Francis GaltonThe Art of Travel (1872)first published in Great Britain by John Murray, London in 1872. 

THE ART OF TRAVEL or Shifts and Contrivances Available in Wild Countries

Francis Galton

CONTENTS

THE ART OF TRAVEL

Preparatory EnquiriesOrganising an ExpeditionOutfitMedicineSurveying InstrumentsMemoranda and Log-BooksMeasurementsClimbing and MountaineeringCattleHarnessCarriagesSwimmingRafts and BoatsFords and BridgesClothingBeddingBivouacHutsSleeping-BagsTentsFurnitureFireFoodWater for DrinkingGuns and RiflesGun-fittings and AmmunitionShooting, hints onGame, other means of capturingFishingSignalsBearings by Compass, Sun, etc. Marks by the waysideWay, to findCaches and DepôtsSavages, Management ofHostilitiesMechanical AppliancesKnotsWriting MaterialsTimberMetalsLeatherCords, String, and ThreadMembrane, Sinew, and HornPotteryCandles and LampsConclusion of the Journey

PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. 

This Edition does not differ materially from the fourth. I haveincorporated some new material, including Colomb and Bolton's flashingsignals, but in other respects the Work is little altered. I thereforereprint the

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. 

In publishing a fourth Edition of the 'Art of Travel, ' it is well that Ishould preface it with a few words of explanation on the origin andintention of the Book and on the difference between this and formerEditions. 

The idea of the work occurred to me when exploring South-western Africain 1850-51. I felt acutely at that time the impossibility of obtainingsufficient information on the subjects of which it treats; for though thenatives of that country taught me a great deal, it was obvious that theiracquaintance with bush lore was exceedingly partial and limited. Thenremembering how the traditional maxims and methods of travelling in eachcountry differ from those of others, and how every traveller discoverssome useful contrivances for himself, it appeared to me, that I should dowelcome service to all who have to rough it--whether explorers, emigrants, missionaries or soldiers, *--by collecting the scatteredexperiences of many such persons in various circumstances, collatingthem, examining into their principles, and deducing from them what mightfairly be called an "Art of Travel. " To this end, on my return home, Isearched through a vast number of geographical works, I soughtinformation from numerous travellers of distinction and I made a point ofre-testing, in every needful case, what I had read or learned by hearsay. 

[Footnote] * ". . . The soldier should be taught all such practicalexpedients and their philosophy, as are laid down in Mr. Galton's usefullittle book . . . "--'Minute by the late Sir James Outram on ArmyManagement. ' Parliamentary Return, of May 240, p. 159. 

It should be understood that I do not profess to give exhaustivetreatises on each of the numerous subjects comprised in this volume, butonly such information as is not generally known among travellers. Astriking instance of the limited geographical area over which theknowledge of many useful contrivances extends, is that described as a'Dateram, ' p. 164, by which tent ropes may be secured in sand of theloosest description. Though tents are used over an enormous extent ofsandy country, in all of which this simple contrivance would be of theutmost value on every stormy night, and though the art of pitching tentsis studied by the troops of all civilised and partly civilised nations, yet I believe that the use of the dateram never extended beyond thelimits of a comparatively small district in the south of the Sahara, until I had described it in a former Edition; and further, my knowledgeof that contrivance was wholly due to a single traveller, the late Dr. Barth. 

The first Edition of the 'Art of Travel' was published in 1854: it wasfar less comprehensive than the later ones; for my materials steadilyaccumulate, and each successive Edition has shown a marked improvement onits predecessor. Hitherto I have adhered to the original arrangement ofthe work, but am now obliged to deviate from it, for the contents haveoutgrown the system of classification I first adopted. Before I couldinterpolate the new matter prepared for this Edition, I found itnecessary to recast the last one, by cutting it into pieces, sorting itinto fresh paragraphs and thoroughly revising the writing--disentanglinghere and consolidating there. The present Edition will consequently befound more conveniently arranged than those that preceded it, and, at thesame time, I trust the copiousness of its Index will enable persons tofind with readiness any passage they had remarked in a former Edition, and to which they may desire again to refer. 

I am still most thankful to strangers as well as to friends forcontributions of hints or corrections, having been indebted to many apreviously unknown correspondent for valuable information. I beg thatsuch communications may be addressed to me, care of my publisher, Mr. Murray, 50, Albermarle Street, London. 

* * * * *

P. S. --A reviewer of my Third Edition accused me of copying largely froman American book, called 'The Prairie Traveller, ' by, the then, Capt. Randolph B. Marcy. I therefore think it well to remark that the firstEdition of that work was published in 1859 (Harper and Brothers, NewYork;--by authority of the American War Department), and that thepassages in question are all taken from my second Edition published in1856; part of them are copies of what I had myself written, the rest arereprints of my quotations, as though the Author of the 'PrairieTraveller' had himself originally selected them. 

I take this opportunity of remarking that though I have been indebted forinformation to a very large number of authors and correspondents, yet Iam sorry to be unable to make my acknowledgements except in comparativelyfew instances. The fact is that the passages in this book are seldomtraceable to distinctly definite sources: commonly more than one persongiving me information that partially covers the same subject, and notunfrequently my own subsequent enquiries modifying or enlarging the hintsI had received. Consequently I have given the names of authorities onlywhen my information has been wholly due to them, or when theirdescriptions are so graphic that I have transferred them withoutalteration into my pages, or else when their statements requireconfirmation. It will be easy to see by the context to which of thesecategories each quotation belongs. 

Francis Galton

ART OF TRAVEL. 

PREPARATORY INQUIRIES. 

To those who meditate Travel. --Qualifications for a Traveller. --If youhave health, a great craving for adventure, at least a moderate fortune, and can set your heart on a definite object, which old travellers do notthink impracticable, then--travel by all means. If, in addition to thesequalifications, you have scientific taste and knowledge, I believe thatno career, in time of peace, can offer to you more advantages than thatof a traveller. If you have not independent means, you may still turntravelling to excellent account; for experience shows it often leads topromotion, nay, some men support themselves by travel. They explorepasture land in Australia, they hunt for ivory in Africa, they collectspecimens of natural history for sale, or they wander as artists. 

Reputed Dangers of Travel. --A young man of good constitution, who isbound on an enterprise sanctioned by experienced travellers, does not runvery great risks. Let those who doubt, refer to the history of thevarious expeditions encouraged by the Royal Geographical Society, andthey will see how few deaths have occurred; and of those deaths how smalla proportion among young travellers. Savages rarely murder new-comers;they fear their guns, and have a superstitious awe of the white man'spower: they require time to discover that he is not very different tothemselves, and easily to be made away with. Ordinary fever are seldomfatal to the sound and elastic constitution of youth, which usually haspower to resist the adverse influences of two or three years of wildlife. 

Advantages of Travel. --It is no slight advantage to a young man, to havethe opportunity for distinction which travel affords. If he plans hisjourney among scenes and places likely to interest the stay-at-homepublic, he will probably achieve a reputation that might well be enviedby wiser men who have not had his opportunities. 

The scientific advantages of travel are enormous to a man prepared toprofit by them. He sees Nature working by herself, without theinterference of human intelligence; and he sees her from new points ofview; he has also undisturbed leisure for the problems which perpetuallyattract his attention by their novelty. The consequence is, that thoughscientific travellers are comparatively few, yet out of their ranks alarge proportion of the leaders in all branches of science has beensupplied. It is one of the most grateful results of a journey to theyoung traveller to find himself admitted, on the ground of his having somuch of special interest to relate, into the society of men with whosenames he had long been familiar, and whom he had reverenced as hisheroes. 

To obtain Information. --The centres of information respecting rude andsavage countries are the Geographical, Ethnological, and Anthropologicalsocieties at home and abroad. Any one intending to travel should puthimself into communication with the Secretary, and become a member of oneor more of these Societies; he will not only have access to books andmaps, but will be sure to meet with sympathy, encouragement, andintelligent appreciation. If he is about to attempt a really boldexploration under fair conditions of success, he will no doubt beintroduced to the best living authorities on the country to which he isbound, and will be provided with letters of introduction to the officialsat the port where he is to disembark, that will smooth away many smalldifficulties and give him a recognised position during his travels. 

Information on Scientific Matters. --Owing to the unhappy system ofeducation that has hitherto prevailed, by which boys acquire a veryimperfect knowledge of the structure of two dead languages, and none atall of the structure of the living world, most persons preparing totravel are overwhelmed with the consciousness of their incapacity toobserve, with intelligence, the country they are about to visit. I havebeen very frequently begged by such persons to put them in the way ofobtaining a rudimentary knowledge of the various branches of science, andhave constantly made inquiries; but I regret to say that I have beenunable to discover any establishment where suitable instruction innatural science is to be obtained by persons of the age and station ofmost travellers. Nor do I know of any persons who advertise privatetuition in any of its branches whose names I might therefore be atliberty to publish, except Professor Tennant, who gives private lessonsin mineralogy at his shop in the Strand, where the learner might easilyfamiliarise himself with the ordinary minerals and fossils, and wherecollections might be purchased for after reference. An intendingtraveller could readily find naturalists who would give lessons, inmuseums and botanical gardens, adapting their instruction to his probablewants, and he would thus obtain some familiarity with the character ofthe principal plants and animals amongst which he would afterwards bethrown. If he has no private means of learning the names of such persons, I should recommend him to write to some public Professor, stating allparticulars, and begging the favour of his advice. The use of the sextantmay be learnt at various establishments in the City and East End ofLondon, where the junior officers of merchant vessels receive instructionat small cost. A traveller could learn their addresses from the maker ofhis sextant. He might also apply at the rooms of the Royal GeographicalSociety, 1, Savile Row, London, where he would probably receive advicesuitable to his particular needs, and possibly some assistance of asuperior order to that which the instructors of whom I spoke profess toafford. That well-known volume, 'The Admiralty Manual of ScientificInquiry, ' has been written to meet the wants of uninformed travellers;and a small pamphlet, 'Hints to Travellers, ' has been published with thesame object, by the Royal Geographical Society. It is procurable at theirrooms. There is, perhaps, no branch of Natural History in which atraveller could do so much, without more information than is to beobtained from a few books, than that of the Science of Man. He should seethe large collection of skulls in the College of Surgeons, and the flintand bone implements in the British Museum, the Christie Museum, andelsewhere, and he should buy the principal modern works on anthropology, to be carefully re-studied on his outward voyage. 

Conditions of Success and Failure in Travel. --An exploring expedition isdaily exposed to a succession of accidents, any one of which might befatal to its further progress. The cattle may at any time stray, die, orbe stolen; water may not be reached, and they may perish; one or more ofthe men may become seriously ill, or the party may be attacked bynatives. Hence the success of the expedition depends on a chain ofeventualities, each link of which must be a success; for if one linkfails at that point, there must be an end of further advance. It istherefore well, especially at the outset of a long journey, not to gohurriedly to work, nor to push forward too thoughtlessly. Give the menand cattle time to become acclimatised, make the bush your home, andavoid unnecessary hardships. Interest yourself chiefly in the progress ofyour journey, and do not look forward to its end with eagerness. It isbetter to think of a return to civilisation, not as an end to hardshipand a haven from ill, but as a close to an adventurous and pleasant life. In this way, risking little, and insensibly creeping on, you will makeconnections, and learn the capabilities of the country, as you advance;all which will be found invaluable in the case of a hurried or disastrousreturn. And thus, when some months have passed by, you will look backwith surprise on the great distance travelled over; for, if you averageonly three miles a day, at the end of the year you will have advanced1200, which is a very considerable exploration. The fable of the Tortoiseand the Hare is peculiarly applicable to travellers over wide and unknowntracts. It is a very high merit to accomplish a long exploration withoutloss of health, of papers, or even of comfort. 

Physical Strength of Leader. --Powerful men do not necessarily make themost eminent travellers; it is rather those who take the most interest intheir work that succeed the best; as a huntsman says, "it is the nosethat gives speed to the hound. " Dr. Kane, who was one of the mostadventurous of travellers, was by no means a strong man, either in healthor muscle. 

Good Temper. --Tedious journeys are apt to make companions irritable oneto another; but under hard circumstances, a traveller does his duty bestwho doubles his kindliness of manner to those about him, and takes harshwords gently, and without retort. He should make it a point of duty to doso. It is at those times very superfluous to show too muchpunctiliousness about keeping up one's dignity, and so forth; since thedifficulty lies not in taking up quarrels, but in avoiding them. 

Reluctant Servants. --Great allowance should be made for the reluctantco-operation of servants; they have infinitely less interest in thesuccess of the expedition than their leaders, for they derive but littlecredit from it. They argue thus:--"Why should we do more than weknowingly undertook, and strain our constitutions and peril our lives inenterprises about which we are indifferent?" It will, perhaps, surprise aleader who, having ascertained to what frugal habits a bush servant isinured, learns on trial, how desperately he clings to those few luxurieswhich he has always had. Thus, speaking generally, a Cape servant ishappy on meat, coffee, and biscuit; but, if the coffee or biscuit has tobe stopped for a few days, he is ready for mutiny. 

ORGANISING AN EXPEDITION. 

Size of Party. --The best size for a party depends on many considerations. It should admit of being divided into two parts, each strong enough totake care of itself, and in each of which is one person at least able towrite a letter, --which bus servants, excellent in every other particular, are too often unable to do. In travel through a disorganised country, where there are small chiefs and bands of marauders, a large party isnecessary; thus the great success of Livingstone's earlier expeditionswas largely due to his being provided with an unusually strong escort ofwell-armed and warlike, but not too aggressive, Caffres. In other casessmall parties succeed better than large ones; they excite less fear, donot eat up the country, and are less delayed by illness. The last fatalexpedition of Mungo Park is full of warning to travellers who proposeexploring with a large body of Europeans. 

Solitary Travellers. --Neither sleepy nor deaf men are fit to travel quitealone. It is remarkable how often the qualities of wakefulness andwatchfulness stand every party in good stead. 

Servants. --Nature of Engagements. --The general duties that a servantshould be bound to, independently of those for which he is speciallyengaged, are--under penalty of his pay being stopped, and, it may be, ofdismissal--to maintain discipline, take share of camp-duties andnight-watch, and do all in his power to promote the success of theexpedition. His wages should not be payable to him in full, till thereturn of the party to the town from which it started, or to some othercivilised place. It is best that all clothing, bedding, etc. , that themen may require, should be issued out and given to them as a present, andthat none of their own old clothes should be allowed to be taken. Theyare more careful of what is their own; and, by supplying the thingsyourself, you can be sure that they are good in quality, uniform inappearance, and equal in weight, while this last is ascertainable. 

The following Form of Agreement is abridged from one that was used in Mr. Austin's expedition in Australia. It seems short, explicit, andreasonable:--

"We the undersigned, forming an expedition about to explore the interiorof ----, under Mr. A. , consent to place ourselves (horses and equipments)entirely and unreservedly under his orders for the above purpose, fromthe date hereof until our return to----, or, on failure in this respect, to abide all consequences that may result. We fully recognise Mr. B. Asthe second, and Mr. C. As the third in command; and the right ofsuccession to the command and entire charge of the party in the orderthus stated. 

"We severally undertake to use our best endeavours to promote the harmonyof the party, and the success of the expedition. 

"In witness whereof we sign our names. (Here follow the signatures. ) Readover and signed by the respective parties, in my presence. " (Here followsthe signature of some person of importance in the place where theexpedition is organised. )

By the words, "abide all consequences, " the leader would be justified inleaving a man to shift for himself, and refusing his pay, if the casewere a serious one. 

Good Interpreters are very important: men who have been used by theirchiefs, missionaries, etc. , as interpreters, are much to be preferred;for so great is the poverty of thought and language among common people, that you will seldom find a man, taken at hazard, able to render yourwords with correctness. Recollect to take with you vocabularies of allthe tribes whom you are at all likely to visit. 

Engaging Natives. --On engaging natives, the people with whom they havelived, and to whom they have become attached and learnt to fear, shouldimpress on them that, unless they bring you back in safety, they mustnever show their faces again, nor expect the balance of their pay, whichwill only be delivered to them on your return. 

Women. --Natives' Wives. --If some of the natives take their wives, itgives great life to the party. They are of very great service, and causeno delay; for the body of a caravan must always travel at a foot's pace, and a woman will endure a long journey nearly as well as a man, andcertainly better than a horse or a bullock. They are invaluable inpicking up and retailing information and hearsay gossip, which will giveclues to much of importance, that, unassisted, you might miss. Mr. Hearnethe American traveller of the last century, in his charming book, writesas follows, and I can fully corroborate the faithfulness with which hegives us a savage's view of the matter. After the account of his firstattempt, which was unsuccessful, he goes on to say, --"The very planwhich, by the desire of the Governor, we pursued, of not taking any womenwith us on the journey, was, as the chief said, the principal thing thatoccasioned all our want: 'for, ' said he, 'when all the men are heavyladen, they can neither hunt nor travel to any considerable distance; andif they meet with any success in hunting, who is to carry the produce ofthe labour?' 'Women, ' said he, 'were made for labour: one of them cancarry or haul as much as two men can do. They also pitch our tents, makeand mend our clothing, keep us warm at night; and in fact there is nosuch thing as travelling any considerable distance, or for any length oftime, in this country without their assistance. ' 'Women, ' said he again, 'though they do everything are maintained at a trifling expense: for, asthey always stand cook, the very licking of their fingers, in scarcetimes, is sufficient for their subsistence. '"

Strength of Women. --I believe there are few greater popular errors thanthe idea we have mainly derived from chivalrous times, that woman is aweakly creature. Julius C aesar, who judged for himself, took a verydifferent view of the powers of certain women of the northern races, about whom he wrote. I suppose, that in the days of baronial castles, when crowds of people herded together like pigs within the narrowenclosures of a fortification and the ladies did nothing but needleworkin their boudoirs, the mode of life wasvery prejudicial to their nervoussystem and muscular powers. The women suffered from the effects of illventilation and bad drainage, and had none of the counteractingadvantages of the military life that was led by the males. Consequentlywomen really became the helpless dolls that they were considered to be, and which it is still the fashion to consider them. It always seems to methat a hard-worked woman is better and happier for her work. It is in thenature of women to be fond of carrying weights; you may see them inomnibuses and carriages, always preferring to hold their baskets or theirbabies on their knees, to setting them down on the seats by their sides. A woman, whose modern dress includes I know not how many cubic feet ofspace, has hardly ever pockets of a sufficient size to carry smallarticles; for she prefers to load her hands with a bag or other weightyobject. A nursery-maid, who is on the move all day, seems the happiestspecimen of her sex; and, after her, a maid-of-all work who is treatedfairly by her mistress. 

OUTFIT. 

It is impossible to include lists of outfit, in any reasonable space, that shall suit the various requirements of men engaged in expeditions ofdifferent magnitudes, who adopt different modes of locomotion, and whovisit different countries and climates. I have therefore thought it bestto describe only one outfit as a specimen, selecting for my example thedesiderata for South Africa. In that country the traveller has, or had afew years ago, to take everything with him, for there were no civilisedsettlers, and the natural products of the country are of as little valuein supplying his wants as those of any country can be. Again, SouthAfrican wants are typical of those likely to be felt in every part of alarge proportion of the region where rude travel is likely to beexperienced, as in North Africa, in Australia, in Southern Siberia, andeven in the prairies and pampas of North and South America. To make suchan expedition effective all the articles included in the following listsmay be considered as essential; I trust, on the other hand, that noarticle of real importance is omitted. 

Stores for general use. --These are to a great degree independent of theduration of the journey. 

Small Stores, various: -- lbs. 

One or two very small soft-steel axes; a small file to sharpen them; a few additional tools (see chapter on Timber); spare butcher's knives. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 8A dozen awls for wood and for leather, two of them in handles; two gimlets; a dozen sail-needles; three palms; a ball of sewing-twine; bit of beeswax; sewing-needles, assorted; a ball of black and white thread; buttons; two tailors' thimbles (see chapter on Cord, String, and Thread). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 3Two penknives; small metal saw; bit of Turkey gone; large scissors; corkscrew. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1 1/2Spring balances, from 1/4 lb. To 5 lbs. And from 1 lb. To 50 lbs. (or else a hand steelyard. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1 1/2Fish-hooks of many sorts; cobbler's was; black silk; gut; two or more fishing-lines and floats; a large ball of line; thin brass wire, for springes (see chapters on Fishing and Trapping). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 2Ball of wicks, for lamps; candle-mould (see chapter on Candles); a few corks; lump of sulphur; amadou (see chapter on Fire). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 1/2Medicines (see chapter on Medicine); a scalpel; a blunt- pointed bistoury; and good forceps for thorns. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1A small iron, and an ironing-flannel; clothes-brush; bottle of Benzine or other scouring drops. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 3 ______

 Carried forward. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 21 1/2

Brought forward. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 21 1/2Bullet-mould, not a heavy one; bit of iron place for a ladle; gun-cleaning apparatus; turnscrews; nipple- wrench; bottle of fine oil; spare nipples; spare screw for cock (see chapter on Gun-Fittings). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2 1/2Two macintosh water-bags, shaped for the pack saddle, of one gallon each, with funnel-shaped necks, and having\ wide mouth (empty) (see chapter on Water for Drinking). .. .. .. 2 1/2Composition for mending them, in two small bottles; and a spare piece of macintosh. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2 1/2Spare leather, canvas, and webbing, for girths; rings and buckles. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 20Two small patrol-tents, poles, and pegs (see Chapter on Tents). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 30Small inflatable pontoon to hold one, or even two men (see chapter on Rafts and Boats). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 10Small bags for packing the various articles, independently of the saddle bags. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 4Macintosh sheeting overall, to keep the pack dry. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4 _______

 Total weight of various small stores. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 95

Heavy Stores, various: --Pack saddles, spare saddlery (see chapter on Harness); bags for packing. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Water-vessels (see chapter on Water for Drinking). .. .. .. .. .. Heavy ammunition for sporting purposes. (1 lb. Weight gives 10 shots. Otherwise each armed man is supposed to carry a long double-barrelled rifle of a very small bore, say of 70, and ammunition for these is allowed for below). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. _________

 Total weight of various heavy stores. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 

Stationery: --Two ledgers; a dozen note-books (see chapter on Memoranda and Log-Books); paper. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 9Ink; pens; pencils; sealing-wax; gum. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2 1/2Board to write upon. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2Books to read, say equal to six vols. The ordinary size of novels; and maps. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 7 1/2Bags and cases. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 3Sketching-books, colours, and pencils. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 6 _________

 Total weight of stationery. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 30

Mapping: --Two sextants; horizon and roof; lantern; two pints of oil; azimuth compass; small aneroid; thermometers; tin-pot for boiling thermometers; watches (see chapter on Surveying Instruments). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 18Protractors; ruler; compasses; measuring-tape, etc. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 3Raper's Navigation; Nautical Almanac; Carr's Synopsis, published by Weale; small tables, and small almanacs; star maps. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 4Bags and baskets, well wadded. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 6 _________

 Total weight of mapping materials. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 31

Natural History (for an occasional collector): --Arsenical soap, 2 lbs. ; camphor, 1/2 lb. ; pepper, 1/2 lb. ; bag of some powder to absorb blood, 2 lbs. ; tow and cotton, about 10 lbs. ; scalpel, forceps scissors, etc. , 1/2 lb. ; sheet brass, stamped for labels, 1/2 lb. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 16Pill-boxes; cork; insect-boxes; pins; tin, for catching and keeping and killing animals; nets for butterflies (say bags and all). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 10Geological hammers, lens, clinometer, etc. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4Specimens. (I make no allowance for the weight of these, for they accumulate as stores are used up; and the total weight is seldom increased. ). .. .. .. .. .. .. . _______ Total weight of Natural History materials (for an occasional collector. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 30

 Stores for Individual Use. 

For each white man (independently of duration of journey): --Clothes; macintosh rug; ditto sheet; blanket-bag; spare blanket. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 30Share of plates, knives, forks, spoons, pannikins, or bowls. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 2Share of cooking-things, from pots, coffee-mill kettles, etc. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 3Spare knife, flints, steel, tinder-box, tinder, four pipes. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 2Bags, 6 lbs. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 6Provisions for emergency -- Five days of jerked meat, at 3 lbs. A day (on average). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 15 Two quarts of water (on average), 4 lbs. ; share of kegs, 1 1/2 lb. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 8

 _________

 Total for each white man. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 66

For each white man, and for each six months: --Tea and coffee, 9 lbs. ; tobacco, 6 lbs; salt, 6 lbs. ; pepper, 1 lb. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 22Brandy or rum, occasionally served out. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 6White sugar, 2 lbs. ; arrowroot, 1 lb. ; dried onions, etc. , 3 lbs. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 6Ammunition for small-bored rifles, with reserve powder and caps. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 9

 _________

 Total for six months (or at the rate of 7 lbs. Per month). .. .. .. .. .. .. . 43

For each black man (independently of duration of journey): --Bedding, etc. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 9Meat and water for emergencies, as above (about). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 19Share of cooking-things. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2

 _________

 Total for each black man. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 30

For each black man, and for each six months: --Tobacco, 6 lbs. ; salt, pepper, etc. , 5 lbs. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 11Presents which will have to be made him from time to time. .. . .. . 6

 _________

 Total for six months (or at the rate of 3 lbs. Per month). .. .. .. .. .. .. 17

Presents and Articles for Payment. --It is of the utmost importance to atraveller to be well and judiciously supplied with these: they are hismoney, and without money a person can no more travel in Savagedom than inChristendom. It is a great mistake to suppose that savages will givetheir labour or cattle in return for anything that is bright or new: theyhave their real wants and their fashions as much as we have; and, unlesswhat a traveller brings, meets either the one or the other, he can getnothing from them, except through fear or compulsion. 

The necessities of a savage are soon satisfied; and, unless he belongs toa nation civilised enough to live in permanent habitations, and securefrom plunder, he cannot accumulate, but is only able to keep what heactually is able to carry about his own person. Thus, the chief at LakeNgami told Mr. Andersson that his beads would be of little use, for thewomen about the place already "grunted like pigs" under the burdens ofthose that they wore, and which they had received from previoustravellers. These are matters of serious consideration to persons whopropose to travel with a large party, and who must have proportionablylarge wants. 

Speaking of presents and articles for payment, as of money, it isessential to have a great quantity and variety of small change, wherewiththe traveller can pay for small services, for carrying messages, fordraughts of milk, pieces of meat, etc. Beads, shells, tobacco, needles, awls, cotton caps, handkerchiefs, clasp-knives, small axes, spear andarrow heads, generally answer this purpose. 

There is infinite fastidiousness shown by savages in selecting beads, which, indeed, are their jewellery; so that valuable beads, taken athap-hazard, are much more likely to prove failures than not. It wouldalways be well to take abundance (40 or 50 lbs. Weight goes but a littleway) of the following cheap beads, as they are very generallyaccepted, --dull white, dark blue, and vermilion red, all of a small size. 

It is the ignorance of what are the received articles of payment in adistant country, and the using up of those that are taken, which, morethan any other cause, limits the journeyings of an explorer: the demandsof each fresh chief are an immense drain upon his store. 

Summary. --To know the minimum weight for which a proposed expedition mustfind means of transport, the omitted figures must be supplied in thefollowing schedule, the others must be corrected where required, and thewhole must be added together. 

Stores for general use:--

Various small stores 95 lbs. Various heavy storesStationery 30Mapping 31Natural History (occasional) 30

Stores for Individual use:--

For each white man (at rate of 7 lbs. Per month) 66

For each black man (at rate of 3 lbs. Per month 30

Presents and articles of payment are usually of fargreater weight than all the above things put together. 

TOTAL WEIGHT TO BE CARRIED BY EXPEDITION 282

Mem. --If meat and bread, and the like, have to be carried, a very largeaddition of weight must be made to this list, for the weight of a dailyration varies from 3 lbs. , or even 4 lbs. , to 2 lbs. , according to theconcentration of nutriment in the food that is used. Slaughter animalscarry themselves; but the cattle-watchers swell the list of those whohave to be fed. 

Means of Transport. --In order to transport the articles belonging to anexpedition across a wild and unknown country, we may estimate asfollows:--

Beasts of burthen:--

An ass will not usually care more than about (net weight) 65 lbs. A small mule 90A horse 100An ox of an average greed 120A camel (which rarely can be used by an explorer) 300

It is very inconvenient to take more than six pack-animals in a caravanthat has to pass over broken country, for so much time is lost by thewhole party in re-adjusting the packs of each member of it, whenever onegets loose, that its progress is seriously retarded. 

Carriages. --An animal--camels always excepted--draws upon wheels in awild country about two and a half times the weight he can carry. 

 lbs. A light cart, exclusive of the driver, should not carry more than. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 800A light waggon, such as one or two horses would trot away with, along a turnpike road, not more than. .. .. .. .. .. 1500A waggon of the strongest construction, not more than. .. .. .. .. 3000

Weight of Rations. --A fair estimate in commissariat matters is as follows:--A strong waggon full of food carries 1000 full-day rationsThe pack of an ox " 40 "The pack of a horse " 30 "A slaughter ox yields, as fresh meat 80 "A fat sheep yields " 10 "(N. B. Meat when jerked loses about one-half of its nourishing powers. )

MEDICINE. 

General Remarks. --Travellers are apt to expect too much from theirmedicines, and to think that savages will hail them as demigods whereverthey go. But their patients are generally cripples who want to be madewhole in a moment, and other suchlike impracticable cases. Powerfulemetics, purgatives, and eyewashes are the most popular physickings. 

The traveller who is sick away from help, may console himself with theproverb, that "though there is a great difference between a goodphysician and a bad one, there is very little between a good one and noneat all. "

Drugs and Instruments. --Outfit of Medicines, --A traveller, unless he be aprofessed physician, has no object in taking a large assortment of drugs. He wants a few powders, ready prepared; which a physician, who knows thediseases of the country in which he is about to travel, will prescribefor him. Those in general use are as follows:--

1. Emetic, mild; 2. Ditto, very powerful, for poison (sulphate of zinc, also used as an eye-wash in Ophthalmia). E. Aperient, mild; 4. Ditto, powerful. 5. Cordial for diarrhoea. 6. Quinine for ague. 7. Sudorific(Dover's powder). 8. Chlorodyne. 9. Camphor. 10. Carbolic acid. 

In addition to these powders, the traveller will want Warburg'sfever-drops; glycerine or cold cream; mustard-paper for blistering;heartburn lozenges; lint; a small roll of diachylon; lunar-caustic, in aproper holder, to touch old sores with, and for snake-bites; a scalpeland a blunt-pointed bistoury, with which to open abcesses (the blades ofthese should be waxed, to keep them from rust); a good pair of forceps, to pull out thorns; a couple of needles, to sew up gashes; waxed thread, or better, silver wire. A mild effervescing aperient, like Moxon's isvery convenient. Seidlitz-powders are perhaps a little too strong forfrequent use in a tropical climate. 

How to carry Medicines. --The medicines should be kept in zinc pill-boxeswith a few letters punched both on their tops and bottoms, to indicatewhat they contain, as Emet. , Astr. Etc. It is more important that thebottoms of the boxes should be labelled than their tops; because when twoof them have been opened at the same time, it often happens that the topsrun a risk of being changed. 

It will save continual trouble with weights and scales, if the powders beso diluted with flour, that one Measureful of each shall be a fullaverage dose for an adult; and if the measure to which they are adoptedbe cylindrical, and of such a size as just to admit a common lead-pencil, and of a determined length, it can at any time be replaced by twisting upa paper cartridge. I would further suggest that the powders bedifferently coloured, one colour being used for emetics and another foraperients. 

Lint, to make. --Scrape a piece of linen with a knife. 

Ointment. --Simple cerate, which is spread on lint as a soothing plaisterfor sores, consists of equal parts of oil and wax; but lard may be usedas a substitute for the wax. 

Seidlitz-powders are not often to be procured in the form we areaccustomed to take them in, in England; so a recipe for making 12 sets ofthem, is annexed:--1 1/2 oz. Of Carbonate of Soda and 3 oz. Of TartarisedSoda, for the blue papers; 7 drachms of Tartaric Acid, for the whitepapers. 

Bush Remedies. --Emetics. --For want of proper physic, drink a charge ofgunpowder in a tumblerful of warm water of soap-suds, and tickle thethroat. 

Vapour-baths are used in many countries, and the following plan, used inRussia, is often the most convenient. Heat stones in the fire, and putthem on the ground in the middle of the cabin or tent; on these pour alittle water, and clouds of vapour are given off. In other parts of theworld branches are spread on hot wood-embers, and the patient is placedupon these, wrapped in a large cloth; water is then sprinkled on theembers, and the patient is soon covered with a cloud of vapour. Thetraveller who is chilled or over-worked, and has a day of rest beforehim, would do well to practise this simple and pleasant remedy. 

Bleeding and Cupping'. --Physicians say, now-a-days that bleeding israrely, if ever, required; and that frequently it does much harm; butthey used to bleed for everything. Many savages know how to cup: theycommonly use a piece ofa horn as the cup, and they either suck at a holein the top of the horn, to produce the necessary vacuum, or they make ablaze as we do, but with a wisp of grass. 

Illnesses. --Fevers of all kinds, diarrhoea, and rheumatism, are theplagues that most afflict travellers; ophthalmia often threatens them. Change of air, from the flat country up into the hills, as soon as thefirst violence of the illness is past, works wonders in hastening andperfecting a cure. 

Fever. --The number of travellers that have fallen victims to fever incertain lands is terrible: it is a matter of serious considerationwhether any motives, short of imperious duty, justify a person in bravinga fever-stricken country. In the ill-fated Niger expedition, threevessels were employed, of which the 'Albert' stayed the longest time inthe river, namely two months and two days. Her English crew consisted of62 men; of these, 55 caught fever in the river, and 23 died. Of theremaining seven, only two ultimately escaped scot-free; the otherssuffering, more or less severely, on their return to England. In Dr. McWilliams's Medical History of this expedition, it is laid down that theNiger fever, which may be considered as a type of pestilential fevergenerally, usually sets in sixteen days after exposure to the malaria;and that one attack, instead of acclimatising the patient, seems torender him all the more liable to a second. Every conceivable precautionknown in those days, had been taken to ensure the health of the crew ofthe 'Albert. ' A great discovery of modern days is the power of quinine tokeep off many types of fever. A person would, now, have little to fear intaking a passage in a Niger steamer; supposing that vessels ran regularlyup that river. The quinine he would take, beginning at the coast, wouldrender him proof against fever, until he had passed the delta; butnothing would remove the risk of a long sojourn in the delta itself. However, I should add that Dr. Livingstone's experience on the zambesithrows doubt on the power of quinine to keep off the type of fever thatprevails upon that river. 

Precautions in unhealthy Places. --There are certain precautions whichshould be borne in mind in unhealthy places, besides that which I havejust mentioned of regularly taking small doses of quinine, such as neverto encamp to the leeward of a marsh; to sleep close in between largefires, with a handkerchief gathered round your face (natural instinctwill teach this); to avoid starting too early in the morning; and tobeware of unnecessary hunger, hardship, and exposure. It is awidely-corroborated fact that the banks of a river and adjacent plainsare often less affected by malaria than the low hills that overlook them. 

Diarrhoea. --With a bad diarrhoea, take nothing but broth, rice water, andit may be rice, in very small quantities at a meal, until you are quiterestored. The least piece of bread or meat causes an immediate relapse. 

Ophthalmia'. --Sulphate of zinc is invaluable as an eyewash: forophthalmia is a scourge in parts of North and South Africa, in Australia, and in many other countries. The taste of the solution which should bestrongly astringent, is the best guide to its strength. 

Tooth-ache. --Tough diet tries the teeth so severely, that a man about toundergo it, should pay a visit to a dentist before he leaves England. Anunskilled traveller is very likely to make a bad job of a first attemptat tooth-drawing. By constantly pushing and pulling an aching tooth, itwill in time loosen, and perhaps, after some weeks, come out. 

Thirst. --Pour water over the clothes of the patient, and keep themconstantly wet; restrain his drinking, after the first few minutes, asstrictly as you can summon heart to do it. (See "Thirst" in the chapteron "Water. ") In less severe cases, drink water with a tea-spoon; it willsatisfy a parched palate as much as if you gulped it down in tumblerfuls, and will disorder the digestion very considerably less. 

Hunger. --Give two or three mouthfuls, every quarter of an hour, to a manreduced to the last extremity by hunger; strong broth is the best foodfor him. 

Poisoning. --The first thing is to give a powerful emetic, that whateverpoison still remains unabsorbed in the stomach, may be thrown up. Usesoap-suds or gunpowder (see Emetics) if proper emetics are not at hand. If there be violent pains and gripings, or retchings, give plenty ofwater to make the vomitings more easy. Next, do your best to combat thesymptoms that are caused by the poison which was absorbed before theemetic acted. Thus, if the man's feet are cold and numbed, put hot stonesagainst them, and wrap them up warmly. If he be drowsy, heavy, andstupid, give brandy and strong coffee, and try to rouse him. There isnothing more to be done, save to avoid doing mischief. 

Fleas. --"Italian flea-powder, " sold in the East, is really efficacious. It is the powdered "Pire oti" (or flea-bane), mentioned in Curzon's'Armenia' as growing in that country; it has since become an importantarticle of export. A correspondent writes to me, "I have often found alight cotton or linen bag a great safeguard against the attacks of fleas. I used to creep into it, draw the loop tight round my neck, and was thusable to set legions of them at defiance. "

Vermin on the Person. --I quote the following extract from Huc's 'Travelsin Tartary':--"We had now been travelling for nearly six weeks, and stillwore the same clothing we had assumed on our departure. The incessantpricklings with which we were harassed, sufficiently indicated that ourattire was peopled with the filthy vermin to which the Chinese andTartars are familiarly accustomed; but which, with Europeans, are objectsof horror and disgust. Before quitting Tchagan-Kouren, we had bought in achemist's shop a few sapeks'-worth of mercury. We now made with it aprompt and specific remedy against the lice. We had formerly got thereceipt from some Chinese; and, as it may be useful to others, we thinkit right to describe it here. You take half an ounce of mercury, whichyou mix with old tea-leaves previously reduced to paste by mastication. To render this softer, you generally add saliva; water could not have thesame effect. You must afterwards bruise and stir it a while, so that themercury may be divided into little balls as fine as dust. (I presume theblue pill is a pretty exact equivalent to this preparation. ) You infusethis composition into a string of cotton, loosely twisted, which you hanground the neck; the lice are sure to bite at the bait, and they thereuponas surely swell, become red, and die forthwith. In China and in Tartaryyou have to renew this salutary necklace once a month. "

Blistered Feet. --To prevent the feet from blistering, it is a good planto soap the inside of the stocking before setting out, making a thicklather all over it. A raw egg broken into a boot, before putting it on, greatly softens the leather: of course the boots should be well greasedwhen hard walking is anticipated. After some hours on the road, when thefeet are beginning to be chafed, take off the shoes, and change thestockings; Putting what was the right stocking on the left foot, and theleft stocking on the right foot. Or, if one foot only hurts, take off theboot and turn the stocking inside out. These were the plans adopted byCaptain Barclay. When a blister is formed, "rub the feet, on going tobed, with spirits mixed with tallow dropped from a candle into the palmof the hand; on the following morning no blister will exist. The spiritsseem to possess the healing power, the tallow serving only to keep theskin soft and pliant. This is Captain Cochrane's advice, and the remedywas used by him in his pedestrian tour. " (Murray's Handbook ofSwitzerland. ') The recipe is an excellent one; pedestrians and teachersof gymnastics all endorse it. 

Rarefied Air, effects of. --On high plateaux or mountains new-comers mustexpect to suffer. The symptoms are described by many South Americantravellers; the attack of them is there, among other names, called thepuna. The disorder is sometimes fatal to stout plethoric people; oddlyenough, cats are unable to endure it: at villages 13, 000 feet above thesea, Dr. Tschudi says that they cannot live. Numerous trials have beenmade with these unhappy feline barometers, and the creatures have beenfound to die in frightful convulsions. The symptoms of the puna aregiddiness, dimness of sight and hearing, headache, fainting-fits, bloodfrom mouth, eyes, nose, lips, and a feeling like sea-sickness. Nothingbut time cures it. It begins to be felt severely at from 12, 000 to 13, 000feet above the sea. M. Hermann Schlagintweit, who has had a great deal ofmountain experience in the Alps and in the Himalayas, up to the height of20, 000 feet or more, tells me that he found the headache, etc. , come onwhen there was a breeze, far more than at any other time. His whole partywould awake at the same moment, and begin to complain of the symptoms, immediately on the commencement of a breeze. The symptoms of overwork arenot wholly unlike those of the puna, and many young travellers who havefelt the first, have ascribed them to the second. 

Scurvy has attacked travellers even in Australia; and I have myself feltsymptoms of it in Africa, when living wholly on meat. Any vegetable dietcures it: lime-juice, treacle, raw potatoes, and acid fruits areespecially efficacious. Dr. Kane insists on the value of entirely rawmeat as a certain anti-scorbutic: this is generally used by theEsquimaux. 

Haemorrhage from a Wound. --When the blood does not pour or trickle in asteady stream from a deep wound, but jets forth in pulses, and is of abright red colour, all the bandages in the world will not stop it. It isan artery that is wounded; and, unless there be some one accessible, whoknows how to take it up and tie it, I suppose that the method of ourfore-fathers is the only one that can be used as you would for asnake-bite (see next paragraph); or else to pour boiling grease into thewound. This is, of course, a barbarous treatment, and its success isuncertain, as the cauterised artery may break out afresh; still, life isin question, and it is the only hope of saving it. After the cautery, thewounded limb should be kept perfectly still, well raised, and cool, untilthe wound is nearly healed. A tourniquet, which will stop the blood for atime, is made by tying a strong thong, string, or handkerchief firmlyabove the part, putting a stick through, and screwing it tight. If youknow whereabouts the artery lies, which is the object to compress, put astone over the place under the handkerchief. The main arteries followpretty much the direction of the inner seams of the sleeves and trousers. 

Snake-bites. --Tie a string tight above the part, suck the wound, andcaustic it as soon as you can. Or, for want of caustic, explode gunpowderin the wound; of else do what Mr. Mansfield Parkyns well suggests, i. E. , cut away with a knife, and afterwards burn out with the end of your ironramrod, heated as near a white heat as you can readily get it. Thearteries lie deep, and as much flesh may, without much danger, be cut orburnt into, as the fingers can pinch up. The next step is to use theutmost energy, and even cruelty, to prevent the patient's giving way tothat lethargy and drowsiness which is the usual effect of snake-poison, and too often ends in death. 

Wasp and Scorpion-stings. --the Oil scraped out of a tobacco-pipe is agood application; should the scorpion be large, his sting must be treatedlike a snake-bite. 

Broken Bones. --It is extremely improbable that a man should die, inconsequence of a broken leg or arm, if the skin be uninjured' but, if thebroken end forces its way through the flesh, the injury is a very seriousone. Abscesses form, the parts mortify, and the severest consequencesoften follow. Hence, when a man breaks a bone, do not convert a simpleinjury into a severe one, by carrying him carelessly. If possible, movethe encampment to the injured man, and not vice versa. Mr. Druittsays:--"When a man has broken his leg, lay him on the other side, put thebroken limb exactly on the sound one, with a little straw between, andtie the two legs together with handkerchiefs. Thus the two legs will moveas one, and the broken bone will not hurt the flesh so much, nor yet comethrough the skin. "

Drowning. --A half-drowned man must be put to bed in dry, heated clothes, hot stones, etc. , placed against his feet, and his head must be raisedmoderately. Human warmth is excellent, such as that of two big men madeto lie close up against him, one on each side. All rough treatment is notonly ridiculous but full of harm; such as the fashion--which still existsin some places--of hanging up the body by the feet, that the swallowedwater may drain out of the mouth. 

I reprint here the instructions circulated by Dr. Marshall Hall:--

"1. Treat the patient instantly, on the spot, in the open air, exposingthe face and chest to the breeze (except in severe weather). 

"To Clear the Throat--2. Place the patient gently on the face, with onewrist under the forehead; all fluids and the tongue itself then fallforwards, leaving the entrance into the windpipe free. If there bebreathing--wait and watch; if not, or if it fail, --

"To Excite Respiration--3. Turn the patient well and instantly on hisside, and--4. Excite the nostrils with snuff, the throat with a feather, etc. , dash cold water on the face previously rubbed warm. If there be nosuccess, lose not a moment but instantly--

"To Imitate Respiration--5. Replace the patient on his face, raising andsupporting the chest well on a folded coat or other article of dress;--6. Turn the body very gently on the side and a little beyond, and thenbriskly on the face, alternately; repeating these measures deliberately, efficiently, and perseveringly fifteen times in the minute, occasionallyvarying the side; when the patient reposes on the chest, this cavity iscompressed by the weight of the body, and expiration takes place; when heis turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and inspiration occurs. 7. When the prone position is resumed, make equable but efficientpressure, with brisk movement, along the back of the chest; removing itimmediately before rotation on the side: the first measure augments theexpiration, the second commences inspiration. The resultis--Respiration;--and, if not too late, --Life. 

"To induce Circulation and Warmth--8. Rub the limbs upwards, with firmgrasping pressure and with energy, using handkerchiefs, etc. By thismeasure the blood is propelled along the veins towards the heart. 9. Letthe limbs be thus dried and warmed, and then clothed, the bystanderssupplying coats, waistcoats, etc. 10. . Avoid the continuous warm-bath, and the position on or inclined to the back. "

Litter for the Wounded. --If a man be wounded or sick, and has to becarried upon the shoulders of others, make a little for him in the Indianfashion; that is to say, cut two stout poles, each 8 feet long, to makeits two sides, and three other cross-bars of 2 1/2 feet each, to belashed to them. Then supporting this ladder-shaped framework over thesick man as he lies in his blanket, knot the blanket up well to it, andso carry him off palanquin-fashion. One cross-bar will be just behind hishead, another in front of his feet; the middle one will cross hisstomach, and keep him from falling out; and there will remain two shorthandles for the carriers to lay hold of. The American Indians carry theirwounded companions by this contrivance after a fight, and during ahurried retreat, for wonderful distances. A king of waggon-roof top caneasily be made to it, with bent boughs and one spare blanket. (SeePalanquin. )

[Black and white sketch of two 'Indians' carrying litter]. 

SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS. 

In previous editions I reprinted here, with a few trifling alterations, part of a paper that I originally communicated to the Royal GeographicalSociety, and which will be found at the end of their volume for 1854. Inaddition to it, communications are published there from Lieutenant Raper, Admiral FitzRoy, Admiral Smyth, Admiral Beechey, and Colonel Sykes; thewhole of which was collected under the title of 'Hints to Travellers;'they were printed in a separate form and widely circulated. When theedition was exhausted, a fresh Committee was appointed by the Council ofthe Royal Geographical society, consisting of Admiral sir George Back, Admiral R. Collinson, and myself, to revise the pamphlet thoroughly. Thisprocess was again gone through in 1871, and now the pamphlet is so muchamended and enlarged that I should do no good by making extracts. It ismuch better that intending travellers should apply for this third editionof the 'Hints to Travellers' at the society's rooms, 1, Savile Row: forit gives a great deal of information upon instruments that they wouldfind of real value. Its price is 1s. 

Porters for delicate Instruments. --Entrust surveying instruments andfragile articles to come respectable old savage, whose infirmities compelhim to walk steadily. He will be delighted at the prospect of picking upa living by such easy service. 

Measuring low angles by reflexion. --an ordinary artificial horizon isuseless for very low angles. They can be measured to within two or threeminutes, by means of a vertical point of reference obtained in thefollowing manner:--Tie two pieces of thread, crossing each other at twofeet above the ground, put the vessel of mercury underneath it, and lookdown upon the mercury. When the eye is so placed, that the crossedthreads exactly cover their reflexion, the line of sight is trulyvertical; and, if the distant object be brought down to them by thesextant, the angle read off will be 90 degrees + altitude. CaptainGeorge's arrangement of glass floating on mercury (made by Cary, FleetStreet, London), allows of very low angles being observed, but the use ofthis instrument requires considerable caution as to the purity of themercury and the cleanliness of the glass. 

Substitute for glass roof to Horizon. --For want of a glass roof to placeover the mercury a piece of gauze stretched over the vessel will answervery tolerably for the purpose of keeping off the wind. The diameter ofthe pupil of the eye is so large, compared to the thickness of thethreads of the gauze, that the latter offer little impediment to a clearview of the image. 

Silvering Glasses for Sextants. --"Before taking leave of this subject itmay not be unimportant to describe the operation of silvering the glassesof sextants, as those employed on surveying duties very frequently haveto perform the operation. 

"The requisites are clean tinfoil and mercury (a hare's foot ishandy)--lay the tinfoil, which should exceed the surface of the glass bya quarter of an inch on each side, on a smooth surface (the back of abook), rub it out smooth with the finger, add a bubble of mercury, aboutthe size of a small shot, which rub gently over the tinfoil until itspreads itself and shows a silvered surface, gently add sufficientmercury to cover the leaf so that its surface is fluid. Prepare a slip ofpaper the size of the tinfoil. Take the glass in the left hand, previously well cleaned, and the paper in the right. Brush the surface ofthe mercury gently to free it from dross. Lay the paper on the mercury, and the glass on it. Pressing gently on the glass, withdraw the paper. Turn the glass on its face, and leave it on an inclined plane to allowthe mercury to flow off, which is accelerated by laying a strip oftinfoil as a conductor to its lower edge. The edges may, after twelvehours' rest, be removed. In twenty-four hours give it a coat of varnish, made from spirits of wine and red sealing-wax. It may be as well topractise on small bits of common glass, which will soon prove the degreeof perfection which the operator has attained. " (Admiral Sir E. Belcher. )

MEMORANDA AND LOG-BOOKS. 

Best form for Memoranda. --I have remarked that almost every traveller whois distinguished for the copiousness and accuracy of his journals, haswritten them in a remarkably small but distinct handwriting. Hardpencil-marks (HHH pencils) on common paper, or on metallic paper are verydurable. Dr. Barth wrote his numerous observations entirely inIndian-ink. He kept a tiny saucer in his pocket, rubbed with the ink;when he wanted to use it, he rubbed it up with his wetted finger-tip, orresupplied it with fresh ink, and filled his pen and wrote. CaptainBurton wrote very much in the dark, when lying awake at night; he used aboard with prominent lines of wood, such as is adopted by the blind. Itis very important that what is written should be intelligible to astranger after a long lapse of time. A traveller may die, and hisuncompleted work perish with him; or he may return, and years will passby, and suddenly some observations he had made will be called inquestion. 

Professor J. Forbes says:--"The practice which I have long adopted isthis:--to carry a memorandum-book with Harwood's prepared paper" (in thispoint of detail I do not concur; see next paragraph) "and metallicpencil, in which notes and observations and slight sketches of everydescription, are made on the spot, and in the exact order in which theyoccur. These notes are almost ineffaceable, and are preserved forreference. They are then extended, as far as possible, every evening withpen and ink, in a suitable book, in the form of a journal; from which, finally, they may be extracted and modified for any ultimate purpose. Thespeedy extension of memoranda has several great advantages: it secures adeliberate revision of observations, whether of instruments or of nature, whilst further explanation may be sought, and very often whilstambiguities or contradictions admit of removal by a fresh appeal tofacts. By this precaution, too, the risk of losing all the fruits of someweeks of labour, by the loss of a pocket-book, may be avoided. "

It has occurred to me, frequently, to be consulted about the best was ofkeeping MSS. Captain Blakiston, who surveyed the northern part of theRocky Mountains, and subsequently received the medal of the RoyalGeographical Society, for his exploration and admirable map of theYang-tse-Kiang, in China, paid great attention to the subject: he wasfully in possession of all I had to say on the matter; and I gladly quotethe method he adopted in North America, with slight modifications, according to the results of his experience, and with a few trivialadditions of my own. For the purposes of memoranda and mapping data, heuses three sets of books, which can be ordered at any lithographer's:--

No. 1. Pocket Memorandum Book, measuring three inches and a half by five, made of strong paper. (Captain Blakston did not use, and I should notadvise travellers to use, "prepared" paper, for it soon becomes rotten, and the leaves fall out; besides that, wet makes the paper soppy. ) Thebooks are paged with bold numbers printed in the corners; two faint redlines are ruled down the middle of each page, half an inch apart, toenable the book to be used as a field-surveyor's book when required. Inthis pocket=book, every single thing that is recorded at all, isoriginally recorded with a hard HHH pencil. Everything is writtenconsecutively, without confusion or attempt to save space. There mayeasily be 150 pages in each of these books; and a sufficient numbershould be procured to admit of having at least one per month. Do notstint yourself in these. 

No. 2. Log-Book. --This is an orderly way of collecting such parts of thesurveying material as has been scattered over each day in your note-book. It is to be neatly written out, and will become the standard of futurereference. By using a printed form, the labour of drawing up the log onthe one hand, and that of consulting it on the other, will be vastlydiminished. I give Captain Blakiston's form, in pages 28, 29, and I wouldurge intending travellers not to depart from it without very validreasons, for it is the result of considerable care and experience. Thesize in which the form is printed here is not quite accurate, because thepages of this book are not large enough to admit of it, but theproportion is kept. The actual size is intended to be five and a halfinches high and nine inches wide, so that it should open freely along oneof the narrow sides of the page, in the way that all memoranda booksought to open. Four pages go to a day; of these the pages 1 and 2 arealone represented in this book, pages 3 and 4 being intended to be leftblank. 

[P 28 and p 29 show samples of the log book pages being described]. 

The bold figures 17 and 18 in the right-hand corners of the form I give, show how the pages should be numbered. The lines in p. 18 should be faintblue. 

No. 3. Calculation Book. --This should be of the same size and shape asthe Log Book, and should contain outline forms for calculations. Thelabour and confusion saved by using these, and the accuracy of work thatthey ensure, are truly remarkable. The instruments used, the observationsmade, and especially the tables employed, are so exceedingly diverse, that I fear it would be to little purpose if I were to give specialexamples: each traveller must suit himself. I will, therefore, simplymake a few general remarks on this subject, in the following paragraph. 

