the congregation rise; And when the labor we commence, He moves with such a stupid sense-- It often makes spectators stare To see so dead a creature there. "

The satire closes with a hit at "Slug's" devotion to tobacco:

 "Men of sound reason use their pipes For colics, pains, and windy gripes; And smoking's useful, we will own, To give the nerves and fluids tone; But poor old Slug has to confess He uses it to great excess, And will indulge his appetite Beyond his reason and his light. If others round him do abstain, It keeps him all the time in pain; And if a sentence should be spoke Against his much-beloved smoke, Tho' it be in the way of joke, He thinks his union's almost broke. In all such things he's at a loss, Because he thinks not of the cross, But yields himself a willing slave To what his meaner passions crave. 

 "This stupid soul in all his drift Is still behind the proper gift-- With other souls he don't unite, Nor is he zealous to do right. Among Believers he's a drug, And ev'ry elder hates a Slug. 

 "When long forbearance is the theme, A warm believer he would seem-- For diff'rent tastes give gen'rous scope, And he is full of faith and hope; But talk about some good church rule, And his high zeal you'll quickly cool. Indulge him, then, in what is wrong, And Slug will try to move along; Nor will he his own state mistrust, Until he gets so full of lust His cross he will no longer tug, Then to the world goes poor old Slug. "

"Hoggish nature" comes in for a share of denunciation next in theselines:

 "In the increasing work of the gospel we find, The old hoggish nature we will have to bind-- To starve the old glutton, and leave him to shift, Till in union with heaven we eat in a gift. 

 "What Father will teach me, I'll truly obey; I'll keep Mother's counsel, and not go astray; Then plagues and distempers they will have to cease, In all that live up to the gospel's increase. 

 "The glutton's a seat in which evil can work, And in hoggish nature diseases will lurk: By faith and good works we can all overcome, And starve the old glutton until he is done. 

 "But while he continues to guzzle and eat, All kinds of distempers will still find a seat-- The plagues of old Egypt--the scab and the bile, At which wicked spirits and devils will smile. 

 "Now some can despise the good porridge and soup, And by the old glutton they surely are dup'd-- To eat seven times in a day! What a mess! I hate the old glutton for his hoggishness. 

 "No wonder that plagues and distempers abound, While there is a glutton in camp to be found, To spurn at the counsel kind Heaven did give-- And guzzle up all, and have nothing to save. 

 "When glutton goes in and sits down with the rest, His hoggish old nature it grabs for the best-- The cake and the custard, the crull and the pie-- He cares not for others, but takes care of I. 

 "His stomach is weak, being gorg'd on the best, He has had sev'ral pieces secret from the rest; He'll fold up his arms, at the rest he will look, Because they do eat the good porridge and soup. 

 "Now all that are wise they will never be dup'd; They'll feed the old glutton on porridge and soup, Until he is willing to eat like the rest, And not hunt the kitchen to find out the best. 

 "We'll strictly observe what our good parents teach: Not pull the green apple, nor hog [1] in the peach; We'll starve the old glutton, and send him adrift; Then like good Believers we'll eat in a gift. " [Footnote: To eat like a hog. ] [Illustration: pointing finger]

Following these verses are some reflections, concluding:

 "Away with the sluggard, the glutton, and beast, For none but the bee and the dove Can truly partake of this heavenly feast, Which springs from the fountains of love. "

Obedience to the elders and ministry also appears to have been difficultto bring about, for several verses in this collection inculcate thisduty. In one, called "Gospel-virtues illustrated, " an old man is madethe speaker, in these words:

 "Now eighteen hundred seventeen-- Where am I now? where have I been? My age about threescore and three, Then surely thankful I will be. 

 "I thank my parents for my home, I thank good Elder Solomon, I thank kind Eldress Hortency, And Eldress Rachel kind and free. 

 "Good Elder Peter with the rest-- By his good works we all are blest; His righteous works are plainly shown-- I thank him kindly for my home. 

 "From the beginning of this year, A faithful cross I mean to bear, To ev'ry order I'll subject, And all my teachers I'll respect. 

 "With ev'ry gift I will unite-- They are all good and just and right; If mortifying they do come, I'll still be thankful for my home. 

 "When I'm chastis'd I'll not complain, Tho' my old nature suffer pain; Tho' it should come so sharp and hot, Even to slay me on the spot. 

 "I will no longer use deceit, I will abhor the hypocrite; His forged lies I now will hate-- His portion is the burning lake. 

 "My vile affections they shall die, And ev'ry lust I'll crucify; I'll labor to be clean and pure, And to the end I will endure. 

 "Th' adulterous eye shall now be blind-- It shall not feed the carnal mind; My looks and conduct shall express That holy faith that I possess. 

 "I will not murmur, 'tis not right, About my clothing or my diet, For surely those who have the care, Will give to each their equal share. 

 "I will take care and not dictate The fashion of my coat or hat; But meet the gift as it may come, And still be thankful for my home. 

 "I will be careful and not waste That which is good for man or beast; Or any thing that we do use-- No horse or ox will I abuse. 

 "I will be simple as a child; I'll labor to be meek and mild; In this good work my time I'll spend, And with my tongue I'll not offend. "

Again, in "Repentance and Confession, " a sinner confesses his misdeedsin such words as these:

 "But still there's more crowds on my mind And blacker than the rest-- They look more dark and greater crimes Than all that I've confess'd With tattling tongues and lying lips I've often bore a part: I frankly own I've made some slips To give a lie a start. 

 "But worse than that I've tri'd to do, When darken'd in my mind; I've tri'd to be a Deist too-- That nothing was divine. But O, good elders, pray for me! The worst is yet behind-- I've talk'd against the ministry, With malice in my mind. 

 "O Lord forgive! for mercy's sake, And leave me not behind; For surely I was not awake, Else I had been consign'd. Good ministry, can you forgive, And elders one and all? And, brethren, may I with you live, And be the least of all?"

In "A Solemn Warning" there is a caution against the wiles of Satan, whotries Believers with a spirit of discontent:

 "This cunning deceiver can't touch a Believer, Unless he can get them first tempted to taste Some carnal affection, or fleshly connection, And little by little their power to waste. The first thing is blinding, before undermining, Or else the discerning would shun the vile snare;-- Thus Satan hath frosted and artfully blasted Some beautiful blossoms that promis'd most fair. 

 "This wily soul-taker and final peace-breaker May take the unwary before they suspect, And get them to hearken to that which will darken, And next will induce them their faith to reject; He'll tell you subjection affords no protection-- These things you've been tau't are but notions at best; Reject your protection, and break your connection, And all you call'd faith you may scorn and detest. "

"The Last Woe" denounces various sins of the congregation:

 "In your actions unclean, you are openly seen, And this truth you may ever remark, That in anguish and woe, to the saints you must go, And confess what you've done in the dark. 

 "From restraint you are free, and no danger you see, Till the sound of the trumpet comes in, Crying 'Woe to your lust--it must go to the dust, With the unfruitful pleasures of sin. '

 "And a woe to the liar--he is doom'd to the fire, Until all his dark lies are confess'd-- Till he honestly tell, what a spirit from hell Had its impious seat in his breast. 

 "And a woe to the thief, without any relief-- He is sentenc'd in body and soul, To confess with his tongue, and restore ev'ry wrong, What he ever has robbed or stole. 

 "Tho' the sinner may plead, that it was not decreed For a man to take up a full cross, Yet in hell he must burn, or repent and return, And be say'd from the nature of loss. "

In the following "Dialogue" "confession of sins" is urged and enforced:

_Q_. Why did you choose this way you're in, which all mankinddespise?

_A_. It was to save my soul from sin, and gain a heav'nly prize. 

_Q_. But could you find no other way, that would have done as well?

_A_. Nay, any other way but this would lead me down to hell. 

_Q_. Well, tell me how did you begin to purge away your dross?

_A_. By honestly confessing sin, and taking up my cross. 

_Q_. Was it before the Son of man you brought your deeds to light?

_A_. That was the mortifying plan, and surely it was right. 

_Q_. But did you not keep something back, or did you tell the whole?

_A_. I told it all, however black--I fully freed my soul. 

_Q_. Do you expect to persevere, and ev'ry evil shun?

_A_. My daily cross I mean to bear, until the work is done. 

_Q_. Well, is it now your full intent all damage to restore?

_A_. If any man I've wrong'd a cent, I'll freely give him four. 

_Q_. And what is now the greatest foe with which you mean to war?

_A_. The cursed flesh--'tis that, you know, all faithful soulsabhor. 

_Q_. Have you none of its sly deceit now lurking in your breast?

_A_. I say there's nothing on my mind but what I have confess'd. 

_Q_. Well, what you have proclaim'd abroad, if by your works youshow, You are prepar'd to worship God, so, at, it, you, may, go. "

"The Steamboat" seems to me a characteristic rhyme, which no doubt camehome to Believers on the western rivers, when they were plagued withdoubters and cold-hearted adherents:

 "While our steamboat, Self-denial, Rushes up against the stream, Is it not a serious trial Of the pow'r of gospel steam? When Self-will, and Carnal Pleasure, And Freethinker, all afloat, Come down snorting with such pressure, Right against our little boat. 

 "Were there not some carnal creatures Mixed with the pure and clean, When we meet those gospel-haters, We might pass and not be seen; But the smell of kindred senses Brings them on us fair broadside, Then the grappling work commences-- They must have a fair divide. 

 "All who choose the tide of nature, Freely take the downward way; But the doubtful hesitater Dare not go, yet hates to stay. To the flesh still claiming kindred, And their faith still hanging to-- Thus we're held and basely hinder'd, By a double-minded few. 

 "Wretched souls, while hesitating Where to fix your final claim, Don't you see our boiler heating, With a more effectual flame!--When the steam comes on like thunder, And the wheels begin to play, Must you not be torn asunder, And swept off the downward way?

 "Tho' Self-will and Carnal Reason, Independence, Lust, and Pride, May retard us for a season, Saint and sinner must divide; When releas'd from useless lumber-- When the fleshly crew is gone-- With our little faithful number, O how swiftly we'll move on!"

The "Covenant Hymn" was publicly sung in some of the Western societies, "so that no room was left for any to say that the Covenant [by whichthey agree to give up all property and labor for the general use] wasnot well understood. " I quote here several verses:

 "You have parents in the Lord, you honor and esteem, But your equals to regard a greater cross may seem. Where the gift of God you see, Can you consent that it should reign? Yea I can, and all that's free may jointly say--Amen. 

 "Can you part with all you've got, and give up all concern, And be faithful in your lot, the way of God to learn? Can you sacrifice your ease, And take your share of toil and pain? Yea I can, and all that please may freely say--Amen. 

 "Can you into union flow, and have your will subdu'd? Let your time and talents go, to serve the gen'ral good? Can you swallow such a pill-- To count old Adam's loss your gain? Yea I can, and yea I will, and all may say--Amen. 

 "I set out to bear my cross, and this I mean to do: Let old Adam kick and toss, his days will be but few. We're devoted to the Lord, And from the flesh we will be free; Then we'll say with one accord--Amen, so let it be. "

It is evident from these verses that the early Shakers had among themmen who at least could make the rhymes run glibly, and who besides had agift of plain speech. Here, for instance, is a denunciation of ascandal-monger:

 "In the Church of Christ and Mother, Carnal feelings have no place; Here the simple love each other, Free from ev'ry thing that's base. Therefore when the flesh is named, When impeachments fly around, Honest souls do feel ashamed-- Shudder at the very sound. 

 "Ah! thou foul and filthy stranger! What canst thou be after here? Thou wilt find thyself in danger, If thou dost not disappear. Vanish quick, I do advise you! For we mean to let you know Good Believers do despise you, As a dang'rous, deadly foe. 

 "Dare you, in the sight of heaven, Show your foul and filthy pranks? Can a place to you be given In the bright angelic ranks? Go! I say, thou unclean devil! Go from this redeemed soil, If you think you cannot travel Through a lake of boiling oil. "

In those earlier days, as in these, idle persons seem to have troubledthe Shakers with the question "What would become of the world if allturned Shakers, " to which here is a sharp reply:

 "The multiplication of the old creation They're sure to hold forth as a weighty command; And what law can hinder old Adam to gender, And propagate men to replenish the land? But truly he never obey'd the lawgiver, For when the old serpent had open'd his eyes, He sought nothing greater than just to please nature, And work like a serpent in human disguise. "

"Steeple houses" are as hateful to the Shakers as to the Quakers and theInspirationists of Amana, and they are excluded in an especial mannerfrom the Shakers' Paradise:

 "No sin can ever enter here-- Nor sinners rear a steeple; 'Tis kept by God's peculiar care, For his peculiar people. One faith, one union, and one Lord, One int'rest all combining, Believers all, with one accord, In heav'nly concert joining. 

 "Far as the gospel spirit reigns, Our souls are in communion; From Alfred to South Union's plains, We feel our love and union. Here we may walk in peace and love, With God and saints uniting; While angels, smiling from above, To glory are inviting. "

Occasionally the book from which I am quoting gives one of those livelybrief verses to which the Shaker congregation marches, with clappinghands and skipping feet; as these, for instance:

 "I mean to be obedient, And cross my ugly nature, And share the blessings that are sent To ev'ry honest creature; With ev'ry gift I will unite, And join in sweet devotion-- To worship God is my delight, With hands and feet in motion. "

 "Come, let us all be marching on, Into the New Jerusalem; The call is now to ev'ry one To be alive and moving. This precious call we will obey-- We love to march the heav'nly way, And in it we can dance and play, And feel our spirits living. "

In the newer collection, entitled "Millennial Hymns, adapted to thepresent Order of the Church, " and printed at Canterbury, New Hampshire, in 1847, a change is noticeable. The hymns are more devotional and lessenergetic. There are many praises of Mother Ann--such lines as these:

 "O Mother, blest Mother! to thee I will bow; Thou art a kind Mother, thou dost teach us how Salvation is gained, and how to increase In purity, union, in order and peace. 

 "I love thee, O Mother; thy praise I will sound-- I'll bless thee forever for what I have found, I'll praise and adore thee, to thee bow and bend, For Mother, dear Mother, thou art my known friend. "

Or these:

 "I will walk in true obedience, I will be a child of love; And in low humiliation I will praise my God above. I will love my blessed Mother, and obey her holy word, In submission to my elders, this will join me to the Lord. 

 "I will stand when persecution doth around like billows roll; I will bow in true subjection, and my carnal will control. I will stand a firm believer in the way and work of God, Doubts and fears shall never, never in me find a safe abode. 

 "When temptations do surround me, floods of evil ebb and flow, Then in true humiliation I will bow exceeding low. I will fear the God of heaven, I will keep his holy laws, Treasure up his blessings given in this pure and holy cause. 

 "Tho' beset by wicked spirits, men and devils all combin'd, Yet my Mother's love will save me if in faithfulness I stand: No infernal crooked creature can destroy or harm my soul, If I keep the love of Mother and obey her holy call. "

Or this hymn, which is called "Parents' Blessing:

 "My Father does love me, my Mother also Does send me her love, and I now feel it flow; These heavenly Parents are kind unto me, And by their directions my soul is set free. 

 "They fill up my vessel with power and strength-- Yea, make my cross easy, my peace of great length; My joy fall and perfect, my trouble but light, My gifts very many in which I delight. 

 "I truly feel thankful for what I receive, In each holy promise I surely believe; They're able and willing to do all they've said, And by my kind Parents I choose to be led. 

 "I love to feel simple, I love to feel low, I love to be kept in the path I should go; I love to be taught by my heavenly lead, That I may be holy and perfect indeed. "

I add another, which has the lively, quick rhythm in which the Shakersdelight. It is called "Wisdom's Path:

 "I'll learn to walk in wisdom's ways, And in her path I'll spend my days; I'll learn to do what Mother says And follow her example. All pride and lust this will subdue, And every hateful passion too; This will destroy old Satan's crew That's seated in the temple. 

 "Come, honest souls, let us unite And keep our conscience clear and white, For surely Mother does delight To own and bless her children. In Father's word let us go on, And bear our cross and do no wrong, In faith and love then we'll be strong To conquer every evil. 

 "For love and union is our stay, We'll be strong and keep it day by day; Then we shall never go astray, We'll gain more love and union. Obedience will still increase, And every evil work will cease, We'll gain a true and solid peace, We'll live in Mother's union. "

I make no excuse for these quotations of Shaker hymns, for the booksfrom which they are taken have been seen by very few outside of theorder, and not even by all its members, as they are not now in commonuse. 

The Shakers have always professed to have intimate intercourse with the"spirit world. " Elder Frederick Evans says in his autobiography thatfrom the beginning the exercises in Shaker meetings were "singing anddancing, shaking, turning, and shouting, _speaking with new tongues andprophesying_. " Elder Frederick himself, as he remarks, "was convertedto Shakerism in 1830 by spiritual manifestations, " having "visions" forthree weeks, which converted him, as he relates, from materialism. Headds:

"In 1837 to 1844 there was an influx from the 'spirit world, ''confirming the faith of many disciples' who had lived among Believersfor years, and extending throughout all the eighteen societies, makingmedia by the dozen, whose various exercises, not to be suppressed evenin their public meetings, rendered it imperatively necessary to closethem all to the world during a period of seven years, in consequence ofthe then unprepared state of the people, to which the whole of themanifestations, and the meetings too, would have been as unadulterated'foolishness, ' or as inexplicable mysteries. "

In a recent number of the _Shaker and Shakeress_ (1874), Elder JamesS. Prescott, of the North Union Society, gave a curious account of thefirst appearance of this phenomenon at that place, from which I quotewhat follows:

"It was in the year 1838, in the latter part of summer, some youngsisters were walking together on the bank of the creek, not far from thehemlock grove, west of what is called the Mill Family, where they heardsome beautiful singing, which seemed to be in the air just above theirheads. 

"They were taken by surprise, listened with admiration, and thenhastened home to report the phenomenon. Some of them afterwards werechosen mediums for the 'spirits. ' We had been informed, by letter, thatthere was a marvelous work going on in some of the Eastern societies, particularly at Mt. Lebanon, New York, and Watervliet, near Albany. Andwhen it reached us in the West we should all know it, and we did knowit; in the progress of the work, every individual, from the least to thegreatest, did know that there was a heart-searching God in Israel, whoruled in the armies of heaven, and will yet rule among the inhabitantsof earth. 

"It commenced among the little girls in the children's order, who wereassembled in an upper room, the doors being shut, holding a meeting bythemselves, when the invisibles began to make themselves known. It wason the Sabbath-day, while engaged in our usual exercises, that amessenger came in and informed the elders in great haste that there wassomething uncommon going on in the girls' department. The elders broughtour meeting to a close as soon as circumstances would admit, and wentover to witness the singular and strange phenomena. 

"When we entered the apartment, we saw that the girls were under theinfluence of a power not their own--they were hurried round the room, back and forth as swiftly as if driven by the wind--and no one couldstop them. If any attempts were made in that direction, it was foundimpossible, showing conclusively that they were under a controllinginfluence that was irresistible. Suddenly they were prostrated upon thefloor, apparently unconscious of what was going on around them. Withtheir eyes closed, muscles strained, joints stiff, they were taken upand laid upon beds, mattresses, etc. 

"They then began holding converse with their guardian spirits andothers, some of whom they once knew in the form, making graceful motionswith their hands--talking audibly, so that all in the room could hearand understand, and form some idea of their whereabouts in the spiritualrealms they were exploring in the land of souls. This was only thebeginning of a series of 'spirit manifestations, ' the most remarkable weever expected to witness on the earth. One prominent feature of thesemanifestations was the gift of songs, hymns, and anthems--new, heavenly, and melodious. The first inspired song we ever heard from the 'spiritworld, ' with words attached, was the following, sung by one of the youngsisters, while in vision, with great power and demonstration of thespirit, called by the invisible. 

"'THE SONG OF A HERALD. 

"'Prepare, O ye faithful, To fight the good fight; Sing, O ye redeemed, Who walk in the light. Come low, O ye haughty, Come down, and repent. Disperse, O ye naughty, Who will not relent. 

"'For Mother is coming-- Oh, hear the glad sound-- To comfort her children Wherever they're found; With jewels and robes of fine linen To clothe the afflicted withal. '

"Given by inspiration, at North Union, August, 1838, ten years prior tothe Rochester Rappings. '

"The gifts continued increasing among the children. Among these were thegift of tongues, visiting the different cities in the 'spirit world, 'holding converse with the indwellers thereof, some of whom they onceknew in the body. And in going to these cities they were accompanied bytheir guardian angels, and appeared to be flying, using their hands andarms for wings, moving with as much velocity as the wings of a bird. 

"All of a sudden they stopped, and the following questions and answerswere uttered through their vocal organism:

_Question_--'What city is this?'_Answer_--'The City of Delight. '

_Question_--'Who live here?'_Answer_--'The colored population. '

_Question_--'Can we go in and see them?'_Answer_--'Certainly. For this purpose you were conducted here. Theywere admitted, their countenances changed. '

_Question_--'Who are all these?'_Answer_--'They are those who were once slaves in the UnitedStates. '

_Question_--'Who are those behind them?'_Answer_--'They are those who were once slaveholders. '

_Question_--'What are they doing here?'_Answer_--'Serving the slaves, as the slaves served them while inthe earth life. God is just; all wrongs have to be righted. '

_Question_--'Who are those in the corner?'_Answer_--'They are those slaveholders who were unmerciful, andabused their slaves in the world, and are too proud to comply with theconditions. '

_Question_--'What were the conditions?'_Answer_--'To make confession and ask forgiveness of the slaves, andright their wrongs; and this they are too proud to do. '

_Question_--'What will be done with them?'_Answer_--'When their time expires they will be taken away and castout, and will have to suffer until they repent; for all wrongs must berighted, either in the form or among the disembodied spirits, beforesouls can be happy. '

"And when the girls came out of vision, they would relate the same things, which, corresponded with what they had previously talked out. 

"Now, we will leave the girls for the present and go into the boys'department. Here we find them holding meetings by themselves, under thesafe guidance of their care-takers, going in vision, some boys and somegirls, for the work had progressed so as to reach adults, and all werecalled immediately into the work whose physical organizations wouldpossibly admit of mediumship. The peculiar gift at this time was invisiting the different cities in the 'spirit world, ' and in renewingacquaintances with many of their departed friends and relatives, whowere the blissful and happy residents therein. 

"But before we go any further we will let our mediums describe the firstcity they came to after crossing the river. 

"_Question_--'What city is this?'_Answer_--'The Blue City. '_Question_--'Who lives here?'_Answer_--'The Indians. '_Question_--'What Indians?'_Answer_--'The American Indians. '_Question_--'Why are they the first city we come to in thespirit-land, on the plane, and most accessible?'_Answer_--'Because the Indians lived more in accordance with the lawof nature in their earth life, according to their knowledge, and were themost abused class by the whites except the slaves, and many of them noware in advance of the whites in 'spirituality, ' and are the mostpowerful ministering spirits sent forth to minister to those who shallbe heirs of salvation. '

"At another time these same mediums, fifteen in number, of both sexes, sitting on benches in the meeting-house, saw a band of Indian spiritscoming from the 'Blue City' in the spirit world to unite with them intheir worship, and said, 'They are coming;' and as soon as the spiritsentered the door they entered the mediums, which moved them from theirseats as quick as lightning. Then followed the Indian songs and dances, and speaking in the Indian tongue, which was wholly unintelligible to usexcept by spiritual interpreters. "

Some of the most curious literature of the Shakers dates from thisperiod; and it is freely admitted by their leading men that they were insome cases misled into acts and publications which they have since seenreason to regret. Their belief is that they were deceived by falsespirits, and were unable, in many cases, to distinguish the true fromthe false. That is to say, they hold to their faith in "spiritualcommunications, " so called; but repudiate much in which they formerlyhad faith, believing this which they now reject to have come from theEvil One. 

Little has ever become authentically known of the so-called "spiritual"phenomena, which so profoundly excited the Shaker societies during sevenyears that, as Elder Frederick relates, they closed their doors againstthe world. Hervey Elkins, a person brought up in the society at Enfield, New Hampshire, in his pamphlet entitled "Fifteen Years in the SeniorOrder of Shakers, " from which I have already quoted, gives some curiousdetails of this period. It will be seen, from the passages I extractfrom Elkins, that he came under what he supposed to be "spiritual"influences himself:

"In the spring succeeding the winter of which I have treated, aremarkable religious revival began among all the Shakers of the land, east and west. It was announced several months prior to its commencementthat the holy prophet Elisha was deputized to visit the Zion of God onearth, and to bestow upon each individual those graces which eachneeded, and to baptize with the Holy Ghost all the young who wouldprepare their souls for such a baptism. 

"The time at length arrived. No one knew the manner in which the prophetwould make himself known. The people were grave and concerned abouttheir spiritual standing. Two female instruments from Canterbury, N. H. , were at length ushered into the sanctuary. Their eyes were closed, andtheir faces moved in semigyrations. Their countenances were pallid, asthough worn by unceasing vigils. They looked as though laden with amomentous and impending revelation. Throughout the assembly, pallidfaces, tears, and trembling limbs were visible. Anxiety and excitementwere felt in every mind, as all believed the instruments sacredly andsuperhumanly inspired. The alternate redness and pallor of everycountenance revealed this anxiety. For the space of five minutes thespacious hall was as silent as the tomb. One of the mediums thenadvanced in the space between the ranks of brethren and sisters, andannounced with a clear, deep, and sonorous voice, and in sublime andauthoritative language, the mission of the holy prophet. The ministrythen bade the instruments to be free and proceed as they could answer toGod; and conferred on them plenary power to conduct the meetings as theprophet should direct. 

"After marching a few songs, the prophet requested the formation of twocircles, one containing all the brethren, the other the sisters. The twomediums were first enclosed by the circle of brethren. They both wereyoung women between twenty and twenty-five years of age, and had neverbefore been at Enfield. They had probably never heard the names of twothirds of the younger members. They moved around in these circles, stopping before each one as though reading the condition of every heart. As they passed some, they evinced pleasure; as they passed others, theybespoke grief; others, yet, an obvious contempt; by which it seemed theylooked within, and saw with delight or horror the state of all. From ourknowledge of the members, we knew they passed and noticed them as theirworks merited. Little was said to separate individuals in the firstmeeting. In the second, we were requested to form six circles, three ofeach sex, and those of a circle to be connected together by the takinghold of hands; and in this manner to bow, bend, and dance. In thiscondition an influence was felt, upon which psychologists and biologistswould differ. It would be needless to enumerate the many gifts, theprophecies, the extempore songs, the revelations, the sins exposed, andthe hypocrites ejected from the society during this period of twomonths. But, as near as we could estimate, four hundred new songs weresung in that time, either by improvisation or inspiration, of which Ihave my opinion. I doubt not but that many were inspired by spiritscongenial with themselves, and consequently some of the songs evinced afatuity and simplicity peculiar to the instrument. On the other hand, many songs were given from spheres above, higher in melody, sentiment, and pathos than any originating with earth's inhabitants. 

"I recollect that the first spiritual gift presented to me was a 'Cup ofSolemnity. ' I drank the contents, and felt for a season the salutaryeffects. During the revival I became sincerely converted. I for a time, by reason of prejudice and distrust, resisted the effect of theimpressions, which at length overwhelmed me in a flood of tears, shedfor joy and gladness, as I more and more turned my thoughts to theInfinite. At last a halo of heavenly glory seemed to surround me. Idrank deep of the cup of the waters of life, and was lifted in mind andpurpose from this world of sorrow and sin. I soared in thought to God, and enjoyed him in his attributes of purity and love. I was wafted byangels safely above the ocean of sensual enjoyment which buries so manymillions, but into which I had never fallen. I explored the beauties ofineffable bliss, and caught a glimpse of that divinity which is theculmination of science and the end of the world. The adoration andsolemnity of the sanctuary enveloped me as with a mantle, even whenemployed in manual labor and in the company of my companions. Thefrivolity of some of my companions disgusted me. The extreme andfavorable change wrought within me in so short a time was often remarkedby the elders and members of the society; but the praise or the censureof mortals were to me like alternate winds, and of little avail. 

"Two years thus passed, in which my highest enjoyments and pleasureswere an inward contemplation of the beauty, love, and holiness of God, and in the ecstatic impressions that I was in the hollow of his hand, and owned and blessed of him. Still later in life I retained and couldevoke at times the same profoundly religious impressions, contaminated, however, by other favorite objects of study and attachment. Even theexpression of my countenance wore an aspect of deep, tender, andbenignant gravity, which the reflection of less holy subjects could notproduce. It was my delight to pray fervently and _tacitly_, and thisI often did besides the usual time allotted for such devotion. (Vocalprayer is not admissible among the Shakers. ) I loved to unite in thedance, and give myself up to the operations of spirits even, if it wouldnot thwart my meditative communion with God and with God alone. Thoughinstruments or mediums were multiplied around me, dancing in imitationof the spirits of all nations, singing and conversing in unknowntongues, some evincing a truly barbarian attitude and manners, I stoodin mute thanksgiving and prayer. At times I was asked by the elders if Icould not unite and take upon me an Indian, a Norwegian, or an Arabianspirit? I would then strive to be impressed with their feelings, and actin conformity thereto. But such inspiration, I found, was not therevelation of the Holy Ghost. It was not that which elevated and kept mefrom all trials and temptations. But my inward spontaneous devotion wasthe kind I needed. I informed the elders of my opinion, and theyconcurred in it, only they regarded the inspiration of simple andunsophisticated spirits as a stepping-stone to a higher revelation, byvirtue of removing pride, vanity, and self-will, those great barriersagainst the accession of holy infusions. "

 * * * * *

"In the fall of that season this revival redoubled its energy. The giftswere similar to those of the spring previous, but less charity was shownto the hypocrite and vile pretender. It was announced that Jehovah-Powerand Wisdom--the dual God, would visit the inhabitants of Zion, andbestow a blessing upon each individual as their works should merit. Atime was given for us to prepare for his coming. Every building, everyapartment, every lane, field, orchard, and pasture, must be cleansed ofall rubbish and needless encumbrance; so that even a Shaker village, sonotorious for neatness, wore an aspect fifty per cent more tidy thanusual. To sweep our buildings, regulate our stores, pick up and draw toa circular wood-saw old bits of boards, stakes, and poles that were fitfor naught but fuel, and collect into piles to be burned upon the spotall such as were unfit for that, was the order of the day. Even thesisters debouched by scores to help improve the appearance of the farmand lake shores, on which were quantities of drift-wood. Thus was passeda fortnight of pleasant autumnal weather. As the evenings approached, weset fire to the piles of old wood, which burned, the flames shootingupward, in a serene evening, like the innumerable bonfires whichannounce the ingress of a regal visitant to monarchical countries. Viewed from the plain below, in the gray, dim twilight of a soft andserene atmosphere, when all nature was wrapped in the unique andbeautiful solemnity of an unusually prorogued autumn, these fires, emerging in the blue distance from the vast amphitheatre of hills, werepicturesque in the highest degree. How neat! How fascinating! And howmuch like our conceptions of heaven the whole vale appeared! And then toregard this work of cleansing and beautifying the domains of Mount Zionas that preparatory to the visitation of the Most High, is somethingwhich speaks to the heart and says: 'Dost thou appear as beautiful, asclean, and as comely in the sight of God as do these elements of anunthinking world? Is thine heart also prepared to be searched with thecandles of him from whom no unclean thing is hidden?'

"The following words were said to have been brought by an angel fromJehovah, and accompanied by a most beautiful tune of two airs:

"'I shall march through Mount Zion, With my angelic band; I shall pass through the city With my fan in my hand; And around thee, O Jerusalem, My armies will encamp, While I search my Holy Temple With my bright burning lamp. '"

"It was during this revival that Henry, of whom I have spoken, wasejected from the society. During this, as also during the previousexcitement, he had exhibited an aversion which often found vent inbitter taunts and jeers. Sometimes, however, a simulated unity offeeling had prevented his publicly incurring the imputation of openrebellion. He had learned some scraps of the Latin language, and on theoccasion of the evening worship in which he was expelled, he afterwardinformed us that, at the time he was arraigned for expulsion, he waspretendedly uniting with those who were speaking in unknown languages byemploying awful oaths and profanity in the Latin tongue. A femaleinstrument, said to be employed by the spirit of Ann Lee, approached himwhile thus engaged, and uttered in a low, distinct, and funereal accenta denunciation which severed him as a withered branch from the tree oflife. He suddenly bowed as if beneath the weight of a terrible destiny, smiting his breast and ejaculating, 'Pardon! Pardon! Oh, forgive--forgive me my transgressions'. The elders strove to hush hiscries, and replied that 'all forbearance is at an end. ' His ardentvociferations now degenerated into inarticulate yells of horror anddemoniacal despair. He rushed from the group which surrounded him, heglided like one unconscious of the presence of others from one extremityof the hall to another, he smote with clenched fists the walls of theapartment, and reeled at last in convulsive agony, uttering the deep, hollow groan of inexorable expiation. In this situation he was hurriedfor the last time from the sanctuary which he had so often profaned, andfrom the presence of those moistened eyes and commiserative looks whichhe never would again behold. The confession of his blasphemous profanityhe made at the trustees' office prior to his leaving the society, whichoccurred the subsequent morning. "

At another time such scenes as the following are described:

"Shrieks of some one, apparently in great distress, first announced aphenomenon, which caused the excitement. The screeching proceeded from agirl of but thirteen years of age, who had previously among the Shakersbeen a clairvoyant, and who has since been a powerful medium forspiritual manifestation elsewhere. She soon fell upon the floor, uttering awful cries, similar to those we had often heard emanating frominstruments groaning under the pressure of some hidden abomination inthe assembly. She plucked out entire handfuls of her hair, and wailedand shrieked like one subjected to all the conceived agonies of hell. The ministry and elders remarked that they believed that something waswrong; something extremely heinous was covered from God's witnessessomewhere in the assembly. All were exhorted to search themselves, andsee if they had nothing about them that God disowns. The meeting wassoon dismissed, but the medium continued in her abnormal and deplorablecondition. Near the middle of the succeeding night we were all awakenedby the ringing of the alarm, and summoned quickly to repair to thegirls' apartments. We obeyed. The same medium lay upon a bed, utteringin the name of an apostate from the Shaker faith, and who was stillliving in New England, tremendous imprecations against himself, warningall to beware of what use they make of their privilege in Zion, tellingus of his awful torments in hell, how his flesh (or the substance of hisspiritual body) was all to strings and ringlets torn, how he was roastedin flames of brimstone and tar, and, finally, that all these calamitieswere caused by his doleful corruptions and pollutions while a member, and professedly a brother to us. This, it was supposed by many, was bytrue revelation the anticipation of the future state of this victim ofapostasy and sin. Two or three more girls were soon taken in the samemanner, and became uncontrollable. They were all instruments forreprobated spirits, and breathed nothing but hatred and blasphemy toGod. They railed, they cursed, they swore, they heaped the vilestepithets upon the heads of the leaders and most faithful of the members, they pulled each other's and their own hair, threw knives, forks, andthe most dangerous of missiles. When the instruments were rational, theelders entreated them to keep off such vile spirits. They would weep inanguish, and reply that, unless they spoke and acted for the spirits, they would choke them to death. They would then suddenly swoon away, andin struggling to resist them would choke and gasp, until they had theappearance of a victim strangled by a rope tightly drawn around herneck. If they would then speak, the strangulation would cease. In themean time two females of adult age, and two male youths, were seized inthe same manner. Unless confined, they would elope, and appear to allintents the victims of insanity. One of the young women eloped, fled toa lake which was covered with ice, was pursued by some of the oxteamsters, and carried back to the infirmary. Two men could withdifficulty hold a woman or a child when thus influenced. To preventmischief and elopement, we were obliged to envelop their bodies andtheir arms tightly in sheets, and thus sew them up and confine themuntil the spell was over. Such delirium generally lasted but a fewhours. It would seize them at any time and at any place. 

"The phenomena to which we allude was the source of much facetiouspleasantry with the young brethren. One of the infernal spirits had oneevening declared that 'before morning they would have the deacon andLupier. ' 'Deacon' was an epithet applied to myself, as a token offamiliarity. The tidings of the declaration of this infernal agent weresoon conveyed to me. It happened that my companion of the dormitory, amiddle-aged man, had that evening gone to watch with the mediums, and Iwas left alone. I replied to my companions, who interrogated andsarcastically congratulated me on my prospects for the night, that 'ifthe corporeal influence of incarnate devils could be kept from the room, I would combat without aid all other influences and answer for my ownsafety. ' I accordingly locked myself into my room, and enjoyed, unmolested for the night, except by occasional raps upon the door by mypassing comrades, some of whom were up all night by reason of theexcitement, a sound and pleasant sleep. One or two instances occurred inwhich a superhuman agency was indubitably obvious. One of the abnormalmales lay in a building at some distance from the infirmary where thefemale instruments were confined. Suddenly one of the last, who had beenfor some time in a quiescent state and rational, was seized by one ofthese paroxysms, which were always accompanied by dreadful contortionsand sudden twitchings of the body, and, speaking for the spirit, saidthat 'Old S---- had bound him with a surcingle, and he had left E----, 'one of the male instruments. The physician instantly repaired to thebuilding where E---- lay, and he was perfectly rational. S----, thewatch, informed the physician that E---- raved so violently a momentbefore that he bound his arms to his body by passing a surcingle aroundboth, and he quickly became himself. At another time one of the femalestook a handful of living coals in her bare hands, and thus carried themabout the room without even injuring the cuticle of the skin. 

"The phenomena and excitement soon dwindled away by the tremendousopposition directed against them; and when afterward spoken about, weredesignated by the sinister phrase--'The Devil's Visitation. '

"Other ministrations and gifts, original and perfectly illustrative ofthe inspirations of crude and uncivilized spirits, continued as usual toexist. They were truly ludicrous. I have seen female instruments inuncouth habits, and in imitation of squaws, and a few males acting assuneps, glide in groups on a stiffly frozen snow, shouting, dancing, yelling, and whooping, and others acting precisely the peculiar traitsof a Negro, an Arab, a Chinese, an Italian, or even the polite gayety ofa Frenchman. And, what is still more astounding, speaking the vernaculardialects of each race. Their confabulation, aided by inspiredinterpreters, was truly amusing and interesting. On one occasion I saw asister, inspired by a squaw, her head mounted with an old hat of felt, cocked, jammed, and indented in no geometrical form, rush to a pancontaining a collection of the amputated legs of hens, seize a handfulof the raw delicacy, and devour them with as much alacrity as a Yankeewoman would an omelet or a doughnut. "

In general, Elkins relates:

"I have myself seen males, but more frequently females, in asuperinduced condition, apparently unconscious of earthly things, anddeclaring in the name of departed spirits important and convincingrevelations. Speaking in foreign tongues and prophesying were the mostcommon gifts. In February, 1848, a medium became abstracted from earthlyscenes, and announced the presence of an angel of God. The angeldeclared, through her, that he was sent on a mission to France, and thatbefore many days we should hear of his doings in that nation. Thisannouncement was in presence of the whole family, and it was then andthere noted down. France at that time was, for aught we knew, restingupon a permanent political basis; or as nearly in that condition as sheever was. In a few days the revolution of the 24th of Februaryprecipitated the monarchy into an interregnum, which philanthropistshoped was bottomless. 

"Turning rapidly upon the toes, bowing, bending, twisting, and reelinglike one a victim to the fumes of intoxication; swooning and lyingprostrate with limbs stiff and unyielding, like a corpse, and to alloutward appearance the vital spark extinct; then suddenlyresuscitating--the mind still abstracted from scenes below--and rising tojoin in the jubilancy of the dance, in company with and in imitation ofthe angels around the throne of God, singing extemporaneous anthems andsongs, or those learned direct of seraphs in the regions of bliss--suchare the many exercises, effusions of devotion, and supernatural elapsesof which I was for fifteen years at intervals an eye and ear witness. Also the exposure of sin, designating in some cases the transgressor, the act, and the place of perpetration, of which the accused was mostgenerally found culpable. 

"More than a score of new dances were performed, with an attitude ofgrace and with the precision of a machine, by about twenty femaleclairvoyants. They _said_ they learned them of seraphs before thethrone of God. 