Number of Observations requiring record. --A traveller does excellently, who takes latitudes by meridian altitudes, once in the twenty-four hours;a careful series of lunars once a fortnight, on an average; compassvariations as often; and an occulation now and then. He will want, occasionally, a time observation by which to set his watch (I amsupposing he uses no chronometer). He ought therefore to provide himselfwith outline forms for calculating these observations, even if he findshimself obliged to have them printed or lithographed on purpose; and inpreparing them, he should bear the following well-known maxims in mind:--

Let all careful observations be in doubles. If they be for latitudes, observe a star N. And a star S. ; the errors of your instruments will thenaffect the results in opposite directions, and the mean of the resultswill destroy the error. So, if for time, observe in doubles, viz. , a starE. And a star W. Also, if for lunars, let your sets be in doubles--oneset of distances to a star E. Of moon, and one to a star W. Of moon. Whenever you begin on lunars, give three hours at least to them, andbring away a reliable series; you will be thus possessed of a certaintyto work upon, instead of the miserably unsatisfactory results obtainedfrom a single set of lunars taken here and another set there, scatteredall over the country, and impossible to correlate. A series shouldconsist of six sets, each set including three simple distances. Three ofthese sets should be to a star or stars E. Of moon, and three to a staror stars W. Of moon. Lunars not taken on the E. And W. Plan are almostworthless, no matter how numerous they may be, for the sextant, etc. , might be inaccurate to any amount, and yet no error be manifest in theirresults. But the E. And W. Plan exposes errors mercilessly, and alsoeliminates them. One of the best authorities on the requirements ofsextant observations in rude land travel, the Astronomer Royal of CapeTown, says to this effect:--"Do not observe the altitude of the star intaking lunars, but compute it. The labour requisite for that observationis better bestowed in taking a large number of distances. " So muchdelicacy of hand and of eyesight is requisite in taking lunars that shallgive results reliable to seven or eight miles, and so small an exertionor flurry spoils that delicacy, that economy of labour and fidget is amatter to be carefully studied. 

These things being premised, it will be readily understood that outlineforms sufficient for an entire series of lunars will extend over manypages--they will, in fact, require eighteen pages. There are four sets ofobservations for time:--one E. And one W. , both at beginning and close ofthe whole; one for latitudes N. And S. ; six for six sets of lunars, asdescribed above; six for the corresponding altitudes of the stars, whichhave to be computed; and, finally, one page for taking means, andrecording the observations for adjustment, etc. Each double observationfor latitude would take one page; each single time observation one page;and each single compass variation one page. An occulation would requirethree pages in all; one of which would be for time. At this rate, andtaking the observations mentioned above, a book of 500 pages would lasthalf a year. Of course where the means of transport is limited, travellers must content themselves with less. Thus Captain Speke, whostarted on his great journey amply equipped with log-books andcalculation-books, such as I have described, found them too great anincumbrance, and was compelled to abandon them. The result was, thatthough he brought back a very large number of laborious observations, there was a want of method in them, which made a considerable part of hiswork of little or no use, while the rest required very careful treatment, in order to give results commensurate with their high intrinsic value. 

MEASUREMENTS. 

Distance. --To measure the Length of a Journey by Time. --The pace of acaravan across average country is 2 1/2 statute, or 2 geographical, milesper hour, as measured with compasses from point to point, and notfollowing the sinuosities of each day's course; but in making thisestimate, every minute lost in stoppages by the way is supposed to besubtracted from the whole time spent on the road. A careful travellerwill be surprised at the accuracy of the geographical results, obtainableby noting the time he has employed in actual travel. Experience showsthat 10 English miles per day, measured along the road--or, what is muchthe same thing, 7 geographical miles, measured with a pair of compassesfrom point to point--is, taking one day with another, and including allstoppages of every kind, whatever be their cause, --very fast travellingfor a caravan. In estimating the probable duration of a journey in anunknown country, or in arranging an outfit for an exploring expedition, not more than half that speed should be reckoned upon. Indeed, it wouldbe creditable to an explorer to have conducted the same caravan for adistance of 1000 geographical miles, across a rude country, in sixmonths. These data have, of course, no reference to a journey which maybe accomplished by a single great effort, nor to one where thewatering-places and pasturages are well known; but apply to anexploration of considerable length, in which a traveller must feel hisway, and where he must use great caution not to exhaust his cattle, lestsome unexpected call for exertion should arise, which they might proveunequal to meet. Persons who have never travelled--and very many of thosewho have, from neglecting to analyse their own performances--entertainvery erroneous views on these matters. 

Rate of Movement to measure. --a. When the length of pace etc. , is knownbefore beginning, to observe. --A man or a horse walking at the rate ofone mile per hour, takes 10 paces in some ascertainable number ofseconds, dependent upon the length of his step. If the length of his stepbe 30 inches, he will occupy 17 seconds in making 10 paces. Conversely, if the same person counts his paces for 17 seconds, and finds that he hastaken 10 in that time, he will know that he is walking at the rate ofexactly 1 mile per hour. If he had taken 40 paces in the same period, hewould know that his rate had been 4 miles per hour; if 35 paces, that ithad been 3. 5, or 3 1/2 miles per hour. Thus it will be easilyintelligible, that if a man knows the number of seconds appropriate tothe length of his pace, he can learn the rate at which he is walking, bycounting his paces during that number of seconds and by dividing thenumber of his paces so obtained, by 10. In short the number of his pacesduring the period in question, gives his rate per hour, in miles anddecimals of a mile, to one place of decimals. I am indebted to Mr. Archibald Smith for this very ingenious notion, which I have worked intothe following Tables. In Table I. , I give the appropriate number ofseconds corresponding to paces of various lengths. I find, however, thatthe pace of neither man nor horse is constant in length during all ratesof walking; consequently, where precision is sought, it is better to usethis Table on a method of approximation. That is to say, the travellershould find his approximate rate by using the number of secondsappropriate to his estimated speed. Then, knowing the length of pace dueto that approximate rate, he will proceed afresh by adopting a revisednumber of seconds, and will obtain a result much nearer to the truth thanthe first. Table I. Could of course be employed for finding the rate of acarriage, when the circumference of one of its wheels was known; but itis troublesome to make such a measurement. I therefore have calculatedTable II. , in terms of the radius of the wheel. The formulae by whichthe two Tables have been calculated are, m=l x 0. 5682 for Table I. , andm=r x 3. 570 for Table II. , where m is the appropriate number of seconds;l is the length of the pace, or circumference of the wheel; and r is theradius of the wheel. 

The Tables will be found on the next page. 

[Tables I and II appear on p 34]. 

b. When the length of Pace is unknown till after observation. --In thiscase, the following plan gives the rate of travel per hour, with thesmallest amount of arithmetic. 

For statute miles per hour--Observe the number of paces (n) taken in 5. 7seconds: let i be the number of inches (to be subsequently determined atleisure) in a single pace; then ni/100 is the rate per hour. 

For geographical miles per hour--The number of seconds to be employed is5. This formula is therefore very simple, and it is a useful one. (Astatute mile is 1760 yards, and a geographical mile is 2025 yards. )

For finding the rate in statute miles per hour in a carriage--Observethe number of revolutions (n) made by the wheel in 18 seconds: let d bethe number of inches in the diameter of the wheel; then n d/200 is therate per hour. 

The above method is convenient for measuring the rate at which an animalgallops. After counting its paces it may be through a telescope, duringthe prescribed number of seconds, you walk to the track, and measure thelength of its pace. If you have no measuring tape, stride in yardsalongside its track, to find the number of yards that are covered by 36of its paces. This is, of course, identical with the number of inches inone of its paces. 

Convenient Equivalents. --The rate of 1 mile per hour, is the equivalentto each of the rates in the following list:--

 Yards. Feet. Inches. 29. 333, or 88. 000, or 1056. 000, in one minute or 0. 488, or 1. 466, or 17. 600, in one second

Measurement of Length. --Actual measurement with the rudest makeshift, isfar preferable to an unassisted guess, especially to an unpractised eye. 

Natural Units of Length. --A man should ascertain his height; height ofhis eye above ground; ditto, when kneeling: his fathom; his cubit; hisaverage pace; the span, from ball of thumb to tip of one of his fingers;the length of the foot; the width of two, three, or four fingers; and thedistance between his eyes. In all probability, some one of these is aneven and a useful number of feet or inches, which he will always be ableto recollect, and refer to as a unit of measurement. The distance betweenthe eyes is instantly determined, and, I believe, never varies, whilemeasurements of stature, and certainly those of girth of limb, becomevery different when a man is exhausted by long travel and bad diet. It istherefore particularly useful for measuring small objects. To find it, hold a stick at arm's-length, at right angles to the line of sight; then, looking past its end to a distant object, shut first one eye and then theother, until you have satisfied yourself of the exact point on the stickthat covers the distant object as seen by the one eye, when the end ofthe stick exactly covers the same object, as seen by the other eye. Astone's throw is a good standard of reference for greater distances. Cricketers estimate distance by the length between wickets. Pacing yardsshould be practised. It is well to dot or burn with the lens of youropera-glass a scale of inches on the gun-stock and pocket-knife. 

Velocity of Sound. --Sound flies at 380 yards or about 1000 feet in asecond, speaking in round numbers: it is easy to measure rough distancesby the flash of a gun and its report; for even a storm of wind only makes4 per cent. Difference, one way or the other, in the velocity of sound. 

Measurement of Angles. --Rude Measurements. --I find that a capitalsubstitute for a very rude sextant is afforded by the outstretched handand arm. The span between the middle finger and the thumb subtends anangle of about 15 degrees, and that between the forefinger and the thumban angle of 11 1/4 degrees, or one point of the compass. Just as a personmay learn to walk yards accurately, so may he learn to span out theseangular distances accurately; and the horizon, however broken it may be, is always before his eyes to check him. Thus, if he begins from a tree, or even from a book on his shelves and spans all round until he comes tothe tree or book again, he should make twenty-four of the larger spansand thirty-two of the lesser ones. These two angles of 15 degrees and 111/4 degrees are particularly important. The sun travels through 15degrees in each hour; and therefore, by "spanning" along its course, asestimated, from the place where it would stand at noon (aided in this bythe compass), the hour before or after noon, and, similarly after sunriseor before sunset, can be instantly reckoned. Again, the angles 30degrees, 45 degrees, 60 degrees, and 90 degrees, all of them simplemultiples of 15 degrees, are by far the most useful ones in taking roughmeasurements of heights and distances, because of the simple relationsbetween the sides of right-angled triangles, one of whose other anglesare 30 degrees, 45 degrees, or 60 degrees; and also because 60 degrees isthe value of an angle of an equilateral triangle. As regards 11 1/4degrees, or one point of the compass, it is perfectly out of the questionto trust to bearings taken by the unaided eye, or to steer a steadycourse by simply watching a star or landmark, when this happens to bemuch to the right or the left of it. Now, nothing is easier than to spanout the bearing from time to time. 

Right-angles to lay out. --A triangle whose sides are as 3, 4, and 5, mustbe a right-angled one, since 5 x 5 = 3 x 3 + 4 x 4; therefore we can finda right-angle very simply by means of a measuring-tape. We take a lengthof twelve feet, yards, fathoms, or whatever it may be, and peg its twoends, side by side, to the ground. Peg No. 2 is driven in at the thirddivision, and peg No. 3 is held at the seventh division of the cord, which is stretched out till it becomes taut; then the peg is driven in. These three pegs will form the corners of a right-angled triangle; pegNo. 2 being situated at the right-angle. 

Proximate Arcs. --1 degree subtends, at a distance of 1 statute mile, 90 feet. 1' subtends, at a distance of 1 statute mile, 18 inches. 1' subtends at a distance of 100 yards, 1 inch. 1" of latitude on the earth's surface is 100 feet. 30' is subtended by the diameter of either the sun or the moon. 

Angles measured by their Chords. --The number of degrees contained by anygiven angle, may be ascertained without a protractor or other angularinstrument, by means of a Table of Chords. So, also, may any requiredangle be protracted on paper, through the same simple means. In the firstinstance, draw a circle on paper with its centre at the apex of the angleand with a radius of 1000, next measure the distance between the pointswhere the circle is cut by the two lines that enclose the angle. Lastlylook for that distance (which is the chord of the angle) in the annexedtable, where the corresponding number of degrees will be found, where thecorresponding number of degrees will be found. If it be desired toprotract a given angle, the same operation is to be performed in aconverse sense. I need hardly mention that the chord of an angle is thesame thing as twice the sine of half that angle; but as tables of naturalsines are not now-a-days commonly to be met with, I have thought it wellworth while to give a Table of Chords. When a traveller, who isunprovided with regular instruments, wishes to triangulate, or whenhaving taken some bearings but having no protractor, he wishes to laythem down upon his map, this little table will prove of very greatservice to him. (See "Measurement of distances to inaccessible places. ")

[Table of Chords to Radius of 1000]. 

Triangulation. --Measurement of distance to an inaccessible place. --Bysimilar triangles. --To show how the breadth of a river may be measuredwithout instruments, without any table, and without crossing it, I havetaken the following useful problem from the French 'Manuel du Genie. 'Those usually given by English writers for the same purpose are, strangely enough, unsatisfactory, for they require the measurement of anangle. This plan requires pacing only. To measure A G, produce it for anydistance, as to D; from D, in any convenient direction, take any equaldistances, D C, c d; produce B C to b, making c B--C B; join d b, andproduce it to a, that is to say, to the point where A C producedintersects it; then the triangles to the left of C, are similar to thoseon the right of C, and therefore a b is equal to A B. The points D C, etc. , may be marked by bushes planted in the ground, or by men standing. 

The disadvantages of this plan are its complexity, and the usualdifficulty of finding a sufficient space of level ground, for itsexecution. The method given in the following paragraph is incomparablymore facile and generally applicable. 

Triangulation by measurement of Chords. --Colonel Everest, the lateSurveyor-General of India, pointed out (Journ. Roy. Geograph. Soc. 1860, p. 122) the advantage to travellers, unprovided with angular instruments, of measure the chords of the angles they wish to determine. He showedthat a person who desired to make a rude measurement of the angle C A B, in the figure (p. 40), has simply to pace for any convenient length fromA towards C, reaching, we will say, the point a' and then to pace anequal distance from A towards B, reaching the point a ae. Then it remainsfor him to pace the distance a' a" which is the chord of the angle A tothe radius A a'. Knowing this, he can ascertain the value of the angle CA B by reference to a proper table. In the same way the angle C B A canbe ascertained. Lastly, by pacing the distance A B, to serve as a base, all the necessary data will have been obtained for determining the linesA C and B C. The problem can be worked out, either by calculation or byprotraction. I have made numerous measurements in this way, and find thepractical error to be within five per cent. 

Table for rude triangulation by Chords. --It occurred to me that the plandescribed in the foregoing paragraph might be exceedingly simplified by atable, such as that which I annex in which different values of a' a" aregiven for a radius of 10, and in which the calculations are made for abase = 100. The units in which A a', A a", and B b', Bb", are to bemeasured are intended to be paces, though, of course, any other unitswould do. The units in which the base is measured may be feet, yards, minutes, or hours' journey, or whatever else is convenient. Any multipleor divisor of 100 may be used for the base, if the tabular number besimilarly multiplied. Therefore a traveller may ascertain the breadth ofa river, or that of a valley, or the distance of any object on eitherside of his line of march, by taking not more than some sixty additionalpaces, and by making a single reference to my table. Particular care mustbe taken to walk in a straight line from A to B, by sighting some moredistant object in a line with B. It will otherwise surprise most people, on looking back at their track, to see how curved it has been and how fartheir b' B is from being in the right direction. 

[Contains Table for Rough Triangulation without the usual instruments, and without Calculation"]. 

Measurement of Time. --Sun Dial. --Plant a stake firmly in the ground in alevel open space, and get ready a piece of string, a tent-peg, and a bitof stick a foot long. When the stars begin to appear, and before it isdark, go to the stake, lie down on the ground, and plant the stick, soadjusting it that its top and the point where the string is tied to thestake shall be in a line with the Polar Star, or rather with the Pole(see below); then get up, stretch the string so as just to touch the topof the stick, and stake it down with the tent-peg. Kneel down again, tosee that all is right, and in the morning draw out the dial-lines; thestring being the gnomon. The true North Pole is distant about 1 1/2degree, or three suns' (or moons') diameters from the Polar Star, and itlies between the Polar Star and the pointers of the Great Bear, or, moretruly, between it and [Greek letter] Urs ae Majoris. 

[Small drawing illustrating these directions in above text]. 

The one essential point of dial-making is to set the gnomon truly, because it ensures that the shadows shall fall in the same direction atthe same hours all the year round. To ascertain where to mark thehour-lines on the ground, or wall, on which the shadow of the gnomonfalls, the simplest plan is to use a watch, or whatever makeshift meansof reckoning time be at hand. Calculations are troublesome, unless theplate is quite level, or vertical, and exactly facing south or north, orelse in the plane of the Equinox. 

The figure represents the well-known equinoctial sun-dial. It can easilybe cast in lead. The spike points towards the elevated pole, and the rimof the disc is divided into 24 equal parts for the hours. 

Pendulum. --A Traveller, when the last of his watches breaks down, has noneed to be disheartened from going on with his longitudinal observations, especially if he observes occulations and eclipses. The object of a watchis to tell the number of seconds that elapse between the instant ofocculation, eclipse, etc. , and the instant, a minute or two later, whenthe sextant observation for time is made. All that a watch actually doesis to beat seconds, and to record the number of beats. Now, a string andstone, swung as a pendulum, will beat time; and a native who is taught tothrow a pebble into a bag at each beat, will record it; and, foroperations that do not occupy much time, he will be as good as a watch. The rate of the pendulum may be determined by taking two sets ofobservations, with three or four minutes' interval between them; and, ifthe distance from the point of suspension to the centre of the stone bethirty-nine inches, and if the string be thin and the stone very heavy, it will beat seconds very nearly indeed. The observations upon which thelongitude of the East African lakes depended, after Captain Speke's firstjourney to them, were lunars, timed with a string and a stone, in defaultof a watch. 

Hour-glass. --Either dry sand or water may be used in an hour-glass; ifwater be used, the aperture through which it runs must, of course, besmaller. 

CLIMBING AND MOUNTAINEERING. 

Climbing. --Climbing trees. --Colonel Jackson, in his book, 'How toObserve, ' gives the following directions for climbing palms and othertrees that have very rough barks:--"Take a strip of linen, or two towelsor strong handkerchiefs tied together, and form a loop at each end, forthe feet to pass tightly into without going through; or, for want of suchmaterial, make a rope of grass or straw in the same way. The lengthshould embrace a little more than half of the diameter of the trunk to beclimbed. Now, being at the foot of the tree, fix the feet well into theloops, and opening the legs a little, embrace the tree as high up as youcan. Raise your legs, and pressing the cord against the tree with yourfeet, stand, as it were, in your stirrups, and raise your body and armshigher; hold fast again by the arms, open the legs, and raise them astage higher, and so on to the top. The descent is effected in the sameway, reversing, of course, the order of the movements. The ruggedness ofthe bark, and the weight of the body pressing diagonally across the trunkof the tree, prevent the rope from slipping. Anything, provided it bestrong enough, is better than a round rope, which does not hold so fast. "A loop or hoop embracing the body of the climber and the tree, is ahelpful addition. Large nails carried in a bag slung round the waist, tobe driven into the bare trunk of the tree, will facilitate its ascent. Gimlets may be used for the same purpose. High walls can be climbed byhelp of this description; a weight attached to one end of a rope, beingfirst thrown over the wall, and the climber assisting himself by holdingon to the other end. Trees of soft wood are climbed by cutting notchestwo feet apart on alternate sides. Also by driving in bamboo pegs, sloping alternately to left or to right; these pegs correspond to the"rungs" of a ladder. 

Ladders. --A notched pole or a knotted rope makes a ladder. We hear ofpeople who have tied sheets together to let themselves down high walls, when making an escape. The best way of making a long rope from sheets, isto cut them into strips of about six inches broad, and with these totwist a two-stranded rope, or else to plait a three-stranded one. 

Descending cliffs with ropes is an art which naturalists and others haveoccasion to practise. It has been reduced to a system by the inhabitantsof some rocky coasts in the Northern seas, where innumerable sea-birds gofor the breeding season, and whose ledges and crevices are crammed withnests full of large eggs, about the end of May and the beginning of June. They are no despicable prize to a hungry native. I am indebted to a mostdevoted rock-climber, the late Mr. Woolley, for the following facts. Itappears that the whole population are rock-climbers, in the followingplaces:--St. Kilda, in the Hebrides; Foula Island, in Shetland; the FaroeIslands generally; and in the Westmarver Islands off Iceland. FlamboroughHead used to be a famous place for this accomplishment, but the birdshave become far less numerous; they have been destroyed very wantonlywith shot. 

In descending a cliff, two ropes are used; one a supply well-made, many-stranded, inch rope (see "Ropes"), to which the climber is attached, and by which he is let down; the other is a much thinner cord, left todangle over the cliff, and made fast to some stone or stake above. Theuse of the second rope is for the climber to haul upon, when he wishes tobe pulled up. By resting a large part of his weight upon it, he makes thetask of pulling him up much more easy. He can also convey signals byjerking it. A usual rock-climbing arrangement is shown in the sketch. Oneman with a post behind him, as in fig. 1, or two men, as in fig. 2 areentrusted with the letting down of a comrade to the depth of 100 or even150 feet. They pass the rope either under their thighs or along theirsides, as shown in the figures. The climber is attached to the rope, asshown in fig. 2. The band on which he sits is of worsted. A beginnerought to be attached far more securely to the rope. 

[Fig 1 and Fig 2 appear on p 45]. 

(I have tried several plans, and find that which is shown in Fig. 1 to bethoroughly comfortable and secure. A stick forms the seat' at either endof it is a short stirrup; garters secure the stirrup leathers to theknees; there is a belt under the arms. )

It is convenient, but not necessary, to have a well-greased leathersheath, a tube of eighteen inches in length, through which the rope runs, as shown in both figures. It lies over the edges of the cliff, and thefriction of the rock keeps it steadily in its place. 

It is nervous work going over the edge of a cliff for the first time;however, the sensation does not include giddiness. Once in the air, andwhen confidence is acquired, the occupation is very exhilarating. Thepower of locomotion is marvellous: a slight push with the foot, or athrust with a stick, will swing the climber twenty feet to a side. Fewrocks are so precipitous but that a climber can generally make some useof his hands and feet; enough to cling to the rock when he wishes, and toclamber about its face. The wind is seldom a gale above, but the air willbe comparatively quiet upon the face; and therefore there is no danger ofa chance gush dashing the climber against the rocks. A short stick isuseful, but not necessary. There are three cautions to be borne in mind. 1. As you go down, test every stone carefully. If the movement of therope displaces any one of them, after you have been let down below it, itis nearly sure to fall upon your head, because you will be verticallybeneath it. Some climbers use a kind of helmet as a shield against thesevery dangerous accidents. 2. Take care that the rope does not becomejammed in a cleft, or you will be helplessly suspended in mid-air. Keepthe rope pretty tight when you are clambering about the ledges: else, ifyou slip, the jerk may break the rope, or cause an overpowering strainupon the men who are holding it above. 

Turf and solid rock are much the best substances for the rope to runover. In the Faroes, they tar the ropes excessively; they are absolutelypolished with tar. Good ropes are highly valued. In St. Kilda, leatherropes are used: they last a lifetime, and are a dowry for a daughter. Anew rope spins terribly. 

Leaping Poles. --In France they practise a way of crossing a deep brook bythe help of a rope passed round an overhanging branch of a tree growingby its side. They take a run and swing themselves across, pendulumfashion. It is the principle of the leaping-pole, reversed. 

The art of climbing difficult places. --Always face difficult places; ifyou slip, let your first effort be to turn upon your stomach, for inevery other position you are helpless. A mountaineer, when he meets witha formidable obstacle, does not hold on the rock by means of his feet andhis hands only, but he clings to it like a caterpillar, with every partof his body that can come simultaneously into contact with its roughenedsurface. 

Snow Mountains. --Precautions. --The real dangers of the high Alps may bereduced to three:--1. Yielding of snow-bridges over crevices. 2. Slippingon slopes of ice. 3. The fall of ice, or rocks, from above. Absolutesecurity from the first is obtainable by tying the party together atintervals to a rope. If there be only two in company, they should be tiedtogether at eight or ten paces apart. Against the second danger, the ropeis usually effective, though frightful accidents have occurred by thefall of one man, dragging along with him the whole chain of hiscompanions. Against the third danger there is no resource butcircumspection. Ice falls chiefly in the heat of the day; it is fromlimestone cliffs that the falling rocks are nearly always detached. Whenclimbing ice of the most moderate slope, nailed boots are an absolutenecessity; and for steep slopes of ice, the ice-axe (described below) isequally essential. 

Alpine Outfit consists of ropes, ice-axe or alpenstock (there must be atleast one ice-axe in the party), nailed boots, coloured spectacles, veilor else a linen mask, muffettees, and gaiters. 

I give the following extracts from the Report of a Committee appointed bythe Alpine Club in 1864, on Ropes, Axes, and Alpenstocks:--

Ropes. --We have endeavoured to ascertain what ropes will best stand thesharp jerk which would be caused by a man falling suddenly into acrevasse, or down an ice-slope: and on this subject we lay before theClub the result of nearly a hundred experiments, made with various kindsof rope purchased of the best London makers. We considered that the leastweight with which it was practically useful to test ropes, was twelvestone, as representing the average weight of a light man with his wholeAlpine equipment. In the preliminary experiments, therefore, all ropeswere rejected which did not support the strain produced by twelve stonefalling five feet. Under this trial, all those plaited ropes which aregenerally supposed to be so strong, and many most carefully-made twistedropes, gave way in such a manner as was very startling to some of ournumber, who had been in the habit of using these treacherous cords withperfect and most unfounded confidence. Only four ropes passedsuccessfully through this trial; these were all made by Messrs. Buckingham and Sons, of 33, Broad-street, Bloomsbury, and can be procuredonly of them. We confined our further experiments to these ropes, one ofwhich failed under severer tests, while the remaining three, maderespectively of Manilla hemp, Italian hemp, and flax, proved so nearlyequal in strength that it may fairly be doubted which is on the whole tobe preferred. Each of these three ropes will bear twelve stone fallingten feet, and fourteen stone falling eight feet; and it may be useful tosay that the strain upon a rope loaded with a weight of fourteen stone, and suddenly checked after a fall of eight feet, is nearly equal to thatwhich is caused by a dead weight of two tons. None of these ropes, however, will bear a weight of fourteen stone falling ten feet; and theresult of our experiments is, that no rope can be made, whether of hemp, flax, or silk, which is strong enough to bear that strain, and yet lightenough to be portable. We believe that these ropes, which weigh aboutthree-quarters of an ounce to the foot, are the heaviest which can beconveniently carried about in the Alps. We append a statement of therespective merits of the three kinds, all of which are now made byMessrs. Buckingham, expressly for the Club, and marked by a red worstedthread twisted in the strands:--

No. 1. MANILLA HEMP. Weight of 20 yards, 48 oz. Advantages--Is softer andmore pliable than 2. Is more elastic than 2 and 3. When wet, is far morepleasant to handle than 2 and 3. Disadvantages--Has a tendency to wearand fray at a knot. 

No. 2. ITALIAN HEMP. Weight of 20 yards, 43 oz. Advantages--Is less bulkythan 1 and 3. Is harder, and will probably wear best, being least likelyto cut against rocks. Disadvantages--Is much more still and difficult tountie than 1 and 3. When wet, is very disagreeable to handle, and is aptto kink. 

No. 3. FLAX. Weight of 20 yards, 44 oz. Advantages--When dry, is softer, more pliable, and easier to handle than 1 and 2, and will probably wearbetter than 1. Disadvantages--When wet, becomes decidedly somewhatweaker, and is nearly as disagreeable to handle as 2. 

Knots. --There can be no doubt that every knot in a rope weakens its powerof resisting a sudden jerking strain. How great a loss of strengthresults from a knot we cannot undertake to estimate, but that the loss isa very serious one the following statement will show: these ropes whichwe report will resist the strain of fourteen stone falling eight feet, will not resist it if there is a knot in any one of them; or even if theknots used in attaching them to the point of support, or to the weights, be roughly or carelessly made. The rope in these cases breaks at theknot, for two reasons; partly because of the folds, as they cross in theknot, are strained suddenly across each other, and one of them is cutthrough; and partly because the rope is so sharply bent that the outerside of each fold in the knot is much more stretched than the inner side, so that the strain comes almost entirely upon one side only of each fold. For the first reason, we found it necessary to put a pad of some kindinside the knot--leather, linen, or a little tow or waste rope will do. For the second reason we preferred knots in which the folds are leastsharply bent round each other; that is, in which the curves are large. Wetherefore conclude that--1st. No knot, which is not absolutely necessary, ought to be allowed to remain on the rope: 2nd. The tighter and harder aknot becomes, the worse it is: 3rd. The more loose and open a knot ismade, the better it is:--and we append diagrams of those knots which wefound by experiment weaken the rope least. For Alpine ropes, only threesorts of knots are ever required, and we suggest one of each kind:--No. 1is for the purpose of joining two ends. No. 2 is for the purpose ofmaking a loop at one end. No. 3 is for the purpose of making a loop inthe middle when the ends are fastened. No. 4 is a knot, of which we givea diagram in order that no one may imitate it. It is one of those whichmost weaken the rope. The only one which seemed to be equally injuriousis the common single knot, of which no diagram is necessary. As the topeswhich we have recommended are very liable to become untwisted, unless theloose ends are secured, we advise travellers, in order to avoid knots, tohave the ends of every piece of rope bound with waxed twine. It shouldalso be known that it is very unsafe to join two pieces of rope bylooping one end through the other, so that when the jerk comes, they willbe strained across each other as two links of a chain are strained acrosseach other. Unless a pad of some kind divides the loops, one will cut theother through. 

[Four diagrams of knots on this page]. 

Axes. --The axes made in England for the purpose of being taken out toSwitzerland, may be divided into two classes, namely: travellers' axes, intended to be used for chipping a few occasional steps, for enlargingand clearing out those imperfectly made, and for holding on to asnow-slope, --and guides' axes, which are the heavier implements requiredfor making long staircases in hard blue ice. We have had three modelsprepared, of which diagrams are appended; the first two represent thelighter axe, or what we have termed the travellers' axe; and the third, the heavier instrument required for guides' work. Diagram No. 1represents a light axe or pick, of a kind somewhat similar to thatrecommended by Mr. Stephen, in a paper published a short time ago in the'Journal. ' It has, in the first place, the great advantage of lightnessand handiness, while its single blade, to some extent, combines thestep-cutting qualities possessed by the two cutters of the ordinarydouble-headed axe, though the latter instrument is on the whole decidedlysuperior. The small hammer-headed axe, though the latter instrument is onthe whole decidedly superior. The small hammer-head at the back is addedin order to balance the pick, and in some degree to improve the hold whenthe axe-head comes to be used as a crutch handle. This form, it should beunderstood, we recommend on account of its lightness and of itsconvenient shape. Diagram No. 2 represents a travellers' axe, slightlyheavier than the first; and as this is the shape which appears to us thebest adapted for mountain work of all kinds, we desire shortly to stateour reasons for recommending it to members of the Club. 

[Fig 1 and Fig 2, shapes of axes, are on this page. ]. 

In the first place it is absolutely necessary that one of the cuttersshould be made in the form of a pick, as this is by far the bestinstrument for hacking into hard ice, and is also extremely convenientfor holding on to a snow-slope, or hooking into crannies, or on to ledgesof rock. 

For the other cutter we recommend an adze-shaped blade, and we areconvinced that this is the form which will be found most generallyuseful, as being best suited for all the varieties of step-cutting. Thehatchet-shaped blade used by the Chamouni guides is no doubt a betterimplement for making a staircase diagonally up a slope, but on the otherhand it is exceedingly difficult to cut steps downwards with a blade seton in this manner; and as mountaineers rarely come down the way by whichthey went up, if they can help it, it is obvious that this objection tothe Chamouni form of axe is conclusive. 

We recommend that the edge of the blade should be angular instead ofcircular, although the latter shape is more common, because it is clearthat the angular edge cuts into frozen snow more quickly and easily. 

The curve, which is the same in all the axes, approaches to coincidencewith the curve described by the axe in making the stroke. A curve is, inour opinion, desirable, in order to bring the point more nearly oppositethe centre of percussion, and to make the head more useful for holding onto rocks or a slope. 

The axe shown in diagram No. 2, though slightly heavier than No. 1, isnot of sufficient weight or strength for cutting a series of steps inhard ice. To those gentlemen, therefore, who do not object to carryingweight, but who desire to have an axe fit for any kind of work, werecommend No. 3. As this is exactly similar in shape to No. 2, differingfrom it only in size, we have not thought it necessary to give a separatediagram of No. 3. 

As to the mode of fastening, which is the same in all three axes, weshould have felt some diffidence in giving an opinion had we not beenfortunate enough to obtain the advice of an experienced metal-worker, bywhom we were strongly recommended to adopt the fastening shown in thediagrams, as being the method generally considered best in the trade forattaching the heads of hatchets, or large hammers likely to be subjectedto very violent strains. It will be seen that the axe-head and fasteningare forged in one solid piece, the fastening consisting of two strongbraces or straps of steel, which are pressed into the wood aboutone-eighth of an inch, and are secured by two rivets, passed through thewood and clenched on each side. The braces are put at the side, insteadof in front of and behind the axe, because by this means, the strainwhich falls on the axe acts against the whole breadth of the steelfastenings, and not against their thickness merely. 

We believe that this is the firmest method of fastening which can beadopted, and that so long as the wood is sound, it is scarcely possiblefor the head of the axe to get loose or to come off; and it has thefurther advantage of strengthening the wood instead of weakening it, andof distributing the strain produced by step-cutting over a large bearing. It should be added that these axe-heads and fastenings ought to be madeentirely of steel. 

The dimensions of the axe-heads are as follow: --No. 1. -- Length of blade measured from the wood. . 4 1/2 inches. Breadth of blade at widest part. .. .. .. .. . 1 1/2 " Weight, including the braces. .. .. .. .. .. . 13 1/2 oz. No. 2. -- Length of blade measured from the wood. . 3 1/2 inches. Length of pick. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 4 1/2 " Breadth of blade at widest part. .. .. .. .. 1 3/4 " Breadth of pick. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0 1/2 " Weight, including the braces. .. .. .. .. .. . 15 1/2 oz. No. 3. -- Length of blade measured from the wood. . 4 inches. Length of pick. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 5 " Breadth of blade at widest part. .. .. .. .. 2 1/4 " Breadth of pick. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0 5/8 " Weight, including the brades. .. .. .. .. .. . 21 1/4 oz. 

We much desired to recommend to the Club some means by which the axe-headmight be made moveable, so as to be capable of being put on and taken offthe handle quickly and easily. We regret to say, however, that we wereunable to discover any plan by which this can be effectually done. Weexamined very carefully the numerous and formidable weapons which havebeen sent in by members for exhibition, most of which had elaboratecontrivances for fastening on the axe-head. These were all, however, liable to very serious objections. Some were evidently insecure; withothers it was necessary that the axe-head should be surmounted by a hugeknob, which would prove a most serious impediment in step-cutting; whilein the best and firmest which we found, the axe-head was attached to thepole by means of nuts and screws projecting at the side or over the topof the axe. This latter method of fastening seems to us awkward andpossibly dangerous, as the nuts, from their position, are very likely tobecome loose or to get broken off, and cannot, except when dangerouslyloose, be fastened or unfastened without a key or wrench--a troublesomearticle, certain to be lost on the first expedition. 

The Handle of the Axe should, we think, be made of ash. We recommend thiswood in preference to deal, which is lighter and nearly as strong, because in choosing a piece of ash it is easier to select with certaintythoroughly sound and well-seasoned wood; and in preference to hickory andlance-wood, which are stronger, because these woods are extremely heavy. 

The handle should, we believe, be of a very slightly oval form, as it isthen more convenient to the grasp than if round. As to the thickness ofthe wood, we are satisfied it ought nowhere to be less than 1 3/8 inch, since a pole of that diameter, made of ordinarily good ash, is thesmallest which cannot be permanently bent by a heavy man's most violenteffort; although we have seen some pieces of unusually strong ash of aless thickness, which proved inflexible. 

We recommend, then, that the oval section of the handle should have ashorter diameter of 1 3/8 inch, and a longer diameter of 1 1/2 inch, andthat the thickness should be the same from one end to the other. Thelength of the handles for Nos. 1 and 2 should be such that they willreach to just under the arm at the shoulder. The handle for No. 3, whichis intended to be used exclusively as an axe, should be between 3 1/2 and4 feet long. The lower end of the handle should be strengthened in theusual way by a ferrule, and armed with a spike. 

The spike should be from 3 1/2 to 4 inches long, clear of the end of thehandle, and should be prevented from moving by a slight rivet passedthrough it near the upper end after it is fastened in. The exact form ofthe spike and ferrule are represented in the diagram. 

We have further to recommend for axe-handles an addition which is liableto suspicion as an entire innovation, but which, we are confident, willbe found valuable at those critical moments when the axe is required tohold up two or three men. It has happened that when the axe has beenstruck into the snow a man has been unable to keep his hold of thehandle, which slips out of his hand, and leaves him perfectly helpless. To guard against this mischance, we propose to fasten a band of leatherround the handle, at a distance of a foot from the ferrule at the lowerend. This leather should be about an eighth of an inch thick, and will bequite sufficient to check the hand when it is sliding down the handle. Itshould be lashed round the wood and strained tight when wet. 

Alpenstocks. --What we have said about the handle of the axe applies inall respects to the Alpenstock, except that the length of the lattershould be different, and that the leathern ring would of course not berequired. It is generally thought most convenient that the Alpenstockshould be high enough to touch the chin of its owner, as he standsupright; but this is a matter on which it is scarcely possible, and, wereit possible, scarcely necessary to lay down an absolute rule. 

Boots. --Several nails are sure to be knocked out after each hard day'swork, therefore a reserve supply is necessary in lands where none otherare to be found. No makeshift contrivance, so far as I am aware, willreplace the iron last used by shoemakers when they hammer nails into theboot. There is a well-known contrivance of screws with jagged heads, forscrewing into boots when a little ice has to be crossed. They doexcellently for occasional purposes, but not for regular ice-work, asthey are easily torn out. Crampons are soles of leather with spikes; theyare tied over the shoes, but neither English mountaineers nor modernguides ever employ them: nailed boots are better. 

Snow Spectacles. --The Esquimaux, who have no coloured glass, or anyequivalent for it, cut a piece of soft wood to the curvature of the face;it is about two inches thick, and extends horizontally quite across botheyes, resting on the nose, a notch being cut in the wood to answer thepurpose of the bridge of a pair of spectacles. It is tied behind theears; and, so far as I have now described it would exclude every ray oflight from the eyes. Next, a long narrow slit, of the thickness of a thinsaw-cut, is made along the middle almost from end to end. Through thisslit the wearer can see very fairly. As it is narrower than the diameterof the pupil of his eye, the light that reaches his retina is muchdiminished in quantity. Crape or gauze is a substitute for colouredglass. 

Mask. --Is merely a pocket-handkerchief, with strings to tie it over theface; eye-holes are cut in it, also a hole for the nose, over which aprotecting triangular piece of linen is thrown, and another hole oppositethe mouth, to breathe through it is drawn below the chin so as to tiefirmly in place. The mask prevents the face from being cut to pieces bythe cold dry winds, and blistered by the powerful rays of the sunreverberated from the snow. 

CATTLE. 

Happy is the traveller who has the opportunity of hiring his cattle withtheir attendants: for his delay and cares are then reduced to those ofmaking a bargain, and of riding what he has hired; and when one set ofanimals is tired or worn out, he can leave them behind and ride on withothers. But, for the most part, explorers must drive their own beastswith them: they must see to their being watered, tended, and run afterwhen astray; help to pack and harness them; fatigue themselves for theirbenefit; and drudge at the work of a cowherd for some hours a day. 

In fitting out a caravan, as few different kinds of animals should betaken as possible, or they will split into separate herds, and requiremany men to look after them. 

The dispositions of the animals that compose a caravan affect, in nosmall degree, the pleasure of travelling with it. Now, it is to benoticed that men attach themselves to horses and asses, and in a lesserdegree to mules and oxen, but they rarely make friends of camels. 

Weights carried by Cattle. --The net weights that these different animalscarry in trying, long-continued journeys--through stages uncertain inlength, sometimes leading to good pasture, sometimes to bad--must not bereckoned higher than the following; and an animal draws about 2 1/2 timesas much net weight as he carries:--An ass, 65 lbs. ; a small mule, 90lbs. ; a horse lbs. ; an ox lbs. ; a camel lbs. To 200 lbs. ;elephant lbs. In level countries--where there is grain, and wherethe road is known and a regularity in the day's work can be ensured--theweights that may be carried are fully double those of the above list. Captain Burton's donkeys, in East Africa, carried immense weights. Dogswill draw a "travail" (which see) of 60 lbs. For a distance of 15 miles aday, upon hard level country. 

Theory of Loads and Distances. --How should we load men or animals oftransport, and how should we urge them, in order to obtain the largestamount of effective labour? If they carry a mere feather-weight, they maymake long days' journeys; but their value, as animals of transport, isalmost nothing. Again, on the other hand, if we load them with anexcessive weight, they will soon come to a standstill; and in this case, as in the first, their value as beasts of transport is almost nil. Whatthen, is that moderate load by which we shall obtain the largest amountof "useful effect"? this is a problem which many of the ablest engineersand philosophers have endeavoured to solve; and the formulae--partlybased on theory and partly on experiment--which were used by Euler, aregenerally accepted as a fair approximation. They are very simple, andpeculiarly interesting on account of their wide applicability. They areequally true for men, animals, or machines; and are wholly independent ofthe way in which the power is applied: whether, for instance, a mancarries his burden, or draws it, or rows or punts it in a boat, or windsit up with a crank or tread-mill. 

Travellers might well turn the theory to account on their own behalf;they are well situated for testing its truthfulness, by observing thepractices of the countries in which they are travelling. Reliable factsupon the extreme distances that can be travelled over, day after day, bypeople carrying different loads, but equally circumstanced in every otherrespect, would be very acceptable to me. 

The formulae are as follow:--Let b be the burden which would justsuffice to prevent an animal from moving a step; d the distance he couldtravel daily if unloaded. Also, let b1 be some burden less than b; andlet d1 be the distance to which he could travel daily when carrying b1. 

 Then b1 d2 = b(d-d1)2. (1)

Again, the "useful effect" is a maximum, if b1d1 is a maximum. Whenthis is the case, then

 b1 = 4/9 b. (2)And 3 d1 = d. (3)

In other words, an animal gets through most work in the day if he carries4/9 of the greatest load he could just stagger under; in which case hewill be able to travel 1/3 of the distance he could walk if he carried noload at all. (Machinery requires no repose; and therefore d, the distanceper day, is convertible into v, the velocity of movement. )

As an example:--Suppose a man is able to walk 10 miles a day, with a loadof 130 lbs. , and 33 miles a day when he carries nothing. Then, fromequation (1), the value of b (the burden under which he would be broughtto a standstill) would be about 267 1/2; and the best load for him, fromequation (2), would be 119 lbs. , which he would be able to carry, according to equation (3), 11 miles a day. 

Horses. --The mode of taking wild horses is by throwing the lasso, whilstpursuing them at full speed, and dropping a noose over their necks, bywhich their speed is soon checked, and they are choked down. 

Mr. Rarey's sixpenny book tells all that can be told on the subject ofhorse-breaking; but far more lies in the skill and horse-knowledge of theoperator, than in the mere theory. His way of mastering a vicious horseis by taking up one fore-foot, bending the knee, slipping a loop over theknee until it comes to the pastern-joint, and then fixing it tight. Theloop must be caused to embrace the part between the hoof and thepastern-joint firmly, by the help of a strap of some kind, lest it shouldslip. The horse is now on three legs, and he feels conquered. If he getsvery mad, wait leisurely till he becomes quiet, then caress him, and letthe leg down and allow him to rest; then repeat the process. If the horsekicks in harness, drive him slowly on three legs. 

In breaking-in a stubborn beast, it is convenient to physic him until heis sick and out of spirits, or to starve him into submission. 

Salt keeps horses from straying, if they are accustomed to come up to thecamp and get it. But it is a bad plan as they are apt to hang about, instead of going off to feed. They are so fond of salt, that they havebeen known to stray back to a distant house where they had been allowedto lick it. 

Shooting Horse. --Spur him as much as you will, but never use a whip;else, whenever you raise your gun to fire, he will feel a dread that itmay be the whip, and will be unsteady. 

Horse neighing. --Mungo Park tells how he clutched his horse's muzzle withboth hands to prevent his neighing, when he was in concealment andhorsemen were passing near. 

Addenda. --In climbing a steep hill hang on to the tail of your horse asyou walk behind him. Horses are easily driven in file by securing thehalter of each horse to the tail of the one before him. To swim horsesacross a river, to sleep by their side when there is danger, to tetherthem, and to water them from wells, are all described elsewhere. (See"Horses" in index. )

Mules. --Mules require men who know their habits; they are powerful beats, and can only be mastered with skill and address. A savage will not assistin packing them, for he fears their heels: the Swiss say mules havealways an arriere-pensee. They have odd secret ways, strange fancies, andlurking vice. When they stray, they go immense distances; and it isalmost beyond the power of a man on foot to tend them in a wild country:he can neither overtake them easily, nor, when overtaken, catch them. Thefemale is, in most breeds, much the more docile. They suffer from Africandistemper, but in a less degree than horses. The following descriptionsof mule caravans are exceedingly graphic and instructive:--"The madrina(or godmother) is a most important personage. She is an old steady mare, with a little bell round her neck, and wheresoever she goes the mules, like good children, follow her. If several large troops are turned intoone field to graze in the morning, the muleteer has only to lead themadrinas a little apart and tinkle their bells, and, although there maybe 200 or 300 mules together, each immediately knows its own bell, andseparates itself from the rest. The affection of these animals for theirmadrina saves infinite trouble. It is nearly impossible to lose an oldmule: for, if detained several hours by force, she will, by the power ofsmell, like a dog, track out her companions, or rather the madrina; for, according to the muleteer, she is the chief object of affection. Thefeeling, however, is not of an individual nature; for I believe I amright in saying that any animal with a bell will serve as a madrina. "(Charles Darwin. )

"After travelling about 14 miles, we were joined by three miners; and ourmules, taking a sudden liking for their horses, jogged on at a more briskrate. The instincts of the mulish heart form an interesting study to thetraveller in the mountains. I would (were the comparison not tooungallant) liken it to a woman's; for it is quite as uncertain in itssympathies, bestowing its affections when least expected, and, whenbestowed, quite as constant, so long as the object is not taken away. Sometimes a horse, sometimes an ass, captivates the fancy of a wholedrove of mules, but often an animal nowise akin. Lieutenant Beale told methat his whole train of mules once galloped off suddenly, on the plainsof the Cimarone, and ran half a mile, when they halted in apparentsatisfaction. The cause of their freak was found to be a buffalo-calf, which had strayed from the herd. They were frisking around it in thegreatest delight, rubbing their noses against it, throwing up theirheels, and making themselves ridiculous by abortive attempts to neigh andbray; while the poor calf, unconscious of its attractive qualities, stoodtrembling in their midst. It is customary to have a horse in themule-trains of the traders of North Mexico, as a sort of magnet to keeptogether the separate atoms of the train, for, whatever the temptation, they will never stray from him. " (Taylor's 'Eldorado. ')

Asses. --Notwithstanding his inveterate obstinacy, the ass is an excellentand sober little beast, far too much despised by us. He is not only themost enduring, but also one of the quickest walkers among cattle, beingusually promoted to the leadership of a caravan. He is nearly equal tothe camel in enduring thirst, and thrives on the poorest pasture, suffersfrom few diseases, and is unscathed by African distemper. The longdesert-roads and pilgrim-tracts of North Africa are largely travelledover by means of asses. 

Asses taught not to kick. --Mungo Park says that the negroes, where hetravelled, taught their asses as follows:--They cut a forked stick, andput the forked part into the ass's mouth, like the bit of a bridle; theythen tied the two smaller parts together above his head, leaving thelower part of sufficient length to strike against the ground if the assshould attempt to put his head down. It always proved effectual. 

Not to bray. --Messrs. Huc and Gabet, who were distracted by the continualbraying of one of their asses throughout the night, appealed to theirmuleteer: he put a speedy close to the nuisance by what appears to be acustomary contrivance in China, viz. , by lashing a heavy stone to thebeast's tail. It appears that when an ass wants to bray he elevates histail, and, if his tail be weighted down, he has not the heart to bray. Inhostile neighbourhoods, where silence and concealment are sought, itmight be well to adopt this rather absurd treatment. An ass who was beingschooled according to the method of this and the preceding paragraph, both at the same time, would be worthy of an artist's sketch. 

Oxen. --Though oxen are coarse, gross, and phlegmatic beasts, they havethese merits: they are eminently gregarious, and they ruminate theirfood. The consequence is, first, that one, two, or more, are very seldommissing out of a drove; and, secondly, that they pick up what theyrequire, in a much shorter time than horses, mules, etc. , who have tochew as they eat. Oxen require less tending than any other beasts ofburden. 

To train a Pack-ox. --An ox of any age, however wild he may be, can bebroken in, in three or four days, so as to carry a pack of about 70 lbs. ;though it is true that he will frequently kick it off during the journey, and give excessive trouble. It would be scarcely possible to drive morethan three of these newly-taught oxen at a time, on account of thefrequent delays caused by the unruliness of one or other of them. Muichdepends on the natural aptitude of the animal in estimating the timerequired for making a steady pack-ox, some will carry a good weight andgo steadily after only a fortnight's travel; some will never learn. Butin all cases they prove unruly at the beginning of a journey. 

To break-in an ox, take a long thong or cord, make a noose at one end ofit, and let two or three men lay hold of the other; then, driving all theherd together in a clump, go in among them and, aided by a long stick, push or slip the noose round the hind leg of the ox that you want, anddraw tight. He will pull and struggle with all his might, and the otheroxen will disperse, leaving him alone dragging the men about after him. Next, let another man throw a noose round his horns, and the beast is, comparatively speaking, secured. It is now convenient to throw the animaldown on his side, which is easily done by the judicious tugging at histail and at the thongs. To keep him on the ground, let one man take thetail, and, passing it round one thigh, hold him down by that, while oneor two men force the horns down against the ground. His nose has next tobe pierced. A stick, shaped like a Y, eight inches long, is cut of sometough wood; and the foot of it, being first sharpened, is forcibly pokedthrough the wall that divides the nostrils, and a thin thong is tiedfirmly to either end of this nose-stick. The thong is gathered together, and wound in a figure of 8 round the two horns, where it henceforwardremains while the animal feeds, and by clutching at which, he is at anytime caught. 

Next for the packing: as the ox lies on the ground, scrape a hole in thesand under his belly, and then, having laid a few skins on his back, passa thong round him and them, several times; tie the ends fast, and, takinga stick, pass it through and twist it round, until the lashings areextremely tight, then let it be secured. Now let the ox go, and getquickly out of his way, in case he should be savage. When the ox gets up, he is sulky and ferocious by turns; and kicks, jumps, and bellows, but atlast joins his companions. 

If he has been well packed, the skins will keep in place and not falloff; but whether they do or not, he must be re-caught and re-packed everyday. A young ox is generally more difficult to break-in than an old one:I do not know why. An ox requires no pack-saddle; his back is too roundto carry one with advantage. It is therefore usual to lay spare skins, etc. , upon him, and over these the bags that have to be packed. A greatlength of thong is required to lash them. It is convenient to make a pairof very large saddle-bags out of skin or canvas, which require simply tobe placed on the ox's back and there girthed. 

To train an Ox to carry a Rider. --It takes a very long time to train anox to carry a riding-saddle well and steadily: indeed, very few oxen canbe taught to go wherever they may be guided by the rider; they are of sogregarious a nature, that, for the most part, they will not move a stepwithout companions. Hence, those oxen only are thought worth breaking-inwhich are observed to take the part of leaders of the drove whenpasturing, and which are therefore supposed to have some independence ofdisposition. The first time of mounting an ox to break him in, is a workof almost certain mischance: for the long horns of the ox will oftenreach the rider, however far back he may sit, and the animal kicks andbucks in a way that severely tries the best of seats. All riding-oxen'shorns should have the tips sawn off. After being mounted a very fewtimes, the ox goes pretty steadily; but it is long before he learns tocarry a rider with ease to himself. I should like to hear if Rarey's planof tying up the foreleg would influence them. Their character is sowholly unlike that of a horse, that I doubt if it would. 

In riding, it must be recollected that the temper of an ox is far lessquick, though his sensations may be as acute as those of a horse: thus, he does not start forwards on receiving a cut with the whip, even thoughhe shrink with the pain; but he thinks about it, shakes his head, waits awhile, and then breaks gradually into a faster pace. An ox will trot wellenough with a light weight; and, though riding myself upwards of 13stone, I once took an ox 60 miles in a day and a half: this is, perhapsas much as an ox could, in fairness, be made to do. A ride-ox can be tiedup by his nose-bridle; but, if wild or frightened, he will assuredlystruggle till the nose-stick be torn out of his nose, and he becomesfree. It is, therefore, better to tie the bridle to a tuft of grass, or aslender twig, rather than to a tree or to the saddle-bags. Mounting an oxis usually a troublesome business, on account of his horns. To makeride-oxen quiet and tame, scratch their backs and tails--they dearly loveit--and hold salt in your hands for them to lick. They soon learn theirnames, and come to be caressed when called. 