"I was doubtful of their assertions, for such things were to me novel. Ihowever determined not to overstep the bounds of prudence, and declarethe work an illusion, for fear that I might blaspheme a higher power, Icommunicated my doubts to a few of my companions, and one, less cautiousthan myself, immediately broke forth in imprecations against it. I neverwas secretly opposed, but a turbulent disposition or a love for dramaticscenes, prompted by the hope of detecting either the validity ordeception of such phenomena, impelled me to wink opposition to myreckless companion. In the devotional exercises, which served as apreliminary to the entrance of the mind into a superior condition, suchas whirling, twisting, and reeling, we all took a part. Henry, for thatwas the name of the youth who was so zealous in his aspersions, unitedawkwardly and derisively in these exercises. Amid so many arms, legs, and bodies, revolving, oscillating, staggering, and tripping, it is notremarkable that a few should be thrown prostrate (not violently, however) upon the floor. One evening, in a boy's meeting at a time ofgreat excitement, when the spirits of some of our companions werereported to be in spiritual spheres, and other departed spirits werecareering their mortal ladies in the graceful undulations of a celestialdance, Henry and many others, among whom I was seen, were whirling, staggering, and rolling, striving in vain, by all the humility we couldassume, to be also admitted into the regions of spiritual recognition, Henry suddenly tripped and fell. One of his visionary companionsinstantly sprang, passed his hands with great rapidity over him, asthough binding him with invisible cords, and then returned to hisgraceful employment. The clairvoyant's eyes were closed, as indeed werethe eyes of all while in that condition. In vain Henry struggled torise, to turn, or hardly to move. He was fettered, bound fast byinvisible manacles. The brethren were summoned to witness the sight. Inthe space of perhaps half an hour the clairvoyant returned, loosened hisfetters, and he arose mortified and confounded. Singularly disposed, heever after treated these gifts with virulent ridicule, and never washeard to utter any serious remarks concerning this transaction. Theclairvoyant after this event was the butt of his satire and jests, andreceived them without revenge so long as Henry remained, which was aboutfive years--a reckless, abandoned, evil-minded person, eventuallysevered by that same power which he strove incessantly to ridicule. Allthese strange operations and gifts are attributed by the Shakers to theinfluence of superhuman power like that manifested in the PrimitiveChurch. "

Some of the hymns which date from this period have fragments of the"strange tongues" in which the "mediums" spoke. Here is one, dated atNew Lebanon, and printed in the collection called "Millennial Hymns:"

"HEAVENLY GUIDE. 

 "Lo all ye, hark ye, dear children, and listen to me, For I am that holy Se lone' se ka' ra an ve'; My work upon earth is holy, holy and pure, That work which will ever, forever endure. 

 "Yea, my heavenly Father hath se-ve'-ned to you That power which is holy and that faith which is true; O then, my beloved, why will ye delay? O la ho' le en se' ren, now while it is day. 

 "The holy angels in heaven their trumpets do raise, And with saints upon earth sound endless praise. Blessed, most blessed, your day, and holy your call, O ven se' ne ven se' ne, yea every soul. 

 "All holy se ka' ren are the free blessings given And bestowed on you from the fountain of heaven; Yea, guardian spirits from the holy Selan', Bring you heavenly love, vi' ne see', Lin' se van'. 

 "Press ye on, my dear children, the holy Van' la hoo' Is your heavenly guide, and will safely bear you through All vo'len tribulation you meet here below; Then be humble, dear children, be faithful and true. 

 "For God, your holy, holy HEAVENLY FATHER, will never, Never forsake his holy house of Israel on e. A. R. T. H. , But the blessings of heaven will continue to flow On you, my beloved Ar' se le be low. (_n-o-t-e-s_. )"

The most curious relics of those days are two considerable volumes, which have since fallen into discredit among the Shakers themselves, butwere at the time of their issue regarded as highly important. One ofthese is entitled "_A Holy, Sacred, and Divine Soil and Book, from theLord God of Heaven to the Inhabitants of Earth:_ Revealed in theUnited Society at New Lebanon, County of Columbia, State of New York, United States of America. Received by the Church of this Communion, andpublished in union with the same. " It is dated Canterbury, N. H. , 1843;contains 405 pages; and is in two parts. The first part contains therevelation proper; the second, various "testimonies" to its accuracy anddivine origin. Of these evidences, some purport to be by the prophetsElisha, Ezekiel, Malachi, Isaiah, and others; from Noah, St. Peter, St. John; by "Holy and Eternal Mother Wisdom, " and a "holy and mighty angelof God, " whose name was _Ma'ne Me'rah Vak'na Si'na Jah_; but thegreater number are by living Shakers. As a part of the revelation, theShakers were commanded to print, "in their own society, five hundredcopies" of this book, to be "given to the children of men, " and "it is myrequirement that they be printed before the 22d of next September. To bebound in yellow paper, with red backs; edges yellow also. " Moreover, missionary societies were commanded to translate the book into foreigntongues, and I have heard that a copy was sent to every ruler orgovernment which could be reached by mail. 

The body of the book is a mixture of Scripture texts and "revelations ofspirits;" and the absurdity of it appears to have struck even theso-called "holy angel" who was supposed to have superintended thewriting, as appears from the following passage:

 "We are four of the holy and mighty angels of God, sent from before his throne, to pass and repass through the four quarters of the earth; and many are the holy angels that bear us company. And thus we shall visit the earth in partial silence, as this Roll goes forth, until we have marked the door-posts of all, as our God hath commanded, who shall humble themselves and repent at his word, by proclaiming a solemn fast, and cease from their awful crimes of wickedness, and turn to him in righteousness. 

 "My name, says the angel whose quarter is eastward, and stands as first, is HOLY ASSAN' DE LA JAH'. The second, whose part is second, and quarter westward, is MI'CHAEL VAN' CE VA' NE. The third, whose part is third, and quarter northward, is GA' BRY VEN' DO VAS' TER REEN'. The fourth, whose part is fourth, and quarter southward, is VEN DEN' DE PA' ROL JEW' LE JAH'. 

"These are our names in our own tongues, and we are sent on earth toprepare the way for the Most High; and the whole human family will beconvinced of this before the final event of our mission shall arrive. 

"And although we know that the words of this book will be considered bymany as being produced in the wildest of enthusiasm, madness, blasphemy, and fanaticism, and by others as solemn, sacred, and awful truths; yetdo we declare unto all flesh that this Roll and Book contains the wordof the God of heaven, your Almighty Creator, sent forth direct from hiseternal throne now in this your day. 

"And by this word shall every soul on earth be judged, in mercy or injudgment, whether they believe or disbelieve. We are not sent forth byour God to argue with mortals, but to declare his word and his work. Andwe furthermore declare unto all the inhabitants of earth that they haveno time to lose in preparing for their God. 

"If there be any who cannot understand to their souls' satisfaction(though the requirements are plain), yet they may apply wheresoever theybelieve they can be correctly informed. "

As a sample of the book, here is an account by one of the mediums of her"interview with a holy angel:"

"It was in the evening of the twenty-second of January, eighteen hundredand forty-two, while I was busily employed putting all things inreadiness for the close of the week, that I distinctly heard my namecalled very loudly, and with much earnestness. I could not go so well atthat moment, and I answered, 'I will come soon, ' for I supposed it to besome one in the adjoining room that wished to see me; but the word wasrepeated three times, and I hastened to the place from whence the soundseemed to come, but there was no one present. 

"I soon saw in the middle of the room four very large and bright lights, or balls of fire, as they appeared to be; they moved slowly each way, and after a little time joined together in one exceedingly large light, or pillar of fire. At this moment I heard a loud voice, which utteredmany words with such mighty force that I feared to stay in the room, andattempted to go out; but found that I had not power to move my feet. 

"For some time I could not understand one word that was sounded forth;but the first that I did understand were as follows: 'Hark! Hark!hearken, oh thou child of mortality, unto the word that is and shall besounded aloud in thine ears, again and again, even until it is obeyed. 

"'And lo, I say a time, and a time, and a half-time shall not pass bybefore my voice shall be heard, and my word sounded forth to the nationsabroad. But in the Zion of my likeness and true righteousness shall itbe received first, and from thence shall it go forth; for thus and thushath the God of heaven and earth declared and purposed that it shouldbe. 

"'Then why will you, O why will you, yet fear to obey? What would youthat your God would do in your presence, that you might fear his powerrather than that of mortal man?'

"From this moment I was not sensible where I was; and after a littletime of silence the body of light, or pillar of fire, dispersed, and Isaw a mighty angel coming from the east, and I heard these words:

"'Woe, woe, and many woes shall be upon the mortal that shall see andwill not stop to behold. '"

And so on, for a good many pages. 

The second work is called _"The Divine Book of Holy and Eternal Wisdom, revealing the Word of God, out of whose mouth goeth a sharp Sword. _Written by Paulina Bates, at Watervliet, N. Y. , United States ofAmerica; arranged and prepared for the Press at New Lebanon, N. Y. Published by the United Society called Shakers. Printed at Canterbury, N. H. , 1849. " This book contains 718 pages; and pretends also to be aseries of revelations by angels and deceased persons of note. In thePreface by the editors its origin is thus described:

"During a number of years past many remarkable displays of divine powerand heavenly gifts have been manifested among the children of Zion inall the branches of the United Society of Believers in the secondappearing of Christ. Much increasing light has been revealed on manysubjects which have heretofore remained as mysteries; and many propheticrevelations have been brought forth, from time to time, throughmessengers chosen and inspired by heavenly power and wisdom. 

"Among these it has pleased God to select a female of the United Societyat Wisdom's Valley (Watervliet), and indue her with the heavenly lightof revelation as an instrument of divine Wisdom, to write by divineinspiration those solemn warnings, prophetic revelations, and heavenlyinstructions which will be found extensively diffused through the sacredpages of this book. 

"These were written in a series of communications at various timesduring the year 1841, '42, '43, and '44, with few exceptions, which willbe seen by their several dates. But the inspired writer had no knowledgethat they were designed by the Divine Spirit to be published to theworld until a large portion of the work was written; therefore, whenevershe was called upon by the angel of God, she wrote whatever the angeldictated at the time, without any reference to the connective order andregular arrangement of a book; for she was not directed so to do, forreasons which were afterwards revealed to her and other witnesses thenunknown to her. 

"Hence it was made known to be the design of the Divine Spirit thatthese communications should be transmitted to the Holy Mount (NewLebanon), there to be prepared for publication by agents appointed forthat purpose, in union with the leading authority of the Church. Accordingly they were conveyed to New Lebanon, and the subscribers wereappointed as editors, to examine and arrange them in regular andconvenient order for the press, and divine instructions were given forthat purpose. 

"Having therefore faithfully examined the manuscripts containing thesecommunications, we have compiled them into one book, in two generaldivisions or volumes, agreeably to the instructions given. We have also, for convenient arrangement, divided the whole into seven parts, according to the relative connection which appeared in the differentsubjects. And for the convenience of the reader we have divided eachpart into chapters, prefixing an appropriate title to each. 

"Some passages and annotations have been added by _The Angel ofProphetic Light, _ who by inspiration has frequently assisted in thepreparation and arrangement of the work, for the purpose of illustratingand confirming some of the original subjects by further explanations. Afew notes have also been added by the editors for the information of thereader. These are all distinguished in their proper places from theoriginal matter. 

"But although it was found necessary to transcribe the whole, in orderto prepare it properly and intelligibly for the press, yet we have usedgreat care to preserve the sense of the original in its purity; and wecan testify that the substance and spirit of the work have beenconscientiously preserved in full throughout the whole. 

"This work is called 'Holy Wisdom's Book, ' because Holy and EternalWisdom is the Mother, or Bearing Spirit, of all the works of God; andbecause it was especially revealed through the line of the female, beingWISDOM'S _Likeness; and she lays special claim to this work_, andplaces her seal upon it. 

"An _Appendix_ is added, containing the testimonies of variousdivine and heavenly witnesses to the sacred truth and reality of thedeclarations and revelations contained in the work. The most of thesewere given before the inspired writers who received them had any earthlyknowledge concerning the book or its contents. A _testimony_ is alsoaffixed to the work by the elders of the family in which the inspiredwriter resides, bearing witness to the honesty and uprightness of hercharacter, and her faithfulness in the work of God. "

The main object of the book is to warn sinners of all kinds from the"wrath to come. " Especial woes, by the way, are denounced againstslaveholders and slave traders: "Whether they be clothed in tenements ofclay, or whether they be stripped of their earthly tabernacles, the samehand of Justice shall meet them whithersoever they flee. " It must beremembered to the honor of the Shakers that they have always and everywhere consistently opposed human slavery. 

The "Divine Book of Holy Wisdom" contains the "testimonies" of the"first man, Adam, " of the "first woman, Eve, " of Noah and all thepatriarchs, and of a great many other ancient worthies; but, alas! whatthey have to say is not new, and of no interest to the unregeneratereader. 

These two volumes are not now, as formerly, held in honor by theShakers. One of their elders declared to me that I ought never to haveseen them, and that their best use was to burn them. But I found them onthe table of the visitors' room in one or two of the Western societies, and I suppose they are still believed in by some of the people. 

At this day most (but not all) of the Shaker people are sincerebelievers in what is commonly called Spiritualism. At a Shaker funeral Ihave heard what purported to be a message from the spirit whose body waslying in the coffin in the adjoining hall. In one of the societies it isbelieved that a magnificent spiritual city, densely inhabited, andfilled with palaces and fine residences, lies upon their domain, and atbut a little distance from the terrestrial buildings of the Churchfamily; and frequent communications come from this spirit city to theirneighbors. "When I was a little girl, I desired very much to have a hymnsent through me to the family from the spirit-land; and after waitingand wishing for a long time, one day when I was little expecting it, asI was walking about, a hymn came to me thus, to my inexpressibledelight"--so said a Shaker eldress to me in all seriousness. "We havefrequently been visited by a tribe of Indians (spirits of Indians), whoused to live in this country, and whose spirits still come back hereoccasionally, " said another Shaker sister to me. 

On the other hand, when I asked one of the elders how far he believedthat their hymns are inspired, he asked me whether it did not happenthat I wrote with greater facility at one time than at another; and whenI replied in the affirmative, he said, "In that case I should say youwere inspired when your words come readily, and to that degree I supposeour hymn-writers are inspired. They have thought about the subject, andthe words at last come to them. "

I think I have before said that the Shakers do not attempt to suppressdiscussion of the relations of the sexes; they do not pretend that theircelibate life is without hardships or difficulties; but they boldlyassert that they have chosen the better life, and defend their positionwith not a little skill against all attacks. A good many years ago MissCharlotte Cushman, after a visit to Watervliet, wrote the followinglines, which were published in the _Knickerbocker Magazine_:

 "Mysterious worshipers! Are you indeed the things you seem to be, Of earth--yet of its iron influence free--From all that stirs Our being's pulse, and gives to fleeting life What well the Hun has termed 'the rapture of the strife. '

 "Are the gay visions gone, Those day-dreams of the mind, by fate there flung, And the fair hopes to which the soul once clung, And battled on; Have ye outlived them? All that must have sprung, And quicken'd into life, when ye were young?

 "Does memory never roam To ties that, grown with years, ye idly sever, To the old haunts that ye have left forever--Your early homes? Your ancient creed, once faith's sustaining lever, The loved who erst prayed with you--now may never?

 "Has not ambition's paean Some power within your hearts to wake anew To deeds of higher emprise--worthier you, Ye monkish men, Than may be reaped from fields? Do ye not rue The drone-like course of life ye now pursue?

 "The camp--the council--all That woos the soldier to the field of fame-- That gives the sage his meed--the bard his name And coronal-- Bidding a people's voice their praise proclaim; Can ye forego the strife, nor own your shame?

 "Have ye forgot your youth, When expectation soared on pinions high, And hope shone out on boyhood's cloudless sky, Seeming all truth-- When all looked fair to fancy's ardent eye, And pleasure wore an air of sorcery?

 "You, too! What early blight Has withered your fond hopes, that ye thus stand, A group of sisters, 'mong this monkish band? Ye creatures bright! Has sorrow scored your brows with demon hand, Or o'er your hopes passed treachery's burning brand?

 "Ye would have graced right well The bridal scene, the banquet, or the bowers Where mirth and revelry usurp the hours--Where, like a spell, Beauty is sovereign--where man owns its powers, And woman's tread is o'er a path of flowers. 

 "Yet seem ye not as those Within whose bosoms memories vigils keep: Beneath your drooping lids no passions sleep; And your pale brows Bear not the tracery of emotion deep-- Ye seem too cold and passionless to weep!"

A "Shaker Girl, " in one of the Kentucky societies, published soonafterward the following "Answer to Charlotte Cushman, " which iscertainly not without spirit:

 "We are, indeed, the things we seem to be, Of earth, and from its iron influence free: For we are they, or halt, or lame, or dumb, 'On whom the ends of this vain world are come. '

 "We have outlived those day-dreams of the mind-- Those flattering phantoms which so many bind; All man-made creeds (your 'faith's sustaining lever') We have forsaken, and have left forever!

 "To plainly tell the truth, we do not rue The sober, godly course that we pursue; But 'tis not we who live the dronish lives, But those who have their husbands or their wives! But if by drones you mean they're lazy men, Then, Charlotte Cushman, take it back again; For one, with half an eye, or half a mind, Can there see industry and wealth combined. 

 "If camps and councils--soldiers' 'fields of fame'-- Or yet a people's praise or people's blame, Is all that gives the sage or bard his name, We can 'forego the strife, nor own our shame' What great temptations you hold up to view For men of sense or reason to pursue! The praise of mortals!--what can it avail, When all their boasted language has to fail? And 'sorrow hath not scored with demon hand, ' Nor 'o'er our hopes pass'd treachery's burning brand;' But where the sorrows and the treachery are, I think may easily be made appear. In 'bridal scenes, ' in 'banquets and in bowers!' 'Mid revelry and variegated flowers, Is where your mother Eve first felt their powers. The 'bridal scenes, ' you say, 'we'd grace right well!' 'Lang syne' there our first parents blindly fell!-- The bridal scene! Is this your end and aim? And can you this pursue, 'nor own your shame?' If so--weak, pithy, superficial thing-- Drink, silent drink the sick hymeneal spring. 'The bridal scene! the banquet or the bowers, Or woman's [bed of thorns, or] path of flowers, ' Can't all persuade our souls to turn aside To live in filthy lust or cruel pride. Alas! your path of flowers will disappear; E'en now a thousand thorns are pointed near; Ah! here you find 'base treachery's burning brand, ' And sorrows score the heart, nor spare the hand; But here 'Beauty's sovereign'--so say you-- A thing that in one hour may lose its hue-- It lies upon the surface of the skin-- Aye, Beauty's self was never worth a pin; But still it suits the superficial mind-- The slight observer of the human kind; The airy, fleety, vain, and hollow thing, That only feeds on wily flattering. 'Man owns its powers?' And what will not man own To gain his end--to captivate--dethrone? The truth is this, whatever he may feign, You'll find your greatest loss his greatest gain; For like the bee, he will improve the hour, And all day long he'll hunt from flower to flower, And when he sips the sweetness all away, For aught he cares, the flowers may all decay. But here, each other's virtues we partake, Where men and women all their ills forsake: True virtue spreads her bright angelic wing, While saints and seraphs praise the Almighty King. And when the matter's rightly understood, You'll find we labor for each other's good; This, Charlotte Cushman, truly is our aim-- Can you forego this strife, 'nor own your shame?' Now if you would receive a modest hint, You'd surely keep your name at least from print, Nor have it hoisted, handled round and round, And echoed o'er the earth from mound to mound, As the great advocate of ------ (Oh, the name!). Now can you think of this, 'nor own your shame?' But, Charlotte, learn to take a deeper view Of what your neighbors say or neighbors do; And when some flattering knaves around you tread, Just think of what a SHAKER GIRL has said. "

The _Shaker and Shakeress_, a monthly journal, edited by ElderFrederick Evans and Eldress Antoinette Doolittle, is the organ of thesociety; and in its pages their views are set forth with much shrewdnessand ability. It is not so generally interesting a journal as the_Oneida Circular_, the organ of the Perfectionists, because theShakers concern themselves almost exclusively with religious matters, andgive in their paper but few details of their daily and practical life. 

POPULATION RETURNS OF THE SHAKER SOCIETIES. 

I give here, in a convenient tabular form, figures showing the presentand past numbers of the different Shaker Societies--males, females, andchildren--the amount of land each society owns, and the number oflaborers, not members, it employs:

______________________________________________________________________| |No. Of Families| Adults. |Youth Under 11. || Society. | or Separate |______|________|_______|_______|| | Communities. | Male. | Female. | Male. |Female. ||____________________|_______________|______|___ ____|_______|_______|| Alfred, Me. .. .. .. .. | 2 | 20 | 30 | 8 | 12 || New Gloucester, Me. | 2 | 20 | 36 | 4 | 10 || Canterbury, N. H. .. . | 3 | 35 | 70 | 14 | 26 || Enfield, N. H. .. .. .. | 3 | 29 | 76 | 8 | 27 || Enfield, Conn. .. .. . | 4 | 24 | 48 | 18 | 25 || Harvard, Mass. .. .. . | 4 | 17 | 57 | 4 | 12 || Shirley, Mass. .. .. . | 2 | 6 | 30 | 4 | 8 || Hancock, Mass. .. .. . | 3 | 23 | 42 | 13 | 20 || Tyringham, Mass. .. . | 1 | 6 | 11 | 0 | 0 || Mount Lebanon, N. Y. | 7 | 115 | 221 | 21 | 26 || Watervliet, N. Y. .. . | 4 | 75 | 100 | 20 | 40 || Groveland, N. Y. .. .. | 2 | 18 | 30 | 3 | 6 || North Union, O. .. .. | 3 | 41 | 44 | 6 | 11 || Union Village, O. .. | 4 | 75 | 92 | 20 | 28 || Watervliet, O. .. .. . | 2 | 16 | 32 | 3 | 4 || White Water, O. .. .. | 3 | 34 | 51 | 6 | 9 || Pleasant Hill, Ky. . | 5 | 56 | 114 | 25 | 50 || South Union, Ky. .. . | 4 | 85 | 105 | 15 | 25 ||____________________|_______________|______|_______ |_______|_______|| | | | | || Eighteen Societies. | 58 | 695 | 1189 | 192 | 339 ||____________________|_______________|______|________|_______|_______|

 ______________________________________________________________________| | | | Acres | || Society. |Total Population, | Greatest | of | Hired || |1874. | 1823. |Population. | Land. |Laborers. ||____________________|_____|___________|___________|________|_________|| | | | | | || Alfred, Me. .. .. .. .. | 70 | 200 | 200 | 1100 | 15-20 || New Gloucester, Me. | 70 | 150 | 150 | 2000 | 15-20 || Canterbury, N. H. .. . | 145 | 200 | 300 | 3000 | 6 || Enfield, N. H. .. .. .. | 140 | 200 | 330 | 3000 | 20-35 || Enfield, Conn. .. .. . | 115 | 200 | 200 | 3300 | 15 || Harvard, Mass. .. .. . | 90 | 200 | 200 | 1800 | 16 || Shirley, Mass. .. .. . | 48 | 150 | 150 | 2000 | 10 || Hancock, Mass. .. .. . | 98 | -- | 300 | 3500 | 25 || Tyringham, Mass. .. . | 17 | -- | -- | 1000 | 6 || Mount Lebanon, N. Y. | 383 | 500-600 | 600 | 3000 | -- || Watervliet, N. Y. .. . | 235 | 200 | 350 | 4500 | 75 || Groveland, N. Y. .. .. | 57 | 150 in | 200 | 2280 | 8 || | | 1836. | | | || North Union, O. .. .. | 102 | -- | 200 | 1335 | 9 || Union Village, O. .. | 215 | 600 | 600 | 4500 | 70 || Watervliet, O. .. .. . | 55 | 100 | 100 | 1300 | 10 || White Water, O. .. .. | 100 | 150 | 150 | 1500 | 10 || Pleasant Hill, Ky. . | 245 | 450 | 490 | 4200 | 20 || South Union, Ky. .. . | 230 | 349 | 349 | 6000 | 15 ||____________________|_____|___________|___________|________|_________|| | | | | | || Eighteen Societies. |2415 | -- | -- | 49, 335 | -- ||____________________|_____|___________|___________|________|_________|

The returns of land include, for the most part, only the home farms; andseveral of the societies own considerable quantities of real estate indistant states, of which I could get no precise returns. 

THE PERFECTIONISTS OF ONEIDA AND WALLINGFORD. 

THE PERFECTIONISTS OF ONEIDA AND WALLINGFORD

I. --HISTORICAL. 

The Oneida and Wallingford Communists are of American origin, and theirmembership is almost entirely American. 

Their founder, who is still their head, John Humphrey Noyes, was born inBrattleboro, Vermont, in 1811, of respectable parentage. He graduatedfrom Dartmouth College, began the study of the law, but turned shortlyto theology; and studied first at Andover, with the intention of fittinghimself to become a foreign missionary, and later in the Yaletheological school. At New Haven he came under the influence of azealous revival preacher, and during his residence there he "landed in anew experience and new views of the way of salvation, which took thename of Perfectionism. "

This was in 1834. He soon returned to Putney, in Vermont, where hisfather's family then lived, and where his father was a banker. There hepreached and printed; and in 1838 married Harriet A. Holton, thegranddaughter of a member of Congress, and a convert to his doctrines. 

He slowly gathered about him a small company of believers, drawn fromdifferent parts of the country, and with their help made known his newfaith in various publications, with such effect that though in 1847 hehad only about forty persons in his own congregation, there appear tohave been small gatherings of "Perfectionists" in other states, incorrespondence with Noyes, and inclined to take him as their leader. Originally Noyes was not a Communist, but when his thoughts turned inthat direction he began to prepare his followers for communal life; in1845 he made known to them his peculiar views of the relations of thesexes, and in 1846 the society at Putney began cautiously an experimentin communal living. 

Their views, which they never concealed, excited the hostility of thepeople to such a degree that they were mobbed and driven out of theplace; and in the spring of 1848 they joined some persons of like faithand practice at Oneida, in Madison County, New York. Here they begancommunity life anew, on forty acres of land, on which stood an unpaintedframe dwelling-house, an abandoned Indian hut, and an old Indiansaw-mill. They owed for this property two thousand dollars. The placewas neglected, without cultivation, and the people were so poor that forsome time they had to sleep on the floor in the garret which was theirprincipal sleeping-chamber. 

The gathering at Oneida appears to have been the signal for severalattempts by followers of Noyes to establish themselves in communes. In1849 a small society was formed in Brooklyn, N. Y. , to which later theprinting for all the societies was entrusted. In 1850 another communitywas begun at Wallingford, in Connecticut. There were others, of which Ifind no account; but all regarded Oneida as their centre and leader; andin the course of time, and after various struggles, all were drawn intothe common centre, except that at Wallingford, which still exists in aflourishing condition, having its property and other interests in commonwith Oneida. 

[Illustration: J H NOYES, FOUNDER OF THE PERFECTIONISTS]

The early followers of Noyes were chiefly New England farmers, thegreater part of whom brought with them some means, though not in anysingle case a large amount. Noyes himself and several other memberscontributed several thousand dollars each, and a "Property Register"kept from the beginning of the community experiment showed that up tothe first of January, 1857, the members of all the associated communeshad brought in the considerable amount of one hundred and seven thousandseven hundred and six dollars. I understand, however, that this sum wasnot at any one time in hand, and that much of it came in several yearsafter the settlement at Oneida in 1848; and it is certain that in theearly days, while they were still seeking for some business which shouldbe at the same time agreeable to them and profitable, they had sometimesshort commons. They showed great courage and perseverance, for throughall their early difficulties they maintained a printing-office andcirculated a free paper. 

At first they looked toward agriculture and horticulture as theirmain-stays for income; but they began soon to unite other trades withthese. Their saw-mill sawed lumber for the neighboring farmers; they setup a blacksmith shop, and here, besides other work, they began to maketraps by hand, having at first no means to buy machinery, and indeedhaving to invent most of that which they now use in their extensive trapshop. 

Like the Shakers with their garden seeds, and all other successfulcommunities with their products, the Perfectionists got their start bythe excellence of their workmanship. Their traps attracted attentionbecause they were more uniformly well made than others; and thus theybuilt up a trade which has become very large. They raised small fruits, made rustic furniture, raised farm crops, sold cattle, had at one time asloop on the Hudson; and Noyes himself labored as a blacksmith, farmer, and in many other employments. 

Working thus under difficulties, they had sunk, by January, 1857, overforty thousand dollars of their capital, but had gained valuableexperience in the mean time. They had concentrated all their people atOneida and Wallingford; and had set up some machinery at the formerplace. In January, 1857, they took their first annual inventory, andfound themselves worth a little over sixty-seven thousand dollars. Theirperseverance had conquered fortune, for in the next ten years the netprofit of the two societies amounted to one hundred and eighty thousandfive hundred and eighty dollars, according to this statement:

 Net earnings in 1857. .. .. $5, 470. 11 " " 1858. .. .. 1, 763. 60 " " 1859. .. .. 10, 278. 38 " " 1860. .. .. 15, 611. 03 " " 1861. .. .. 5, 877. 89

 Net earnings in 1862. .. . $9, 859 78 " " 1863. .. . 44, 755. 30 " " 1864. .. . 61, 382. 62 " " 1865. .. . 12, 382. 81 " " 1866. .. . 13, 198. 74

During this time they made traps, traveling-bags and satchels, mop-holders, and various other small articles, and put up preservedfruits in glass and tin. They began at Wallingford, in 1851, makingmatch-boxes, and the manufacture of traveling-bags was begun inBrooklyn, and later transferred to Oneida. Trap-making was begun atOneida in 1855; fruit-preserving in 1858, and in 1866 the silkmanufacture was established. 

Meantime they bought land, until they have in 1874, near Oneida, sixhundred and fifty-four acres, laid out in orchards, vineyards, meadows, pasture and wood land, and including several valuable water-powers; andat Wallingford two hundred and forty acres, mainly devoted to grazingand the production of small fruits. They have erected in both placescommodious and substantial dwellings and shops, and carry on at thistime a number of industries, of which some account will be found furtheron. 

The two communities, whose members are interchangeable at will andwhenever necessity arises, must be counted as one. At Oneida they havefounded a third, on a part of their land, called Willow Place, but thistoo is but an offshoot of the central family. In February, 1874, theynumbered two hundred and eighty-three persons, of whom two hundred andthirty-eight were at Oneida and Willow Place, and forty-five atWallingford. Of these one hundred and thirty-one were males, and onehundred and fifty-two females. Of the whole number, sixty-four werechildren and youth under twenty-one--thirty-three males and thirty-onefemales. Of the two hundred and nineteen adults, one hundred and fivewere over forty-five years of age--forty-four men and sixty-one women. 

They employ in both places from twenty to thirty-five farm laborers, according to the season, and a number of fruit-pickers in the time ofsmall fruits. Besides, at Oneida they employ constantly two hundred andone hired laborers, of whom one hundred and three are women, seventy-five of whom work in the silk factory; sixty-seven of the menbeing engaged in the trap works, foundry, and machine shops. AtWallingford the silk works give employment to thirty-five hired womenand girls. 

Originally, and for many years, these Communists employed no outsidelabor in their houses; but with increasing prosperity they have begun tohire servants and helpers in many branches. Thus at Oneida there are inthe laundry two men and five women; in the kitchen three men and sevenwomen; in the heating or furnace room two men; in the shoemaker's shoptwo; and in the tailor's shop two--all hired people. At Wallingford theyhire three women and one man for their laundry. 

These hired people are the country neighbors of the commune; and, aswith the Shakers and the Harmonists, they like their employers. Thesepay good wages, and treat their servants kindly; looking after theirphysical and intellectual well-being, building houses for such of themas have families and need to be near at hand, and in many ways showinginterest in their welfare. 

The members of the two societies are for the most part Americans, thoughthere are a few English and Canadians. There are among them lawyers, clergymen, merchants, physicians, teachers; but the greater part wereNew England farmers and mechanics. Former Congregationalists andPresbyterians Episcopalians, Methodists, and Baptists are amongthem--but no Catholics. 

They have a great number of applications from persons desirous to becomemembers. During 1873 they received over one hundred such by letter, besides a nearly equal number made in person. They are not willing nowto accept new members; but I believe they are looking about for a placesuitable for a new settlement, and would not be unwilling, if a numberof persons with sufficient means for another colony should presentthemselves, to help them with teachers and guides. 

In the year 1873 the Oneida Community produced and sold preserved fruitsto the value of $27, 417; machine and sewing silk and woven goods worth$203, 784; hardware, including traps, chucks, silk-measuring machines andsilk-strength testers (the last two of their own invention), gate-hingesand foundry castings, $90, 447. They raised twenty-five acres of sweetcorn, six acres of tomatoes, two acres of strawberries, two ofraspberries; half an acre of currants, half an acre of grapes, twenty-two acres of apples, and three and a half acres of pears. 

Silk-weaving has been abandoned, as not suitable to them. 

At the beginning of 1874 they were worth over half a million of dollars. 

From the beginning, Noyes and his followers have made great use of thepress. Up to the time of their settlement at Oneida they had published"Paul not Carnal;" two series of _Perfectionist; The Way ofHoliness_, the _Berean_, and _The Witness_. From Oneida theybegan at once to issue the _Spiritual Magazine_, and, later, the_Free Church Circular_, which was the beginning of their presentjournal, the _Oneida Circular_. "Bible Communism" also was publishedat Oneida during the first year of their settlement there. They did notaim to make money by their publications, and the _Circular_ was fromthe first published on terms probably unlike those of any other newspaperin the world. I take from an old number, of the year 1853, the followingannouncement, standing at the head of the first column:

"The _Circular_ is published by Communists, and for Communists. Itsmain object is to help the education of several confederatedassociations, who are practically devoted to the Pentecost principle ofcommunity of property. Nearly all of its readers outside of thoseassociations are Communists in principle. It is supported almost entirelyby the free contributions of this Communist constituency. A paper withsuch objects and such resources cannot properly be offered for sale. Freely we receive, and we freely give. Whoever wishes to read the_Circular_ can have it WITHOUT PAYING, OR PROMISING TO PAY, byapplying through the mail, or at 43 Willow Place, Brooklyn. If any onechooses to pay, he may send TWO DOLLARS for the yearly volume; but hemust not require us to keep his accounts. We rely on the free gifts ofthe family circle for which we labor. "

This paper was published on these terms, at one time semi-weekly, and atanother three times a week. For some years past it has appeared weekly, printed on extremely good paper, and an admirable specimen oftypography; and it has now at the head of its columns the followingnotice:

"The Circular is sent to all applicants, whether they pay or not. Itcosts and is worth at least two dollars per volume. Those who want itand ought to have it are divisible into three classes, viz. : 1, thosewho can not afford to pay two dollars; 2, those who can afford to pay_only_ two dollars; and, 3, those who can afford to pay _more_than two dollars. The first ought to have it free; the second ought topay the cost of it; and the third ought to pay enough more than the costto make up the deficiencies of the first. This is the law of Communism. We have no means of enforcing it, and no wish to do so, except by statingit and leaving it to the good sense of those concerned. We take the riskof offering the _Circular_ to all without price; but freesubscriptions will be received only from persons making application forthemselves, either directly or by giving express authority to those whoapply for them. 

"Foreign subscribers, except those residing in Canada, must remit withtheir subscriptions money to prepay the postage. "

They print now about two thousand copies per week, and lost last yearsix hundred dollars in the enterprise, without reckoning what would havehad to be paid in any other work of the kind for literary labor. 

A list of the works they have issued will be found, with the titles ofworks issued by other communistic societies, at the end of the volume. 

Aside from its religious and communistic teachings, the _Circular_has a general interest, by reason of articles it often contains relatingto natural history and natural scenery, which, from different pens, showthat there are in the society some close observers of nature, who havealso the ability to relate their observations and experiences inexcellent English. In general, the style of the paper is uncommonlygood, and shows that there is a degree of culture among the Oneidapeople which preserves them from the too common newspaper vice of fineEnglish. 

Their publications deal with the utmost frankness with their ownreligious and social theories and practices, and I suppose it may besaid that they aim to keep themselves and their doctrines before thepublic. In this respect they differ from all the other Communisticsocieties now existing in this country. That they are not without asense of humor in these efforts, the following, printed asadvertisements in the _Circular, _ will show:

GRAND FIRE ANNIHILATOR!--AN INVENTION for overcoming Evil with GoodMEEK & LOWLY. 

 * * * * *

TO JEWELERS. --A SINGLE PEARL OF GREAT PRICE! This inestimable Jewel maybe obtained by application to Jesus Christ, at the extremely low priceof "all that a man hath!"

 * * * * *

TO BROKERS. 

WANTED. --Any amount of SHARES OF SECOND-COMING STOCK, bearing date A. D. 70, or thereabouts, will find a ready market and command a high premiumat this office. 

 * * * * *

ATTENTION!

SOLDIERS who claim to have "fought the fight of faith" will find it fortheir advantage to have their claims investigated. All who can establishsaid claim are entitled to a bounty land-warrant in the kingdom ofHeaven, and a pension for eternity. 

 * * * * *

ROOMS TO LET in the "Many Mansions" that Christ has prepared for thosethat love him. 

 * * * * *

DIRECTIONS for cultivating the fruits of the Spirit may be obtained_gratis_, at MEEK & LOWLY'S, No. 1 Grace Court. 

Practical Reflections on CHRIST'S SERMON ON THE MOUNT may be had also asabove. 

 * * * * *

LEGAL NOTICE. --Notice is hereby given that all claims issued by the oldfirm of Moses and Law were canceled 1800 years ago. Any requirement, therefore, to observe as a means of righteousness legal enactmentsbearing date prior to A. D. 70, is pronounced by us, on the authority ofthe New Testament, a fraud and imposition. 

 * * * * *

THE EYES! THE EYES!!--It is known that many persons with two eyeshabitually "see double. " To prevent stumbling and worse liabilities insuch circumstances, an ingenious contrivance has been invented by whichthe WHOLE BODY is filled with light. It is called the "SINGLE EYE, " andmay be obtained by applying to Jesus Christ. 

 * * * * *

WATER-CURE ESTABLISHMENT. --I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and yeshall be clean: from all your filthiness and from all your idols, will Icleanse you. A new heart also will I give you, and a new spirit will Iput within you: and I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh, and I will give you a heart of flesh. --Ezekiel xxxvi. , 25, 26. 

 * * * * *

PATENT SIEVES. --The series of sieves for CRITICISM having beenthoroughly tested, are now offered to the public for general use. Theyare warranted to sift the tares from the wheat, and in all cases todiscriminate between good and evil. A person, after having passedthrough this series, comes out free from the encumbrances of egotism, pride, etc. , etc. All persons are invited to test them gratuitously. 

 * * * * *

MAGNIFICENT RESTAURANT!--In Mount Zion will the Lord of hosts make untoall people a feast of fat things, a feast of wines on the lees; of fatthings full of marrow, of wines on the lees well refined. And he willdestroy in this mountain the face of the covering cast over all people, and the veil that is spread over all nations. He will swallow up deathin victory; and the Lord God will wipe away tears from off all faces;and the rebuke of his people shall be taken away from off all the earth:for the Lord hath spoken it. --Isaiah xxv. , 6-8. 

 * * * * *

PATENT SALAMANDER SAFES. --Lay not up for yourselves treasures uponearth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break throughand steal: but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neithermoth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through norsteal. --Matt, vi. , 19, 20. This safe, having been submitted for 1800years to the hottest fire of judgment, and having been through that timesubject to constant attacks from the fiery shafts of the devil, is nowoffered to the public, with full confidence that it will meet withgeneral approbation. Articles enclosed in this safe are warranted freefrom danger under any circumstances. 

 * * * * *

TO THE AFFLICTED!--WINE and MILK for the hungry, REST for the weary andheavy-laden, CONSOLATION and BALM for the wounded and invalids of everydescription--may be had _gratis, _ on application to the storehouseof the Son of God. 

 * * * * *

The _Circular_ contains each week extracts from journals kept in thetwo communities, and "Talks" by Noyes and others, with a variety of othermatter relating to their belief and daily lives. 

II. --RELIGIOUS BELIEF AND FAITH-CURES. 

They call themselves "Perfectionists. "

They hold to the Bible as the "text-book of the Spirit of truth;" to"Jesus Christ as the eternal Son of God;" to "the apostles and PrimitiveChurch as the exponents of the everlasting Gospel. " They believe that"the second advent of Christ took place at the period of the destructionof Jerusalem;" that "at that time there was a primary resurrection andjudgment in the spirit world;" and "that the final kingdom of God thenbegan in the heavens; that the manifestation of that kingdom in thevisible world is now approaching; that its approach is ushering in thesecond and final resurrection and judgment; that a Church on earth isnow rising to meet the approaching kingdom in the heavens, and to becomeits duplicate and representative; that inspiration, or opencommunication with God and the heavens, involving perfect holiness, isthe element of connection between the Church on earth and the Church inthe heavens, and the power by which the kingdom of God is to beestablished and reign in the world. " [Footnote: Statement in the_Circular_. ]

They assert, further, that "the Gospel provides for complete salvationfrom sin"--hence the name they assume of "Perfectionists. " "Salvationfrom sin, " they say, "is the foundation needed by all other reforms. "

"Do you, then, claim to live sinless lives?" I asked; and received thisanswer:

"We consider the community to be a Church, and our theory of a ChristianChurch, as constituted in the apostolic age, is that it is a school, consisting of many classes, from those who are in the lowest degree offaith to those who have attained the condition of certain and eternalsalvation from sin. The only direct answer, therefore, that we can giveto your question is that some of us claim to live sinless lives, andsome do not. A sinless life is the _standard_ of the community, which all believe to be practicable, and to which all are taught toaspire. Yet we recognize the two general classes, which werecharacterized by Paul as the "nepiou" and the "teleioi. " Our belief isthat a Christian Church can exist only when the "teleioi" are in theascendant and have control. "

In compliance with my request, the following definition of"Perfectionism" was written out for me as authoritative:

"The bare doctrine of Perfectionism might be presented in a singlesentence thus:

"As the doctrine of temperance is total abstinence from alcoholic drinks, and the doctrine of anti-slavery is immediate abolition of human bondage, so the doctrine of Perfectionism is immediate and total cessation fromsin. 

"But the analogy thus suggested between Perfectionism and two popularreforms is by no means to be regarded as defining the character andmethods of Perfectionism. Salvation from sin, as we understand it, isnot a system of duty-doing under a code of dry laws, Scriptural ornatural; but is a special phase of _religious experience_, havingfor its basis spiritual intercourse with God. All religionists of thepositive sort believe in a personal God, and assume that he is asociable being. This faith leads them to seek intercourse with him, toapproach him by prayer, to give him their hearts, to live in communionwith him. These exercises and the various states and changes of the_inner_ life connected with them constitute the staple of what iscommonly called _religious experience_. Such experience, of course, has more or less effect on the character and external conduct. We cannotlive in familiar intercourse with human beings without becoming betteror worse under their influence; and certainly fellowship with God mustaffect still more powerfully all the springs of action. Perfectionistshold that intercourse with God may proceed so far as to destroyselfishness in the heart, and so make an end of sin. This is the specialphase of religious experience which we profess, and for which we arecalled Perfectionists. "

Among other matters, they hold that "the Jews are, by God's perpetualcovenant, the royal nation;" that the obligation to observe the Sabbathpassed away with the Jewish dispensation, and is "adverse to the advanceof man into new and true arrangements;" that "the original organizationinstituted by Christ [the Primitive Church] is accessible to us, andthat our main business as reformers is to open communication with thatheavenly body;" and they "refer all their experience to the invisiblehosts who are contending over them. "

I must add, to explain the last sentence, that they are notSpiritualists in the sense in which that word is nowadays usuallyemployed, and in which the Shakers are Spiritualists; but they hold thatthey are in a peculiar and direct manner under the guidance of God andgood spirits. "Saving faith, according to the Bible, places man in sucha relation to God that he is authorized to ask favors of him as a childasks favors of his father. Prayer without expectation of an answer is aperformance not sanctioned by Scripture nor by common-sense. But prayerwith expectation of an answer (that is, the prayer of faith) isimpossible, on the supposition that 'the age of miracles is past, ' andthat God no longer interferes with the regular routine of nature. " Hencetheir belief in what they call "Faith-cures, " of which I shall speakfurther on. 

Community of goods and of persons they hold to have been taught andcommanded by Jesus: "Jesus Christ offers to save men from all evil--fromsin and death itself; but he always states it as a necessary conditionof their accepting his help that they shall forsake all other; andparticularly that they shall get rid of their private property. "Communism they hold therefore to be "the social state of theresurrection. " The account on the sides of life and death arrangesitself thus:

APOSTASY, UNBELIEF

Obedience to

_Mammon, _

PRIVATE PROPERTY, DEATH. 

RESTORATION, FAITH, Obedience to

_Christ, _

COMMUNISM, IMMORTALITY. 

The community system, which they thus hold to have been divinelycommanded, they extend beyond property--to persons; and thus they justifytheir extraordinary social system, in which there is no marriage; or, asthey put it, "complex marriage takes the place of simple. " They surroundthis singular and, so far as I know, unprecedented combination ofpolygamy and polyandry with certain religious and social restraints; butaffirm that there is "no intrinsic difference between property in personsand property in things; and that the same spirit which abolishedexclusiveness in regard to money would abolish, if circumstances allowedfull scope to it, exclusiveness in regard to women and children. "[Footnote: "History of American Socialisms, " by J. H. Noyes, p. 625. ]

It is an extraordinary evidence of the capacity of mankind for variousand extreme religious beliefs, that many men have brought their wivesand young daughters into the Oneida Community. 

They have no preaching; do not use Baptism nor the Lord's Supper; do notobserve Sunday, because they hold that with them every day is a Sabbath;do not pray aloud; and Avoid with considerable care all set forms. Theyread the Bible and quote it much. 

They believe that the exercise of sufficient faith in prayer to God iscapable of restoring the sick to health; and assert that there have beenin their experience and among their membership a number of such cures. In a "Free-Church Tract, " dated "Oneida Reserve, 1850, " there is anaccount of such a cure of Mrs. M. A. Hall, ill of consumption, and givenup by her physicians. In this case J. H. Noyes and Mrs. Cragin werethose whose "power of faith" was supposed to have acted; and Mrs. Hallherself wrote, two years later: "From a helpless, bed-ridden state, inwhich I was unable to move, or even to be moved without excruciatingpain, I was _instantly_ raised to a consciousness of perfect health. I was constrained to declare again and again that I was perfectly well. My eyes, which before could not bear the light, were opened to the blazeof day and became strong. My appetite was restored, and all painremoved. " This is said to have taken place in June, 1847. The followingcase is reported in the _Circular_ for February 9th of the presentyear (1874), and the description of the injury, which immediatelyfollows, is given by Dr. Cragin--a member of the Oneida Community--whom Iunderstand to be a regularly educated physician. The sufferer was awoman, Mrs. M. Her hand was passed between the rubber rollers of awringing-machine. The machine was new, and the rollers were screwed downso that it brought a very heavy pressure on her hand, evidently crowdingthe bones all out of place and stretching the ligaments, besidesseriously injuring the nerves of her hand and arm. When she came herefrom Wallingford Community, several weeks after the accident, not onlythe nerves of her hand were essentially paralyzed, but the trunk nerve ofher arm was paralyzed and caused her a great deal of suffering. It was ashelpless as though completely paralyzed: she had not sufficient controlover her hand to bend her fingers. 

"That was her condition up to the time of the cure. I could not see fromthe time she came here to the time of the cure that there was any changefor the better. I told her the first time I examined her hand that, according to the ordinary course of such things, she must not expect toget the use of it under twelve months, if she did then. At the same timeI told her I would not limit the power of God. 

"Her general health improved, but her hand caused her the acutestsuffering. It would awaken her in the night, and oblige her to get upand spend hours in rubbing it and trying to allay the pain. If any onehas had a jumping toothache, he can imagine something what her sufferingwas, only the pain extended over the whole hand and arm, instead ofbeing confined to one small place like a tooth. I have known of strongmen who had the nervous system of an arm similarly affected, who beggedthat their arms might be taken off, and have indeed suffered amputationrather than endure the pain. 

"For some time before her cure there had been considerable talk in thefamily about faith-cures, and persons had talked with her on thesubject, and encouraged her to expect to have such a cure as HarrietHall did. Finally Mr. Noyes's interest was aroused, and he invoked acommittee for her--not so much to criticize as to comfort her, and bringto bear on her the concentrated attention and faith of the family. Shewas stimulated by this criticism to cheerfulness and hope, and to putherself into the social current, keeping around as much as she couldwhere there was the most life and faith. A private criticism soon afterpenetrated her spirit, and separated her from a brooding influence ofevil that she had come under in a heart affair. 

"Still she suffered with her hand as much as ever, up to the time of hersudden cure. A few evenings after this private criticism we had a veryinteresting meeting, and she was present in the gallery. The subject wasthe power of prayer, and there was a good deal of faith experiencerelated, and she appeared the next morning shaking hands with every bodyshe met. Now you see her washing dishes and making beds. 

"_Mrs. A. _--The morning she was cured I was at work in the hall, when she came running toward me, saying, 'I'm cured! I'm cured!' Then sheshook hands with me, using the hand that had been so bad, and giving ahearty pressure with it. 

"_Dr. C. _--To show that the case is not one of imagination, I willsay that the day before the cure she could not have it _touched_without suffering pain. She had not been dressed for a week, but thatmorning she bathed and dressed herself and made her bed, and then went toJoppa. 

"_Mr. N. _--She came down to Joppa with her hands all free, and wentout on the ice; I don't know that she caught any fish, but she attendedthe 'tip-ups. '

"_Mrs. C. _--She said to me that she had attended to dieting and allthe prescriptions that were given her, and got no help from them; and shehad made up her mind that if there was any thing done for her, thecommunity must take hold and do it. 

"_W. A. H. _--Let us be united about this case; and if it beimagination, let us have more of it; and if it be the power of faith, letus have more faith. 

"_C. W. U. _--Was Mrs. M. Conscious of any precise moment when thepain left her in the night?

"_Mrs. M. _ [the person who was cured]. --After the meeting in whichwe talked about faith-cures, I went to my room and prayed to God to takethe pain out of my hand, and told him if he did I would glorify him withit. The pain left me, and I could stretch out my arm farther than I hadbeen able to since it was hurt. I went to bed, and slept until fouro'clock without waking; then I awoke and found I was not in pain, andthat I could stretch out my arm and move my fingers. Then I thought--'Iam well. ' I got up, took a bath, and dressed myself. After this my armached some, but I said, 'I am well; I am made every whit whole. ' I keptsaying that to myself, and the pain left me entirely. My arm has begunto ache nearly every day since then, but I insist that I am well, andthe pain ceases. That arm is not yet as strong as the other, but isimproving daily. 

"_Mrs. C. _--I have had considerable of that kind of experienceduring the last few years. For two years I raised blood a good deal, andthought a great many times that I was going to die--could not get thatidea out of my mind. Mrs. M. Talked with me about it, and told me I mustnot give up to my imaginations. I was put into business two years ago, and some days my head swam so that I could hardly go about, but I didwhat was given me to do; and finally I came to a point in my experiencewhere I said, 'I don't care if I do raise blood; I am not going to befrightened by it; I had as soon raise blood as do any thing else. ' WhenI got there my trouble left me. "

I have copied this account at some length, because it speaks in detailof a quite recent occurrence, and shows, in a characteristic way, theirmanner of dealing with disease. 

They profess also to have wrought cures by what they call "Criticism, "of which I shall speak further on. 

Concerning their management of the intercourse of the sexes, so much hasbeen written, by themselves and by others, that I think I need here sayonly that--

1st. They regard their system as part of their religion. Noyes said, ina "Home Talk, " reported in the _Circular_, February 2, 1874: "Woe tohim who abolishes the law of the apostasy before he stands in theholiness of the resurrection. The law of the apostasy is the law ofmarriage; and it is true that whoever undertakes to enter into theliberty of the resurrection without the holiness of the resurrection, will get woe and not happiness. It is as important for the young now asit was for their fathers then, that they should know that holiness ofheart is what they must have before they get liberty in love. They mustput the first thing first, as I did and as their parents did; they mustbe _Perfectionists_ before they are _Communists_. " He seems tosee, too, that "complex marriage, " as he calls it, is not without gravedangers to the community, for he added, in the same "Home Talk:" "We havegot into the position of Communism, where without genuine salvation fromsin our passions will overwhelm us, and nothing but confusion and miserycan be expected. On the other hand, we have got into a position where, ifwe do have the grace of God triumphant in our hearts and flowing throughall our nature, there is an opportunity for harmony and happiness beyondall that imagination has conceived. So it is hell behind us, and heavenbefore us, and a necessity that we should _march_!"

2d. "Complex marriage" means, in their practice: that, within the limitsof the community membership, any man and woman may and do freelycohabit, having first gained each other's consent, not by privateconversation or courtship, but through the intervention of some thirdperson or persons; that they strongly discourage, as an evidence ofsinful selfishness, what they call "exclusive and idolatrous attachment"of two persons for each other, and aim to break up by "criticism" andother means every thing of this kind in the community; that they teachthe advisability of pairing persons of different ages, the young of onesex with the aged of the other, and as the matter is under the controland management of the more aged members it is thus arranged; that"persons are not obliged, under any circumstances, to receive theattentions of those whom they do not like;" and that the propagation ofchildren is controlled by the society, which pretends to conduct thismatter on scientific principles: "Previous to about two and a half yearsago we refrained from the usual rate of childbearing, for severalreasons, financial and otherwise. Since that time we have made anattempt to produce the usual number of offspring to which people in themiddle classes are able to afford judicious moral and spiritual care, with the advantage of a liberal education. In this attempt twenty-fourmen and twenty women have been engaged, selected from among those whohave most thoroughly practiced our social theory. " [Footnote: "Essay onScientific Propagation, " by John Humphrey Noyes. ]

Finally, they find in practice a strong tendency toward what they call"selfish love"--that is to say, the attachment of two persons to eachother, and their desire to be true to each other; and there are here andthere in their publications signs that there has been suffering amongtheir young people on this account. They rebuke this propensity, however, as selfish and sinful, and break it down rigorously. 

III. --DAILY LIFE AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION. 

The farm, or domain, as they prefer to call it, of the Oneida Communityforms a part of the old Reservation of the Oneida Indians. It is aplain, the land naturally good and well watered; and it has beenindustriously improved by the communists. It lies four miles from Oneidaon the New York Central Railroad, and the Midland Railroad passesthrough it. 

The dwelling-house, a large brick building with some architecturalpretensions, but no artistic merit, stands on the middle of a pleasantlawn, near the main road. It has some extensions in the rear, the chiefof which is a large wing containing the kitchen and dining-room. Theinterior of the house is well arranged; the whole is warmed by steam;and there are baths and other conveniences. There is on the second floora large hall, used for the evening gatherings of the community, andfurnished with a stage for musical and dramatic performances, and with anumber of round tables, about which they gather in their meetings. Onthe ground floor is a parlor for visitors; and a library-room, containing files of newspapers, and a miscellaneous library of aboutfour thousand volumes. 

There are two large family rooms, one on each story, around which aconsiderable number of sleeping-chambers are built; and the upper ofthese large rooms has two ranges of such dormitories, one above theother, the upper range being reached by a gallery. All the rooms areplainly furnished, there being neither any attempt at costly or elegantfurnishing, nor a striving for Shaker plainness. 

Above the dining-room is the printing-office, where the _Circular_is printed, and some job printing is done. 

Opposite the dwelling, and across the road, are offices, aschool-building, a lecture-room with a chemical laboratory, and a roomfor the use of the daguerreotypist of the community; farther on to theright is a large carpenter's shop, and to the left are barns, stables, the silk-dye house, and a small factory where the children of thecommunity at odd hours make boxes for the spool silk produced here. There is also a large and conveniently arranged laundry. 

Somewhat over a mile from the home place are the factories of thecommunity--consisting of trap works, silk works, a forge, and machineshops. These are thoroughly fitted with labor-saving machinery, and areextensive enough to produce three hundred thousand traps, and the valueof over two hundred thousand dollars' worth of silk-twist in a year. Near these workshops is a dwelling inhabited by thirty or forty of thecommunists, who are particularly employed in the shops. 

The farm has been put in excellent order: there are extensive orchardsof large and small fruits; and plantations of ornamental trees shelterthe lawn about the dwelling. This lawn is in summer a favorite resortfor picnic parties from a distance. As Sunday-school picnics are alsobrought hither, I judge that the hostility which once existed in theneighborhood to the Oneida Communists has disappeared. Indeed, at Oneidaall with whom I had occasion to speak concerning the communists praisedthem for honesty, fair dealing, a peaceable disposition, and greatbusiness capacity. 

Their system of administration is perfect and thorough. Theirbook-keeping--in which women are engaged as well as men, a young womanbeing the chief--is so systematized that they are able to know theprofit or loss upon every branch of industry they pursue, as well as thecost of each part of their living. 

They have twenty-one standing committees: on finance; amusements;patent-rights; location of tenant houses; arbitration; rents; baths, walks, roads, and lawns; fire; heating; sanitary; education; clothing;real estate and tenant houses; water-works and their supplies; painting;forest; water and steam power; photographs; hair-cutting; arcade; andJoppa--the last being an isolated spot on Oneida Lake, to which they goto bathe, fish, shoot, and otherwise ruralize. 

Besides these, they divide the duties of administration amongforty-eight departments: _Circular;_ publication; silk manufacture;hardware; fruit-preserving; paper-box; printing; dyeing; carpentry;business office; shoe shop; library; photographs; educational; scienceand art; laundry; furniture; legal; subsistence; Wallingford printing;agriculture; horticulture; medical; incidentals; dentistry; real estate;musical; amusements; quarry; housekeeping; repairs; traveling; watches;clocks; tin shop; porterage; lights; livery; clothing; stationery;floral; water-works; children's; landscape; forests; heating; bedding;coal. 

At first view these many committees and departments may appear cumbrous;but in practice they work well. 

Every Sunday morning a meeting is held of what is called a "BusinessBoard. " This consists of the heads of all the departments, and ofwhoever, of the whole community, chooses to attend. At this meeting thebusiness of the past week is discussed; and a secretary notes downbriefly any action deemed advisable. At the Sunday-evening meeting thesecretary's report is read to all, and thereupon discussed; and whateverreceives general or unanimous approval is carried out. 

Once a year, in the spring, there is a special meeting of the BusinessBoard, at which the work of the year is laid out in some detail. At thebeginning of the year an inventory is taken of all the possessions ofthe community. 

Once a month the heads of the departments send in their accounts to thebook-keepers, and these are then posted in the ledgers. 

It is a principle with them to attempt nothing without the generalconsent of all the people; and if there is objection made, the matterproposed is put off for further discussion. 

Shortly after New-Year, the Finance Committee sits and receivesestimates. This means that each department sends in an estimate of themoney it will require for the coming year. At the same time any one whohas a project in his head may propose it, with an estimate of its cost. Thereupon the Finance Committee makes the necessary appropriations, revising the estimates in accordance with the general total which thesociety can afford to spend for the year. At or before this meeting thereturns for the past year have been scrutinized. 

All appointments on committees are made for a year; but there is acommittee composed of men and women whose duty it is to appointdifferent persons to their work; and these may change the employments atany time. In practice, the foremen of the manufacturing establishmentsare not frequently changed. In appointing the labor of the members, their tastes as well as abilities are consulted, and the aim is to makeeach one contented. 

The appointment of so many committees makes some one responsible foreach department, and when any thing is needed, or any fault is to befound, the requisition can be directed to a particular person. Women, equally with men, serve on the committees. 

They rise in the morning between five and half-past seven; thisdepending somewhat upon the business each is engaged in. The childrensleep as long as they like. Breakfast is from eight to nine, and dinnerfrom three to four; and they retire from half-past eight to half-pastten. The members do not now work very hard, as will appear from thesehours; but they are steadily industrious; and as most of themsuperintend some department, and all of them work cheerfully, thenecessary amount of labor is accomplished. Mere drudgery they nowadaysput upon their hired people. 

A square board, placed in a gallery near the library, tells at a glancewhere every body is. It contains the names of the men and women at theside, and the places where they can be found at the head; and a peg, which each one sticks in opposite his name, tells his whereabouts forthe day. 

There is no bell or other signal for proceeding to work; but each one isexpected to attend faithfully to that which is given him or her to do;and here, as in other communities, no difficulty is found about idlers. Those who have disagreeable tasks are more frequently changed thanothers. Thus the women who superintend in the kitchen usually serve buta month, but sometimes two months at a time. 

Children are left to the care of their mothers until they are weaned;then they are put into a general nursery, under the care of specialnurses or care-takers, who are both men and women. There are two ofthese nurseries, one for the smaller children, the other for those abovethree or four years of age, and able somewhat to help themselves. Theseeat at the same time with the older people, and are seated at tables bythemselves in the general dining-room. The children I saw were plump, and looked sound; but they seemed to me a little subdued and desolate, as though they missed the exclusive love and care of a father andmother. This, however, may have been only fancy; though I should grieveto see in the eyes of my own little ones an expression which I thought Isaw in the Oneida children, difficult to describe--perhaps I might say alack of buoyancy, or confidence and gladness. A man or woman may notfind it disagreeable to be part of a great machine, but I suspect it isharder for a little child. However, I will not insist on this, for I mayhave been mistaken. I have seen, with similar misgivings, a lot oflittle chickens raised in an egg-hatching machine, and having a blanketfor shelter instead of the wing of a mother: I thought they missed thecluck and the vigilant if sometimes severe care of the old hen. Butafter all they grew up to be hearty chickens, as zealous and greedy, andin the end as useful as their more particularly nurtured fellows. 

In the dining-hall I noticed an ingenious contrivance to save trouble tothose who wait on the table. The tables are round, and accommodate tenor twelve people each. There is a stationary rim, having space for theplates, cups, and saucers; and within this is a revolving disk, on whichthe food is placed, and by turning this about each can help himself. 

They do not eat much meat, having it served not more than twice a week. Fruits and vegetables make up the greater part of their diet. They usetea, and coffee mixed with malt, which makes an excellent beverage. Theyuse no tobacco, nor spirituous liquors. 

The older people have separate sleeping-chambers; the younger usuallyroom two together. 

The men dress as people in the world do, but plainly, each one followinghis own fancy. The women wear a dress consisting of a bodice, loosetrousers, and a short skirt falling to just above the knee. Their hairis cut just below the ears, and I noticed that the younger women usuallygave it a curl. The dress is no doubt extremely convenient: it admits ofwalking in mud or snow, and allows freedom of exercise; and it isentirely modest. But it was to my unaccustomed eyes totally and fatallylacking in grace and beauty. The present dress of women, prescribed byfashion, and particularly the abominable false hair and thepreposterously ugly hats, are sufficiently barbarous; but the Oneidadress, which is so scant that it forbids any graceful arrangement ofdrapery, seemed to me no improvement. 

[Illustration: COSTUMES AT ONEIDA. ]

As they have no sermons nor public prayers, so they have no peculiarmode of addressing each other. The men are called Mr. , and the womenMiss, except when they were married before they entered the society. Itwas somewhat startling to me to hear Miss ---- speak about her baby. Even the founder is addressed or spoken of simply as Mr. Noyes. 

At the end of every year each person gives into the Finance Board adetailed statement of what clothing he or she requires for the comingyear, and upon the aggregate sum is based the estimate for the next yearfor clothing. At the beginning of 1874, the women proposed a differentplan, which was thus described in the _Circular_:

"In our last woman's meeting, Mrs. C ---- had a report to present fordiscussion and acceptance. A change of system was proposed. The planthat had been pursued for several years was to have a certain sumappropriated for clothing in the beginning of the year--so much formen, so much for women, and so much for children. Another sum was setapart for 'incidentals, ' a word of very comprehensive scope. A woman ofgood judgment and great patience was appointed to the office of keeperand distributor of goods, and another of like qualifications wasassociated with a man of experience in doing the greater part of thebuying. Each woman made out a list of the articles she needed, andselected them from the goods we had on hand, or sent or went for them toour neighboring merchants. This plan worked well in many respects, butit had some disadvantages. The women in charge had to be constantlyadjusting and deciding little matters in order to make the wantscoincide with the appropriated sum. Many unforeseen demands came in, andat the end of the year they inevitably exceeded their bounds. This yearthe Clothing Committee, in consultation with the financiers, proposed toadopt another plan. It was this: To appropriate a sum in the beginningof the year large enough to cover all reasonable demands, and then, after setting aside special funds for children's clothing, travelingwardrobes, infants' wardrobes and incidentals, to divide the remainderinto as many equal portions as there were women in the family. Eachwoman then assumes for herself the responsibility of making the two endsmeet at the close of the year. It was thought it would be a greatadvantage to each woman, and particularly to every young girl, to knowwhat her clothing, from her hat to her shoes, costs. She would learneconomy and foresight, and feel a new interest in the question of costand payment. The plan, too, allows of great variations in the way ofmaking presents and helping one another when there is a surplus, or, when there is no need, leaving it untouched in the treasury. After dueexplanations and discussions, the women voted unanimously to try the newplan. "

It may interest some readers to know that the sum thus set aside foreach woman's dress during the year, including shoes and hats, wasthirty-three dollars. A member writes in explanation:

"Minus the superfluities and waste of fashion, we find thirty-threedollars a year plenty enough to keep us in good dresses, two or threefor each season, summer, winter, fall, and spring (the fabrics are notvelvets and satins, of course--they are flannels and merinos, thelighter kinds of worsted, various kinds of prints, and Japanese silk);to fill our drawers with the best of under-linen, to furnish us withhoods and sun-bonnets, beaver and broadcloth sacks, and a variety ofshawls and shoulder-gear, lighter and pleasanter to wear, if not soingrained with the degradation of toil as the costly Cashmere. "

When a man needs a suit of clothes, he goes to the tailor and ismeasured, choosing at the same time the stuff and the style or cut. 

There is a person called familiarly "Incidentals. " To him is entrusted afund for incidental and unforeseen expenses; and when a young womanwants a breast-pin--the only ornament worn--she applies to"Incidentals. " When any one needs a watch, he makes his need known tothe committee on watches. 

For the children they have a sufficiently good school, in which theBible takes a prominent part as a text-book. The young people areencouraged to continue their studies, and they have two or three classesin history, one in grammar, and several in French, Latin, geology, etc. These study and recite at odd times; and it is their policy not topermit the young men and women to labor too constantly. The EducationalCommittee superintends the evening classes. 

They also cultivate vocal and instrumental music; and have several timessent one or two of their young women to New York to receive specialmusical instruction. Also for some years they have kept several of theiryoung men in the Yale scientific school, and in other departments ofthat university. Thus they have educated two of their members to bephysicians; two in the law; one in mechanical engineering; one inarchitecture; and others in other pursuits. Usually these have beenyoung men from twenty-two to twenty-five years of age, who had preparedthemselves practically beforehand. 

It is their habit to change their young people from one employment toanother, and thus make each master of several trades. The young womenare not excluded from this variety; and they have now several girlslearning the machinists' trade, in a building appropriated to thispurpose; and their instructor told me they were especially valuable forthe finer and more delicate kinds of lathe-work. A young man whom theysent to the Sheffield scientific school to study mechanical engineeringhad been for a year or two in the machine shop before he went to Yale;he is now at the head of the silk works. Their student in architecturehad in the same way prepared himself in their carpenter's shop. 

No one who visits a communistic society which has been for some time inexistence can fail to be struck with the amount of ingenuity, inventiveskill, and business talent developed among men from whom, in the outerworld, one would not expect such qualities. This is true, too, of theOneida Communists. They contrived all the machinery they use for makingtraps--one very ingenious piece making the links for the chains. Theyhad no sooner begun to work in silk than they invented a little toywhich measures the silk thread as it is wound on spools, and accuratelygauges the number of yards; and another which tests the strength ofsilk; and these have come into such general use that they already makethem for sale. 

So, too, when they determined to begin the silk manufacture, they sentone of their young men and two women to work as hands in a well-managedfactory. In six months these returned, having sufficiently mastered thebusiness to undertake the employment and instruction of hired operatives. Of the machinery they use, they bought one set and made all the remainderupon its pattern, in their own foundry and shops. A young man who hadstudied chemistry was sent out to a dye-house, and in a few months madehimself a competent dyer. In all this complicated enterprise they made sofew mistakes that in six months after they began to produce silk-twisttheir factory had a secure reputation in the market. 

It is their custom to employ their people, where they have responsibleplaces, in couples. Thus there are two house stewards, two foremen in afactory, etc. ; both having equal knowledge, and one always ready to takethe other's place if he finds the work wearing upon him. 

They seemed to me to have an almost fanatical horror of forms. Thus theychange their avocations frequently; they remove from Oneida to WillowPlace, or to Wallingford, on slight excuses; they change the order oftheir evening meetings and amusements with much care; and have changedeven their meal hours. One said to me, "We used to eat three meals aday--now we eat but two; but we may be eating five six months from now. "

Very few of their young people have left them; and some who have goneout have sought to return. They have expelled but one person since thecommunity was organized. While they received members, they exacted noprobationary period, but used great care before admission. Mr. Noyessaid on this subject:

"There has been a very great amount of discrimination and vigilanceexercised by the Oneida Community from first to last in regard to ourfellowships, and yet it seems to me it is one of the greatest miraclesthat this community has succeeded as it has. Notwithstanding ourdiscrimination and determination to wait on God in regard to those wereceive, we scarcely have been saved. "

New members sign a paper containing the creed, and also an agreement toclaim no wages or other reward for their labor while in the community. 

IV. --SUNDAY AT THE ONEIDA COMMUNITY, WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF "CRITICISM. "

I was permitted to spend several days at the Oneida Community, amongwhich was a Sunday. 

The people are kind, polite to each other and to strangers, cheerful, and industrious. There is no confusion, and for so large a number verylittle noise. Where two hundred people live together in one house, order, system, and punctuality are necessary; and loud voices would soonbecome a nuisance. 

I was shown the house, the kitchen and heating arrangements, the barnswith their fine stock, the various manufacturing operations; and in theevening was taken to their daily gathering, at which instrumental music, singing, and conversation engage them for an hour, after which theydisperse to the private parlors to amuse themselves with dominoes ordancing, or to the library to read or write letters. Cards areprohibited. The questions I asked were freely answered; and all thepeople in one way or another came under my eye. 

Some of them have the hard features of toil-worn New England farmers;others look like the average business-men of our country towns or inlandcities; others are students, and there are a number of college-bred menin the community. A fine collection of birds in a cabinet, skillfullystuffed and mounted, showed me that there is in the society a livelylove of natural history. The collection is, I should think, almostcomplete for the birds of the region about Oneida. 

The people seem contented, and pleased with their success, as well theymay be, for it is remarkable. They use good language, and the standardof education among them is considerably above the average. No doubt thetraining they get in their evening discussions, and in the habit ofwriting for a paper whose English is pretty carefully watched, hasbenefited them. They struck me as matter-of-fact, with no nonsense orromance about them, by no means overworked, and with a certain, perhapsfor their place in life high average of culture. I should say that thewomen are inferior to the men: examining the faces at an eveningmeeting, this was the impression I carried away. 

If I should add that the predominant impression made upon me was that itwas a common-place company, I might give offense; but, after all, whatelse but this could be the expression of people whose lives are removedfrom need, and narrowly bounded by their community; whose religioustheory calls for no internal struggles, and, once within the community, very little self-denial; who are well-fed and sufficiently amused, andnot overworked, and have no future to fear? The greater passions are notstirred in such a life. If these are once thoroughly awakened, theindividual leaves the community. 

On Sunday the first work is to sort and send away to the laundry thesoiled clothing of the week. After this comes the regular weekly meetingof the Business Board; and thereafter meetings for criticism, conductedin rooms apart. 

The institution of Criticism, a description of which I have reserved forthis place, is a most important and ingenious device, which Noyes andhis followers rightly regard as the corner-stone of their practicalcommunity life. It is in fact their main instrument of government; andit is useful as a means of eliminating uncongenial elements, and also totrain those who remain into harmony with the general system and order. 

I am told that it was first used by Mr. Noyes while he was a divinitystudent at Andover, where certain members of his class were accustomedto meet together to criticize each other. The person to suffer criticismsits in silence, while the rest of the company, each in turn, tell himhis faults, with, I judge, an astonishing and often exasperatingplainness of speech. Here is the account given by Mr. Noyes himself:

"The measures relied upon for good government in these communityfamilies are, first, _daily evening meetings_, which all areexpected to attend. In these meetings, religious, social, and businessmatters are freely discussed, and opportunity given for exhortation andreproof. Secondly, _the system of mutual criticism_. This systemtakes the place of backbiting in ordinary society, and is regarded as oneof the greatest means of improvement and fellowship. All of the membersare accustomed to voluntarily invite the benefit of this ordinance fromtime to time. Sometimes persons are criticized by the entire family; atother times by a committee of six, eight, twelve, or more, selected bythemselves from among those best acquainted with them, and best able todo justice to their character. In these criticisms the most perfectsincerity is expected; and in practical experience it is found best forthe subject to receive his criticism without replying. There is littledanger that the general verdict in respect to his character will beunjust. This ordinance is far from agreeable to those whose egotism andvanity are stronger than their love of truth. It is an ordeal whichreveals insincerity and selfishness; but it also often takes the form ofcommendation, and reveals hidden virtues as well as secret faults. It isalways acceptable to those who wish to see themselves as others seethem. 

"These two agencies--daily evening meetings and criticism--are foundquite adequate to the maintenance of good order and government in thecommunities. Those who join the communities understanding theirprinciples, and afterward prove refractory and inharmonic, and alsothose who come into the communities in childhood, and afterward developcharacters antagonistic to the general spirit, and refuse to yield tothe governmental agencies mentioned, either voluntarily withdraw or areexpelled. Only one case of expulsion is, however, recorded. "

They depend upon criticism to cure whatever they regard as faults in thecharacter of a member; for instance, idleness, disorderly habits, impoliteness, selfishness, a love of novel-reading, "selfish love, "conceit, pride, stubbornness, a grumbling spirit--for every vice, pettyor great, criticism is held to be a remedy. They have even a"criticism-cure, " and hold that this is almost as effective as their"prayer-cure. "

On Sunday afternoon, by the kindness of a young man who had offeredhimself for criticism, I was permitted to be present. Fifteen personsbesides myself, about half women, and about half young people underthirty, were seated in a room, mostly on benches placed against thewall. Among them was Mr. Noyes himself, who sat in a largerocking-chair. The young man to be criticized, whom I will call Charles, sat inconspicuously in the midst of the company. When the doors wereclosed, he was asked by the leader (not Mr. Noyes) whether he desired tosay any thing. Retaining his seat, he said that he had suffered for sometime past from certain intellectual difficulties and doubts--a leaningespecially toward positivism, and lack of faith; being drawn away fromGod; a tendency to think religion of small moment. But that he wascombating the evil spirit within him, and hoped he had gained somewhat;and so on. 

Hereupon a man being called on to speak, remarked that he thoughtCharles had been somewhat hardened by too great good-fortune; that hissuccess in certain enterprises had somewhat spoiled him; if he had notsucceeded so well, he would have been a better man; that he was somewhatwise in his own esteem; not given to consult with others, or to seek ortake advice. One or two other men agreed generally with the previousremarks, had noticed these faults in Charles, and that they made himdisagreeable; and gave examples to show his faults. Another concurred inthe general testimony, but added that he thought Charles had lately madeefforts to correct some of his faults, though there was still much roomfor improvement. 

A young woman next remarked that Charles was haughty and supercilious, and thought himself better than others with whom he was brought intocontact; that he was needlessly curt sometimes to those with whom he hadto speak. 

Another young woman added that Charles was a respecter of persons; thathe showed his liking for certain individuals too plainly by calling thempet names before people; that he seemed to forget that such things weredisagreeable and wrong. 

Another woman said that Charles was often careless in his language;sometimes used slang words, and was apt to give a bad impression tostrangers. Also that he did not always conduct himself at table, especially before visitors, with careful politeness and good manners. 

A man concurred in this, and remarked that he had heard Charles condemnthe beefsteak on a certain occasion as tough; and had made otherunnecessary remarks about the food on the table while he was eating. 

A woman remarked that she had on several occasions found Charles arespecter of persons. 

Another said that Charles, though industrious and faithful in alltemporalities, and a very able man, was not religious at all. 

A man remarked that Charles was, as others had said, somewhat spoiled byhis own success, but that it was a mistake for him to be so, for he wascertain that Charles's success came mainly from the wisdom and care withwhich the society had surrounded him with good advisers, who had guidedhim; and that Charles ought therefore to be humble, instead of proud andhaughty, as one who ought to look outside of himself for the realsources of his success. 

Finally, two or three remarked that he had been in a certain transactioninsincere toward another young man, saying one thing to his face andanother to others; and in this one or two women concurred. 

Amid all this very plain speaking, which I have considerably condensed, giving only the general charges, Charles sat speechless, looking beforehim; but as the accusations multiplied, his face grew paler, and dropsof perspiration began to stand on his forehead. The remarks I havereported took up about half an hour; and now, each one in the circlehaving spoken, Mr. Noyes summed up. 

He said that Charles had some serious faults; that he had watched himwith some care; and that he thought the young man was earnestly tryingto cure himself. He spoke in general praise of his ability, his goodcharacter, and of certain temptations he had resisted in the course ofhis life. He thought he saw signs that Charles was making a real andearnest attempt to conquer his faults; and as one evidence of this heremarked that Charles had lately come to him to consult him upon adifficult case in which he had had a severe struggle, but had in the endsucceeded in doing right. "In the course of what we call stirpiculture, "said Noyes, "Charles, as you know, is in the situation of one who is byand by to become a father. Under these circumstances, he has fallenunder the too common temptation of selfish love, and a desire to waitupon and cultivate an exclusive intimacy with the woman who was to beara child through him. This is an insidious temptation, very apt to attackpeople under such circumstances; but it must nevertheless be struggledagainst. " Charles, he went on to say, had come to him for advice in thiscase, and he (Noyes) had at first refused to tell him any thing, but hadasked him what he thought he ought to do; that after some conversation, Charles had determined, and he agreed with him, that he ought to isolatehimself entirely from the woman, and let another man take his place ather side; and this Charles had accordingly done, with a mostpraiseworthy spirit of self-sacrifice. Charles had indeed still furthertaken up his cross, as he had noticed with pleasure, by going to sleepwith the smaller children, to take charge of them during the night. Taking all this in view, he thought Charles was in a fair way to becomea better man, and had manifested a sincere desire to improve, and to ridhimself of all selfish faults. 

Thereupon the meeting was dismissed. 

All that I have recited was said by practiced tongues. The people knewvery well how to express themselves. There was no vagueness, nouncertainty. Every point was made; every sentence was a hit--a stab Iwas going to say, but as the sufferer was a volunteer, I suppose thiswould be too strong a word. I could see, however, that while Charlesmight be benefited by the "criticism, " those who spoke of him wouldperhaps also be the better for their speech; for if there had beenbitterness in any of their hearts before, this was likely to bedissipated by the free utterance. Concerning the closing remarks ofNoyes, which disclose so strange and horrible a view of morals and duty, I need say nothing. 