Cows. --Most breeds of cows, out of Europe, cease to give milk after theircalf dies; and the only way of making them continue their yield, is tospread out the calf's hide for them to lick, some time before milkingthem; it retains its effect for a week or more. Messrs. Huc and Gabetgive the following graphic account of this contrivance, as applied torestive cows:--"These long-tailed cows are so restive and difficult tomilk, that, to keep them at all quiet, the herdsman has to give them acalf to lick meanwhile. But for this device, not a single drop of milkcould be obtained from them. One day a Lama herdsman, who lived in thesame house with ourselves, came, with a long dismal face, to announcethat his cow had calved during the night, and that unfortunately the calfwas dying. It died in the course of the day. The Lama forthwith skinnedthe poor beast, and stuffed it with hay. This proceeding surprised us atfirst, for the Lama had by no means the air of a man likely to givehimself the luxury of a cabinet of natural history. When the operationwas completed, we observed that the hay-calf had neither feet nor head;whereupon it occurred to us that, after all, it was perhaps a pillow thatthe Lama contemplated. We were in error; but the error was not dissipatedtill the next morning, when our herdsman went to milk his cow. Seeing himissue forth--the pail in one hand, the hay-calf under the other arm--thefancy occurred to us to follow him. His first proceeding was to put thehay-calf down before the cow. He then turned to milk the cow herself. Themamma at first opened enormous eyes at her beloved infant; by degrees shestooped her head towards it, then smelt at it, sneezed three or fourtimes, and at last proceeded to lick it with the most delightfultenderness. This spectacle grated against our sensibilities: it seemed tous that he who first invented this parody upon one of the most touchingincidents in nature must have been a man without a heart. A somewhatburlesque circumstance occurred one day, to modify the indignation withwhich this treachery inspired us. By dint of caressing and licking herlittle calf, the tender parent one fine morning unripped it: the hayissued from within; and the cow, manifesting not the slightest surprisenor agitation, proceeded tranquilly to devour the unexpected provender. "

The Highlanders used this contrivance, and called it a "Tulchan": henceKing James's bishops were nicknamed "Tulchan bishops, " to imply that theywere officials of straw, merely set up as a means of milking the Scotchpeople of their money, in the form of church-dues. 

Camels. --Camels are only fit for a few countries, and require practisedattendants; thorns and rocks lame them, hills sadly impede them, and awet slippery soil entirely stops them. 

Elephants. --They are expensive and delicate, but excellent beasts ofburden, in rainy tropical countries. The traveller should make friendswith the one he regularly rides, by giving it a piece of sugar-cane orbanana before mounting. A sore back is a certain obstacle to acontinuance of travel; there is no remedy for it but rest. The averageburden, furniture included, but excluding the driver, is 500 lbs. , andthe full average day's journey 15 miles. 

Dogs. --Dogs will draw a "travail" (which see) of 60 lbs. For 15 miles aday, over hard, level country, for days together; frequently they willaccomplish much more than that. For Arctic travel, they are used injourneys after they are three years old; each dog requires eight or tenherrings per day, or an equivalent to them. A sledge of 12 dogs carries900 lbs. ; it travels on smooth ice seven or eight miles an hour; and in36 days, 22 sledges and 240 dogs travelled 800 miles--1210 versts. (Admiral Wrangel. ) Dogs are used by the Patagonian fishermen to drivefish into their nets, and to prevent them from breaking through the netswhen they are inside them. (See next paragraph for "Sheep-dogs. ")

Goats and Sheep. --Goats are much more troublesome to drive than sheep, neither are they such enduring walkers, nor do they give as much meat;but their skins are of such great use to furnish strong leather, that itis seldom convenient to make up a caravan without them. She-goats givesome milk, even when travelling fast, and in dry countries; but aewe-sheep is not worth milking under those circumstances, as her yield isa mere nothing. Goats are very mischievous--they make their way out ofall enclosures, and trespass everywhere. They butt at whatever is brightor new, or strange to them; and would drive an observer, who employedastronomical instruments on stands, to distraction. In an open country, where there are no bushes for a kraal, nets must be taken, and stakescut, to make enclosures for the sheep. If they stray at all, the leastthing scares them, and they will wander very far, and scatter. Goats arefar more social and intelligent. If one, two, or three sheep only bedriven, long thongs must be tied to their legs, and allowed to trailalong the ground, by which they may be re-caught if they gallop off. Whenthe Messrs. Schlagintweit were encamped at vast heights, among the snowsof the Himalaya, they always found it practicable to drive sheep to theirstations. When sheep, etc. , are long hurdled at night, near the sameencampment, the nuisance of flies and ticks becomes intolerable. Sheep-dogs seem to prove of less use to travellers than might have beenexpected; perhaps the other dogs corrupt them. 

Management of Cattle generally. --To make an animal rise when he throwshimself on the ground with his pack, and will not get up, it is not ofmuch use to flog him; twisting or biting his tail is the usual way, ormaking a blaze with grass and a few sticks under his nostrils. Thestubborness of a half-broken ox is sometimes beyond conception. 

Cattle Bells, in countries where they can be used without danger, shouldalways be taken; it adds greatly to the cheerfulness and gregariousnessof the animals--mules positively require them. Hard wood is sonorousenough for bells. 

Brands and Cattle-marks. --In buying oxen out of the herds of pastoralpeople, it is very difficult to remember each animal so as to recogniseit again if it strays back to its former home; it requires quite apeculiar talent to do so. Therefore it is advisable that the traveller'scattle should be marked or branded. A trader in Namaqua Land, took redpaint, and tied a brush on to a long stick; with this he made a daub onthe hind quarters of the freshly-bought and half-wild cattle, as theypushed through the door of his kraal. It naturally excites great ridiculeamong natives, to paint an ox that he may be known again; but, for allthat, I think the trader's plan well worth adopting. The same might bedone to sheep, as a slit ear is not half conspicuous enough. A good wayof marking a sheep's ear is to cut a wad out of the middle of it, with agun-punch; but it will sometimes tear this hole into a slit, byscratching with its foot. 

Chaff, to cut. --Tie a sickle against a tree, with its blade projecting;then, standing in front of the blade, hold a handful of reeds across itwith both hands, one hand on either side of the blade; pull it towardsyou, and the reeds will be cut through; drop the cut end, seize thebundle afresh, and repeat the process. In this way, after a littlepractice, chaff is cut with great ease and quickness. A broken sickledoes as well as a whole one, and a knife may be used, but the curve ofits edge is ill adapted for the work. 

Cattle will eat many sorts of herbage, as reeds and gorse, if cut small;but will not touch them, if uncut. 

Occasional Food for Cattle. --They will also eat seaweed and leavesespecially birch and poplar leaves, and even thrive upon them. 

[Illustration of man cutting chaff as described on p 64]. 

Pulling Cattle out of Holes. --The bight of a cord, or of some substitutefor one, may be thrown over a horse's head, and he can be dragged out bya team of cattle with but very little danger to his neck. A crupper underhis tail, or a thong as a breeching may be used. In Canada and the UnitedStates, a noose of rope is often run round the horse's neck, and hauledtight--thus temporarily choking the animal and making him still; he isthen pulled as quickly as possible out of the hole, and no time is lostin slackening the rope. 

HARNESS. 

Saddles for riding. --Good saddles for riding, and, I may add, especiallyfor packing, are of nearly as great importance as the goodness of theanimal who carries them. English saddlers never, I believe, can beinduced to stuff a saddle sufficiently; because they have no opportunityof seeing the miserable, scraggy condition of a travelled horse's back, to which it is destined to fit. But an English saddle, restuffed at abush frontier town, is excellent. 

Three rings, and nine of what saddlers call "D's, " should be fixed to thesaddle, not simply into the leather-work, but firmly riveted or securedinto the tree itself. This must be especially insisted on, or frequentdisasters will occur. The three rings are to be fixed to the pommel--oneon the top, and one on each side of it; the nine "D's" are placed asfollows:--three along the back of the saddle, two more on each side ofthe seat, and two in front, for the breastplate. 

Fittings. --To these may be tied a light valise in front; a gun-holster onthe right of the pommel; and a small bag--containing odds and ends, gunpowder, spare bullets, a few presents, etc. --on its left. On the rightof the seat, a sabre-tasch, or thin leather portfolio-shaped pocket, forpaper and writing materials; on the left, the water-canteen and hobbles;behind, the crupper and small saddle-bags. A breastplate is not worthhaving, except in a very hilly country. This description of a saddle, ofcourse, applies to that of the travelling-horse. For the saddle of theshooting-horse the arrangement is different; only the gun-holster, andperhaps the water-canteen can then be taken. An ox carries a saddleprecisely like a horse. I rode mine nearly 1600 miles, in South Africa, with a common hunting-saddle and its ordinary girths. 

In default of riding-saddles, a pack-saddle must be cushioned to form acomfortable seat (see "Pack-saddles"). 

Saddle-bags are so troublesome to open, and require so many straps, thatI believe it is best to use a bag of macintosh or canvas, rolled up andtied behind the saddle, where it should rest on a pad. The pad is made oftwo cushions, each 9 inches long and 4 broad, sewn on a piece of leather, lying parallel to one another, and 4 inches apart. The space between thecushions corresponds to the backbone of the horse. To keep the whole inshape, it is usual to stitch four or five laths of wood lengthways to theupper surface of the pad; upon these laths the bag will rest. If there beoccasion to carry a bag on horseback for a short distance, pass one ofthe stirrup-leathers through its string; then throw the bag over to theother side of the saddle: it will lie behind the rider's leg, and be outof his way and he will sit upon part of its string. 

Australians, as is well known, insist on the merits of a "swag, " or along package formed by rolling all their possessions into their blanket. They carry it over the saddle-bows. 

Sore backs. --Sore backs are the plague of beasts of burden; for, if theskin be once broken, it will never heal thoroughly again during the wholejourney. Every precaution should, therefore, be taken at first starting:the saddles should be well-stuffed; the saddle-cloths ample, and withouthem or edging (blankets are as good as any); the journeys should beshort; the packs light and carefully balanced; rests of a day or twoshould frequently be given, and salt-water should be rubbed on the back. Travelling in the very early morning is found to be bad for animals'backs; but travelling late at night is not so. An Australiancorrespondent remarks, that a party of travellers or explorers inAustralia, on leaving their camp, invariably saddle their horses withample saddle-cloths below the saddle, and assist each other by turns, tofold the cloths in various ways. For instance, if the ridge of the back, or wither, should be found galled, the cloth would be folded up, so thatthe saddle should rest entirely on the two folded pads, as in thefigure. --Other modes of folding will suggest themselves, according to theway in which the back may be rubbed. 

[Drawing of folded saddle-cloth]. 

The first appearance of a sore back is a small hardish swelling orwarble" this must at once be attended to, either by folding thesaddle-cloth in some appropriate way, or by picking out thesaddle-stuffing, so as to ease all pressure from off it; otherwise, itwill get larger and larger, and a single day will convert what might havebeen easily cured, into a serious and irremediable gall. Girth-galls, ontheir first appearance, may be relieved if not cured, by sewing two rollsof soft woollen material on to the girth. The hair from the animal's maneor tail has been used on an emergency to stuff a saddle. 

[Fig. 1, 2, 3 show different pack saddles]. 

Pack-Saddles. --To make when Travelling. --Cut four bent pieces of touchwood, and two small planks; season them as well as you can (see "Wood, toseason"), and join them together, as in figs. 1 and 2, using raw hide inaddition to nails or pegs. Stuffed cushions must be secured inside theplanks by tying or otherwise. With a saw and a mortise-chisel, a saddleof the pattern shown in fig. 3 would be easy to make. It is stronger thanthe one just described, and the notched cross-bar is very convenient forthe pack-ropes. 

Pack-Saddles made by Saddlers. --There has been, perhaps, no journey inwhich pack-horses worked so effectively as during the exploration ofNorth Australia under Mr. Gregory. I am much indebted to Mr. Baines, theartist of the expedition, who has subsequently travelled extensively, forthe following very interesting account:--

"The pack-saddles were made after a model by Mr. Gregory, and are thebest I have yet seen. Two boards of light wood are connected by bows ofiron, 1 1/2 inch wide and 1/4 inch thick, with hooks inserted in eitherside, for the pack-bags to hook on to. The straps for the breastings, breechings, and girths, were screwed to the boards; the crupper passedthrough a ring on the after bow; and a light pad, which could easily betaken out to be re-stuffed, was secured by small thongs, passed throughholes in the ends of the boards. We had two girths, which crossed eachother under the horse. (In unloading, the neck-strap is unbuckled on thenear side, also the breasting and girths; and the whole is drawn offbehind. )

[Fig 1 and 2 and an un-labelled figure on this page further illustratepacking]. 

"The pack-bags were made of one width of canvas, turned up so as to haveno seam in the bottom. Pear-shaped pieces were sewn in to form the ends, and rope was stitched along the seams, having eyes above, by which thebag was hung upon the hooks (fig. 2). The flour-bags were made of canvas, of the usual width, with a round bottom stitched into them. The mouth wassewn up when full, and an oiled bag of the same size drawn over it. 

"When all our horses were saddled up, the word 'on packs' was given. Dr. Mueller and I used to work together, and had our packs laid out in pairs;so that when each horse was led between his bags, we hooked them on atthe same moment. When we halted, we laid our bags on a couple of poles, to keep them from the ground, as in the drawing. 

"The bags sometimes came off when we were travelling; but it wasgenerally easy to catch the horse and reload him. When a horse rolledover, or fell in a river, it was rather an advantage than otherwise toget clear of them. Our waterproof bags were of leather, lined withwaterproof cloth, just large enough to fill one of the canvas pack-bags. They had a brass neck with a worm inside, in which we screwed a plug ofsoft wood. (There was rarely, if ever, occasion to use them. ) Each pairof bags was carefully balanced, one against the other, that the horsesmight not be unequally loaded. The average weight of stores carried ineach bag was 75 lbs. , making a load (at starting) or 150 lbs. , exclusiveof bags, packages, or saddlery. Bells were attached to the necks of thehorses most apt to stray; but the clappers were tied up with a piece ofthong, to keep them quiet on the march; and were loosened at night, sothat the sound might guide us in searching for them next morning. 

[Sketch of saddle bags on tree]. 

"We watched two hours each during night; the morning watch boiled thewater, and woke the rest at four. We made our breakfast of tea or coffee, damper, and pork, which we ate raw, and went out for the horses; whichwere generally saddled up, and on the move, before sunrise. We travelledtill one or two, when we led the horses to water, looked to any soresthat might be caused by the pressure of their saddles, dressed them andaltered the stuffing of the saddle to give them relief, and, afterdinner, which was rather a brief ceremony, had the rest of the day forscientific or artistic pursuits, --that is, if something else did notrequire immediate attention. We could never trust to our guns forprovision, as game was very scarce, and we had no opportunity of seekingit. "

Sir Samuel Baker gave considerable attention to the subject ofpack-saddles. The following is his account of the method he adopted inAfrica:--"I had arranged their (the donkeys') packs so well, that theycarried their loads with the greatest comfort. Each animal had an immensepad, well stuffed with goats' hair; this rested from the shoulder to thehip bones; upon this rested a simple form of saddle made of two forks ofboughs inverted, and fastened together with rails; there were no nails inthese saddles, all the fastenings being secured with thongs of raw hide. The great pad projecting before and behind, and also below the side ofthe saddle, prevented the loads from chafing the animal. Every donkeycarried two large bags made from the hides of antelopes that I hadformerly shot on the frontier of Abyssinia, and these were arranged withtoggles on the one to fit into loops on the other, so that the loadingand unloading was exceedingly simple. The success of an expeditiondepends mainly upon the perfection of the details, and, where animals areemployed for transport, the first consideration should be bestowed uponsaddle-packs. The facility of loading is all-important, and I now had anexemplification of its effect upon both animals and men; the latter beganto abuse the camels and to curse the father of this, and the mother ofthat, because they had the trouble of unloading them for the descent intothe river's bed, while the donkeys were blessed with the endearing nameof 'my brother, ' and alternately whacked with the stick. "

The art of packing. --The art of good packing is to balance the packsaccurately, and to lash tightly to the saddle, so that they will neverslip. The entire load is then secured to the animal's back, by moderategirthing. It is going on a false principle, to wind one long cord roundthe horse, saddle, and packs; making, as it were, a great faggot of them. 

To tighten the lashings of a pack, thrust a stick through them, twist itforcibly round and round, till the lashings are screwed tight enough, andthen secure the stick. 

Half-filled sacks require to have laths of wood, or a handful of twigs, put between them and the packing-cord, to equalise its pressure;otherwise, they are strangled out of shape and never lie firmly againstthe saddle. 

Other Harness. --Cruppers. --A crupper rope should be passed through aleather tube, fitting it loosely. Cruppers for pack-saddles, adapted tovery mountainous countries, like those used in Norway, can readily bemade by travellers. Instead of employing a ring to enclose the tail ofthe beast (which is sure to fret its sides), he should pass a curved barof wood, a foot long, underneath the tail, and tie a cord to thepack-saddle, from either end of the bar. 

Girths. --A roll of spare webbing should be taken to patch up torn girths;but a good substitute for a girth is made by cutting a band of tanned, oreven of dressed, leather, to within four inches of its end, into seven ornine bands, and plaiting these together. But it takes a beginner just tentimes as long to plait a girth as to weave it, and, therefore, for makingmore than one girth, it is well worth while to set up a rude loom. Dothis as though you were making a mat. (See "Mat. ") Girths need not bebuckled; they may be laced. 

Stirrups must be very roomy, enough to admit clumsily-shaped shoes, suchas are made in the bush; they must be broad under the sole of the foot, and also at the place which rubs against the little toe. Unless they areheavy, it is not easy to find them with the foot; travellers in SouthAfrica cut them out from any thick raw hide--that of giraffe, rhinoceros, or sea-cow does admirably. A wooden stirrup may be cut orburnt out of a block. It should have lead melted into it to give itsufficient weight. A stick and a thong, as shown in the figure, is a poormakeshift. Willow, or any other lithe wood, is easily bent into therequired shape, especially if its outer edge be nicked with a knife;otherwise it would be a mere loop of wood, such as it represented in thenext figure but two, in the paragraph on Rings. 

[Sketch of foot and stirrup]. 

Bridles and Bits. --Leave behind all English notions of snaffles anddouble reins, and ride with nothing but an easy curb. The horse must alsocarry a headstall and a halter; I like one with plenty of tassels, tokeep off the flies. A temporary substitute for a curb is made by noosinga string, and putting the noose round the horse's lower jaw. If thestring be long enough, it can be doubled back again, and tied to theother side of the noose, so as to make a complete bridle. The groom'sfashion of giving the halter a hitch, and putting it round the jaw, iswell known. 

Buckles. --A contrivance like this will often be found useful to replace abuckle and strap; by twisting the lower thong more tightly, its lengthcan be shortened as much as may be required. If the tongue of a bucklebreaks, a nail or a peg, pushed through the buckle-hole, as in the figurebelow will replace it. 

[Three sketches to illustrate items described on this page]. 

To Padlock a Bag. --A padlock, passed through the next buckle-hole, as isalso shown in the same figure, prevents pilferers from unbuckling andopening the package. It is well to learn some artful sailor's-knot fortying up bags, with which other people cannot meddle without your findingit out. 

Rings. --In packing-gear and other harness, use is frequently made ofrings. Iron ones may be replaced by a loop of tough wood, such as thepeasants of the Campagna commonly employ: a piece of the thickness of asmall walking-stick, and eight inches long, is bent (see "Wood, to bend");its arms are notched when they cross, and are firmly nailed or lashed. 

Tethers, Hobbles, and Knee-halters. --Cattle may be secured at night bybeing tethered, hobbled, knee-haltered, or driven into an enclosure madeof bushes. The nature of the country, and what dangers are apprehended, determine which plan is most advisable. A knee-haltered horse has a goodchange of escape if he scents a wild beast that is creeping up to him;for he can gallop, though with labour, to a short distance. A hobbledhorse has no chance at all; though, indeed, they have been known to fightdesperately with their teeth and feet, and learn to be cunning andwatchful. If the hobbles are of iron, and made like handcuffs, it ishardly possible for robbers--at all events for savages--to unlock or cutthem. A horse that is hobbled or knee-haltered, can graze during thenight; but if tied up or pounded, his grass must be cut for him. A horsemay be successfully hobbled with a stirrup-leather, by putting its middleround one fetlock, then twisting it half-a-dozen times, and, lastly, buckling it round the other fetlock. The hobble used by Mr. Gregory takesinto five separate pieces, viz. , two fetlock straps, a1, a2; a chain, b, having a swivel point, c, in the middle; and two double pot-hooks, d1, d2, which pass through eyes in the fetlock straps, and also through theend links in the chain. The two ends of both, d1 and d2, are thickenedand pierced, so as to admit of tying a thong across their mouths, asshown on one side of d2. The fetlock strap is made of a strip of thickleather, folded lengthways down its middle, and having its edges sewntogether. The sewn edge should always be the uppermost, when on thehorse's legs. 

[Two sketches on this page illustrating equipment]. 

Oxen are often picketed to their yokes; I have already mentioned that itis hazardous to secure ride and pack oxen by their nose reams, as theywill tear themselves loose without heeding the pain, if reallyfrightened. Horses are often tied to the wheels, etc. , of the wagon. Whenyou wish to picket horses in the middle of a sandy plain, dig a hole twoor three feet deep, and tying your rope to a faggot of sticks orbrush-wood, or even to a bag filled with sand, bury this in it. (See"Dateram. ")

Swivel. --The woodcut shows how a makeshift swivel can be fitted to atether rope. Without one, the rope will be twisted almost up to a knot bythe horse walking round and round his picket peg; with one, the rope willturn freely in the hole, through which its large knotted head prevents itfrom being drawn. 

[This page has two sketches showing material described below]. 

The figure below is a better sort of swivel. It must be made of hardtough wood, like oak: it is six inches in length. It has, I presume, someadvantages over those of iron, because in countries where iron abounds, as in Piedmont, it holds its ground against them. The ropes have beendrawn thinner than their just proportion, for the sake of distinctness. 

I give a drawing of yet another description of swivel; it is a triflemore complicated than the first, but I am assured that it acts so muchbetter as to be greatly preferable. 

Horse-collar. --This, in its simplest form, consists of two stout barsthat are a little bent or shaped with a knife; they go one on either sideof the animal's neck, and are tied together both above and below it. Tothese bars, which are very thickly padded, the traces are fastened. 

Traces and Trektows can be made of raw hide, cut into a long thong, thenbent into three parts, and twisted and laid together, as is done inrope-making; the whole is then stretched tight between two trees to dry. An ox-hide will make a trektow for four pairs of oxen. Poles of wood arevery generally used as traces; a thong, or a few links of chain, beingfastened at either end, by which to attach them. 

Greasing Harness. --In dry climates take frequent opportunities ofgreasing every part of the harness. (See "Hides; Leather, to grease. ")

CARRIAGES. 

Wagons. --A traveller's wagon should be of the simplest possibleconstruction, and not too heavy. The Cape wagons, or, at all events, those of a few years back, undoubtedly shared the ponderousness of allDutch workmanship. Weight is required only when crashing through a bushycountry, where a wagon must break down all before it: in every other caseit is objectionable. It is a saving of labour to have one large wagon, rather than two small ones, because a driver and a leader are therebyspared. But if a very light wagon has to be taken, I should greatlyprefer its being made on the Swiss and German fashion, with a shiftingperch as in the figure

[Drawing of fastening]. 

These are the simplest of affairs, and will split up into two carts--thepole and the fore-wheels forming one, and the perch and the hind-wheelsanother: now, should a great loss occur among the traveller's cattle, orshould he break a wheel, or even strain an axle-tree, in a timberlesscountry, it may be very convenient to him to abandon part of his stores, and to build up a cart for carrying on the remainder. Lady Vavasourdescribes one of these wagons in the following graphic manner:--"Theperch is moveable, and they can make it any length they please; it is ofso simple a construction that every farmer can repair his own, and makeanything of it. If he has a perch, a pole, and four wheels, that isenough; with a little ingenuity, he makes it carry stones, hay, earth, oranything he wants, by putting a plank at each side. When he wants acarriage for pleasure, he fits it up for that purpose; his moveable perchallows him to make it anything. I counted seventeen grown persons sittingside by side, looking most happy, in one of them, drawn only by a pair ofsmall horses, and in this hilly country. "

Drays. --Two-wheeled drays, and not wagons, are used very generally inAustralia. A long bar is crossed by a short one near one of itsends, --this latter forms the axletree; the body of the dray is builtwhere the two cross; and the cattle are yoked or harnessed to the longend of the bar, which acts as a pole. 

Tarring Wheels. --Tar is absolutely essential in a hot country, to mixwith the grease that is used for the wagon-wheels. Grease, alone, meltsand runs away like water: the object of the tar is to give consistency tothe grease; a very small proportion of tar suffices, but without any atall, a wagon is soon brought to a standstill. It is, therefore, mostessential to explorers to have a sufficient quantity in reserve. Tar isalso of very great use in hot dry countries for daubing over the wheels, and the woodwork generally, of wagons. During extreme heat, when the woodis ready to crack, all the paint should be scraped off it, and the tarapplied plentifully. It will soak in deeply, and preserve the wood inexcellent condition, both during the drought and the ensuing wet season. (See "Tar, to make. ") It is not necessary to take off the wheels in orderto grease the axles. It is sufficient to bore an auger-hole right throughthe substance of the nave, between the feet of two of the spokes, and tokeep a plug in the hole. Then, when you want to tar a wheel, turn it tillthe hole is uppermost, take the plug out, and pour in the tar. 

Breaks and Drags. --Breaks. --Every cart and wagon in Switzerland, and, indeed, in most parts of the Continent, has a break attached to it: thesimplest kind of break is shown in fig. 2, which represents a cart tiltedupwards. Fig 1 shows the break itself; fig. 2 explains how it is fittedon to the cart. [Fig 1. ] It will easily be understood how, by tighteningthe free end of the cord, the break is pressed against the wheels. Thebent piece of iron shown in fig. 2, by which the bar of the break is keptin its place, may be replaced by a piece of wood, or even by a thong ofleather. Every explorer's wagon should be furnished with a break. 

[Fig 2]. 

A simple break, used in Italy, in some parts of England and probablyelsewhere, is shown in fig. 3. A rail is lashed to the body of the cart, both before and behind the wheel, and is made to press against the wheel. Either both lashings can be tightened at the same time, as at A, A; oronly one of them, as at B. When the lashings are loose, the rail restspartly on the nave of the wheel and does not sensibly interfere with itsmovement. 

[Fig. 3]. 

Other Means of Checking a Wagon on a Hill-side. --In going down a steephill a middling-sized tree may be felled, and its root tied to the hindaxletree, while its branchy top sweeps along the ground, as is seen inthe lowermost wagon in the sketch. [Sketch of horses and wagons on hill]In the south-west of France the leaders of the team are unharnessed andtaken to the back of the wagon, to which the collar of the front horse ismade fast; in this way they can aid the horses in the shafts. The sameplan may be seen practised hourly in the Strand in London, whence heavywagons are taken down a very steep and narrow lane to the Adelphi. 

In descending short steep pitches, unharness the cattle, and "fasten arope round the axle of the wagon; then passing the other end round a treeor rock as a check, you may let her slide, which she will do without anyfurther trouble on your part. " (F. Marryat. )

In some places the hind wheels are taken off, and sledge runners arefitted to the hind axletree. This is an excellent plan; it has thefurther advantage that the wagon settles down into a more horizontalposition than before. I have seen timber carried on a wagon down a steephill by separating the front wheels from the hind ones, lashing a trail(see "Travail" below) or two short poles to the fore axletree, andresting one end of the timber on the hind axletree, and the other end onthe trail. 

Shoe the wheel on the side furthest from the precipice. 

If you have to leave a cart or wagon untended for a while, lock thewheel. 

[Sketch of loaded sledge]. 

Sledges. --When carrying wood or stones, and doing other heavy work, atraveller should spare his wagon and use a sledge. This is made bycutting down a forked tree, lopping off its branches, and shaping it alittle with an axe. If necessary, a few bars may be fixed across the forkso as to make a stage. Great distances may be traversed by one of theserude affairs, if the country is not very stony. Should it capsize, nogreat harm is done; and if it breaks down, or is found to have been badlymade, an hour's labour will suffice to construct another. Sledges arevery useful where there is an abundance of horse or ox power, but nowagon or packing-gear. 

North American Travail. --In a North American Indian horse "travail, " thecrossing of the poles (they are the poles of the wigwams) usually restson a rough pack-saddle or pad, which a breast-strap keeps from slippingbackwards. In a dog travail the cross of the poles rests on the back ofthe neck, and is kept in place by a breast or rather a neck strap; thepoles are wrapped with pieces of buffalo robe where they press againstthe dog. Captain Blakiston--a very accurate authority--considers that ahorse will travel 30 miles in the day, dragging on the travail a weightof about 200 lbs. , including a child, whose mother sits on the horse'sback; and that a dog, the size of an average retriever, will draw about80 lbs. For the same distance. (N. B. The North American plains areperfectly level. )

[Sketch of horse with "travail"]. 

Palanquins, carried like sedan-chairs, between two animals--one goingbefore the other in shafts--are in use in various countries; but I am notaware that explorers have ever properly tried them. Their advantage wouldlie in combining the convenience of a cart with much of the independenceof pack-horses. For whatever is lashed on a pack-saddle must be securelytied up; it is therefore severely compressed, and cannot be taken out enroute. But with a cart or a palanquin there is no such inconvenience:things may be quickly thrown into them or taken out; pockets and drawersmay be fitted up; and the palanquin would afford some shelter in rain. Ishould think it would be well worth while to try one of thesecontrivances. It might be made en route; first accustoming the animals, when carrying their packs, to walk between long shafts, then, after somedays, taking the load off their saddles, and lashing them on to theshafts. If all went well, a regular palanquin might be constructed withlegs, to be let down when the animals are off-packed, and on which itmight stand until ready to be again carried onwards. Half-a-dozenpalanquins in file would make a pretty, and, I should think, a manageableand effective caravan. Asses ought to be able to carry them well; acouple of asses would probably carry a greater weight than a singlepack-horse, and would give no greater trouble; if so, their hardinesswould be invaluable. 

SWIMMING. 

General Remarks. --Rate of Swimming. People swim much more slowly than iscommonly supposed. In races between first-rate swimmers, for distances of300 yards and upwards, the average pace of two miles an hour is barely, if at all, exceeded. 

Learning to Swim. --A good way of teaching a person to swim, is amodification of that adopted at Eton. The teacher may sit in a punt or ona rock, with a stout stick of 6 or 10 feet in length, at the end of whichis a cord of 4 feet or so, with loops. The learner puts himself into theloops; and the teacher plays him, as a fisherman would play a fish, inwater that is well out of his depth: he gives him just enough support tokeep him from drowning. After six or a dozen lessons, many boys requireno support at all, but swim about with the rope dangling slack aboutthem. When a boy does this, he can be left to shift for himself. The artof swimming far is acquired, like the art of running far, by adetermination to go on, without resting a moment, until utterly unable tomake a stroke further, and then to stop altogether. Each succeeding day, the distance travelled is marvellously increased, until the natural limitof the man's powers is attained. The chilliness consequent on stayinglong in water is retarded by rubbing all over the body, before enteringit, about twice as much oil or bear's-grease as a person uses for hishair. 

To support those who cannot Swim. --If a person cannot swim a stroke, heshould be buoyed up with floats under his arms, and lashed quitesecurely, to his own satisfaction; then he can be towed across the riverwith a string. If he lose courage halfway, it cannot be helped: it willdo him no harm, and his swimming friend is in no danger of being grappledwith and drowned. For very short distances, a usual way is for the manwho cannot swim to hold his friend by the hips. A very little floatingpower is enough to buoy a man's head, above still water. (See "AfricanSwimming Ferry, " below. )

Landing through Breakers. --In landing through a heavy surf, wait for alarge wave, and come in on the crest of it; then make every possibleexertion to scramble up to some firm holding-place, whence its indraught, when it returns, can be resisted. If drawn back, you will be heavilybattered, perhaps maimed, certainly far more exhausted than before, andnot a whit nearer to safety. Avoid receiving a breaker in the attitude ofscrambling away from it on hands and knees: from such a position, thewave projects a man headforemost with fearful force, and rolls him overand over in its surge. He ought to turn on his back the instant beforethe breaker is upon him; and then all will go well, and he will be helpedon, and not half-killed by it. Men on shore can rescue a man who is beingwashed to and fro in the surf, by holding together, very firmly, hand-in-hand, and forming a line down to the sea: the foremost manclutches the swimmer as soon as he is washed up to him, and holds himfirmly while the wave is retiring. The force of the indraught isenormous, and none but strong men can withstand it. 

Floats. --If a traveller can swim pretty well, it is a good plan to make afloat when he wishes to cross a river, and to lay his breast upon it, while his clothes and valuables are enclosed in a huge turban on hishead. In this way, he may cross the broadest streams and float greatdistances down a river. He may tie paddles to his hands. His float mayconsist of a faggot of rushes, a log of wood, or any one of his emptywater-vessels, whether barrels or bags; for whatever will keep water in, will also keep it out. The small quantity of air, which might escapethrough the sides of a bag, should be restored by blowing afresh into it, during the voyage. A few yards of intestine blown out and tied here andthere, so as to form so many watertight compartments, makes a capitalswimming belt: it may be wound in a figure of 8 round the neck and underthe armpits. When employing empty bottles, they should be well corked andmade fast under the armpits, or be stuffed within the shirt or jersey, and a belt tied round the waist below them, to keep them in place. 

African Swimming Ferry. --The people of Yariba have a singular mode oftransporting passengers across rivers and streams, when the violence andrapidity of their currents prevent them from using canoes with safety. The passenger grasps the float (see fig. ), on the top of which hisluggage is lashed; and a perfect equilibrium is preserved, by theferry-man placing himself opposite the passenger, and laying hold of bothhis arms. They being thus face to face, the owner of the float propels itby striking with his legs. The natives use as their float two of theirlargest calabashes, cutting off their small ends, and joining theopenings face to face, so as to form a large, hollow, watertight vessel. 

[Sketch of African swimming ferry]. 

Makeshift Life-belt. --A moderately effective life-belt may be made ofholland, ticking, canvas, or similar materials, in the following manner, and might be used with advantage by the crew of a vessel aground some wayfrom the mainland, who are about to swim for their lives:--Cut out twocomplete rings, of 16 inches outer diameter and 8 inches inner diameter;sew these together along both edges, with as fine a needle as possibleand with double thread: add strong shoulder-straps, so that it shall not, by any possibility, slip down over the hips; and, lastly, sew into it along narrow tube, made out of a strip, a foot long and two inches wide, of the same material as the belt. At the mouth of this, a bit of wood, aninch long, with a hole bored down its middle, should be inserted as amouthpiece. Through this tube the belt can be re-inflated by the swimmerwhile in the water, as often as may be necessary; and, by simply twistingthe tube and tucking its end in the belt, its vent can always be closed. After a canvas belt is thoroughly drenched, it will hold the air veryfairly: the seams are its weakest parts. For supporting a swimmer in calmwater, a collar is as good as a belt. 

Transport on Water. --Parcels. --The swimmer's valuables may as well be putinside the empty vessel that acts as his float, as in the turban on hishead (see "Floats"). A goat-skin is often filled half full of the thingshe wants to carry, and is then blown out and its mouth secured. A verygood life-belt may be bought, which admits of this arrangement: it has alarge opening at one end, which is closed by a brass door that shuts likethe top of an inkstand, and is then quite air-tight. 

A small parcel, if tightly wrapped up in many folds, will keep dry for along time, though partly immersed in water: the outside of it may begreased, oiled, or waxed, for additional security. If deeply immersed, the water is sure to get in. 

Swimming with Horses. --In crossing a deep river, with a horse or otherlarge animal, drive him in: or even lead him along a steep bank, and pushhim sideways, suddenly into the water: having fairly started him, jump inyourself, seize his tail, and let him tow you across. If he turns hishead with the intention of changing his course, splash water in his facewith your right or left hand, as the case may be, holding the tail withone hand and splashing with the other; and you will, in this way, directhim just as you like. This is by far the best way of swimming a horse:all others are objectionable and even dangerous with animals new to thework, --such as to swim alongside the horse, with one hand on hisshoulder; or, worst of all, to retain your seat on his back. If this lastmethod be persisted in, at least let the rider take his feet out of thestirrups, before entering the water. 

[Sketch of horse and man crossing river]. 

To float a Wagon across a River. --It must be well ballasted, or it willassuredly capsize: the heavy contents should be stowed at the bottom; theplanking lashed to the axletrees, or it will float away from them; greatbundles of reeds and the empty water-vessels should be made fast highabove all, and then the wagon will cross without danger. When it isfairly under weigh, the oxen will swim it across, pulling in their yokes. 

Water Spectacles. --When a man opens his eyes under water, he can seenothing distinctly; but everything is as much out of focus, as if helooked, in air, through a pair of powerful spectacles that were utterlyunsuited to him. He cannot distinguish the letters of the largest printin a newspaper advertisement; he cannot see the spaces between theoutstretched fingers, at arm's length, in clear water; nor at a fewinches' distance in water that is somewhat opaque. I read a short paperon this subject, at the British Association in 1865, in which I showedthe precise cause of this imperfection of vision and how it might beremedied. If the front of our eyeballs had been flat, we should have hadthe power of seeing under water as clearly as in air; but instead ofbeing flat, they are very convex, consequently our eye stamps a concavelens of high power into the water, and it is the seeing through thisconcave eyeglass which our eyeball makes for itself, that causes theindistinctness of our vision. Knowing the curvature of the eyeball, it iseasy to calculate (as I did in the memoir mentioned above) the curvatureof a convex lens of flint-glass that should, when plunged into water, produce effects of an exactly equal and contrary value, exactlyneutralizing the effects of the concave eyeglass of water, if it wereheld immediately in front of the pupil of the eye. I have made severalexperiments with a view to obtaining serviceable spectacles, for seeingunder water. The result is as follows:--experience has shown the distancefrom the eyeball at which spectacle-glasses can be most convenientlyplaced; now at that distance, the joint effect of the concave water-lensand the convex glass spectacle-lens, is to produce an opera-glass ofexceedingly low magnifying power, that requires a small adjustment foraccurate definition at different distances. 

If the spectacle-lens be of flint-glass and doubly convex, each of itsfaces should have a curvature of not greater than 6 1/2 tenths of aninch, nor more than 8 1/2 tenths of an inch in radius: within theselimits, it is practicable to obtain perfectly distinct vision under waterby pressing the spectacles forwards or backwards to a moderate degree. Lenses of these high magnifying powers are sometimes sold byspectacle-makers, for persons who have undergone an operation forcataract. I have tried, but hitherto without much success, to arrange thefittings by which the lenses are secured so that by a movement of the jawor by an elevation of the eyebrows, I could give the necessary adjustmentof the glasses, leaving my hands free for the purpose of swimming. (Seealso, under "Fishing;' 'To see Things deep under Water. ')

RAFTS AND BOATS. 

Rafts. --Rafts of Wood. --Rafts are made of logs of wood, held together bypairs of cross-bars, one of each pair lying above the raft and the otherbelow; then, the whole may be made quite firm by a little judiciousnotching wherethe logs cross, and a few pegs and lashings. Briers, woodbines, etc. , will do for these. If the logs are large, they should beseparately launched into the river, and towed into their proper places. Outriggers vastly increase the stability of a raft. The raft-fastening incommon use is shown in f. 1: it is a stout, little wand, bent over thecross piece, and wedged into holes in the framework. 

[Sketch of raft]. 

[Fig 1 and Fig 2 show fastening arrangements]. 

The rafts of European rivers are usually built on shore, and launchedinto the water: three slides are laid for the purpose, on the slopingbank of the river; upon these are laid the four poles, secured togetherby their ends, which are to form the framework of the raft (fig. 2). Other poles are put in between, until the whole is complete. 

Bamboo rafts. --Where bamboo is plentiful, it is preferable to any othermaterial for rafts. A few bamboos lashed into the shape of an ordinaryfield gate, but with two diagonals, and with handfuls of grass thrown onto make a platform, is very buoyant and serviceable. 

Floating power of various Woods. --The floating power of a raft depends onthe buoyancy of the wood of which it is made. I give, in a Table (p. 90), a list of the specific gravities of a few well-known woods; and haveannexed to them a column of what may be called their "specific floatingpowers. "*

[Footnote] *Specific floating power = (1/Spec. Gr. )--1. (Mem. , the Tableof these, in previous editions is incorrect. ) Burden = weight of raft xspecific floating power. Weight of wood required to support a given burden =Burden x (Spec. Gr. /1-Spec. Gr. ); the last column gives the latterfactor. 

Hence, to find the actual floating power of a raft, it is simplynecessary to multiply its weight into the specific floating power of thewood of which it is made. 

Thus, a raft of 12 logs of larch, averaging 30 lbs. Each, weighs 360lbs. ; this multiplied by . 47, is equal to 169 lbs. Very nearly, which isthe weight the raft will support without sinking. Poplar is the lighteston the list. 

 Specific Specific Factors to be multiplied Gravities. Floating Powers. Into burden to find weight of raft just able to support it. Alder. .. .. .. . . 80 . 25 4. 0Ash. .. .. .. .. .. . 85 . 18 5. 7Beech. .. .. .. .. . 85 . 18 5. 7Elm. .. .. .. . 59 to . 80 . 70 to . 25 1. 4 to 4. 0Fir. .. .. . . 47 to . 60 1. 13 to . 66 0. 9 to 1. 5Larch. .. .. . .. . 53 . 89 1. 1Oak. .. .. .. .. .. . 75 . 33 3. 0 " heart of. . 1. 17 sinks cannot be usedPine. .. .. . 40 to . 63 1. 50 to . 60 0. 7 to 1. 7Poplar. .. .. .. . . 38 1. 63 0. 6Willow. .. .. .. . . 59 . 70 1. 4

Examples: -- a raft of alder, weighing 200 lbs. , would just support200 x . 25 or 50 lbs. A burden of 100 lbs. Would require a raft of alder, weighing not lesthan 100 x 4. 0, or 400 lbs. To support it. Burning down Trees. --Where there are no means at hand to fell trees, theyshould be burnt down; two men may attend to the burning of twenty treesat one and the same time. When felled, their tops and branches, also, areto be trimmed by fire. (See "Hutting Palisades. ")

Reed Rafts. --Mr. Andersson, in exploring the Tioughe River, in SouthAfrica, met with two very simple forms of rafts: the one was a vastquantity of reeds cut down, heaped into a stack of from 30 to 50 feet indiameter, pushed out into the water, and allowed to float down stream:each day, as the reeds became water-logged, more were cut and thrown onthe stack: its great bulk made it sure of passing over shallow places;and when it struck against "snags, " the force of the water soon slewed itround and started it afresh. On an affair of this description, Mr. Andersson, with seven attendants, and two canoes hauled up upon it, descended the river for five days. The second reed raft was a small andneat one, and used for ferries; it was a mattress of reeds, 5 feet long, 3 broad, and some 8 inches thick, tied together with strips of the reedsthemselves; to each of its four corners was fixed a post, made of anupright faggot of reeds, 18 inches high; other faggots connected the topsof the posts horizontally, in the place of rails: this was all; it heldone or two men, and nothing but reeds or rushes were used in itsconstruction. 

Rafts of distended Hides. --"A single ox-hide may be made into a floatcapable of sustaining about 300 lbs. ; the skin is to be cut to thelargest possible circle, then gathered together round a short tube, tothe inner end of which a valve, like that of a common pair of bellows, has been applied; it is inflated with bellows, and, as the air escapes bydegrees, it may be refilled every ten or twelve hours. " ('Handbook forField Service. ')

We read of the skins of animals, stuffed with hay to keep them distended, having been used by Alexander the Great, and by others. 

Goatskin rafts are extensively used on the Tigris and elsewhere. Theseare inflated through one of the legs: they are generally lashed to aframework of wood, branches, and reeds, in such a way that the leg isaccessible to a person sitting on the raft: when the air has in partescaped, he creeps round to the skins, one after the other, untying andre-inflating them in succession. 

[Sketch fig. 1 and fig. 2 showing gourd rafts]. 

African Gourd Raft. --Over a large part of Bornu, especially on itsKomadugu--the so-called River Yeou of Central Africa--no boat is used, except the following ingenious contrivance. It is called a "makara, " orboat pareminence. 

Two large open gourds are nicely balanced, and fixed, bottom downwards, on a bar or yoke of light wood, 4 feet long, 4 1/2 inches wide, and 3/4or 1 inch thick. The fisherman, or traveller, packs his gear into thegourds; launches the makara into the river, and seats himself astride thebar. He then paddles off, with help of his hands (fig. 1). When he leavesthe river, he carries the makara on his back (fig. 2). The late Dr. Barthwrote to me, "A person accustomed to such sort of voyage, sits verycomfortably; a stranger holds on to one of the calabashes. There is nofear of capsizing, as the calabashes go under water, according to theweight put upon them, from ten to sixteen inches. The yoke is firmlyfastened to the two calabashes, for it is never taken off. I am scarcelyable, at present, to say how it is fastened. As far as I remember, it isfixed by a very firm lashing, which forms a sort of network over thecalabash, and at the same time serves to strengthen the latter and guardit against an accident. " It is obvious that the gourds might be replacedby inflated bags or baskets, covered with leather, or by copper or tinvessels, or by any other equivalent. I quite agree with Dr. Barth, that amakara would be particularly suitable for a traveller. In Bornu, theymake large rafts, by putting a frame over several of these makara, placedside by side. 

[Sketch of sailing boat]. 

Rude Boats. --Brazilian Sailing-boat. --A simpler sailing-boat or raftcould hardly be imagined than that shown in the figure; it is used byfishermen in Brazil. 

Log Canoes are made by hollowing out a long tree by axe and by fire, andfastening an outrigger to one side of it, to give steadiness in thewater. Recollect Robinson Crusoe's difficulty in launching his canoeafter he had made it. (See "Rafts of Wood. ") It is not a difficult, though a tedious operation, to burn out hollows in wood; the fire isconfined by wet earth, that it may not extend too far to either side, andthe charred matter is from time to time scraped away, and fresh fireraked back on the newly-exposed surface. A lazy savage sill be months inmaking a single canoe in this way. 

[Fig 1 and fig 2 sketch of boat and pattern]. 

Canoe of Three Planks. --A swift, safe, and graceful little boat, with asharp stem and stern, and with a bottom that curves upwards at both ends, can be made out of three planks. The sketch, fig. 1, is a foreshortenedview of the boat, and the diagram, fig. 2, shows the shape of the planksfrom which it is made. The thwart or seat shown in fig. 1 is important ingiving the proper inclination to the sides of the boat, for, without it, they would tend to collapse; and the bottom would be less curved ateither end. If the reader will take the trouble to trace fig. 2 on astout card, to cut it out in a single piece (cutting only half throughthe cardboard where the planks touch), and to fasten it into shape withpieces of gummed paper, he will understand the architecture of the boatmore easily than from any description. If he wishes to build a boat hehad best proceed to make as large a model in pasteboard as his materialsadmit, and to cut the planks to scale, according to the pattern of hismodel. The grace of the boat depends on the cut of its planks, just asmuch as the elegance of a dress does on that of its cloth. Thesethree-plank canoes are in frequent use in Norway. Bark may be usedinstead of planks. If the canoe be built of five planks instead of three, a second narrow side-plank being added above each gunwale, the section ofthe canoe is decidedly improved. 

Inflatable India-rubber Boats are an invention that has proved invaluableto travellers: they have been used in all quarters of the globe, and arefound to stand every climate. A full-sized one weighs only 40 lbs. Theyhave done especial service in Arctic exploration; the waters of the GreatSalt Lake, in the Mormon country, were first explored and navigated withone by Fremont; they were also employed by Dr. Livingstone on the riversof South Africa. They stand a wonderful amount of wear and tear; but, asboats, they are inferior to native canoes, as they are very slow in thewater: it is, indeed, impossible to paddle them against a moderatehead-wind. For the general purposes of travellers, I should be inclinedto recommend as small a macintosh-boat as can be constructed; justsufficient for one, or at the most for two, persons; such as the cloaksthat are made inflatable, and convertible into boats. A traveller wants aportable boat, chiefly as means to cross over to a village for help, orto carry his valuables across a river, while the heavy things are riskedat a ford; or for shooting, fishing, or surveying. Now a very small boat, weighing about ten pounds, would do as well for all these purposes as alarge one, and would be far more portable. 

It is perfectly easy to get into a macintosh-boat, after having beencapsized out of it into deep water. 

Basket-boat with Canvas Sides. --FitzRoy gives an account of a party ofhis sailors, whose boat had been stolen while they were encamped, puttingout to sea in a large basket, woven with such boughs as were at hand, andcovered with their canvas tent--the inside of which they had puddled withclay, to keep the water from oozing through too fast. They were eighteenhours afloat in this crazy craft. I mention this instance, to show howalmost anything will make a boat. Canvas saturated with grease or oil iswaterproof, and painted canvas is at first an excellent covering for aboat, but it soon becomes rotten. 

Canoe of Reeds or Vegetable Fibre. --A canoe may be made of reeds, rushes, or the light inner bark of trees. Either of these materials is bound intothree long faggots, pointed at one end: these are placed side by side andlashed together, and the result is a serviceable vessel, of theappearance fig. 1, and section as fig. 2. The Lake Titicaca, which liesfar above the limit of trees, is navigated by boats made of rushes, andcarrying sails woven of rushes also. Little boats are sometimes made oftwigs, and are then plastered both inside and outside with clay, but theyare very leaky. 

[Fig 1 and fig 2--sketches of reed canoe]. 

Hide Tray. --This is a good contrivance; and if the hide be smoked (see"Hides") after it is set, it is vastly improved. In its simplest form, Peruvian travellers describe it as a dish or tray, consisting of a dryhide pinched up at the four corners, and each corner secured with athorn. The preferable plan is to make eyelet-holes round its rim, andpass a thong through, drawing it pretty close: the tray is kept in shape, by sticks put inside and athwart its bottom. 

Coracle and Skin Punt. --If a traveller has one hide only at his disposalhe should make a coracle, if he has two, a punt. This last is a reallyuseful boat; one in which very great distances of river may be descendedwith safety, and much luggage taken. Hide boats are very light, since theweight of a bullock's skin only averages 45 lbs. ; but, unless wellgreased, they soon rot. When taken out of the water, they should be laidbottom upwards to dry. To make a proper and substantial coracle, a dozenor more oxier or other wands must be cut; these are to be bent, and haveboth ends stuck in the ground, in such a way as to form the framework ofthe required boat, bottom upwards, much like half a walnut-shell inshape, but flatter. Where these wands cross, they should be lashed; andsticks should be wattled in, to fill up gaps. A raw hide is then thrownover the framework, sewn in place, and left to dry. Finally, theprojecting ends of the osiers have to be cut off. Should this boat, byany chance, prove a failure, the hide is not wasted, but can be removed, soaked till soft, and used again. 

A skin punt requires two bullocks' or other hides, and also about tensmall willow-trees, or other tough flexible wood, 14 feet long. CaptainPalliser says that a couple of days is sufficient for two people tocomplete an entire punt of this description. He has been so good as tofurnish me with the following minute description of the way of makingthis very useful boat. 

1. The keel, stem and stern might be in one; but because the stem andstern ought to be strong, this whole line is made of two small treeslashed together with the thick ends outwards, as in fig. 1, where AB is alithe clean little willow-tree, and ab another similar one. They arelashed together at their taper ends. 

2. Cut notches half-way through KK, at about 20 to 25 inches from eachend; then turn up the notched portions, and you have stem, keel andstern, all in one piece, as in fig. 2. 

[Fig 1 and Fig 2 sketches]. 

3. Stake out the ground, according to the size your boat will cover, bydriving eight strong pointed stakes of wood into the ground; to theselash four cross (willow-tree) sticks, notched in two places, so that eachof these four willows shall form two knees, as well as run across thebottom of the boat. 

4. Bent two more main willows for gunwales for the boat, and two more forbottom rails. Each separate stick, as will be perceived by fig. 3, islashed in five different places, and the keep in eight places. 

[Fig 3 and Fig 4--sketches as described]. 

The main framework being now completed, loosen it from the stakes driveninto the ground. 

5. Fasten a large number of little slender willow-twigs between each ofthe main cross-knees, as shown by the thin lines in fig. 3. It is thenfit for covering. Lift it up like a basket, and turn it topsy-turvy. 

6. Kill two bulls, skin them, and in skinning be careful to make yourcuts in the skin down the rump to the hock of the animal, and down thebrisket in front of the fore-leg to the knee, so as to have your skins assquare as possible (fig. 4). Cut off the heads, and sew the skinstogether at the nape of the necks; and, while reeking, cover thewicker-work, turning them over it, the hairy side inwards, and fasten itall round by means of skin-cords. Cut holes with a knife round the edges, to pass the cords through, as you lash up to the top-rails of the boat. 

7. Leave it 24 hours in the sun; cover the seam where the skins are sewntogether, with melted fat, and the boat is fit for use. 

Bark Boats. --"From a pine, or other tree, take off with care the longestpossible entire portion of the bark; while fresh and flexible, spread itflat as a long rectangular sheet; then turn it carefully up at the sides, the smooth side outwards; sew the ends together, and caulk them well. Afew cross-sticks for thwarts complete this contrivance, which is made byan American Indian in a few hours, and in which the rapid waters of theMackenzie are navigated for hundreds of miles. Ways of strengthening thestructure will readily suggest themselves. The native material for sewingis the fibrous root of the pine. " ("Handbook for Field Service, "Lieut. -Col. Lefroy. )

[Figs I, II, III, and IV--sketches as described]. 

Birch-bark canoes. --Birch bark, as is well known, is used for buildingcanoes in North America, and the bark of many other trees would do forcovering the framework of a boat, in default of leather. But it isuseless to give a detailed account of birch canoes, as great skill andneat execution are required both in making and in using them. 

Boats of Sheet-tin, covered with Pitched Canvas. --These might be made atany of the outposts of civilization. I am indebted to a correspondent, whose name I regret exceedingly to be unable to insert, havingunfortunately mislaid it, for the following full description of hisshooting-punt. It will be obvious that his methods are applicable notonly to their professed object, but also to tin boats of any shapewhatever. 