Here are a few specimens of criticisms which have been printed in the_Circular_. The first concerns a young woman:

"What God has done for U. Is wonderful; her natural gifts andattractions are uncommon; but she has added very little to them. She isspoiling them by indolence and vanity. The gifts we have by nature donot belong to us. We shall have to give account for them to God as hisproperty. All that we can expect any reward for is what we add to thatwhich he gives us. " The next seems to point at troubles of a kind towhich the community is, I suppose, more or less subject:

"I wish I could entirely change public opinion among us in regard to thematter of keeping secrets. The fact that a person is of such a characterthat others associated with him are afraid that he will finally exposetheir wrong-doing is the highest credit to him. I would earnestly exhortall lovers of every degree, young and old, and especially the young, toconsider the absolute impossibility of permanently keeping secrets. Itis not for us to say whether we will keep other folks' secrets or not. It is for God to say. We are in his hands, and he will make us tell thetruth even though we say we won't. He has certainly made it hisprogramme and eternal purpose that every secret thing shall come tolight. What is done in darkness shall be published on the house-top. This is sure to come, because it is God's policy, and it is vain for usto seek to evade and thwart it. Two persons get together with shamefulsecrets, and promise and protest and pledge themselves never to turn oneach other. What is the use? It is not for them to say what they willdo. They _will_ finally turn on one another. It is a mercy to themthat they must. The best thing to be said of them is that they are likelyto turn on one another and betray their secrets. They will, if there isany honesty or true purpose in them. This keeping secrets that aredishonest, profane, and infernal, and regarding them as sacred, is allwrong. It is the rule of friendship and honor in the world, but to letthe daylight in on every thing is the rule for those who want to pleaseGod. "

What follows relates to a man who was cast down because of criticism, and whose fault Noyes says is excessive sensitiveness:

"Excessive sensitiveness is a great fault. Every one should strive toget where he can judge himself, look at himself truthfully by the graceof God, and cultivate what may be called the superior consciousness, looking at his own fault as he would at another person's, and feeling nomore pain in dissecting his own character than he would that of any oneelse. This superior consciousness takes us into fellowship with God andhis judgment; and in that condition it is possible to rejoice in pullingto pieces our own works. Paul says: 'Other foundation can no man laythan that is laid, which is Jesus Christ. Now if any man build upon thisfoundation gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, stubble, everyman's work shall be made manifest--for the day shall declare it, becauseit shall be revealed by fire; and the fire shall try every man's work, of what sort it is. If any man's work abide which he hath builtthereupon, he shall receive a reward. If any man's work shall be burned, he shall suffer loss; but he himself shall be saved, yet so as by fire. 'There is a great amount of poor building upon that good foundation; agreat number of structures that are wood, hay, and stubble, and which inthe day of fire will be burned up. The main point to be gained by thosewho have thus built is to get into such sympathy with God that they canstand by when the day of fire comes, and help on the destruction--pokethe wood, hay, and stubble into the flame, rejoicing that they have agood foundation, and are to be saved not only from the fire, but by thefire. "

Finally, they use criticism as a remedy for diseases. I take thisexample from the _Circular_ for June 4, 1853:

"S. P. , having a bad cold and symptoms of a run of fever, tried thecriticism-cure, and was immediately relieved. She was on the bed in astate of pain and restlessness, when a friend mentioned to her the aboveremedy as having been successfully applied in similar cases. Having somefaith in it, she arose immediately and made her wishes known to thefamily physician, that is, to the _family_, who kindly administeredthe remedy without delay. The operation was not particularlyagreeable--there is no method of cure that is; but it was short andspeedily efficacious. One secret of its efficacy is, it stops the flowof thought toward the seat of difficulty, and so tends directly toreduce inflammation. At the same time it has a very bracing, invigorating effect. In the present case, it went right to the cause ofthe disease, which was discovered to be a spirit of _fear_, throwingopen the pores and predisposing the subject to the attack. S. P. Hadbeen brought up in a bad habit in this respect, expecting with everyexposure to take cold--and then expecting to have it go on to a seriouscough, and so on--fear realizing itself. Criticism stopped this falseaction, and not only made her well in the first instance, but bybreaking up this fear it has given her comparative security againstfuture attacks. It requires some fortitude and self-denial in thepatient, when he thinks he needs sympathy and nursing, to take criticisminstead; but it is well known that to rouse the will to strong exertionis more than half a cure. The criticism remedy professes to beuniversal, and is recommended for trial to all the afflicted. "

The _Circular_ for December, 1863, reports:

"It is a common custom here for every one who may be attacked with anydisorder to apply this remedy by sending for a committee of six or eightpersons, in whose faith and spiritual judgment he has confidence, tocome and criticize him. The result, when administered sincerely, isalmost universally to throw the patient into a sweat, or to bring on areaction of his life against disease, breaking it up, and restoring himsoon to usual health. We have seen this result produced without anyother agency except the use of ice, in perhaps twenty cases of sorethroat within a few weeks. We have seen it take effect at an advancedstage of chronic disease, and raise a person up apparently from death'sdoor. It seems a somewhat heroic method of treatment when a person issuffering in body to apply a castigation to the character through thespiritual or moral part; but this is precisely the thing needed tocleanse and purify the system from disease. We have tried it, and foundit to be invaluable. To all who have faith in Christ as a physician wecan commend this prescription as a medium for conveying his healinglife. If you are sick, seek for some one to tell you your faults, tofind out your weakest spot in character or conduct; let them put theirfinger on the very sore that you would best like to keep hid. Dependupon it, there is the avenue through which disease gets access to you. And if the sincerity which points this out and opens it to the lighthurts, and is mortifying for the time being, it is only a sign that theremedy is applied at the right place and is taking effect. "

In a recent number of the _Circular_ (1874) a "criticism of a sickman" is reported in full. It is too long to give here; but I quote a fewof the remarks, to show the style of attack in such cases. The reportopens with this statement:

"[L. Has been quite prostrate for months with some kind of spinalaffection, complicated with chills and fever. In presenting himself forcriticism, he was invited, as the subject generally is, to open his owncase. He said he was under a spirit of depression and discouragement, particularly about his health. He thought he should be better off if hedid not know so much about his disease. Dr. Pope had pronounced itincurable. ]"

W. Said:

"I think that L. Is troubled with false imaginations, and that he hasinherited this tendency. His father was subject to the hypo--always aprey to imaginations. I question whether the root of L. 's wholedifficulty does not lie in his imagination. I don't doubt but that hefeels what he thinks he does, but imagination has terrible power to makeus feel. Christ can cast down imaginations, and every high thing thatexalteth itself against the knowledge of God. "

J. Said:

"He talks a great deal about his symptoms. If he would talk on the sideof faith, I think he would be a well man right off. He is as well as anybody when he _is_ well, and there is no reason why he should not bewell all the time. He is a very valuable member of the community, and Idon't like to see him lie on his back so much. 

"M. --I have thought that his knowledge of physiology, as he uses it, isreally a hindrance to him: he knows too much about his case. 

"C. --I thought I had the heart disease when I was about nineteen yearsof age. My heart would beat so when I went up stairs that I had to sitdown at the top. I remember that I said to my aunt one day I was surethat I had got that disease, because my heart had such times of beating. 'O la!' she answered, ' I guess you would not live long if it did notbeat. '

"N. [probably Mr. Noyes]--I have good reason to believe that a greatmany diseases which doctors pronounce incurable are so so far as theirpowers are concerned, and yet can be cured by exorcism. Doctors do notbelieve in possession by the devil, and of course have no means ofcuring diseases of that nature. They accordingly pronounce some diseasesincurable. Yet these diseases are not incurable by persons whounderstand the nature of them, and that they are spiritual obsessions. Ido not care what the doctors say about L. 's back. It is very likelyincurable so far as they know, and yet it may be very easily curable toany body who knows about the doctrine of the possession of the devil. There is a range of science beyond the routine of the doctors which wemust take into the account in all this dealing with disease. Just lookat the case of Harriet Hall, and see what incurable diseases she had. Two doctors certified that she ought to be dead twenty years ago, andhere she is alive and waiting on her father. Those doctors are dead, andshe is trotting around. 

"E. --I have been associated a good deal with L. In business and now inthis sickness. I have studied his case some. His attitude toward diseaseis very much like his attitude in business. When he has been well andable to do his best, he has been in the past an autocrat in ourbusinesses. If he said a thing would not go, or would go, his dictum wasalways accepted. He has a good deal of pride in having what he predictsturn out to be true. I have sometimes thought that he was willing tohave things break down in order to demonstrate his infallibility as anoracle. He shows the same trait in regard to disease. If he has asymptom, and makes up his mind that he is going to have a certaindisease, he notifies his friends of it, and seems bound to have hisprophecy come true any way. 

"N. --He would rather have a good chill, I suppose, than have hisprediction prove false. 

"E. --I think he really knows but very little about his case. He lost hishealth, and took up the study of medicine to find out what ailed him. Itmay seem paradoxical, but I think that he is suffering for want of work;his brain is suffering for want of some healthy action. If he would usehis brain about something for only half an hour a day, he would findhimself improving right along. 

"A. --I remember L. Had the reputation of being an ingenious boy; but heused to seem old even then--he had the rheumatism or some suchcomplaint. In thinking about him, it seems to me that the instinct ofhis life is to find a soft place in the world: he is hunting up cushionsand soft things to surround himself with. His bent is rather scientificthan religious. A man that is an oracle surrounds himself with somethingsoft in having people defer to him. I must say I think he is toooracular about disease, considering the amount of study he has given tothe science of medicine. He went into the study of medicine in a sort ofself-coddling way, to find out what the matter was with himself. I haverealized that it is not good for a man in this world to hunt for a softspot. "

And so on. Mr. Noyes closed the session with this remark:

"N. --Christ's words, 'Because I live ye shall live also, ' may be thrustin the face of all incurable diseases. There is no answer to that. Noincurable disease can stand against it. "

I do not know whether L. Recovered or not. 

On Sunday evening, about half-past six o'clock, there was a gathering inthe large hall to hear some pieces of music from the orchestra. Afterhalf an hour's intermission, the people again assembled, this time for alonger session. A considerable number of round tables were scatteredabout the large hall; on these were lamps; and around them sat most ofthe women, old and young, with sewing or knitting, with which theybusied themselves during the meeting. Others sat on benches and chairs, irregularly ranged about. 

After the singing of a hymn, a man rose and read the report of thebusiness meeting held that morning, the appointment of some committees, and so on; and this was then put to vote and accepted, having elicitedno discussion, and very little interest apparently. Next a man, who satnear Mr. Noyes in the middle of the room, read some extracts fromnewspapers, which had been marked and sent in to him by differentmembers for that purpose. Some of these were mere drolleries, and raisedlaughter. Others concerned practical matters. 

To this reading, which was brief, followed a discussion of the power ofhealing disease by prayer. It was asserted to be "necessary to regardChrist as powerful to-day over diseases of the body as well as of thespirit. " When several had spoken very briefly upon this subject, and theconversation was evidently closed, a considerable number of the peopleconcurred in what had been said by short ejaculations, as "I confess thepower of Christ in my heart;" "I confess the power of healing;" "Iconfess to a tender conscience;" "I confess Christ;" "I confess a lovefor all good people, " and so on. 

Next a hymn was sung relating to community life, which I copy here as acuriosity:

 "Let us sing, brothers, sing, In the Eden of heart-love-- Where the fruits of life spring, And no death e'er can part love; Where the pure currents flow From all gushing hearts together, And the wedding of the Lamb Is the feast of joy forever. Let us sing, brothers, sing. 

 "We have built us a dome On our beautiful plantation, And we all have one home, And one family relation; We have battled with the wiles Of the dark world of Mammon, And returned with its spoils To the home of our dear ones. Let us sing, brothers, sing. 

 "When the rude winds of wrath Idly rave round our dwelling, And the slanderer's breath Like a simoon was swelling, Then so merrily we sung, As the storm blustered o'er us, Till the very heavens rung With our hearts' joyful chorus. Let us go, brothers, go. 

 "So love's sunshine begun: Now the spirit-flowers are blooming, And the feeling that we're one All our hearts is perfuming; Toward one home we have all Set our faces together, Where true love doth dwell In peace and joy forever. Let us sing, brothers, sing. "

This was presently followed by another song peculiar to the Oneidapeople. A man sang, looking at a woman near him:

 "I love you, O my sister, But the love of God is better; Yes, the love of God is better-- O the love of God is best. "

To this she replied:

 "I love you, O my brother, But the love of God is better; Yes, the love of God is better-- O the love of God is best. "

Then came the chorus, in which a number of voices joined:

 "Yes, the love of God is better, O the love of God is better; Hallelujah, Hallelujah-- Yes, the love of God is best. "

Soon after the meeting broke up; but there was more singing, later, inthe private parlors, which I did not attend. Thus ended Sunday at theOneida Community; and with this picture of their daily life I mayconclude my account of these people. 

THE AURORA AND BETHEL COMMUNES. 

Twenty-nine miles south of Portland, on the Oregon and CaliforniaRailroad, lies the village of Aurora, more commonly known along the roadas "Dutchtown. " As you approach it on the train, you will notice on aneminence to the left a large wooden church; in the deep ravine which isspanned by a railroad-bridge, a saw-mill; and, scattered irregularlyover the neighboring country, a number of houses, most of them differingfrom usual village dwellings in the United States, mainly because oftheir uncommon size, and the entire absence of ornament. They are threestories high, sometimes nearly a hundred feet deep, and look likefactories. 

Opposite the railroad station, upon elevated ground, stands one of thesehouses, which is called the hotel, and is an excellent, clean countryinn, famous all over Oregon for good living. When I mentioned to anacquaintance in Portland my purpose to spend some days at Aurora, hereplied, "Oh, yes--Dutchtown; you'll feed better there than any whereelse in the state;" and on further inquiry I found that I might expectto see there also the best orchards in Oregon, the most ingeniousexpedients for drying fruits, and an excellent system of agriculture. Beyond these practical points, and the further statement that "theseDutch are a queer people, " information about them is not general amongOregonians. The inn, or "hotel, " however, at Aurora, is used as a summerresort by residents of Portland; the Aurora band is employed atfestivities in Portland; the pleasure-grounds of the community areopened to Sunday-school and other picnics from the city in summer andfall; and at the State Agricultural Fair, held at Salem, the AuroraCommunity controls and manages the restaurant, and owns the buildings inwhich food is prepared and sold. In these ways it comes into directcommunication with the outside world. 

I found the hotel a plainly furnished but scrupulously neat and cleanhouse, at which I was received with very little ceremony. Nor did anyone volunteer to guide me about or give me information concerning thesociety: curiosity does not seem to be a vice of the place. A note ofintroduction to that member of the society who acts as its purchasingagent, with which fortunately I was provided, secured me his attentionafter I had found him. He was just then at work as a carpenter, puttingup a small house for a newly married couple. 

The Aurora Commune is an offshoot of a society formed upon the sameprinciples in Bethel, Shelby County, Missouri. Dr. Keil, the Presidentof Aurora, was the founder of Bethel, and still rules both communities. He removed from Missouri to Oregon because he imagined that there wouldbe a larger field for his efforts in a new state; and also, I imagine, because of an innate restlessness of disposition. 

Dr. Keil is a Prussian, born in 1811; and was a man-milliner in Germany. He became a mystic, and he seems to have dealt also in magnetism, andused this as a curative agent for diseases. After living for some timein New York, he came to Pittsburgh, where he gave himself out as aphysician, and showed, it is said, some knowledge of botany. Heprofessed also to be the owner of a mysterious volume, written withhuman blood, and containing receipts for medicines which enabled him, ashe professed, to cure various diseases. Presently he became a Methodist, and thereupon burned this book with certain awe-inspiring formalities. He seems to have been a fanatic in religious matters, for he soon leftthe Methodists to form a sect of his own; and it is related that hegathered a number of Germans about him, to whom he gave himself out as abeing to be worshiped, and later as one of the two witnesses in the Bookof Revelation; and in this capacity he gave public notice that on acertain day, after a fast of forty days, he would be slain in thepresence of his followers. 

While he was thus engaged in forming a following for himself among theignorant and simple-minded Germans, the rogue who called himself CountLeon came over and joined Rapp's colony at Economy; and when Leon, afterquarreling with Rapp and removing to Phillipsburg, ran away from thereto Louisiana, Keil managed to secure some of Leon's people as hisadherents, and thereupon began to plan a communistic settlement, somewhat upon the plan of Rapp's, but with the celibate principle leftout. In the year 1844, his followers, among whom were by good luck someof the seceders from Economy, began a settlement in accordance withthese plans in Missouri. They were all either Germans or "PennsylvaniaDutch, " and people of limited means. It is probable that Keil hadnothing, for he appears for some years previously to have followed noregular business or profession. They removed to Bethel, a pointforty-eight miles from Hannibal, in Missouri, and thirty-six miles fromQuincy; and began in very humble style. Not all the colonists came outat once. He took with him at first two families and a number of youngpeople. These broke ground in the new settlement, and others followed asthey sold their property at home. 

Shelby County, Missouri, was then a new country. The colonists took upfour sections, or two thousand five hundred and sixty acres of land, towhich they added from time to time until they possessed four thousandacres. Upon a part of this estate they gradually established adistillery, grist-mill, sawmill, carding machinery, a woolen-mill, andall the mechanical trades needed by the farmers in their neighborhood, and thus they made a town. As soon as they were able they set up ageneral store, and a post-office was of course established by thegovernment. Among their first buildings was a church; for Dr. Keil wastheir spiritual as well as temporal head. 

At Bethel they prospered; and there four hundred of these Communistsstill live. I shall give an account of them later. 

Keil's ideas grew with the increasing wealth of the people; and hisunrestful spirit longed for a new and broader field of labor. Heimagined that on the Pacific coast he might found a larger communisticsociety upon a broader domain; and he did not find it difficult topersuade his people that the attempt ought to be made. 

In 1855, accordingly, Dr. Keil set out with ten or twelve families, eighty persons in all, across the plains, carrying along householdutensils and some cattle. A few families started later, and crossed theIsthmus; and all gathered at Shoalwater Bay, north of the mouth of theColumbia River, and in Washington Territory. There a few familiesbelonging to Aurora still live, managing farms of the community; but inJune, 1856, the main body of the society removed to Aurora, and beganthere, with tedious and severe labor, a clearing among the firs. 

The upper part of the Willamette Valley is a broad, open plain, easy totill, and inviting to the farmer. Dr. Keil and his companions avoidedthis plain: they chose to settle in a region pretty densely grown overwith timber. I asked him why he did so. He replied that, meaning toestablish a sawmill, they wished to use the trees cut down in clearingthe land to make into lumber for houses and fences. There was at thattime no railroad, and lumber in the open prairie was expensive. "The endproved that we were right, " said he; "for, though we had hard work atfirst, and got ahead slowly, we were soon able to buy out the prairiefarmers, who had got into debt and were shiftless, while we prudentGermans were building our place. " He added a characteristic story oftheir early days--that when they first settled at Aurora, having nofruit of their own, he used to buy summer apples for his people from thenearest farmers for a dollar a bushel. These were eaten in the families;but he taught them to save the apple-parings, and make them intovinegar, which he then sold to the wives of his American farmingneighbors at a dollar and a half per gallon. 

In order to make intelligible the means as well as the ways of theirsuccess, I must here explain what are the social principles to whichthey agree, and in accordance with which they have worked since 1844. They are remarkable chiefly for their simplicity. Dr. Keil teaches, andthey hold that--

1st. All government should be parental, to imitate, as they say, theparental government of God. 

2d. That therefore societies should be formed upon the model of thefamily, having all interests and all property absolutely in common; allthe members laboring faithfully for the general welfare and support, anddrawing the means of living from the general treasury. 

3d. That, however, neither religion nor the harmony of nature teachescommunity in any thing further than property and labor. Hence the familylife is strictly maintained; and the Aurora Communists marry and aregiven in marriage, and raise and train children precisely as do theirneighbors the Pike farmers. They reject absolutely all sexualirregularities, and inculcate marriage and support the family relationas religious duties, as the outside world does. Each family has its ownhouse, or separate apartments in one of the large buildings. 

4th. Dr. Keil, who is not only their president, but also their preacher, holds the fundamental truth of Christianity to be, "Love one another, "and interprets this in so broad and literal a sense as requires acommunity of goods and effects. His sermons are exhortations andillustrations of this principle, and warnings against "selfishness" andpraise of self-sacrifice. Service is held in a very commodious andwell-built church twice a month, and after the Lutheran style: openingwith singing, prayer, and reading of the Scriptures; after which thepresident preaches from a chosen text. 

To me he spoke with some vehemence against sects and creeds asanti-Christian. Sunday is usually a day of recreation and quietamusement, with music and visiting among the people. 

5th. The children of the community are sent to school, there being atAurora a common or free school, in which an old man, a member of thesociety, who bears a remarkable resemblance to the late Horace Greeley, is teacher. The school is supported as other free schools of the stateare; but it is open all the year round, which is not the case generallywith country schools. They aim to teach only the rudimentary studies--reading, writing, and arithmetic. 

6th. The system of government is as simple as possible. Dr. Keil, thefounder, is president of the community, and autocrat. He has for hisadvisers four of the older members, who are selected by himself. In themanagement of affairs he consults these, whose opinions, I imagine, usually agree with his. When any vitally important change or experimentis contemplated, the matter is discussed by the whole community, andnothing is done then without a general assent. 

7th. Every man is expected to labor for the general good, but there areno established hours of work, nor is any one compelled to labor at anyspecial pursuit. 

8th. Plain living and rigid economy are inculcated as duties from eachto the whole; and to labor regularly, and to waste nothing, areimportant parts of the "whole duty of man. "

9th. Each workshop has its foreman, who comes, it would seem, by naturalselection. That is to say, here, as elsewhere, the fittest man comes tothe front. But it is a principle of their polity that men shall not beconfined to one kind of labor. If brickmakers are needed, and shoemakersare not busy, the shoe shop is closed, and the shoemakers go out andmake brick. During the spring and summer months a large proportion ofthe people are engaged in the cultivation of crops. After harvest theseare drawn into the town, and find winter employment in the saw-mill andthe different shops. It is to accommodate these temporary sojournersthat the large houses are built. Here they have apartments allotted tothem, and the young people board with the different families, the younggirls being employed chiefly in household duties. 

These are the extremely simple principles and practical rules whichguide the Aurora Community. Their further application I will show indetail hereafter. I wish first to show the dollar-and-cent results. 

Coming to Aurora in 1856, they have held together, with some outsidegains, and some additions from the Bethel Society, until there are nownearly four hundred people in the settlement, who own about eighteenthousand acres of land, scattered over several counties. They haveestablished a sawmill, a tan-yard, and cabinet-maker's, blacksmith's, wagon-maker's, tailor's, shoemaker's, carpenter's, and tin shops. Also agrist-mill, carding machinery, some looms for weaving wool; dryinghouses for fruit; and there is a supply store for the community, a drugstore kept by the doctor of the society, and a general country store, atwhich the neighboring farmers, not Communists, deal for cash. 

They have besides the most extensive orchards in the state, in which areapples, pears of all kinds, plums, prunes, which do admirably here, andall the commoner large and small fruits. There is also a large vegetablegarden, for the use of those who have none at their houses. The orchardsare in fine order, and were laden with fruit when I saw them in June, 1873. Near the orchard is a large, neatly kept house, in which thepeople gather during the fruit-harvest to prepare it for market, and topare that which is to be dried. Beyond the orchard is a public ground ofa dozen acres, for Sunday assemblies; and here, too, are houses foreating and dancing, with a kitchen and bake-ovens commodious enough tocook a meal for the whole settlement, or for a large picnic party. 

Thus far they have brought their affairs in seventeen years, without anypeculiar religious belief, any interference with the marriage or familyrelation, without a peculiar dress, or any other habit to mark them asSeparatists, or "Come-outers, " to use a New England phrase. It must beadmitted also that they have achieved thus much without long orexhausting or enforced labor. 

Their living is extremely plain. The houses and apartments are withoutcarpets; the women wear calico on Sunday as well as during the week, andthe sun-bonnet is their head-covering. The men wear ready-made clothingof no particular style. Cleanliness is, so far as I saw, a conspicuousvirtue of the society. Dr. Keil, the president, was the only person withwhom I came in contact who was not very neat. He is a snuff-taker; andhe walked over the orchard with me in an untidy pair of carpet slippers. 

They appear to be people of few ceremonies. On a Sunday I attended awedding; the marriage took place in the school-house, and was witnessedby a small congregation of young people, friends of the bride and groom. The young girls came to the wedding in clean calico dresses andsun-bonnets; and I noticed that even the bride wore only a very plainwoolen dress, with a bit of bright ribbon around her neck. The ceremonywas performed by the schoolmaster, who is also a justice of the peace;when it was over, the company quietly and somewhat shyly walked up tocongratulate the newly married, some of the young women kissing thebride. Then there was an immediate adjournment to the house of thebride's father, a mile off in the country. I was hospitably invited togo to the feast; and found a small log cabin, with kitchen and bedroombelow, and a loft above, standing near a deep ravine, and with a neatgarden and small orchard back of it. 

In front a bower had been formed of the boughs of evergreens, beneathwhich were two or three tables, which were presently spread with a plainbut wholesome and bountiful feast, to which the strangers present andthe older people were first invited to sit down, the younger oneswaiting on the table, and with laughter and joking taking their placesafterward. Meantime the village band played; after dinner we all walkedinto the garden, and in a pretty little summer-house discussed orchards, bees, and other country living, and by and by returned to the village. The young people were to have some dancing, and altogether it was a verypretty, rather quiet country wedding. It struck me that the young womenwere undersized, and did not look robust or strong; there were no rosycheeks, and there was a very subdued air upon all the congregation. Thepoor little bride looked pale and scared; but the bridegroom, a stoutyoung fellow, looked proud and happy, as was proper. Dr. Keil was notpresent, but drove out in a very plain country wagon as the weddingersentered the schoolroom. 

The community occasionally employs outside laborers; and when a man orwoman applies to join the society, he or she is at first employed atwages, and at some trade. "We will employ and pay you as long as we needyour labor, " the council says in such a case; "if after a while you arethoroughly satisfied that this is the best life, and if we approve ofyou, we will take you in. " It is not necessary that the new-comer shouldbring money with him; but if he has means, he is required to put theminto the common treasury, for he _must_ believe that "all selfishaccumulation is wrong, contrary to God's law and to natural laws. "

Occasionally, I was told, they have had as members idle or drunken men. Such are admonished of their wrong courses; and if they areincorrigible, they always, I was assured, leave the place. "An idler ordissolute person has not the sympathies of our people; he has noconnection with the industries of the society; as he does not work, hecan hardly be so brazen as to ask for supplies. The practical result isthat presently he disappears from among us. "

"Do you have no disagreements from envy or jealousy among you, " I askedDr. Keil; who replied, "Very seldom now; the people have been too longand too thoroughly trained; they are too well satisfied of the wisdom ofour plan of life; they are practiced in self-sacrifice, and know thatselfishness is evil and the source of unhappiness. In the early days weused sometimes to have trouble. Thus a man would say, 'I brought moneyinto the society, and this other man brought none; why should he have asmuch as I;' but my reply was, 'Here is your money--take it; it is notnecessary; but while you remain, remember that you are no better thanhe. ' Again, another might say, 'My labor brings one thousand dollars ayear to the society, _his_ only two hundred and fifty;' but myanswer was, 'Thank God that he made you so much abler, stronger, to helpyour brother; but take care lest your poorer brother do not some day haveto help you, when you are crippled, or ill, or disabled. '"

The children who have in these years, since 1844, grown up in thecommunity generally remain. I spoke with a number of men who had thuspassed all but their earliest years in the society, and who werecontent. Men sometimes return, repentant, after leaving the society. "The boys and girls know that they can leave at any time; there is nocompulsion upon any one; hence no one cares to go. But they generallysee that this is the best place. We are as prosperous and as happy asany one; we have here all we need. "

As all work for the common good, so all are supplied from the commonstores. I asked the purchasing agent about the book-keeping of theplace; he replied, "As there is no trading, few accounts are needed. Much of what we raise is consumed on the place, and of what the peopleuse no account is kept. Thus, if a family needs flour, it goes freely tothe mill and gets what it requires. If butter, it goes to the store inthe same way. We need only to keep account of what we sell of our ownproducts, and of what we buy from abroad, and these accounts check eachother. When we make money, we invest it in land. " Further, I was toldthat tea, coffee, and sugar are roughly allowanced to each family. 

Each family has either a house, or apartments in one of the largehouses. Each has a garden patch, and keeps chickens; and every year anumber of pigs are set apart for each household, according to itsnumber. These are fed with the leavings of the table, and are fattenedand killed in the winter, and salted down. Fresh beef is not commonlyused. If any one needs vegetables, he can get them in the large garden. There seemed to be an abundance of good plain food every where. 

Originally, and until 1872, all the property stood in Dr. Keil's name;but in that year he, finding himself growing old, and urged too, Iimagine, by some of the leading men, made a division of the wholeestate, and gave a title-deed to each head of a family of a suitablepiece of property--to a farmer a farm, to a carpenter a house and shop, and so on. If there was any heart-burning over this division, I couldnot hear of it; and it appears to have made no difference in the conductof the society, which labors on as before for the common welfare. 

I asked, "What, then, if you have divided all the property, will you dofor the young people as they grow up?"

Dr. Keil replied, "Dear me!--in the beginning we had nothing, now wehave a good deal: where did it all come from? We earned and saved it. Very well; we are working just the same--we shall go on earning moneyand laying it by for those who are growing up; we shall have enough forall. " I give below some further details, which I elicited from Dr. Keil, preferring to give them in the form of questions and answers:

_Question_. I have noticed that when young girls grow up theyusually manifest a taste for ribbons and finery. How do you manage withsuch cases?

_Answer_. Well, they get what they want. They have only to ask atthe supply store; only if they go too far--if it amounts to vanity--theyare admonished that they are not acting according to the principles oflove and temperance; they are putting undue expense on the society; theyare making themselves different from their neighbors. It is not necessaryto say this, however, for our people are now all trained in soundprinciples, and there is but little need for admonition. 

_Q_. But suppose such a warning as you speak of were not taken?

_A_. Well, then they have leave to go into the world. If they wantto be like the world, that is the place for them. And don't you see thatif they are so headstrong and full of vanity they would not stay with usanyhow? They would not feel at home with us. 

_Q_. Suppose one of your young men has the curiosity to see theworld, as young men often have?

_A_. We give him money; he has only to ask the council. We say tohim:

"You want to live in the world; well, you must earn your own livingthere; here is money, however, for your journey. " And we give himaccording to his character and worth in the society. 

_Q_. Suppose a young man wanted to go to college?

_A_. If any one of our people wanted to train himself in somepractical knowledge or skill for the service of the community, and if hewere a proper person in stability of character and capacity, we wouldsend him, and support him while he was learning. This we have repeatedlydone. In such cases our experience is that when such young men return tous they bring back, not only all the money we have advanced for theirsupport, but generally more besides. Suppose, for instance, one wanted tolearn how to dye woolens; we would give him sufficient means to learn hiscalling thoroughly. But he would probably soon be receiving wages; and, as our people are economical, he would lay aside from his wages mostlikely more even than we had advanced him; and this he would be proud tobring into the common treasury on his return. [Dr. Keil gave me severalinstances of such conduct; and then proceeded, with a contemptuous air. ]But if a young man wants to study languages, he may do so here, as muchas he likes--no one will object; but if he wanted to go to college forthat--well, we don't labor here to support persons in such undertakings, which have no bearing on the general welfare of the society. 

In fact there is little room for poetry or for the imagination in thelife of Aurora. What is not directly useful is sternly left out. Thereare no carpets, even in Dr. Keil's house; no sofas or easy chairs, buthard wooden settles; an immense kitchen, in which women were laboring, with short gowns tucked up; a big common room, where apparently theDoctor lives with the dozen unmarried old men who form part of hishousehold; a wide hall full of provision safes, flour-bins, barrels, etc. ; but no books, except a Bible and hymn-book, and a few medicalworks; no pictures--nothing to please the taste; no pretty outlook, forthe house lies somewhat low down. Such was the house of the founder andpresident of the community; and the other houses were neither better normuch worse. There is evidently plenty of scrubbing in-doors, plenty ofplain cooking, plenty of every thing that is absolutely necessary tosupport life--and nothing superfluous. 

When I remarked upon this to some of the men, and urged them to lay outthe village in a somewhat picturesque style, to which the ground wouldreadily lend itself, and explained that a cottage might be plain and yetnot ugly, the reply invariably came: "We have all that is necessary now;by and by, if we are able and want them, we may have luxuries. " "For thepresent, " said one, "we have duties to do: we must support our widows, our orphans, our old people who can no longer produce. No man is allowedto want here amongst us; we all work for the helpless. " It was a drollillustration of their devotion to the useful, to find in the borders ofthe garden, where flowers had been planted, these flowers alternatingwith lettuce, radishes, and other small vegetables. 

Dr. Keil is a short, burly man, with blue eyes, whitish hair, and whitebeard. I took him to be a Swiss from his appearance, but hislanguage--he spoke German with me--showed him to be a Prussian. Heseemed excitable and somewhat suspicious; gave no tokens whatever ofhaving studied any book but the Bible, and that only as it helped him toenforce his own philosophy. He was very quick to turn every thoughttoward the one subject of community life; took his illustrations mostlyfrom the New Testament; and evidently laid much stress on the parentalcharacter of God. As he discussed, his eyes lighted up with a somewhatfierce fire; and I thought I could perceive a fanatic, certainly aperson of a very determined, imperious will, united to a narrow creed. 

As to that creed: He said it was desirable and needful so to arrange ourlives as to bring them into harmony with natural laws and with God'slaws; that we must all trust in Him for strength and wisdom; that we allneeded his protection--and as he thus spoke we turned suddenly into alittle enclosure where I saw an uncommon sight, five graves closetogether, as sometimes children's are made; but these were evidently thegraves of grown persons. "Here, " he said, "lie my children--all I had, five; they all died after they were men and women, between the ages ofeighteen and twenty-one. One after the other I laid them here. It washard to bear; but now I can thank God for that too. He gave them, and Ithanked him; he took them, and now I can thank him too. " Then, after aminute's silence, he turned upon me with somber eyes and said: "To bearall that comes upon us in silence, in quiet, without noise, or outcry, or excitement, or useless repining--that is to be a man, and that we cando only with God's help. "

As we walked along through the vegetable garden and vineyard, I saw someelderly women hoeing the vines and clearing the ground of weeds. I mustnot forget to say that the culture of their orchards, vineyards, andgardens is thorough and admirable. Dr. Keil said, nodding to the women, "They like this work; it is their choice to spend the afternoon thus. IfI should tell them to go and put on fine clothes and lounge around, theywould be very much aggrieved. "

The members are all Germans or Pennsylvanians. They are of severalProtestant sects; and there is even one Jew, but no Roman Catholics. 

The band played on Sunday evening for an hour or more, but did notattract many people. Boys were playing ball in the street at the sametime. Some _bought_ tobacco; which led me to ask again about the useofmoney. The question was not in any case satisfactorily answered; but Ihave reason to believe that a little selfish earning of private spendingmoney is winked at. For instance, the man whose daughter's wedding Iattended kept a few hives of bees; and in answer to a question I wastold he did not turn their honey into the general treasury; what he didnot consume he was allowed to sell. "In such ways we get a little fineryfor our daughters, " said one. Again, when apples are very abundant, anda sufficient supply has been dried for market, the remainder of the cropis divided among the householders, with the understanding that they mayeat or sell them as they prefer. 

There is an air of untidiness about the streets of the settlement whichis unpleasing. There is a piece of water, which might easily be madevery pretty, but it is allowed to turn into a quagmire. But few of thedoor-yards are neatly kept. The village seems to have been laid out athaphazard. Moreover, their stock is of poor breeds; the pigs especiallybeing wretched razor-backed creatures. 

As to the people--there can be no doubt that they are happy andcontented. In a country where labor is scarce and highly paid, and wherethe rewards of patient industry in any calling are sure and large, it isnot to be supposed that such a society as Aurora would have heldtogether nineteen years if its members were not in every way satisfiedwith their plan of life, and with the results they have attained underit. 

What puzzled me was to find a considerable number of people in theUnited States satisfied with so little. What they have secured isneighbors, sufficient food probably of a better kind than is enjoyed bythe ordinary Oregon farmer, and a distinct and certain provision fortheir old age, or for helplessness. The last seemed, in all their minds, a source of great comfort. Pecuniarily their success has not beenbrilliant, for if the property were sold out and the money divided, theeighty or ninety families would not receive more than three thousand orthirty-five hundred dollars each; and a farmer in Oregon must have beena very unfortunate man, who, coming here nineteen years ago withnothing, should not be worth more than this sum now, if he had laboredas steadily and industriously, and lived as economically as the Aurorapeople have. 

It is probable, however, that in the minds of most of them, the value ofunited action, the value to each of the example of the others, and thesecurity against absolute poverty and helplessness in the first years ofhard struggle, as well as the comfort of social ties, has counted for agreat deal. 

Nor ought I to forget the moral advantages, which appear to me immenseand not to be underrated. Since the foundation of the colony, it has nothad a criminal among its numbers; it has sent no man to jail; it has nothad a lawsuit, neither among the members nor with outside people; it hasnot an insane person, nor one blind or deaf and dumb; nor has there beenany case of deformity. It has no poor; and the support of its ownhelpless persons is a part of its plan. 

This means that the Aurora community has not once in nineteen years ofits existence used the courts, the jails, or the asylums of the state;that it has contributed nothing to the criminal or the pauper parts ofthe population. 

This result in a newly settled state, and among a rude society, willappear not less remarkable when I add that the community has no library;that its members, so far as I could see, lack even the most common andmoderate literary culture, aspiring to nothing further than the abilityto read, write, and cipher; that from the president down it isabsolutely without intellectual life. Moreover, it has very fewamusements. Dancing is very little practiced; there is so little sociallife that there is not even a hall for public meetings in the village;apple-parings and occasional picnics in the summer, the playing of aband, a sermon twice a month, and visiting among the families, are thechief, indeed the only excitements in their monotonous lives. With allthis there is singularly little merely animal enjoyment among them: theydo not drink liquor; the majority, I was told, do not even smoketobacco; there is no gayety among the people. Doubtless the winter, which brings them all together in the village, leads to some amusements;but I could hear of nothing set, or looked forward to, or elaboratelyplanned. "The women talk, more or less, " said one man to me, when Iasked if there were never disagreements and family jars; "but we havelearned to bear that, and it makes no trouble. "

It seemed to me that I saw in the faces and forms of the people theresults of this too monotonous existence. The young women are mostlypale, flat-chested, and somewhat thin. The young men look good-natured, but aimless. The older women and men are slow in their movements, placid, very quiet, and apparently satisfied with their lives. 

I suppose the lack of smart dress and finery among the young people onSunday, and at the wedding, gave a somewhat monotonous and drearyimpression of the assemblage. This was probably strengthened in my mindby the fact that the somewhat shabby appearance of the people was onlyof a piece with the shabby and neglected look of their village, so thatthe whole conveyed an impression of carelessness and decay. Nineteenyears of steady labor ought to have brought them, I could not but think, a little further: ought to have given them tastefully ornamentedgrounds, pretty houses, a public bath, a library and assembly-room, andneat Sunday clothing. It appeared to me that the stern repression of thewhole intellectual side of life by their leader had borne this evilfruit. But it may be that the people themselves were to blame: they areGermans of a low class, and "Pennsylvania Dutch"--people, too often, whodo not aim high. Then, too, it must be admitted that farm-life in Oregonis not, in general, above the plane of Aurora. Dutchtown is an Oregonianparadise; and the Aurora people are commonly said to "have every thingvery nice about them. "

Moreover, I could see that such a community must, unless it has for itshead a person of strong intellectual life, advance more slowly and withgreater difficulty than its members might, if they were living in thegreat world and thrown upon their individual resources. 

Economically, I think there is no doubt that in the clearing up of theirland, and the establishment of orchards and other productive industries, these Communists had a decided and important advantage over farmersundertaking similar enterprises with the help of laborers to whom theymust have paid wages. For, though the wages of a day-laborer nowhereyield much more than his support and that of his family, they yield thisin an uneconomical manner, a part of the sum earned being dropped on theway to middlemen, and a part going for whisky, sprees, blue Mondays, andillness arising out of bad situation, improper food, etc. The Auroracolonists labored without money wages; they could economize to the lastpossible degree in order to tide over a difficult place; they at alltimes measured their outlay by their means on hand; and I do not doubtthat they made Aurora, with its orchards and other valuableimprovements, for half what it would have cost by individual effort. 

Nor can it be safely asserted that there is no higher future for Aurora. Dr. Keil cannot carry them further--but he is sixty-four years old; if, when he dies, the presidency should fall into the hands of a person who, with tact enough to keep the people together, should have alsointellectual culture enough to desire to lift them up to a higher planeof living, I can see nothing to prevent his success. The difficulty isthat Dr. Keil's system produces no such man. Moses was brought up atPharaoh's court, and not among the Israelites whom he liberated, and whomade his whole life miserable for him. 

II. --BETHEL. 

Bethel is, of course, the older community; I describe it here afterAurora, because my visit to it was made after I had seen the Oregoncommunity, and also because here is shown to what Aurora tends. The twosocieties are still one, having their efforts in common; and I was toldthat if the people at Bethel could sell their property, they would allremove to Oregon. 

The Bethel Community now owns about four thousand acres of good land, exclusive of a tract of thirteen hundred acres at Nineveh, in theneighboring county of Adair, where six families of the community live, who are engaged chiefly in farming, having, however, also an oldsaw-mill and a tannery, and a shoemaker's and a blacksmith's shop. Thesefamilies were removed thither twenty-five years ago, because it wasthought the land there had a valuable water-power. 

Bethel has now above two hundred members, and about twenty-fivefamilies. There are fifty children in the school, I was told. 

They have a saw-mill and grist-mill, a tannery, a few looms, a generalstore, and a drug-store, and shops for carpenters, blacksmiths, coopers, tinners, tailors, shoemakers, and hatters, all on a small scale, butsufficient to supply not only themselves but the neighboring farmers. They had formerly a distillery, but that and a woolen factory wereburned down a few years ago. They mean to rebuild the last. 

All the people are Germans, and I found here many relatives of persons Ihad met at Aurora. 

[Illustration: THE BETHEL COMMUNE, MISSOURI. ]

The town has much the same characteristic features as Aurora, exceptthat it has not the exceptionally large and factory-like dwellings. Ithas one main street, poorly kept, and in parts even without a sidewalk;cattle and pigs were straying about it, too, and altogether it did notlook very prosperous. But the brick dwellings which lined the streetwere substantially built, and the saw and grist mill which lies at thelower end is a well-constructed building of brick. Half-way up the mainstreet was a drug-store, large enough I should have said to accommodatewith purges and cathartics a town of twenty-five hundred inhabitants;and on a cross-street was another. Besides the chief store, I wassurprised to see two other smaller shops; and still more surprised to betold that they belonged to and were kept by persons who had left thecommunity, but who remained here in its midst. Of these I shall havesomething to say by and by. 

At the head of the street stands the tavern or hotel, kept in the Germanor Pennsylvania Dutch way--with a bed in the large common room, andmeals served in the kitchen. The German cooking was substantial andgood. To the right of the hotel, at some distance, stands the church, placed in the middle of a young grove of trees planted much too thicklyever to prosper. The church has a floor of large red tiles; a narrowpulpit at one end; a place railed off at the other end, where the bandplays on high festivals, and two doors for the entrance of the sexes, who sit on separate sides of the house. From the tower I had a view ofthe greater part of the community's territory, which lies finely, and isevidently a well-selected and valuable tract of land. 

As in Aurora, they have preaching here every other Sunday, and noweek-day meetings or assemblages of any kind. They told me, however, that they have a Sunday-school for the children, where they areinstructed in the Bible. 

The preacher and head of this society is a Mr. Giese, appointed by Dr. Keil; he keeps also the drug-store, where I was sorry to see liquor soldto laboring men and others, but in a very quiet way. 

The Bethel Society has six trustees, chosen by the members, but holdingoffice during good behavior. As in Aurora, no business report is made tothe society. Giese is cashier and book-keeper, and the trustees examinehis accounts once a year. 

The real estate in Bethel is held upon a very extraordinary tenure. Itappears that--the settlement having begun in 1844--by 1847 there werein the society some dissatisfied persons, who clamored for a partitionof the property. Dr. Keil thereupon determined to divide it, and to eachmember or householder a certain part was made over as his own. Out ofthe gains of the community in the three years was reserved sufficient tosupport the aged and infirm, and I believe the mills were also kept aspart of the common stock. Thereupon some dissatisfied persons sold theirshares and went off. The remainder lived on in common, and withoutchanging their relations. To each person a deed was given of his share;but those who remained in the society were told--so the matter wasexplained to me by two of the trustees--not to put their deeds onrecord; and later a deed of the whole property of the community, including the individual holdings, was made out in the name of thepresident, Mr. Giese. I did not see this document, but presume, ofcourse, that it gave him a title only in trust for all. 

"Why did you partition the property?" I asked, curiously; and wasanswered, "In order to let every one be absolutely free, and to see whowere inclined to a selfish life, and who for the community or unselfishlife. " Moreover, I was assured that any one who wished might at any timeput his deed on record, and its validity would be acknowledged. 

Now among the persons who left the society, six families were allowed toretain their property, and of these several at this day live in themidst of the village. One is a mechanic, who pursues his trade forwages; and two others keep small shops. This appeared to me a reallyextraordinary instance of liberality or carelessness; but no one of thecommunity seemed to think it strange. There are also one or two farmers, not members; with one of these, a young man, I rode into Shelbina. Hetold me that he had grown up in the society; that he had gone into thearmy, where he served during the war; and when he returned he had gottired of community life. He had also got some business notions into hishead, and thought the community affairs were too loosely managed. Themembers, he thought, had not sufficient knowledge of business; in whichI agreed with him. But his house stood at the end of the village, andthe relations between him and his former associates were at least so faramicable that one of the trustees took me to him to engage my passage tothe railroad station. 

The society was strongest before Dr. Keil went to Oregon; he drew away, between 1854 and 1863, about four hundred of the six hundred and fiftypersons who were gathered in Bethel in 1855; and among these were, itseems, a large number of young men who did not want to serve in the war, the society being non-resistants, and slipped off to Oregon to avoid thedraft. There are no accessions from outside, or at any rate so few as tocount for nothing. But, on the other hand, they assured me that theykeep most of their young people. 

When one of the younger generation--for whom no property has been setapart--wishes to leave, a sum of money is given. While I was there ayoung girl was about to sever her connection with the society, and shereceived, besides her clothing, twenty-five dollars in money. If she hadbeen older she would have received more, on the ground that she wouldhave earned more by her labor, beyond the cost to the society of hercare from childhood. 

Some years ago they were subjected to a troublesome lawsuit, brought bya seceding member to recover both wages and the property of his parents. Thereupon, for the first time, they drew up a Constitution, which allsigned, and which binds them to claim no wages. 

Clothing is served to all the members alike from a common store. As tofood: as at Aurora, each family receives pigs enough for meat, and cowsenough for milk and butter; and adjoining each house is a garden of froma quarter to half an acre, in which the women work to raise vegetablesfor the home supply--the men helping at odd hours. But it is plainlyunderstood that each may, and indeed is expected to raise a surplus ofchickens, eggs, vegetables, fruits, etc. , which is sold at the store forsuch luxuries as coffee, sugar, and articles of food brought from adistance. The calves are raised for the community. I found that onemember was a silversmith and photographer; and all that he sold to hisfellow-members of course they paid for with the surplus products oftheir small holdings. Flour and meal they take from the mill as theyplease, and no account is kept of it. 

The trustees are also foremen, and lay out the work. The people risewith the sun, and have three meals a day. Before every house, neatlypiled up in the street, I noticed large supplies of fire-wood, sawed andsplit. They hire a few laborers to cut wood for them; it is then drawninto town and to each man's door by the community teams; and thereuponeach family is expected to saw and split its own supplies. In fact, theymake a general effort, and with singing and much merriment thewood-piles are properly prepared. This certainly is a convenience whichthe backwood farmer's wife is often without; but the untidy look of agreat wood-pile before each house vexed my eyes. 

The older men complained to me that the emigration to Oregon of so manyof their young people had crippled them; and, indeed, I saw many signsof neglect--buildings in want of repair, and a lack of tidiness. Butstill they appear to be making money; for they have recently rebuilttheir grist-mill, and have also within a few years paid off a debt ofbetween three and four thousand dollars. 

[Illustration: Church at Bethel, Missouri]

The religious belief of the Bethel Communists is, of course, the samewith their Aurora brethren. They venerate Dr. Keil as the wisest ofmankind, and abhor all ceremonies and sects. I was told that theycelebrate the Lord's Supper at irregular intervals, and then by aregular supper, held either in the church or in a private house. 

The people, like those of Aurora, are simple Germans of the lower class, and they live comfortably after their fashion. They have no library, andread few books except the Bible. They have never printed any thing. Inmany of the houses I noticed two beds in one room, and that theprincipal sitting-room of the family. Dr. Giese, the president, hasliving with him most of the young men who are without family connectionsin the society. There are usually no carpets in the houses. But everything is clean; the beds are neat; and it is only out of doors thatlitter is to be found. 

The people have but little ingenuity; there is a lack of labor-savingdevices; indeed, the only thing of the kind I saw was a wash-house, through which the hot water from the boiler of the mill is led; but thehouse itself was badly arranged and comfortless. The young people have aband of music, but no other amusement that I could hear of. Tobacco theyuse freely, and strong drink is allowed; but they have no drunkards. 

As their future is secure, the people marry young, and this probablydoes much to bind them to the place. No restriction is placed uponmarriage, except that if one marries out of the community, he must leaveit. 

The extraordinary feature of the Bethel and Aurora communities is thelooseness of the bond which keeps the people together. They might breakup at any time; but they have remained in community for thirty years. Their religious belief is extremely simple, and yet it seems to sufficeto hold them. They have not had among them any good business-men, yetthey have managed to make a reasonably fair business success; forthough, as I remarked concerning Aurora, almost any farmer industriousand economical as they are would have been pecuniarily better off afterso many years, still these people, but for their determination to havetheir goods in common, would for the most part to-day have beenday-laborers. 

In weighing results, one should not forget the character of those whohave achieved them; and considering what these people are, it cannot bedenied that they have lived better in community than they would havelived by individual effort. 

THE ICARIANS, NEAR

CORNING, IOWA. 

THE ICARIANS. 

Etienne Cabet had a pretty dream; this dream took hold of his mind, andhe spent sixteen years of his life in trying to turn it into real life. 

One cannot help respecting the handful of men and women who, in thewilderness of Iowa, have for more than twenty years faithfullyendeavored to work out the problem of Communism according to the systemhe left them; but Cabet's own writings persuade me that he was littlemore than a vain dreamer, without the grim patience and steadfastunselfishness which must rule the nature of one who wishes to found asuccessful communistic society. 

Cabet was born at Dijon, in France, in 1788. He was educated for thebar, but became a politician and writer. He was a leader of theCarbonari; was a member of the French Legislature; wrote a history ofthe French Revolution of July; established a newspaper; was condemned totwo years' imprisonment for an article in it, but evaded his sentence byflying to London; in 1839 returned to France, and published a history ofthe French Revolution in four volumes; and the next year issued a booksomewhat famous in its day--the voyage to Icaria. In this romance hedescribed a communistic Utopia, whose terms he had dreamed out; and hebegan at once to try to realize his dream. He framed a constitution foran actual Icaria; sought for means and members to establish it; selectedTexas as its field of operations, and early in 1848 actually persuaded anumber of persons to set sail for the Red River country. 

Sixty-nine persons formed the advance guard of his Utopia. They wereattacked by yellow fever, and suffered greatly; and by the time nextyear when Cabet arrived at New Orleans with a second band, the first wasalready disorganized. He heard, on his arrival, that the Mormons hadbeen driven from Nauvoo, in Illinois, leaving their town deserted; andin May, 1850, he established his followers there. 

They bought at Nauvoo houses sufficient to accommodate them, but verylittle land, renting such farms as they needed. They lived there on acommunal system, and ate in a great dining-room. But Cabet, I have beentold, did not intend to form his colony permanently there, but regardedNauvoo only as a rendezvous for those who should join the community, intending to draft them thence to the real settlements, which he wishedto found in Iowa. 

If Cabet had been a leader of the right temper, he might, I believe, have succeeded; for he appears to have secured the only elementindispensable to success--a large number of followers. He had at Nauvooat one time not less than fifteen hundred people. With so many members, a wise leader with business skill ought to be able to accomplish verymuch in a single year; in ten years his commune, if he could keep ittogether, ought to be wealthy. 

The Icarians labored and planted with success at Nauvoo; theyestablished trades of different kinds, as well as manufactures; andCabet set up a printing-office, and issued a number of books andpamphlets in French and German, intended to attract attention to thecommunity. Among these, a pamphlet of twelve pages, entitled, "Wenn ich$500, 000 hätte" ("If I had half a million dollars"), which bears dateNauvoo, 1854, gives in some detail his plans and desires. It is astatement of what he could and would achieve for a commune if some onewould start him with a capital of half a million; and the fact that fouryears after he came to Nauvoo he should still have spent his time insuch an impracticable dream, shows, I think, that he was not a fitleader for the enterprise. For nothing appears to me more certain thanthat a communistic society, to be successful, needs above all things tohave the training, mental and physical, which comes out of a life ofprivation, spent in the patient accumulation of property by the laborsof the members. 

Moreover, in Cabet's first paragraph he shows contempt for one of thevital principles of a communistic society. "If I had five hundredthousand dollars, " he writes, "this would open to us an immense credit, and in this way vastly increase our means. " But it is absolutely certainthat debt is the bane of such societies; and the remnant of Icarians whohave so tenaciously and bravely held together in Iowa would be the firstto confess this, for they suffered hardships for years because of debt. 

If he had half a million, Cabet goes on to say, he would be able toestablish his commune upon a broad and generous scale; and he draws apretty picture of dwellings supplied with gas and hot and cold water; offactories fitted up on the largest scale; of fertile farms under thebest culture; of schools, high and elementary; of theatres, and otherplaces of amusement; of elegantly kept pleasure-grounds, and so on. Alasfor the dreams of a dreamer! I turned over the leaves of his pamphletwhile wandering through the muddy lanes of the present Icaria, on onechilly Sunday in March, with a keen sense of pain at the contrastbetween the comfort and elegance he so glowingly described and thedreary poverty of the life which a few determined men and women havethere chosen to follow, for the sake of principles which they hold bothtrue and valuable. 

I have heard that Cabet developed at Nauvoo a dictatorial spirit, andthat this produced in time a split in the society. The leader and hisadherents went off to St. Louis, where he died in 1856. Meantime some ofthe members were already settled in Iowa, and those who remained atNauvoo after Cabet's desertion or flight dispersed; the property wassold, and the Illinois colony came to an end. The greater part of themembers went off, more or less disappointed. Between fifty and sixtysettled upon the Iowa estate, and here began life, very poor and with adebt of twenty thousand dollars in some way fixed upon their land. 

Their narrow means allowed them to build at first only the meanest mudhovels. They thought themselves prosperous when they were able to buildlog-cabins, though these were so wretched that comfort must have beenunknown among them for years. They were obliged to raise all that theyconsumed; and they lived, and indeed still live, in the narrowest way. 

The Icarian Commune lies about four miles from Corning, a station on theBurlington and Missouri River Railroad, in Iowa. They began here withfour thousand acres of land, pretty well selected, and twenty thousanddollars of debt. After some years of struggle they gave up the land totheir creditors, with the condition that they might redeem one half ofit within a certain stipulated time. This they were able to do by hardwork and pinching economy; and they own at present one thousand ninehundred and thirty-six acres, part of which is in timber, and valuableon that account. 

There are in all sixty-five members, and eleven families. The familiesare not large, for there are twenty children and only twenty-threevoters in the community. 

They possess a saw-mill and grist-mill, built out of their savingswithin five years, and now a source of income. They cultivate threehundred and fifty acres of land, and have one hundred and twenty head ofcattle, five hundred head of sheep, two hundred and fifty hogs, andthirty horses. Until within three years the settlement contained onlylog-cabins, and these very small, and not commodiously arranged. Sincethen they have got entirely out of debt, and have begun to build framehouses. The most conspicuous of these is a two-story building, sixty bytwenty-four feet in dimensions, which contains the common dining-room, kitchen, a provision cellar, and up stairs a room for a library, andapartments for a family. In the spring of 1874 they had nearly a dozenframe houses, which included the dining-hall, a wash-house, dairy, andschool-house. All the dwellings are small and very cheaply built. Theyhave small shops for carpentry, blacksmithing, wagon-making, andshoemaking; and they make, as far as possible, all they use. 

Most of the people are French, and this is the language mainly spoken, though I found that German was also understood. Besides the French, there are among the members one American, one Swiss, a Swede, and aSpaniard, and two Germans. The children look remarkably healthy, and onSunday were dressed with great taste. The living is still of theplainest. In the common dining-hall they assemble in groups at thetables, which were without a cloth, and they drink out of tin cups, andpour their water from tin cans. "It is very plain, " said one to me; "butwe are independent--no man's servants--and we are content. "

They sell about two thousand five hundred pounds of wool each year, anda certain number of cattle and hogs; and these, with the earnings oftheir mills, are the sources of their income. 

Their number does not increase, though four or five years ago they werereduced to thirty members; but since then seven who went off havereturned. I should say that they had passed over the hardest times, andthat a moderate degree of prosperity is possible to them now; but theyhave waited long for it. I judge that they had but poor skill inmanagement and no business talent; but certainly they had abundantcourage and determination. 

They live under a somewhat elaborate constitution, made for them byCabet, which lays down with great care the equality and brotherhood ofmankind, and the duty of holding all things in common; abolishesservitude and service (or servants); commands marriage, under penalties;provides for education; and requires that the majority shall rule. Inpractice they elect a president once a year, who is the executiveofficer, but whose powers are strictly limited to carrying out thecommands of the society. "He could not even sell a bushel of cornwithout instructions, " said one to me. Every Saturday evening they holda meeting of all the adults, women as well as men, for the discussion ofbusiness and other affairs. Officers are chosen at every meeting topreside and keep the records; the president may present subjects fordiscussion; and women may speak, but have no vote. The conclusions ofthe meeting are to rule the president during the next week. All accountsare made up monthly, and presented to the society for discussion andcriticism. Besides the president, there are four directors--ofagriculture, clothing, general industry, and building. These carry onthe necessary work, and direct the other members. They buy at wholesaletwice a year, and just before these purchases are made each member inpublic meeting makes his or her wants known. Luxury is prohibited in theconstitution, but they have not been much tempted in that direction sofar. They use tobacco, however. 

They have no religious observances. Sunday is a day of rest from labor, when the young men go out with guns, and the society sometimes hastheatrical representations, or music, or some kind of amusement. Theprinciple is to let each one do as he pleases. 

They employ two or three hired men to chop wood and labor on the farm. 

They have a school for the children, the president being teacher. 

The people are opposed to what is called a "unitary home, " and prefer tohave a separate dwelling for each family. 

The children are kept in school until they are sixteen; and the peoplelamented their poverty, which prevented them from providing bettereducation for them. 

Members are received by a three-fourths' majority. 

This is Icaria. It is the least prosperous of all the communities I havevisited; and I could not help feeling pity, if not for the men, yet forthe women and children of the settlement, who have lived through all thepenury and hardship of these many years. A gentleman who knew of myvisit there writes me: "Please deal gently and cautiously with Icaria. The man who sees only the chaotic village and the wooden shoes, and onlychronicles those, will commit a serious error. In that village areburied fortunes, noble hopes, and the aspirations of good and great menlike Cabet. Fertilized by these deaths, a great and beneficent growthyet awaits Icaria. It has an eventful and extremely interesting history, but its future is destined to be still more interesting. It, and italone, represents in America a great idea--rational democraticcommunism. "

I am far from belittling the effort of the men of Icaria. They haveshown, as I have said, astonishing courage and perseverance. They haveproved their faith in the communistic idea by labors and sufferingswhich seem to me pitiful. In fact, communism is their religion. Buttheir long siege at fortune's door only shows how important, and indeedindispensable to the success of such an effort, it is to have an ableleader, and to give to him almost unlimited power and absoluteobedience. 

THE BISHOP HILL COMMUNE. 

I have determined to give a brief account of the Swedish colony atBishop Hill, in Henry County, Illinois, because, though it has nowceased to exist as a communistic society, its story yields someinstructive lessons in the creation and maintenance of suchassociations. These Swedes began in abject poverty, and in the course ofa few years built up a prosperous town and settlement. They rashly wentinto debt: debt brought lawsuits and disputes into the society, and allthree broke it up. 

The people of Bishop Hill came from the region of Helsingland, inSweden. In their own country they were Pietists, and Separatists fromthe State Church, mostly farmers, scattered over a considerabledistrict, but united by their peculiar doctrines, and by the efforts oftheir preachers. I am told that they came into existence as a sect about1830; in 1843 their chief preacher was a man of some energy, Eric Jansonby name; and he taught them the duty of living after the manner of thePrimitive Christian Church, inculcating humble and prayerful lives, equality of conditions, and community of property. 

Their refusal to attend church, and to submit themselves to itsordinances, excited the attention of the government, which, probablyalso alarmed at the phrase "community of goods, " began to persecute themwith fines and imprisonment. Police officers were sent to break up theircongregations; they imagined themselves threatened with confiscation;and in 1845 they sent one of their number, Olaf Olson, to the UnitedStates, to see if they could not here find land on which to live inpeace and freedom. Olson's inquiries led him to Illinois; he selectedHenry County as a favorable situation; and in 1846, on his report, thepeople determined to emigrate in a body, the few wealthy agreeing to paythe expenses of the poor. They say that when they were ready to embark, they were refused permission to leave their country, and Jonas Olson, one of their leaders, had to go to the king, who, on his prayer, finallyallowed them to depart. 

The first ship-load left Galfa in the summer of 1846, and arrived atBishop Hill in October of that year. Others followed, until by thesummer of 1848 they had eight hundred people on this spot--which theynamed from an eminence in their own country. 

They appear to have spent most of their means in the emigration, forthey were able during the first year to buy only forty acres of land, and for eighteen months they lived in extreme poverty--in holes in theground, and under sheds built against hillsides; and ground their cornfor bread in hand-mills, often laboring at this task by turns all night, to provide meal for the next day. A tent made of linen cloth was theirchurch during this time; and they worked the land of neighboring farmerson shares to gain a subsistence. Living on the prairie, fever and agueattacked them and added to their wretchedness. 

By 1848 they had acquired two hundred acres of land, but were $1800 indebt, which they had borrowed to keep them from starving; but in thisyear they built a brick church, and they now worked a good deal of landon shares. In 1849 they began to build a very long brick house, stillstanding, which served them as kitchen and dining-hall. In the same yearJonas Olson, a preacher, took eight young men, and with the consent ofthe society went to California to dig gold for the common interest. Hereturned after a year, unsuccessful. 

In 1850 Eric Janson, their leader, was shot in the Henry Countycourt-house, while attending a trial in which a young man, not a memberof the community, claimed his wife, a girl who was a member, and whom hewished to take away. I do not know the merits of the case, nor is itimportant here. During this year Olaf Janson returned from Sweden withseveral thousand dollars which he had been sent to collect--being debtsdue some of the members; and this money, which enabled them to buy land, appears to have given them their first fair start. 

At this time, though they were still poor, they had built a number ofbrick dwellings, had set up shops for carpentry, blacksmithing, wagon-making, etc. ; were raising flax, selling the seed, and making thefiber into linen, some of which they sold; and they had a few cattle, and a worn-out saw-mill. They had set up a school, even while they lived"in the caves, " and now hired an American teacher. 

In 1853 they got an act of incorporation from the Illinois Legislature, which enabled them to hold land and transact business as an association, and in the name of trustees; until that time all they owned was held inthe name of individual members. In the same year they made a contract toraise, during two years, seven hundred acres of broom-corn, for whichthey received in cash on delivery fifty dollars a ton. As yet they hadno railroad, and had to haul their corn fifty miles. At this time, too, they began to improve their breeds of cattle; paid high prices for oneor two short-horn bulls, and were soon famous in their region for theexcellence of their stock. They also made wagons for the neighboringfarmers, and established a grist-mill. 

In 1854-5 they took a contract to grade a part of the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad line, and to build some bridges; and asthey were able to put a considerable body of their young men upon thiswork, it brought them in a good deal of money. They now began to erectbrick dwellings, a town-hall, and a large hotel, where they for a whiledid a good business. They made excellent brick, and all their houses arevery solidly built, plain, but of pleasing exteriors. The mostremarkable one is the long dining-hall and kitchen, with a bakery andbrewery adjoining. In the upper story of this building a considerablenumber of families lived; in the lower story all the people--to thenumber of a thousand at one time--ate three times a day. 

They were now prospering. In 1859 they owned ten thousand acres of land, and had it all neatly fenced and in excellent order. They had the finestcattle in the state; and their shops and mills earned money from theneighboring farmers. 

The families lived separately, but all ate together. They received theirclothing supplies at a common storehouse as they needed them, andlabored under the direction of foremen. Their business organization wasalways loose. They had no president or single head. A body of trusteestransacted business, and made reports to the society, not regularly, butat irregular intervals. There seems, too, to have been a speculativespirit among them, for while in 1859 they owned ten thousand acres ofland and a town, which must have been worth at least three hundredthousand dollars, as the land was all fenced and improved, and the townwas uncommonly well built, [Footnote: Between four and five hundredthousand dollars was their own valuation; and in 1860 a report given inone of the briefs of a lawsuit gives their assets at $864, 000, and theirdebts at less than $100, 000. ] they owed at that time, or in 1860, between eighty and one hundred thousand dollars. 

Their religions life was very simple. They had no paid preacher, butexpected their leaders to labor during the week with the rest. On Sundaythey had two services in the church--at ten in the morning, and betweensix and seven in the evening. At these, after singing and prayer, thepreacher read the Bible, and commented on what he read. On everyweek-day evening, unless the weather was bad, they held a similarmeeting, which lasted an hour and a half. They had no library, andencouraged no reading except in the Bible, teaching that the mostimportant matter for every man was to get a thorough understanding ofthe commandments of God. They had for a little while a newspaper, andthey printed at the neighboring town of Galva, which was their businesscentre, an edition of their hymn-book. [Footnote: "Några Sånger, samtBöner. Förfatade af Erik Janson. Förenade Staterna, Galva, Ills. S. Cronsioe, 1857. "] They discouraged amusements, as tending toworldliness; and though they appear to have lived happily and withoutdisputes, about 1859 they discovered that their young people, who hadgrown up in the society, were discontented, found the community lifedull, did not care for the religious views of the society, and wereready to break up the organization. 

When this discontent arose, the looseness of the organization was fatal. With a more compact and energetic administration, either thedissatisfied elements would have been eliminated quietly, or the causesof dissatisfaction, mainly, as far as I could understand, the dullnessof the life and the lack of amusements, would have been removed. Butwith a loose organization there appears to have been, what is notunnatural, rigidity of discipline. There was no power any where to makechanges. "The discontented ones wanted a change, but no change waspossible: it was often discussed. " The young people persuaded some ofthe older ones to be of their mind, and thus two parties were formed;and after many meetings, in which I imagine there were sometimes bitterwords, it was determined in the spring of 1860 to divide the property, the Olson party, as it was called, including two thirds of themembership, determining with their share to continue the community, while the Janson party determined on individual effort. 

Hereupon two thirds of the real and personal property was set apart forthe Olson party, but for a whole year the two parties lived together atBishop Hill. In 1861 the Janson party divided their share among thefamilies composing it; and in the same year the disorganizationproceeded another step. The Olson party fell into three divisions. In1862, finally, all the property was divided, and the commune ceased toexist. 

In 1860 a receiver had been appointed. In 1861 Olaf Janson was appointedattorney in fact. This became necessary, because, besides the property, there were debts; and when the trustees were removed and a receiver wasappointed, the question necessarily came up how the debts should be met. The division of the property was made by a committee of the society, whotook a complete inventory, including even the smallest householdarticles; and at the time there seems to have been no complaint ofunfairness. The whole was divided into shares, of which each manreceived one, and women and children fractional shares. A part of theproperty was set off, sufficient, as it was then believed, to pay offthe indebtedness; but it proved insufficient, and finally each farmgiven to a member in the partition was saddled with a share ofindebtedness; and as there was poor management after the disorganizationbegan, and as the debt constantly increased by the non-payment ofinterest, there are now, thirteen years after the final partition, heavylawsuits still pending in the courts against the colony and itstrustees. 

In 1861 the community raised a company of soldiers for the Union army, furnishing both privates and officers. These fought through the war, andone of the younger members after the war was, for meritorious conductand promising intellect, taken as a scholar at West Point, where he wasgraduated with honor. 

At present Bishop Hill is slowly falling into decay. The houses arestill mostly inhabited; there are several shops and stores; but thelarger buildings are out of repair; and business has centred at Galva, five or six miles distant. Most of the former communists live happily ontheir small farms. A Methodist church has been built in the village, andhas some attendants, but a good many of the older members have adoptedthe Adventist or Millerite faith, which appears to revive after everyfailure of prediction, especially in the West, where people seem to lookforward with a quite singular pleasure to the fiery end of all things. 

On the whole, it is a melancholy story. It shows both what can beachieved by combined industry, and what trifles can destroy such anorganization as a communistic society. It shows the extreme importanceof a central authority, wisely administered but also implicitly obeyed;able therefore to yield, as well as to act, promptly. The history ofthese Bishop Hill Communists also shows the necessity of great cautionin all financial affairs in a commune, which ought to avoid debt likethe plague, and to live financially as though it might break up at anymoment. 

Not only were debt and the speculative spirit out of which debt arosethe causes of the colony's failure, but they have brought great troubleon the people since. Had there been no debt, the commune could havedivided its property among the members at any time, without loss ortrouble; and I suspect that the possibility of such an immediatedivision might have induced the people to keep together. 

At any rate, the story of Bishop Hill shows how important it would be toa community agreeing to labor and produce in common for a limited timeto keep free from debt. 

THE CEDAR VALE COMMUNITY. 

At Cedar Vale, in Howard County, Kansas, a communistic society has beenfounded, which, though its small numbers might make it insignificant, isremarkable by reason of the nationality of some of its members. 

It was begun three years ago, and the purpose of its projectors was "toachieve both communism and individual freedom, or to lead persons of allkinds of opinions to labor together for their common welfare. If therewas to be any law, it should be only for the regulation of industry orhours of work. " I quote this from the letter of a gentleman who isfamiliar with this society, and who has been kind enough to send me itsconstitution, and to give me the following particulars: "It is now threeyears since the founders of the society settled in this domain, cominghere entirely destitute, and building first as a residence a coveredburrow in a hillside. Two of them had left affluence and position inRussia, and subjected themselves to this poverty for the sake of theirprinciples. Of course they suffered here from fever, from insufficientfood, and cold, and were not able to make much improvement on the place. The practical condition now, though insignificant from the common pointof view, compared with what has been, is very satisfactory. There are atleast comfortable shelter and enough to eat, and this year sufficientland will be fenced and planted to leave a surplus. 

"The propaganda has been made among two essentially differing classes ofsocialists--the Russian Materialists and the American Spiritualists. Both these classes are represented in the community, and thus far seemto live in harmony. There are here a 'hygienic doctor' and a 'reformedclergyman, ' both Spiritualists, and a Russian sculptor of considerablefame, a Russian astronomer, and a very pretty and devoted andwonderfully industrious Russian woman. "

The printed statement made by the community I copy here, as a sufficientaccount of its numbers and possessions in April, 1874:

"The PROGRESSIVE COMMUNITY is located near Cedar Vale, Howard County, Kansas, has three hundred and twenty acres of choice prairie land, withabundance of stock, water, and with all advantages for successfulfarming, stock and fruit raising. 

"The nearest railroad station is Independence, Montgomery County, Kansas, fifty miles east from the place. 

"The community was established in January, 1871. It is out of debt now, and has a fair prospect for success in the future. 

"The business of the community consists chiefly in farming. 

"Number of members: four males; three females; one child. Persons onprobation: two males; one female; one child. 

"Improvements: frame house; stable; forty acres under fence; four acresof orchard and vines. 

"Live stock and implements: four horses; four oxen; three cows andcalves. 

"The co-operation of earnest communists is wanted for the betterrealization of a true home based on Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. 

"No fee is required from those who visit the community, but their workfor the community is regarded as equivalent to their current expenses. 

"The principles and organization of the community can be seen from thefollowing constitution. 

"PREAMBLE. "

"_Whereas_, we believe that man is not only an individual havingrights as such, but also owing social duties to others, and that strictjustice requires us to help each other, and that our highest happinessand development can only be attained by a union and co-operation ofinterests and efforts; _Therefore_, we pledge ourselves to live

"'For the cause that lacks assistance, For the wrong that needs resistance, For the future in the distance, And the good that we can do. '

"And we, whose names are annexed, hereby organize ourselves under thename of the PROGRESSIVE COMMUNITY, and agree to devote our labor andmeans, to the full extent of our ability, to carry out the following:

"CONSTITUTION. "

"ARTICLE I. "

"SEC. 1. --The community shall be considered as a family. The membersshall unite in their labor and business, hold their property in commonfor the use of all, and dwell together in a unitary home. "

"SEC. 2. --Each member shall be free to hold whatever opinions hisconscience may dictate; and the community shall make no restriction orregulation interfering with the freedom of any, except when his actionsconflict with the rights of others. "

"SEC. 3. --All shall be alike responsible for the strict observance ofthis constitution. Equal rights and privileges shall be accorded to allmembers; but the community may temporarily withhold from a member theright to vote by the unanimous consent of the rest. "

"ARTICLE II. "

"SEC. 1. --All matters concerning the welfare of the community shall bedecided by the members at their meetings, which shall be of thefollowing kinds: (1) Daily business meetings for the decision of dailywork; (2) Weekly meetings for the discussion of business questions, andfor remarks on the general interests and welfare of the community. "

"SEC. 2. --All decisions, except as herein otherwise provided for, shallbe by a majority of three fourths of all the members. "

"SEC. 3. --Debts may be contracted, or credit given, only by theunanimous vote of the community. "

"SEC. 4. --The officers of the community shall consist of a president, secretary, treasurer, and managers. They shall be elected at the end ofeach year, and enter on the duties of their offices on the first ofJanuary following, being subject to removal at any time. "

"SEC. 5. --The president shall preside at all meetings, shall see thatthe decisions of the community are carried out, and make temporaryarrangements for the business of the day when necessary. "

"SEC. 6. --The secretary shall record the proceedings of all the meetingsof the community, attend to all its correspondence, and preserve all thevaluable documents thereof. "

"SEC. 7. --The treasurer shall hold the fund of the community, and keepan accurate account of all money received or expended; but no moneyshall be paid out except as appropriated by the community. He shall makea report at each business meeting. "

"SEC. 8. --The managers shall control the different departments to whichthey are elected, decide all details of business, if not previouslyacted upon by the community, and make reports at each business meeting. "

"ARTICLE III. "

"SEC. 1. --Any person, after having lived in the community, and havingbecome thoroughly acquainted with its members and the community life, may become a member by subscribing to this constitution; provided he isaccepted by the unanimous vote of the community. "

"SEC. 2. --All property which members may have, or may receive from anysource or at any time, shall be given to the community withoutreservation or return. "

"SEC. 3. --The members shall be furnished with food, clothing, andlodging, care and attention in sickness, misfortune, infancy, or oldage, and the means and opportunity for a complete integral education, and for such other necessary requirements as the community can afford;and these benefits shall be guaranteed by the whole resources of thecommunity. "

"SEC. 4. --A withdrawing member shall not bring any claim against thecommunity on account of any labor, services, or property given thereto;but his current expenses and the advantages of the community life shallbe considered as an equivalent therefore. He shall be allowed to takefrom the common property only what may be decided upon by the communityat the time of withdrawal. "

"SEC. 5. --Children of the members, or those which may be adopted by thecommunity, shall be considered as members thereof; they shall have equalrights as herein specified, except voting, to which privilege they shallbe admitted when the community by unanimous consent shall think best, and after signing their names to this constitution. "

"ARTICLE IV. "

"Any amendments, additions to, or interpretations of this constitutionmay be made at any time by unanimous vote of the community. "

THE SOCIAL FREEDOM COMMUNITY. 

This is a communistic society, established in the beginning of the year1874 in Chesterfield County, Virginia. It has as "full members" twowomen, one man, and three boys, with four women and five men as"probationary members. " They have a farm of three hundred andthirty-three acres, unencumbered with debt, and with a water-power onit; and are attempting general farming, the raising of medicinal herbs, sawing lumber and staves, coopering, and the grinding of grain. Themembers are all Americans. 

They hold, the secretary writes me, to "unity of interests, andpolitical, religious, and social freedom; and believe that everyindividual should have absolute control of herself or himself, and that, so long as they respect the same freedom in others, no one has a rightto infringe on that individuality. "

The secretary further writes: "We have no constitution or bylaws; ignorethe idea of man's total depravity; and believe that all who are actuatedby a love of truth and a desire to progress (and we will knowinglyaccept no others), can be better governed by love and moral suasion thanby any arbitrary laws. Our government consists in free criticism. Wehave a unitary home. "

COLONIES WHICH ARE NOT COMMUNISTIC. 

COLONIES--NOT COMMUNISTIC. 

I have noticed that not unfrequently Vineland, in New Jersey, andAnaheim, in California, are classed with Communistic Societies. They arenothing of the kind; and only one of the two--Anaheim, namely--was inthe beginning even co-operative. 

As, however, both these settlements were founded under peculiarcircumstances, and as both show what can be achieved in a short time bymen of narrow means, acting more or less in concert for certainpurposes, I have determined to give here a brief history of the twoplaces. 

_Anaheim_. 

Anaheim, the oldest of these two "colonies, " lies in Los Angeles County, in Southern California, about thirty miles from the town of Los Angeles, and ten or twelve miles from the ocean, upon a fertile and well-wateredplain. In its settlement it was strictly a co-operative enterprise. 

In 1857 several Germans in San Francisco proposed to certain of theircountrymen to purchase by a united effort a tract of land in thesouthern part of the state, cause it to be subdivided into small farms, and procure these to be fenced, planted with grape-vines and trees, andotherwise prepared for the settlement of the owners. After somedeliberation, fifty men set their names to an agreement to buy elevenhundred and sixty-five acres of land, at two dollars per acre; securingwater-rights for irrigation with the purchase, because in that regionthe dry summers necessitate artificial watering. 

The originator of the enterprise, Mr. Hansen, of Los Angeles, a Germanlawyer and civil engineer, a man of culture, was appointed by hisassociates to select and secure the land; and eventually he became themanager of the whole enterprise, up to the point where it lost itsco-operative features and the members took possession of their farms. 

The Anaheim associates consisted in the main of mechanics, and they hadnot a farmer among them. They were all Germans. There were severalcarpenters, a gunsmith, an engraver, three watch-makers, fourblacksmiths, a brewer, a teacher, a shoemaker, a miller, a hatter, ahotel-keeper, a bookbinder, four or five musicians, a poet (of course), several merchants, and some teamsters. It was a very heterogeneousassembly; they had but one thing in common: they were all, with one ortwo exceptions, poor. Very few had more than a few dollars saved; mostof them had neither cash nor credit enough to buy even a twenty-acrefarm; and none of them were in circumstances which promised them morethan a decent living. 

The plan of the society was to buy the land, and thereupon to cause itto be subdivided and improved as I have said by monthly contributionsfrom the members, who were meantime to go on with their usualemployments in San Francisco. It was agreed to divide the eleven hundredand sixty-five acres into fifty twenty-acre tracts, and fifty villagelots, the village to stand in the centre of the purchase. Fourteen lotswere also set aside for school-houses and other public buildings. 

With the first contribution the land was bought. The fifty associateshad to pay about fifty dollars each for this purpose. This done, theyappointed Mr. Hansen their agent to make the projected improvements; andthey, it may be supposed, worked a little more steadily and lived alittle more frugally in San Francisco. He employed Spaniards and Indiansas laborers; and what he did was to dig a ditch seven miles long to leadwater out of the Santa Anna River, with four hundred and fifty miles ofsubsidiary ditches and twenty-five miles of feeders to lead the waterover every twenty-acre lot. This done, he planted on every farm eightacres of grapes and some fruit-trees; and on the whole place over fivemiles of outside willow fencing and thirty-five miles of inside fencing. Willows grow rapidly in that region, and make a very close fence, yielding also fire-wood sufficient for the farmer's use. 