"Form the bottom, fig. I. , as follows:--Select the thickest sheets of tinand solder them together by their narrowest sides, until as many lengthsare made as, when laid side by side, will be sufficient for the wholelength and breadth of the figure. The soldering should be by a joint ofthis kind. "

[Sketch of join]. 

"These lengths must then be soldered side by side by a similar joint, andthe whole sheet thus made, trimmed to the shape of fig. I. , care beingtaken that no two joints in the lengths should be exactly opposite eachother. Form two other sheets in a similar manner for the two sides, andof the shape of fig. II. The dotted lines a b c d e f, fig. I. , show theportions of the tin round the edges, 1 inch wide, which must be turned upat right angles with the bottom, and to which the sides are to besoldered on the inside; they should have triangular pieces clipped out ofthem, as shown in the fig. , where the bends of the boat begin, to makethem take the curve required. The two extra pieces at the ends a d, e f, 2 inches wide, are for turning down over an iron rod, which is to passround the gunwale, to give stiffness to the boat; g h, fig. II. , is abreadth of 2 inches of extra tin, for the same purpose of turning downover the iron rod. 

"Each side is now to be soldered to the bottom piece, beginning with thecentre, and working in to each end. 

"The soldering of the turned-up edges to the bottom, on the outside, maythen be done. Separate slips of tin 2 inches wide should then be bent uplongitudinally in halves, like angle-iron, and fitted along the joiningof the bottom and sides, on the inside, and soldered; these slips mayalso be clipped on either side, when necessary, to make them take thecurves. 

"The measure round the gunwale may now be taken within the edge of thetin, and an iron rod 3/8 of an inch thick, to go round this gunwale, bentto the form of the outline of fig. III. , i b k c, which will now be thatof the boat, and the ends welded at their meeting. Sufficient iron rodmust be taken to form eyes at i and k to receive rings of 3 or 4 inchesdiameter, through which a pole is to be passed, for carrying the boat, and for their welding at the meeting of the ends. 

"The iron-rod gunwale may now be put in, and the 2 inches width of tin, allowed in excess on the sides and ends of the bottom, turned downclosely over the rod, all round and soldered on the inside. The sideelevation of the boat will now be as w x y, fig. IV. "The boat should beproved as to being water-tight by filling it with water, any leak beingstopped by more solder. 

"The outside must now be covered with pitched canvas, thus:--

"Turn it upside down, in a sheltered spot exposed to the sun, or warm itby other means, and have a caldron of boiling pitch on a fire at hand, also have sufficient canvas sewn together in breadths as will quite coverthe boat, bottom and sides; then, beginning across the middle of thebottom, brush on a layer 3 or 4 inches wide of the boiling pitch, andquickly press down the corresponding central portion of the canvas uponit; work on thus, from the centre of the bottom to the ends, laying on abreadth of pitch, and then pressing down and stretching a portion ofcanvas over it; then turn down the canvas over each side, and pitch inthe same way, butting out the parts of the canvas that would overlap toomuch at the bends, but leaving no tin uncovered; the boat may then berighted, the excess of canvas cut off, and the edge laid down with pitch, a little short of the gunwale. 

"The bottom may then be pitched over the canvas for 6 inches up, and therest of the outside, with the inside, be painted with two or three coats. 

"A flooring of thin planking for 3 1/2 feet of the central portion of theboat must now be made as follows:--Make five planks, between 8 and 9inches wide, to fit across the beam of the boat, and in each of the outerplanks, o o, p p, fig. III. , fix uprights m n, 6 inches high, to supporta seat, mortised on the pair of uprights in each board; the ends of eachseat should be short of the breadth of the boat by an inch or so, so asnot to bear against the sides; then lay down two ribs of tough wood, fitted to bear equally across the planking, on each side, as rs, r1 s1, and screw each end of them down to the outer planks only. 

"Wooden cleats can be fixed on each board at t t, each to receive thebutts of two guns, while their barrels lie in hollows formed in thecushions of the seat opposite them, so that the rower can put down hispaddles and take up his gun instantly; steps for a mast can be alsocontrived at the same points. The woodwork is to be also well painted; itcan be taken out with ease, as it is nowhere connected with the tin ofthe boat. Care should be taken that no projections in this woodwork, suchas screw-heads, etc. , should chafe the tin, and that it should be alwayskept well painted. 

"The boat, of which this is a description, drew 2 1/2 inches water withone person in, with two guns and ammunition, etc. ; it was furnished withtwo short paddles, which were tied by a short length of string to thesides, so as to be dropped without loss of time on taking up the gun tofire; the boat turned with the greatest ease, by one backing and pullingstroke of the two paddles, and was very stiff in the water. 

"Iron rowlocks were fitted to it, on the outside at b, e, fig. I. (I donot give the diagram by which the author illustrated his description; therowlocks were applied to the sides of the boat, and each rowlock wassecured to the side by three bolts. ) The two upper bolts had claw-headsto seize the iron-rod gunwale on the inside, and a piece of wood wasfitted on the inside, through which the three bolts passed, to givesubstance for their hold, their nuts were on the outside. With theserowlocks two oars of 7 feet long were used. The breadth between the hornsshould be only just enough to admit the oars. 

"This boat could be carried on the shoulders of two persons, whensuspended on a pole passed through the end rings, for a distance oftwelve or fifteen miles daily, with guns and ammunition stowed in it. Itcould be fired from, standing, without risk, and be poled over marshyground barely covered with water, or dragged with ease by the personseated in it, through high reeds, by grasping a handful on each side andhauling on them. A rudder was unnecessary. It was in use for more thanthree years, and with due care in getting in and out, on a rough shore, and by keeping it well painted and pitched, it never leaked or becameimpaired in any way. "

Boats. --Of Wood. --English-made boats have been carried by explorers forgreat distances on wheels, but seldom seem to have done much usefulservice. They would travel easiest if slung and made fast in a strongwooden crate or framework, to be fixed on the body of the carriage. Awhite covering is necessary for a wooden boat, on account of the sun:both boat and covering should be frequently examined. Mr. Richardson andhis party took a boat, divided in four quarters, on camel-back across theSahara, all the way from the Mediterranean to Lake Tchad. A portableframework of metal tubes, to be covered with india-rubber sheeting onarrival, was suggested to me by a very competent authority, the late Mr. M'Gregor Laird. 

Copper boats have been much recommended, because an accidental dent, however severe it may be, can be beaten back again without doing injuryto the metal. One of the boats in Mr. Lynch's expedition down the Jordanwas made of copper. 

Corrugated Iron makes excellent boats for travellers; they are stamped bymachinery: Burton took one of them to Zanzibar. They were widelyadvertised some ten years ago, but they never came into general use, andI do not know where they can now be procured. 

Canoes. --The earlier exploits of the 'Rob Roy' canoe justly attractedmuch attention, and numerous canoe voyages have subsequently been made. The Canoe Club is now a considerable institution, many of whose membersmake yearly improvements in the designs of their crafts. Although canoesare delicately built and apparently fragile, experience has amply provedthat they can stand an extraordinary amount of hard usage in the hands ofcareful travellers. As a general rule, it is by no means the heaviest andmost solid things that endure the best. If a lightly-made apparatus canbe secured from the risk of heavy things falling upon it, it will outlasta heavy apparatus that shakes to pieces under the jar of its own weight. 

A hole cut in the square sail enables the voyager to see ahead. 

To carry on Horseback. --Mr. Macgregor, when in Syria, took two strongpoles, each 16 feet long, and about 3 inches thick at the larger end. These were placed on the ground 2 feet apart, and across them, at 3 feetfrom each end, he lashed two stout staves, about 4 feet long. Then a"leading" horse was selected, that is, one used to lead caravans, and onhis back a large bag of straw was well girthed and flattened down. Theframe was firmly tied on this, and the canoe, wrapped in carpets, wasplaced on the frame. This simple method was used for three months oversand and snow, rock and jungle, mud and marsh--anywhere indeed that ahorse could go. The frame was elevated in front, so as to allow thehorse's head some room under the boat's keel. Two girth-straps kept thecanoe firmly in position above, and carpets were used as cushions underits bilge. A boy led the horse, and a strong man was told off to holdfast to the canoe in every difficulty. It will be seen, that in the eventof a fall, the corners of the framework would receive the shock, not thecanoe. 

Boating Gear. --Anchors may be made of wood weighted with stones. Fig. 1shows the anchor used by Brazilian fishermen with their rude boat orsailing-raft already described. Fig. 2 shows another sort of anchor thatis in common use in Norway. 

Mast. --Where there is difficulty in "stepping" a mast, use a bar acrossthe thwarts and two poles, one lashed at either end of it, and comingtogether to a point above. This triangle takes the place of shrouds foreand aft. It is a very convenient rig for a boat with an outrigger: theSooloo pirates use it. 

[Fig. 2--sketch of anchor]. 

Outrigger Irons. --Mr. Gilby informs me that he has travelled with a pairof light sculls and outrigger irons, which he was able to adapt to manykinds of rude boats. He found them of much service in Egypt. 

Keels are troublesome to make: lee-boards are effective substitutes, andare easily added to a rude boat or punt when it is desired to rig her asa sailing-craft. 

Rudder. --A rude oar makes the most powerful, though not the mostconvenient rudder. In the lakes of North Italy, where the winds aresteady, the heavy boats have a bar upon which the tiller of the rudderrests: this bar is full of small notches; and the bottom of the tiller, at the place where it rests on the bar, is furnished with a bluntknife-edge; the tiller is not stiffly joined to the rudder, but admits ofa little play up and down. When the boatman finds that the boat steerssteadily, he simply drops the tiller, which forthwith falls into thenotch below it, where it is held tight until the steersman cares to takethe tiller into his hand again. 

Buoys. --An excellent buoy to mark out a passage is simply a small poleanchored by a rope at the end. It is very readily seen, and exposes solittle surface to the wind and water, that it is not easily washed away. A pole of the thickness of a walking-stick is much used in Sweden. Such abuoy costs only a rope, a stick, and a stone. A tuft of thesmall-branches may be left on the top of the pole. 

Log. --For a log use a conical canvas bag thus--

[Sketch of bag in two positions]. 

When the peg is drawn out by the usual jerk, the bag no longer presentsits mouth to the water, but is easily drawn in by the line attached toits point. 

Boat Building. --Caulking. --Almost anything that is fibrous does forcaulking the seams of a boat. The inner bark of trees is one of thereadiest materials. 

Securing Planks. --In default of nails, it is possible to drill or toburn holes in the planks and to sew them together with strips of hide, woodbine, or string made from the inner bark of fibrous trees. Holes maybe drilled on precisely the same principle as that which I have describedin making fire by friction. 

Lengthening Boats. --If you have an ordinary boat, and wish to make it ofgreater burden, saw it in half and lengthen it. Comparatively coarsecarpentering is good enough for this purpose. 

Boat Management. --Hauling boats on Shore. --To haul up a boat on abarren shore, with but a few hands, lay out the anchor ahead of her tomake fast your purchase to; or back the body of a wagon underneath theboat as she floats, and so draw her out upon wheels. A make-shiftframework, on small solid wheels, has been used and recommended. 

Towing. --A good way of fastening a tow-rope to a boat that has no mastis shown in the diagram, which, however, is very coarsely drawn. A curvedpole is lashed alongside one of the knees of the boat, and the tow-rope, passing with a turn or two round its end, is carried on to the stern ofthe boat. By taking a few turns, more or less, with the rope round thestick, the line of action of the tow-rope on the boat's axis may beproperly adjusted. When all is right the boat ought to steer herself. 

[Sketch of boat being towed]. 

When Caught by a Gale recollect that a boat will lie-to and live throughalmost any weather, if you can make a bundle of a few spare spars, oars, etc. , and secure them to the boat's head, so as to float in front of andacross the bow. They will act very sensibly as a breakwater, and willalways keep the boat's head towards the wind. Kroomen rig out three oarsin a triangle, lash the boat's sail to it, throw overboard, after makingfast, and pay out as much line as they can muster. By making a canvashalf-deck to an open boat, you much increase its safety in broken water;and if it be made to lace down the centre, it can be rolled up on thegunwale, and be out of the way in fine weather. 

In Floating down a Stream when the wind blows right against you (and onrivers the wind nearly always blows right up or right down), a plangenerally employed is to cut large branches, to make them fast to thefront of the boat, weight them that they may sink low in the water, andthrow them overboard. The force of the stream acting on these brancheswill more than counterbalance that of the wind upon the boat. For want ofbranches, a kind of water-sail is sometimes made of canvas. 

Steering in the Dark. --In dark nights, when on a river running throughpine forests, the mid stream canbe kept by occasionally striking thewater sharply with the blade of the oar, and listening to the echoes. They should reach the ear simultaneously, or nearly so, from either bank. On the same principle, vessels have been steered out of danger whencaught by a dense fog close to a rocky coast. 

Awning. --The best is a wagon-roof awning, made simply of a couple ofparallel poles, into which the ends of the bent ribs of the roof are set, without any other cross-pieces. This roof should be of two feet largerspan than the width of the boat, and should rest upon prolongations ofthe thwarts, or else upon crooked knees of wood. One arm of each of theknees is upright, and is made fast to the inside of the boat, while theother is horizontal and projects outside it: it is on these horizontaland projecting arms that the roof rests, and to which it is lashed. Suchan awning is airy, roomy, and does not interfere with rowing if therowlocks are fixed to the poles. It also makes an excellent cabin forsleeping in at night. 

Sail Tent. --A boat's sail is turned into a tent by erecting agable-shaped framework: the mast or other spar being the ridge-pole, anda pair of crossed oars lashed together supporting it at either end; andthe whole is made stable by a couple of ropes and pegs. Then the sail isthrown across the ridge-pole (not over the crossed loops of the oars, forthey would fret it), and is pegged out below. The natural fall of thecanvas bends to close the two ends, as with curtains. 

[Sketch of tent]. 

Tree-snakes. --Where these abound, travellers on rivers with overhangingbranches should beware of keeping too near inshore, lest the rigging ofthe boat should brush down the snakes. 

FORDS AND BRIDGES. 

Fords. --In fording a swift stream, carry heavy stones in your hand, foryou require weight to resist the force of the current: indeed, the deeperyou wade, the more weight you require; though you have so much the lessat command, on account of the water buoying you up. 

Rivers cannot be forded if their depth exceeds 3 feet for men or 4 feetfor horses. Fords are easily discovered by typing a sounding-pole to thestern of a boat rowing down the middle of the stream, and searching thoseplaces where the pole touches the bottom. When no boat is to be had, fords should be tried for where the river is broad rather than where itis narrow, and especially at those places where there are bends in itscourse. In these the line of shallow water does not run straight across, but follows the direction of a line connecting a promontory on one sideto the nearest promontory on the other, as in the drawing; that is tosay, from A to B, or from B to C, and not right across from B to b, fromA to a, or from C to c. Along hollow curves, asa, b, c, the stream runsdeep, and usually beneath overhanging banks; whilst in front ofpromontories, as at A, B, and C, the water is invariably shoal, unless itbe a jutting rock that makes the promontory. Therefore, by entering thestream at one promontory, with the intention of leaving it at another, you ensure that at all events the beginning and end of your course shallbe in shallow water, which you cannot do by attempting any other line ofpassage. 

[Sketch of river as described]. 

To Cross Boggy and Uncertain Ground. --Swamps. --When you wish to take awagon across a deep, miry, and reedy swamp, outspan and leg the cattlefeed. Then cut faggots of reeds and strew them thickly over the line ofintended passage. When plenty are laid down, drive the cattle backwardsand forwards, and they will trample them in. Repeat the process two orthree times, till the causeway is firm enough to bear the weight of thewagon. Or, in default of reeds, cut long poles and several shortcross-bars, say of two fee long; join these as best you can, so as tomake a couple of ladder-shaped frames. Place these across the mud, oneunder the intended track of each wheel. Faggots strewn between each roundof the ladder will make the causeway more sound. A succession of logs, laid crosswise with faggots between them, will also do, but not so well. 

Passing from Hand to Hand. --When many things have to be conveyed acrossa piece of abominably bad road--as over sand-dunes, heavy shingle, mudof two feet deep, a morass, a jagged mountain tract, or overstepping-stones in the bed of a rushing torrent--it is a great waste oflabour to make laden men travel to and fro with loads on their backs. Itis a severe exertion to walk at all under these circumstances, lettingalong the labour of also carrying a burden. The men should be stationedin a line, each at a distance of six or seven feet from his neighbour, and should pass the things from hand to hand, as they stand. 

Plank Roads. --"Miry, boggy lines of road, along which people had beenseen for months crawling like flies across a plate of treacle, aresuddenly, and I may almost say magically, converted into a road as hardand good as Regent Street by the following simple process, which isusually adopted as soon as the feeble funds of the young colony canpurchase the blessing. A small gang of men, with spades and rammers, quickly level one end of the earth road. As fast as they proceed, four orfive rows of strong beams or sleepers, which have been brought in thelight wagons of the country, are laid down longitudinally, four or fivefeet asunder; and no sooner are they in position than from other wagonsstout planks, touching each other, are transversely laid upon them. Froma third series of wagons, a thin layer of sand or grit is thrown upon theplanks, which instantly assume the appearance of a more level McAdam roadthan in practice can ever be obtained. Upon this new-born road the wagonscarrying the sleepers, planks, and sand, convey, with perfect ease, thesethree descriptions of materials for its continuance. The work advancesliterally about as fast as an old gouty gentleman can walk; and as soonas it is completed, there can scarcely exist a more striking contrastthan between the two tenses of what it was and what it is. This 'plankroad, ' as it is termed in America, usually lasts from eight to twelveyears; and as it is found quite unnecessary to spike the planks to thesleepers, the arrangement admits of easy repair, which, however, is butseldom required. " (Sir Francis Head, in Times, Jan. 25. )

Snow. --Sir R. Dalyell tells me that it is the practice of muleteers inthe neighbourhood of Erzeroum, when their animals lose their way andflounder in the deep snow, to spread a horse-cloth or other thick rugfrom off their packs upon the snow in front of them. The animals stepupon it and extricate themselves easily. I have practised walking acrossdeep snow-drifts on this principle, with perfect success. 

Weak Ice. --Water that is slightly frozen is made to bear a heavy wagon, by cutting reeds, strewing them thickly on the ice, and pouring waterupon them; when the whole is frozen into a firm mass the process must berepeated. 

Bridges. --Flying Bridges are well known: a long cord or chain of polesis made fast to a rock or an anchor in the middle of a river. The otherend is attached to the ferry-boat which being so slewed as to receive theforce of the current obliquely, traverses the river from side to side. 

Bridges of Felled Trees. --If you are at the side of a narrow but deepand rapid river, on the banks of which trees grow long enough to reachacross, one or more may be felled, confining the trunk to its own bank, and letting the current force the head round to the opposite side; but if"the river be too wide to be spanned by one tree--and if two or threemen can in any manner be got across--let a large tree be felled into thewater on each side, and placed close to the banks opposite to each other, with their heads lying up-streamwards. Fasten a rope to the head of eachtree, confine the trunks, shove the head off to receive the force of thecurrent, and ease off the ropes, so that the branches may meet in themiddle of the river at an angle pointing upwards. The branches of thetrees will be jammed together by the force of the current, and so besufficiently united as to form a tolerable communication, especially whena few of the upper branches have been cleared away. If insufficient, towards the middle of the river, to bear the weight of men crossing, afew stakes with the forks left near their heads, may be thrust downthrough the branches of the trees to support them. " (Sir H. Douglas. )

CLOTHING. 

General Remarks. --There are such infinite varieties of dress, that Ishall only attempt a few general remarks and give a single costume, thata traveller of great experience had used to his complete satisfaction. The military authorities of different nations have long made it theirstudy to combine in the best manner the requirements of handsome effect, of cheapness, and of serviceability in all climates, but I fear theirresults will not greatly help the traveller, who looks more toserviceability than to anything else. Of late years, even Garibaldi withhis red-shirted volunteers, and Alpine men with their simple outfit, haveapproached more nearly to a traveller's ideal. 

Materials for Clothes. --Flannel. --The importance of flannel next theskin can hardly be overrated: it is now a matter of statistics; for, during the progress of expeditions, notes have been made of the number ofnames of those in them who had provided themselves with flannel, and ofthose who had not. The list of sick and dead always included names fromthe latter list in a very great proportion. 

Cotton is preferable to flannel for a sedentary life, in hot dampcountries, or where flannel irritates the skin. Persons who are residentin the tropics, and dress in civilised costume, mostly wear cottonshirts. 

Linen by universal consent is a dangerous dress wherever there is achance of much perspiration, for it strikes cold upon the skin when it iswet. The terror of Swiss guides of the old school at a coup d'air on themountain top, and of Italians at the chill of sundown, is largely due totheir wearing linen shirts. Those who are dressed in flannel are far lesssensitive to these influences. 

Leather is the only safeguard against the stronger kinds of thorns. Inpastoral and in hunting countries it is always easy to procure skins of atough quality that have been neatly dressed by hand. Also it will be easyto find persons capable of sewing them together very neatly, after youhave cut them out to the pattern of your old clothes. 

Bark Cloth is used in several parts of the work. It is simply a piece ofsome kind of peculiarly fibrous bark; in Unyoro, Sir S. Baker says, thenatives use the bark of a species of fig-tree. They soak it in water andthen beat it with a mallet, to get rid of all the harder parts;--much ashemp is prepared. "In appearance it much resembles corduroy, and is thecolour of tanned leather: the finer qualities are peculiarly soft to thetouch, as though of woven cotton. "

Effect of colour on warmth of clothing. --Dark colours become hotter thanlight colours in the sunshine, but they are not hotter under any othercircumstances. Consequently a person who aims at equable temperature, should wear light colours. Light colours are far the best for sportingpurposes, as they are usually much less conspicuous than black orrifle-green. Almost all wild beasts are tawny or fawn-coloured, or tabby, or of some nondescript hue and pattern: if an animal were born with amore decided colour, he would soon perish for want of ability to concealhimself. 

Warmth of different Materials. --"The indefatigable Rumford made anelaborate series of experiments on the conductivity of the substancesused in clothing. His method was this:--A mercurial thermometer wassuspended in the axis of a cylindrical glass tube ending with a globe, insuch a manner that the centre of the bulb of the thermometer occupied thecentre of the globe; the space between the internal surface of the globeand the bulb was filled with the substance whose conductive power was tobe determined; the instrument was then heated in boiling water, andafterwards, being plunged into a freezing mixture of pounded ice andsalt, the times of cooling down 136 degrees Fahr. Were noted. They arerecorded in the following table:--

Surrounded with -- Seconds. Twisted silk. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 917Fine lint. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1032Cotton wool. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1046Sheep's wool. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1118Taffety. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1169Raw silk. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1264Beaver's fur. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1296Eider down. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1305Hare's fur. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1312Wood ashes. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 927Charcoal. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 937Lamp-black. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1117

Among the substances here examined, hare's fur offered the greatestimpediment to the transmission of the heat. The transmission of heat ispowerfully influenced by the mechanical state of the body through whichit passes. The raw and twisted silk of Rumford's table illustrate this"(Prof. Tyndall on Heat. )

Waterproof Cloth. --Cloth is made partly waterproof by rubbing soap-sudsinto it (on the wrong side), and working them well in: and when dry, doing the same with a solution of alum; the soap is by this meansdecomposed, and the oily part of it distributed among the fibres of thecloth. (See "Tarpaulins. ")

Incombustible Stuffs. --I extract the following paragraph from anewspaper. Persons who make much use of musquito curtains, will be gladto read it. "'The Répertoire de Chimie Pure et Appliquee' publishes thefollowing remarks by the celebrated chemists, MM. D¦bereiner and Oesner, on the various methods for rendering stuffs incombustible, or at leastless inflammable than they naturally are. The substances employed forthis purpose are borax, alum, soluble glass, and phosphate of ammonia. For wood and common stuffs, any one of these salts will do; but fine andlight tissues, which are just those most liable to catching fire, cannotbe treated in the same way. Borax renders fine textile fabrics stiff; itcauses dust, and will swell out under the smoothing-iron; so does alum, beside weakening the fibres of the stuff, so as to make it tear easily. Soluble glass both stiffens and weakens the stuff, depriving it both ofelasticity and tenacity. Phosphate of ammonia alone has none of theseinconveniences. It may be mixed with a certain quantity of sal-ammoniac, and then introduced into the starch prepared for stiffening the linen; orelse it may be dissolved in 20 parts of water, in weight, to one ofphosphate, and the stuff steeped into the solution, then allowed to dry, and ironed as usual. 

Phosphate of ammonia is cheap enough to allow of its introduction intocommon use, so that it may be employed at each wash. Phosphate of ammoniais obtained by saturating the biphosphate of lime with liquid ammonia. 

Sewing Materials. --An outfit of sewing materials consists of needles andthread; scissors; tailor's thimble; wax; canvas needles, including thesmaller sizes which are identical with glove needles and are used forsewing leather; twine; a palm; awls for cobbling, both straight andcurved; cobbler's wax; and, possibly, bristles. The needles and awls inuse are conveniently carried in some kind of metal tube, with wads ofcork at either end, to preserve their points. (See also the chapter on"Thread, for stitches, " etc. )

Articles of Dress. --Hats and Caps. --There is no perfect head-dress; butI notice that old travellers in both hot and temperate countries havegenerally adopted a scanty "wide-awake. " Mr. Oswell, the South Africansportsman and traveller, used for years, and strongly recommended to me, a brimless hat of fine Panama grass, which he had sewn as a lining to anordinary wide-awake. I regret I have had no opportunity of trying thiscombination, but can easily believe that the touch of the cool, smoothgrass, to the wet brow, would be more agreeable than that of any othermaterial. I need hardly mention Pith hats (to be bought under the OperaColonnade, Pall Mall), Indian topees, and English hunting-caps, as havingseverally many merits. A muslin turban twisted into a rope and rolledround the hat is a common plan to keep the sun from the head and spine:it can also be used as a rope on an emergency. 

Coat. --In nine cases out of ten, a strong but not too thick tweed coatis the best for rough work. In a very thorny country, a leather coat isalmost essential. A blouse, cut short so as to clear the saddle, is neat, cool, and easy, whether as a riding or walking costume. Generallyspeaking, the traveller will chiefly spend his life in his shirt-sleeves, and will only use his coat when he wants extra warmth. 

To carry a Coat. --There are two ways. The first is to fold it small andstrap it to the belt. If the coat be a light one it can be carried veryneatly and comfortably in this way, lying in the small of the back. Thesecond is the contrivance of a friend of mine, an eminent scholar anddivine, who always employs it in his vacation rambles. It is to pass anordinary strap, once round the middle of the coat and a second time roundboth the coat and the left arm just above the elbow, and then to buckleit. The coat hangs very comfortably in its place and does not hamper themovements of the left arm. It requires no further care, except that aftera few minutes it will generally be found advisable to buckle the strapone hole tighter. A coat carried in this way will be found to attract noattention from passers by. 

Waistcoats are more convenient for their pockets than for their warmth. When travelling in countries where papers have to be carried, an insidepocket between the lining and the waistcoat, with a button to close it, is extremely useful. Letters of credit and paper money can be carried init more safely than in any other pocket. 

Trousers. --If you are likely to have much riding, take extra leather ormoleskin trousers, or tweed covered down the inside of the legs withleather, such as cavalry soldiers generally wear. Leather is a betterprotection than moleskin against thorns; but not so serviceable againstwet: it will far outlast moleskin. There should be no hem to the legs oftrousers, as it retains the wet. 

Watch-pocket. --Have it made of macintosh, to save the watch fromperspiration. The astronomer-royal of Cape Town, Sir T. Maclear, who hadconsiderable experience of the bush when measuring an arc of themeridian, justly remarked to me on the advantage of frequently turningthe watch-pocket inside out, to get rid of the fluff and dust thatcollects in it and is otherwise sure to enter the watch-case. 

Socks. --The hotter the ground on which you have to walk, the thickershould be your socks. These should be of woollen, wherever you expect tohave much walking; and plenty of them will be required. 

Substitute for Socks. --For want of socks, pieces of linen may be used, and, when these are properly put on they are said to be even better thansocks. They should be a foot square, be made of soft worn linen, bewashed once a-day, and be smeared with tallow. They can be put on sodexterously as to stand several hours' marching without making a singlewrinkle, and are much used by soldiers in Germany. To put them on, thenaked foot is placed crosswise; the corners on the right and on the leftare then folded over, then the corner which lies in front of the toes. Now the art consists in so drawing up these ends, that the foot can beplaced in the shoe or boot without any wrinkles appearing in the bandage. One wrinkle is sure to make a blister, and therefore persons who have touse them should practise frequently how to put them on. Socks similar tothese, but made of thick blanket, and called "Blanket Wrappers, " are inuse at Hudson's Bay instead of shoes. 

Shirt-sleeves. --When you have occasion to tuck up your shirt-sleeves, recollect that the way of doing so is, not to begin by turning the cuffsinside out, but outside in--the sleeves must be rolled up inwards, towards the arm, and not the reverse way. In the one case, the sleeveswill remain tucked up for hours without being touched; in the other, theybecome loose every five minutes. 

Gloves, Mits, and Muffs. --In cold dry weather a pair of old soft kidgloves, with large woollen gloves drawn over them, is the warmestcombination. Mits and muffetees merely require mention. To keep the handswarm in very severe weather, a small fur muff may be slung from the neck, in which the hands may rest till wanted. 

Braces. --Do not forget to take them, unless you have had abundantexperience of belts; for belts do not suit every shape, neither areEnglish trousers cut with the intention of being worn with them. Buttrousers made abroad, are shaped at the waist, especially for the purposeof being worn without braces; if desired. If you use braces, take twopairs, for when they are drenched with perspiration, they dry slowly. Some people do not care to use a belt, even with trousers of an ordinarycut, but find that a tape run through a hem along the upper edge of thetrousers acts sufficiently well. Capt. Speke told me he always used thisplan. 

Boots. --Boots of tanned leather such as civilised people wear, areincomparably better for hard usage, especially in wet countries, thanthose of hand-dressed skins. If travelling in a hot, dry country, greaseplentifully both your shoes and all other leather. "La graisse est laconservation du cuir, " as I recollect a Chamouni guide enunciating withprofound emphasis. The soles of plaited cord used in parts of thePyrenees, are durable and excellent for clambering over smooth rock. Theyhave a far better hold upon it than any other sole of which I haveknowledge. Sandals are better than nothing at all. So are cloths woundround the feet and ankles and tied there: the peasants of the remarkablehilly place where I am writing these lines, namely Amalfi, use them much. They are an untidy chaussure, but never seem to require to be tiedafresh. In the old days of Rome this sort of foot-gear was common. Haybands wound round the feet are a common makeshift by soldiers who arecut off from their supplies. It takes some months to harden the feetsufficiently to be able to walk without shoes at all. Slippers are greatluxuries to foot-sore men. They should of course be of soft material, butthe soles should not be too thin or they will be too cold for comfort incamp life. 

Leggings. --Macintosh leggings to go over the trousers are a greatcomfort in heavy showers, especially when riding. 

Gaiters. --If the country be full of briars and thorns, the instepssuffer cruelly when riding through bushes. It is easy to make gaiterseither with buttons or buckles. A strip of wood is wanted, either behindor else on each side of them, to keep them from slipping down to theankle. 

Dressing Gown. --Persons who travel, even with the smallest quantity ofluggage, would do wisely to take a thick dressing-gown. It is a relief toput it on in the evening, and is a warm extra dress for sleeping in. Itis eminently useful, comfortable and durable. 

Poncho. --A poncho is useful, for it is a sheet as well as a cloak; beingsimply a blanket with a slit in the middle to admit the wearer's head. Asheet of strong calico, saturated with oil, makes a waterproof poncho. 

Complete Bush-costume. --Mr. Gordon Cumming describes his bush-costume asfollows:--"My own personal appointments consisted of a wide-awake hat, secured under my chin by 'rheimpys' or strips of dressed skin, a coarselinen shirt, sometimes a kilt, and sometimes a pair of buckskinknee-breeches, and a pair of 'veltschoens, ' or home-made shoes. Ientirely discarded coat, waistcoat, and neckcloth; and I always huntedwith my arms bare; my heels were armed with a pair of powerfulpersuaders, and from my left wrist depended, by a double rheimpy (thong), an equally persuasive sea-cow jambok (whip of solid leather). Around mywaist I wore two leathern belts or girdles. The smaller did the duty ofsuspender, and from it on my left side depended a plaited rheimpy, eightinches in length, forming a loop, in which dangled my powerfulloading-rod, formed of a solid piece of horn of the rhinoceros. Thelarger girdle was my shooting-belt; this was a broad leather belt, onwhich were fastened four separate compartments, made of otterskin, withflaps to button over, of the same material. The first of these held mypercussion-caps; the second, a large powder-flask; the third and fourth, which had divisions in them, contained balls and patches, two sharpclasp-knives, a compass, flint and steel. In this belt I also carried aloading-mallet, formed from the horn of the rhinoceros; this and thepowder-flask were each secured to the belt by long rheimpys, to preventmy losing them. Last, but not least, in my right hand I usually carriedmy double-barrelled two-grooved rifle, which was my favourite weapon. This, however, I subsequently made up my mind was not the tool for amounted man, especially when quick loading is required. "

Wet Clothes, to dry. --Fire for drying Clothes. --To dry clothes it is avery convenient plan to make a dome-shaped framework of twigs over asmouldering fire; by bending each twig or wand into a half-circle, andplanting both ends of it in the ground, one on each side of the fire. Thewet clothes are laid on this framework, and receive the full benefit ofthe heat. Their steam passes readily upwards. 

[Two sketches of drying frame]. 

To keep Clothes from the wet. --Mr. Parkyns says, "I may as well tell, also, how we managed to keep our clothes dry when travelling in the rain:this was rather an important consideration, seeing that each man'swardrobe consisted of what he carried on his back. Our method was at onceeffective and simple: if halting, we took off our clothes and sat onthem; if riding, they were placed under the leathern shabraque of themule's saddle, or under any article of similar material, bed or bag, thatlay on the camel's pack. A good shower-bath did none of us any harm; andas soon as the rain was over, and the moisture on our skins hadevaporated, we had our garments as warm, dry, and comfortable as if theyhad been before a fire. In populous districts, we kept on our drawers, orsupplied their place with a piece of rag, or a skin; and then, when therain was over, we wrapped ourselves up in our 'quarry, ' and taking offthe wetted articles, hung them over the animal's cruppers to dry. "Another traveller writes:--

"The only means we had of preserving our sole suit of clothes dry fromthe drenching showers of rain, was by taking them off and stuffing theminto the hollow of a tree, which in the darkness of the night we could dowith propriety. "

Mr. Palliser's boatmen at Chagre took each a small piece of cloth, underwhich they laid their clothes every time that they stripped inexpectation of a coming storm. 

Dipping clothes wetted with rain, in Sea-water. --Captain Bligh, who wasturned adrift in an open boat after the mutiny of the 'Bounty, ' writesthus about his experience:--"With respect to the preservation of ourhealth, during a course of 16 days of heavy and almost continual rain, Iwould recommend to every one in a similar situation the method wepractised, which is to dip their clothes in the salt water and wring themout as often as they become filled with rain: it was the only resource wehad, and I believe was of the greatest service to us, for it felt morelike a change of dry clothes than could well be imagined. We had occasionto do this so often, that at length our clothes were wrung to pieces; forexcept the few days we passed on the coast of New Holland, we werecontinually wet, either with rain or sea. "

Washing Clothes. --Substitute for Soap. --The lye of ashes and the gallof animals are the readiest substitutes for soap. The sailor's recipe forwashing clothes is well known, but it is too dirty to describe. Bran, andthe meal of many seeds, is good for scouring: also some earths, likefuller's-earth. Many countries possess plants that will make a latherwith water. Dr. Rae says that in a very cold climate, when fire, water, and the means of drying are scarce, it will be found that rubbingandbeating in snow cleanses all clothing remarkably well, particularlywoollens. When preparing for a regular day's washing, it is a good planto boil an abundance of ashes in water, strain off the lye, adding thegall of any animal you may have killed, and let the clothes soak in it. Next morning, take them to the water-side, and wash and beat them with aflat piece of wood, or lay them on a broad stone and knead and wring themwith the hands. 

Lye of Ashes. --In choosing plants to burn for ashes (whence the lye isto be made by pouring hot water on them), it must be recollected that allplants are not equally efficacious: those that contain the most alkali(either potash or soda) are the best. On this account, the stalks ofsucculent plants, as reeds, maize, broom, heath, and furze, are very muchbetter than the wood of any trees; and twigs are better than timber. Pineand fir-trees are the worst of woods. The ashes of most kinds of seaweedyield abundance of alkali. Potash is the alkali that is obtained from theashes of land plants, and soda from those of marine plants. 

10, 000 parts of pine or fur. .. .. .. Contain. .. . 4 parts of alkali. " poplar " 7 " " beech-wood " 14 " " oak " 15 " " willow " 28 " " elm, maple, and wheat straw. " 39 " " thistles, flax-stems, and small rushes " 50 " " large rushes " 72 " " stalk of maize " 175 " " bean-stalks " 200 "

Soap is made by keeping fat constantly simmering in lye of ashes (seepreceding paragraphs) for some days; adding fresh lye as fast as thewater boils away, or is sucked up by the fat. After one or two trials, the knack of soap-making is easily caught. The presence of salt makes thesoap hard; its absence, soft; now many ashes contain a good deal of salt, and these may make the soap too hard, and will have to be mixed withother sorts of ashes before being used: experience must guide thetraveller in this. A native woman will be probably be found withoutdifficulty, who will attend night and day to the pot-boiling for a smallpayment. Inferior soap may be made by simply putting some grease into atub of very strong lye, and letting it remain for two or three weeks, without any boiling, but stirring it every day. 

Marine Soap is made of soda lye (the lye of seaweeds) and cocoa-nut oil;it makes a lather with salt water, but it has the defect of being verybulky. 

To wash Flannels. --Make a lather of soap on a small piece of flannel, andrub with it those parts that require the most cleansing, such as the neckand wristbands of a shirt; then plunge the shirt in water as hot as youcan bear it, rinsing it and wringing it out very thoroughly, and hang itup to dry as quickly as possible. Soda should not be used with colouredflannels. 

Washing Oneself. --Warmth of Dirt. --There is no denying the fact, thoughit be not agreeable to confess it, that dirt and grease are greatprotectors of the skin against inclement weather, and that therefore theleader of a party should not be too exacting about the appearance of hisless warmly-clad followers. Daily washing, if not followed by oiling, must be compensated by wearing clothes. Take the instance of a dog. Hewill sleep out under any bush, and thrive there, so long as he is notwashed, groomed, and kept clean; but if he be, he must have a kennel tolie in, the same is the case with a horse; he catches cold if he isgroomed in the day, and turned out at nights; but he never catches coldwhen left wholly to himself. A savage will never wash unless he cangrease himself afterwards--grease takes the place of clothing to him. There must be a balance between the activity of the skin and the callsupon it; and where the exposure is greater, there must the pores be moredefended. In Europe, we pass our lives in a strangely artificial state;our whole body swathed in many folds of dress, excepting the hands andface--the first of which are frequently gloved. We can afford to wash, but naked men cannot. 

Best Times for Washing. --The most convenient time for a traveller to makehis toilet, in rough travel, is after the early morning's ride, a bathbeing now and then taken in the afternoon. It is trying work to wash inice-cold water, in the dark and blowing morning; besides which, when thesun rises up, its scorching heat tells severely on a face that has beenwashed. 

Toilet made overnight. --During the harassing duties of active warfare, officers who aim at appearing in a decorous dress, in whatever emergencytheir presence may be required, make their toilet overnight before goingto sleep. 

Economising Water in Washing. --Where water has to be economised, by farthe best way of using it is after the Mahomedan fashion. An attendantpours a slender stream from a jug, which the man who washes himselfreceives in his hands and distributes over his person. 

Bath-glove. --Fold a piece of very coarse towel in two parts: lay yourhand upon it, and mark its outline rudely; then guided by the outline, cut it out: sew the two pieces together, along their edges, and the gloveis made. It is inexpensive, and portable, and as good a detergent ashorsehair gloves or flesh-brushes. 

Brushes. --It is well to know how to make a brush, whether for clothes, boots, or hair, and the accompanying section of one will explain itself. Bristles are usually employed, but fibres of various kinds may be used. 

[Sketch of brush]. 

BEDDING. 

General Remarks. --The most bulky, and often the heaviest, parts of atraveller's equipment are his clothes, sleeping-mat, and blankets: nor isit at all desirable that these should be stinted in quantity; for thehardship that most tries a man's constitution and lays the seeds ofrheumatism, dysentery, and fever, is that of enduring the bitter cold ofa stormy night, which may happen to follow an exhausting day of extremeheat or drenching wet. After many months' travel and camping, theconstitution becomes far less susceptible of injury from cold and damp, but in no case is it ever proof against their influence. Indeed, theoldest travellers are ever those who go the most systematically to work, in making their sleeping-places dry and warm. Unless a traveller makeshimself at home and comfortable in the bush, he will never be quitecontented with his lot; but will fall into the bad habit of lookingforwards to the end of his journey, and to his return to civilisation, instead of complacently interesting himself in its continuance. This is aframe of mind in which few great journeys have been successfullyaccomplished; and an explorer who cannot divest himself of it, maysuspect that he has mistaken his vocation. 

It is a common idea among men who are preparing to travel for the firsttime, that all the bed-clothing about which they need concern themselves, is a sufficiency to cover them, forgetting that a man has an under aswell as an upper side to keep warm, and must therefore have clothingbetween him and the earth, as well as between him and the air. Indeed, ontrying the experiment, and rolling oneself up in a single blanket, theundermost side in a cold night is found to be by far the colder of thetwo. The substance of the blanket is compressed by the weight of thesleeper; the interstices between its fibres cease to exist; and the airwhich they contained and which is a powerful non-conductor of heat, issqueezed out. Consequently wherever the blanket is compressed, its powerof retaining the heat of the sleeper is diminished. Soft fleecysubstances, like eider-down quilts, which are extremely warm ascoverlets, are well-nigh useless as mattresses. There is another causewhy a sleeper requires more protection from below, than from above: it isthat if the ground be at all wet, its damp will penetrate through verythick substances laid upon it. It will therefore be clearly understoodthat the object of a mattress is not alone to give softness to the bed, but also to give warmth; and that if a man lies in a hammock, with onlythe hammock below, and blankets above, he will be fully as much chilledas if the arrangement had been reversed, and he had lain upon blankets, with only the hammock as a sheet to cover him. 

Vital Heat. --The vital heat of a man, either in an active or a latentform, is equal to that which is given out by two ordinary candles: Ijudge so from the following reasons. All our vital heat is produced bythe combustion--for it is simple combustion--of the carbon in our food. Now the quantity of carbon consumed by a man in full diet, in 24 hours, is about 22 oz. In weight. On the other hand, I find that ordinarycandles, which mainly consist of carbon, burn at the rate of 11 oz. In 24hours. Therefore the heat given out by two candles is just about the sameas that given out by one man, either in a sensible form, or else under alatent form by the vapour of the breath. Secondly, I have frequentlyheard it estimated, as the result of the ordinary experience of sociallife, that a saloon is warmed by each couple of candles somewhat morethan it is by the presence of a single guest. Where I write these lines, I have not an opportunity of verifying my rough estimate, by reference tophysiological works, but accuracy is of little consequence to my presentpurpose, which is to give a general idea of the magnitude of the problemto be solved by clothes and tenting. Their joint office is to retain theheat of a mass of flesh and blood, the size and shape of a man, warmed bytwo candles burning within it, at a temperature of not less than 96degrees in its inward parts. 

Mattresses and their Substitutes. --A Strip of Macintosh. --If a travellercan do so, he should make a point of having a strip of macintosh sheeting7 feet by 4, certainly not less than 6 feet by 3, to lay on the groundbelow his bedding. Every white servant in the expedition ought to befurnished with a strip of macintosh sheeting, or, failing that, with astrip of painted canvas. However, painted cloth is much inferior tomacintosh, as it will not fold up without cracking: it also tears easily, and is heavy. Macintosh, of the sort that suits all climates, and made oflinen, not of silk, is invaluable to an explorer, whether in the form ofsheeting, coats, water-bags. Swimming belts, or inflatable boats. Alittle box full of the composition for mending it, and a spare bit ofmacintosh, should always be taken. 

Mattress. --Making a mattress is indeed a very simple affair. A bag ofcanvas, or other cloth, is made of the size wanted. It is then stuffedfull of hair, wool, dry leaves, or cotton, and a strong stitch is putthrough it every few inches. The use of the stitching is to prevent thestuffing from being displaced, and forming lumps in different parts ofthe bag. 

Palliasse. --Straw, well knitted or plaited together, forms a goodmattress, commonly called a palliasse. 

Shavings of Wood. --Eight pounds' weight of shavings make an excellentbed, and I find I can cut them with a common spokeshave, in 3 1/2 hours, out of a log of deal. It is practicable to make an efficient spokeshave, by tying a large clasp-knife on a common stick which has been cut into aproper shape to receive it. 

Oakum. --Old cord, picked into oakum, will also make a bed. 

Various Makeshifts. --If a traveller, as is very commonly the case, shouldhave no mattress, he should strew his sleeping-place with dry grass, plucked up from the ground, or with other things warm to the touch, imitating the structure of a bird's-nest as far as he has skill andmaterials to do so. Leaves, fern, feathers, heather, rushes, flags ofreeds and of maize, wood-shavings, bundles of faggots, and such likematerials as chance may afford, should be looked for and appropriated; apile of stones, or even two trunks of trees rolled close together, maymake a dry bedstead in a marshy land. Over these, let him lay whateverempty bags, skins, saddle-cloths, or spare clothes he may have, whichfrom their shape or smallness cannot be turned to account as coverings, and the lower part of his bed is complete. 

If a night of unusual cold be expected, the best use to make of sparewearing-apparel, is to put it on over that which is already on theperson. With two or three shirts, stockings, and trousers, thoughseverally of thin materials, a man may get through a night of very tryingweather. 

Preparing the Ground for a Bed. --Travellers should always root up thestones and sticks that might interfere with the smoothness of the placewhere they intend to sleep. This is a matter worth taking a great deal ofpains about; the oldest campaigners are the most particular in makingthemselves comfortable at night. They should also scrape a hollow in theground, of the shape shown in fig. 2 (next page), before spreading theirsleeping-rugs. It is disagreeable enough to lie on a perfectly levelsurface, like that of a floor, but the acme of discomfort is to lie upona convexity. Persons who have omitted to make a shapely lair forthemselves, should at least scrape a hollow in the ground, just where thehip-bone would otherwise press. 

[Sketch of person sleeping and bed; Fig. 1 and 2]. 

The annexed sketch (fig. 1) represents a man sleeping in a naturalattitude. It will be observed that he fits into a concavity of about 6inches in greatest depth. (The scale on which he is drawn is 6 feet longand 1 foot high. )

Hammocks. --See section on "furniture. "

Coverlets. --General Remarks. --For an upper cover, it is of importance toan otherwise unsheltered person, that its texture should be such as toprevent the wind blowing through. If it does so, no thickness is of anyavail in keeping out the cold; hence the advantage of skin carosses, buffalo robes, leather sheets, and macintosh rugs. All clothes lose muchof their closeness of texture in a hot, dry climate; the fibres shrinkextremely, and the wind blows through the tissue as through network. Itis in order to make their coverings wind-proof, that shepherd-lads on thehills in Scotland, when the nights are cold, dip their plaids in water, before sitting or lying down in them. The wet swells up the fibres of theplaid, and makes the texture of it perfectly dense and close. It is alsoof importance that the outer covering should have a certain weight, so asnot to be too easily displaced, either by the person fidgeting in hissleep or by the blowing of the wind. In dry weather there is nothing likefurs; but in a rainy country I prefer a thick blanket bag (see "SleepingBags"), a large spare blanket, and a macintosh sheet and counterpane. Itmay be objected that the bag and macintosh would be close and stuffy, butbe assured that the difficulty when sleeping on mother earth, on a bitternight, is to keep the fresh air out, not to let it in. On fine nights Ishould sleep on the bag and under the spare blanket. 

Stuffy Bedding. --It must be understood that while recommending coverletsthat resist the wind, I am very far from advocating extreme stuffiness, and for the following reason. Though a free passage of the wind abstractsan excessive amount of animal heat from the sleeper, yet the freshness ofpure air stimulates his body to give it out in an increased proportion. On the other hand, sleeping-clothes that are absolutely impervious to thepassage of the wind, necessarily retain the cutaneous excretions: thesepoison the sleeper, acting upon his blood through his skin, andmaterially weaken his power of emitting vital heat: the fire of his lifeburns more languidly. I therefore suspect it would be more dangerous topass a very cold night enclosed tightly in thin macintosh buttoned up tothe chin, than without it. Much less heat would be robbed from thesleeper in the first case, but he would have very much less heat tospare. There is, therefore, an intermediate arrangement of sleeping-gear, neither too stuffy on the one hand nor too open on the other, by whichthe maximum power of resisting the chill of the night is obtainable. 

Sleeping Clothes. --Some travellers prefer to have their blanket at oncemade up into a loose coat, trousers, and cap, pockets ad libitum, and atape in the trouser band. An extra suit is thus always at hand, thesleeper loses little of the advantages of comfortable bedding, and isalways, in some sense, dressed for any emergency. 

Feathers. --When you collect bed feathers for coverlets, recollect that ifthey are cleanly plucked, they will require no dressing of any kind, savedrying and beating. 

Brown Paper. --Brown paper is an excellent non-conductor of heat andexcluder of draughts: English cottagers often enclose sheets of it withintheir quilted counterpanes. If thoroughly soaked and then dried, it willnot crackle. 

Extra Clothes. --If a man be destitute of proper wraps, he cannot dobetter than put on all the spare clothes he possesses. The additionalwarmth of a single extra shirt is remarkable. 

Dry Clothes. --However wet the weather may be during the day, thetraveller should never relax his endeavours to keep a dry and warm changeof clothes for his bivouac at night. Hardships in rude weather matterlittle to a healthy man, when he is awake and moving, and while the sunis above the horizon; but let him never forget the deplorable resultsthat may follow a single night's exposure to cold, malaria, and damp. 

Pillows. --A mound of sand or earth, scraped together for a pillow, isground down into flatness, after a few minutes. A bag filled with earth, or it may be with grass, keeps its shape. Many people use their saddlesas pillows; they roll up the flaps and stirrups, and place the saddle onthe ground with a stone underneath, at its hindmost end, to keep it leveland steady, and then lay their heads on the seat. I prefer using anythingelse; as, for instance, the stone without the saddle: but I generallysecure some bag or other for the purpose, as, without a pillow, it isdifficult to sleep in comfort. A bag shaped like a pillow-case, andstuffed with spare clothes, is very convenient. Some people advocateair-cushions. 

Mr. Mansfield Parkyns' excellent plan, of sleeping on the side, with thestock of the gun between the head and the arm, and the barrel between thelegs, will be described when I speak of "Guns. "

BIVOUAC. 

There are four ways in which travellers who are thrown upon their ownresources may house themselves. They may bivouac, that is to say, theymay erect a temporary shelter of a makeshift character, partly frommaterials found on the spot, and partly from the cloths they may happento possess; they may build a substantial hut, which of course takes agood deal of labour to complete; they may use sleeping-bags; or they maypitch a regular tent. I will speak of these four methods of encamping, --the bivouac, the hut, the sleeping-bag, and the tent, in that order. 

General Remarks. --Bivouacking is miserable work in a wet or unhealthyclimate; but in a dry and healthy one, there is no question of itssuperiority over tenting. Men who sleep habitually in the open, breathefresher air and are far more imbued with the spirit of wild life, thanthose who pass the night within the stuffy enclosure of a tent. It is anendless pleasure to lie half awake watching the stars above, and thepicturesque groupings of the encampment round about, and to hear on allsides the stirrings of animal life. And later in the night, when the fireis low, and servants and cattle are asleep, and there is no sound but ofthe wind and an occasional plaintive cry of wild animals, the travellerfinds himself in that close communion with nature which is the true charmof wild travel. Now all this pleasure is lost by sleeping in a tent. Tentlife is semi-civilization, and perpetuates its habits. This may beillustrated by a simple trait; a man who has lived much in bivouacs, ifthere be a night alarm, runs naturally into the dark for safety, just asa wild animal would; but a man who travels with tents becomes frightenedwhen away from its lights, or from the fancied security of its walls. 

In a dangerous country there can be no comparison between the hazard of atent and that of a bivouac. In the former a man's sleep is heavy; hecannot hear nearly so well; he can see nothing; his cattle may alldecamp; while marauders know exactly where he is lying, and may maketheir plans accordingly. They may creep up unobserved and spear himthrough the canvas. The first Napoleon had a great opinion of theadvantages of bivouacking over those of tenting. He said it was thehealthier of the two for soldiers. (See p. 153. )

Shelter from the Wind. --Study the form of a hare! In the flattest andmost unpromising of fields, the creature will have availed herself ofsome little hollow to the lee of an insignificant tuft of grass, andthere she will have nestled and fidgeted about till she has made asmooth, round, grassy bed, compact and fitted to her shape, where she maycurl herself snugly up, and cower down below the level of the cuttingnight wind. Follow her example. A man, as he lies upon his mother earth, is an object so small and low that a screen of eighteen inches high willguard him securely from the strength of a storm. A common mistake of anovice lies in selecting a tree for his camping-place, which spreads outnobly above, but affords no other shelter from the wind than that of itsbare stem below. 

[Sketch of sleeping man behind wall]. 

It may be, that as he walks about in search of shelter, a mass of foliageat the level of his eye, with its broad shadow, attracts him, and as hestands to the leeward of it it seems snug, and, therefore, withoutfurther reflection, he orders his bed to be spread at the foot of sometree. But as soon as he lies down on the ground the tree proves worthlessas a screen against the wind; it is a roof, but it is not a wall. Thereal want in blowy weather is a dense low screen, perfectly wind-tight, as high as the knee above the ground. Thus, if a traveller has to encampon a bare turf plain, he need only turn up a sod seven feet long by twofeet wide, and if he succeeds in propping it on its edge, it will form asufficient shield against the wind. 

In heavy gales, the neighbourhood of a solitary tree is a positivenuisance. It creates a violent eddy of wind, that leaves palpableevidence of its existence. Thus, in corn-fields, it is a common result ofa storm to batter the corn quite flat in circles round each tree thatstands in the field, while elsewhere no injury takes place. This verymorning that I am writing these remarks, November 158, I wasforcibly struck by the appearance of Kensington Gardens, after lastnight's gale, which had covered the ground with an extraordinary amountof dead leaves. They lay in a remarkably uniform layer, of from three tofive inches in depth, except that round each and every tree the groundwas absolutely bare of leaves for a radius of about a yard. The effectwas as though circular discs had been cut out, leaving the edges of thelayer of leaves perfectly sharp and vertical. It would have been adangerous mistake to have slept that night at the foot of any one ofthose trees. 

Again, in selecting a place for bivouac, we must bear in mind that a galenever blows in level currents, but in all kinds of curls and eddies, asthe driving of a dust-storm, or the vagaries of bits of straw caught upby the wind, unmistakably show us. Little hillocks or undulations, combined with the general lay of the ground, are a chief cause of theseeddies; they entirely divert the current of the wind from particularspots. Such spots should be looked for; they are discovered by watchingthe grass or the sand that lies on the ground. If the surface be quiet inone place, while all around it is agitated by the wind, we shall not befar wrong in selecting that place for our bed, however unprotected it mayseem in other respects. It is constantly remarked, that a very slightmound or ridge will shelter the ground for many feet behind it; and anold campaigner will accept such shelter gladly, notwithstanding theapparent insignificances of its cause. 

Shelter from the Sky. --The shelter of a wall is only sufficient againstwind or driving rain; we require a roof to shield us against verticalrain, and against dew, or what is much the same thing, against the coldof a clear blue sky on a still night. The temperature of the heavens isknown pretty accurately, by more than one method of calculation: it is-239 degrees Fahr. ; the greatest cold felt in the Arctic regions beingabout -40 degrees Fahr. If the night be cloudy, each cloud is a roof tokeep off the cold; if it be clear, we are exposed to the full chill ofthe blue sky, with only such alleviation as the warming and thenon-conducting powers of the atmosphere may afford. The effect is greaterthan most people would credit. The uppermost layer of the earth, orwhatever may be lying exposed upon it, is called upon to part with agreat quantity of heat. If it so happen that the uppermost layer is of anon-conducting nature, the heat abstracted from it will be poorlyresupplied by communication from the lower ones. Again, if the night be avery calm one, there will be no supply of warmth from fresh currents ofair falling down upon it. Hence, in the treble event of a clear blue sky, a non-conducting soil, and a perfectly still night, we are liable to havegreat cold on the surface of the ground. This is shared by a thin layerof air that immediately rests upon it; while at each successive inch inheight, the air becomes more nearly of its proper temperature. A vastnumber of experiments have been made by Mr. Glaisher on this subject('Phil. Trans. ' 1847), the upshot of which is that a thermometer laid ongrass, under a blue sky on a calm night, marks on an average 8 degreesFahr. Colder than one 4 feet above it; 1 inch above grass, 5 1/2 degrees;1 foot, 1 degrees; 4 feet, 1/2 degrees; on gravel and sand thedifferences are only about one-third as much. Sheep have a practicalknowledge of these differences. Often, in an early walk on dewy mornings, I see all the sheep in Hyde Park bivouacked on the gravel walks of RottenRow. The above figures are the results of experiments made in England, where the air is always moist, and the formation of dew, while ittestifies to the cold of the night, assists largely to moderate it. Inarid climates the chill would be far greater; such would also be the caseat high elevations. One of Mr. Glaisher's experiments showed a differenceof no less than 28 degrees between the cold on the ground and that at 8feet high. This might often be rivalled in an elevated desert, as in thatof Mongolia. Hence the value of the protection of a roof and of a raisedsleeping-place, to a man sleeping under a blue sky in still weather, admits of easy interpretation. 

Various Methods of Bivouacking. --Unprotected. --Mr. Shaw, the travellerin Thibet, says:--"My companion and I walked on to keep ourselves warm, but halting at sunset, had to sit and freeze several hours before thethings came up. The best way of keeping warm on such an occasion, is tosquat down, kneeling against a bank, resting your head on the bank, andnearly between your knees. Then tuck your overcoat in, all round you, over head and all; and if you are lucky, and there is not too much wind, you will make a little atmosphere of your own inside the covering, whichwill be snug in comparison with the outside air. Your feet sufferchiefly, but you learn to tie yourself into a kind of knot, bringing asmany surfaces of your body together as possible. I have passed wholenights in this kneeling position, and slept well; whereas I should nothave got a wink had I been stretched at full length with such a scantycovering as a great-coat. "

Bushes. --I have shown that the main object before sleeping out at nightis to secure a long wind-tight wall, and that the next is to obtain aroof. Both these objects may be attained by pleachingtwo or three smallneighbouring bushes into one; or branches may be torn off elsewhere andinterwoven between the bushes. A few leafy boughs, cut and stuck into theground, with their tops leaning over the bed, and secured in thatposition by other boughs, wattled-in horizontally, give great protection. Long grass, etc. , should be plucked and strewn against them to make themas wind-tight as possible. 

Walls. --A pile of saddle-bags and other travelling gear may be made intoa good screen against the wind; and travellers usually arrange them withthat intention. Walls of stone may be built as a support to cloths, whoseoffice it is to render the walls wind-tight, and also by lapping overtheir top, to form a partial roof. We have already spoken of a broad sodof turf propped up on edge. 

"The Thibetan traveller cares for no roof overhead if he can shelterhimself from the wind behind a three-foot wall. Hence the numerous littleenclosures clustered together like cells of a honeycomb at everyhalting-place, with one side always raised against the prevailing wind. (Shaw. ) These walls are built round shallow pits, each with its roughfireplace in the middle. 

Cloths. --Any cloth may be made to give shelter by an arrangement likethat in the sketch. 

[Sketch of cloth shelter]. 

The corners of the cloth should be secured by simple hitches in the rope, and never by knots. The former are sufficient for all purposes ofsecurity, but the latter will jam, and you may have to injure both clothand string to get them loose again. It is convenient to pin the sides ofthe cloth with a skewer round the ropes. Any strip of wood makes askewer. Earth should be banked against the lowest edge of the cloth, tokeep out the wind, and to prevent its flapping. The sticks may, on anemergency, be replaced by faggots of brushwood, by guns, or by ropescarried down from the overhanging branches of a large tree. (For a sailsupported by oars, see "Sail Tent" p. 108. )

Fremont, the American traveller bivouacked as follows:--His rifles weretied together near the muzzles, the butts resting on the ground widelyapart; a knife was laid on the rope that tied them together, to cut it incase of an alarm; over this extempore framework was thrown a largeindia-rubber cloth, with which he covered his packs when on the road; itmade a cover sufficiently large to receive about half of his bed, and wasa place of shelter for his instruments. 

Gordon Cumming. --The following extract is from Mr. Gordon Cumming's bookon Africa: it describes the preparations of a practised traveller for ashort excursion from his wagons away into the bush. "I had at length gotinto the way of making myself tolerably comfortable in the field, andfrom this date I seldom went in quest of elephants without the followingimpedimenta, i. E. A large blanket, which I folded and secured before mysaddle as a dragoon does his cloak, and two leather sacks, containing aflannel shirt, warm trousers, and a woollen night-cap, spare ammunition, washing-rod, coffee, bread, sugar, pepper and salt, dried meat, a woodenbowl, and a tea-spoon. These sacks were carried on the shoulders of thenatives, for which service I remunerated them with beads. They alsocarried my coffee-kettle, two calabashes of water, two American axes, andtwo sickles, which I used every evening to cut grass for my bed, andlikewise for my horses to eat throughout the night; and my after-ridercarried extra ammunition and a spare rifle. "

Importance of Comfort. --To conclude these general hints, let thetraveller, when out in trying weather, work hard at making hissleeping-place perfectly dry and comfortable; he should not cease untilhe is convinced that it will withstand the chill of the early morning, when the heat of the yesterday's sun is exhausted, and that of the comingsun has not begun to be felt. It is wretched beyond expression for a manto lie shivering beneath a scanty covering and to feel the night airbecome hourly more raw, while his life-blood has less power to withstandit; and to think, self-reproachfully, how different would have been hissituation if he had simply had forethought and energy enough to cut anddraw twice the quantity of firewood, and to spend an extra half-hour inlabouring to make himself a snugger berth. The omission once made becomesirreparable; for in the cold of a pitiless night he has hardly sufficientstamina to rise and face the weather, and the darkness makes him unableto cope with his difficulties. 

Bivouac in Special Localities. --Encampment in Forests. --A clump of treesyields wonderful shelter. The Swedes have a proverb that "the forest isthe poor man's jacket. " In fir-woods there is great facility in makingwarm encampments; for a young tree, when it is felled, yields both polesto support branches for shields against weather, and finer cuttings forflooring above the snow or damp. A common plan is to support a cross-barby two uprights, as shown in the figure; against this cross-bar a numberof poles are made to lean; on the back of the poles abundance of firbranches are laid horizontally; and lastly, on the back of these areanother set of leaning poles, in order to secure them by their weight. 

[Sketch of pole shelter]. On Bare Plains. --Avoid sleeping in slight hollows during clear stillweather. The cold stratum of air, of which I spoke in the section of"Shelter from the Sky, " pours down into them, like water from thesurrounding plain, and stagnates. Spring frosts are always more severelyfelt in hollows. Therefore, in a broad level plain, especially if thenight be clear and calm, look out for some slightly rising ground for anencampment. The chilled stratum of air drains from off it, and isreplaced by warmer air. Horses and cattle, as the night sets in, alwaysdraw up to these higher grounds, which rise like islands through the seaof mist that covers the plain. 

Walls have been built for shelter against the wind, on a bare sandyplain, by taking empty bags, filling them with sand, and then buildingthem up as if they had been stones. 

Buried, or in Holes. --A European can live through a bitter night, on aperfectly dry sandy plain, without any clothes besides what he has on, ifhe buries his body pretty deeply in the sand, keeping only his head aboveground. It is a usual habit of the naked natives in Australia to do so, and not an unfrequent one of the Hottentots of South Africa. Mr. Moffatrecords with grateful surprise how he passed a night, of which he hadgloomy forebodings, in real comfort, even luxury, by adopting thismethod. A man may be as comfortable in a burrow as in a den. I shallspeak of underground houses under "Hutting;" and for the present willonly mention that, in arid countries, dry wells, dug by natives andpartially choked by drifted sand, are often to be met with. They aregenerally found near existing watering-places, where they have beensuperseded by others, better placed and deeper. Now, there are few warmersleeping-places than one of these dry wells; a small fire is easily keptburning at the bottom, and the top may be partially roofed over. 

In Ashes of Camp Fire. --A few chill hours may be got over, in a plainthat affords no other shelter, by nestling among the ashes of a recentlyburnt-out camp fire. 

Warm Carcases. --In Napoleon's retreat, after his campaign in Russia, manya soldier saved or prolonged his life by creeping within the warm andreeking carcase of a horse that had died by the way. 

By the water-side. --A stony beach makes a fine dry encamping-place, andhas this advantage, that it makes it impossible for marauders to creep upunheard. But the immediate neighbourhood of fresh water is objectionable, for, besides being exposed to malaria and mosquitoes, the night air ismore cold and penetrating by its side, than at one or two hundred yards'distance from it. (I will speak of walls of rushes and reeds, under"Huts. ")

By Rocks. --In the cruel climate of Thibet, Dr. Hooker tells us that it isthe habit to encamp close to some large rock, because a rock absorbs heatall day, and parts with it but slowly during the night-time. It is, therefore, a reservoir of warmth when the sun is down, and itsneighbourhood is coveted in the night-time. Owing to the same cause, acting in the opposite direction, the shadow of a broad rock ispeculiarly cool and grateful, during the heat of the day, in a thirstyland. 

On Heather. --Mr. St. John tells us of an excellent way in which Highlandpoachers, when in a party usually pass frosty nights on the moor-side. They cut quantities of heather, and strew part of it as a bed on theground; then all the party lie down, side by side, excepting one manwhose place among the rest is kept vacant for him. His business is tospread plaids upon them as they lie, and to heap up the remainder of theheather upon the plaids. This being accomplished, the man wriggles andworks himself into the gap that has been left for him in the midst of hiscomrades. 

[Sketch of sleeping arrangement]. 

On Snow. --I shall have to describe snow-houses and snow-walls coveredwith sail-cloth, under "Huts. " Here I will speak of more simplearrangements. Dr. Kane says:--"We afterwards learnt to modify and reduceour travelling-gear, and found that in direct proportion to itssimplicity and to our apparent privation of articles of supposednecessity, were our actual comfort and practical efficiency. Step bystep, as long as our Arctic service continued, we went on reducing oursledging outfit, until we at last came to the Esquimaux ultimatum ofsimplicity--raw meat and a fur bag. " Lieut. Cresswell, R. N. , who, havingbeen detached from Captain McClure's ship in 1853, was the first officerwho ever accomplished the famous North-West passage, gave the followinggraphic account of the routine of his journeying, in a speech atLynn:--"You must be aware that in Arctic travelling you must dependentirely on your own resources. You have not a single thing else todepend on except snow-water: no produce of the country, nor firewood, orcoals, or anything off the sort; and whatever you have to take, tosustain you for the journey, you must carry or drag. It is found byexperience more easy to drag it on sledges than to carry it. The plan weadopt is this:--we have a sledge generally manned by about six or tenmen, which we load with provisions, with tents, and all requisites fortravelling, simple cooking utensils, spirits-of-wine for cooking, etc. , and start off. The quantity of people can generally drag over the ice isforty days' provisions; that gives about 200 lbs. Weight to each. Afterstarting from the ship, and having travelled a certain number ofhours--generally ten or eleven--we encamp for the night, or rather forthe day, because it is considered better to travel at night and sleep atday, on account of the glare of the sun on the snow. We used to traveljourneys of about ten hours, and then encamp, light our spirits-of-wine, put our kettle on it to thaw our snow-water, and after we had had oursupper--just a piece of pemmican and a glass of water--we were glad tosmoke our pipes and turn into bed. The first thing we did, after pitchingthe tent, was to lay a sort of macintosh covering over the snow; on thisa piece of buffalo robe was stretched. Each man and officer had a blanketsewn up in the form of a bag; and into these we used to jump, much in thesame way as you may see a boy do in a sack. We lay down head and feet, the next person to me having his head to my feet, and his feet to myhead, so that we lay like herrings in a barrel. After this, we coveredourselves with skin, spreading them over the whole of us; and the closerwe got, the better, as there was more warmth. We lay till the morning, and then the process was the same again. " It appears that people may burythemselves in snow, and want neither air nor warmth. I have never madethe experiment; but have read of numerous instances of people fallinginto snow-drifts, and not being extricated for many days, and when atlength they were taken out, they never seem to have complained of cold, or any other sufferings than those of hunger and of anxiety. 

HUTS. 

Huts and Snow-Houses. --In making a depôt, it is usual to build a house;often the men must pass weeks in inactivity, and they had better spendtheir time in making their quarters comfortable than in idleness. Whatever huts are used by the natives are sure, if made with extra care, to be good enough for European travellers. 

Log-huts. --In building log-huts, four poles are planted in the ground, tocorrespond to the four corners; against these, logs are piled one aboveanother as in the drawing below; they are so deeply notched where theirends are crossed, that the adjacent sides are firmly dovetailed. When thewalls are entirely completed, the door and windows are chopped out. 

[Sketch of cabin]. 

The spaces between the logs must be caulked with moss, etc. , or thelog-cabin will be little better than a log-cage. It requires a great manylogs to make a hut; for, supposing the walls to be 8 feet high, and thetrees to average 8 inches in diameter, twelve trees would be required tobuild up one side, or forty-eight for all four walls. Other timber wouldalso be wanted for the roof. 

Underground Huts are used in all quarters of the globe. The experience ofour troops when encamped before Sebastopol during an inclement seasontold strongly in their favour. Their timely adoption was the salvation ofthe British army. They are essentially, nothing else than holes in theground, roofed over, fig. 1. 

[Sketch of roof and geometrical measure]. 

The shape and size of the hole corresponds to that of the roof it may bepossible to procure for it; its depth is no greater than requisite forsitting or standing. If the roof has a pitch of 2 feet in the middle, thedepth of the hole need not exceed 4 1/2 feet. In the Crimea, the holeswere rectangular, and were roofed like huts. 

Where there is a steep hillside, a a', fig. 2, an underground hut, b, iseasily contrived; because branches laid over its top, along the surfaceof the ground, have sufficient pitch to throw off the rain. Of course theearth must be removed from a', at the place intended for the doorway. 

Reed Huts. --The reed huts of the Affej Arabs, and other inhabitants ofthe Chaldean marshes, are shaped like wagon-roofs, and are constructed ofsemicircular ribs of reeds, planted in the ground, one behind the other, at equal distances apart; each rib being a faggot of reeds of 2 feet indiameter. For strength, they are bound round every yard with twistedbands of reeds. When this framework has been erected, it is covered withtwo or three sheets of fine reed matting (see "Matting"), which forms adwelling impervious to rain. Some of the chiefs' huts are as much as 40feet long, and 12 high; the other huts are considerably smaller. Many ofthese reed dwellings are contained in compounds enclosed by lofty reedfences; the reeds being planted upright, and simply strung together by athread run through them, as they stand side by side. (See "Straw and ReedWalls. ")

Snow-houses. --Few travellers have habitually made snow-houses, except SirJ. Franklin's party and that of Dr. Rae. Great praises are bestowed ontheir comfort by all travellers, but skill and practice are required inbuilding them. The mode of erection of these dome-shaped buildings is asfollows:--It is to be understood that compact, underlying snow isnecessary for the floor of the hut; and that the looser textured, upperlayer of snow, is used to build the house. First, select and mark out thecircular plot on which the hut is to be raised. Then, cut out of thatplot, with knives, deep slices of snow, 6 inches wide, 3 feet long, andof a depth equal to that of the layer of loose snow, say one or two feet. These slices are to be of a curved shape, so as to form a circular ringwhen placed on their edges, and of a suitable radius for the first row ofsnow-bricks. Other slices are cut on the same principle for thesucceeding rows; but when the domed roof has to be made, the snow-bricksmust be cut with the necessary double curvature. A conical plug fills upthe centre of the dome. Loose snow is next heaped over the house, to fillup crevices. Lastly a doorway is cut out with knives; also a window, which is glazed with a sheet of the purest ice at hand. For insideaccommodation there should be a pillar or two of snow to support thelamps. 

Snow Walls with Tenting for their Roofs. --Sir L. McClintock says:--"Wetravelled each day until dusk, and then were occupied for a couple ofhours in building our snow-hut. The four walls were run up until 5 1/2feet high, inclining inwards as much as possible, over these our tent waslaid to form a roof. We could not afford the time necessary to constructa dome of snow. Our equipment consisted of a very small brown-hollandtent, macintosh floor-cloth and felt robes; besides this, each man had abag of double blanketing, and a pair of fur boots, to sleep in. We woremocassins over the pieces of blanketing in which our feet were wrappedup, and, with the exception of a change of this foot-gear, carried nospare clothes. 

"When we halted for the night, Thompson and I usually sawed out theblocks of compact snow, and carried them to Petersen, who acted as themaster-mason in building the hut. The hour-and-a-half or two hoursusually employed in erecting the edifice was the most disagreeable partof the day's labour; for, in addition to being already well tired anddesiring repose, we became thoroughly chilled while standing about. Thedogs were then fed, then the sledge unpacked, and everything carried intoit. The door was now blocked up with snow, the cooking-lamp lighted, foot-gear changed, diary writing up, watches wound, sleeping-bagswriggled into, pipes lighted, and the merits of the various dogsdiscussed, until supper was ready; the supper swallowed, the upper robeor coverlet pulled over, and then to sleep. Next morning came breakfast, a struggle to get into frozen mocassins, after which the sledges werepacked, and another day's march commenced. In these little huts weusually slept warm enough, although latterly, when our blankets andclothes became loaded with ice, we felt the cold severely. When our lowdoorway was carefully blocked up with snow, and the cooking-lamp alight, the temperature quickly rose, so that the walls became glazed and ourbedding thawed; but the cooking over, or the doorway partially opened, itas quickly fell again, so that it was impossible to sleep, or even tohold one's pannikin of tea without putting mits on, so intense was thecold. "--Sir L. McClintock is here speaking of a temperature of -39degrees Fahr. 

Materials for building Huts. --The materials whence the walls and roofs ofhuts may be constructed are very numerous: there is hardly any placewhich does not furnish one or other of them. Those principally in use areas follows:--

Wattle-and-daub, to be executed neatly, required well-shaped and flexiblesticks; but a hut may be constructed much like the sketch (see p. 120) ofthe way of "Drying Clothes. " It is made by planting in the ground anumber of bare sticks, 4 feet long, and 1 foot apart, bending their topstogether, lashing them fast with string or strips of bark, and wattlingthem judiciously here and there, by means of other boughs, laidhorizontally. Then, by heaping leaves--and especially broad pieces ofbark, if you can get them--over all, and banking up the earth on eitherside, pretty high, an excellent kennel is made. If daubed over with mud, clay, or cattle-dung, the hut becomes more secure against the weather. Toproceed a step further:--as many poles may be planted in the ground assticks have been employed in making the roof; and then the roof may belifted bodily in the air, and lashed to the top of the poles, each stickto its corresponding pole. This sort of structure is very common amongsavages. 

For methods of digging holes in which to plant the hut-poles, see thechapter on "Wells. " The holes made in the way I have there explained arefar better than those dug with spades; for they disturb no more of thehardened ground than is necessary for the insertion of the palisades. Tojam a pole tightly in its place, wedges of wood should be driven in atits side, and earth rammed down between the wedges. 

Palisades are excellent as walls or as enclosures. They are erected ofvast lengths, by savages wholly destitute of tools, both for the purposesof fortification and also for completing lines of pitfalls across widevalleys. The pitfalls occupy gaps left in the palisading. The savagesburn down the trees in the following manner:--a party of men go to theforest, and light small fires round the roots of the trees they proposeto fell. The fires are prevented from flaming upwards by the judiciousapplication of leaves, etc. When the fire has eaten a little way into thetree, the man who watches it scrapes the fire aside and knocks away thecharred wood, exposing a fresh surface for fire to act upon, and thenreplaces the burning embers. A single man may easily attend to a dozentrees, and, indeed, to many more, if the night be calm. Some hours elapsebefore the trees actually fall. Their tops and branches are burnt off asthey lie on the ground. The poles being thus procured for the palisading, they are carried to the required place, where holes are dug for theirreception, on the principle described in "Wells, " to which I have justalluded. 

Straw or Reed Walls of the following kind are very effective, and theyhave the advantage of requiring a minimum of string (or substitute forstring) in their manufacture. The straw, reeds, or herbage, of almost anydescription, is simply nipped between two pairs of long sticks, which arerespectively tied together at their ends, and at a sufficient number ofintermediate places. The whole is neatly squared and trimmed. 

[Sketch of straw walls]. 

A few of these would give good help in finishing the roof or walls of ahouse. They can be made moveable, so as to suit the wind, shade, andaspect. Even the hut door can be made on this principle. In reedycountries where there are no sticks, thin faggots of reeds are used intheir place. 

Bark. --Bark is universally used in Australia for roofs of huts andtemporary buildings; the colonists learnt the use of it from the natives, and some trees, at least, in every forest-country might very probably befound as well fitted for that purpose as those in Australia. The bark maybe easily removed, only when the sap is well up in the tree, but askilful person will manage to procure bark at all seasons of the year, except in the coldest winter months; and even then he will light on sometree, from the sunny side of which he can strip broad pieces. The processof bark-stripping is simply to cut two rings right round the tree(usually from 6 to 9 feet apart), and one vertical slit to join them;starting from the slit, and chipping away step by step on either side, the whole cylinder of bark is removed. The larger the tree, the better;for if the tree is less than 18 inches, or so, in diameter, the bark isapt to break when flattened out. When stripped for huts, it is laid onthe ground for some days to dry, being flattened out on its face, and afew stones or logs put on it. The ordinary bark of gum-trees is abouthalf an inch to three-eighths thick, so that a large sheet is very heavy. Most exploring expeditions are accompanied by a black, whose dexterity instripping bark for a wet night is invaluable, as if the bark will "comeoff" well, he can procure enough of it in an hour's time to make ashelter for a large party. 

Mats can be woven with ease when there is abundance of string, or someequivalent for it (see "String"), in the following manner:--

[Sketch of loom]. 

A, B, are two pegs driven into the ground and standing about a foot outof it. A stake, A B, is lashed across them; a row of pegs, E, are driveninto the ground, parallel to A, B, and about 6 inches apart. Two sets ofstrings are then tied to A B; one set are fastened by their loose endsinto clefts, in the pegs E, and the other set are fastened to the stick, C D. If there be ten strings in all, then 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, are tied to C D, and 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, to A B. By alternately raising and depressing C D, and by pushing in a handful of rushes between the two sets of stringsafter each of its movements, and, finally, by patting them home with aflat stick, this rough sort of weaving is carried on very successfully. Mats are also plaited in breadths, and the breadths are stitchedtogether, side by side. Or a thicker kind of mat may be made by taking awisp of straw and working it in the same way in which straw beehives areconstructed. Straw is worked more easily after being damped and beatenwith a mallet. 

Malay hitch. --I know no better name for the wonderfully simple way (shownin the figure) of attaching together wisps of straw, rods, laths, reeds, planks, poles, or anything of the kind, into a secure and flexible mat;the sails used in the far East are made in this way, and the moveabledecks of vessels are made of bamboos, joined together with a similar butrather more complicated stitch. 

[Sketch of fastening]. 

I may remark that soldiers might be trained to a great deal of huttingpractice in a very inexpensive way, if they were drilled at puttingtogether huts, whose roofs and walls were made of planks lashed togetherby this simple hitch, and whose supports were short scaffolding polesplanted in deep holes, dug, as explained in the chapter on "Wells, " withthe hand and a small stick. The poles, planks, and cords might be usedover and over again for an indefinite time. Further, bedsteads could bemade in a similar way, by short cross-planks lashed together, and restingon a framework of horizontal poles, lashed to uprights planted in theground. The soldier's bedding would not be injured by being used on thesebedsteads, as much as if it were laid on the bare ground. Kinds ofdesigns and experiments in hutting could be practised without expense inthis simple way. 

Tarpaulings are very suitable for roofs. Those made after the method usedby sailors are much superior to others in softness and durability. Theplan is as follows:--As soon as the canvas has been sewn together, it isthoroughly wetted with sea-water; and, while still wet, it is smearedover on one of its sides with tar and grease, boiled together--about twoparts tar and one of grease. After being hung up till it is dry, it isturned; and the other side, being a second time well wetted, is at oncepainted over with the tar and grease, just as the first side had beenbefore. The sailors say that "the tar dries in, as the water dries out;"a saying which I confess I cannot understand. 

Other Materials. --I will merely mention these by name, for they requireno explanation. They are fascines or faggots; bricks, sun-dried or bakedin the oven; turf; stones; and bags or mats, filled with sand or shingle. 

Whitewash is lime and water. Lime is made by burning limestone, chalk, shells, or coral in a simple furnace. 

Roofs. --Thatching. --After the framework of the roof has been made, thethatcher begins at the bottom, and ties a row of bundles of straw, sideby side, on to the framework. Then he begins a second row, allowing theends of the bundles composing it to overlap the heads of those in thefirst row. 

Wood-shingles are tile-shaped slices of wood, easily cut from fir-trees. They are used for roofing, on the same principle as tiles or slates. 

Floors. --Concrete for floors, is made of eight parts large pebbles, fourparts river-sand, and one part lime (to make lime, see "Whitewash"). Cow-dung and ashes make a hard, dry, and clean floor; such as is used fora threshing-floor. Ox blood and fine clay kneaded together are excellent. Both these latter compositions are in use in all hot dry countries. 

Windows. --A window, or rather a hole in the wall, may be rudely shutteredby a stick run through loops made out of wisps of grass. In hot weather, the windows of the hutmay be loosely stuffed with grass, which, whenwatered, makes the hut cooler. 

Glass, to cut. --Glass cannot be cut with any certainty, without adiamond; but it may be shaped and reduced to any size by graduallychipping, or rather biting, away at its edges with a key, if the slitbetween the wards of the key be just large enough to admit the pane ofglass easily. 

[Sketch]. 

Substitutes for glass. --These are waxed or oiled paper or cloth, bladder, fish-membranes, talc, and horn. (See "Horn. ")

SLEEPING-BAGS. 

Sleeping-bags. --Knapsack Bags. --These have been used for the lasttwenty-five years by the French 'douaniers', who watch themountain-passes of the Pyrenean frontier. The bags are made of sheepskin, with the wool inside. When not in use they are folded up and buckled withfive buckles into the shape of a somewhat bulky knapsack (p. 152), whichthe recent occupant may shoulder and walk away with. 

The accompanying sketches are drawn to scale. They were made from thesleeping-bag belonging to a man 5 feet 6 inches in height; the scaleshould therefore be lengthened for a taller person, but the breadth seemsample. Its weight was exactly seven pounds. The douaniers post themselveson watch more or less immersed in these bags. They lie out in wet andsnow, and find them impervious to both. When they sleep, they get quiteinside them, stuff their cloaks between their throats and the bag, andlet its flap cover their faces. It is easy enough for them to extricatethemselves; they can do so almost with a bound. The Spanish Custom-houseofficers who watch the same frontier, use their cloaks and other wraps, which are far more weighty, and far inferior in warmth and protection tothe bags. I described these knapsack bags in 'Vacation Tourists for1860, ' p. 449, and I subsequently had a macintosh bag lined with drugget, made on the same principle. I had a hood to it, and also the means ofbuttoning it loosely under my chin, to make myself watertight duringheavy rain. In that bag I passed many nights of very trying weather. Onone instance, I selected a hilltop in Switzerland, on the way fromChambery to the Dent du Midi, during a violent and long-continuedthunderstorm. The storm began above my head, then slowly sank to mylevel, and finally subsided below me. Many Alpine travellers, notably Mr. Packe and Mr. Tuckett, have adopted these bags, and used themcontinually. Macintosh is certainly oppressive to sleep in, though lessso than might have been expected, as the half-unconscious fidgeting ofthe sleeper changes the air. A man in travelling "condition" wouldprobably find a drugget-bag more healthy than macintosh, even though hebecame somewhat wet inside it. Beds used to be almost unknown in someparts of the Pyrenees. Sheepskin sleeping-bags were employed instead. Thus, I am assured that at the beginning of this century, there washardly a bed in the whole of the little republic of Andorre. The way ofarranging them as knapsacks is, as I have said, a recent invention. 

In fig. 1 the wide opening to the mouth of the bag is shown; also theends of the buckles and straps that are sewn (on patches of leather, foradditional strength) to the lower side of the bag, as seen in fig. 2. 

[Fig 1 and 2]. 

It must be understood that the woolly sides of the skins are inwards. Thestraps that hold the knapsack to the shoulders are secured by a simplefastening, shown in figs. 2 and 3. But the ordinary knapsack hooks andrings, if procurable, would answer the purpose better. The straight linesin fig. 1 show the way in which the bag is to be folded into the shape offig. 3. Fig. 4 shows the sleeper inside his bag, in which he fits verylike a grub in its cocoon. There is no waste of space. For the sake ofwarmth, the bag is made double from the knees downwards, and alsoopposite to the small of the back. 

[Figs 3 and 4]. 

During the daytime, when the weather is wet or cold, the bags are of muchuse, for the douaniers sit with them pulled up to their waist. Whencarried in the manner of a knapsack the bag sits perfectly well againstthe shoulders; but, owing to the yielding nature of its substance, itlies too close to the back, and is decidedly oppressive. A wicker framemight well be interposed. 

Arctic Sleeping-bags. --Arctic travellers use coarse drugget bags, coveredwith brown holland to make them less pervious to the wind, and having along flap at the upper end to fold down over the face. I have alreadyextracted passages from travellers' accounts relating to them, inspeaking of "Encamping on Snow, " p. 140, and another, when speaking of"Snow-walls with Tenting for their Roofs, " p. 143. 

Macintosh Sack. --Mr. Falconer writes to me as follows:--"I travelled in1841 from Austin in Texas to Mexico through New Mexico. I left Austin inJune, and reached Zacateras on Christmas Day. During nearly the wholeperiod we travelled from Austin to New Mexico, I camped without anycovering at night for myself, except a large macintosh, made up as asack, with a piece so laid as a continuation of one side, as to be usedas a coverlet, sufficient in length to be brought from the back, over thehead, and down on the breast. Inside I placed my blankets. I slept underthis covering during many a heavy storm at night, and got out of mysoft-coated shell dry in the morning. My opinion is, that every travellerwho works his way with a horse should fix on his own saddle the saidmacintosh sack, two blankets, a tin cup, and a frying-pan. It is amazing, when you get into real working order, how few things are sufficient. "

Peasants' Sack. --The peasants in the northern parts of Germany use astrong linen sack, made to draw at one end. This they stuff with straw, hay, dry leaves, etc. ; and, putting their feet into it, pull its mouth upto their armpits. They use them when driving their wagons in winter, andwhen lodging at their wretched roadside inns. (See a letter in the Times, February 125. )

Bag, combined with Tent. --I should think that a combination of a sleepingbag with a very small tent, just large enough to enclose the man's headand shoulders, so as to permit him to eat or write when lying in his bagwithout fear of the wet would be the smallest and lightest arrangement, compatible with efficiency, in a stormy climate. 

TENTS. 

General Remarks. --Although tents are not worth the trouble of pitching, on dry nights, in a healthy climate, they are invaluable protectors to awell-equipped traveller against rain, dew, and malaria. But a man who isnot so equipped, who has no change of clothes, and no bedstead to sleepon, will do better to sleep in the open air, in front of a good campfire. Napoleon I. , speaking of soldiers, says ('Maximes deGuerre'):--"Tents are not healthy; it is better for the soldier tobivouac, because he sleeps with his feet to the fire, whose neighbourhoodquickly dries the ground on which he lies; some planks or a little strawshelter him from the wind. Nevertheless a tent is necessary for superiorofficers, who have need to write and to consult a map. " To a partyencamped for a few days, tents are of great use as storehouses forproperty, which otherwise becomes scattered about, at the risk of beinglost or pilfered. 

Materials for Tenting. --Light canvas is usually employed, and is, to allintents and purposes, waterproof. Silk, of equal strength with thecanvas, is very far lighter: its only disadvantage is its expense. Calico, or cotton canvas, is very generally used for small tents. Leatherand felt are warm, but exceedingly heavy; and would only be used in veryinclement climates, or where canvas could not be met with. Light mattingis not to be despised: it is warm and pretty durable, and makes excellentawning or covering to a frame-work. 

Diagonal Bracing. --A worn-out tent may be strengthened by sewing bands ofcanvas, which cross each other, and make a kind of net-work: old sailsare strengthened in this way. 

Tent Pegs should be of galvanized iron; they are well worth the weight ofcarriage, for not only do wooden ones often fail on an emergency, butcooks habitually purloin them when firewood is scarce. 

Tents. --Large Tents. --The art of tent-making has greatly advanced sincethe days of the old-fashioned bell-tent, which is so peculiarlyobjectionable, as to make it a matter of surprise that it was everinvented and used. It is difficult to pitch; it requires many tent-pegs;it has ropes radiating all round it, over which men and horses stumble;and it is incommodious and ugly. 

In choosing a tent, select one that will stand in some sort of shape withonly four pegs, or with six at the very utmost; it should admit of beingpegged close to the ground without any intervening 'fly;' it is noobjection that it should require more than one pole; and, whenconsidering how much weight it will be possible to carry, it must beborne in mind that the tent will become far heavier than it is found tobe in the peculiarly dry atmosphere of a tent-maker's show-room. It isvery convenient that a tent should admit of being pitched in more thanone form: for instance, that one side should open and form an awning inhot weather; also, that it should be easy to attach flys or awning to thetent to increase its available size during the daytime. All tents shouldbe provided with strong covers, for pack-ropes are sure to fray whateverthey press against; and it is better that the cover should suffer thanthe tent itself. 

Comparative Size of Tents. --The annexed diagram will show the points onwhich the roominess of a tent mainly depends. 

[Sketch of tent and occupants]. 

A man wants space to sit at a table, and also to get at his luggage inorder either to pack it or to unpack it; lastly, he wants a reasonableamount of standing room. A fair-sized tent ought to include the figuresdrawn in the diagram; and I have indicated, by lines and shaded spaces, the section of various descriptions of tents that would be justsufficient to embrace them. 

One side of the ordinary conical tents (fig. 1), of a front view of fig. 5, and of pyramidal tents (fig. 6), are represented by the line ABC. Those that have a "fall" (fig. 2), by the lines CDLF. Gipsy-tents, asdescribed p. 161, umbrella-tents (fig. 4), and Jourts, p. 157, by thelines GHBK. Marquees (fig. 3), and a side view of fig. 5, by GLBM. 

[Fig 1-4--sketches of tents]. 

Notwithstanding the great height and width of conical tents, compared tothe others, we see by the diagram that they afford scanty space at thelevel of the head of a seated person. There is a recent contrivance byMajor Rhodes, to be seen at Silver and Co. 's, that is a modification ofthe gipsy-tent. Among ordinary, well-known tents, I believe none willsatisfy the varied wants of a traveller so well as Edington's three-poledtents (fig. 5). After these I should choose a small marquee (fig. 3); butit is less secure in wind, and the pitch of its roof is bad for rain, andthe numerous straggling tent-ropes are objectionable. 

[Fig 5-7--sketches of tents]. 

A pyramidal tent (fig. 6), of seven or nine feet in the side, isremarkable for its sturdiness: it will stand any weather, will hold twopeople and a fair quantity of luggage besides; it weighs from 25 to 40lbs. It is not a good tent for hot weather, for it is far too stuffy, though by taking an additional joint to the tent-pole, and usingtent-ropes (as may also be done with any other kind of tent), it may bemade more airy by being raised up, and by having walls added to it (fig. 7). In default of canvas, the walls may be constructed of othermaterials. (See "Materials for Huts. ")

Tent Pitched over an Excavation. --A hole may be dug deeply beneath thetent floor, partly for the purpose of a store-room, and partly for thatof a living-room when the weather is very inclement. This was practisedbefore Sebastopol in the manner shown in the fig. P. 158. The notchedpole acts as a ladder for ascending from below. 

Jourts. --The Kirghis-jourt is a capacious, solid, warm, and fireproofstructure, that admits of being pitched or taken to pieces in an hour, and withstands the cold and violent winds of the steppes of Central Asia, in a way that no tent or combination of tents could pretend to effect. Ajourt of from 20 to 25, or even 30 feet in diameter, forms twocamel-loads, or about half a ton in weight. 

[Fig. 8]. 

One camel carries the felt, the other the wood-work. Fig. 9 shows thejourt half-covered; and fig. 10 gives an enlarged view of a portion ofthe side. There are four separate parts in its structure:--1. Thedoor-way, a solid piece of ornamental carpentering, that takes to piecesinstantly. 2. The sides, which consist of lengths of wood-work, that shutup on the principle of the contrivance known sometimes as "lazy-tongs, "and sometimes as "easy-back scissors:" they tie together and make acircle, beginning and ending with the doorway; a tape is wound roundthem, as shown in fig. 9, about one-third from their tops. 3. Theroof-ribs. The bottom of each of these is tied to the sides of the jourt(A, fig. 10), and its top fits into a socket in--4, the roof-ring, whichis a hoop of wood strengthened by transverse bars. Over this frameworkbroad sheets of felt are thrown: their own weight makes them liesteadily, for they are quite an inch in thickness; however, in verystormy weather, if I recollect aright, they are weighted with stones, orthey are stitched together. There is no metal in the structure: the lathsof willow-wood that form the sides are united, where they cross, bypieces of sinew knotted at either end; these act as pivots when the sidesare shut up. I am indebted to the late Mr. Atkinson for my information onthese interesting structures. Further particulars about them, the nativeway of making the felt, by continually rolling sheepskins with the woolbetween them, and numerous pictures, in which jourts form a strikingfeature, will be found in his beautifully illustrated work on Siberia. 

[Fig 9 and 10 as referred to above and Fig. 1 for following section]. 

Small Tents. --For tents of the smallest size and least pretensions, nothing can be better than the one represented in fig. 1: the ends areslit down their middles, and are laced or buttoned together, so that, byunfastening these, the tent spreads out to a flat sheet of the form offig. 2, well adapted for an awning, or else it can be simply unrolled andused with the bedding. It is necessary that a tent should be roomy enoughto admit of a man undressing himself, when wet through, without treadingupon his bed and drenching it with mud and water; and therefore a tent ofthe above description is found to be unserviceable, if less than about 7feet long, or ending in a triangle of less than 5 1/2 feet in the side. Peat, the saddler in Bond Street, once made them; they cost 2 l. 10s. , and weighed 9 lbs. When dry. They are liable to bag in the side when thewind is high: a cross-pole or two sticks, following the seams of thecanvas in the above sketch, would make them tauter. 

[Fig. 2]. 

Alpine Tent. --Mr. Whymper contrived a tent for his alpine explorations, which he found eminently successful. It has a waterproof floor, continuous with the sides: it is supported by poles, that slip into hemsof the cloth--two poles at either end. These tents have been used onvarious occasions by Mr. Whymper's brother in Alaska, and by Mr. Freshfield in the Caucasus, and were highly approved of, but I do notknow whether these tents would be altogether suitable for morecomfortable travel. I myself had a tent made on this principle some yearsago, but disliked it, for I found the continuity of the floor with thesides to act unsatisfactorily; the tent retained the damp, and the weightof the body, acting on the floor of the tent, was apt to disturb itswalls. Mr. Whymper's tent is procurable at Carter's, Alpine Outfitter, 295, Oxford Street, London. 

Boating Tent. --Further on, in the chapter on "Boats, " the way is shown bywhich sailors make a tent out of their lug-sail, throwing it over aframework of oars. 

Gipsy Tent. --A traveller who has only a blanket, a plaid, or broad pieceof material of any kind, with which he wishes to improvise a tent, maymake a framework of long wands, planting their ends in the ground, bending their tops together, and lashing or wattling them securely; overthis the blanket is thrown (fig. 3). If the sticks are sufficiently longand pliant, their ends should be bent over the roof half-way down theopposite side, as in fig. 1. This adds considerably to the strength ofthe arrangement. 

[Fig 1-3 as described in text]. 

The gipsies in England use the following excellent contrivance to savethe trouble of tying the sticks together. They carry a light bar of wood, 2 1/2 feet long, bound with string here and there to keep it fromsplitting; through this, six holes, each big enough to admit the tip ofthe little finger, are bored or burnt; they also carry eight hazel rodswith them, each six feet long, and arrange their framework as in fig. 2. It will be observed that the two rods which are planted behind giveadditional roominess and stability to the affair. The rug and pillow showthe position in which the occupants sleep. Blankets, not sheeting, pinnedtogether with wooden pegs, are thrown over the whole, as in fig. 3. 

[Fig 1 and 2 as described in the text]. 

Tente d'abri. --The French, "tente d'abri" has not, so far as I know, beenadopted by travellers: it seems hardly suitable, except for soldiers. Each man carried a square of canvas (fig. 1), with buttons andbutton-holes all round it, by which it can be doubly attached to othersimilar squares of canvas, and thus, from several separate pieces, onelarge cloth can be made. The square carried by the French soldiermeasures 5 feet 4 1/2 inches in the side, reckoning along the buttons; ofthese there are nine along each edge, including the corner ones. Eachsoldier has also to carry a tent-staff, or else a proportion of the pegsand cord. When six men club together they proceed as follows:--Threetent-sticks are fixed into the ground, whose tops are notched; a lightcord is then passed round their tops, and fastened into the ground with apeg at each eng (fig. 2). Two sheets, A and B, are buttoned together andthrown over the cord, and then two other sheets, C and D; and C isbuttoned to A, and D to B (fig. 3). Lastly another sheet is thrown overeach of the slanting cords, the one buttoned to A and B, and the other toC and D; and thus a sort of dog-kennel is formed, in which six men--thebearers of the six pieces of canvas--sleep. The sides of the tent are ofcourse pegged to the ground. There are many modifications in the way ofpitching these tents. Should the sticks be wanting, faggots or musketscan be used in their place. 

Tent of Mosquito-netting. --I have been informed of a sportsman in Ceylon, who took with him into the woods a cot with mosquito-curtains, as aprotection not only against insects, but against malaria. He also had ablanket rolled at his feet: at 3 in the morning, when the chill arose inthe woods, he pulled his blanket over him. 

Pitching a Tent. --It is quite an art, so to pitch a tent as to let in orexclude the air, to take advantage of sun and shade, etc. Etc. Everyavailable cloth or sheet may be pressed into service, to make awnings andscreens, as we see among the gipsies. There is a great deal of charactershown in each different person's encampment. A tent should never bepitched in a slovenly way: it is so far more roomy, secure and pretty, when tightly stretched out, that no pains should be spared in drillingthe men to do it well. I like to use a piece of string, marked withknots, by which I can measure the exact places in which the tent-pegsshould be struck, for the eye is a deceitful guide in estimatingsquareness. (See "Squaring. ") It is wonderful how men will bungle with atent, when they are not properly drilled to pitch it. 

To secure Tent-ropes. --When the soil is loose, scrape away the surfacesand, before driving the tent-pegs. Loose mould is made more tenacious bypouring water upon it. When one peg is insufficient, it may be backed byanother. (See fig. ) The outermost peg must be altogether buried in theearth. Heavy saddle-bags are often of use to secure the tent-ropes; and, in rocky ground, heavy piles of stones may be made to answer the samepurpose. The tent-ropes may also be knotted to a cloth, on which stonesare afterwards piled. 

"Dateram" is, as the late Dr. Barth, informed me, the Bornu name for amost excellent African contrivance, used in some parts of the Saharadesert, by means of which tent-ropes may be secured, or horses picketedin sand of the driest description, as in that of a sand dune, whence atent-peg would be drawn out by a strain so slight as to be almostimperceptible. I have made many experiments upon it, and find itsefficiency to be truly wonderful. The plan is to tie to the end of thetent-rope, a small object of any description, by its middle, as a shortstick, a stone, a bundle of twigs, or a bag of sand; and to bury it from1 to 2 feet in the loose sand. It will be found, if it has been buried 1foot deep, that a strain equal to about 50 lbs. Weight, is necessary todraw it up; if 1 1/2 feet deep, that a much more considerable strain isnecessary; and that, if 2 feet deep, it is quite impossible for a singleman to pull it up. In the following theoretical case, the resistancewould be as the cube of the depth; but in sand or shingle, the increaseis less rapid. It varies under different circumstances; but it is noexaggeration to estimate its increase as seldom less than as the squareof the depth. The theoretical case of which I spoke, is this:--Let x bepart of a layer of shingle of wide extent: the shingle is supposed toconsist of smooth hard spherical balls, all of the same size. Let s be adáterám buried in x; and T the string to which it is tied. Now, onconsidering fig. 2, where a series of balls are drawn on a larger scaleand on a plane surface, it is clear that the ball A cannot move in anydegree to the right or the left without disturbing the entire layer ofballs on the same plane as itself: its only possible movement isvertically upwards. In this case, it disturbs B1 and B2. These, for thesame reason as A, can only move vertically upwards, and, in doing so, they must disturb the three balls above them, and so on. Consequently, the uplifting of a single ball in fig. 2, necessitates the uplifting ofthe triangle of balls of which it forms the apex; and it obviouslyfollows from the same principle, that the uplifting of S, in the depth ofX, in fig. 1, necessitates the uplifting of a cone of balls whose apex isat S. But the weight of a cone is as the cube of its height and, therefore, the resistance to the uplifting of the dáterám, is as the cubeof the depth at which it has been buried. In practice, the grains of sandare capable of a small but variable amount of lateral displacement, whichgives relief to the movement of sand caused by the dateram, for we mayobserve the surface of the ground to work very irregularly, althoughextensively, when the dáterám begins to stir. On the other hand, thefriction of the grains of sand tends to increase the difficulty ofmovement. The arrangement shown in the diagram, of a springweighing-machine tied to the end of a lever, is that which I have used intesting the strain the dateram will resist, under differentcircumstances. The size of the dateram is not of much importance, itwould be of still less importance in the theoretical case. Anything thatis more than 4 inches long seems to answer. The plan succeeds in a drysoil of any description, whether it be shingly beach or sand. 

Bushing a Tent means the burying of bushes in the soil so far as to leaveonly their cut ends above the ground, to which a corresponding number oftent-ropes are tied. 

Tent-poles. --When a tent is pitched for an encampment of some duration, it is well to lay aside the jointed tent-pole, and to cut a stout youngtree to replace it: this will be found far more trustworthy in stormyweather. If the shape of the tent admits of the change, it is stillbetter to do away with the centre pole altogether; and, in the place ofit, to erect a substantial framework of poles, which are to be plantedjust within the rim of the tent, and to converge to a point, under itspeak. A tent-pole can be lengthened temporarily, by lashing it to a log, with the help of a Toggle and strop (which see). A broken tent-pole canbe mended permanently by placing a splint of wood on either side of thefracture, and by whipping the whole together, with soft cord or with theuntwisted strand of a piece of rope. 

To prevent Tent-poles from slipping. --When the tent is pitched in theordinary way on a smooth rocky surface, there is considerable danger thatthe foot of the pole may slip whenever a gust of wind or other suddenimpulse sways the tent. This danger is to be obviated on precisely thesame principle as that by which builders secure their scaffolding-polesupon the smooth footways of a street: they put the foot of each pole intoa bucket, filled with sand. As the base of the bucket is broad, thescaffolding is much less liable to slip, than if the narrow bases of thepoles had rested directly upon the pavement. 

To tie Things to Tent-poles. --To hang clothes, or anything else, upon asmooth tent-pole, see "Clove-hitch. " A strap with hooks attached to it, buckled round the pole, is very convenient. The method shown in thesketch suffices, if the pole be notched, or jointed, or in any wayslightly uneven. Bags, etc. , are supposed to be hung upon the bit of woodthat is secured to the free end. Convenient pegs, made of bits of woodroughly sharpened, may be driven into the tree, if any, when theencampment is made. 

Preparations for a Storm. --Before a storm, dig a ditch as deep as you canround the outside of the tent, to divert the coming sheet ofsurface-water, and see that the ditch has a good out-fall. The ditch willalso drain the floor of the tent, if the rain should soak in. Even afurrow scratched with a tent-peg, is better than no ditch at all. Fastenguy-ropes to the spike of the tent-pole; and be careful that the tent isnot too much on the strain, else the further shrinking of the materials, under the influence of the wet, will certainly tear up the pegs. Earth, banked up round the bottom of the tent, will prevent gusts of wind fromfinding their way beneath. It is also a good plan to prepare a small holenear the foot of the tent-pole, with a stone firmly rammed into thebottom, into which the tent-pole may be shifted, as soon as the strain ofthe tent, under the influence of the wet, becomes dangerous to itssafety. 

To warm Tents. --"When living in a tent in Otago (New Zealand) during asevere winter, we were perfectly numb with cold at nights, until weadopted the Maori plan, which is to dig a hole about a foot square in theclear, to cover the bottom with a stone or stones, and to fill it atnight with red-hot cinders from the camp fire, and lastly, to close thetent excepting a small opening near the top. The cinders are not nearlyburnt out by morning. They diffused a pleasant warmth through the tent, and rendered us comfortable all night. There is no danger of suffocation, unless the tent be closed up very tight indeed. "--(W. M. Cooper. )

Permanent Camp. --The accompanying sketch shows a tent pitched for alengthened habitation. It has a deep drain, a seat and table dug out, anda fireplace. (See the following paragraphs. )

Lost Articles. --Small articles are constantly mislaid and trampled in thesand of the floor of the tent. In searching for them, the ground shouldbe disturbed as little as possible: it is a usual plan to score itssurface in parallel lines, with a thin wand. It would be well worth whileto make a small light rake to use for this purpose. 

Precautions against Thieves. --Natives are apt to creep up to tents, and, putting their hands under the bottom of them, to steal whatever they can:a hedge of thorn-bushes is a protection against this kind of thieving. Insome countries a net, with three or four bells attached to it, is thrownover the packages inside a tent. Strings tied horizontally, a foot abovethe ground, from package to package, are found effective in trippingintruders, See also "Guns set as Spring-guns. "

FURNITURE. 

Furniture. --The luxuries and elegances practicable in tent-life, are onlylimited by the means of transport. Julius Cæsar, who was a greatcampaigner, carried parquets of wooden mosaic for his floors! Thearticles that make the most show for their weight, are handsome rugs, andskins, and pillows; canteens of dinner and coffee services; and candles, with screens of glass, or other arrangements to prevent them fromflickering. The art of luxurious tenting is better understood in Persiathan in any other country, even than in India. 

Bedsteads. --A portable bedstead, with mosquito-curtains, is a very greatluxury, raising the sleeper above the damp soil, and the attacks of mostcreatures that creep on it; in tours where a few luxuries can be carried, it is a very proper article of baggage. It is essential where white antsare numerous. A very luxurious bed is made on the principle of atennis-player's raquet; being a framework of wood, with strips of rawhide lashed across it from side to side and from end to end. It is the"angareb" of Upper Egypt. 