All this had to be done gradually, so that the payments for labor shouldnot exceed the monthly contributions of the associates, for they had nocredit to use in the beginning, and contracted no debts. 

When the planting was done, the superintendent cultivated and pruned thegrape-vines and trees, and took care of the place; and it was only whenthe vines were old enough to bear, and thus to yield an income at once, that the proprietors took possession. 

At the end of three years the whole of this labor had been performed andpaid for; the vines were ready to bear a crop, and the division of lotstook place. Each shareholder had at this time paid in all twelve hundreddollars; a few, I have been told, fell behind somewhat, but were helpedby some of their associates who were in better circumstances. If wesuppose that most of the members had no money laid by at the beginningof the enterprise, it would appear that during three years they saved, over and above their living, somewhat less than eight dollars a week--aconsiderable sum, but easily possible at that time in California to agood and steady mechanic. 

It was inevitable that some of the small farms should be more valuablethan others; and there was naturally a difference, too, in the villagelots. To make the division fairly, all the places were viewed, and aschedule was made of them, on which each was assessed at a certainprice, varying from six hundred to fourteen hundred dollars, accordingto its situation, the excellence of its fruit, etc. They were thendistributed by a kind of lottery, with the condition that if the farmdrawn was valued in the schedule over twelve hundred dollars, he whodrew it should pay into the general treasury the surplus; if it wasvalued at less, he who drew it received from the common fund a sum whichh, added to the value of his farm, equaled twelve hundred dollars. ThusA, who drew a fourteen-hundred-dollar lot, paid two hundred dollars; B, who drew a six-hundred-dollar lot, received six hundred dollarsadditional in cash. 

The property was by this time in such a state of improvement that moneycould readily be borrowed on the security of these small farms. Moreover, when the drawing was completed, there was a sale of theeffects of the company--horses, tools, etc. ; and on closing all theaccounts and balancing the books, it was found that there remained a sumof money in the general treasury sufficient to give each of the fiftyshareholders a hundred dollars in cash as a final dividend. 

When this was done, the co-operative feature of the enterprisedisappeared. The members, each in his own good time, settled on theirfarms. Lumber was bought at wholesale, and they began to build theirhouses. Fifty families make a little town in any of our Western States, sufficiently important to attract traders. The village lots at onceacquired a value, and some were sold to shopkeepers. A school wasquickly established; mechanics of different kinds came down to Anaheimto work for wages; and the colonists in fact gathered about them at oncemany conveniences which, if they had settled singly, they could not havecommanded for some years. 

They were still poor, however. But few of them were able even to buildthe slight house needed in that climate without running into debt. Forborrowed money they had to pay from two to three per cent, per monthinterest. Moreover, none of them were farmers; and they had to learn tocultivate, prune, and take care of their vines, to make wine, and tomake a vegetable garden. They had from the first to raise and sellenough for their own support, and to pay at least the heavy interest ontheir debts. It resulted that for some years longer they had a strugglewith a burden of debt, and had to live with great economy. But thepeople told me that they had always enough to eat, a good school fortheir children, and the immense satisfaction of being their ownemployers. "We had music and dancing in those days; and, though we werevery poor, I look back to those times as the happiest in all our lives, "said one man to me. 

And they gradually got out of debt. Not one failed. The sheriff hasnever sold out any one in Anaheim; and only one of the original settlershad left the place when I saw it in 1872. They have no destitute people. Their vineyards give them an annual _clear_ income of from twohundred and fifty to one thousand dollars over and above their livingexpenses; their children have enjoyed the advantages of a social life anda fairly good school. And, finally, the property which originally costthem an average of one thousand and eighty dollars for each, is now worthfrom five to ten thousand dollars. They live well, and feel themselves asindependent as though they were millionaires. 

Now this was an enterprise which any company of prudent mechanics, witha steadfast purpose, might easily imitate. The founders of Anaheim werenot picked men. I have been told that they were not without jealousiesand suspicions of each other and of their manager, which made his lifeoften uncomfortable, and threatened the life of the undertaking. Theyhad grumblers, fault-finders, and wiseacres in their company, asprobably there will be among any company of fifty men; and I have heardthat Mr. Hansen, who was their able and honest manager, declared that hewould rather starve than conduct another such enterprise. 

They were extremely fortunate to have for their manager an honest, patient, and sufficiently able man; and such a leader is indeed thecorner-stone of an undertaking of this kind. Granted a man sufficientlywise and honest, in whom his associates can have confidence, and thereneeds only moderate patience, perseverance, and economy, in the body ofthe company, to achieve success. Nor could I help noticing, when I wasat Anaheim, that the experience and training which men gain in carryingto success--no matter through what struggles of poverty, self-denial, and debt--such an enterprise, has an admirable effect on theircharacters. The men of Anaheim were originally a very common class ofmechanics; they have stepped up to a higher plane of life--they aremasters of their own lives. This result--namely, the training offamilies in the hardier virtues, their elevation to a higher moral aswell as physical standard--is certainly not to be overlooked by anythoughtful man. 

_Vineland. _

Vineland was not a co-operative enterprise. It is the land-speculationof a long-headed, kind-hearted man, who believed that he could form asettlement profitable and advantageous to many people, and withpecuniary benefit to himself. Until the year 1861, the southern part ofNew Jersey contained a large region known as "the Barrens, " and verysparsely settled with a rude and unthrifty population. The light soilwas supposed to be unfit for profitable agriculture; and the country formiles was covered with scrub pine and small oak timber, used chiefly forcharcoal, and as fuel for some glass factories at Millville andGlassborough. Much of this land was owned in large tracts, and broughtin but a small revenue. When the West Jersey Railroad, connecting CapeMay with Philadelphia, was completed, it ran through many miles of these"Barrens, " and some of the owners, tired of a property which in theirhands had little value, were ready to sell out. 

Charles K. Landis had conceived the idea of forming a colony, uponcertain plans which he had matured in his own mind. His attention wasattracted to this region, and after examining the soil and the generalcharacter of the region, he bought sixteen thousand acres in one parcel. To this he added, soon after, another purchase of fourteen thousandacres, making thirty thousand in all. He has bought lately (in 1874)twenty-three thousand acres more. 

The country is a rolling plain, densely overgrown with small wood, withone or two streams running through it; with water obtainable at fromfifteen to thirty feet every where, and perfectly healthy. Mr. Landistook possession in August, 1861, and at once began to develop the landaccording to his own ideas. He laid out, first, the town site ofVineland, in the centre of the tract; next had the adjacent plainsurveyed, and laid out into tracts of ten, twenty, and fifty acres; laidout and opened roads, so as to make these small parcels accessible; andthen he began to advertise for settlers. 

His offer was to sell the land, lying within thirty-four miles ofPhiladelphia by railroad, in tracts of from ten to forty or sixty acres, at twenty-five dollars per acre, guaranteeing a clear title, and givingreasonable credit, but requiring the purchasers to make certainimprovements within a year after buying. These consisted of ahouse--which need not be costly--the clearing of some acres of ground, and the planting of shade-trees along the road-side, and sowing a stripof this road-side with some kind of grass. It was also stipulated thatif the owner, in after-years, neglected his road-side adornment, itshould be kept in order by the town at his cost. 

Mr. Landis had procured the passage of a law prohibiting the straying ofcattle within the limits of the township in which his estate lay; andconsequently the new settlers were not obliged to build fences. This wasan immense saving to the people, who came in mostly with small means. Vineland has to-day between eleven thousand and twelve thousand people;it has about one hundred and eighty miles of roads; and it is probablethat the "no fence" regulation, as it is called, has saved theinhabitants at least a million and a half of dollars. 

He prevented in the beginning, with the most solicitous care, theestablishment of bar-rooms or dram-shops on the tract; the Legislaturegave permission to the people of the township, by an annual vote, todecide whether the sale of liquor at retail should be allowed orforbidden, and they have constantly forbidden it, to their immenseadvantage. 

He endeavored as soon as possible to establish factories in the village, and succeeded so well in this that there has long been a local marketfor a part of the products of the place. 

He founded and encouraged library, horticultural, and other societies, helped in the building of churches, and paid particular attention toobtaining for the people facilities for marketing their productsadvantageously. 

In all these concerns he sought the advantage of the settlers on hislands, knowing that their prosperity would make him also prosperous. 

But one other part of his plan appears to me to have been ofextraordinary importance, though usually it is not mentioned indescriptions of Vineland. Mr. Landis established the price of his ownuncultivated lands at twenty-five dollars per acre. At that price hesold to the first settler; and that price he did not increase for manyyears. Any one could, within two or three years, buy wild land on theVineland tract at twenty-five dollars per acre. This means that he didnot speculate upon the improvements of the settlers. He gave to them theadvantage of their labors. It resulted that many poor men bought, cleared, and planted places in Vineland on purpose to sell them, certainthat they could, if they wished, buy more land at the same price oftwenty-five dollars per acre which they originally paid. 

In my judgment, this feature of the Vineland enterprise, more than anyother, changed it from a merely selfish speculation to one of a higherorder, in which the settlers, to a large extent, have a common interestwith the proprietor of the land. He might have done all the rest--mighthave laid out roads, proclaimed a "no fence" law, prevented theestablishment of dram-shops, helped on educational and otherenterprises--and still, had he raised the price of his wild lands as thesettlers increased, he would have been a mere land speculator, and Idoubt if his scheme would have obtained more than a very moderate andshort-lived success. But the undertaking to sell his wild land always atthe one fixed price, not only gave later comers an advantage whichattracted them with a constantly increasing force, but it gave thepoorer settlers an occupation from which many of them gainedhandsomely--the improvement of places to sell to new-comers withcapital. The result showed Mr. Landis's wisdom. Improved property, cleared and planted in fruit, has always borne a high price in Vineland, and has almost always had a ready sale, but there has never been anyfeverish land speculation there. 

In twelve years the founder of Vineland was able to collect upon histract--which had not a single inhabitant in 1861--about eleven thousandpeople. Most of these have improved their condition in life materiallyby settling there. Many of them came without sufficient capital, and nodoubt suffered from want in the early days of their Vineland life. Butif they persevered, two or three years of effort made them comfortable. Meantime they had, what our American farmers have not in general, easyaccess to good schools for their children, to churches and anintelligent society, and the possibility of good laws regarding the saleof liquor. 

Vineland was settled largely by New England people. They are morerestless and changeable than the Germans of Anaheim: less easilycontented with mere comfort. The New-Englander seems to me to likechange, often, for its own sake; the German too frequently goes to theother extreme, and so greatly abhors change that he does withoutconveniences which he might well afford. Anaheim and Vineland differ inthese respects, as the character of their inhabitants differs. But inboth, no one can doubt that the people have been greatly benefited bythe colonizing experiment; that they not merely live better, but have ahigher standard of thinking as well, and are thus better citizens thanthey would have been had they remained in their original employments andabodes. 

Some of the striking practical and moral results of the Vineland plan ofcolonization were set forth by Mr. Landis in a speech before theLegislature of New Jersey last year; and the following extracts fromthis address are of interest in this place. He said:

"When I first projected the colony, in 1861, what is now Vineland laybefore me an unbroken wilderness. Nothing was to be heard but the songof birds to break the silence, which at times was oppressive. It wasnecessary that the fifty square miles of territory should be suddenly, thoroughly, and permanently improved. The land was in good part to bepaid for out of the proceeds of sale. One hundred and seventy miles ofpublic roads and other improvements were to be made, and theimprovements were to be such as to insure the prosperity of the colonistin future years, as my outlay was in the early start of the settlement, and my returns were not to be realized for years to come. If thesettlement should not be prosperous in these years to come, I couldnever realize my reward, and besides, ruin, involving character andfortune, stared me in the face. It was by no temporary efforts orexpedients that I could succeed, but by fixing upon certain principles, calculated to be creative, healthful, and permanent in theirinfluences--principles which, while they benefited each colonist day byday, would have a growing influence in developing the prosperity of thecolony. What were these principles?

"1. That no land should be sold to speculators who would not improve, but only to persons who would agree to improve in a specified time, andalso to plant shade-trees in front of their places, and seed theroad-sides to grass for purposes of public utility and ornamentation. 

"2. That no man should be compelled to erect fences, that his neighbor'scattle might roam at large; but that the old and shiftless and wastefulsystem should be done away with. 

"3. That the public sale of intoxicating drinks should be prohibited, and that this prohibition should be obtained by leaving it to a vote ofthe people. 

"By the first principle, the continual improvement of the land wassecured. Employment was furnished to laborers at remunerative prices. The value of the land was increased by the mutual effort of thecolonists. The value of my land was also enhanced, and it was made moreand more marketable. 

"By the second principle, a vast and constant expense was saved--greaterthan the cost and annual interest upon all the railroads of the UnitedStates. Stock was improved, the cultivation of root crops wasencouraged, and the economizing of fertilizers. 

"By the third principle, the money, the health, and the industry of thepeople were conserved, that they might all be devoted to the work beforethem. 

"I am in candor compelled to say that I did not introduce thelocal-option principle into Vineland from any motives of philanthropy. Iam not a temperance man in the total-abstinence sense. I introduced theprinciple because in cool, abstract thought I conceived it to be ofvital importance to the success of my colony. If in this thought I hadseen that liquor made men more industrious, more skillful, moreeconomical, and more aesthetic in their tastes, I certainly should thenhave made liquor-selling one of the main principles of my project. "

 * * * * *

"The question then came up as to how I could give such direction topublic opinion as would regulate this difficulty. Many persons had theidea that no place could prosper without taverns--that to attractbusiness and strangers taverns were necessary. I could not accomplish myobject by the influence of total-abstinence men, as they were too few innumbers in proportion to the whole community. I had long perceived thatthere was no such thing as reaching the result by the moral influencebrought to bear on single individuals--that to benefit an entirecommunity, the law or regulation would have to extend to the entirecommunity. In examining the evil, I found also that the moderate use ofliquor was not the difficulty to contend against, but it was theimmoderate use of it. 

"The question, then, was to bring the reform to bear upon what led tothe immoderate use of it. I found that few or none ever becameintoxicated in their own families, in the presence of their wives andchildren, but that the drunkards were made in the taverns and saloons. After this conclusion was reached, the way appeared clear. It was notnecessary to make a temperance man of each individual--it was notnecessary to abridge the right or privilege that people might desire tohave of keeping liquor in their own houses, but to get their consent toprevent the public sale of it by the small--that people in barteringwould not be subject to the custom of drinking--that they would not havethe opportunity of drinking in bar-rooms, away from all home restraintor influence; in short, I believed that if the public sale of liquor wasstopped either in taverns or beer saloons, the knife would reach theroot of the evil. The next thing to do was to deal with settlerspersonally as they bought land, and to counsel with them as to the bestthing to be done. In conversation with them I never treated it as amoral question--I explained to them that I was not a total-abstinenceman myself, but that on account of the liability of liquor to abuse whenplaced in seductive forms at every street corner, and as is the usualcustom that followed our barbarous law that it incited to crime, andmade men unfortunate who would otherwise succeed; that most of thesettlers had little money to begin with, sums varying from two hundredto one thousand dollars, which, if added to a man's labor, would beenough in many cases to obtain him a home, but which taken to the tavernwould melt away like snow before a spring sun; that new places wereliable to have this abuse to a more terrible extent than old places, asmen were removed from the restraints of old associations, and in themidst of the excitement of forming new acquaintances; and that it was anotorious fact that liquor-drinking did not add to the inclination forphysical labor. I then asked them--for the sake of their sons, brothers, friends--to help establish the new system, as I believed it to be thefoundation-stone of our future prosperity. 

"To these self-evident facts they would almost all accede. Many of themhad witnessed the result of liquor-selling in the new settlements of theFar West, and were anxious to escape from it. The Local-Option Law ofVineland was not established, therefore, by temperance men ortotal-abstinence men only, but by the citizens generally, upon broadsocial and public principles. It has since been maintained in the sameway. Probably not one tenth of the number of voters in Vineland are whatmay be called total-abstinence men. I explain this point to show thatthis reform was not the result of mere fanaticism, but the sense of thepeople generally, and that the people who succeed under it are suchpeople as almost all communities are composed of. This law has beenpractically in operation since the beginning of the settlement in theautumn of 1861, though the act of the Legislature empowering the peopleof Landis Township to vote upon license or no license was not passeduntil 1863. The vote has always stood against license by overwhelmingmajorities, there being generally only from two to nine votes in favorof liquor-selling. The population of the Vineland tract is about tenthousand five hundred people, consisting of manufacturers and businesspeople upon the town plot in the centre, and, around this centre, offarmers and fruit-growers. The most of the tract is in Landis Township. I will now give statistics of police and poor expenses of this townshipfor the past six years:

 POLICE EXPENSES. 

 1867. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . $50 00

 1868. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 50 00

 1869. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 75 00

 1870. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 75 00

 1871. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 150 00

 1872. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 25 00

 POOR EXPENSES. 

 1867. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . $400 00

 1868. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 425 00

 1869. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 425 00

 1870. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 350 00

 1871. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 400 00

 1872. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 350 00

"These figures speak for themselves, but they are not all. There is amaterial and industrial prosperity existing in Vineland which, though Isay it myself, is unexampled in the history of colonization, and must bedue to more than ordinary causes. The influence of temperance upon thehealth and industry of her people is no doubt the principal of thesecauses. Started when the country was plunged in civil war, its progresswas continually onward. Young as the settlement was, it sent its quotaof men to the field, and has paid over $60, 000 of war debts. Thesettlement has built twenty fine school-houses, ten churches, and keptup one of the finest systems of road improvements, covering one hundredand seventy-eight miles, in this country. There are now some fifteenmanufacturing establishments on the Vineland tract, and they areconstantly increasing in number. Her stores in extent and building willrival any other place in South Jersey. There are four post-offices onthe tract. The central one did a business last year of $4, 800 mailmatter, and a money-order business of $78, 922. 

"Out of seventy-seven townships in the state, by the census of 1869Landis Township ranked the fourth from the highest in the agriculturalvalue of its productions. There are seventeen miles of railroad upon thetract, embracing six railway stations. 

"The result of my project as a land enterprise has been to the interestof the colonists as well as my own. Town lots that I sold for $150 havebeen resold for from $500 to $1500, exclusive of improvements. Land thatI sold for $25 per acre has much of it been resold at from $200 to $500per acre. This rule will hold good for miles of the territory--allresulting from the great increase of population and the prosperity ofthe people. 

"Were licenses for saloons and taverns obtainable with the same ease asin New York, Philadelphia, and many country districts, Vineland wouldprobably have, according to its population, from one to two hundred suchplaces. Counting them at one hundred, this would withdraw from thepursuits of productive industry about one hundred families, which wouldgive a population of six hundred people. Each of these places would sellabout $3000 worth of beer and liquor per annum, making $300, 000 worth ofstimulants a year. I include beer saloons, as liquor can be obtained inthem all as a general thing, and in the electrical climate of Americabeer leads to similar results as spirits. Think of the effect of$300, 000 worth of stimulants upon the health, the minds, and theindustry of our people. Think of the increase of crime and pauperism--theaverage would be fully equal to other places in which liquor is sold. Instead of having a police expense of $50, and poor expenses of $400 perannum, the amount would be swollen to thousands. Homes that are nowhappy would be made desolate, and, instead of peace reigning in ourmidst, we should have war--the same war that is now carried onthroughout the length and breadth of the land in the conflict that iswaged with crime, where blood is daily shed, where houses are dailyfired, where helpless people are daily robbed, and the darkest of crimesdaily perpetrated. Concentrate the work of this war that is carried onthroughout the land for one day, and you will have as many people killedand wounded, houses fired or plundered, as in the sack of a city. 

"The results in Vineland have convinced me--

"1. That temperance does conserve the industry of the people. 

"2. That temperance is conducive to a refined and esthetical taste. 

"3. That temperance can be sufficiently secured in a community bysuppressing all the taverns and saloons, to protect it from the abuse ofexcessive liquor-drinking. Here is a community where crime and pauperismare almost unknown, where taxes are nominal, where night is not madehideous by the vilest of noises, where a man's children are notcontaminated by the evil language and influence of drunkards. "

The following letter from the deputy sheriff of Vineland gives thepractical result of the Vineland system of moral cooperation, as it maybe called:

"VINELAND, _December_ 4, 1873. 

"Dear Sir, --_The poor tax in this township amounts to about five centsto each inhabitant per annum_, and our special expense for policematters, when any body happens to be engaged on an emergence, amounts toan average expense _of about one half cent each_. In fact, it may besaid we have little or no crime or breach of the peace; and, though I amno total-abstinence man, I ascribe this state of things to the absenceof liquor shops, and on this account have always voted againstlicensing. Before I came here I acted as constable in Massachusetts, andhave been deputy sheriff and overseer of the poor for five years, and Iknow from actual observation that more happiness is secured to menthemselves, to their wives and children, and more peace to the home, than by any other cause in the world, not excepting all the churches--sohelp me God!

"Yours respectfully, T. T. CORTIS, Deputy Sheriff. "

In the journal from which I take this letter it is stated that the poorand police expenses of Perth Amboy, also in New Jersey, amount in thesame year to _two dollars_ per head! The figures need no comment. 

_Prairie Home. _

The Prairie Home Colony, in Franklin County, Kansas, was established bya French gentleman, E. V. Boissiere. He owns three thousand acres ofland, and has been engaged during the last three years in putting it inorder for settlement, upon a plan to which he gives the title, "Association and Co-operation, based on Attractive Industry. " So far asthe details of his plan are developed, it appears that he wishes tosecure to colonists constant employment at reasonable wages, and toenable them to live in an economical manner. It is evident from whatfollows that he does not intend to establish a benevolent institution, and that at _Prairie Home_ there will be no accommodations foridlers. I reprint here a circular, which is issued by Mr. Boissiere, and parts of a private note from him, in which, in March, 1874, he gaveme some particulars of the progress of his enterprise:

"A domain of more than three thousand acres, purchased about four yearsago, and then called the 'Kansas Co-operative Farm, ' but since named'Silkville, ' from the fact that the weaving of silk-velvet ribbons isone of its branches of industry, and silk-culture is contemplated, forwhich ten thousand mulberry-trees are now thriftily growing, having hadtwo hundred and fifty acres subjected to cultivation, and severalpreliminary buildings erected upon it, it is now thought expedient toinform those who wish to take part in the associative enterprise forwhich the purchase was made, that the Subscribers, as its projectors, will be prepared to receive persons the ensuing spring, with a view totheir becoming associated for that purpose. 

"A leading feature of the enterprise is to establish the 'CombinedHousehold' of Fourier--that is, a single large residence for all theassociates. Its principal aim is to organize labor, the source of allwealth, first, on the basis of _remuneration proportioned toproduction_, and, second, in such manner as to make it both_efficient_ and _attractive_. Guarantees of education andsubsistence to all, and of help to those who need it, are indispensableconditions, to be provided as soon as the organization shall besufficiently advanced to render them practicable. 

"A spacious edifice, sufficient for the accommodation of eighty to onehundred persons, will be erected the ensuing season, its walls andprincipal partitions, which are to be of stone, being already contractedfor, to be completed by the 1st of October. But the buildings alreadyerected will furnish accommodations--less eligible, but perfectlycomfortable except in severely cold weather--for at least an equalnumber. 

"It is not, however, expected that the operations of the ensuing yearwill be any thing more than preparative; they will be limited probablyto collecting a few persons to form a nucleus of the institution to begradually developed in the future. But, from the first, facilities willbe furnished for industry on the principle of _remunerationproportioned to production_, by means of which, or otherwise, eachcandidate will be required to provide for his own support, and for thatof such other persons as are admitted at his request as members of hisfamily or other dependents. 

"The means of support at present available for those who come to resideon the domain will be, as they may be stated in a general way, _opportunities_ to engage, on liberal terms, in as many varieties aspossible of productive industry; but, more particularly, first, an amplearea of fertile land to cultivate; and, secondly, facilities for suchmechanical work as can be executed with hand-tools, especially themaking of clothes, boots and shoes, and other articles of universalconsumption, not excluding, however, any article whatever for which amarket, either internal or external, can be found. But, as far as incomedepends upon earnings, the most reliable resource will be agriculturaland horticultural industry, as most of the mechanical work likely to berequired for some time should perhaps be reserved for weather notsuitable to out-door employments. Employment for wages at customaryrates will be furnished to some extent to those who desire it for a partof their time, but cannot be reliably promised. Steam-power will beprovided as soon as warranted by a sufficient number of associates, andby the prospect of being applied to profitable production. 

"Having provided the associates and candidates with these facilities forindustry, and made them responsible each for his own support, and, atfirst, for that of his dependents, the projectors propose to have themdistribute themselves into organizations for industrial operations, andselect or invent their own kinds and mode of cultivation and otherpractical processes, under regulations prescribed by themselves. Theywill be indulged with the largest liberty, consistent with theprotection of rights and the preservation of order, in choosing theirown employments, and their own industrial and social companions; inappointing, concurrently with those with whom they are immediatelyassociated, their own hours of labor, recreation, and repose; and, generally, in directing their activity in such manner and to suchpurposes as their taste or interest may induce them to prefer. We hopethus to demonstrate that interference with individual choice isnecessary only to restrain people from transgressing their own propersphere and encroaching upon that of others, and that restraints, evenfor that purpose, will seldom be required, and not at all except duringthe rudimentary stage of industrial organization. 

"No efforts, therefore, will be made to select persons of similar viewsor beliefs, or to mould them afterward to any uniform pattern. Thatunanimity which is not expected in regard to practical operations, ismuch less expected in regard to those subjects transcending the sphereof human experience about which opinions are now so irreconcilablyconflicting. All that will be required is that each shall accord toothers as much freedom of thought and action as he enjoys himself, andshall respect the rights and interests of others as he desires his ownto be respected by them. 

"The apprehension that our experiment might be greatly embarrassed byadmitting the totally destitute to participate in it, compels us to saythat such cannot at present be received. The means applicable to ourpurpose, considerable as they are, might become inadequate if subjectedto the burden of maintaining objects of charity; while but few could bethus relieved, even if all the means at command were devoted to thatsingle object. Our system, if we do not misapprehend it, will, in itsmaturity, provide abundantly for all. 

"But though we insist that the first participators in our enterpriseshall not be pecuniarily destitute, the amount insisted upon is notlarge. So much, however, as is required must be amply secured by thefollowing cash advances:

"First: rent of rooms and board paid two months in advance for eachperson admitted to reside on the domain, including each member of theapplicant's family; and at the end of the first month, payment of theseitems for another month, so that they shall again be paid two months inadvance, and so from month to month indefinitely. 

"Rent of rooms will be reasonable, and board will be finally settled forat its cost, as near as may be; but in computing it for advance payment, it will be rated rather above than below its expected cost, to provideagainst contingencies. If too much is advanced, the excess, whenascertained, will either be repaid or otherwise duly accounted for. 

"Facilities for cheap boarding, and for tables graduated to suitdifferent tastes and circumstances, will be limited at first, and untilassociates become numerous enough to form messes and board themselves. 

"Second: each person so admitted will be required to deposit, as may bedirected, the sum of one hundred dollars for himself, and an equal sumfor every other person admitted with him at his request, on whichinterest will be allowed at the rate of six per cent, per annum. Thisdeposit is expected to be kept unimpaired until the projectors think itmay safely be dispensed with, but will be repaid, or so much thereof asis subject to no charges or offsets, whenever the person on whoseaccount it was made withdraws from the enterprise and ceases to resideon the domain; as will also any unexpended residue of the amountadvanced for rooms and board. 

"This deposit, besides furnishing a guarantee against the destitution ofthe person making it, is recommended by another consideration not lessimportant--it secures him, in case he wishes to retire from theenterprise, because he can find no satisfactory position in it, or forany other reason, against retiring empty-handed, or remaining longerthan he wishes for want of means to go elsewhere. 

"In addition to these cash advances, each person admitted as anassociate or candidate will be required to provide furniture for hisroom, and all other articles needed for his personal use, including, generally, the hand-tools with which he works. But some of thesearticles may, in certain cases, be rented or sold on credit to personsof good industrial capacity who have complied with the other conditions. 

"We should esteem, as especially useful, a class of residents who, having an income, independent of their earnings, adequate to theirfrugal support at least, can devote themselves as freely as they pleaseto attractive occupations which are not remunerative, it being suchoccupations probably that will furnish the first good examples of a trueindustrial organization. Next to be preferred are those having anindependent income which, though not adequate to their entire support, is sufficient to relieve them from any considerable anxiety concerningit; for they can, to a greater or less extent, yield to the impulses ofattraction with comparative indifference to the pecuniary results oftheir industry. 

"It is hoped and expected that the style of living, at least in theearly stages of the experiment, will be frugal and inexpensive. Neatnessand good taste, and even modest elegance, will be approved andencouraged; but the projectors disapprove of superfluous personaldecorations, and of all expense incurred for mere show without utility, and in this sentiment they hope to be sustained by the associates. 

"As a general rule, applicants who comply with the pecuniary conditionswill be admitted on trial as candidates, to the extent of ouraccommodations, without formal inquisition of other particulars; buteach applicant should state his age and occupation, and the ages andindustrial capacities of others, if any, whom he desires to haveadmitted with him, and whether any of them are permanently infirm. References are also requested, and photographs if possible. 

"The cardinal object of our enterprise being, as has been said, toorganize labor on the basis of rewarding it according to the value ofits product, and in such manner as to divest it of the repugnanceinseparable from it as now prosecuted, the policy to which recourse willfirst be had to effect this object will be to throw upon the associatesthe chief responsibility of selecting functions and devising processes, as well as of marshaling themselves into efficient industrialorganizations. Freedom to select their preferred occupations and modesof proceeding is proposed, with the expectation that a diversity ofpreferences will be developed in both, the respective partisans of whichwill vie with each other to demonstrate the superior excellence of theirchosen specialties. Among the numerous merits which recommend thispolicy, not the least important is that it will, as is believed, givefull play to all varieties of taste and capacity, and secure a moreperfect correspondence of functions with aptitudes than exists in thepresent system of labor. But we are not so committed to any policy as topersist in it, if, after being fairly tested, it fails of its purpose. In that event new expedients will be resorted to, and others again, ifnecessary, for we should not abandon our enterprise, though our firstefforts should prove unsuccessful. The failure of any particular policy, therefore, does not involve a final failure, of which indeed the danger, if any, is remote, inasmuch as care will be taken not to exhaust themeans applicable to our main purpose in a first trial, or in a second, or even any number of trials. But we have great confidence that not manytrials will be necessary to construct a system of industry and of sociallife far in advance of any form of either now prevailing in the world. 

"The lowest degree of success--we will not say with which we shall besatisfied, but to which we can be reconciled--is that the experimentshall be SELF-SUSTAINING. By this we mean that the associates, aided bythe facilities furnished them, shall produce enough not only to supplytheir own consumption, including education for children and subsistencefor all, and to repair the waste, wear, and decay of tools, machines, and other property used, but enough also to reasonably compensate thosewho furnish the capital for the use of it. Less production than thisimplies a waning experiment, which must, sooner or later, terminateadversely. But even though this low degree of success should be delayed, the domain is indestructible, and being dedicated forever to associativepurposes, must remain unimpaired for repeated trials. 

"An ample sufficiency of land will be conveyed to trustees in suchmanner as to secure the perpetual use of it to the associates and theirsuccessors. The land to be thus appropriated has on it a large peachorchard now in full bearing, which yielded last season a large crop ofexcellent peaches; 400 selected apple-trees, which have four years'thrifty growth from the nursery, and a considerable number of otherfruit-trees; and a vineyard of about 1200 young grape-vines. A libraryof 1200 volumes in English, besides a large number in French and otherlanguages, is now here, intended for the use of future associates andresidents. 

"No fund is set apart for the gratuitous entertainment of visitors. Those not guests of some one here who will be chargeable for them, willbe expected to pay a reasonable price for such plain and cheapaccommodations as can be afforded them. 

"For a more extended explanation of the principles and aim of ourenterprise, and of some of the details of the mode of proceeding, persons interested are referred to a treatise on 'Co-operation andAttractive Industry, ' published under the auspices of the departed andlamented Horace Greeley, for which send fifty cents to the_Tribune_, New York, or to either of the subscribers. 

"[_Note_. --It should be understood that the foregoing exposition ofprinciples and policy, though the best that our present knowledgeenables us to make, is provisional only, and liable to be modified fromtime to time as experience makes us wiser. ] E. V. BOISSIERE. "

"Williamsburg P. O. , Franklin Co. , Kansas. "

On the back of the circular is the following description of Silkville'sposition and other particulars:

"Silkville, at which 'The Prairie Home' is located, is near thesouthwest corner of Franklin County, Kansas, three miles south ofWilliamsburg, at present the nearest post-office; about twelve milesnearly west of Princeton, on the L. L. And G. Railroad, the nearestrailroad station; and about twenty miles southwest of Ottawa, the countyseat. An open wagon, which carries passengers and the mail betweenWilliamsburg and Princeton, connects with the cars at the latter placeevery Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, at about 2 o'clock P. M. , which (byspecial arrangement) will carry passengers with ordinary baggage betweenPrinceton and Silkville for sixty-five cents each. Fare from Ottawa toPrinceton, nine miles, fifty cents. Persons coming here frequently hirea private conveyance from Ottawa. 

"Through tickets to Kansas City and Lawrence (and perhaps to Ottawa) canbe purchased at the principal railroad stations. Fare from Kansas Cityto Ottawa, fifty-three miles, $2. 90; from Lawrence to Ottawa, twenty-seven miles, $1. 60. "

Under date of March 30, 1874, Mr. Boissiere writes me:

"The unitary building is complete so far as masonry and carpenter workgoes, but the plastering and painting will require two months tocomplete. Our neighborhood has not settled as fast as I expected, andwill not afford a market for small industries. I would not inviteassociates to come on until I establish more firmly the silk businessand some other industries. The country has not yet learned what cropswill pay best. Farmers, are now trying the castor-bean and flax forseed, with some promise of success. I had information about an oil-mill, but find it gives occupation to only a very few operators. I think nowof a factory for working the flax-tow into twine and rope, bagging, ormats. 

"I have plenty of patience, having lived a farmer's life; and I likebetter to go surely than too fast. We have plenty of good coal aroundus, selling at fourteen cents per bushel of eighty pounds. We had theprospect of a railroad crossing our grounds from Ottawa to Burlington, but the hard times prevent it. Yours, E. V. BOISSIERE. "

It is difficult to foretell what will be the outcome of Mr. Boissiere'seffort. The offer he makes to "associates" is not very promising. Landand employment outside of the great cities are both so plentiful in thiscountry that men who have capital enough to make the deposit required byMr. Boissiere are more likely to settle upon public land under thehomestead act, and carve out their own future. 

A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES OF THE AMERICANCOMMUNES. 

COMPARATIVE VIEW. 

I. --STATISTICAL. 

Though brief accounts are given in the preceding pages of severalrecently established communistic societies, it is evident that onlythose which have been in practical operation during a term of years areuseful for purposes of comparison, and to show the actually accomplishedresults of communistic effort in the United States, as well as the meansby which these results have been achieved. 

The societies which may thus be properly used as illustrations ofsuccessful communism in this country are the SHAKERS, established in theEastern States in 1794, and in the West about 1808; the RAPPISTS, established in 1805; the BAUMELERS, or ZOARITES, established in 1817;the EBEN-EZERS, or AMANA Communists, established in 1844; the BETHELCommune, established in 1844; the ONEIDA PERFECTIONISTS, established in1848; the ICARIANS, who date from 1849; and the AURORA Commune, from1852. 

Though in name there are thus but eight societies, these consist in factof not less than seventy-two communes: the Shakers having fifty-eight ofthese; the Amana Society seven; and the Perfectionists two. Theremaining societies consist of but a single commune for each. 

It will be seen that the oldest of these communes have existed foreighty years; the youngest cited here for review has been foundedtwenty-two years. Of all, only two societies remain under the guidanceof their founders; though it may be said that the Amana Communes havestill the advantage of the presence among them of some of the originalleading members. The common assertion that a commune must break up onthe death of its founder would thus appear to be erroneous. 

These seventy-two communes make but little noise in the world; they livequiet and peaceful lives, and do not like to admit strangers to theirprivacy. They numbered in 1874 about five thousand persons, includingchildren, and were then scattered through thirteen states, in which theyown over one hundred and fifty thousand acres of land--probably nearerone hundred and eighty thousand, for the more prosperous frequently ownfarms at a distance, and the exact amount of their holdings is noteasily ascertained. As they have sometimes been accused of being landmonopolists, it is curious to see that even at the highest amount I havegiven they would own only about thirty-six acres per head, which is, forthis country, a comparatively small holding of land. 

It is probably a low estimate of the wealth of the seventy-two communesto place it at twelve millions of dollars. This wealth is not equallydivided, some of the older societies holding the larger share. But if itwere, the members would be worth over two thousand dollars per head, counting men, women, and children. It is not an exaggeration to say thatalmost the whole of this wealth has been created by the patient industryand strict economy and honesty of its owners, without a positive oreager desire on their part to accumulate riches, and without painfultoil. 

Moreover--and this is another important consideration--I am satisfiedthat _during its accumulation_ the Communists enjoyed a greateramount of comfort, and vastly greater security against want anddemoralization, than were attained by their neighbors or the surroundingpopulation, with better schools and opportunities of training for theirchildren, and far less exposure for the women, and the aged and infirm. 

In origin the Icarians are French; the Shakers and PerfectionistsAmericans; the others are Germans; and these outnumber all the Americancommunists. In fact, the Germans make better communists than any otherpeople--unless the Chinese should some day turn their attention tocommunistic attempts. What I have seen of these people in California andthe Sandwich Islands leads me to believe that they are well calculatedfor communistic experiments. 

All the communes under consideration have as their bond of union someform of religious belief. It is asserted by some writers who theorizeabout communism that a commune can not exist long without some fanaticalreligious thought as its cementing force; while others assert with equalpositive ness that it is possible to maintain a commune in which themembers shall have diverse and diverging beliefs in religious matters. It seems to me that both these theories are wrong; but that it is truethat a commune to exist harmoniously, must be composed of persons whoare of one mind upon some question which to them shall appear soimportant as to take the place of a religion, if it is not essentiallyreligions; though it need not be fanatically held. 

Thus the Icarians reject Christianity; but they have adopted thecommunistic idea as their religion. This any one will see who speakswith them. But devotion to this idea has supported them under the mostdeplorable poverty and long-continued hardships for twenty years. 

Again, the Bethel and Aurora Communes, whose members make singularlylittle of outward religious observances, are held together by theirbelief that the essence of all religion, and of Christianity, isunselfishness, and that this requires community of goods. 

I do not think that any of these people can be justly called fanatics. 

On the other hand, the Shakers, Rappists, Baumelers, Eben-Ezers, andPerfectionists have each a very positive and deeply rooted religiousfaith; but none of them can properly be called fanatics, except by aperson who holds every body to be a fanatic, who believes differentlyfrom himself. For none of these people believe that they are alone goodor alone right; all admit freely that there is room in the world forvarious and varying religious beliefs; and that neither wisdom norrighteousness ends with them. 

It is also commonly said that all the communistic societies in thiscountry oppose the family-life, and that in general they advocate someabnormal relation of the sexes, which they make a fundamental part oftheir communistic plan. This, too, is an error. Of all the communes I amnow considering, only the Perfectionists of Oneida and Wallingford haveestablished what can be fairly called unnatural sexual relations. 

At Icaria, Amana, Aurora, Bethel, and Zoar the family relation is heldin honor, and each family has its own separate household. The Icarianseven forbid celibacy. None of these five societies maintain what iscalled a "unitary household;" and in only two, Icaria and Amana, do thepeople eat in common dining-halls. 

The Shakers and Rappists are celibates; and it is often said by theShakers that communism cannot be successful except where celibacy is apart of the system. It is not unnatural that they should think so; butthe success of those societies which maintain the family relation wouldseem to prove the Shakers mistaken. And it is useful to remember thateven the Rappists were successful before they determined, under deepreligious influences, to give up marriage, and adopt celibacy. Moreover, the Rappists have never used the "unitary home" or the commondining-hall; they have always lived in small "families, " composed ofmen, women, and children. 