Hammocks and Cots. --I stated in previous editions of this book, thathammocks and cots had few advocates, owing to the difficulty ofsuspending them; but Captain M'Gwire's recent ingenious invention quitealters the case. His method will be easily understood by the annexedsketch. The apparatus is adapted for use on the wooden floors of houses, or ships, by the employment of eyelet-bolts or screw rings instead ofpegs, and by putting wooden shoes below the staves to prevent theirslipping inwards: the shoes are tied to the eyelet-bolts by a cord. 

The complete apparatus, in a very portable form, can be bought at Messrs. Brown's, Piccadilly. 

Mosquito Nets and their Substitutes. --A mosquito-curtain may be taken forsuspension over the bed, or place where you sit; but it is dangerous toread in them by candle-light, for they catch fire very easily. (See"Incombustible Stuffs. ") It is very pleasant, in hot, mosquito-plaguedcountries, to take the glass sash entirely out of the window-frame, andreplace it with one of gauze. Broad network, if of fluffy thread, keepswasps out. The darker a house is kept, the less willing are flies, etc. , to flock in. If sheep and other cattle be hurdled-in near the house, thenuisance of flies, etc. , becomes almost intolerable. 

Chairs. --It is advisable to take very low strong and roomy camp-stools, with tables to correspond in height, as a chamber is much less choked upwhen the seats are low, or when people sit, as in the East, on theground. The seats should not be more than 1 foot high, though as wide anddeep as an ordinary footstool. Habit very soon reconciles travellers tothis; but without a seat at all, a man can never write, draw, norcalculate as well as if he had one. The stool represented in the figure(above), is a good pattern: it has a full-sized seat made of canvas orleather, or of strips of dressed hide. A milk-man's stool, supported byonly one peg, is quickly made in the bush, and is not very inconvenient. The common rush-bottomed chair can be easily made, if proper materialsare accessible. The annexed diagram explains clearly the method of theirconstruction. 

Table. --The table may consist of a couple of boards, not less than 2 feetlong, by 9 inches broad, hinged lengthwise, for the convenience ofcarriage, and resting on a stand, which should be made on the sameprinciple as the framework of the chair described above. It is well tohave the table made of mahogany, for deal warps and cracks excessively. There is no difficulty in carrying furniture like the above, on apack-horse. 

Makeshift Chair and Table. --For want of a chair, it is convenient to diga hole or a trench in the ground, and to sit on one side of it, with thefeet resting on its bottom: the opposite side of the trench serves as atable, on which things may be put, within easy reach. 

"In a box 2 feet long and 1 foot square at the ends, the lid and itsbottom, of course, both measure 2 feet by 1 foot. Now, if the bottomopens on hinges, just like the lid, and if the hinges of both lid andbottom are fixed to the hindmost side of the box, then when the box islaid face downwards, and both the lid and the bottom are opened out andsecured in the same horizontal plane with the side to which they arehinged, a table of 3 feet by 2 feet is made. The lid and bottom form thetwo leaves of the table, and what was the hindmost side, when the boxstood on its bottom, is now uppermost, and forms the middle of the table. Such a box would hold, during travel, the things wanted when encamping. "--(Peal. )

Hooks. --I have spoken of the way of hanging articles in tents, under"Tent Poles. " In a permanent bivouac or in a hut, it is convenient to fixhooked sticks or the horns of animals, against the walls, as pegs. 

FIRE. 

General Remarks. --Although, in the teeth of every precaution, firesconstantly break out, yet when a traveller wants a light and does nothappen to have any of his ingenious fire-making contrivances at hand, itis very difficult for him to obtain it. And further, though sparks, oftheir own accord and in the most unlikely places, too often give rise toconflagrations, yet it requires much skill and practice to succeedwithout fail, in coaxing a small spark into a serviceable camp fire. Therefore every traveller should carry on his person the means ofprocuring a light, under ordinary circumstances of wind and weather; thatis to say, he should have in his pocket a light handy steel, a flint oran agate, and amadou or other tinder. I also strongly recommend that heshould carry a bundle of half-a-dozen fine splinters of wood, likeminiature tooth-picks, thinner and shorter than lucifer-matches, whosepoints he has had dipped in melted sulphur; also a small spare lump ofsulphur of the size of a pea or bean, in reserve. The cook should have aregular tinder-box, such as he happens to have been used to, and anabundance of wax lucifers. Paper fusees are not worth taking in travel, as wet entirely spoils them. 

There are usually three separate agents in making a fire, each of whichmay be varied in many ways and requires separate description. 1. TheSpark or other light to start with. 2. The Tinder; that is, some easilyignited and smouldering substance. 3. Fuel, judiciously applied to theburning tinder, or other feeble light, so as to develop it into aserviceable fire. 

To obtain Fire from the Sun. --Burning-glasses. --The object-glass, andevery other convex glass of a telescope is a burning-glass, and has onlyto be unscrewed to be fit for use. The object lenses of an opera-glassare very efficient. The larger the glass and the shorter its focus, thegreater is its heating power. Convex spectacle glasses and eye glassesare too small and of too long a focus to be used with effect, except whenthe sun is very hot. An old-fashioned watch-glass, filled with water, andhaving the rays of a powerful sun glittered down upon it vertically byhelp of a mirror, will give a light. Dr. Kane and other arctic travellershave made burning-glasses of ice. 

Reflectors. --The inside of the polished metal cover of a hunting-watchwill sometimes converge a sufficiency of rays, to burn. The vestal fireof Rome and the sacred fire of the Mexicans were obtained by means ofreflectors. If I understand aright, they consisted of a stone with aconical hollow, carefully polished, the apex of the hollow cone was aright angle: the tinder was held in the axis of the cone. See Tylor's'Early History of Mankind. '

Black Tinder. --Tinder that is black by previous charring, or from anyother cause, ignites in the sun far sooner than light-coloured tinder. 

Fire by conversion of motion into heat. --General Remarks. --When a movingbody is arrested, heat is given out; the quantity of heat being in exactproportion to the mass, multiplied into the square of its velocity. Thusif a cannon ball be fired at an iron target, both it and the ball becomeexceedingly hot. There is even a flash of light when the velocity of theball is very high. When bullets are fired with heavy charges at a target, the lead is just melted by the heat of impact, and it "splashes, " to usea common phrase. It is obvious from these two examples, that no velocitywhich the hand of man is able to give to a steel, when striking a flint, or to one stick rubbing against another stick, will be competent toafford a red-hot temperature unless the surface against which impact orfriction is made be very small, or unless great care be taken to avoidthe wasteful dissipation of heat. The spark made by a flint and steel, consists of a thin shaving of steel, scraped off by the flint and heatedby the arrested motion. When well struck, the spark is white-hot and atthat temperature it burns with bright scintillations in the air, just asiron that is merely red-hot burns in pure oxygen. This is the theory: nowfor the practice. 

Flints. --If we may rely on a well-known passage in Virgil, concerningÆneas and his comrades, fire was sometimes made in ancient days bystriking together two flints, but I confess myself wholly unable to lighttinder with flints alone, and I am equally at a loss to understand whatwere the "dry leaves" that they are said in the same passage to have usedfor tinder. Neither can I obtain fire except with a flint and steel, or, at least, hardened iron; a flint and ordinary iron will not give anavailable spark. Flints may be replaced by any siliceous stone, as agate, rock-crystal, or quartz. Agate is preferred to flint, for it gives ahotter spark: it is sold by tobacconists. A partly siliceous stone, suchas granite, will answer in default of one that is wholly siliceous. Ihave been surprised at finding that crockery and porcelain of all kindswill make a spark, and sometimes a very good one. There are cases where abroken teacup might be the salvation of many lives in a shipwreckedparty. On coral-reefs, and other coasts destitute of flinty stones, search should be made for drift-wood and drifted sea-weed. In the rootsof these, the pebbles of other shores are not unfrequently entangled, andflint may be found among them. The joints of bamboos occasionally containenough silex to give a spark. 

Steels. --The possession of a really good steel is a matter of greatcomfort in rough travel, for, as I have just said, common iron isincompetent to afford a useful spark, and hardened iron or soft steel isbarely sufficient to do so. Any blacksmith will make a good steel out ofan old file, if he has nothing more appropriate at hand. A substitute fora steel can be made, even by an ordinary traveller, out of common iron, by means of "casehardening" (which see). The link of a chain, or the heelof a boot, or a broken horse-shoe, is of a convenient shape for thepurpose. 

Pyrites are, and have been, widely used for striking sparks. Two piecesstruck together, or one piece struck with a steel, gives a good spark;but it is a very friable mineral, and therefore not nearly so convenientas flint. 

Guns. --If you wish to get a light by means of a flint-and-steel gun, thetouch-hole may be stuffed up, and a piece of tinder put among the primingpowder: a light can be obtained in that way without firing the gun. Witha percussion-cap gun, a light may be obtained by putting powder andtinder outside the nipple and round the cap; it will, though not withcertainty catch fire on exploding the cap. But the common way with a gunis to pour in a quarter of a charge of powder, and above it, quiteloosely, a quantity of rag or tinder. On firing the gun straight up inthe air, the rag will be shot out lighted; you must then run after it asit falls, and pick it quickly up. With percussion-caps, gunpowder, andtinder, and without a gun, a light may sometimes be had on an emergency, by scratching and boring with a knife, awl, or nail, at the fulminatingcomposition in the cap, till it explodes; but a cap is a somewhatdangerous thing to meddle with, as it often flies with violence, andwounds. Crushing gunpowder with hard stones may possibly make it explode. 

Lucifers. --An inexperienced hand will waste an entire boxful of them, andyet will fail in lighting a fire in the open air, on a windy day. Theconvenience of lucifers in obtaining a light is very great, but they havetwo disadvantages: they require that the air should be perfectly still, while the burning sulphur is struggling to ignite the stick; and, again, when the match is thrust among the wood, the sticks upon which is has toact, have not been previously warmed and consequently, though one or twoof them may become lighted, the further progress of the fire is liable tocease. On the other hand, in methods where the traveller begins withtinder, and blows its spark into a flame, the adjacent wood becomesthoroughly heated by the process, and the flame, once started, is almostcertain to maintain itself. Consequently, in lighting a fire withlucifers, be careful to shield the match from the wind, by throwing acloak or saddle-cloth, or something else over the head, whilst youoperate; and secondly, to have abundance of twigs of the smaller sizes, that there may be no uncertainty of the lucifer-match being able to lightthem, and set the fire a-going. In a steady downfall of rain, you maylight a match for a pipe under your horse's belly. If you have paper tospare, it is a good plan to twist it into a hollow cone; to turn the conewith its apex to the wind; and immediately after rubbing the match, tohold it inside the cone. The paper will become quickly heated by thestruggling flame and will burst into a miniature conflagration, toostrong to be puffed out by a single blast of air. Wax lucifers areundoubtedly better than wooden ones, for in damp weather, wooden oneswill hardly burn; but wax is waterproof, and independent of wet or dry. When there is nothing dry, at hand, to rub the lucifer-match against, scratch the composition on its head with the edge of a knife or with thefinger-nail. It is a sure way of lighting it; and with care, there is noneed of burning the fingers. 

Fire-sticks. --In every country without exception, where inquiry has beenmade, the method of obtaining fire by rubbing one stick against another, has been employed. In savage countries the method still remains inpresent use; in nearly all the more civilised ones, it has beensuperseded within historic periods by flints and steels and the like, andwithin this present generation by lucifer-matches. The only instance Iknow in which flints are said to have preceded fire-sticks, is in thequotation below from Pliny. A light has also been obtained inpre-historic times, as I have already mentioned, by reflecting the sunfrom a hollow surface; but this method required costly apparatus, andcould never have been in common use. Hence, although so far as I amaware, the Bible, and Homer, and other records of great antiquity, areabsolutely silent on the contemporary methods of procuring fire; andalthough Pliny says the reverse--I think we are justified in believingthat the plan of rubbing sticks together was absolutely universal in thebarbaric infancy of the human race. In later Greek History, Prometheus isaccredited with the invention of fire-sticks. Among the Romans bothSeneca and Pliny write about them. Pliny says (Nat. Hist. Xvi. 76, 77), "There is heat in the mulberry, in the bay-laurel, in ivy, and in allplants whence fire-sticks are made. The experience of soldiersreconnoitring for encamping-grounds, and that of shepherds, made thisdiscovery; for a stone is not always at hand whence a spark might bestruck. One piece of wood therefore, is rubbed by another, and it catchesfire through the friction, while a dry tindery substance--fungus andleaves are the most easilyattainable--is used to perpetuate the fire. Nothing is better than ivy used as the stick to be rubbed, and bay-laurelas the stick to rub with. Wild vine--not the 'labrusca'--is also foundgood. "

I have made a great many experiments with different kinds of wood, havingprocured an assortment of those used by the fancy toy-makers of TunbridgeWells, and the chippings from botanical gardens. I find what I have heardfrom savages to be quite true; viz. , that it is much more difficult toprocure good wood for the "fire-block" than for the drill-stick; anythough hard, and dry stick will do for the latter, but the fire-blockmust be of wood with little grain; of a middle degree of softness;readily inflammable; and, I presume, a good on-conductor of heat; but Ido not know if there be much difference, in this latter respect, betweenwoods of the same quality. If it be too hard, the action of thedrill-stick will merely dent and polish it; if very soft, it will be wornaway before the friction has time to heat it sufficiently: ivy isexcellent. I find it not at all difficult to produce smoke (it is muchmore difficult to produce fire) with a broken fishing-rod, or ramrod, asa drill-stick, and a common wooden pill-box, or tooth-powder box, as afire-block. Walnut, also, does as a fire-block, and the stock of a gun isof walnut. Deal and mahogany are both worthless for fire-sticks. 

It is well so to notch the fire-block, that the wood-dust, as it isformed by the rubbing, should all run into one place: it will then glowwith a smouldering heat, ready to burst out into an available flame witha very little fanning, as soon as a degree of heat sufficient to ignitetinder has been attained. Tinder is a great convenience, in ensuring thatthe fire, once obtained, shall not be lost again; but it is not essentialto have it. 

There are many ways of rubbing the sticks together, in use amongdifferent nations. Those curious in the matter should consult Tylor's'Early History of Mankind. ' But the traveller will not obtain muchassistance from these descriptions, as it will be out of his power toobtain fire by any but the simplest of them, on a first trial. He is onlylikely to succeed at first by working at leisure, with perfectly drywood. Even savages, who practise the art all their lives, fail to procurefire in very wet weather, when the shelter is bad. Of the plans employedby savages, the simplest is that in use both in South Africa and inAustralia. 

[Fig 1 as described]. 

The Australian blacks use the flower-stem of the grass-tree, which is ofa tough pithy nature, and about one inch in diameter. The operation ofmaking the fire is assisted by the use of a little charcoal-powder, which, in Australia, is found on the bark of almost every tree, from theconstant passage of grass-fires over the ground. The process is asfollows:--One piece of the stick is notched in the middle, fig. 1, andthe notch slightly hollowed out; another is roundly pointed at one end. The black fellow, being seated on the ground, holds down one end of thenotched stick with each foot, fig. 2, and placing the point of the otherstick into the notch, twirls it rapidly and forcibly between the palms ofhis hands. In doing this his hands gradually slip down the stick, and hehas to shift them rapidly up again, which loses time: but two people, seated opposite, can alternately take up the rubbing, and more easilyproduce fire. A little of the above-mentioned powdered charcoal isdropped into the notch during the operation. In a very few minutesred-hot powdery ashes commence to work up out of the notch, which fallingon a small heap of tow, or of dry tow-like bark, or lint, or cottonstuff, is quickly blown into a flame. The Africans carry the drill-stick, which in shape and size is like an arrow, in a quiver with their arrows, and the fire-block--a stick three inches long and one in diameter, of adifferent wood--as a pendant to their necklace. 

A plan more practicable to an unpractised hand is that in use among someof the North American Indians. I copy the illustration of it fromSchoolcraft's work upon those people. 

One person works the "drill-stick" with a rude bow, and with his otherhand holds a piece of stone or of wood above it, both to steady it and togive the requisite pressure--gentle at first, and increasing judiciouslyup to the critical moment when the fire is on the point of bursting out. Another man puts his hands on the lower piece of wood, the "fire-block, "to steady it, and holds a piece of tinder ready to light it as soon asfire is produced. If a serious emergency should occur, it is by no meanshopeless to obtain fire after this method. A large party haveconsiderable advantages over only one or two men, because as the work isfatiguing, the men can undertake it in turns; and, again, as considerableknack is required for success, it is much more probable that one man outof many should succeed, than that only one man, taken at hazard, shoulddo so. But the best plan of all for a party of three or more men is forone of them to hold the upper block, another to hold the lower block andthe tinder, should there be any, and the third man to cause thedrill-stick to rotate. He will effect this best by dispensing with the"bow, " and by simply using a string or thong of a yard or four feet long. He makes one or two turns with the string round the drill-stick, and thenholding one end of the string in either hand, he saws away with all hisforce. I believe that a party of three men, furnished with dry wood of anappropriate quality and plenty of string, would surely produce smoke onthe first few trials, but that they would fail in producing fire. If, however, they had a couple of hours' leisure to master the knack ofworking these sticks, I think they would succeed in producing fire beforethe end of that time. The period of time necessary for a successfuloperation is from one to three minutes. It is of little use fatiguingyourself with sustaining the exertion for a longer period at a time, unless the wood becomes continuously hotter. As soon as the temperatureremains uniform it shows that you have let the opportunity slip; it isthen the best economy of effort to desist at once, to rest, to takebreath, and recommence with fresh vigour. 

[Sketch unlabelled]. 

Fire by Chemical Means. --It is not in the province of this book todescribe the various matches that take fire by dipping them intocompositions; and I have already spoken of lucifer-matches in the lastsection. Only one source of fire remains to be noticed, it is--

Spontaneous Combustion. --It is conceivable that the property which massesof greasy rags, and such-like matter, possess of igniting when left tothemselves, might under some circumstances, be the only means availableto procure fire. It is at all events well that this property should beborne in mind when warehousing stores, in order to avoid the risk oftheir taking fire. Any oil mixed with a hatful of shavings, tow, cotton, wool, or rags, heaped together, will become very hot in one, two, or moredays, and will ultimately burst into flame. The rapidity of the processis increased by warmth. 

Tinder. --General Remarks. --There are two divisions of tinder: those thatare of a sufficiently strong texture to admit of being grasped in thehand, and those that are so friable as to require a box to hold them. Inthe first division (a) are the following:--amadon, a roll of rag, acotton lamp-wick, a roll of touch-paper, a mass of hair of certainplants, and a long string of pith sewed up in a sheath. To ignite these, we must hold them as in fig. 1, and use the steel to strike downwardsupon the flint. In the second division (b) are:--tinder of burnt rags, tinder of any kind with grains of gunpowder strewed over it, andtouch-wood. All these require tinder-boxes, as explained below. There arealso many other substances belonging to both divisions of tinder, in use. A traveller should inform himself about those peculiar to the countrythat he visits. 

a Amacou, punk, or German tinder, is made from a kind of fungus ormushroom that grows on the trunks of old oaks, ashes, beeches, etc. ; manyother kinds of fungus, and, I believe, all kinds of puff-balls, will alsomake tinder. "It should be gathered in August or September, and isprepared by removing the outer bark with a knife, and separatingcarefully the spongy yellowish mass that lies within it. This is cut intothin slices, and beaten with a mallet to soften it, till it can easily bepulled asunder between the fingers. It is then boiled in a strongsolution of saltpetre. "

A Roll of Rag. --Cotton rag will easily take fire from the spark from aflint, in a very dry climate, if well struck. It must be rolled upmoderately tight, so as to have the end of the roll fluffy; the raghaving been torn, not cut. A rag rolled in this way is not bad tinder, ifthe sparks are strong, and one commences to blow it the instant one ofthe fibres is seen to be alight. If its fluffy end be rubbed into alittle dry gunpowder, its property as tinder is greatly improved. 

Cotton Lamp-wick. --A piece of it drawn through a tin tube, to shield thepreviously charred part from being rubbed off, is excellent in dryclimates. (See fig. 1, p. 180. )

Touch-paper is merely paper dipped in a solution of saltpetre, or whatcomes to nearly the same thing and is somewhat better, paper smeared withdamp gunpowder until it is blackened. Some grains of uncrushed gunpowdershould be left adhering to the paper, and a few more should be allowed tolie loosely upon it. Unsized paper, like that out of a blotting-book, isthe best suited for making into touch-paper; paper is rendered unsized bybeing well soaked and washed in water. (See next paragraph. )

Saltpetre for Tinder. --In all cases the presence of saltpetre makestinder burn more hotly and more fiercely; and saltpetre exists in suchgreat quantities in the ashes of many plants (as tobacco, dill, maize, sunflower), that these can be used, just as they are, in the place of it. Thus, if the ashes of a cigar be well rubbed into a bit of paper, theyconvert it into touch-paper. So will gunpowder, for out of four parts ofit, three are saltpetre; damaged gunpowder may be used for makingtouch-paper. If it be an object to prepare a store of tinder, a strongsolution of saltpetre in water should be obtained, and the paper, orrags, or fungus, dipped into it and hung to dry. This solution may bemade by pouring a little water on a charge of gunpowder, or on the ashesabove-mentioned, which will dissolve the saltpetre out of them. Boilingwater makes a solution forty-fold stronger than ice-cold water, and abouteight times stronger than water at 60 degrees Fahr. 

Hair of Plants. --The silky down of a particular willow (S. Lanata) wasused by the Esquimaux, with whom Dr. Kane had intercourse; and thebotanist Dr. Lindley once informed me that he had happened to receive apiece of peculiarly excellent tinder that was simply the hair of atree-fern. The Gomuti tinder of the Eastern Archipelago is the hair of apalm. 

Pith. --Many kinds of pith are remarkable as tinders; that whence thewell-known pith hats are made, is used as tinder in India. Pieces of pithare often sewn round with thin cotton or silk, so as to form a long cord, like the cotton lamp-wick I have described above, and they are carried intubes for the same reason. 

b. We now come to the different kinds of tinder that fall into our seconddivision, namely, those that are too friable to bear handling. 

Rags. --Charred linen rags make the tinder that catches fire most easily, that burns most hotly when blown upon, and smoulders most slowly whenleft to itself, of any kind of tinder that is generally to be obtained. In making it the rags are lighted, and when in a blaze and before theyare burnt to white ashes, the flame is stifled out. It is usual to makethis kind of tinder in the box intended to hold it; but it can easily bemade on the ground in the open air, by setting light to the rag, anddropping pinches of sand upon the flaming parts as soon as it is desiredto quench them. The sand is afterwards brushed away, and the tindergently extricated. 

Touch-wood is an inferior sort of tinder, but is always to be met with inwoody countries. 

Dry Dung. --Dry and powdered cattle dung--especially horse-dung--willtake a spark, but with trouble. After it is lighted it can be keptburning with little difficulty. 

Tinder-boxes. --There are three ways of striking a flint, which are bestexplained by sketches. Fig. 1, p. 180, shows how tinder that is toughenough to bear handling, is grasped together with the flint. When notinder-box is at hand the more friable kinds of tinder, as touch-wood, may be enveloped in a roll of rag and be used either as in fig. 1 or infig 3. Fig. 2 shows how tinder may be laid on the ground, and how sparksmay be struck upon it. The household tinder-boxes of thirty years ago, before lucifers were invented, were for use in this way. Fig. 3 shows howsparks may be struck into a small tinder-box. It is the method mostcommonly adopted by travellers: for instance, it is universally used inSouth Africa and in North America. A hollow cylinder of wood or metal, about three inches long, and corked up at one end, is all that isessential. If it be barrel-shaped the flint lies against its sides, atthe most convenient angle for striking sparks into the box, as is shownby the bottom drawing of fig. 3. 

[Fig 2 and 3 as described]. 

Wet Weather. --In long-continued soaking weather, the best way of keepinga tinder-box dry is to put it into a small pocket hung close under thearmpit. 

Fuel. --Firewood. --There is a knack in finding firewood. It should belooked for under bushes; the stump of a tree that is rotted nearly to theground has often a magnificent root, fit to blaze throughout the night. 

Dry Cattle-dung. --The dry dung of cattle and other animals, as found onthe ground, is very generally used throughout the world, in default ofbetter fuel, and there is nothing whatever objectionable in employing it. The Canadians call it by the apt name of "Bois de Vache. " In North andSouth Africa it is frequently used; throughout a large part of Armeniaand of Thibet the natives rely entirely upon it. There is a greatconvenience in this sort of fuel; because, as it is only in camps thatfuel is wanted, so it is precisely at old encamping-places thatcattle-dung is abundantly found. 

Bones. --Another remarkable substitute for firewood is bones; a fact whichMr. Darwin was, I believe, the first to mention. The bones of an animal, when freshly killed, make good fuel; and even those of cooked meat, andsuch as have been exposed to the air for some days, will greatly increasethe heat of a scanty fire. Their smell is not disagreeable: it is simplythat of roast or burnt meat. In the Falkland Islands, where firewood isscarce, it is not unusual to cook part of the meat of a slaughtered bullwith its own bones. When the fire is once started with a few sticks, itburns well and hotly. The flame of course depends on the fat within thebones, and therefore the fatter the animal the better the fire. Duringthe Russian campaign in 1829, the troops suffered so severely from coldat Adrianople, that the cemeteries were ransacked for bones for fuel. (Moltke, in the Appendix. )

Sea-weed makes a hot though not a cheerful fire. It is largely used. Thevraic or sea-weed gatherers of the Channel Islands are represented inmany picturesque sketches. The weed is carted home, spread out, anddried. 

Peat. --Travellers must bear in mind that peat will burn, especially asthe countries in which it is found are commonly destitute of firewood;and, besides that, are marshy, cold, and aguish. 

Charcoal is frequently carried by travellers in sacks; they use aprepared charcoal in the East, which is made in the form of very largebuttons, that are carried strung together on a string. An Indiancorrespondent informs me that they are made by mixing powdered charcoalwith molasses, in the proportion of ten to one, or thereabouts, rollingthe mass into balls, and drying them in the sun. A single ball is calleda "gul. " They are used for igniting hookhas: they are also burnt insidethe smoothing-iron used by washermen in order to heat it. The juice orsap of many plants would probably answer the purpose of molasses in theirpreparation. 

Small Fuel for lighting the Fire. --Shreds and Fibres. --The live spark hasto be received and partly enclosed, in a loose heap or nest offinely-shredded fuel. The substances for making such a nest, are one orother of the following list:--

Dry grass of the finest kinds: leaves: moss: lichen, and wild cotton;stalks or bark, broken up and rubbed small between the fingers; peat orcattle-dung pulverised; paper that has been doubled up in many folds andthen cut with a sharp knife into the finest possible shavings; tow, orwhat is the same thing, oakum, made by unravelling rope or string; andscrapings and fine shavings from a log of wood. The shreds that areintended to touch the live spark should be reduced to the finest fibre;the outside of the nest may be of coarser, but still of somewhat delicatematerial. 

Cook should collect them. --It is the duty of a cook, when the time ofencamping draws near, to get down from his horse, and to pick up, as hewalks along, a sufficiency of dry grass, little bits of wood, and thelike, to start a fire; which he should begin to make as soon as ever thecaravan stops. The fire ought to be burning, and the kettle standing byits side, by the time that the animals are caught and are ready to beoff-packed. 

Small Sticks. --There should be abundance of small sticks, and if neitherthese nor any equivalent for them are to be picked up, the travellershould split up his larger firewood with his knife, in order to makethem. It is a wise economy of time and patience to prepare plenty ofthese; otherwise it will occasionally happen that the whole stock will beconsumed and no fire made. Then the traveller must recommence the workfrom the very beginning, under the disadvantage of increasing darkness. Ihave made many experiments myself, and have seen many novices as well asold campaigners try to make fires; and have concluded that, to ensuresuccess, the traveller should be provided with small bundles of sticks ofeach of the following sizes:--1st, size of lucifer-match; 2nd, of leadpencil; 3rd, smaller than little finger; 4th, size of fore-finger; 5th, stout stakes. 

In wet Weather, the most likely places to find wherewithal to light afire, are under large stones and other shelter; but in soaking wetweather, little chips of dry wood can hardly be procured except bycutting them with an axe out of the middle of a log. The fire may then bebegun, as the late Admiral the Hon. C. Murray well recommended in histravels in North America, in the frying-pan itself, for want of a drypiece of ground. 

To kindle a Spark into a Flame. --By whirling. --1st. Arrange the fuelinto logs; into small fuel, assorted as described above, and into shredsand fibres. 2nd. Make a loose nest of the fibre, just like a sparrow'snest in shape and size, and let the finer part of the fibres be inwards. 3rd. Drop the lighted tinder in the next. 4th. Holding the "nest" quiteloosely in the half-closed hand, whirl the outstretched arm in verticalcircles round the shoulder-joint, as indicated by the dotted line in thediagram. In 30 seconds, or about 40 revolutions, it will begin to glow, and will shortly after burst out in a grand flame. 5th Drop it, and pilesmall twigs round it, and nurse the young fire carefully, bearing in mindthe proverb that "small sticks kindle a flame, but large ones put itout. "

By blowing. --Savages usually kindle the flame by blowing at the livespark and feeding it with little bits of stick, just so much as isnecessary. But it is difficult to acquire the art of doing this well, andI decidedly recommend the plan I have described in the foregoingparagraph, in preference to it. When the wind blowssteadily and freshly, it suffices to hold up the "nest" against the wind. 

Sulphur matches are so very useful to convert a spark into a flame, andthey are so easily made, in any quantity, out of split wood, straw, etc. , if the traveller will only take the trouble of carrying a small lump ofsulphur in his baggage, that they always ought to be at hand. The sulphuris melted on a heated stone, or in an old spoon, bit of crockery, bit oftin with a dent made in it, or even a piece of paper, and the points ofthe pieces of wood dipped in the molten mass. A small chip of sulphurpushed into the cleft end of a splinter of wood makes a fair substitutefor a match. (See "Lucifer-matches. ")

Camp Fires. --Large Logs. --The principle of making large logs to burnbrightly, is to allow air to reach them on all sides, and yet to placethem so closely together, that each supports the combustion of the rest. A common plan is to make the fire with three logs, whose ends cross eachother, as in the diagram. The dots represent the extent of the fire. Asthe ends burn away, the logs are pushed closer together. Another plan isto lay the logs parallel with the burning ends to the windward, then theycontinue burning together. 

In the pine-forests of the North, at winter time, it is usual to fell alarge tree, and, cutting a piece six or eight feet long off the largeend, to lay the thick short piece upon the long one, which is left lyingon the ground; having previously cut flat with the axe the sides thatcome in contact, and notched them so as to make the upper log lie steady. The chips are then heaped in between the logs, and are set fire to; theflame runs in between them, and the heat of each log helps the other toburn. It is the work of nearly an hour to prepare such a fire; but whenmade, it lasts throughout the night. In all cases, one or two great logsare far better than many small ones, as these burn fast away and requireconstant looking after. Many serious accidents occur from a large logburning away and toppling over with a crash, sending a volley of blazingcinders among the sleeping party. Savages are always getting burnt, andwe should take warning from their carelessness: sometimes they find asingle scathed tree without branches, which they have no means offelling; this they set fire to as it stands, and when all have fallen offto sleep, the tree tumbles down upon them. Indeed, savages are seldomfree from scars or severe burns; they are so cold during the night thatthey cannot endure to be an inch further from the fire than necessary, and consequently, as they turn about in their sleep, often roll into it. 

[Diagram as described following]. 

Logs to cut up, with a small axe or knife. 

Let A O be the log. Cut two notches (1), (2), on opposite sides. Hold thelog by the end A, and strike the end violently against the ground; thepiece O, 1, 2, will fly off. Then make the cut (3) on the side oppositeto (2), and again strike, and the piece 1, 2, 3, will fly off. So againwith cut (4), etc. (Peal. )

Brushwood. --If in a country where any a number of small sticks and nolarge logs can be collected as firewood, the best plan is to encamp afterthe manner of the Ovampos. These, as they travel, collect sticks, eachman his own faggot, and when they stop, each takes eight or nine stonesas large as bricks, or larger, and sets them in a circle; and withinthese he lights up his little fire. Now the party make their fireplacesclose together, in two or more parallel lines, and sleep in between them;the stones prevent the embers from flying about and doing mischief, andalso, after the fires have quite burnt out, they continue to radiateheat. 

Charcoal. --If charcoal be carried, a small chafing-dish, or othersubstitute for a fireplace, ought also be taken, together with a set oftin cooking-utensils. 

Fireplaces in Boats. --In boating excursions, daub a lump of clay on thebottom of the boat, beneath the fireplace--it will secure the timbersfrom fire. "Our primitive kitchen was a square wooden box, lined withclay and filled with sand, upon which three or four large stones wereplaced to form a hearth. " (Burton's 'Medinah. ')

Fireplaces on Snow. --On very deep snow, a hearth has to be made of anumber of green logs, upon which the fire may be made. (See "EsquimauxCooking Lamp. ")

Cooking-fires. --See chapter on "Cooking. "

Fires in the early Morning. --Should your stock of fuel consist of largelogs and but little brushwood, keep all you can spare of the latter tomake a blaze, when you get up to catch and pack the cattle in the darkand early morning. As you travel on, if it be bitter cold, carry afirebrand in your hand, near your mouth, as a respirator--it is verycomforting; then, when the fire of it burns dull, thrust the brand for afew moments in any tuft of dry grass you may happen to pass by, whichwill blaze up and give a new life to the brand. 

FOOD. 

The nutritive Elements of Food. --Many chemists have applied themselves inrecent years, to discover the exact percentage of nutriment contained indifferent substances, and to determine the minimum nutriment on whichhuman life can be supported. The results are not very accordant, butnevertheless a considerable approximation to truth has been arrived at. It is now possible to tell whether a proposed diet has any great faultsof excess or deficiency, and how to remedy those faults. But it also mustbe recollected that the stomach is an assimilating machine of limitedperformance, and must be fed with food that it can digest; it is notenough that the food should contain nutritious matter, if that mattershould be in an indigestible form. Burke and Wills perished from sheerinability to digest the seeds upon which the Australian savages lived;and Gardiner's party died of starvation in Tierra del Fuego, because theycould not digest the shell-fish which form a common article of diet ofthe natives of that country. The question of diet must then be limited tofood that is perfectly digestible by the traveller. It remains to learnhow much nourishment is contained in different kinds of digestible food. Dr. Smith has recently written an elaborate essay on this subject, applying his inquiries chiefly to the food of the poor in England; butfor my more general purpose, as it is impossible to do justice to a largeand imperfectly understood subject, in the small space I can give to it, it will be better that I should reprint the results given in my previousedition. These are principally extracted from a remarkable paper by Dr. Christison, inserted in the Bluebook Report of the Commission of Inquiryon Crimean matters, in which the then faulty dietary of our soldiers wasdiscussed. It appears 1st, that a man of sedentary life can exist inhealth on seventeen ounces per day of real nutriment; that a man engagedin active life requires fully twenty-eight ounces per day; and, duringsevere labour, he requires thirty ounces, or even more. 2ndly, that thisnutriment must consist of three-quarters, by weight, of one class ofnutritive principles, (C), and one quarter of another class of nutritiveprinciples, (N); 3rdly, that all the articles of common food admit ofbeing placed, as below, in a Table, by which we see at a glance how muchnutriment of class C, and how much of class N, is found in 100 parts, gross weight of any of them. Thus, by a simple computation, the effectivevalue of a dietary may be ascertained. Class C, are the carboniferousprinciples, that maintain respiration; Class N, are the nitrogenousprinciples, that repair waste of tissue. N will partly replace C, but ata great waste: C will not replace N. 

A large number of diets such as those of various armies and navies, ofprisons and infirmaries, and of the ordinary diets of different classesof people, have been examined by aid of this Table, with surprisinglyuniform results. But these diets chiefly refer to temperate climates; itwould therefore be a matter of great interest if travellers in distantlands would accurately observe and note down the weight of their ownrations and those of the natives. It is a great desideratum to know thelightest portable food suitable to different countries. Any such reports, if carefully made and extending over a period of not less than twomonths, would be very acceptable to me. To make them of any use, it isnecessary that every article consumed should be noted down; and that theweight and state of health, at the beginning and at the end of theperiod, should be compared. 

__________________________________________________Table showing the quantity of Nutriment containedin different articles of Diet. __________________________________________________________________Articles of Diet . . C. N. Total real. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . Nutri- (Carboniferous. ) (Nitrogenous) ment per cent. Of gross weight. __________________________________________________________________Wheat Flour. .. .. .. .. .. .. 71. 25 . .. .. .. .. . 16. 25 . .. .. .. 87. 5Bread. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 51. 5 . .. .. .. .. . 10. 5 . .. .. .. 62. 0Oatmeal. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 65. 75 . .. .. .. .. . 16. 25 . .. .. .. . 82. 0Pearl Barley. .. .. .. .. .. . 67. 0 . .. .. .. .. .. 15. 0 . .. .. .. . 82. 0Peas. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 55. 5 . .. .. .. .. .. 24. 5 . .. .. .. . 80. 0Potatoes (preserved potatoes are thor- oughly dry). .. .. .. . . . 24. 5 . .. .. .. .. .. 2. 5 . .. .. .. .. . 27. 0Carrots. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 8. 5 . .. .. .. .. .. 1. 5 . .. .. .. .. 10. 0Turnips. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 5. 7 . .. .. .. .. .. 0. 3 . .. .. .. .. 6. 0Cabbage. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 6. 7 . .. .. .. .. .. 0. 3 . .. .. .. .. . 7. 0Lean of Beef and Mutton . - . .. .. .. .. . 27. 0 . .. .. .. .. 27. 0Fat of meat. .. .. .. .. .. .. 100. 0 . .. .. .. .. . - . .. .. .. 100. 0Average Beef and Mutton 15. 0 . .. .. .. .. .. 20. 25 . .. .. .. . 35. 25Bacon. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 62. 5 . .. .. .. .. . 8. 36 . .. .. .. . 70. 86Skimmed-milk Cheese . .. .. 0. 4 . .. .. .. .. . 64. 6 . .. .. .. .. 65. 0White Fish . .. .. .. .. .. .. - . .. .. .. .. .. 21. 0 . .. .. .. .. 21. 0New Milk . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 8. 0 . .. .. .. .. . 4. 5 . .. .. .. .. 12. 5Skimmed Milk . .. .. .. .. .. 8. 0 . .. .. .. .. . 4. 5 . .. .. .. .. 10. 0Butter-milk. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1. 0 . .. .. .. .. . 6. 0 . .. .. .. .. 7. 0Beef Tea, strong . .. .. .. . - . .. .. .. .. . 1. 44 . .. .. .. .. 1. 44Beef Tea and Meat de- coction of Broth . .. .. . - . .. .. .. .. . 0. 72 . .. .. .. .. 0. 72Sugar. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 100. 0 . .. .. .. .. .. - . .. .. .. 100. 0Butter. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 100. 0 . .. .. .. .. .. . - . .. .. .. . 100. 0Total (in Seden- (tary life. .. 12. 57 . .. .. .. .. . 4. 25 . .. .. .. . 17 ounces. Nutriment (in Active (life. .. .. .. .. 21. 00 . .. .. .. .. 7. 00 . .. .. .. . 28 "Required. (In Severe (labour. .. .. .. . 22. 50 . .. .. .. .. 7. 50 . .. .. .. 30 "

As examples of the way in which the above Tables should be applied, Iwill now give three dietaries, in which the quantity of real nutrimenthas been calculated. 

 I. -- British Navy Allowances. (Admiralty Order, 1824. )

 Gross weight Real Nutriment. In ounces. C. N. Total. Bread . .. .. .. .. .. . 20. 0 - 10. 3 . .. 2. 1 . .. .. .. 12. 4 or Biscuit - 16. 0 . . 11. 4 . . 2. 6 . .. .. .. 14. 0Oatmeal . .. .. .. . 1. 5 . . 1. 5 . . 1. 96 . 0. 48 . .. .. . 2. 44Cocoa . .. .. .. .. .. . 1. 0 - . .. 0. 5 . .. - . .. .. .. 0. 55 or Cheese . .. .. .. . - . .. 2. 0 . .. - . .. 1. 33 . .. .. . 1. 33Sugar . .. .. .. .. .. . 1. 5 . . - . .. . 1. 5 . .. - . .. .. .. .. 1. 5 or Butter . .. .. . - . . 1. 5 . .. 1. 5 . .. . - . .. .. .. .. 1. 5Meat . .. .. .. .. .. 16. 0 . . - . .. 2. 4 . .. 3. 24 . .. .. . 5. 64 or Salt Meat . . - . .. 12. 0 . . 2. 4 . .. 3. 24 . .. .. . 5. 64Vegetables . .. .. . 8. 0 . . - . .. 0. 9 . .. 0. 15 . .. .. .. 1. 05 or Flour . .. .. . - . . 12. 0 . . 8. 95 . . 1. 95 . .. .. . 10. 9Tea . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 0. 25 . . - . .. - . .. - . .. .. .. - or Coffee . .. .. . - . .. 1. 0 . .. - . .. . - . .. .. .. .. - __________________________________________________ Total . .. .. .. . - . .. . - . . 41. 81 . 15. 09 . .. .. 57. 0

N. B. --Besides this, is beer (in harbour only) sixteen ounces, or spiritsfour ounces. 

Table II. Shows the daily food actually consumed by probably the mostenergetic travelling and exploring party on record. It was during Dr. Rae's spring journey to the Arctic shores of America. He issued, inaddition, four ounces of grease or alcohol a day, as fuel for cooking. Hefound that it required nearly as much fuel to melt the snow, as it did toboil it afterwards. This allowance was found quite sufficient, but therewas nothing to spare. 

II. -- Dr. Rae's Allowances in Arctic America. 

 Gross weight Real Nutriment. In ounces. C. N. Total. Pemmican (1/3 dry meat, 2/3 fat) . 20. 0 . .. .. . 13. 3 . .. 6. 6 . .. .. . 19. 9Biscuit . .. .. .. .. .. . 4. 0 . .. .. 2. 9 . .. 0. 6 . .. .. . 3. 5Edwards's preserved potatoes . .. .. .. .. . 1. 6 . .. .. 1. 4 . .. 0. 1 . .. .. . 1. 5Flour . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 5. 3 . .. .. . 3. 8 . .. 0. 8 . .. .. .. 4. 6Tea . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0. 6 . .. .. . ? . .. ? . .. .. .. . ?Sugar . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 2. 3 . .. .. . 2. 3 . . - . .. .. .. .. 2. 3____________________________________________________________ . .. .. .. . . .. . 33. 8 . .. .. 23. 7 . .. 8. 1 . .. .. .. 31. 8

III. -- DMr. Austin's Allowances in Western Australia. 

 Gross weight Real Nutriment. In ounces. C. N. Total. Flour . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 18. 0 . .. .. . 12. 8 . .. 2. 9 . .. .. .. 15. 7Boned salt pork (say a little more lean than fat) . .. .. .. .. 8. 0 . .. .. . 1. 9 . .. 2. 1 . .. .. . 15. 7Tea . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0. 75 . .. .. . - . .. - . .. .. .. . -Sugar . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 3. 0 . .. . . . 3. 0 . . - . .. .. .. . 3. 0____________________________________________________________ . .. .. .. . . .. . 29. 75 . .. .. 17. 7 . .. 5. 0 . .. .. .. 22. 7

IV. -- A Sepoy's Full Rations are: --. 

 Gross weight Real Nutriment. In ounces. C. N. Total. Wheaten Flour . .. .. .. 32 . .. .. . 22. 8 . .. 5. 2 . .. .. . 29. 0Pulse . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 4 . .. .. . 2. 2 . . 1. 0 . .. .. .. 3. 2Butter . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1 . .. .. . 1. 0 . . 0. 0 . .. .. .. . 1. 0____________________________________________________________ . .. .. .. . . .. . 37 . .. .. 26. 0. .. 6. 2 . .. .. .. 33. 3

Game was occasionally shot, by which the serious deficiency in Class Nmust have been supplied. At the same time, I must say that Australianexplorers seem to travel exceedingly well on unusually scanty diets. 

Food Suitable for the Stores of Travellers. --The most portable kind offood is, unquestionably, the flesh of cattle; for the beasts carrythemselves. The draught oxen used in African and Australian explorationsserve as a last resource, when all other food is wanting. 

It has been truly remarked with reference to Australian exploringexpeditions, that if an exploring party would make up their minds to eathorseflesh, stores of provisions might be largely dispensed with. A fewextra horses could be taken; and one shot occasionally, and its fleshdried and slightly salted, sufficiently to preserve it from becomingtainted before the men could consume it. 

Portable Food. --The kinds of food that are the most portable in theordinary sense of the term are:--Pemmican; meat-biscuit; fried meat;dried fish; wheat flour; biscuit; oatmeal; barley; peas; cheese; sugar;preserved potatoes; and Chollet's compressed vegetables. Extract of meat, as I am assured by the highest physiological authors, is not a portablefood but a portable savour. It is quite impossible that life should bemaintained on any minute amount of material, because so many grains ofcarbon and so many of nitrogen are daily consumed, and an equivalentweight of those elements must, of course, be replaced. Salt meat is notto be depended upon, for it is liable to become hard and worthless, bylong keeping. 

Pemmican; general remarks. --Of all food usually carried on expeditions, none is so complete in itself, nor contains so large a proportion ofnutriment as pemmican. It is especially useful to those who undergosevere work, in cold and rainy climates. It is the mainstay of Arcticexpeditions, whether on water, by sledge, or on foot. But, thoughexcellent to men who are working laboriously, it is distasteful toothers. 

Pemmican is a mixture of about five-ninths of pounded dry meat tofour-ninths of melted or boiled grease; it is put into a skin bag or tincan whilst warm and soft. The grease ought not to be very warm, whenpoured on the dry meat. Wild berries are sometimes added. The skin bagsfor the pemmican should be shaped like pillow (not bolster) cases, forthe convenience of packing on horseback. The pemmican is chopped out withan axe, when required. 

I do not know if it can be bought anywhere in England. It was usuallyprepared in the government yards at Deptford, when made for the ArcticExpeditions. It is largely used in the Hudson's Bay territory. Atraveller who desired to furnish himself with pemmican might procure hissupplies from thence. 

Pemmican, as made in England. --Sir John Richardson describes, in hisNarrative, the preparation of the pemmican that he took with him in hislast journey. The following is a résumé of what he says:--The meat usedwas round of beef; the fat and membranous parts were pared away; it wasthen cut into thin slices, which were dried in a malt-kiln, over anoak-wood fire, till they were quite dry and friable. Then they wereground in a malt mill; after this process the powder resembledfinely-grated meal. It was next mixed with nearly an equal weight ofmelted beef, suet, or lard; and the plain pemmican was made. Part of thepemmican was mixed with Zante currants, and another part with sugar. Bothof these mixtures were much liked, especially the latter. The pemmican, when complete, cost at the rate of 1x. U 1/2 d. Per pound, but then themeat was only 6 3/4 d. Per pound; it is dearer now. The meat lost morethan three-quarters of its weight in drying. He had 17, 424 lbs. Ofpemmican in all; it was made from--fresh beef, 35, 641 lbs; lard9lbs. ; currants3 lbs. ; and sugar lbs. 

Pemmican, as made in the Prairie. --Mr. Ballantyne, who was in the serviceof the Hudson's Bay Company, gives the following account:--"Having shot abuffalo, the hunters cut lumps of his flesh, and slitting it up intoflakes or layers, hang it up in the sun, or before a slow fire, to dry;and the fat can be dried as well as the lean. In this state, it is oftenmade into packs, and sent about the country, to be consumed as dried meat(it is often best relished raw, for, when grilled without fat, it burnsand becomes ashy); but when pemmican is wanted, it has to go throughanother process. When dry, the meat is pounded between two stones till itis broken into small pieces: these are put into a bag made of theanimal's hide, with the hair on the outside, and well mixed with meltedgrease; the top of the bag is then sewn up, and the pemmican allowed tocool. In this state it may be eaten uncooked; but the men who subsist onit when travelling, mix it with a little flour and water, and then boilit--in which state it is know throughout the country by the elegant nameof robbiboo. Pemmican is good wholesome food; will keep fresh for a greatlength of time; and, were it not for its unprepossessing appearance, anda good many buffalo hairs mixed with it, through the carelessness of thehunters, would be very palatable. After a time, however, one becomesaccustomed to these little peculiarities. "

Meat-biscuit. --Meat-biscuit, which is used in American ships, is statedto be a thick soup, evaporated down to a syrup, kneaded with flour, andmade into biscuits: these are pricked with holes, dried and baked. Theycan be eaten just as they are, or made into a porridge, with from twentyto thirty times their weight of water. They were to be bought atGamble's, Leadenhall Street. 

Dried Meat. --When more game is shot than can be eaten before the partytravel onwards, it is usual to jerk a part of it. It is cut in longstrips, and festooned about the bushes, under the full sun, in order todry it. After it has been sun-dried it will keep for long, before itbecomes wholly putrid. Dried meat is a poor substitute for fresh meat; itrequires long steeping in water, to make it tender, and then it istasteless, and comparatively innutritious. "Four expert men slice up afull-grown buffalo in four hours and a-half. " (Leichhardt. ) The Americanbuccaneers acquired their name from boucan--which means jerked meat, inan Indian dialect; for they provisioned their ships with the dried fleshof the wild cattle that they hunted down and killed. 

Dried Fish. --Fish may be pounded entire, just as they come from theriver, dried in the sun in large lumps, and kept: the negroes about theNiger do this. 

Flour travels conveniently in strong canvas bags, each holding 50 lbs. , and long enough to be lashed on to a pack-saddle. (See "Pack-gabs, " p. 71. )

Chollet's preserved Vegetables relieve agreeably the monotony of a bushdiet. A single ration weighs less than an ounce, and a cubic yardcontains 16, 000 of these rations. They are now to be bought at allprovision merchants'--as at Fortnum and Mason's, etc. 

Salted Meat. --I have already said (see "Portable Food") that salt meatcannot be depended upon to retain its nutritious qualities for a lengthof time. When freshly made, it is sure to be good. It is well torecollect that, for want of a salting-tub, animals can be salted in theirown hide. A hollow is scraped in the ground, the hide is laid over it andpegged down, and the meat, salt, and water put into it. I know of aninstance where this was one on a very large scale. 

Condiments. --The most portable and useful condiments for a travellerare--salt, red pepper, Harvey's sauce, lime-juice, dried onions, andcurry-powder. They should be bought at a first-rate shop; for red pepper, lime-juice, and curry-powder are often atrociously adulterated. 

Salt. . --The craving for salt (chloride of sodium) is somewhat satisfiedby the potash salts, and, perhaps, by other minerals: thus we often hearof people reduced to the mixing of gun-powder with their food, on accountof the saltpetre that it contains. An impure salt is made widely in NorthAfrica, from wood-ashes. They are put into a pot, hot water is pouredover them and allowed to stand and dissolve out the salts they contain;the ley is then decanted into another pot, where it is evaporated. Theplants in use, are those of which the wetted ashes have a saline and notan alkaline taste, nor a soapy feel. As a general rule, trees that makegood soap (p. 122), yield little saltpetre or other good equivalent forsalt. Salt caravans are the chief sustainers of the lines of commerce inNorth Africa. In countries where salt is never used, as I myself havewitnessed in South Africa, and among the Mandan North-American Indiantribes (Catlin, vol. I, p. 124), the soil and springs are "brack. " FourRussian sailors who were wrecked on Spitzbergen, and whose well-knownadventures are to be found in Pinkerton's 'Voyages and Travels, ' hadnothing whatever for six years to subsist on--save only the animals theykilled, a little moss, and melted snow-water. One of them died; theothers enjoyed robust health. People who eat nothing but meat, feel thecraving for salt far less strongly than those who live wholly onvegetables. 

Butcher. --One man in every party should have learnt from a professedbutcher, how to cut up a carcase to the best advantage. 

Store-keeping. --All stores should be packed and securely lashed, that itmay be impossible to pilfer from them. The packages of those that are inuse, should be carried in one pair of saddle-gabs, to be devoted to thatpurpose. These should stand at the storekeeper's bivouac, and nobody elseshould be allowed to touch them, when there. He should have everyfacility for weighing and measuring. Lastly, it should be his duty tofurnish a weekly account, specifying what stores remain in hand. 

Wholesome Food, procurable in the Bush. --Game and Fish. --See sectionsupon "Hints on Shooting;" "Other means of capturing Game;" and upon"Fishing;" and note the paragraph on "Nocturnal Animals. "

Milk, to keep. --Put it in a bottle, and place it in a pot of water, overa slow fire, till the water boils; let the bottle remain half an hour inthe boiling water, and then cork it tightly. Milk with one's tea is agreat luxury; it is worth taking some pains to keep it fresh. A travelleris generally glutted with milk when near native encampments, and at othertimes has none at all. Milk dried into cakes, intended to be grated intoboiling water for use, was formerly procurable: it was very good; but Icannot hear of it now in the shops. Milk preserved in tins is excellent, but it is too bulky for the convenience of most travellers. Driedbread-crumb, mixed with fresh cream, issaid to make a cake that will keepfor some days. I have not succeeded, to my satisfaction with this recipe. 

Butter, to preserve. --Boil it in a large vessel till the scum rises. Skimthis off as fast as it appears on the surface, until the butter remainsquite clear, like oil. It should then be carefully poured off, that theimpurities which settle at the bottom of the vessel may be separated. Theclarified butter is to be put aside to be kept, the settlings must beused for common and immediate purposes. Butter is churned, in manycountries, by twirling a forked stick, held between the two hands, in avessel full of cream; or even by shaking the cream in a bottle. It issaid that the temperature of the milk, while it is being churned, shouldbe between 50 degrees and 60 degrees Fahr. , and that this isall-important to success. 

Cheese. --"The separation of the whey from the cheese may be effected byrennet, or by bitartrate of potash, or tamarinds, or alum, or variousacids and acid wines and fruit juices. " (Dr. Weber. )

Eggs may be dried at a gentle heat; then pounded and preserved. This is aconvenient plan of making a store of portable food out of the eggs ofsea-birds, or those of ostriches. 

Fish-roe is another kind of portable food. The chemists declare itscomposition to be nearly identical with that of ordinary eggs. (Pereira. )Caviare is made out of any kind of fish-roe; but the recherché sort, onlyfrom that of the sturgeon. Long narrow bags of strong linen, and a strongbrine, are prepared. The bags are half-filled with the roe, and are thenquite filled with the brine, which is allowed to ooze through slowly. This being done, the men wring the bags strongly with their hands, andthe roe is allowed to dry. Roe-broth is a good dish. 

Honey, to find, when Bees are seen. --Dredge as many bees as you can, withflour from a pepper-box; or else catch one of them, tie a feather or astraw to his leg, which can easily be done (natives thrust it up into hisbody), throw him into the air, and follow him as he flies slowly to hishive; or catch two bees, and turning them loose at some distance apart, search the place towards which their flights converge. But if bees aretoo scarce for either of these methods, choose an open place, and lay init a plate of syrup as a bait for the bees; after one has fed and flownaway again, remove the plate 200 yards in the direction in which he flew;and proceed in the same sort of way, until the nest is found. 

Honey-bird. --The instinct of the honey-bird is well-known, which induceshim to lead men to hives, that he may share in the plunder. The storiesthat are told of the apparent malice of the bird, in sometimes tricking aman, and leading him to the lair of wild animals, instead of to the bees'nest, are well authenticated. 

Revolting Food, that may save the Lives of Starving Men. --Suspicion ofPoison. --If any meat that you may find, or if the water of any pool atwhich you encamp, is under suspicion of being poisoned, let one of yourdogs eat or drink before you do, and wait an hour to watch the effect ofit upon him. 

Carrion is not noxious to Starving Men. --In reading the accounts oftravellers who have suffered severely from want of food, a striking factis common to all, namely, that, under those circumstances, carrion andgarbage of every kind can be eaten without the stomach rejecting it. Lifecan certainly be maintained on a revolting diet, that would cause adangerous illness to a man who was not compelled to adopt it by the pangsof hunger. There is, moreover, a great difference in the power thatdifferent people possess of eating rank food without being made ill byit. It appears that no flesh, and very few fish, are poisonous to man;but vegetables are frequently poisonous. 

Dead Animals, to find. --The converging flight of crows, and gorgedvultures sitting on trees, show where dead game is lying; but it is oftenvery difficult to find the carcase; for animals usually crawl under somebush or other hiding-place, to die. Jackal-tracks, etc. , are often theonly guide. It may be advisable, after an unsuccessful search, to removeto some distance, and watch patiently throughout the day, until the birdsreturn to their food, and mark them down. 

Rank Birds. --When rank birds are shot, they should be skinned, notplucked; for much of the rankness lies in their skin; or, if unskinned, they should be buried for some hours, because earth absorbs the oil thatmakes them rank. Their breast and wings are the least objectionableparts, and, if there be abundance of food, should alone be cooked. Ranksea-birds, when caught, put in a coop, and fed with corn, were found byCaptain Bligh to become fat and well-tasted. 

Skins. --All old hides or skins of any kind that are not tanned are fitand good for food; they improve soup by being mixed with it; or they maybe toasted and hammered. Long boiling would make glue or gelatine ofthem. Many a hungry person has cooked and eaten his sandals or skinclothing. 

Bones contain a great deal of nourishment, which is got at by boilingthem, pounding their ends between two stones, and sucking them. There isa revolting account in French history, of a beseiged garrison ofSancerre, in the time of Charles IX. , and again subsequently at Paris, and it may be elsewhere, digging up the graveyards for bones assustenance. 

Blood from Live Animals. --The Aliab tribe, who have great herds of cattleon the White Nile, "not only milk their cows, but they bleed their cattleperiodically, and boil the blood for food. Driving a lance into a vein inthe neck, they bleed the animal copiously, which operation is repeatedabout once a month. " (Sir S. Baker. )

Flesh from Live Animals. --The truth of Bruce's well-known tale of theAbyssinians and others occasionally slicing out a piece of a live ox forfood is sufficiently confirmed. Thus Dr. Beke observes, "There could beno doubt of the fact. He had questioned hundreds of natives on thesubject, and though at first they positively declared the statement to bea lie, many, on being more closely questioned, admitted the possibilityof its truth, for they could not deny that cattle are frequently attackedby hyaenas, whose practice is to leap on the animals from behind and atonce begin devouring the hind quarters; and yet, if driven off in time, the cattle have still lived. "--Times, Jan. 167. 

It is reasonable enough that a small worn-out party should adopt thisplan, when they are travelling in a desert where the absence of watermakes it impossible to delay, and when they are sinking for want of food. If the ox were killed outright there would be material for one meal only, because a worn-out party would be incapable of carrying a load of flesh. By the Abyssinian plan the wounded beast continues to travel with theparty, carrying his carcase that is destined to be turned into butcher'smeat for their use at a further stage. Of course the idea is veryrevolting, for the animal must suffer as much as the average of the tensor hundreds of wounded hares and pheasants that are always left among thebushes after an ordinary English battue. To be sure, the Abyssinian planshould only be adopted to save human life. 

When I travelled in South-West Africa, at one part of my journey a plagueof bush-ticks attacked the roots of my oxen's tails. Their bites madefestering sores, which ended in some of the tails dropping bodily off. Iheard such accidents were not at all uncommon. The animals did not travelthe worse for it. Now ox-tail soup is proverbially nutritious. 

Insects. --Most kinds of creeping things are eatable, and are used by theChinese. Locusts and grasshoppers are not at all bad. To prepare them, pull off the legs and wings and roast them with a little grease in aniron dish, like coffee. Even the gnats that swarm on the Shiré River arecollected by the natives and pressed into cakes. 

Wholesome and poisonous Plants. --No certain rule can be given todistinguish wholesome plants from poisonous ones; but it has beenobserved that much the same thing suits the digestion of a bird thatsuits that of a man; and, therefore, that a traveller, who otherwisewould make trials at haphazard, ought to examine the contents of thosebirds' crops that he may catch or shoot, to give a clue to hisexperiments. The rule has notable exceptions, but in the absence of anyother guide it is a very useful one. 

The only general rules that botany can give are vague and full ofexceptions: they are, that a great many wholesome plants are found amongthe Cruciferae, or those whose petals are arranged like a Maltese cross, and that many poisonous ones are found amongst the Umbelliferae. 

Nettle and Fern. --There are two moderately nutritious plants--nettle andfern--that are found wild in very many countries: and, therefore, thefollowing extract from Messrs. Hue and Gabet's 'Travels in Thibet' may beof service:--"When the young stems of ferns are gathered, quite tender, before they are covered with down, and while the first leaves are bentand rolled up in themselves, you have only to boil them in pure water torealise a dish of delicious asparagus. We would also recommend thenettle, which, in our opinion, might be made an advantageous substitutefor spinach; indeed more than once we proved this by our own experience. The nettle should be gathered quite young, when the leaves are perfectlytender. The plant should be pulled up whole, with a portion of the root. In order to preserve your hands from the sharp biting liquid which issuesfrom the points, you should wrap them in linen of close texture. Whenonce the nettle is boiled, it is perfectly innocuous; and this vegetable, so rough in its exterior, becomes a very delicate dish. We were able toenjoy this delightful variety of esculents for more than a month. Thenthe little tubercles of the fern became hollow and horny, and the stemsthemselves grew as hard as wood while the nettle, armed with a long whitebeard, p 203 presented only a menacing and awful aspect. " The roots ofmany kinds of ferns, perhaps of all of them, are edible. Our poor inEngland will eat neither fern nor nettle: they say the first isinnutritious, and the second acrid. I like them both. 

Seaweed. --Several kinds of seaweed, such as Laver and Irish moss, areeatable. 

Cooking Utensils. --Cookery books. --A book on cooking is of no use at allin the rougher kinds of travel, for all its recipes consist of phrasessuch as "Take a pound of so-and-so, half a pound of something else, apinch of this, and a handful of that. " Now in the bush a man has probablynone of these things--he certainly has not all of them--and, therefore, the recipe is worthless. 

Pots and Kettles. --Cooking apparatus of any degree of complexity, and ofvery portable shapes, can be bought at all military outfitters'; but forthe bush, and travelling roughly, nothing is better than a light roomyiron pot and a large strong tin kettle. It is disagreeable to make tea inthe same pot that meat is boiled in; besides, if you have only onevessel, it takes a longer time to prepare meals. If possible, take asecond small tin kettle, both as a reserve against accidents and for theconvenience of the thing. An iron pot, whose lid is the size of the crownof a hat, cooks amply enough for three persons at a time, and can, without much inconvenience, be made to do double duty; and, therefore, the above articles would do for six men. An iron pot should have veryshort legs, or some blow will break one of them off and leave a hole. Iron kettles far outwear tin ones, but the comparative difficulty ofmaking them boil, and their great weight, are very objectionable. A goodtin kettle, carefully cherished (and it is the interest of the wholeparty to watch over its safety), lasts many months in the bush. Copper isdangerous; but the recipe is given, further on, for tinning coppervessels when they require it. Have the handle of the kettle notched orbored near the place where it joins the body of the kettle, so as to givea holding by which the lid may be tied tightly down; then, if you stuff awisp of grass into the spout, the kettle will carry water for a journey. 

Damaged Pots. --A pot or kettle with a large hole in its bottom, filled upwith a piece of wood, has been made to boil water by burying it a littleway in the earth and making the fire round it. A hole in the side of apot can be botched up with clay or wood, so as not to leave it altogetheruseless. 

Substitutes for Pots and Kettles. --It is possible to boil water over aslow fire in many kinds of vessels that would be destroyed by a greaterdegree of heat. In bark, wooden, skin, and even paper vessels, it isquite possible to boil water. The ruder tribes of the Indian Archipelagouse a bamboo to boil their rice: "The green cane resisting the firesufficiently long for the cooking of one mass of rice. " (Crawfurd. ) If, however, you have no vessel that you choose to expose to the risk ofburning, you must heat stones and drop them into the water it contains;but sandstones, especially are apt to shiver and make grit. The DacotaIndians, and very probably other tribes also, used to boil animals intheir own hide. The description runs thus: "They stuck four stakes in theground, and tied the four corners of the hide up to them, leaving ahollow in the middle; three or four gallons of water, and the meat cut upvery fine, were then put in; three or four hot stones, each the size of a6-lb. Cannon-shot, cooked the whole into a good soup. " To a fastidiouspalate, the soot, dirt, and ashes that are usually mixed up with thesoup, are objectionable; but these may be avoided by a careful cook, whodusts and wipes the stones before dropping them in. The specific heat ofstone is much less than that of water, so that the heating power of ameasure of stone is only about one-half of that of an equal measure ofequally hot water. 

Graters are wanted to grate jerked meat. A piece of tin, punched throughwith holes, then bent a little, and nailed to a piece of wood, makes agood one. 

Sieves. --Stretch parchment (which see) on a wooden hoop, exactly as on adrum-head; let it dry, and prick it with a red-hot iron, else punch itfull of small holes. 

Plates, to carry. --I have travelled much with plates, knives, forks, etc. , for three persons, carried in a flat leather case like a portfolio, which hung from the side of the cook's saddle, and I found it veryconvenient. It was simply a square piece of leather, with a large pocketfor the metal plates, and other smaller ones for the rest of the things;it had a flap to tie over it, which was kept down with a button. 

Cups. --Each of the men, on a riding expedition, should carry his own tinmug, either tied to his waist or to his saddle. A wooden bowl is the bestvessel for tea, and even for soup, if you have means of frequentlywashing it: tin mugs burn the lips too much. Wooden bowls are always usedin Thibet; they are cut out of the knots that are found in timber. 

Spoons. --It is easy to replace a lost spoon by cutting a new one out ofhard wood, or by making one of horn. (See "Horn. ")

Fireplaces for Cooking. --The most elementary fireplace consists of threestones in a triangle, to support the pot. If stones are not procurable, three piles of mud, or three stakes or green-wood driven into the earth, are an equivalent. Small recesses neatly cut in a bank, one for eachfireplace, are much used, when the fuel is dry and well prepared. A moreelaborate plan is to excavate a shallow saucer-like hole in the ground, afoot or eighteen inches in diameter, and kneading the soil so excavatedinto a circular wall, with a doorway in the windward side: the uppersurface is curved, so as to leave three pointed turrets, upon which thecooking-vessel rests, as in the sketch. Thus the wind enters at thedoorway, and the flames issue through the curved depressions at the top, and lick round the cooking-vessel placed above. The wall is sometimesbuilt of stones. 

Trenches and Holes. --In cooking for a large party with a small supply offuel, either dig a narrow trench, above which all the pots and kettlesmay stand in a row, and in which the fire is made--the mouth being opento the wind, and a small chimney built at the other end;--or else dig around hole, one foot deep, and place the pots in a ring on its edge, halfresting on the earth, and half overlapping the hole. A space will remainin the middle of them, and through this the fire must be fed. 

Esquimaux Lamp. --The cooking of the Esquimaux is wholly effected by stonelamps, with wicks made of moss, which are so carefully arranged that theflame gives little or no smoke. Their lamps vary in size from one footand a half long to six inches. Each of the bits of moss gives a small butvery bright flame. The lamp is all in all to the Esquimaux; it driestheir clothes, and melts the snow for their drinking-water; itsconstruction is very ingenious; without it they could not have inhabitedthe arctic regions. 

Ovens. --Bedouin Oven. --Dig a hole in the ground; wall and roof it withstones, leaving small apertures in the top. They make a roaring fire inand about the oven (the roof having been temporarily removed for thepurpose), and when the stones (including those of the roof) have becomevery hot, sweep away the ashes and strew the inside of the oven withgrass, or leaves, taking care that whatever is used, has no disagreeabletaste, else it would be communicated to the flesh. Then put in the meat:it is a common plan to sew it up in its own skin, which shields it fromdust and at the same time retains its juices from evaporating. Nowreplace the roof, a matter of some difficulty, on account of the stonesbeing hot, and therefore requiring previous rehearsal. Lastly, make thefire again over the oven and let the baking continue for some hours. Anentire sheep can be baked easily in this way. The same process is usedfor baking vegetables, except with the addition of pouring occasionallyboiling water upon them, through the roof. 

Gold-digger's Oven. --The figure represents a section of the oven. A holeor deep notch is dug into the side of a bank, and two flat stones areslid horizontally, like shelves, into grooves made in the sides of thehole, as shown in the figure; where it will be observed that theuppermost stone does not quite reach to the face of the bank, and thatthe lower-most stone does not quite reach to the back of the hole. A fireof red-hot embers is placed on the floor of the hole; and the bread aboutto be baked is laid upon the lowermost stone. Lastly, another flat stoneis used to close the mouth of the oven: it is set with its edge on thefloor of the hole: it leans forward with the middle of its face restingagainst the front edge of the lowermost stone, a narrow interval beingleft between its top and the edge of the uppermost stone. This intervalserves as a vent to the hot air from the embers, which takes the courseshown in the figure. The oven should be thoroughly heated before thebread is put in. 

Baking between two stones. --For baking slices of meat or thin cakes, itis sufficient to lay one large stone above another with a few pebblesbetween, to prevent them from touching. Next make a large fire about thestones until they are thoroughly hot; then sweep away the embers, andinsert the slices. 

Ant hills as Ovens. --Where there are no stones of which ovens may bebuilt, and where there are old white-ant hills, the natives commonly digholes in the sides of the ant hills and use them for that purpose. 

Clay Ovens. --I have heard of a very neat construction, built with clay, in which grass had been kneaded. A fire was lit inside, to dry the workas it progressed; while the builder placed rings of clay, in tiers, oneabove the other, until a complete dome was made without mould orframework. Time was allowed for each ring to dry sufficiently, before thenext one was added. 

Baking beneath a camp fire. --A small piece of meat, enough for four orfive people, can be baked by simply scraping a tolerably deep hole underthe bivouac fire; putting in the meat rolled in the skin to which it isattached, and covering it with earth and fire. It is a slow process ofcooking, for it requires many hours; but the meat, when done, is soft andjuicy, and the skin gelatinous and excellent. 

"Meat, previously wrapped up in paper or cloth, may be baked in a claycase, in any sort of pit or oven, well covered over, and with goodeconomy. " ('Handbook of Field Service. ')

Baking in Pots. --A capital oven is improvised by means of two earthen ormetal cooking-pots, of which one is placed on the fire, and in it thearticle to be baked; the other pot is put upon its top, as a cover, andin it a shovelful of red-hot embers. 

Bush Cookery. --Tough Meat. --Hammer it well between two stones beforeputting it on the fire, and again when it is half cooked, to separate thefibres. I have often seen people save themselves much painfulmastication, by hammering at each separate piece of meat, before puttingit in their mouths. 

Rank Meat. --I have spoken of this, in another section, p. 200. 

Kabobs. --Broil the rib-bones, or skewer your iron ramrod through a dozensmall lumps of meat and roast them. This is the promptest way of cookingmeat; but men on hard work are not satisfied with a diet of nothing elsebut tough roasted flesh, they crave for succulent food, such as boiled orbaked meat. 

Salt Meat, to prepare hurriedly. --Warm it slightly on both sides--thismakes the salt draw to the outside--then rinse it well in a pannikin ofwater. This process extracts a large part of the salt, and leaves themeat more fit for cooking. 

Haggis. --Hearne, the North American traveller, recommends a "haggis madewith blood, a good quantity of fat shred small, some of the tenderest ofthe flesh, together with the heart and lungs, cut or town into smallskivers; all of which is put into the stomach, and roasted by beingsuspended before the fire with a string. Care must be taken that it doesnot get too much heat at first, or it will burst. It is a most deliciousmorsel, even without pepper, salt, or any seasoning. "

Theory of Tea-making. --I have made a number of experiments on the art ofmaking good tea. We constantly hear that some people are good and othersbad tea-makers; that it takes a long time to understand the behaviour ofa new tea=pot, and so forth; and lastly, that good tea cannot be madeexcept with boiling water. Now, this latter assertion is assuredlyuntrue, because, if tea be actually boiled in water, an emetic and partlypoisonous drink is the certain result. I had a tin lid made to my teapot, a short tube passed through the lid, and in the tube was a cork, througha hole in which a thermometer was fitted, that enabled me to learn thetemperature of the water in the teapot, at each moment. Thus provided, Icontinued to make my tea as usual, and to note down what I observed. Inthe first place after warming the teapot in the ordinary way, the freshboiling water that was poured into it, sank invariably to under 200degrees Fahr. It was usually 180 degrees, so great was the amount of heatabstracted by the teapot. I also found that my teapot--it was a crockeryone--allowed the water within it to cool down at the rate of about 2degrees per minute. When the pot was filled afresh, of course thetemperature of its contents rose afresh, and by the addition of water twoor three times repeated, I obtained a perfect mastery over thetemperature of the pot, within reasonable limits. Now, after numerousdays in which I made tea according to my usual method, but measuringstrictly the quantity of leaves, and recording the times and thetemperature, and noting the character of tea produced; then, taking as mytype of excellence, tea that was full bodied, full tasted, and in no waybitter or flat, I found that this was only produced when the water in theteapot had remained between 180º and 190 degrees Fahr. , and had stoodeight minutes on the leaves. It was only necessary for me to add wateronce to the tea, to ensure this temperature. Bitterness was the certainresult of greater heat or of longer standing, and flatness was the resultof colder water. If the tea did not stand for so long a time as eightminutes, it was not ripe; it was not full bodied enough. The palatebecomes far less fastidious about the quality of the second cup. Otherpeople may like tea of a different character from that which I do myself;but, be that as it may, all people can, I maintain, ensure uniformity ofgood tea, such as they best like, by attending to the principle of makingit--that is to say, to time, and quantities, and temperature. There isno other mystery in the teapot. 

Tea made in the kettle. --Where there are no cups or teapot put the leavesin the pot or kettle, and drink through a reed with a wisp of grass init, as they do in Paraguay. If there are cups and no teapot, the leavesmay be put into the pot, previously enclosed in a loose gauze or muslinbag to prevent their floating about. A contrivance is sold in the shopsfor this purpose; it is made of metal gauze, and shaped like an egg. Apurse made of metal rings would be better, for it would pack flat; butthe advantage of muslin over metal apparatus is that you may throw awaybag and all, and avoid the trouble of cleaning. 

Tea made in tin mugs. --A correspondent assures me that he considers theAustralian plan of making tea to be preferable to any other, fortravellers and explorers; as it secures that the tea shall be made bothwell and quickly, and without the necessity of carrying kettles onhorseback. Each person has a common tin quart pot and a pint pot, slungto his saddle; the tea and sugar are carried in small bags. The quart potrequires very little fire to make it boil. When it begins to boil, it istaken from the fire, the tea is dropped in, and the pint pot is placed onits top as a cover. When the tea is ready, the sugar is dropped into thepint, and the tea is poured from one pot to the other till it is mixed. The pint is always kept clean for drinking out of, but not the quart, forthe blacker it is, the sooner will the water boil. 

Tea made over night. --To prepare tea for a very early breakfast, make itover night, and pour it away from the tea-leaves, into another vessel. Itwill keep perfectly well, for it is by long standing with the tea-leavesthat it becomes bitter. In the morning simply warm it up. Tea is drunk ata temperature of 140 degrees Fahr. , or 90 degrees above an average nighttemperature of 50 degrees. It is more than twice as easy to raise thetemperature up to 140 than to 212 degrees, letting alone the trouble oftea-making. 

Extract of Tea and Coffee. --Dr. Rae speaks very highly of the convenienceof extract of tea. Any scientific chemist could make it, but he should bebegged to use first-rate tea. The extract from first-rate tea makes avery drinkable infusion, but that from second-rate tea is not good, thedrink made from the extract always a grade inferior to that made directlyfrom the leaves. By pouring a small quantity of the extract into warmwater, the tea is made; and, though inferior in taste to properly madetea, it has an equally good effect on the digestion. 

Extract of coffee is well known. I believe it can be made of very goodquality, but what is usually sold seems to me to be very much thecontrary and not to be wholesome. 

Tea and Coffee, without hot water. --In Unyoro, Sir S. Baker says, theyhave no idea of using coffee as a drink, but simply chew it raw as astimulant. In Chinese Tartary, travellers who have no means of making acup of tea, will chew the leaves as a substitute. Mr. Atkinson told mehow very grateful he had found this makeshift. 

WATER FOR DRINKING. 

General Remarks. --In most of those countries where travelling is arduous, it is the daily care of an explorer to obtain water, for his own use andfor that of his caravan. Should he be travelling in regions that are forthe most part arid and rarely visited by showers, he must look for hissupplies in ponds made by the drainage of a large extent of country, orin those left here and there along the beds of partly dried-upwater-courses, or in fountains. If he be unsuccessful in his search, orwhen the dry season of the year has advanced, and all water hasdisappeared from the surface of the land, there remains no alternativefor him but to dig wells where there are marks to show that poolsformerly lay, or where there are other signs that well-water may beobtained. 

Short Stages. --I may here remark that it is a good general rule for anexplorer of an arid country, when he happens to come to water, after notless than three hours' travelling, to stop and encamp by it; it is betterfor him to avail himself of his good fortune and be content with hisday's work, than to risk the uncertainty of another supply. 

Purity of Watering-places. --Make no litter by the side ofwatering-places; and encourage among your party the Mahomedan feeling ofrespect for preserving the purity of drinking-water. Old travellerscommonly encamp at a distance from the watering-place, and fetch thewater to their camp. 

Signs of the Neighbourhood of Water. --The quick intelligence with whichexperienced travellers discover watering-places, is so great that itmight almost be mistaken for an instinct. 

Intelligence of Dogs and Cattle. --Dogs are particularly clever infinding water, and the fact of a dog looking refreshed, and it may bewet, has often and often drawn attention to a pond that would otherwisehave been overlooked and passed by. Cattle are very uncertain in theirintelligence. Sometimes oxen go for miles and miles across a countryunknown to them, straight to a pond of water; at other times they aremost obtuse: Dr. Leichhardt, the Australian traveller, was quiteastonished at their stupidity in this respect. 

Trees and ordinary vegetation are not of much help in directing atraveller to water, for they thrive on dew or on occasional rain; but itis otherwise when the vegetation is unusually green or luxuriant, or whenthe vegetation is unusually green or luxuriant, or when those trees areremarked, that are seldom seen to grow except near water in theparticular country visited, as the blackthorn-tree in South Africa. 

Birds. --Some species of birds (as water-fowl, parrots, and the diamondbird) or animals (as baboons) afford surer promise; but the convergingflight of birds, or the converging fresh tracks of animals, is the mostsatisfactory sign of all. It is about nightfall that desert birds usuallydrink, and hence it often happens that the exhausted traveller, abandoning all hope as the shades of evening close in, has his attentionarrested by flights of birds, that give him new life and tell him whereto go. 

Tracks. --In tropical countries that have rainy and dry Seasons, it mustbe recollected that old paths of men or wild animals only mislead; theygo to dry ponds that were full at the time they were trodden, but havesince been abandoned on becoming exhausted. 

Other Signs. --Well-water may be sought where the earth is still moist, though arid all around, or, failing that, where birds and wild animalshave lately been scratching, or where gnats hover in swarms. 

To find the Spring--From the number of birds, tracks, and other signs, travellers are often pretty sure that they are near water, but cannotfind the spring itself. In this case the party should at once be spreadout as skirmishers, and the dogs cheered on. 

To probe for Well-water. --It is unusual, when no damp earth can be seen, but where the place appears likely to yield well-water, to force an ironramrod deep into the soil; and, if it bring up any grains that are moist, to dig. 

Pools of Water. --For many days after there has been rain, water is sureto be found among mountains, however desert may be their appearance; fornot only does more wet fall upon them, but the drainage is more perfect;long after the ravines and stream-beds are quite dry, puddles and cupfulsof water will be found here and there, along their courses, in holes andchinks and under great stones, which together form a sufficiency. Asponge tied to the end of a stick will do good service in lapping theseup. 

The sandy Beds of Watercourses in arid countries frequently contain poolsof stagnant water; but the places where these pools are to be found arenot necessarily those where they have been found in preceding years. Theconditions necessary for the existence of a pool are not alone those ofthe rocky substratum of the river-bed, but more especially, thestratifications of mud and clay left after each flooding. For instance, an extensive bed of sand, enclosed between two layers of clay, wouldremain moist, and supply well-water during the dry season; but a trivialvariation in the force and Amount of the current, in different years, might materially affect the place and the character of the deposition ofthese clay strata. 

In searching the beds of partly dried-up watercourses, the fact mustnever be forgotten, that it is especially in little tributaries at thepoint where they fall into the main one, that most water is to be found;and the most insignificant of these should never be overlooked. I presumethat the bar, which always accumulates in front of tributaries, and isformed of numerous layers of alluvial deposit, parallel to the bed of thegreat stream, is very likely to have one, at least, of its layers of animpervious character. If so, the bar would shut in the wet sand of thetributary, like a wall, and prevent it from draining itself dry. 

When a river-bed has been long followed by a traveller, and a frequentsupply of water found along it, in pools or even in wells, say at every 5or 10 miles--then, should this river-bed appear to lose itself in aplain that is arid, there is no reason why the traveller should bedisheartened; for, on travelling further, the water will be sure to befound again, those plains being always green and grassy where the waterin such river-beds entirely disappears. 

By Sea-shore. --Fresh water is frequently to be found under the verysands of the sea-shore, whither it has oozed underground from the uppercountry, and where it overlies the denser salt water; or else abutsagainst it, if the compactness of the sand resists free percolation. Invery many places along the skirt of the great African desert, fresh wateris to be found by digging two or three feet. 

Fountains. --Fountains in arid lands are as godsends. They are far morenumerous and abundant in limestone districts than in any others, owing tothe frequent fissures of those rocks: therefore, whenever limestone cropsout in the midst of sand deserts, a careful search should be made forwater. In granite, and other primary rocks, many, but small springs, areusually seen. 

The theory of ordinary fountains is simple enough, and affords help indiscovering them. In a few words, it is as follows:--All the water thatruns from them has originally Been supplied by rain, dew, or fog-damp, falling on the face of the land and sinking into it. But the subsoil androcks below, are far from being of a uniform character: they are full oflayers of every imaginable degree of sponginess. Strata of clay whollyimpenetrable by water, often divide beds of gravel that imbibe it freely. There are also cracks that make continuous channels and dislocations thatcause them to end abruptly; and there are rents, filled with variousmaterials, that may either give a free passage or entirely bar theunderground course of water. Hence, when water has sunk into the earth, it does not by any means soak through it in an equable degree. It is aneasier matter for it to ooze many miles, along a layer of gravel, than topenetrate six inches into a layer of clay that may bound the gravel. Therefore, whenever a porous earth or a fissured rock crops out to thelight of day, there is, in ignorance of all other facts, some chance of aspring being discovered in the lowest part of the outcrop. A favourablecondition for the existence of a large and permanent fountain, is where aporous stratum spreads over a broad area at a high level, and isprolonged, by a gradually narrowing course, to an outlet at a lower one. The broad upper part of the stratum catches plenty of water during thewet season, which sinks into the depths as into a reservoir, and oozesout in a regular stream at its lower outlet. A fissured rock makes astill easier channel for the water. 

[Fig 1 and Fig. 2]. 

As examples of ordinary cases of fountains, we will take thoserepresented in the following figures. Fig. I is a mountain. Fig. 2 is amodel, made to explain more clearly the conditions represented in fig. I. It will be observed that there is a ravine, R, in front; a line of fault, L, M. N, on its left side, Supposed to be filled with water-tight rock;and a valley, V (fig. 1), on the extreme right. The upper part of themountain is supposed to be much more porous than its base, and the planewhich divides the porous from the non-porous rock, to cut the surface ofthe mountain along the line, A, N, M, B, C, D, E, F. The highest point ofthe plane is F, and the lowest point A. The effect of rain upon the modelfig. 2 would be, to wet its upper half: water would ooze out along thewhole of the lines A, N, and M, B, C, D, E, F; and there would be a smallfountain at A, and a large one at M. But in the actual mountain, fig. 1, we should not expect to find the same regularity as in the model. Therind of the earth, with its vegetation and weather-impacted surface, forms a comparatively impermeable envelope to the mountain, not likely tobe broken through, except at a few places. But ravines, such as r, wouldbe probably denuded of their rind, and there we should find a line ofminute fountains at the base of the porous rock. If there be no actualfountains, there would at least be some vegetation that indicateddripping water: thus the appearance is well known and often described, ofa ravine utterly bare of verdure above, but clothed with vegetation belowa sharply defined line, whence the moisture proceeds that irrigates allbeneath. We should also be almost certain of finding a spring breakingforth near m or even near a. But in the valley V we should only see a fewsigns of former moisture, along e, f; such as bunches of vegetation uponthe arid cliff, or an efflorescence of salts. Whenever a travellerremarks these signs, he should observe the inclination of the strata, bywhich he would learn the position of m, where the probability of findingwater is the greatest. In a very arid country, the anatomy of the land isso manifest, from the absence of mould, that geological indications arepeculiarly easy to follow. 

Wells. --Digging Wells. --In default of spades, water is to be dug forwith a sharp-pointed stick. Take it in both hands, and, holding itupright like a dagger, stab and dig it in the ground, as in fig. 1; thenclear out the loose earth with the hand, as in fig. 2. Continue thusworking with the stick and hand alternately, and a hole as deep as thearm is easily made. In digging a large hole or well, the earth Must beloosened in precisely the same manner, handed up to the surface andcarried off by means of a bucket or bag, in default of a shovel andwheelbarrow. 

[Fig. 1. And Fig. 2. --sketches of digging as described above]. 

After digging deeply, the sand will often be found just moist, no wateractually lying in the well; but do not, therefore, be disheartened; waita while, and the water will collect. After it has once begun to oozethrough the sides of the well, it will continue to do so much morefreely. Therefore, on arriving at night, with thirsty cattle, at a wellof doubtful character, deepen it at once, by torch-light, that the watermay have time to collect; then the cattle may be watered in the earlymorning, and sent to feed before the sun is hot. 

It often happens when digging wells in sandy watercourses, that a littlewater is found, and that below it is a stratum of clay. Now if thedigging be continued deeper, in hopes of more water, the result is oftenmost unfortunate; for the clay stratum may prove extremely thin, in whichcase the digging will pierce it: then the water that had been seen willdrain rapidly and wholly away, to the utter discomfiture of thetraveller. 

Kerkari. --I am indebted to correspondents for an account of a methodemployed in the plains of the Sikhim Himalaya, and in Assam, where it iscalled a "Kerkari, " also in lower Bengal, for digging deep holes. Thenatives take a freshly cut bamboo, say three inches in diameter: they cutit just above one of the knots, and then split the wood as far as to thenext joint, in about a dozen places, and point the pieces somewhat. Theother end of the instrument should be cut slantingly, to thrust into theearth, and its other end is afterwards worked vertically with both hands. 

[Unlabelled figure of kerkari]. 

The soft soil is thus forced into the hollow of the bamboo, and spreadsout its blades, as is intended to be shown in the figure. The bamboo isnext withdrawn and the plug of earth is shaken out: it is thenreintroduced and worked up and down as before. It is usual to drive astake in the ground to act as a toothed comb, to comb out the plug ofearth. Mr. Peal writes from Assam:--"I have just had 4 holes dug in thecourse of ordinary work, in hard earth. Two men dug the holes in 1 1/2hour; they were 3 feet 6 inches deep and 6 inches in diameter. I weighedthe clay raised at each stroke. In 4 consecutive strokes the weights were1 1/4 lbs. , 1 3/4 lbs. , 1 3/4 lbs. , 2 lbs. Another trial gave 7 lbs. Lifted, after 5 or 6 strokes. " According to the above data, an Assameseworkman makes a hole, 1 foot deep and 6 inches in diameter in 6 minutes. Holes 10 feet deep and 6 inches wide can be made, as I am informed, bythis contrivance. 

Protecting Wells. --The following extract from Bishop Heber, thoughhardly within the scope of the 'Art of Travel, ' is very suggestive. "Thewells of this country (Bhurtpoor, India), some of which are very deep, are made in a singular manner. They build a tower of masonry of thediameter required, and 20 or 30 feet high from the surface of the ground. This they allow to stand a year or more, till its masonry is renderedfirm and compact by time; then they gradually undermine it, and promoteits sinking into the sandy soil, which it does without difficulty, andaltogether. When level with the surface, they raise its walls higher; andso go on, throwing out the sand and raising the wall, till they havereached the water. If they adopted our method, the soil is so light thatit would fall on them before they could possibly raise the wall from thebottom; nor, without the wall, could they sink to any considerabledepth. " A stout square frame of wood scantling, boarded like asentry-box, and of about the same size and shape, but without top orbottom, is used in making wells in America. The sides of a well in sandysoil are so liable to fall in, that travellers often sink a cask or someequivalent into the water, when they are encamped for any length of timein its vicinity. 

Scanty wells in hot climates should be brushed over, when not in actualuse, to check their evaporation. 

Snow-water. --It is impossible for men to sustain life by eating snow orice, instead of drinking water. They only aggravate the raging tormentsof thirst, instead of assuaging them, and hasten death. Among dogs, theEsquimaux is the only breed that can subsist on snow, as an equivalentfor water. The Arctic animals, generally, have the same power. But, asregards mankind, some means of melting snow into water, for the purposesof drinking, is an essential condition of life in the Arctic regions. Without the ingenious Esquimaux lamp (p. 205), which consists of a circleof moss wicks, fed by train-oil, and chiefly used for melting snow, theEsquimaux could not exist throughout the year, in the countries whichthey now inhabit. 

That eating large quantities of snow should seriously disturb the animalsystem is credible enough, when we consider the very large amount of heatthat must be abstracted from the stomach, in order to melt it. A mouthfulof snow at 32 degrees Fahr. , that is to say, no colder than is necessaryfor it to be snow at all, robs as much heat from the stomach, as if themouthful had been of water 143 degrees colder than ice-cold water, ifsuch a fluid may, for the moment, be imagined to exist. For the "latentheat" of water is 143 degrees Fahr. In other words, it takes the samequantity of heat to convert a mass of snow of 32 degrees into water of32º, as it does to raise the same mass of water from 32 degrees to 141º +32 degrees = 175 degrees Fahr. It takes in practice about as long to meltsnow of a low temperature into water, as it does to cause that same waterto boil. Thus to raise snow of 5 degrees below zero Fahr. To 32 degrees, takes 37 degrees of heat, and it requires 143 degrees more, or 180degrees altogether, to melt it into water. Also it requires 180 degreesto convert water of 32 degrees into water of 212 degrees, in other words, into boiling water. 

Distilled Water. --It will take six or seven times as long to convert akettle full of boiling-water into steam, as it did to make that kettleboil. For the "latent heat" of steam is 967 degrees Fahr. ; therefore, ifthe water that was put into the kettle was 60 degrees, it would requireto be raised through (212 degrees--60º degrees =) 152º degrees oftemperature in order to make it begin to boil; and it would require afurther quantity of heat, to the extent of 967 degrees (= about 6 1/2times 152 degrees), to boil it all away. Hence, it is of no use toattempt to distil, until you have provided abundance of good firewood ofa fit size to burn quickly, and have built an efficient fireplace onwhich to set the kettle. Unfortunately, fuel is commonly deficient inthose places where there is a lack of fresh water. 

Rate of Distillation. --A drop per second is fully equivalent To animperial pint of water in three hours, or be an imperial gallon in anentire day and night. 

The simplest way to distil, but a very imperfect one, is to light a fireamong stones, near a hollow in a rock, that is filled, or can be filledwith salt-water. When the stones are red-hot, drop them one by one intoit: the water will hiss and give out clouds of vapour, some of which maybe collected in a cloth, and wrung or sucked out of it. In the same way apot on the fire may have a cloth stretched over it to catch the steam. 

[Sketch of still as described below]. 

Still made with a Kettle and Gun-barrel. --There is an account of thecrew of the 'Levant' packet, which was wrecked near the cosmoledoIslands, who supplied themselves with fresh water by means ofdistillation alone, and whose Still was contrived with an iron pot and agun-barrel, found on the spot where they were wrecked. They procured, Onthe average, sixty bottles, or ten gallons, of distilled water in eachtwenty-four hours. "The iron pot was converted into a boiler to containsalt water; a lid was fitted to it out of the root of a tree, leaving ahole of sufficient size to receive the muzzle of the gun-barrel, whichwas to set as a steampipe; the barrel was run through the stump of atree, hollowed out in the middle, and kept full of cold water for thepurpose of condensation; and the water so distilled escaped at the nippleof the gun-barrel, and was conducted into a bottle placed to receive it. "The accompanying sketch is taken from a model which I made, with asoldier's mess-tin for a boiler, and a tin tube in the place of a gunbarrel. The knob represents the breech; and the projection, through whichthe water is dropping, the nipple. I may remark that there is nothing inthe arrangement which would hurt the most highly-finished gun barrel; andthat the trough which holds the condensing water may be made with canvas, or even dispensed with altogether. 

Condensing Pipe. --In default of other tubes, a reed may be used: one ofthe long bones of an animal, or of a wading bird, will be an indifferentsubstitute for a condensing pipe. 

Still, made with Earthen Pots and a Metal Basin. --A very simpledistilling apparatus is used in Bhootan; the sketch will show theprinciple on which it is constructed. 

[Sketch of apparatus]. 

Salt water is placed in a pot, set over the fire. Another vessel, butwithout top or bottom, which, for the convenience of illustration, I haveindicated in the sketch by nothing more than a dotted line, is made tostand upon the pot. It serves as a support for a metal basin, S, which isfilled with salt water, and acts as a condenser. When the pot boils, thesteam ascends and condenses itself on the under surface of the basin S, whence it drops down and is Collected in a cup, C, that is supported by arude tripod of sticks, T, standing in the inside of the iron pot. 

Occasional Means of Quenching Thirst. --A Shower of Rain will yield agood supply. The clothes may be stripped off and spread out, and therain-water sucked from them. Or, when a storm is approaching a cloth orblanket may be made fast by its four corners, and a quantity of bulletsthrown in the middle of it; they will cause the water that it receives, to drain to one point and trickle through the cloth, into a cup or bucketset below. A reversed umbrella will catch water; but the first drippingsfrom it, or from clothes that have been long unwashed, as from amacintosh cloak, are intolerably nauseous and very unwholesome. It mustbe remembered, that thirst is greatly relieved by the skin being wetted, and therefore it is well for a man suffering from thirst, to strip to therain. Rain-water is lodged for some days in the huge pitcher-likecorollas of many tropical flowers. 

Sea-water. --Lives of sailors have more than once been saved when turnedadrift in a boat, by bathing frequently and keeping their clothes dampwith salt-water. However, after some days, the nauseous taste of thesalt-water is very perceptible in the saliva, and at last becomesunbearable; such, at least was the experience of the surgeon of thewrecked 'Pandora. '

Dew-water is abundant near the sea-shore, and may be collected in thesame way as rain-water. The storehouse at Angra Pequeña, in S. W. Africa, in 1850, was entirely supplied by the dew-water deposited on its roof. The Australians who live near the sea, go among the wet bushes with agreat piece of bark, and brush into it the dew-drops from the leaves witha wisp of grass; collecting in this way large quantities of water. Eyreused a sponge for the same purpose, and appears to have saved his life byits use. 

Animal Fluids are resorted to in emergencies; such as the contents of thepaunch of an animal that has been shot; its taste is like sweet-wort. Mr. Darwin writes of people who, catching turtles, drank the water that wasfound in their Pericardia; it was pure and sweet. Blood will stand in thestead of solid food, but it is of no avail in the stead of water, onaccount of its saline qualities. 

Vegetable Fluids. --Many roots exist, from which both natives and animalsobtain a sufficiency of sap and pulp, to take the place of water. Thetraveller should inquire of the natives, and otherwise acquaint himselfwith those peculiar to the country that he visits; such as the rootswhich the eland eats, the bitter water-melon, etc. 

To purify water that is muddy or putrid. --With muddy water, the remedyis to filter, and to use alum, if you have it. With putrid, to boil, tomix with charcoal, or expose to the sun and air; or what is best, to useall three methods at the same time. When the water is salt or brackish, nothing avails but distillation. (See Distilled Water, " p. 218. )

To filter Muddy Water. --When, at the watering-place, there is littleelse but a mess of mud and filth, take a good handful of grass or rushes, and tie it roughly together in the form of a cone, 6 or 8 inches long;then dipping the broad end into the puddle, and turning it up, astreamlet of fluid will trickle down through the small end. Thisexcellent plan is used by the Northern Bushmen--at their wellsquantities of these bundles are found lying about. (Anderson. ) Otherwisesuck water through your handkerchief by putting it over the mouth of yourmug, or by throwing it on the gritty mess as it lies in the puddle. Forobtaining a copious supply, the most perfect plan, if you have means, isto bore a cask full of auger holes, and put another small one, that hashad the bottom knocked out, inside it; and then to fill the space betweenthe two, with grass, moss, etc. Sink the whole in the midst of the pond;the water will run through the auger-holes, filter through the moss, andrise in the inner cask clear of weeds and sand. If you have only a singlecask, holes may be bored in the lower part of its sides, and alternatelayers of sand and grass thrown in, till they cover the holes; throughthese layers, the water will strain. Or any coarse bag, kept open withhoops made on the spot, may be moored in the mud, by placing a heavystone inside; it will act on The same principle, but less efficientlythan the casks. Sand, charcoal, sponge, and wood, are the substances mostcommonly used in properly constructed filters: peat charcoal isexcellent. Charcoal acts not only as a mechanical filter for solidimpurities, but it has the further advantage of absorbing putrid gases. (See below, "Putrid Water. ") Snow is also used as a filter in the Arcticregions. Dr. Rae used to lay it on the water, until it was considerablyhigher than its level, and then to suck the water through the snow. 

Alum. --Turbid water is also, in some way as yet insufficientlyexplained, made clear by the Indian plan of putting a piece of alum intoit. The alum appears to unite with the mud, and to form a clayey deposit. Independently of the action, it has an astringent effect upon organicmatters: it hardens them, and they subside to the bottom of the vesselinstead of being diffused in a glairy, viscous state, throughout thewater. No taste of alum remains in the water, unless it has been used ingreat excess. Three thimblefuls of alum will clarify a bucketful ofturbid water. 

Putrid Water should always be purified by boiling it together withcharcoal or charred sticks, as low fevers and dysenteries too often arethe consequences of drinking it. The mere addition of charcoal largelydisinfects it. Bitter herbs, if steeped in putrid water, or even rubbedwell about the cup, are said to render it less unwholesome. The Indiansplunge hot iron into putrid water. 

Thirst, to relieve. --Thirst is a fever of the palate, which may besomewhat relieved by other means than drinking fluids. 

By exciting Saliva. --The mouth is kept moist, and thirst is mitigated, by exciting the saliva to flow. This can be done by chewing something, asa leaf; or by keeping in the mouth a bullet, or a smooth, non-absorbentstone, such as a quartz pebble. 

By Fat or Butter. --In Australia, Africa, and N. America, it is afrequent custom to carry a small quantity of fat or butter, and to eat aspoonful at a time, when the thirst is severe. These act on the irritatedmembranes of the mouth and throat, just as cold cream upon chapped hands. 

By Salt Water. --People may live long without drinking, if they havemeans of keeping their skin constantly wet with water, even though it besalt or otherwise undrinkable. A traveller may tie a handkerchief wettedwith salt water round his neck. See p. 223. 

By checking Evaporation. --The Arabs keep their mouths covered with acloth, in order to prevent the sense of thirst caused by the lips beingparched. 

By Diet. --Drink well before starting, and make a habit of drinking onlyat long intervals, and then, plenty at a time. 

On giving Water to Persons nearly dead from Thirst. --Give a little at atime, let them take it in spoonfuls; for the large draughts that theirdisordered instincts suggest, disarrange the weakened stomach: they doserious harm, and no corresponding good. Keep the whole body wet. 

Small Water Vessels. --General Remarks on Carrying Water. --People drinkexcessively in hot dry climates, as the evaporation from the skin isenormous, and must be counterbalanced. Under these circumstances thedaily ration of a European is at least two quarts. To make an exploringexpedition in such countries efficient, there should be means of carryingat least one gallon of water for each white man; and in unknown landsthis quantity should be carried on from every watering-place, so long asmeans can possibly be obtained for carrying it, and should be served outthus:--two quarts on the first day, in addition to whatever private storethe men may have chosen to carry for themselves; a quart and a halfduring the second day; and half a quart on the morning of the third, which will carry them through that day without distress. Besideswater-vessels sufficient for carrying what I have mentioned, there oughtto be others for the purpose of leaving water buried in the ground, as astore for the return of a reconnoitring expedition; also each man shouldbe furnished with a small water-vessel of some kind or other for his ownuse, and should be made to take care of it. 

Fill the Water-vessels. --"Never mind what the natives may tell youconcerning the existence of water on the road, believe nothing, butresolutely determine to fill the girbas (water-vessels). " (Baker. )

Small Water-vessels. --No expedition should start without being fullysupplied with these; for no bushman however ingenious, can make anythingso efficient as casks, tin vessels or macintosh bags. 

[Sketch of water-vessel]. 

A tin vessel of the shape shown in the sketch, and large enough to hold aquart, is, I believe, the easiest to carry, the cleanest, and the mostdurable of small water-vessels. The curve in its shape is to allow of itsaccommodating itself to the back of the man who carries it. The tin loopsat its sides are to admit the strap by which it is to be slung, and whichpasses through the loops underneath the bottom of the vessel, so that theweight may rest directly upon the strap. Lastly, the vessel has a pipettefor drinking through, and a larger hole by which it is to be filled, andwhich at other times is stopped with a cork or wooden plug. When drinkingout of the pipette, the cork must be loosened in order to admit air, likea vent hole. Macintosh bags, for wine or water, are very convenient tocarry and they will remain water-tight for a long period when fairlyused. (Mem. --Oil and grease are as fatal to macintosh as they are toiron rust. ) But the taste that these vessels impart to their contents isabominable, not only at first but for a very long time; in two-thirds ofthem it is never to be got rid of. Never believe shopkeepers in anindia-rubber shop, in their assurances to the contrary; they areincompetent to judge aright, for their senses seem vitiated by the airthey live in. The best shape for a small macintosh water-vessel has yetto be determined. Several alpine men use them; and their most recentpatterns may probably best be seen at Carter's, Alpine Outfitter, Oxford Street. A flask of dressed hide (pig, goat, or dog) with a woodennozzle, and a wooden plug to fit into it, is very good. Canvas bags, smeared with grease on the outside, will become nearly waterproof after ashort soaking. A strong glass flask may be made out of a soda-waterbottle; it should have raw hide shrunk upon it to preserve it from sharptaps Likely to make a crack. Calabashes and other gourds, cocoa-nuts andostrich eggs, are all of them excellent for flasks. The Bushmen of SouthAfrica make great use of ostrich shells as water-vessels. They havestations at many places in the desert, where they bury these shellsfilled with water, corked with grass, and occasionally waxed over. Theythus go without hesitation over wide tracts, for their sense of localityis so strong that they never fear to forget the spot in which they havedug their hiding-place. 

When a Dutchman or a Namaqua wants to carry a load of ostrich eggs to orfrom the watering-place, or when he robs a nest, he takes off histrousers, ties up the ankles, puts the eggs in the legs, and carries offhis load slung round his neck. Nay, I have seen a half-civilisedHottentot carry water in his leather breeches, ties up and slung in theway I have just described, but without the intervention of ostrich eggs;the water squired through the seams, but plenty remained after he hadcarried it to its destination, which was a couple of miles from thewatering-place. In an emergency, water-flasks can be improvised from theraw or dry skins of animals, which should be greased down the back; orfrom the paunch, the heart-bag (pericardium), the intestines, or thebladder. These should have a wooden skewer runing and out along one sideof their mouths, by which they can be carried, and a lashing under theskewer to make all tight (fig. Below). 

[Sketch of bag with skewer and bag being carried]. 

The Bushmen do this. The water oozes through the membrane, and by itsevaporation the contents are kept very cool. Another plan is, afterhaving tied a length of intestine at both ends, to roll it up in ahandkerchief and wear it as a belt round the waist. The fault of thesemembranous bags, besides their disgusting character and want of strengthis, that they become putrid after a few days' use. 

Vessels for Cooling Water may be made that shall also act efficiently asflasks. Porous earthen jars are too brittle for long use, and their poreschoke up if slimy water be put inside them. But the Arabs use a porousleather flask, called a Zemsemiya, which is hung on the shady side of thecamel, and by evaporation keeps the water deliciously cool: it is arather wasteful way of carrying water. Canvas bags are equally effective. 

Open Buckets, for carrying water for short distances, or for storing itin camp, may be made of the bark of a tree, either taken off in an entirecylinder, and having a bottom fitted on, or else of a knot or excrescencethat has been cut off the outside of a tree, and its woody interiorscooped out; or of birth bark sewed or pegged at the corners, and havingits seams coated with the gum or resin of the pine-tree. Baskets withoiled cloth inside, make efficient water-vessels; they are in use inFrance as firemen's buckets. Water-tight pots are made on the Snake riverby winding long touch roots in a spiral manner, and lashing the coils toone another, just as is done in making a beehive. Earthenware jars areexcellent, when they can be obtained. 

To prevent Splashing. --When carrying water in buckets, put a wreath ofgrass, or something else that will float, on the water, to prevent itfrom splashing; and also make a hoop, inside which the porter may walk, while his laden hands rest on its rim: the hoop keeps his hands wide fromhis body, and prevents the buckets from knocking against his legs. 

Mending Leather Water-vessels. --If a water-vessel becomes leaky, thehole should be caulked by stuffing a rag, a wedge of wood, a tuft ofgrass, or anything else into it, as shown in the upper figure and also inthe left side of the lower one (p. 230), and then greasing or waxing itover. A larger rent must be Seized upon, the lips of the wound pinchedup, a thorn or other spike run through the lips, and lastly a piece oftwine lashed firmly round, underneath the thorn; the thorn keeps thestring from slipping off (See the right-hand corner of the lower figure. )When there is an opportunity, the bag must be patched, as is also shownin the lower figure. 

[Sketch of parts of two bags as referred to in text]. 

Repairing a battered Metal Flask. --Fill it with dry seed, such as peasor mustard-seed; then pour in water and put the stopper into it. After aperiod varying from 1 to 3 or 4 hours, according to the nature of theseeds, they will begin to swell and to force the sides of the flaskoutwards into their original shape. The swelling proceeds rather rapidlyafter it has once commenced, so the operation requires watching, lest itshould be overdone and the flask should burst. 

Corks and Stoppers. --Thrust a cork tightly into the mouth of the flask, cut a hole through the cork and plug the hole, which will henceforth formthe outlet of the flask--with a stopper of wood, bone, or other hardsubstance. Thread, wound round a slightly conical plug that has beensufficiently notched to retain it in its place, makes it nearlywater-tight as a stopper. It is of less importance that the stoppershould fit closely, if the flask be so slung that its mouth shall bealways uppermost: a very imperfect cork will then be sufficient to checkevaporation and splashing, and to prevent the loss of more than a fewdrops from occasional upsets. 

Drinking, when riding or walking. --It is an awkward matter to drink whenjolting on wheels, on horseback, or on foot. I adopted the plan ofcarrying a piece of small india-rubber tubing 6 or 8 inches long, andwhen I wished to drink, I removed the stopper and inserted the tube, justas an insect might let down its proboscis, and sucked the contents. SirS. Baker says of the people of Unyoro, "During a journey, a pretty, bottle-shaped, long-necked gourd is carried with a store ofplantain-cider; the mouth of the bottle is stopped with a bundle of thewhite rush shreds, through which a reed is inserted that reaches to thebottom: thus the drink can be sucked up during the march, without thenecessity of halting; nor is it possible to spill it by the movement ofwalking. "

Kegs and Tanks. --Keys for Pack-saddles. --Small barrels, flattenedequally on both sides, so that their tops and bottoms shall be of an ovaland not a circular shape, are the most convenient vessels, notwithstanding their weight, for carrying water on pack-saddles across abroken country. They are exceedingly strong, and require no particularattention, while bags of leather or macintosh suffer from thorns, andnatives secretly prick them during the march, that they may suck adraught of water. These kegs should not exceed 22 inches in length, 10 inextreme breadth, and 7 in extreme width; a cask of these measurementswould hold about 40 lbs. Weight of water, and its own weight might be 15lbs. As the water is expended, it is easy to replace the diminishedweight by putting on a bag from one of the other packs. Before startingaway into the bush, these kegs should be satisfactorily fitted andadjusted to the pack-saddle that is intended to carry them, in such a waythat they may be packed on to it with the least possible trouble. Acouple of leather or iron loops Fixed to each keg, and made to catch onto the hooks which are let flush into the sides of the pack-saddle, willeffect this. 