It seems to me a fair deduction from the facts, that neither religiousfanaticism nor an unnatural sexual relation (unless voluntary celibacyis so called) is necessary to the successful prosecution of acommunistic experiment. What _is_ required I shall try to set forthin another chapter. 

The Eben-Ezers and the Perfectionists are the only communes which are atthis time increasing in numbers. At Icaria, Bethel, Aurora, and Zoar, they hold their own; but they, too, have lost strength during the lasttwenty years. The Shakers and Rappists, the only celibate communists, are decreasing, and have lost during a number of years; and this inspite of their benevolent custom of adopting and training orphanchildren, to whom they devote money and care with surprising andcreditable liberality. The Eben-Ezers get the greater part of theiraccessions from among the brethren of their faith in Germany; and theylive in Iowa in such rigorous seclusion, and so entirely concealthemselves and their faith and plan from the general public, that it isevident they do not wish to recruit their membership from thesurrounding population. The Perfectionists publish a weekly journal, send this and their pamphlets to all who wish them, and have always usedthe press freely. Their peculiar doctrines are widely known, and theyreceive constantly applications from persons desirous to join theircommunes. I believe the greater number of these applicants are men; andI do not doubt that the peculiar sexual relations existing at Oneida andWallingford are an element of attraction to a considerable proportion ofthe persons who apply for membership, and who are almost withoutexception rejected; for it is right that I should here prevent amisconception by saying that the Perfectionists are sincerely and almostfanatically attached to their peculiar faith, and accept new membersonly with great care and many precautions. 

The Perfectionists are essentially manufacturers, using agriculture onlyas a subsidiary branch of business. All the other societies haveagriculture as their industrial base, and many of them manufacture butlittle, though all have some branch of manufacture. Also, it is the aimof all to produce and make, as far as possible, every thing theyconsume. To limit the expenditures and increase the income is theevident road to wealth, as they have all discovered. 

Much ingenuity has been exercised by all these communists inestablishing profitable branches of manufacture; and they have had thegood sense and courage in whatever they undertook to make only a goodarticle, and secure trade by rigid honesty. Thus the Shaker garden seedshave for nearly three quarters of a century been accepted as the bestall over the United States; the Oneida Perfectionists established thereputation of their silk-twist in the market by giving accurate weightand sound material; the woolen stuffs of Amana command a constantmarket, because they are well and honestly made; and in general I havefound that the communists have a reputation for honesty and fair dealingamong their neighbors, and where-ever their products are bought andsold, which must be very valuable to them. 

Saw and grist mills, machine shops for the manufacture and repair ofagricultural implements, and woolen factories, are the principal largemanufacturing enterprises in which they are engaged; to these must beadded the preserving of fruits, broom and basket making, the preparationof medicinal extracts, and the gathering and drying of herbs, gardenseeds, and sweet corn, chair-making, and a few other small industries. One Shaker community manufactures washing-machines and mangles on alarge scale, and another makes staves for molasses hogsheads. Indeed, the Shakers have shown more skill in contriving new trades than any ofthe other societies, and have among their members a good deal ofmechanical ingenuity. 

All the communes maintain shops for making their own clothing, shoes, and often hats; as well as for carpentry, blacksmithing, wagon-making, painting, coopering, etc. , and have the reputation among their neighborsof keeping excellent breeds of cattle. The small shops and the improvedcattle are important advantages to their country neighbors; and a farmerwho lives within half a dozen miles of a commune is fortunate in manyways, for he gains a market for some of his produce, and he has theadvantage of all their mechanical skill. I did not specially investigatethe question, but I have reason to believe that land in the neighborhoodof a communistic society is always more valuable for these reasons; andI know of some instances in which the existence of a commune has addedvery considerably to the price of real estate near its boundaries. 

Almost without exception the communists are careful and thoroughfarmers. Their barns and other farm-buildings are usually models forconvenience, labor-saving contrivances, and arrangements for the comfortof animals. Their tillage is clean and deep; and in their orchards onealways finds the best varieties of fruits. In their houses they enjoyall the comforts to which they are accustomed or which they desire, andthis to a greater degree than their neighbors on the same plane of life;and, especially, they are always clean. The women of a commune have, without exception, I think, far less burdensome lives than women of thesame class elsewhere. This comes partly because the men are more regularin their hours and habits, and waste no time in dram-shops or other andless harmful places of dissipation; partly, too, because all theindustries of a commune are systematized, and what Yankees call"chores, " the small duties of the household, such as preparing andstoring firewood, providing water, etc. , which on our farms are oftenneglected by the men, and cause the women much unnecessary hardship andtoil, are in a commune brought into the general plan of work, andthoroughly attended to. 

Of course, the permanence of a commune adds much to the comfort of thewomen, for it encourages the men in providing many small convenienceswhich the migratory farmer's wife sighs for in vain. A commune is afixture; its people build and arrange for all time; and if they have anideal of comfort they work up to it. 

II. --COMMUNAL POLITICS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

Nothing surprised me more, in my investigations of the communisticsocieties, than to discover--

1st. The amount and variety of business and mechanical skill which isfound in every commune, no matter what is the character or intelligenceof its members; and, 2d. The ease and certainty with which the brains come to the top. Ofcourse this last is a transcendent merit in any system of government. 

The fundamental principle of communal life is the subordination of theindividual's will to the general interest or the general will:practically, this takes the shape of unquestioning obedience by themembers toward the leaders, elders, or chiefs of their society. 

But as the leaders take no important step without the unanimous consentof the membership; and as it is a part of the communal policy to seteach member to that work which he can do best, and so far as possible toplease all; and as the communist takes life easily, and does not toil asseverely as the individualist--so, given a general assent to theprinciple of obedience, and practically little hardship occurs. 

The political system of the Icarians appears to me the worst, or mostfaulty, and that of the Shakers, Rappists, and Amana Communists the bestand most successful, among all the societies. 

The Icarian system is as nearly as possible a pure democracy. Thepresident, elected for a year, is simply an executive officer to do thewill of the majority, which is expressed or ascertained every Saturdaynight, and is his rule of conduct for the following week. "The presidentcould not sell a bushel of corn without instructions from the meeting ofthe people, " said an Icarian to me--and thereby seemed to me to condemnthe system of which he was evidently proud. 

At Amana, and among the Shaker communes, the "leading characters, " asthe Shakers quaintly call them, are selected by the highest spiritualauthority, are seldom changed, and have almost, but not quite, unlimitedpower and authority. The limitations are that they shall so manage as topreserve harmony, and that they shall act within the general rules ofthe societies--shall not contract debts, for instance, or enter uponspeculative or hazardous enterprises. 

The democracy which exists at Oneida and Wallingford is held in check bythe overshadowing conservative influence of their leader, Noyes; itremains to be seen how it will work after his death. But it differs fromthe Icarian system in this important respect, that it does give largepowers to leaders and executive officers. Moreover, the members of thesetwo Perfectionist communes are almost all overseers of hired laborers;and Oneida is in reality more a large and prosperous manufacturingcorporation, with a great number of partners all actively engaged in thework, than a commune in the common sense of the word. 

At Economy the chiefs have always been appointed by the spiritual head, and for life; and the people, as among the Shakers and Eben-Ezers, trouble themselves but little about the management. The same is true ofZoar and Bethel, practically, though the Baumelers elect trustees. Aurora is still under the rule of its founder. 

Aside from the religious bond, and I believe of equal strength with thatin the minds of most communists, is the fact that in a commune there isabsolute equality. The leader is only the chief servant; his food andlodgings are no better than those of the members. At Economy, thepeople, to be sure, built a larger house for Rapp, but this was when hehad become old, and when he had to entertain strangers--visitors. Buteven there the garden which adjoins the house is frequented by the wholesociety--is, in fact, its pleasure-ground; and the present leaders livein the old house as simply and plainly as the humblest members intheirs. At Zoar, Baumeler occupied a commodious dwelling, but it wasused also as a storehouse. At Aurora, Dr. Keil's house accommodates adozen or twenty of the older unmarried people, who live in common withhim. At Amana, the houses of the leaders are so inconspicuous and plainthat they are not distinguishable from the rest. A Shaker elder sits atthe head of the table of his family or commune, and even the highestelder or bishop of the society has not a room to himself, and isexpected to work at some manual occupation when not employed inspiritual duties. 

In a commune no member is a servant; if any servants are kept, they arehired from among the world's people. When the Kentucky Shakersorganized, they not only liberated their slaves, but such of them asbecame Shakers were established in an independent commune or family bytheir former masters. They "ceased to be servants, and became brethrenin the Lord. "

Any one who has felt the oppressive burden of even the highest andbest-paid kinds of service will see that independence and equality aregreat boons, for which many a man willingly sacrifices much else. 

Moreover, the security against want and misfortune, the sure provisionfor old age and inability, which the communal system offers--is no doubtan inducement with a great many to whom the struggle for existenceappears difficult and beset by terrible chances. 

I do not mean here to undervalue the higher motives which lead men andwomen into religious communities, and which control the leaders, and nodoubt a considerable part of the membership in such communes; but notall. For even among the most spiritual societies there are, and must be, members controlled by lower motives, and looking mainly to sufficientbread and butter, a regular and healthful life, easy tasks, and equalityof condition. 

Finally, the communal life secures order and system--certainly at theexpense of variety and amusement; but a man or woman born with what theShakers would call a gift of order, finds, I imagine, a singular charmin the precision, method, regularity, and perfect system of a communalvillage. An eternal Sabbath seems to reign in a Shaker settlement, or atEconomy, or Amana. There is no hurly-burly. This systematic arrangementof life, combined with the cleanliness which is a conspicuous feature inevery commune which I have visited, gives a decency and dignity tohumble life which in general society is too often without. 

"How do you manage with the lazy people?" I asked in many places; butthere are no idlers in a commune. I conclude that men are not naturallyidle. Even the "winter Shakers"--the shiftless fellows who, as coldweather approaches, take refuge in Shaker and other communes, professinga desire to become members; who come at the beginning of winter, as aShaker elder said to me, "with empty stomachs and empty trunks, and gooff with both full as soon as the roses begin to bloom"--even these poorcreatures succumb to the systematic and orderly rules of the place, anddo their share of work without shirking, until the mild spring suntempts them to a freer life. 

The character of the leaders in a commune is of the greatest importance. It affects, in the most obvious manner, the development of the societyover which they rule. The "leading character" is sure to be a man offorce and ability, and he forms the habits, not only of daily life, buteven of thought, of those whom he governs--just as the father forms thecharacter of his children in a family, or would if he did not give hiswhole life to "business. "

But origin, nationality, and previous social condition are, of course, still greater powers. Thus the German communists in the United States, who came for the most part from the peasant class in their country, retain their peculiar habits of life, which are often singular, andsometimes repulsive to an American. They enjoy doubtless more abundantfood than in their old homes; but it is of the same kind, and served inthe same homely style to which they were used. Their dwellings may bemore substantial; but they see nothing disagreeable in two or threefamilies occupying the same house. At Icaria I saw French sabots, orwooden shoes, standing at the doors of the houses; and at dinner thewater was poured from a vessel of tin--not, I imagine, because theywere too poor to afford a pitcher, but because this was the custom athome. 

So, too, among the American societies there are great differences. Tothe outer eye one Shaker is much like another; but the New Hampshire andKentucky Shakers are as different from each other as the generalpopulation of one state is from that of the other, both in intellectualcharacter and habits of life; and the New York Shaker differs again fromboth. Climate, by the habits it compels, makes trivial but stillconspicuous differences; it is not possible that the Kentucky Shaker, who hears the mocking-bird sing in his pines on every sunny day thewinter through, and in whose woods the blue-jay is a constant resident, should be the same being as his brother in Maine or New Hampshire, whosees the mercury fall to twenty degrees below zero, and stores hiswinter's firewood in a house as big as an ordinary factory or as his ownmeeting-house. 

I was much struck with the simplicity of the book-keeping in most of thecommunities, which often made it difficult for me to procure such simplestatistics as I have given in previous pages. Sometimes, as at Zoar, Aurora, and Bethel, it was with great trouble that I could get evenapproximate figures; and this not entirely because they were unwillingto give the information, but because it was nowhere accessible in acondensed and accurate shape. "If a man owes no money--if he pays andreceives cash--he needs to keep but few accounts, " said a leading man atAurora to me. 

In most of the communes there is no annual or other business statementmade to the members; and this plan, which at first seems to be absurdlyinsecure and unbusinesslike, works well in practice. Among the Shakers, the ministry, whenever they wish to, and usually once a year, overhaulthe accounts of the trustees. The extensive business affairs of theRappists have always been carried on by two leading men, withoutsupervision, and without loss or defalcation. At Amana it is the same, as well as at Zoar, Bethel, and Aurora. The fixed rule of the communes, not to run in debt, is a wholesome check on trustees; and thoughdefalcations have occurred in several of the Shaker communes, theyremain satisfied that their plan of account-keeping is the best. 

At Oneida they have a very thorough system of book-keeping--more completethan would be found, I suspect, in most large manufacturingestablishments; and there I received definite and accurate statisticalinformation with but little delay. But the Perfectionists have a morekeenly mercantile spirit than any of the other communal societies; theyare, as I said before, essentially a manufacturing corporation. 

It is an important part of the commune's economies in living that itbuys its supplies at wholesale. Oddly enough, a person at Buffalo, withwhom I spoke of the Eben-Ezer people, remarked that they were dislikedin the city, because, while they sold their products there, they boughttheir supplies at wholesale in New York. The retailer and middle-manappear to have vested rights nowadays. People seem to have thought inBuffalo that they obliged the Eben-Ezer men by buying their vegetables. I have heard the same objection made in other states to the Shakersocieties: "They are of no use to the country, for they buy every thingin the city at wholesale. " As though they did not pay taxes, besidessetting an excellent example of virtuous and moderate living to theirneighbors. 

The simplicity of dress usual among communists works also an economy notonly in means, but what is of equal importance, and might be of greater, a saving of time and trouble and vexation of spirit to the women. Ithink it a pity that all the societies have not a uniform dress; theShakers and Rappists have, and it is an advantage in point of neatness. The slop-made coats and trousers worn in many societies quickly turnshabby, and give a slouchy appearance to the men, which is disagreeableto the eye, and must be more or less demoralizing to the wearers. Theblue jacket of the Rappist is a very suitable and comfortable workinggarment; and the long coat of the Shaker always looks decent and tidy. 

As to the dress of the women--in Amana, and also among the Shakers, theintention seems to be to provide a style which shall conceal theirbeauty, and make them less attractive to male eyes; and this issuccessfully achieved. At Economy no such precautions are taken; thewomen wear the honest dress of German peasants, with a kind of Normancap, and the dress is sensible, convenient, and by no means uncomely. AtOneida the short dress, with trousers, and the clipped locks, thoughconvenient, are certainly ugly. Elsewhere dress is not much thought of. But in all the societies stuffs of good quality are used; and none arethe slaves of fashion. I need not point out how much time and troubleare saved to women by this alone. 

The societies have generally as good schools as the average of thecommon schools in their neighborhoods, and often better. None but theOneida and Wallingford Communists favor a "liberal" or extendededucation; these, however, have sent a number of their young men to theSheffield scientific school at New Haven. The Shakers and Rappists teachmusical notation to the children; and all the communes, except of courseIcaria, give pretty careful religious instruction to the young. 

But, besides the "schooling, " they have all preserved the wholesome oldcustom of teaching the boys a trade, and the girls to sew, cook, andwash. "Our boys learn as much, perhaps more than the farmer's or villageboys, in our schools; and we make them also good farmers, and give themthorough knowledge of some useful trade:" this was often said to me--andit seemed to me a good account to give of the training of youth. 

III. --CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE; INFLUENCES OF COMMUNISTIC LIFE. 

I remark, in the first place, that all the successful communes arecomposed of what are customarily called "common people. "

You look in vain for highly educated, refined, cultivated, or elegantmen or women. They profess no exalted views of humanity or destiny; theyare not enthusiasts; they do not speak much of the Beautiful with a bigB. They are utilitarians. Some do not even like flowers; some rejectinstrumental music. They build solidly, often of stone; but they carenothing for architectural effects. Art is not known among them; merebeauty and grace are undervalued, even despised. Amusements, too, theydo not value; only a few communes have general libraries, and even theseare of very limited extent, except perhaps the library at Oneida, whichis well supplied with new books and newspapers. The Perfectionists alsoencourage musical and theatrical entertainments, and make amusement solarge a part of their lives that they have nearly half a dozencommittees to devise and superintend them. 

At Amana and Economy, as well as among the Shakers, religious meetingsare the principal recreations; though the Shaker union meetings, wherethe members of a family visit each other in small groups, may be calleda kind of diversion. At Economy, in the summer, the people enjoythemselves in flower-gardens, where they gather to be entertained by themusic of a band. 

2. The communists do not toil severely. Usually they rise early--amongthe Shakers at half-past four in the summer, and five in winter; and inmost of the other communes before or about sunrise. They laborindustriously, but not exhaustingly, all the day; and in such ways as tomake their toil comfortable and pleasant. "Two hired workmen would do asmuch as three of our people, " said a Shaker to me; and at Amana theytold me that three hired men would do the work of five or even six oftheir members. "We aim to make work not a pain, but a pleasure, " I wastold; and I think they succeed. The workshops are usually verycomfortably arranged, thoroughly warmed and ventilated, and in this theyall display a nice care. 

3. They are all very cleanly. Even in those communes, as at Aurora, where the German peasant appears to have changed but very little most ofhis habits, cleanliness is a conspicuous virtue. The Shaker neatness isproverbial; at Economy every thing looks as though it had been cleanedup for a Sunday examination. In the other German communes the neatnessis as conspicuous within the houses, but it does not extend to thestreets and spaces out of doors. The people do not appear to be offendedat the sight of mud in winter, and, like most of our Western farmers, donot know what good roads are. The Perfectionists pay a little attentionto landscape-gardening, and have laid out their grounds very tastefully. 

4. The communists are honest. They like thorough and good work; andvalue their reputation for honesty and fair dealing. Their neighborsalways speak highly of them in this respect. 

5. They are humane and charitable. In Kentucky, during the slaveryperiod, the Shakers always had their pick of Negroes to be hired, because they were known to treat them well. At New Lebanon I was toldthat a farm-hand was thought fortunate who was engaged by the MountLebanon Shakers. At Amana and at Economy the hired people value theirsituations so highly that they willingly conform to the peculiarities ofthe commune, so far as it is demanded. At Oneida, where a large numberof men and women are employed in the factories, they speak very highlyof their employers, though these are the objects of prejudice on accountof their social system. So, too, the animals of a commune are alwaysbetter lodged and more carefully attended than is usual among itsneighbors. 

6. The communist's life is full of devices for personal ease andcomfort. At Icaria, owing to their poverty, comfort was, until within ayear or two, out of the question--but they did what they could. Amongthe other and more prosperous communes, a good deal of thought is givento the conveniences of life. One sees very perfectly fitted laundries;covered ways by which to pass from house to outhouses in stormy weather;ingenious contrivances for ventilation, and against drafts, etc. 

7. They all live well, according to their different tastes. Food isabundant, and well cooked. In some Shaker communes a part of the familyeat no meat, and special provision is made for these. Fruit is everywhere very abundant, and forms a large part of their diet; and this nodoubt helps to keep them healthy. They take a pride in their store-roomsand kitchens, universally eat good bread and butter, and live much morewholesomely than the average farmer among their neighbors. 

8. They are usually healthy, though in some communes they have a habitof doctoring themselves for fancied diseases. In almost all the Shakercommunes I found hospitals, or "nurse-shops, " as they call them, butoftenest they were empty. In the other societies I saw no such specialprovision for serious or chronic diseases. 

9. I have no doubt that the communists are the most long-lived of ourpopulation. This is natural; they eat regularly and well, rise andretire early, and do not use ardent spirits; they are entirely relievedof the care and worry which in individual life beset every one who mustprovide by the labor of hand or head for a family; they are tenderlycared for when ill; and in old age their lives are made very easy andpleasant. They live a great deal in the open air also. Moreover, amongthe American communists, health and longevity are made objects ofspecial study; and the so-called health journals are read with greatinterest. It results that eighty is not an uncommon age for a communist;and in every society, except perhaps in Icaria, I saw or heard of peopleover ninety, and still hale and active. 

10. They are temperate in the use of wine or spirits, and drunkenness isunknown in all the communes, although among the Germans the use of wineand beer is universal. The American communes do not use either at all. But at Economy or Amana or Zoar the people receive either beer or winedaily, and especially in harvest-time, when they think these morewholesome than water. At Economy they have very large, substantiallybuilt wine-cellars, where some excellent wine is stored. 

Is it not possible that the general moderation with which life ispursued in a commune, the quiet, absence of exciting or worrying cares, regularity of habit and easy work, by keeping their blood cool, decreasethe tendency to misuse alcoholic beverages? There is no doubt that inthe German communes wine and beer are used, and have been for manyyears, in a way which would be thought dangerous by our temperancepeople; but I have reason to believe without the occurrence of any caseof habitual intemperance. Possibly scientific advocates of temperancemay hereafter urge a more temperate and sensible pursuit of wealth andhappiness, a less eager life and greater contentment, as more conduciveto what we narrowly call "temperance" than all the total-abstinencepledges. 

11. It is a fixed principle in all the communes to keep out of debt, andto avoid all speculative and hazardous enterprises. They are contentwith small gains, and in an old-fashioned way study rather to moderatetheir outlays than to increase their profits. Naturally--as they own incommon--they are not in haste to be rich. Those of them who havesuffered from debt feel it to be both a danger and a curse. None of thecommunes make the acquisition of wealth a leading object of life. Theyhave greater regard to independence and comfort. Their surplus capitalthey invest in land or in the best securities, such as United Statesbonds. 

12. In those communes where the family relation is upheld, as the peopleare prosperous, they marry young. At Amana they do not permit the youngmen to marry before they reach the age of twenty-four. 

In the celibate societies a number of precautions are used to keep thesexes apart. Among the Shakers, especially, there are usually separatedoors and stairways in the dwelling-houses; the workshops of the sexesare in different buildings; they eat at separate tables; and in theirmeetings men and women are ranged on opposite sides of the hall. Moreover, no one is lodged alone, even the elders and ministry sharingthe sleeping-room with some other brother. It is not even permitted thata man and woman shall stand and talk together on the public walk. Inmost of their schools the sexes are also separated. In some of theirdwellings, where but a single staircase exists, there is a rule that twopersons of opposite sexes shall not pass each other on the stairs. Theyare not allowed to keep pet animals; nor to enter the room of anothersex without knocking and receiving permission; nor to visit, except byappointment of the elders or ministry; nor to make presents to eachother; nor to visit the shops of the other sex alone. At Economy thereare separate entrance-ways to the dwellings for the two sexes. 

It is not pretended in the celibate communes that the celibate life iseasy; they confess it to be a sacrifice; but as they are moved to it bytheir religious faith, they rigorously maintain their rule. I amsatisfied that very few cases of sexual irregularity have occurred amongthem, and they rigorously expel all those who transgress their rules. 

It is natural that they should assert that celibacy is healthful; and, indeed, they point to the long life and general good health of theirmembers in proof; and the fresh and fair complexions of a great numberof their middle-aged people might be cited as another proof. Yet I havebeen told that the women are apt to suffer in health, particularly atthe critical period of life. I must add, however, that I could hear ofno cases of insanity or idiocy traceable to the celibate condition. Ofcourse there is no force used to keep members in a commune; and thosewho are uncomfortable leave and go out into the world. The celibatecommunes keep very few of the young people whom they train up. 

13. The communal life appears to be, at first view, inexorably dull anddreary; and the surprise was the greater to a visitor like myself tofind the people every where cheerful, merry in their quiet way, and witha sufficient number and variety of healthful interests in life. But, after all, the life of the communist has much more varied interests andexcitements than that of the farmer or his family; for a commune is avillage, and usually forms a tolerably densely crowded aggregation ofpeople--more like a small section cut out of a city than like even avillage. There is also a wholesome variety of occupations; and countrylife, to those who love it, presents an infinite fund of amusement andhealthful work. 

That this is a correct view is shown by the curious fact that at Amana, when the farmers of the surrounding country bring in their wool, whichthey sell to the society, they bring with them their wives and children, who find enjoyment in a stay at the little inn; at Zoar the commune'shotel is a favorite resort of the country people; the neighbors of theIcarians come from miles around to attend the school exhibitions andother diversions of these communists; and about Aurora, in Oregon, thefarmers speak of the commune's life as admirably arranged for amusementand variety. 

14. Several of the societies have contrived ingenious mechanical meansfor securing harmony and eliminating without violence improper or ratheruncongenial members; and these appear to me to be of high importance. The Shakers use what they call "Confession of sins to the elders;" theAmana people have an annual _"untersuchung, "_ or inquiry into thesins and the spiritual condition of the members; the Perfectionists usewhat they rightly call "Criticism"--perhaps the most effective of all, asin it the subject is not left to tell his own tale, but sits at the_oyer_ of his sins and disagreeable conduct, being judge ratherthan witness. But all these devices are meritorious, because by theirmeans petty disputes are quieted, grievances are aired and thus dispersed, and harmony is maintained; while to one not in general agreement with thecommune either is unbearable, and will drive him off. As I havedescribed these practices in detail, under their proper heads, I neednot here do more than mention them. 

In judging of the _quality_ of the communal life, I have foundmyself constantly falling into the error of comparing it with my own, orwith the life of men and women in pleasant circumstances in our greatcities. Even when thus studied it has merits--for the commune gives itsmembers serenity of spirit, and relieves them from many of the follies towhich even the most sensible men and women nowadays are reluctantlycompelled to submit; not to speak of the petty and lowering cares whichthese follies and the general spirit of society bring to almost everyone. It is undoubtedly an advantage to live simply, not to be the slaveof fashion or of the opinion of others, and to keep the body undercontrol. 

But to be fairly judged, the communal life, as I have seen and tried toreport it, must be compared with that of the mechanic and laborer in ourcities, and of the farmer in the country; and when thus put in judgment, I do not hesitate to say that it is in many ways--and in almost allways--a higher and better, and also a pleasanter life. 

It provides a greater variety of employment for each individual, andthus increases the dexterity and broadens the faculties of men. Itoffers a wider range of wholesome enjoyments, and also greaterrestraints against debasing pleasures. It gives independence, andinculcates prudence and frugality. It demands self-sacrifice, andrestrains selfishness and greed; and thus increases the happiness whichcomes from the moral side of human nature. Finally, it relieves theindividual's life from a great mass of carking cares, from the necessityof over-severe and exhausting toil, from the dread of misfortune orexposure in old age. If the communal life did not offer such orequivalent rewards, no commune could exist. For though in almost all ofthose I have described a religious thought and theory enter in, it maynevertheless be justly said that all arose out of a deep-seateddissatisfaction with society as it is constituted--a feeling which iswell-nigh universal, and affects men and women more the more thoughtfulthey are; that they continue only because this want of something betteris gratified; but that a commune could not long continue whose membershad not, in the first place, by adverse circumstances, oppression, orwrong, been made to feel very keenly the need of something better. Henceit is that the German peasant or weaver makes so good a communist; andhence, too, the numerous failures of communistic experiments in thiscountry, begun by people of culture and means, with a sincere desire tolive the "better life. " J. H. Noyes, the founder of the Perfectionistcommunes, gives, in his book on "American Socialisms, " brief accounts ofnot less than forty-seven failures, many of them experiments whichpromised well at first, and whose founders were high-minded, highlycultivated men and women, with sufficient means, one would think, toachieve success. 

[Transcriber's Note: Lengthy footnote relocated to chapter end. ]

Now, why these successes in the face of so many failures? Certainlythere was not among the Shakers, the Rappists, the Baumelers, theEben-Ezers, the Perfectionists, greater business ability or morepowerful leadership? Greater wealth there was not, for most of thesuccessful societies began poor. If education or intellectual cultureare important forces, the unsuccessful societies had these, thesuccessful ones had them not. 

Mr. Noyes believes that religion must be the base of a successfulcommune. Mr. Greeley agreed with him. I believe that religion must bethe foundation of every human society which is to be orderly, virtuous, and therefore self-denying, and so far I do not doubt that they areright. But if it is meant, as I understand them, that in order tosuccess there must be some peculiar religious faith, fanatically held, Ido not believe it at all. 

I believe that success depends--together with a general agreement inreligious faith, and a real and spiritual religion leavening themass--upon another sentiment--upon a feeling of the unbearableness ofthe circumstances in which they find themselves. The general feeling ofmodern society is blindly right at bottom: communism is a mutiny againstsociety. 

Only, whether the communist shall rebel with a bludgeon and a petroleumtorch, or with a plow and a church, depends upon whether he has not orhas faith in God--whether he is a religious being or not. If priestcraftand tyranny have sapped his faith and debauched his moral sense, then hewill attack society as the French commune recently attackedParis--animated by a furious envy of his more fortunate fellow-creatures, and an undiscriminating hatred toward every thing which reminds him ofhis oppressors, or of the social system from which he has or imagines hehas suffered wrong. If, on the contrary, he believes in God, he findshope and comfort in the social theory which Jesus propounded; and hewill seek another way out, as did the Rappists, the Eben-Ezers, theJansenists, the Zoarites, and not less the Shakers and thePerfectionists, each giving his own interpretation to that briefnarrative of Luke in which he describes the primitive Christian Church:

"And all that believed were together, and had all things in common; andsold their possessions and goods; and parted them to all men as everyman had need. "

These words have had a singular power over men in all ages since theywere written. They form the charter of every communistic society ofwhich I have spoken--for even the Icarians recall them. 

IV. --CONDITIONS AND POSSIBILITIES OP COMMUNISTIC LIVING. 

Reviewing what I have seen and written, these questions occur:

I. On what terms, if at all, could a carefully selected and homogeneouscompany of men and women hope to establish themselves as a commune?

II. Would they improve their lives and condition?

III. Have the existing societies brought communal life to its highestpoint; or is a higher and more intellectual life compatible with thatdegree of pecuniary success and harmonious living which is absolutelyindispensable?

I. I doubt if men and women in good circumstances, or given to anintellectual life, can hope to succeed in such an experiment. In thebeginning, the members of a commune must expect to work hard; and, to besuccessful, they ought always to retain the frugal habits, the earlyhours, and the patient industry and contentment with manual labor whichbelong to what we call the working class. Men cannot play at communism. It is not amateur work. It requires patience, submission;self-sacrifice, often in little matters where self-sacrifice ispeculiarly irksome; faith in a leader; pleasure in plain living andhealthful hours and occupations. 

"Do you have no grumblers?" I asked Elder Frederick Evans at MountLebanon; and he replied, "Yes, of course--and they grumble at the elder. That is what he is for. It is necessary to have some one man to grumbleat, for that avoids confusion. "

"Do you have no scandal?" I asked at Aurora, and they said, "Ohyes--women will talk; but we have learned not to mind it. "

"Are you not troubled sometimes with disagreeable members?" I asked atOneida; and they answered, "Yes; but what we cannot criticize out ofthem we bear with. That is part of our life. "

"_Bear ye one another's burdens_" might well be written over thegates of every commune. 

Some things the communist must surrender; and the most precious of theseis solitude. 

The man to whom at intervals the faces and voices of his kind becomehateful, whose bitterest need it is to be sometimes alone--this man neednot try communism. For in a well-ordered commune there is hardly thepossibility of privacy. You are part of a great family, all whoseinterests and all whose life must necessarily be in common. At Oneida, when a man leaves the house he sticks a peg in a board, to tell all hislittle world where he is to be found. In a Shaker family, the elder isexpected to know where every man is at all hours of the day. Moses, wandering over the desert with his great commune, occasionally went upinto a mountain; but he never returned to the dead level of hisIsraelites without finding his heart fill with rage and despair. Nor isthis surprising; for in the commune there must be absolute equality;there can be no special privileges; and when the great Leader, restinghis spirit on the mountain, and enjoying the luxury of solitude andretirement from the hateful sight and sounds of human kind, "delayed tocome down, " his fellow-communists began at once to murmur, "As for thisMoses, the man who brought us up out of the land of Egypt, we wot notwhat is become of him. "

Fortunately--else there would be no communes--to the greater part ofmankind the faces and voices of their kind are necessary. 

A company of fifty, or even of twenty-five families, well known to eachother, belonging to the same Christian Church, or at least united uponsome one form of religious faith, composed of farmers or mechanics, orboth, and strongly desirous to better their circumstances, and to live alife of greater independence and of greater social advantages than isattainable to the majority of farmers and mechanics, could, I believe, if they were so fortunate as to possess a leader of sufficient wisdomand unselfishness, in whom all would implicitly trust, make an attemptat communistic living with strong hopes of success; and they wouldundoubtedly, if they maintained their experiment only ten years, materially improve their condition; and, what to me seems moreimportant, the life would affect their characters and those of theirchildren in many ways beneficially. 

I think it would be a mistake in such a company of people to live in a"unitary home. " They should be numerous enough to form a village; theyshould begin with means sufficient to own a considerable tract of land, sufficient to supply themselves with food, and to keep as much stock asthey required for their own use. They should so locate their village asto make it central to their agricultural land. They should determine, asthe Rappists did, upon a uniform and simple dress and house, and uponabsolute equality of living. They should place _all_ the power inthe hands of their leader, and solemnly promise him unhesitating trustand obedience; specifying only that he should contract no debts, shouldattempt no new enterprise without unanimous consent, and should at alltimes open his purposes and his acts to the whole society. Finally, theyshould expect in the beginning to live economically--_very_economically, perhaps; and in every case within their income. 

They would, of course, adopt rules as to hours of labor and of meals;but if they had the spirit which alone can give success, these matterswould be easily settled--for in a community men are more apt toover-work than to be idle. The lazy men, who are the bugbears ofspeculative communists, are not, so far as I have heard, to be found inthe existing communes, and I have often and in different places beentold, especially of the early days: "We worked late and early, eachtrying how much he could accomplish, and singing at our work. "

In a commune, which is only a large family, I think it a great pointgained for success to give the women equal rights in every respect withthe men. They should take part in the business discussions, and theirconsent should be as essential as that of the men in all the affairs ofthe society. This gives them, I have noticed, contentment of mind, aswell as enlarged views and pleasure in self-denial. Moreover, women havea conservative spirit, which is of great value in a communistic society, as in a family; and their influence is always toward a higher life. 

Servants are inadmissible in a commune; but it may and ought to possessconveniences which make servants, with plain living, needless. Forinstance, a common laundry, a common butcher's shop, a general barn anddairy, are contrivances which almost every commune possesses, but whichhardly any village in the country has. A clean, hard road within thecommunal village limits, and dry side-walks, would be attainable withease. A church and a school-house ought to be the first buildingserected; and both being centrally placed, either could be used for suchevening meetings as are essential to happy and successful communityliving. 

Finally, there should be some way to bring to the light thedissatisfaction which must exist where a number of people attempt tolive together, either in a commune or in the usual life, but which in acommune needs to be wisely managed. For this purpose I know of no bettermeans than that which the Perfectionists call "criticism"--telling amember to his face, in regular and formal meeting, what is the opinionof his fellows about him--which he or she, of course, ought to receivein silence. Those who cannot bear this ordeal are unfit for communitylife, and ought not to attempt it. But, in fact, this "criticism, "kindly and conscientiously used, would be an excellent means ofdiscipline in most families, and would in almost all cases abolishscolding and grumbling. 

A commune is but a larger family, and its members ought to meet eachother as frequently as possible. The only advantage of a unitary homelies in this, that the members may easily assemble in a common roomevery evening for an hour, not with any set or foreordained purpose, butfor that interchange of thought and experience which makes up, orshould, a large and important part of family life. Hence every communeought to have a pleasantly arranged and conveniently accessiblemeeting-room, to which books and newspapers, music, and cheap, harmlessamusements should draw the people-women and children as well asmen--two or three times a week. Nor is such meeting a hardship in acommune, where plain living, early hours, and good order and system makethe work light, and leave both time and strength for amusement. 

Tobacco, spirituous liquors, and cards ought to be prohibited in everycommune, as wasteful of money, strength, and time. 

The training of children in strict obedience and in good habits would beinsisted on by a wise leader as absolutely necessary to concord in thesociety; and the school-teacher ought to have great authority. Moreover, the training of even little children, during some hours of every day, insome manual occupation, like knitting--as is done at Amana--is usefulin several ways. Regular and patient industry, not exhausting toil, isthe way to wealth in a commune; and children--who are indeed in generalbut too proud to be usefully employed, and to have the sense ofaccomplishing something--cannot be brought into this habit of industrytoo early. 

What now might the members of such a community expect to gain by theirexperiment? Would they, to answer the second question above, improvetheir lives and condition?

Pecuniarily, they would begin at once a vast economy and saving ofwaste, which could hardly help but make them prosperous, and in timewealthy. A commune pays no wages; its members "work for their board andclothes, " as the phrase is; and these supplies are either cheaplyproduced or bought at wholesale. A commune has no blue Mondays, or idleperiods whatever; every thing is systematized, and there is usefulemployment for all in all kinds of weather and at all seasons of theyear. A commune wastes no time in "going to town, " for it has its ownshops of all kinds. It totally abolishes the middleman of every kind, and saves all the large percentage of gain on which the "store-keepers"live and grow rich elsewhere. It spends neither time nor money indram-shops or other places of common resort. It secures, by plain livingand freedom from low cares, good health in all, and thus saves "doctors'bills. " It does not heed the changes in fashion, and thus saves time andstrength to its women. Finally, the communal life is so systematizedthat every thing is done well, at the right time, and thus comes anotherimportant saving of time and material. The communal wood-house is alwaysfull of well-seasoned firewood: here is a saving of time and temperwhich almost every Western farmer's wife will appreciate. 

If you consider well these different economies, it will cease to besurprising that communistic societies become wealthy; and this withoutsevere or exhausting toil. The Zoarites acknowledge that they could nothave paid for their land had they not formed themselves into a commune;the Amana Inspirationists confess that they could not have maintainedthemselves near Buffalo had they not adopted the communal system. 

I have said nothing about the gain of the commune by the thoroughculture it is able and likely to give to land; its ability to command atany moment a large laboring force for an emergency, and its advantage inproducing the best, and selling its surplus consequently at the highestmarket price. But these are not slight advantages. I should say that thereputation for honesty and for always selling a good article is worth tothe Shakers, the Amana and other communes, at least ten per cent. Overtheir competitors. 

On the moral side the gain is evidently great. In a society sointimately bound together, if there are slight tendencies to evil in anymember, they are checked and controlled by the prevailing publicsentiment. The possibility of providing with ease and without theexpenditure of money good training and education for children, is animmense advantage for the commune over the individualist who is a farmeror mechanic in a new country. The social advantages are very great andevident. Finally, the effect of the communal life upon the character ofthe individual is good. Diversity of employments, as I have noticed inanother chapter, broadens the men's faculties. Ingenuity and mechanicaldexterity are developed to a surprising degree in a commune, as well asbusiness skill. The constant necessity of living in intimate associationwith others, and taking into consideration their prejudices andweaknesses, makes the communist somewhat a man of the world; teaches himself-restraint; gives him a liberal and tolerant spirit; makes him anamiable being. Why are _all_ communists remarkably cleanly? Iimagine largely because filth or carelessness would be unendurable in solarge a family, and because system and method are absolutely necessary toexistence. 

But, to come to my third question, the communes I have visited do notappear to me to make nearly as much of their lives as they might. Mostof them are ascetics, who avoid the beautiful as tending to sin; andmost of them, moreover, out of the force of old habits, and aconservative spirit which dreads change, rigidly maintain the old ways. 

In the beginning, a commune must live with great economy, and denyitself many things desirable and proper. It is an advantage that itshould have to do this, just as it is undoubtedly an advantage to ayoung couple just starting out in life to be compelled by narrowcircumstances to frugal living and self-denial. It gives unselfishnessand a wholesome development of character. But I cannot see why aprosperous commune should not own the best books; why it should not havemusic; why it should not hear the most eloquent lecturers; why it shouldnot have pleasant pleasure-grounds, and devote some means to the highestform of material art--fine architecture. It seems to me that in theserespects the communes I have visited have failed of their proper andjust development; and I believe this inattention to the higher andintellectual wants of men to be the main reason of their generallyfailing numbers. They keep their lives on the plane of the commonfarmer's life out of which most of the older members were gathered--andtheir young people leave them, just as the farmers of our countrycomplain that their boys run off to the cities. The individual farmer orcountry mechanic cannot control this; he cannot greatly beautify hislife, or make it intellectually richer. But to the commune, once wellestablished and prosperous, all needful things are possible, so far asmoney cost is concerned; and it is my belief that neither books normusic, nor eloquence nor flowers, nor finely kept pleasure-grounds norgood architecture would be dangerous to the success of a commune. 

In another respect, the communistic societies fall short of what theyought to be and do. The permanence of their establishments gives themextraordinary advantages for observing the phenomena of climate andnature; and it would add greatly to the interest of their lives did theybusy and interest themselves with observations of temperature, and ofthe various natural phenomena which depend upon or denote climate: thearrival and departure of birds; the first and last frosts; theblossoming of flowers and trees. A Shaker family ought to producerecords of this kind of great value and interest; and I wonder that sucha book as White's "Selborne" has not empted some communist to suchobservations. But I nowhere, except at Oneida, found more than a verysuperficial interest in natural phenomena. 

It is easy to see that here is a field of innocent and healthfulamusement which, with the abundant leisure the members of a prosperouscommune enjoy, could be worked so as to give a new and ever-freshinterest to the lives of young and old. 

I find fault also with the isolation in which communal societies live. They would be the better if they communicated fully and frequently amongeach other, and interchanged thoughts and experiences. Not only do thedifferent societies hold aloof from each other, but among the Shakerseven families do not communicate or advise with others living at adistance. But I believe this is to be remedied. 

Finally, I repeat that one cannot play at communism. It is earnest work, and requires perseverance, patience, and all other manly qualities. Butif I compare the life in a contented and prosperous, that is to say asuccessful commune, with the life of an ordinary farmer or mechanic evenin our prosperous country, and more especially with the lives of theworking-men and their families in our great cities, I must confess thatthe communist life is so much freer from care and risk, so much easier, so much better in many ways, and in all material aspects, that Isincerely wish it might have a farther development in the United States. 

With this wish I conclude a work which has interested me extremely--therecord of an investigation which was certainly the strangest and mostremarkable I ever made, and which forced me to take some views of thenature and capacities of the average man which I had not before. 

That communistic societies will rapidly increase in this or any othercountry, I do not believe. The chances are always great against thesuccess of any newly formed society of this kind. But that men and womencan, if they _will_, live pleasantly and prosperously in a communalsociety is, I think, proved beyond a doubt; and thus we have a right tocount this another way by which the dissatisfied laborer may, if hechooses, better his condition. This seems to me a matter of someimportance, and justifies, to myself at least, the trouble I have takenin this investigation. 

[Relocated Footnote: Here is a list of titles, which I take from Noyes:The Alphadelphia Phalanx, Hopedale Community, Leroysville Phalanx, Bloomfield Association, Blue Springs Community, North American Phalanx, Ohio Phalanx, Brook Farm, Bureau County Phalanx, Raritan Bay Union, Wisconsin Phalanx; the Clarkson, Clermont, Columbian, Coxsackie, Skaneateles, Integral, Iowa Pioneer, Jefferson County, La Grange, Turnbull, Sodus Bay, and Washtenaw Phalanxes; the Forrestville, Franklin, Garden Grove, Goose Pond, Haverstraw, Kendall, One Mentian, and Yellow Springs Communities; the Marlborough, McKean County, Mixville, Northampton, Spring Farm, and Sylvania Associations; theMoorehouse and the Ontario Unions; the Prairie Home; New Harmony, Nashoba, New Lanark, the Social Reform Unity, and the Peace UnionSettlement. ]

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The following list does not pretend to be a complete bibliography ofSocialism or Communism. It contains the titles of all the works whichhave fallen under my own observation relating to the CommunisticSocieties now existing in the United States, and referred to in thisbook. Most of these are in my own collection; a few I found in theCongressional Library or in the hands of friends. To a few of the titlesI have appended remarks explanatory of their contents. 

1. A Brief Account of a Religious Scheme taught and propagated by anumber of Europeans who lately lived in a place called Nisqueunia, inthe State of New York, but now residing in Harvard, Commonwealth ofMassachusetts, commonly called Shaking Quakers. By Valentine Rathbone, Minister of the Gospel. To which is added a Dialogue between George theThird of Great Britain and his Minister, giving an account of the lateLondon mob, and the original of the Sect called Shakers. The whole beinga discovery of the wicked machinations of the principal enemies ofAmerica. Worcester, 1788. 

[This is the earliest printed mention I have found of the Shakers. Thepamphlet is in the Congressional Library, and came from the ForceCollection. Its intention was to make the Shakers odious as Britishspies; and in the "Dialogue" between the king and his minister, "LordGermain" is made to comfort the king with an account of "the persons whowere sent to propagate a new religious scheme in America, " whoseaccounts, he says, are "very flattering, " and upon whom he depends tomislead the ignorant Americans into opposition to the "rebels. " The"Dialogue" pretends to have been "printed London; reprinted Worcester, 1782. "]

2. Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing, exemplified by the Principlesand Practice of the Church of Christ. History of the Progressive Work ofGod, extending from the Creation of Man to the Harvest, comprising theFour Great Dispensations now consummating in the Millennial Church. Antichrist's Kingdom or Churches, contrasted with the Church of Christ'sFirst and Second Appearing, the Kingdom of the God of Heaven. Publishedby the United Society called Shakers. No date. (The Preface to the firstedition is dated "Lebanon, O. , 1808. " Of the fourth, "Watervliet, N. Y. , 1854;" pp. 632. )

3. Autobiography, of a Shaker, and Revelation of the Apocalypse, with anAppendix. By Frederick W. Evans. New York, American News Company, 1869, pp. 162. 

4. _The Same. _ London, J. Burns, 1871, with a photographic portraitof the author. 

5. Shaker's Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, Rules andRegulations, Government and Doctrines of the United Society of Christ'sSecond Appearing, with Biographies of Ann Lee, William Lee, JamesWhittaker, J. Hocknell, J. Meacham, and Lucy Wright. By F. W. Evans. NewYork, D. Appleton & Co. , 1859, pp. 189. 

6. The Nature and Character of the True Church of Christ proved by PlainEvidences, and showing whereby it may be known and distinguished fromall others. Being Extracts from the Writings of John Dunlavy. New York, printed by George W. Wood, 1850, pp. 93. 

7. The Kentucky Revival; or a Short History of the late ExtraordinaryOutpouring of the Spirit of God in the Western States of America, agreeably to Scripture Promises and Prophecies concerning the LatterDay, with a Brief Account of the Entrance and Purposes of what the Worldcall Shakerism, among the Subjects of the late Revival in Ohio andKentucky. Presented to the _True Zion Traveler_ as a Memorial of theWilderness Journey. By Richard McNemar. New York. Reprinted by Edward O. Jenkins, 1846. Pp. 156. (The Preface is dated "Turtle Creek, 1807. ")

8. _The Same. _ Press of John W. Brown, Liberty Hall, Cincinnati, 1807. 

9. _The Same. _ Albany, 1808. 

10. A Short Treatise on the Second Appearing of Christ in and throughthe Order of the Female. By F. W. Evans, New Lebanon, N. Y. Boston, 1853, pp. 24. 

11. A Brief Exposition of the Established Principles and Regulations ofthe United Society of Believers called Shakers. New York, 1851, pp. 30. 

12. _The Same. _ Watervliet, Ohio, 1832. 

13. _The Same. _ Canterbury, N. H. , 1843. 

14. Shaker Communism; or Tests of Divine Inspiration. The SecondChristian or Gentile Pentecostal Church, as exemplified by SeventyCommunities of Shakers in America. By F. W. Evans. London, James Burns, 1871, pp. 120. 

15. Religious Communism. A Lecture by F. W. Evans (Shaker), of MountLebanon, Columbia Co. , New York, U. S. A. , delivered in St. George's Hall, London, Sunday evening, August 6th, 1871; with Introductory Remarks bythe Chairman of the Meeting, Mr. Hepworth Dixon. Also some Account ofthe Extent of the Shaker Communities, and a Narrative of the Visit ofElder Evans to England. An abstract of a Lecture by Rev. J. M. Peebles, and his Testimony in regard to the Shakers. 

16. Plain Talks upon Practical Religion. Being Candid Answers to EarnestInquirers. By Geo. Albert Lomas, Shaker. (Watervliet), N. Y. , 1873, pp. 24. 

17. Ann Lee, the Founder of the Shakers. A Biography, with Memoirs ofher Companions. Also a Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, Rules and Regulations, Government and Doctrines of the United Society ofBelievers in Christ's Second Appearing. By F. W. Evans. London, J. Burns. (The same as No. 5. )

18. The Shaker and Shakeress. A monthly paper. Published by the UnitedSociety, Mount Lebanon, N. Y. F. W. Evans, Editor. 

19. Social Gathering Dialogue between Six Sisters of the North Family ofShakers, Mount Lebanon, N. Y. Albany, 1873, pp. 18. 

20. Shakerism, the Possibility of the Race. Being Letters of A. B. B. And Elder F. W. Evans. Office of the _Shaker_, 1872, pp. 14. 

21. The Universal Church. By F. W. Evans. Office of the _Shaker_, 1872, pp. 16. 

22. Catalogue of Medicinal Plants, Barks, Roots, Seeds, Flowers, andSelect Powders, with their Therapeutic Qualities and Botanical Names;also Pure Vegetable Extracts, prepared in vacuo; Ointments, InspissatedJuices, Essential Oils, Double-distilled and Fragrant Waters, etc. , raised, prepared, and put up in the most careful manner by the UnitedSociety of Shakers at Mount Lebanon, N. Y. First established in 1800, being the oldest of the kind in the country. Albany, N. Y. , 1873, pp. 58. 

23. Plain Evidences by which the Nature and Character of the True Churchof Christ may be known and distinguished from all others. Taken from awork entitled, "The Manifesto, or a Declaration of the Doctrines andPractice of the Church of Christ. " Published at Pleasant Hill, Kentucky, 1818. By John Dunlavy. Printed by Hoffman & White, Albany, 1834, pp. 120. 

24. A Collection of Millennial Hymns, adapted to the present Order ofthe Church. Printed in the United Society, Canterbury, N. H. , 1847, pp. 200. 

25. A Sacred Repository of Anthems and Hymns, for devotional Worship andPraise. Canterbury, N. H. , 1852, pp. 222. 

26. Testimonies concerning the Character and Ministry of Mother Ann Leeand the First Witnesses of the Gospel of Christ's Second Appearing, given by some of the aged Brethren and Sisters of the United Society;including a few Sketches of their own Religious Experiences. Approved bythe Church. Albany, printed by Packard & Van Benthuysen, 1827, pp. 178. 

27. Familiar Dialogues on Shakerism; in which the Principles of theUnited Society are illustrated and defended. By Fayette Mace. Portland, Charles Day & Co. , Printers, 1838, pp. 120. 

28. _The Same_. Concord, 1838. 

29. A Discourse of the Order and Propriety of Divine Inspiration andRevelation, showing the Necessity thereof in all Ages to know the Willof God. Also, a Discourse on the Second Appearing of Christ in andthrough the Order of the Female. And a Discourse on the Propriety andNecessity of a United Inheritance in all Things in order to Support atrue Christian Community. By William Leonard. Harvard (Mass. ), publishedby the United Society, 1853, pp. 88. 

30. A Brief Illustration of the Principles of War and Peace, showing theruinous Policy of the former, and the superior Efficacy of the latter, for National Protection and Defense; clearly manifested by theirpractical Operations and opposite Effects upon Nations, Kingdoms, andPeople. By Philanthropos. Albany, printed by Packard & Van Benthuysen, 1831, pp. 112. 

31. Some Lines in Verse about Shakers, not Published by Authority of theSociety so called. New York, William Taylor & Co. , No. 2 Astor House, 1846, pp. 56. 

32. A Concise Answer to the General Inquiry who or what are the Shakers. First printed at Union Village, Ohio, 1823. Reprinted at Enfield, N. H. , 1825. Albion Chase, Printer, pp. 14. 

33. The Life of Christ is the End of the World. By George Albert Lomas. Watervliet, 1869, pp. 16. 

34. The Higher Law of Spiritual Progression. Albany, 1868, pp. 32. 

35. The Social Evil. By James J. Prescott. North Union (Ohio), 1870, pp. 14. 

36. A Shaker's Answer to the oft-repeated Question "What would become ofthe World if all should become Shakers?" Orders supplied by JohnWhiteley, Shirley Village, Massachusetts. Boston, 1874, pp. 32. 

37. _The Same_. By R. W. Pelham. Cincinnati, 1868, pp. 32. 

38. Shakers: A Correspondence between Mary F. C. , of Mount Holly City, and a Shaker Sister, Sarah L. , of Union Village. Edited by R. W. Pelham. Union Village, Ohio, 1868, pp. 24. 

39. Respect and Veneration due from Youth to Age. New Bedford, 1870, pp. 15. 

40. The Universal Church. By F. W. Evans. Office of the _Shaker_. Shakers, N. Y. , 1872, pp. 10. 

41. Improved Shaker Washing-machine, etc. Manufactured and for sale bythe United Society of Shakers, at Shaker Village, N. H. , pp. 12. 

42. The Divine Book of Holy and Eternal Wisdom, revealing the Word ofGod, out of whose Mouth goeth a sharp Sword. Written by Paulina Bates, at Watervliet, New York, United States of North America; including otherIllustrations and Testimonies. Arranged and prepared for the Press atNew Lebanon, N. Y. Published by the United Society called Shakers. Printed at Canterbury, N. H. , 1849, pp. 718. 

43. A Holy, Sacred, and Divine Roll and Book, from the Lord God ofHeaven to the Inhabitants of Earth. Revealed in the United Society atNew Lebanon, County of Columbia, State of New York, United States ofAmerica. Received by the Church of this Communion, and published inUnion with the same. Printed in the United Society, Canterbury, N. H. , 1843, pp. 412. 

44. A Summary View of the Millennial Church, or United Society ofBelievers, comprising the Rise, Progress, and Practical Order of theSociety, together with the general Principles of their Faith andTestimony, 1823. (3d edition, revised and improved) republished by theUnited Society with the approbation of the Ministry. Albany, printed byC. Van Benthuysen, 1848, pp. 384. 

45. The Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing; containing a generalStatement of all Things pertaining to the Faith and Practice of theChurch of God in this Latter Day. Published in Union by Order of theMinistry. Lebanon, Ohio, from the Press of John M'Clean, office of the_Western Star_, 1808, pp. 618. 

46. _The Same_. 2d edition, corrected and improved. Albany, 1810, pp. 660. 

47. _The Same_. 3d edition, corrected and improved. Union Village, Ohio. B. Fisher & A. Burnett, Printers, 1823, pp. 621. 

48. Account of some of the Proceedings of the Legislatures of the Statesof Kentucky and New Hampshire, 1828, etc. , in Relation to the Peoplecalled Shakers. Reprinted, New York, 1846, pp. 103. 

49. A Selection of Hymns and Poems for the Use of Believers; collectedfrom sundry Authors. By Philos-Harmoniae. Watervliet, Ohio, 1833, pp. 186. 

50. The Constitution of the United Society of Believers called Shakers;containing sundry Covenants and Articles of Agreement definitive of theLegal Grounds of the Institution. Watervliet, Ohio, 1833, pp. 16. 

[Contains several forms of the Church Covenant, from 1810 down to 1833. ]

51. Condition of Society and its only Hope in obeying the EverlastingGospel, as now developing among Believers in Christ's Second Appearing. Printed and published at the _Day Star_ Office, Union Village, Ohio, 1847, pp. 121. 

52. A Juvenile Guide, or Manual of Good Manners, consisting of Counsels, Instructions, and Rules of Deportment for the Young, by Lovers of Youth. In Two Parts. Printed in the United Society, Canterbury, N. H. , 1844, pp. 137. 

53. Shakerism Detected, a Pamphlet published by Col. James Smith, ofKentucky, Examined and Confuted in Five Propositions. Published atLebanon, Ohio, and Lexington, Kentucky, 1811, by Richard McNemar. Reprinted by Request. Watervliet, Ohio, May 2, 1833, pp. 12. 

54. General Rules of the United Society, and Summary Articles of MutualAgreement and Release, Ratified and Confirmed by the Society atWatervliet, Montgomery County, Ohio, January, 1833. Union Office, 1833, pp. 7. 

[Contains the signatures of members. ]

55. The Shakers: Speech of Robert Wickliffe in the Senate of Kentucky, January, 1831, on a Bill to Repeal an Act of the General Assembly of theState of Kentucky, entitled an Act to Regulate Civil Proceedings againstcertain Communities having Property in Common. Frankfort, Ky. , 1832. Pp. 32. 

56. A Memorial Remonstrating against a certain Act of the Legislature ofKentucky entitled an Act to Regulate Civil Proceedings against certainCommunities having Property in Common, and declaring that it shall andmay be lawful to commence and prosecute suits, obtain decrees, and haveexecution against any of the Communities of People called Shakers, without naming or designating the individuals, or serving process onthem otherwise than by fixing a Subpoena on the door of theirMeetinghouse, etc. Union Office, Harrodsburg, Ky. , 1830, pp. 8. 

57. An Address to the State of Ohio, Protesting against a certain Clauseof the Militia Law enacted by the Legislature. Lebanon, Ohio, Office ofthe _Farmer_, 1818, pp. 24. 

58. Investigator; or a Defense of the Order, Government, and Economy ofthe United Society called Shakers against sundry Charges and LegislativeProceedings. Addressed to the Political World by the Society ofBelievers at Pleasant Hill, Kentucky. Lexington, Ky. , Smith & Palmer, 1828, pp. 57. 

59. A Brief Statement of the Sufferings of Mary Dyer, occasioned by theSociety called Shakers. Written by Herself. To which is added Affidavitsand Certificates; also a Declaration from their own Publication. Concord, N. H. , 1818, pp. 35. 

60. A Compendious Narrative, Elucidating the Character, Disposition, andConduct of Mary Dyer, from the Time of her Marriage, in 1799, till sheleft the Society called Shakers in 1815, etc. By her Husband, JosephDyer. To which is annexed a Remonstrance against the Testimony andApplication of the said Mary for Legislative Interference. Concord, byIsaac Hill, for the Author, 1818, pp. 90. 

61. The Memorial of the Society of People of Canterbury, in the Countyof Rockingham, and Enfield, in the County of Grafton, commonly calledShakers. (No date--but about 1818), pp. 13. 

62. Tests of Divine Inspiration, or the Rudimental Principles by whichTrue and False Revelation in all Eras of the World can be UnerringlyDiscriminated. By F. W. Evans. New Lebanon, 1853, pp. 128. 

63. Public Discourses delivered in Substance at Union Village, Ohio, August, 1823, pp. 36. 

64. A Revision and Confirmation of the Social Compact of the UnitedSociety called Shakers, at Pleasant Hill, Kentucky. Published by Orderof the Church. Harrodsburg, Ky. , 1830, pp. 12. 

65. A Short Abridgment of the Rules of Music, with Lessons for Exercise, and a few Observations for New Beginners. New Lebanon, 1843; reprinted1846, pp. 40. 

66. Sixteen Years in the Senior Order of Shakers, a Narrative of Factsconcerning that singular People. By Hervey Elkins. Hanover, N. H. , 1853, pp. 136. 

67. The Shaker Society _against_ Gass & Banta. (Brief of a case inKentucky. ) No date, pp. 8. 

68. Catalogue of Medicinal Plants, Extracts, Essential Oils, etc. , prepared and for sale by the United Society of Shakers at Union Village, Ohio. 

69. Shakerism Unmasked, or a History of the Shakers. By William J. Haskett. Pittsfield, 1828. 

70. Two Years' Experience among the Shakers: A Condensed View ofShakerism as it is. By David K. Lamsen. West Boylston, 1848. 

71. The Rise and Progress of the Serpent, from the Garden of Eden to thePresent Day, with a Disclosure of Shakerism, etc. ; also the Life andSufferings of the Author, who was Mary Dyer, but now is Mary Marshall. Concord, N. H. , 1847. 

72. An Account of the People called Shakers--their Faith, Doctrines, andPractice. By Thomas Brown, of Cornwall, Orange County, N. Y. Troy, 1812. 

73. History of American Socialisms. By John Humphrey Noyes. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co. , 1870, pp. 678. 

74. Oneida Community Cooking, or a Dinner without Meat. By Harriet H. Skinner. Oneida, N. Y. , 1873, pp. 51. 

75. Essay on Scientific Propagation. By John Humphrey Noyes, with anAppendix containing a Health Report of the Oneida Community. By TheodoreR. Noyes, M. D. Published by the Oneida Community, Oneida, N. Y. (Nodate--about 1873), pp. 32. 

76. Male Continence. By John Humphrey Noyes. Published by the OneidaCommunity, Office of the _Circular_, Oneida, N. Y. , 1872, pp. 24. 

77. Hand-book of the Oneida Community, containing a Brief Sketch of itsPresent Condition, Internal Economy, and Leading Principles. Publishedby the Oneida Community, N. Y. , 1871, pp. 64. 

78. Salvation from Sin the End of Christian Faith. By J. H. Noyes. Published by the Oneida Community, Mount Tom Printing-house, WallingfordCommunity, Conn. , 1869, pp. 48. 

79. Dixon and his Copyists: A Criticism of the Accounts of the OneidaCommunity in "New America, " "Spiritual Wives, " and kindred Publications. By John Humphrey Noyes. Published by the Oneida Community, 1871, pp. 40. 

80. Faith Facts; or a Confession of the Kingdom of God and the Age ofMiracles. Edited by George Cragin. Oneida Reserve, N. Y. , 1850, pp. 40. 

81. Favorite Hymns for Community Singing, 1855, pp. 32. (OneidaCommunists. )

82. The Way of Holiness; a Series of Papers published in the_Perfectionist_, New Haven. By J. H. Noyes. Printed by J. H. Noyes &Co. , 1838. 

[The company consisted of himself, his wife, brother, and two sisters. ]

83. Paul not Carnal. New Haven, 1834. 

84. The Perfectionist. New Haven, 1834. 

85. The Way of Holiness. Putney, Vt. , 1838. 

86. The Witness. Ithaca, N. Y. , and Putney, Vt. , 1838-43. 

87. The Perfectionist. Putney, Vt. , 1843-46. 

88. The Spiritual Magazine. Oneida, 1848-50. 

89. The Free Church Circular. Oneida, 1850-51. 

90. The Circular. Oneida, 1854-74. 

91. First Annual Report of the Oneida Association. Oneida, 1849. 

92. Faith Facts. Oneida, 1850. 

93. Second Annual Report of the Oneida Association. Oneida, 1850. 

94. Third Annual Report of the Oneida Association. Oneida, 1851. 

95. Bible Communism. Brooklyn, 1853. 

96. The Trapper's Guide. Wallingford, 1867. 

97. Die Wahre Separation, oder die Wiedergeburt, dargestellt in geistreichen und erbaulichen Versammlung's Reden und Betrachtungen, besondersauf das gegenwärtige Zeitalter anwendbar. Gehalten an die Gemeinde inZoar im Jahre 1830. Gedruckt in Zoar, O. , 1856. (The True Separation, orthe Second Birth, presented in Spiritual and Devotional Discourses andLectures, applicable particularly to the Present Time. Delivered to theCongregation at Zoar in 1830. Printed at Zoar, 1856. ) Three volumesquarto, pp. 2574. 

[These are by Baumeler, the founder of the Zoar Community; and contain agreat many curious theories of life, present and future. ]

98. Sammlung Auserlesener geistlicher Lieder, zum GemeinschaftlichenGesäng und eigenen Gebrauch in Christlichen Familien. Zoar, Ohio, 1867. (Collection of Selected Sacred Hymns, for the use of Churches andIndividuals in Christian Families. ) pp. 169. 

[Baumeler's Collection, now in use at Zoar. This is the "second andimproved edition. "]

99. Jahrbücher der Wahren Inspiration's Gemeinden, oder Bezeugungen desGeistes des Herrn. Gedruckt zu Eben-Ezer bei Buffalo. (Yearbooks of theTrue Inspiration's Congregations, or Witnesses of the Spirit of theLord. Printed at Eben-Ezer, near Buffalo. )

[This is a series of volumes, containing the utterances of the "InspiredInstruments" of the Amana Society. They publish a volume for each year, but are now in arrears. ]

100. Historische Beschreibung der Wahren Inspiration's Gemeinschaft, wiesie bestanden und sich fortgepflanzt hat, und was von den wichtigstenEreignissen noch ausgefunden werden kann, besonders wie sie in denJahren 1817 und 1818 und so fort wieder durch den Geist Gottes in neuenWerkzeugen aufgeweckt worden, und was seit der Zeit in und mit dieserGemeinde und deren herzugekommenen Gliedern wichtiges vorgefallen. Aufgeschrieben von Christian Metz. (Historical Description of the TrueInspiration's Community, etc. ) It is written by the Spiritual Head ofthe Amana Community. 

101. J. J. J. Exegetische Reimen-Probe, über die Letzte Rede unsersHerrn Jesu Christi an Seine Wahrhaftige Jünger, etc. , begriffen, abgefasset und mitgetheilet in Einfaltigem Liebes Gehorsam. Neuaufgelegt im Jahr 1860. Eben-Ezer, bei Buffalo, N. Y. (Exegetical Rhymesconcerning the Last Address of our Lord Jesus Christ to his TrueDisciples, etc. , conceived, written down, and imparted by Simple, LovingObedience. Newly printed at Eben-Ezer, N. Y. , 1860. )

 [It is in several volumes, and is a rhymed rendering, with numerous reflections, of several chapters of John, beginning with the 14th. The author was an old Mystic, E. L. Gruber. The first volume, the only one I have, has 437 pages. I do not know why this and other volumes have J. J. J. Prefixed to the title. ]

102. B. Cum D! Die XXXVI. Sammlung, Das ist die Zweite Fortsetzung vonBr. Johann Friederich Rock's Reise und Besuch im Jahr 1719, etc. Gedruckt im Jahr 1785. (The 36th Collection--that is, the SecondContinuation of Brother John Frederick Rock's Journey and Visits in theyear 1719. Printed in the year 1785. ) pp. 145. 

 [This is one of the more ancient journals of the Inspirationists, and recounts the visions of Rock, one of their early prophets. I do not know what mystery lies in "B. Cum D!"]

103. Das Liebes und Gedächtniszmahl des Leidens und Sterbens unsersHerrn und Heilandes Jesu Christi, etc. (The Supper of Love andRemembrance of the Sufferings and Death of our Lord and Saviour JesusChrist; how it was announced, ordered, and celebrated by his Word andWitness in four parts, at Middle and Lower Eben-Ezer, in the year 1855. Eben-Ezer, N. Y. , 1859, pp. 284. )

 [I have given an account of this book in the description of Amana. ]

104. Stimmen aus Zion, zum Lobe des Allmächtigen im Geist gesungen, vonJohann Wilhelm Petersen, Dr. (A. D. 1698). (Voices from Zion, sung in theSpirit to the Praise of the Almighty, by John William Petersen, D. D. )Newly printed at Eben-Ezer, N. Y. , 1851, pp. 456. 

105. Davidisches Psalter Spiel der Kinder Zions, etc. (Psalms after themanner of David, for the Children of Zion: a Collection of old and newlyselected Spiritual Songs, brought together for the Use of all Soulsdesirous of Healing, and Sucklings of Wisdom; but particularly for theCongregations of the Lord. ) Third Edition, Amana, Iowa, 1871, pp. 1285, of which 111 are music. 

[This is the hymn-book at present in use at Amana. ]

106. J. J. J. Erster Beytrag zur Fortsetzung der Wahren Inspiration'sGemeinschaft, etc. (First Records of the Continuation of the TrueInspiration's Congregations. ) Büdingen2. 

[This volume contains the earliest utterances of Barbara Heyneman, thepresent Spiritual Head of Amana, and also "Four-and-twenty Rules of TrueGodliness, " by J. A. Gruber, and "One-and-twenty Rules for theExamination of our Daily Lives, " by E. L. Gruber. ]

107. Die Schule der Weiszheit, als das Hoch-Teutsche A B C, vor Schülerund Meister in Israel. (The School of Wisdom, and High-German A B C, forScholars and Masters in Israel. ) 1748, pp. 128. 

108. J. J. J. Catechetischer Unterricht von der Lehre des Heils, etc. (Catechism. ) Printed at Eben-Ezer, 1857, and at Amana, 1872, "for theuse and blessing of the Inspiration's Congregations. "

[There are two volumes, pp. 96 and 84. The first for youth, the secondfor members in general. ]

109. Der Kleine Kempis, oder Kurze Sprüche und Gebete, etc. (The LittleKempis, or Short Sayings and Prayers, from the Works of Thomas à Kempis, for the Edification of Children. ) Eben-Ezer, 1856, pp. 382. 

110. Seelen Schatz der Gott Begierigen, etc. (Treasure of those whodesire God; showing how a man should die to sin, hate his Adamic life, deny himself, and live in Christ, in order that he may attain to thecomplete love of God and his neighbor, and achieve a part in EverlastingSalvation. ) Eben-Ezer, N. Y. , 1851, pp. 243. 

111. Lebenserfahrungen von Carl G. Koch, Prediger des Evangeliums. (Experiences of Charles G. Koch, Preacher of the Gospel. ) Cleveland, Ohio, 1871, pp. 411. 

[This contains curious details of Count Leon's transactions at Economy, and of Keil, the head of the Aurora Community in Oregon. ]

112. Hirten-Brief an die Wahren und Ächten Freymäurer Alten Systems. Neue Auflage, 5785. (Episcopal Letter addressed to the True and FaithfulFreemasons of the Ancient System. New Edition, 5785. ) Printed atPittsburgh, 1855, pp. 288. 

[This is a mystical work much prized by the Harmonists. ]

113. The Harmony Society at Economy, Pennsylvania. Founded by GeorgeRapp, A. D. 1805. With an Appendix. By Aaron Williams, D. D. , Pittsburgh, 1866, pp. 182. 

114. The Bishop Hill Colony Case. Answer of the Defendants. Galva, Ill. , 1868, pp. 94. 

[Contains accounts of the Growth and Decay of the Bishop HillCommunity. ]

115. The Bishop Hill Colony Case--Statement of the Plaintiffs, Eric U. Norberg and others. 

116. Några Sånger, Samt Böner. Förfatlade af Erik Janson. Galva, Ill. , 1857. 

[This is the hymn-book prepared by Eric Janson for the use of the BishopHill Commune. ]

117. Constitution der Ikarischen Güter Gemeinschaft, etc. (Constitutionof the Icarian Commune, unanimously adopted on the 21st of February, 1850; and, after revision, again adopted 4th of May, 1851. ) Nauvoo, Ill. Icarian Printing-office, August, 1844, pp. 27. 

118. Wenn ich $500, 000 bätte! (If I had Half a Million Dollars!) By E. Cabet, President of the Icarian Commune. Nauvoo, Ill. , November, 1854. 

INDEX. 

A. 

 Administration, at Amana, Aurora, Bishop Hill, Cedar Vale, Economy, Icaria, Oneida, Prairie Home, Shaker, Zoar, Agriculture, excellent, of the Communists, Alfred, Shakers at, Amana Society, the, derivation of, population of, industries of, Amiability, a communal virtue, Amusements, at Amana, Anaheim, plan of, cultivation of, Ann Lee. (_See_ Mother Ann. ) Architecture, communal, Armenburg, Inspirationists gathered at, Aurora, appearance of the people of, B. 

 Bäker, Rapp's successor, Baumeler, Joseph, his teaching, Bethel, Bishop Hill, settlement made at, disorganization at, division of property at, Boissiere, E. V. , letter from, Book-keeping, communal, Books at Bethel, Brains come easily to the top, Business management, at Amana, at Oneida, among the Shakers, Business statement, C. 

 Cabet, Etienne, Canterbury, Shakers at, Cards prohibited, Catechism, Amana, Cedar Vale, Celibacy, discountenanced, said to be healthful, Celibate Communes, life, Celibates, the Harmonists become, Ceremonies, Aurora, horror of, at Oneida, no, at Oneida, Character, intellectual, of Communists, of members at Amana, of people at Anaheim, of Oneida people, Children, at Aurora, at Oneida, training of, training of, at Amana, taught manual labor, Children's houses, Zoar, _Circular_, Oneida, Clairvoyants, Cleanliness, among the Shakers, Clothing allowance, Amana, Oneida, Clothing distribution, Bethel, Clothing, Economy, Comfort, contrivances for, in communes, Communal life, advantages of the, Commune, economy of the, a mutiny against society, Communes, land owned by, barren lives in, what they might do, wealth of, origin of, number of, needless isolation of, which have failed, Communism, when begun, at Zoar not amateur work Confession, dialogue on Shaker of sins of sins, Amana Constitution of Harmonists, at Zoar Cooking-houses, at Amana at Bishop Hill Co-operative plan of Anaheim Costume, at Amana at Oneida, among the Shakers Covenant hymn, Shaker Criticism "Criticism, " account of a how used at Oneida "Criticism-cure" Cup of Solemnity, Shaker Cushman, Miss Charlotte

D. 

 Daily life, at Economy among the Shakers at Zoar Gruber's Rules of Dances Debt, hostility to Debts, to be avoided Defalcation among the Shakers Devil's Visitation Divine Book of Wisdom Dram-shops, prevention of Dress, simplicity of Dullness of communal life "Dutch town"

E. 

 Eben-Ezers (see also Amana) remove to Iowa Economy neatness of hotel at in 1826 tramps at Education at Amana Employment, at Amana at Aurora, at Cedar Vale at Economy at Oneida Shaker (See also Industries. ) Enfield (Conn. ), Shakers at (N. H. ), Shakers at Enthusiasts, communists not Equality, as a bond of living, Evans, F. W. , appearance of conversation of on cleanliness Evening meetings at Oneida

F. 

 Faith-cures Family, a Shaker Family life at Aurora in Communes, at Oneida Fanatics Fanners benefited by neighboring communes Fences, no, at Vineland Food, distribution of, at Amana at Aurora among the Shakers Funeral, a Shaker

G. 

 German communists peasants Germans settle Anaheim Gloucester, Shakers at, "Gospel Virtues, " set forth in rhymes Groveland, Shakers at. Grumblers. 

H. 

 Hansen, projector of Anaheim Harmonists, their appearance Harmony, means for securing Harmony, New, Ind. Harmony, Pa. Harmony Society, formed articles of association of Harvard, Shakers at Henrici, J. Heyneman, Barbara, her origin falls into disgrace "Hoggish Nature, " rhymes against Holidays, Amana Honesty in communes Household economy of the Shakers Housekeeping, Economy Hymnology, Amana Hymns, Oneida, Shaker, I. 

 Icarians, the. Industries, at Amana; at Aurora; at Bethel; at Bishop Hill; at Icaria; at Oneida; of the Communes. (_See_ also Employments. ) Inquisition, religious, at Amana. Inspiration, among the Shakers; definition of; members received by; utterances. Inspiration Society, origin of. Inspirationists, the; settle near Buffalo. Integrity of administration at Economy. Inventive skill at Oneida. 

J. 

 Janson, Eric. Jerks, the. Jokes, pious. 

K. 

 Keil, Dr. ; appearance of; founds Bethel; goes to Oregon; his house, 317. Kentucky revival, the; scenes at. Kindness to laborers. 

L. 

 Labor, hours of. Land tenure at Bethel. Landis, Charles K. ; his account of Vineland. Laundries. Lawsuits against the Harmonists. Lazy people, none. Leaders, value of character in. Lenz, Jonathan. Leon, Count de; death of. Libraries. Life, manner of, at Bethel. Literature, Amana; Perfectionist; Shaker. Local-option law, good effect of. Longevity, in communes; Shaker. (_See_ also Old Age. ) Lord's Supper, the, at Amana. 

M. 

 Manufactures at Harmony. Marching-songs, Shaker. Marriage, age for; at Amana; at early age, Bethel; complex; not helpful in communism; tends to worldliness; when allowed at Zoar. Meal-hours, at Amana; at Oneida; among the Shakers. Mechanical skill in communes. Meetings, evening, Amana; at Icaria; evening, at Oneida; religious Amana 53. Membership, conditions of, Amana; at Aurora; at Oneida; condition of among the Shakers. Metz, Christian; goes to America; his historical description. Ministry, Shaker. Miraculous cures. Moses. Mother Ann; dies; emigrates to the United States; her appearance; her sayings; hymns to; performs miracles; on confession. (_See_ also Ann Lee. ) Mount Lebanon. 

N. 

 Nativity of Amana people. Nauvoo, the Icarians at. New Harmony. New Lebanon. Niskeyuna, Shakers at. North Union, Shakers at. Noyes, J. H. ; on criticism. Nurse-shops. 

O. 

 Old age, at Amana; at Economy; at Zoar; provisions for. Oneida. Orderly life, Orders, social, Amana, Shaker, Original sin, its nature, Owen buys New Harmony, P. 

 Pecuniary success, Harmony, Perfectionists, the, Pet animals forbidden, Pleasant Hill, Shakers at, Police at Vineland, low cost of, Poor, feeding the, Poor tax, small, at Vineland, Population, Amana, Pork, believed to cause bilious fevers, believed to cause cancer, Prairie Home, location of, singular plan of life at, Prayer-houses at Amana, Precautions in regard to sexes, Primitive Church, the, Private incomes at Aurora, Progressive Community, the, Propagation, scientific, so-called, Property at Aurora, Property register at Oneida, Q. 

 Quakers, charitable to Zoarites, visit the Inspirationists, R. 

 Rapp, Frederick, George, founder of Economy, appearance and character of, his doctrines, sails for Baltimore, on riches, Miss Gertrude, Religious faith, at Aurora, at Bishop Hill, at Economy, at Icaria, at Oneida, Shaker, at Zoar, Religious meetings, at Amana, at Economy, among the Shakers, at Zoar, Religious observances, Roads, good, Rock, John Frederick, Roll and Book, the Sacred, Russian materialists, S. 

 Satan personates Adam, Scandal, School, at Amana, at Icaria, at Oneida, at Zoar, Schools, Separatists, Swedish, Servants, inadmissible, none in a commune, Sex, no, in heaven, Sexes, kept apart, Amana, rules for keeping apart the, Sexual relation, unnatural, Silkville, location of, Sinner, repentance of a, in verse, _Shaker and Shakeress, The, _ Shakers, colored, society of, at Philadelphia, Northern and Southern, number of communes of, summary of Shaker faith, when founded, who make the best, societies, Western, when formed, Shaking Quakers, Shirley, Shakers at, Shops, Shaker, Slavery, Shakers opposed to, "Slug" exposed, Social Freedom Commune, South Union, Shakers at, Spirit world, Shaker relations to the, Spiritual manifestations, Shaker, Spiritualism, among the Shakers, Spirituous liquors, Shaker rule about, Steamboat Self-denial, verses on the, Steeple houses, Subordination in communal life, Success, pecuniary, at Aurora, Sunday, among the Shakers, at Oneida, Systematized life, T. 

 Table Monitor, the, Temperance, at Vineland, hymn, Shaker, Texas, Cabet's attempt there. Tobacco forbidden. Toil in communes not severe. Tongues, strange. Trades, teaching. 

U. 

 Unanimous consent. Unitary home. Union Village, Shakers at. 

V. 

 Vineland; plan of settling, . Vineyards, Anaheim. 

W. 

 War, Shaker losses in the. Watervliet (N. Y. ), Shakers at, (Ohio), Shakers at, Wealth, not desired; of Oneida Communists. Wedding, a, at Aurora; at Zoar. Wedding-day at Amana. Whitewater, Ohio, Shakers at. Whittaker, Elder James. Willamette Valley, the. Winter Shakers. Women, allowance for dress of, at Oneida; among the Shakers; at Amana; a magical fire; dress of; in communes; rights of; vote in Zoar; will talk. Woolen factories. Wright, Lucy. 

Y. 

 Year-books, Inspirationist. 

Z. 

 Zoar; character of people; origin of people; purchase of land at.