[Sketch as described below]. 

The sketch represents a section of the pack-saddle, at the place whereone of the hooks is situated on either side, but the front of the kegsthemselves, and not their section, is given. Above and between the kegslies a bag, and a strap passing from the near side of the saddle goesover the whole burden, and is buckled to a similar short strap on theother side. It is of importance that the bung-hole should be placed evennearer to the rim than where it is drawn, for it is necessary that itshould be convenient to pour out of and to pour into, and that it shouldbe placed on the highest part of the keg, both when on the beast's backand also when it stands on the ground, lest water should leak and belost. According to the above plan, when water is ladled into it, the rimkeeps it from spilling; and in pouring out water, the run acts as aspout. In making the bung-hole, a metal plate, with a screw-hole in it, is firmly fixed in the face of the cask; into this a wooden stopper, bound with iron, is made to screw (natives would probably steal a metalone). The stopper has a small head and a deeply-cut neck, by which it istied to the cask, and its body has a large hole bored in it, which admitsof a stick being put through, to prize it round, if it should becomejammed. A spigot, to screw into the bung-hole on arriving at camp, mightbe really useful; but if used, a gimlet-hole must be bored in the cask toact as an air-vent. A large tundish is very convenient, and a spare plugmight be taken; but a traveller, with a little painstaking, could sooncut a plug with his own knife, sufficiently well made to allow of itsbeing Firmly screwed in, and of retaining the water, if it had a bit ofrag wrapped round it. A piece of rag rolled tightly, will suffice to pluga hole. 

Siphons. --A flexible tube of some kind, whether of india-rubber, gutta-percha, or, still better, of macintosh, strained over rings, wouldbe very valuable as a siphon: both for filling large kegs out of bucketsand for emptying them again. Vulcanised india-rubber becomes rotten aftershort use, and gutta-percha will stand no extremes of temperature. 

Tanks for Wagons. --There still remain many large districts in Asia, Africa, and Australia which may be explored in wagons, but, so far as Iam aware, no particular pattern of a water-tank, suitable for carriage onwheels, has yet been adopted by travellers. I believe kegs are generallyused, but they are far too heavy for the requirements of a wagon. Probably the tins used for sending milk by cart and railway to towns, would be very serviceable for carrying water on expeditions. They areinvariably made of the same shape, and only of few different sizes. Therefore experience must have shown that their pattern is better thanany other yet devised. Their mouths can be padlocked, which is animportant matter. 

Macintosh Bags. --I would also recommend a trial of square bags of strongmacintosh--say 18 inches deep and 10 inches square, in which case theywould hold 60 lbs. Of water--fitting into square compartments, in largepanniers, like those in a bottle-basket. I have made some experimentsupon this arrangement. The basket-work gives protection against blows andthe jolting together of packages, and it yields without harm to a strain, and the bags yield also. Moreover, water is less churned in half-emptybags than in half-empty barrels. No unusual strength of materials wouldbe required in making these bags: their mouths should be funnel-shaped, and corked at the neck of the funnel. The funnels should be wide at theirmouths, for convenience in filling them; and a string to secure the corkshould be tied round the neck of the funnel. The bags should have loopson their sides, through which a strap, passing underneath, might run, inorder to Give a good hold for lifting them up. They could easily befilled as they lay in their compartments, and would only require to belifted out in order to empty them; there is, therefore, no objection totheir holding as much as 60 lbs. Weight of water. An india-rubber tube asa siphon, and with a common spigot at the end of it, would beparticularly useful. A pannier not much exceeding 30 inches long, by 20broad, and 18 deep, would hold six of these bags, or 360 lbs. Weight ofwater in all; and two such panniers would be ample for exploringpurposes. I had a pannier and two bags made for a trial, which were quitesatisfactory, and I found that the weight of the panniers and bagstogether was at the rate of 6 lbs. For each compartment; therefore theweight of these water-vessels is not more than 10 per cent. Of that ofthe water which they carry. It might be well to vary the contents of someof the compartments; putting, for instance, two or even three small bagsinto one, and tin cases into a few of the others, instead of the largebags. These panniers, with the bags inflated, and connected together by astage, would form an excellent and powerful raft. If secured within awagon about to cross a deep river, they would have enough power, in allordinary cases, to cause it to float and not to sink to the bottom. Itrust some explorer will try this plan. I may add that the macintoshwater-bags cost me about 1 pound each. 

Raw Hide Bags/--Captain Sturt, when he explored in Australia, took a tankin his cart, which burst, and besides that, he carried casks of water. Bythese he was enabled to face a desert country with a degree of success towhich no traveller before had ever attained. For instance, when returninghomewards, the water was found to be drying up on all sides of him. Hewas encamped by a pool where he was safe, whence the next stage was 118miles, or 4 days' journey, but it was a matter of considerable doubtwhether there remained any water at the end of the stage. It wasabsolutely necessary to reconnoitre, and in order to do so, he had firstto provide the messenger with the means of returning, should thewatering-place be found dry. He killed a bullock, skinned it, and fillingthe skin with water (which held 150 gallons), Sent it by an ex-dray 30miles, with orders to bury it and to return. Shortly after he despatcheda light one-horse cart, carrying 36 gallons of water; the horse and manwere to drink at the hide, and then to go on. Thus they had 36 gallons tosupply them for a journey of 176 miles, or 6 days, at 30 miles a day atthe close of which they would return to the ox-hide--sleeping, in fact, 5 nights on 36 gallons of water. This a hardy, well-driven horse coulddo, even in the hottest climate. 

To raise Water from Wells for Cattle. --By hand. --Let one man stand inthe water, or just above it; another 5 feet higher; and again anotherhigher still, if the depth of the well requires it. Then let thelowermost man dip a bucket in the water, and pass it from hand to handupwards; the top man pours the water into a trough, out of which thecattle drink. This trough may be simply a ditch scratched in the ground;a piece of canvas should be thrown over it, if the soil be sandy, to keepthe water from being lost before the cattle have time to drink it. ThusEyre speaks of watering his horse, out of his black servant's duck frock. Light gutta-percha buckets are very useful in temperate climates; and soare baskets, with oilcloth inside them. 

The drove of cattle should be brought up to 60 yards from thewatering-place; then three or four should be driven out--they will runat once to the water. After they have drunk, drive them to one side, andlet another three or four take their place, and so on; keeping the twodroves quite distinct--those that have drunk, and those that are waitingto drink. They will drink at the rate of one per minute; sheep and goatsdrink very much faster. Never let the cattle go in a rush to the well, else they will stamp it in, most of them get no water, and they will alldo a great deal of damage. 

By horse power. --It does not fall within the scope of this book todescribe water-wheels worked by cattle, or elaborate mechanism of anykind; I therefore only mention under this head, that the Tartarssometimes draw water from their wells, of 150 feet deep and upwards, by arider harnessing the bucket-rope to his horse, and galloping him off to amark that tells the proper distance. Their ropes are of twisted hair, andare made to run over a smoothed stone, or a log of wood. 

[Sketches of pole and bucket and pump as described below]. 

A pole and bucket is a very convenient way of raising water from 4 to 12feet. The bucket may be made of canvas, basket-work, leather, wood, oralmost any other material; leakage, though considerable, is of littleconsequence, because the action of the apparatus is so quick, that thereis not time for much water to be lost. This contrivance is used overalmost the whole globe--less in England than elsewhere; it is verycommon where long poles can easily be obtained, as in fir forests. 

Pump. --An excellent and very simple pump is used by the Arabs inAlgeria. A piece of leather or waxed canvas, is stretched round one ormore hoops; it forms a hollow cylinder, that admits of being shut flatlike an accordion. The top and bottom of the cylinder are secured roundthe edges of two discs of wood. Holes are bored in these discs andleather valves are fitted to them. The lower disc is nailed to the bottomof a tub; the hole in it corresponds with the feed-pipe, and the valvethat covers the hole opens upwards. The upper disc Is attached to thepump handle; the valves that cover the holes in this disc, open upwardsalso. When the leather-pump barrel is pressed flat, water flows throughthe upper valves into the barrel around it; when it is pulled out, wateris sucked up through the feed-pipe, and an equal quantity is displacedfrom the barrel. This flows out into the trough. A bag would do as wellas a tub, to hold the water which surrounds the pump-barrel; but, withoutthe water which it is the object of either the one or the other tocontain, the pump-barrel must be air-proof as well as water-proof. Theaction of this pump is marvellously perfect. It attracted much attentionin the French Exhibition of 1855. 

GUNS AND RIFLES. 

General Remarks. --Breech-loaders. --At the present time when the meritsof different kinds of breech-loader are so hotly discussed, when all thathave yet been invented have some faults, and every month brings to lightsome new invention, it would be foolish in me to write anything aboutthem; it would be obsolete before the great majority of my readers shouldhave seen this book. Therefore omitting breech-loaders altogether fromthe present edition, I will confine myself to repeating what I have saidbefore upon muzzle-loaders, with additions and alterations. 

Size of Gun. --American bushrangers advocate a long heavy pea-rifle, onthe plea of its accurate shooting, and the enormous saving in weight ofammunition when bullets of a small size are used. The objections tosmall-bored rifles are, insufficiency against large game (even withconical bullets), and a tendency to become foul after a few shots. Ashort light rifle, whether with a large or a small bore, is, I believe, utterly worthless. In the hands of a man trembling with running and withexhaustion, it shakes like a wand: the shorter the rifle, the morequickly does it oscillate, and of course, in the same proportion, is itdifficult to catch the exact moment when the sights cover the object. 

For the larger kinds of game, such as elephants and buffaloes, experienced sportsmen mostly prefer guns of immense Bore, carrying roundbullets that weigh a quarter of a pound. The recoil is tremendous, andwould injure the shoulder if the sportsman did not use a pad againstwhich he rests the gun. The guns must be strong, because very largecharges of powder are invariably used where great power of penetration isrequired. African sportsmen found this out experimentally long before theidea occurred to artillerists. 

Sights. --The hind sight should be far from the eye, even though it beplaced half-way down the barrel: else it becomes out of focus andindistinct, when the eye is firmly set on the object aimed at; thisdrawback is never compensated by the advantage of having the front andhind sights far asunder. 

Ramrod. --The guns of servants and indeed those of their masters, shouldhave thin soft-iron ramrods; the elasticity of these when slightly bent, will retain them in the ramrod-tubes; both ends of the ramrod must beforged broad. 

Screw to secure the Cock. --In common guns, this screw is very liable toget loose, fall out and be lost; it is therefore desirable to have one ormore spare screws. 

Water-proof Cover should not be forgotten. 

Rust, to prevent. --Paraffine and mercurial ointment are perhaps the twobest things to keep rust off iron, in sea voyages or in boat-shooting. Before embarking for a voyage, it is convenient to enclose the guns in aleaden case, which, on arrival, can be melted up into bullets. It isremarkable how much better dirty guns withstand rust than clean ones. 

Olive oil, to purify. --Put a piece of lead in the glass bottle thatcontains the oil, and expose to the sun; a quantity of cloudy matter willseparate after a few days, then the refined oil may be decanted. 

The small of the stock is the weakest part of a gun: it is constantlybroken by falls in travel. Sir Samuel Baker justly recommends that "allguns made for sport in wild countries and rough riding, should have steelinstead of iron from the Breech-socket, extending far back to within sixinches of the shoulder plate; the trigger-guard should likewise be steel, and should be carried back to an equal distance with the above rib; thesteel should be of extra thickness, and screwed through to the upperpiece; thus the two being connected by screws above and below, no fallcould break the stock. "

Injuries to Guns, to repair. --Ramrod tubes often break off, and it is avery troublesome accident when they do so. I know of no contrivance tofasten them on again, except by using soft solder, the application ofwhich will not in the least hurt the gun: ashes, at a dull red heat, mustbe heaped over the barrel to warm it sufficiently, before applying thesolder. If the ramrod tubes have been lost, others made of tin mayreplace them. 

The Sight of a Gun, if it falls out and is lost, can easily be replacedby a substitute. A groove must be cut with a file across the substance ofthe barrel, if the gun be a single one, or across the midrib, ifdouble-barrelled; into this a piece of iron, ivory, bone, horn, or hardwood, with a projection carved in the middle for the sight, must bepushed, then the metal on either side must be battered down over it, witha hammer or stone, to keep it firm. 

A broken Stock, however much it may be smashed, can be well mended by rawhide (see "Hides"). Blacksmith's work and carpentering are seldomsufficient for the purpose. It is within the power of a rough workman tomake a gun-stock, but it is a work of great labour. 

A Ramrod may be replaced by cutting a stick from a tree, straightening itin the fire, and then seasoning it. (See "Green Wood. ")

Guns to hang up, to carry, and to clean. --Hanging Guns to a Wall. --Fixa loop of leather for the muzzle, and a strap and buckle for the stock, with a piece of sheepskin or canvas nailed so as to hang over it, as infig. 1. A more complete way is to sew a long pocket with a flap to it, which is tied up on to a stick or bar, as in fig. 2: the gun has simplyto be Lifted out and in. The pocket must be made baggy at the part whichcorresponds to the cocks of the gun. 

[Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 As described in text]. 

Carrying Guns on a Journey. --"Look at the gun, but never let the gunlook at you, or at your companions, " is a golden rule; for among thechances of death to which a traveller is exposed, that of being shot byan attendant's gun going off accidentally, ranks high. Servants shouldcarry their guns with the cock down on a piece of rag, that covers thecap: take it all in all, it is the best plan for them. A sportsman willfind great convenience in having a third nick cut in the tumbler of hislock, so as to give an additional low half-cock, at which the cock justclears the nipple; it will prevent the cap from falling off or receivinga blow. I have long used this plan, and find no objections to it: manypistols are furnished with this contrivance. Careless gun-makerssometimes make this catch so low, that when the cock is lifted a littleback from it, and let go, it strikes the cap by reason of the elasticityof its metal, and lets off the gun: the traveller should beware of thisfault of workmanship. 

[Sketch of gun as described]. 

As this book may fall into the hands of persons ignorant of the danger ofcarrying a gun with the cock down on the nipple (to which cause I findthat three-fourths of gun accidents are owing, having once kept a list ofthose that were reported in the newspapers), I will remark that when thecock is down, a heavy blow on its back, nay, even the jar caused by thegun falling on the ground, will cause the cap to explode. Again if thecock catch against the dress, or against A twig, it is liable to belifted, when, on being released, it will snap down upon the cap. When agun is at half-cock, the first of these accidents obviously cannot occur;and, as to the second, if the cock be pulled back and let drop, it falls, not down upon the cap, but to half-cock again, except only in the casewhere the trigger is also pressed back. The objections to carrying a gunat half-cock are, that careless people occasionally leave it on full-cockwithout perceiving the difference, and that there is a probability ofweakening the main-spring, if day after day it be kept on the strain. 

Carrying Guns when Stalking Game. --In creeping after game, the gun isalways troublesome; there is no better plan than pushing it as far as thearm can reach, then creeping up to it, and again pushing it forwards. 

Carrying Guns on Horseback. --Allow me very strongly to recommend a trialof the following plan, even for a shooting-pony in Scotland. It is theinvention of the Namaquas. I and all my party in South Africa used it fora year and a half, and many persons have adopted the plan in Englandsince I first published a description of it. Sew a bag of canvas, leather, or hide, of such a size as to admit the butt of the gun prettyfreely. The straps that support the bag, buckle through a ring in thepommel; the thongs by which the slope of the bag is adjusted, arefastened round the girth, below. The exact adjustments may not be hitupon, by an unpractised person, for some time; but, when they are onceascertained, the thongs need never be shifted. The gun is perfectly safe:it never comes below the armpit, even in taking a crop leap: it is pulledout in an instant by bringing the elbow forwards in front of the gun andthen backwards, pressing it against the side; by this manner, the gun isthrown to the outside of the arm: then, lowering the hand, catch the gunas near the trigger-guard as you can, and lift it out of the bag: (it isa bungling way to take out the gun whilst its barrel lies between the armand the body). Any sized gun can be carried in this fashion, and itoffers no obstacle to mounting or dismounting. 

I hear that some sportsmen, who were probably unacquainted with thismethod, have used a bag or pocket of stiff Leather attached to the sideof the saddle, just behind the right leg; into this, when tired ofcarrying the gun, they push the butt. It is said to lie there securelyand to give no trouble, the barrel passes forwards under the right arm, and the muzzle is in front of the rider. 

[Drawing of horse, rider and gun as described above]. 

The French dragoons carry a gun in a way that is convenient for militarypurposes, because it does not interfere with the immense housings thatcavalry soldiers require; but it is not so handy, it does not lie sofreely as the above, nor is it as well suited to a traveller or asportsman. The gun is placed butt downwards, as in the Namaqua method, and leans backwards in the same way; but the under side of the gun, instead of being backwards, or towards the horse's tail, Is towards hishead. The butt lies in a shallow bucket, secured by two straps fixed tothe front of the saddle; another strap, leading from the pommel, andpassing over the right thigh of the rider, is hitched round the barrel ofthe gun, and has to be unbuckled and cast off when the gun is taken out. 

All ways of carrying the gun with its muzzle downwards, are veryobjectionable; since the jolting tends to dislodge the charge; if it beconsiderably dislodged, the gun will probably burst, on being fired. Also, a very little shaking, when the muzzle is downwards, will shake thepowder out of the nipple, and therefore, a gun, so carried, willconstantly miss fire. 

At Night, to dispose of Guns. --A gun is a very awkward thing to disposeof at night. It has occurred more than once that a native servant hascrept up, drawn away the gun of his sleeping master, and shot him dead. The following appears to me an excellent plan:--"When getting sleepy, youreturn your rifle between your legs, roll over, and go to sleep. Somepeople may think this is a queer place for a rifle; but, on the contrary, it is the position of all others where utility and comfort are mostcombined. 

[Sketch of man and gun as described]. 

The butt rests on the arm, and serves as a pillow for the head; themuzzle points between the knees, and the arms encircle the lock andbreech, so that you have a smooth pillow, and are always prepared tostart Up armed at a moment's notice. " (Parkyns' 'Abyssinia. ') The longerthe gun, the more secure is the sleeper from accident. The sketch is notquite accurate, for, in practice, the weight of the gun is never allowedto rest so entirely on the arm, as it is here represented: if it did so, the arm would soon be numbed. The gun-stock may be a little bolstered upif desired, to avoid any troublesome pressure on the arm. 

Cleaning Guns. --A bit of rag does as well as tow, and can be used overand over again. A top furnished with a sponge, to screw to the cleaningrod, is convenient. "A leaded barrel must be cleaned with fine sand. "(Hawker. ) Quicksilver, if it be at hand, will dissolve out the lead atonce. 

GUN-FITTINGS AND AMMUNITION. 

Powder-flask. --The flask that is carried in the pocket may be small, ifroomy; a large one, in reserve, being kept in a bag, at the front of thesaddle. 

To reduce bulges in a metal powder-flask, fill it up with Indian corn, ordry peas, of any other sort of hard grain; then pour water into it, andscrew down the lid tightly. The grain will swell, at first slowly andthen very rapidly, and the flask will resume its former dimensions, orburst if it is not watched. Peas do not begin to swell for a couple ofhours or more. 

Powder-horn, to make. --Saw off the required length from an ox's horn, flatten it somewhat by heat (see "Horn"), fit a wooden bottom into it, caulk it well, and sew raw hide round the edge to keep all tight. Themouth must be secured by a plug, which may be hollowed to make a charger. Pieces of cane of large diameter, and old gunpowder canisters, sewn up inhide, make useful powder-flasks. 

Percussion Caps. --Caps may be carried very conveniently by means of aring, with two dozen nipple-shaped beads, made of some metal, strung uponit; each bead being intended to be covered by a percussion-cap. The beadsare cleft down the middle, which gives them a slight springiness, thatmore effectually secures the caps that are placed upon them: the ring istied by a thong to the belt or button-hole. It is very Difficult, withoutthis contrivance, to keep caps free from sand, crumbs, and dirt, yetalways at hand when required. I can confidently recommend it, though asit is old-fashioned and not well suited for sportsmen in England, it israrely to be met with. Spring cap holders are, I am sure, too delicatefor rough travel. 

To protect Caps from the Rain. --Before stalking, or watching at night inrainy weather, wax or grease the edge of the cap as it rests on thenipple: it will thus become proof against water and damp air. Somepersons carry a piece of grease with them, when shooting in wet weather, and with it they smear the top of the nipple after each loading, beforeputting on the fresh cap. It is said that the grease does not prevent thefull action of the cap upon the powder. A sportsman has recommended to mea couple of well-marked caps, into the heads of which small wads of corkhave been fitted; he uses them for loaded guns that are to be laid by forsome hours or days. A broad leaf wrapped loosely round the lock of a gun, will protect it during a heavy shower. 

Substitute for Caps. --When the revolution in Spain in 1854 began, "therewas a great want of percussion caps; this the insurgents supplied bycutting off the heads of lucifer-matches and sticking them into thenipples. The plan was found to answer perfectly. " (Times, July 31. )

Gun-pricker. --I am indebted for the following plan, both for clearingthe touchhole, and also for the rather awkward operation of pricking downfresh gunpowder into it, to an old sportsman in the Orkney Island ofSanday. He takes a quill, and cuts off a broad ring from the large end ofit; this is pushed over the small end of the quill, and lies securelythere. Next, he cuts a wooden plug to fit the quill; into the plug, thepricker is fixed. 

[Sketch of gun-pricker as described]. 

The whole affair goes safely in the pocket; the quill acting as a sheathto the sharp pricker. Now, when powder has to be pricked down the nipple, the "broad ring" is slipped off the quill and put on the nipple, which itfits; powder is poured into it, and the required operation is easilycompleted. This little contrivance, which is so simple and Light, lastsfor months, and is perfectly effective. I have tried metal holders, but Imuch prefer the simple quill, on account of its elasticity and lightness. A little binding with waxed thread, may be put on, as shown in thesketch, to prevent the quill from splitting. 

Wadding. --The bush affords few materials from which wadding can be made;some birds' nests are excellent for the purpose. I am told that a dryhide will not serve as materials for wads. 

Flints. --According to Ure's Dictionary, the best stones to choose formaking gun-flints are those that are not irregular in shape; they shouldhave, when broken, a greasy lustre, and be particularly smooth andfine-grained; the colour is of no importance, but it should be uniform inthe same lump; and the more transparent the stones the better. Gun-flintsare made with a hammer, and a chisel of steel that is not hardened. Thestone is chipped by the hammer alone into pieces of the requiredthickness, which are fashioned by being laid upon the fixed chisel, andhammered against it. It takes nearly a minute for a practised workman tomake one gun-flint. 

Gunpowder. --To carry Gunpowder. --Wrap it up in flannel or leather, notin paper, cotton, or linen; because these will catch fire, or smoulderlike tinder, whilst the former will do neither the one nor the other. Gunpowder carried in a goat-skin bag, travels very safely. Mr. Gregorycarried his in the middle of his flour; each flour-bag (see p. 69), during his North Australian expedition, had a tin of gunpowder in themiddle of it. 

To make Gunpowder. --It is difficult to make good gunpowder, but there isno skill required in making powder that will shoot and kill. Many of thenegroes of Africa, make it for themselves--burning the charcoal, gathering saltpetre from salt-pans, and buying the sulphur from tradingcaravans: they grind the materials on a stone. In Chinese Tartary andThibet, every peasant manufactures it for himself. 

To make 8 lbs. Of gunpowder, take 1 lb. Of charcoal, 1 lb. Of sulphur, and 6 lbs. Of saltpetre. These proportions should be followed asaccurately as possible. Each of the three materials must be pounded intopowder separately, and then all mixed together most thoroughly. Themixture must have a little water added to it, Enough to make it bind intoa stiff paste (about one-tenth part, by measure, of water is sufficient;that is to say, one cupful of water to ten cupfuls of the mixed powder). The paste must be well kneaded together, with one stone on another, justas travellers usually make meal or grind coffee. It should then bewrapped up to a piece of canvas, or a skin, and pressed, with as heavy apressure as can be obtained, to condense it. Next, the cake is squeezedand worked against a sieve made of parchment, in which the holes havebeen burnt with a red-hot wire, and through which the cake is squeezed ingrains. These grains are now put into a box, which is well shaken about, and in this way the grains run each other smooth. The fine dust that isthen found mixed with the grains, must be winnowed away; lastly thegrains are dried. 

Recapitulation. --1. Pound the ingredients separately. @. Mix them. 3. Add a little water, and knead the mass. 4. Press it. 5. Rub the massthrough a sieve. 6. Shake up the grains in a box. 7. Get rid of the dust. 8. Dry the grains. 

The ingredients should be used as pure as they can be obtained. Formaking a few charges of coarse powder, the sieve may be dispensed with:in this case, roll the dough into long pieces of the thickness of a pin;lay several of these side by side, and mince the whole into small grains;dust with powder, to prevent their sticking together: and then proceed asalready described. 

To procure good Charcoal. --Light woods that give a porous charcoal, arethe best;--as poplar, alder, lime, horse-chestnut, willow, hazel-nut, andelder. It should be made with the greatest care, and used as soon aspossible afterwards: it is the most important ingredient in gunpowder. 

Sulphur. --The lumps must be melted over a gentle fire; the pot shouldthen be put in a heap of hot sand, to give the impurities time to settle, before it cools into a mass. When this has taken place, the bottom partmust be broken off and put aside as unfit for making gunpowder, and thetop part alone used. Flower of sulphur is quite pure. 

Saltpetre. --Dissolve the saltpetre that you wish to purify, in an equalmeasure of boiling water; a cupful of one to a cupful of the other. Strain this solution, and, letting it cool gradually, somewhat less thanthree-fourths of the nitre will separate in regular crystals. Saltpetreexists in the ashes of many plants, of which tobacco is one; it is alsofound copiously on the ground in many places, in saltpans, or simply asan effloresence. Rubbish, such as old mud huts, and mortar, generallyabounds with it. (It is made by the action of the air on the potashcontained in the earths. ) The taste, which is that of gunpowder, is thebest test of its presence. To extract it, pour hot water on the mass, then evaporate and purify, as mentioned above. 

Rocket Composition consists of gunpowder 16 parts, by Weight; charcoal, 3parts. Or, in other words, of nitre, 16 parts; charcoal 7 parts; sulphur, 4 parts. It must not be forgotten that when rockets are charged with thecomposition, a hollow tube must be left down their middle. 

Blue Fire. --4 parts gunpowder meal; 2 parts nitre, 3 parts sulphur; 3parts zinc. 

Bengal Fire. --7 parts nitre; 2 parts sulphur; 1 part antimony. 

Bullets--Sportsmen, fresh from England, and acknowledged as good shotsat home, begin by shooting vilely with balls at large game. They must notbe discouraged at what is a general rule, but be satisfied that they willsoon do themselves justice. 

Alloy. --Common bullets of lead, whether round or conical, are farinferior to those of hard alloy; for the latter penetrate much moredeeply, and break bones, instead of flattening against them. A mixture ofvery little tin, or pewter (which is lead and tin), with lead, hardensit: we read of sportsmen melting up their spoons and dishes for thispurpose. A little quicksilver has the same effect. Sir Samuel Baker, whois one of the most experienced sportsmen both in Ceylon and in Africa, latterly used a mixture of nine-tenths lead and one-tenth quicksilver forhis bullets. He says, "This is superior to all [other] mixtures for thatpurpose, as it combines hardness with extra weight; the lead must bemelted in a pot by itself to a red heat, and the proportion ofquicksilver must be added a ladleful at a time, and stirred quickly witha piece of iron just in sufficient quantity to make three or fourbullets. If the quicksilver is subjected to red heat in the largeleadpot, it will evaporate. " Proper alloy, or spelter, had best beordered at a gun-maker's shop, and taken from England instead of lead:different alloys of spelter vary considerably in their degree ofhardness, and therefore more than one specimen should be tried. 

Shape of Bullets. --Round iron bullets are worthless, except at veryclose quarters, on account of the lightness of the metal: for theresistance of the air checks their force extremely. Whether elongatediron bullets would succeed, remains to be Tried. Some savages--as, forinstance, those of Timor--when in want of bullets, use stones two orthree inches long. Some good sportsmen insist on the advantage, forshooting at very close quarters, of cleaving a conical bullet nearly downto its base, into four parts; these partly separate, and make a fearfulwound. I suppose that the bullet leaves the gun with the same force as ifit were entire; and that it traverses too short a distance for thealtered form to tell seriously upon the speed: when it strikes, it actslike chain-shot. 

Bullets, to carry. --Bullets should be carried sewn up in their patches, for the convenience of loading, and they should not fit too tight: a fewmay be carried bare, for the sake of rapid loading. 

Recovering Bullets. --When ammunition is scarce, make a practice ofrecovering the bullets that may have been shot into a beast; if they areof spelter, they will be found to have been very little knocked out ofshape, and may often be used again without recasting. 

Shot and Slugs. --Travellers frequently omit to take enough shot, whichis a great mistake, as birds are always to be found, while large game isuncertain: besides this, shot gives amusement; and ducks, quails, andpartridges are much better eating than antelopes and buffaloes. It mustbe borne in mind, that a rifle will carry shot quite well enough, on anemergency. Probably No. 7 is the most convenient size for shot, as thebirds are likely to be tame; and also because a traveller can often fireinto a covey or dense flight of birds--and the more pellets, the moreexecution. If birds are to be killed for stuffing, dust-shot will also bewanted; otherwise, it is undoubtedly better to take only one size ofshot. 

Shot is made in manufactories, as follows:--Arsenic is added to thelead, in the proportion of from 3 lbs. To 8 lbs. Of arsenic to 1000 lbs. Of lead. The melted lead is poured through cullenders drilled with veryfine holes, and drops many feet down, into a tub of water; 100 feet fallis necessary for manufactories in which No. 4 shot is made; 150, forlarger sorts. If the shot turns out to be lens-shaped, there has been toomuch arsenic; if hollow, flattened, or tailed, there has been too little. Pewter or tin is bad, as it makes tailed shot. The Shot are sorted bysieves; bad shot are weeded out, by letting the shot roll over aslightly-inclined board, then the sho that are not quite round roll offto the side. Lastly, the shot is smoothed by being shaken up in a barrelwith a little black-lead. 

Slugs are wanted both for night-shooting and also in case of a hostileattack. They can be made by running melted lead into reeds, and choppingthe reeds into short length; or by casting the lead in tubes made byrolling paper round a smooth stick: whether reeds or paper be used, theyshould be planted in the ground before the lead is poured in. Thetemperature of the lead is regulated by taking care that a small quantityof it remains unmelted in the ladle, at the moment of pouring out: if itbe too hot it will burn the paper. (See "Lead. ")

HINTS ON SHOOTING. 

When lying down. --Loading. --Put in the powder as you best can, and ramthe bullet home, lying flat on your back, with the barrel of the gunathwart your breast. It is easy to load in this way with cartridges. 

On Horseback. --Loading. --Empty the charge of powder from the flask intothe left hand, and pour it down the gun; then take a bullet, wet out ofyour mouth, and drop it into the barrel, using no ramrod; the wet willcake the bullet pretty firmly in its right place. 

Firing. --"In firing, do not bring the gun to your shoulder; but presentit across the pommel of the saddle, calculating the angle with your eye, and steadying yourself momentarily by standing in the stirrups, as youtake aim. " (Palliser. ) In each bound of the horse, the moment when hisfore legs strike the ground is one of comparative steadiness, and istherefore the proper instant for pulling the trigger. 

On Water. --Boat-shooting. --A landing-net should be taken in the boat, as Colonel Hawker well advises, to pick up the dead birds as they floaton the water, while the boat passes quickly by them. 

Shooting over Water. --When shooting from a river-bank without boat ordog, take a long light string with a stick tied to one end of it, theother being held in the hand: by throwing The stick beyond the floatingbird, it can gradually be drawn in. The stick should be 1 1/2 or 2 feetlong, 2 inches in diameter, and notched at either end, and attached tothe hand-line by a couple of strings, each 6 feet long, tied round eithernotch. Thus, the hand-line terminates in a triangle (see the figure Ihave given, of a rude Stirrup), the two sides of which are of string, with the stick for a base. A stout stick of this kind can be thrown to agreat distance; either it may be "heaved, " as a sailor's Deep-sea Lead, or it may be whirled round the head, and then let fly. 

Night-shooting. --Tie a band of white paper round the muzzle of the gun, behind the sight. Mr. Andersson, who has had very great experience, tiesthe paper, not round the smooth barrel, but over the sight and all; and, if the sight does not happen to be a large one, he ties a piece of thickstring round the barrel, or uses other similar contrivance, to tilt upthe fore end of the paper. By this means, the paper is not entirely lostsight of at the moment when the aim is being taken. Mr. Andersson alsopinches the paper into a ridge along the middle of the gun, to ensure amore defined foresight. 

Nocturnal Animals. --There are a large number of night-feeding animals, upon whose flesh a traveller might easily support himself, but of whoseexistence he would have few indications by daylight observation only. Thefollowing remarks of Professor Owen, in respect to Australia are verysuggestive:--"All the marsupial animals--and it is one of their curiouspeculiarities--are nocturnal. Even the kangaroo, which is the least so, is scarcely ever seen feeding out on the plains in broad daylight: itprefers the early morning dawn, or the short twilight; and, above all, the bright moonlight nights. With regard to most of the other Australianforms of marsupial animals, they are most strictly nocturnal; so that, ifa traveller were not aware of that peculiarity, he might fancy himselftraversing a country destitute of the mammalian grade of animal life. If, however, after a weary day's journey, he could be awakened, and were tolook out about the moonlight glade or scrub, or if he were to set trapsby night, he would probably be surprised to find how great a number ofinteresting forms of mammalian animals were to Be met with, in placeswhere there was not the slightest appearance of them in the daytime. "

Battues. --In Sweden, where hundreds of people are marshalled, each manhas a number, and the number is chalked upon his hat. 

Scarecrows. --A string with feathers tied to it at intervals, like thetail of a boy's kite, will scare most animals of the deer tribe, by theirfluttering; and, in want of a sufficient force of men, passes may beclosed by this contrivance. The Swedes use "lappar, " viz. Pieces ofcanvas, of half the height of a man, painted in glaring colours and leftto flutter from a line. 

Mr. Lloyd tells us of a peasant who, when walking without a gun, saw aglutton up in a tree. He at once took off his hat and coat and rigged outa scarecrow, the counterpart of himself, which he fixed close by, for thepurpose of frightening the beast from coming down; he then went leisurelyhome, to fetch his gun: this notable expedient succeeded perfectly. 

Stalking-horses. --Artificial. --A stalking-horse, or cow, is made bycutting out a piece of strong canvas into the shape of the animal, andpainting it properly. Loops are sewn in different places, through whichsticks are passed, to stretch the curves into shape: a stake, planted inthe ground serves as a buttress to support the apparatus: at a properheight, there is a loophole to fire through. It packs up into a roll ofcanvas and a bundle of five or six sticks. 

[Sketch of stalking-horse as described below]. 

Bushes are used much in the same way. Colonel Hawker made a contrivanceupon wheels which he pushed before him. The Esquimaux shoot seals bypushing a white screen before them over the ice, on a sledge. See figure. - (Kane. )

Real. --Both horses and oxen can be trained to shield a sportsman: theyare said to enter into the spirit of the Thing; and to show wonderfulcraft, walking round and round the object in narrowing circles, andstopping to graze unconcernedly, on witnessing the least sign of alarm. Oxen are taught to obey a touch on the horn: the common but cruel way oftraining them is to hammer and batter the horns for hours together, andon many days successively: they then become inflamed at the root and arehighly sensitive. 

Pan-hunting (used at salt-licks). --"Pan-hunting is a method of huntingdeer at night. An iron pan attached to a long stick, serving as a handle, is carried in the left hand over the left shoulder; near where the handgrasps the handle, in a small projecting stick, forming a fork on whichto rest the rifle, when firing. The pan is filled with burningpine-knots, which, being saturated with turpentine, shed a brilliant andconstant light all around; shining into the eyes of any deer that maycome in that direction, and making them look like two balls of fire. Theeffect is most curious to those unaccumstomed to it. The distance betweenthe eyes of the deer as he approaches, appears gradually to increase, reminding one of the lamps of a travelling carriage. " (Palliser. )

The rush of an enraged Animal is far more easily avoided than is usuallysupposed. The way the Spanish bull-fighters play with the bull, is wellknown: any man can avoid a mere headlong charge. Even the speed of aracer, which is undeniably far greater than any wild quadruped, does notexceed 30 miles an hour or four times the speed of a man. The speed of anordinary horse is not more than 24 miles an hour: now even the fastestwild beast is unable to catch an ordinary horse, except by crawlingunobserved close to his side, and springing upon him; therefore I amconvinced that the rush of no wild animal exceeds 24 miles an hour, orthree times the speed of a man. (See Measurements of the rate of ananimal's gallop, p. 37. ) It is perfectly easy for a person who is cool, to avoid an animal, by dodging to one side or other of a bush. Fewanimals turn, if the rush be unsuccessful. The buffalo is an exception;he regularly hunts a man, and is therefore peculiarly dangerous. Unthinking persons talk of the fearful rapidity of a lion or tiger'sspring. It is not rapid at all: it is a slow movement, as must be evidentfrom The following consideration. No wild animal can leap ten yards, andthey all make a high trajectory in their leaps. Now, think of the speedof a ball thrown, or rather pitched, with just sufficient force to becaught by a person ten yards off: it is a mere nothing. The catcher canplay with it as he likes; he has even time to turn after it, if thrownwide. But the speed of a springing animal is undeniably the same as thatof a ball, thrown so as to make a flight of equal length and height inthe air. The corollary to all this is, that, if charged, you must keepcool and watchful, and your chance of escape is far greater thannon-sportsmen would imagine. The blow of the free paw is far swifter thanthe bound. 

Dogs kept at bay. --A correspondent assures me that "a dog flying at aman may be successfully repelled by means of a stout stick heldhorizontally, a hand at each end, and used to thrust the dog backwardsover, by meeting him across the throat or breast. If followed by a blowon the nose, as the brute is falling, the result will be soonerattained. "

A watch-dog usually desists from flying at a stranger when he seatshimself quietly on the ground, like Ulysses. The dog then contentshimself with barking and keeping guard until his master arrives. 

Hiding Game. --In hiding game from birds of prey, brush it over, and theywill seldom find it out; birds cannot smell well, but they have keeneyes. The meat should be hung from an overhanging bough; then, if thebirds find it out, there will be no place for them to stand on and tearit. Leaving a handkerchief or a short to flutter from a tree, will scareanimals of prey for a short time. (See "Scarecrows. "_

Tying up your Horse. --You may tie your horse, on a bare plain, to thehorns of an animal that you have shot, while you are skinning him, but itis better to hobble the horse with a stirrup-leather. (See"Shooting-horse. ")

Division of Game. --Some rules are necessary in these matters, to avoiddisputes, especially between whites and natives; and therefore the customof the country must be attended to. But it is a very general andconvenient rule (though, like all fixed rules, often unfair) that theanimal should belong to the Man who first wounded him, however slight thewound might have been; but that he or they who actually killed theanimal, should have a right to a slice of the meat: it must however, beunderstood, that the man who gave the first wound should notthenceforward withdraw from the chase; if he does so, his claim is lost. In America the skin belongs to the first shot, the carcase is dividedequally among the whole party. Whaling crews are bound by similarcustoms, in which nice distinctions are made, and which have all theforce of laws. 

Duck-shooting. --Wooden ducks, ballasted with lead, and painted, may beused at night as decoy-ducks; or the skins of birds already shot, may bestuffed and employed for the same purpose. They should be anchored in thewater, or made fast to a frame attached to the shooting-punt, and dressedwith sedge. It is convenient to sink a large barrel into the flat marshor mud, as a dry place to stand or sit in, when waiting for the birds tocome. A lady suggests to me, that if the sportsman took a bottle of hotwater to put under his feet, it would be a great comfort to him, and inthis I quite agree; I would take a keg of hot water, when about it. Ifreal ducks be used as decoy-birds, the males should be tied in one placeand the females in another, to induce them to quack. An artificial islandmay be made to attract ducks, when there is no real one. 

Crocodile-shooting. --Mr. Gilby says, speaking of Egypt, "I killedseveral crocodiles by digging pits on the sand-islands and sleeping apart of the night in them; a dry shred of palm-branch, the colour of thesand, round the hole, formed a screen to put the gun through. Their fleshwas most excellent eating--half-way between meat and fish: I had itseveral times. The difficulty of shooting them was, that the falcons andspurwing-plovers would hover round the pit, when the crocodilesinvariably took to the water. Their sight and hearing were good, buttheir scent indifferent. I generally got a shot or two at daybreak aftersleeping in the pit. "

Tracks. --When the neighbourhood of a drinking-place is trodden down withtracks, "describe a circle a little distance From it, to ascertain if itbe much frequented. This is the manner in which spoor should at all timesbe sought for. " (Cumming's 'Life in South Africa. ') To know if a burrowbe tenanted, go to work on the same principle; but, if the ground behard, sprinkle sand over it, in order to show the tracks more clearly. Itis related in the Apocrypha, that the prophet Daniel did this, when hewished to learn who it really was who every night consumed the meat whichwas placed before the idol of Bel, and which the idol itself was supposedto eat: he thus discovered that the priests and their families had asecret door by which they entered the temple; and convinced the king ofthe matter, by showing him their footprints. 

Carrying Game. --To carry small Game, as Fallow Deer. --Make a long slitwith your knife between the back sinew and the bone of both of thehind-legs. Cut a thick pole of wood and a stout wooden skewer 8 incheslong. Now thrust the right fore-leg through the slit in the left hindone, and then the left fore-leg through the slit in the right hind one, and holding these firmly in their places, push the skewer right throughthe left fore-leg, so as to peg it from drawing back. Lastly run the polebetween the animal's legs and its body, and let two men carry it on theirshoulders, one at each end of the pole; or, if a beast of burden be athand, the carcase is in a very convenient shape for being packed. Inanimals whose back sinew is not very prominent, it is best to cross thelegs as above, and to lash them together. Always take the bowels out ofgame, before carrying it; it is so much weight saved. "I rode outaccompanied by an after-rider, and shot two springboks, which we bore tocamp secured on our horses behind our saddles, by passing the buckles ofthe girths on each side through the fore and hind legs of the antelopes, having first performed an incision between the bone and the sinews withthe couteau de chasse, according to colonial usage. " (Cumming's 'Life inSouth Africa. ') "After he had skinned and gutted the animal, he cut awaythe flesh from the bones, in one piece, without separating the limbs, soas to leave suspended from the tree merely the skeleton of the deer. This, it appeared, was the Turkish fashion in use upon long Journeys, inorder to relieve travellers from the useless burden of bones. " (Huc's'Tartary. ') See also the section on "Heavy weights, to raise and carry, "especially Mr. Wyndham's plan. 

To float carcases of Game across a river. --Sir S. Baker recommendsstripping off the skin of the animal, as though it were intended to makea water-skin of it: putting a stone up the neck end of the skin; thusforming a water-tight sack, open at one end only. All the flesh is now tobe cut off the bones, and packed into the sack; which is then to beinflated, and secured by tying up the open end. The skin of a largeantelope thus inflated, will not only float the whole of the flesh, butwill also support several swimmers. 

"To carry Ivory on pack-animals, the North African traders use nets, slinging two large teeth on each side of an ass. Small teeth are wrappedup in skins and secured with rope. " (Mungo Park. )

Setting a gun as a spring-gun. --General Remarks. --The string that goesacross the pathway should be dark coloured, and so fine that, if thebeast struggles against it, it should break rather than cause injury tothe gun. I must however, add, that in the numerous cases in which I havewitnessed or heard of guns being set with success, for large beasts ofprey, I have never known of injury occurring to the gun. The height ofthe muzzle should be properly arranged with regard to the height of theexpected animal; thus, the heart of a hyena is the height of a man's kneeabove the ground; that of a lion, is a span higher. The string should notbe tight, but hang in a bow, or the animal will cause the gun to go offon first touching the string, and will only receive a flesh-wound acrossthe front of his chest. 

1st Method. --The annexed sketch (p. 258) explains the method I havedescribed in previous editions of this book. The stock is firmly lashedto a tree, and the muzzle to a stake planted in the ground. A"lever-stick, " 8 inches long, is bound across the grip of the gun so asto stand upright; but it is not bound so tightly as to prevent a slightdegree of movement. The bottom of the "lever-stick" is tied to thetrigger, and the top of it to a long, fine, dark-coloured string, whichis passed through the empty ramrod tubes, and is fixed to a tree on theother side of the pathway. It is evident that when a beast breasts thisstring, the trigger of the gun will be pulled. 

[Sketch of man setting up gun to be fired as above]. 

1nd Method. --I have, however, been subsequently informed of a betterplan of adapting the "lever-stick. " It is shown in the accompanyingdiagram (below). The fault of the previous plan, is the trouble of tyingthe string to the trigger; since the curvature is usually such as to makeit a matter of some painstaking to fix it securely. A, B, C, is the"lever-stick. " Notch it deeply at A, where it is to receive the trigger;notch it also at B, half an inch from A; and at C, 5 inches or so from B. In lashing B to the grip of the stock at D, the firmer you make thelashing, the better. If D admit of any yielding movement, on C beingpulled, the gun will not go off, either readily or surely; as will easilybe seen, on making experiment. 

[Sketch of rifle with stick rigged as above]. 

3rd Method. --I am indebted to Captain J. Meaden for the followingaccount of the plan used in Ceylon for setting a spring gun forleopards:--

"Remove the sear, or tie up the trigger. Load the gun, and secure it atthe proper height from the ground. Opposite the muzzle of the gun, or atsuch distance to the right, or left, as may be required, fasted the endof a black string, or line made of horsehair or fibre, and pass it acrossthe path to the gun. Fasten the other end to a stake, long enough tostand higher than the hammer. Stick the end of the stake slightly in theground, and let it rest upright against the lock projection, the blackline being fastened nearly at that height. Pass round the small of thestock a loop of single or double string. Take a piece of stick 6 or 8inches long, pass through the loop, and twist tourniquet fashion untilthe loop is reduced to the required length. Raise the hammer carefully, and pass the short end of the lever-stick, from the inner to the outerside, over the comb, and let the long end of the lever rest against thestake: the pressure of the hammer will keep the lever steady against thestake. To prevent the lower end of the stake flying out, from thepressure of the lever on the upper part, place a log or stone against thefoot. 

"An animal pushing against the black string, draws the upper end of thestake towards the muzzle, until the lever is disengaged and releases thehammer. 

"In laying the long arm of the lever against the stake sufficient playmust be allowed for the contraction of the black string, when wet by dewor rain. 

"If a double gun is set, two stakes and two levers will be required. Thestakes to be connected above and below the gun, by cross sticks. Thelevers must be passed round the combs the opposite way, to allow of thelong arms pressing outwards from the gun, and enable the levers todisengage without entangling. 

"The carcase or live bait must be hedged round, and means adopted toguide the leopard across the string, by running out a short hedge on oneside. In this case the black line to be set taut, and some 4 inches fromthe line of fire. The breast than catches the string, and the pushreleases the hammer when the muzzle is in line with the chest. 

"On this principle, two or more guns can be set, slightly varying inelevation, to allow of one barrel at least being effective. "

Bow and Arrow set for Beasts. --The Chinese have some equivalentcontrivance with bows and arrows. M. Huc tells us that a simplyconstructed machine is sold in the shops, by which, when sprung, a numberof poisoned arrows are fired off in succession. These machines areplanted in caves of sepulture, to guard them from pillage. They usespring-guns, and used to have spring-bows in Sweden, and in many othercountries. 

Knives. --Hunting-knife. --A great hunting-knife is a uselessencumbrance: no old sportsman or traveller cares to encumber himself withone; but a butcher's knife, carried in a sheath, is excellent, both fromits efficient shape, the soft quality of The steel, its lightness, andthe strong way in which the blade is set in the haft. 

Pocket-knife. --If a traveller wants a pocket-knife full of all kinds oftools, he had best order a very light one of 2 3/4 inches long, in atortoise-shell handle, without the usual turnscrew at the end. It shouldhave a light "picker" to shut over its back; this will act as astrike-light, and a file also, if its under surface be properlyroughened. Underneath the picker, there should be a small triangularborer, for making holes in leather, and a gimlet. The front of the knifeshould contain a long, narrow pen-blade of soft steel; a cobbler's awl, slightly bent; and a packing-needle with a large eye, to push thongs andtwine through holes in leather. Between the tortoise-shell part of thehandle and the metal frame of the knife, should be a space to containthree flat thin pieces of steel, turning on the same pivot. The ends ofthese are to be ground to form turnscrews of brass instruments: when thisexcellent contrivance is used, it must be opened out like the letter T, the foot of which represents the turnscrew in use and the horizontal partrepresents the other two turnscrews, which serve as the handle. It may bethought advisable to add a button-hook, a corkscrew, and a large blade;but that is not my recommendation, because it increases the size of theknife and makes it heavy; now a heavy knife is apt to be laid by, and notto be at hand when wanted, while a light knife is a constant pocketcompanion. 

Sheath Knives, to carry. --They are easily carried by half-naked, pocketless savages, by attaching the sheaths to a leather-loop, throughwhich the left forearm and elbow are to be passed. A swimmer can easilycarry a knife in this way; otherwise he holds it between his teeth. 

Substitutes for Knives. --Steel is no doubt vastly better than iron, butit is not essential for the ordinary purposes of life; indeed, mostancient civilized nations had nothing better than iron. Any bit of goodiron may be heated as hot as the camp-fire admits; hammered flat, lashedinto a handle, and sharpened on a stone. A fragment of flint or obsidianmay be made fast to a handle, to be used as a carpenter cuts paper With achisel; namely, by holding it dagger-fashion, and drawing it over theskin or flesh which he wishes to cut. Shells are sometimes employed assubstitutes for knives, also thin strips of bamboo, the sharp edges ofwhich cut meat easily. (See "Sharpening Tools. ")

Night-glass. --Opera-glasses are invaluable as night-glasses, for, bytheir aid, the sight of man is raised nearly to a par with that ofnight-roving animals; therefore, a sportsman would find them of greatservice when watching for game at night. A small and inexpensive glass isas useful for this purpose as a large one; but there is a considerabledifference between the clearness of different opera-glasses. 

OTHER MEANS OF CAPTURING GAME. 

General Remarks. --A trapper will never succeed, unless he thoroughlyenters into the habits of life and mind of wild animals. He must everbear in mind how suspicious they are; how quickly their eye is caught byunusual traces; and, lastly, how strong and enduring a taint is left bythe human touch. Our own senses do not make us aware of what it isdisagreeable enough to acknowledge, that the whole species of man yieldsa powerful and wide-spreading emanation, that is utterly disgusting andrepulsive to every animal in its wild state. It requires some experienceto realise this fact: a man must frequently have watched the heads of aherd of far distant animals, tossed up in alarm the moment that theycatch his wind; he must have observed the tracks of animals--how, whenthey crossed his path of the preceding day, the beast that made thetracks has stopped, scrutinised, and shunned it--before he can believewhat a Yahoo he is among the brute creation. No cleanliness of theindividual seems to diminish this remarkable odour: indeed, the morecivilised the man, the more subtle does it appear to be; the touch of agame-keeper scares less than that of the master, and the touch of a negroor bushman less than that of a traveller from Europe. 

If a novice thinks he will trap successfully by such artless endeavoursas putting a bait on the plate of a trap that is covered over with moss, or by digging a pitfall in the middle of a wild beast's track, he isutterly mistaken. The bait Should be thrown on the ground, and the trapplaced on the way to it; then the animal's mind, being fixed on the meat, takes less heed of the footpath. Or a pitfall should be made near themain path; this being subsequently stopped by boughs, causes the animalto walk in the bushes, and to tumble into the covered hole. The slightestthing diverts an animal's step: watch a wild beast's path across a forest--little twigs and tufts of grass will be seen to have changed itscourse, and caused it to curve. It is in trifles of this sort that thetrapper should look for auxiliaries. After setting traps, Mr. St. Johnrecommends the use of a small branch of a tree; first, to smooth theground, and then, having dipped it in water, to sprinkle the place: thisentirely obliterates all foot-marks. 

Springes. --General Remarks. --Harden the wood of which the mechanism hasto be made, by means of fire; either baking it in hot sand or ashes, orotherwise applying heat to a degree just short of charring its surface. The mechanism will then retain the sharpness of its edges under acontinuance of pressure, and during many hours of wet weather. Theslighter the strain on the springe, the more delicately can its mechanismbe set. 

Nooses. --Catgut (which see) makes better nooses than string, because itis stiff enough to keep in shape when set: brass wife that has beenheated red-hot, is excellent; for it has no tendency whatever to twist, and yet is perfectly pliable. Fish-hooks are sometimes attached tospringes; sometimes a tree is bent down and a strong cord is used for thenoose, by which large animals are strangled up in the air, as leopardsare in Abyssinia. A noose may be set in any place where there is a run;it can be kept spread out, by thin rushes or twigs set crosswise in it. If the animal it is set for can gnaw, a heavy stone should be looselypropped up, which the animal in its struggles may set free, and by theweight of which it may be hung up and strangled. It is a very convenientplan for a traveller who has not time to look for runs, to make littlehedges across a creek, or at right angles to a clump of trees, and to sethis snares in gaps left in these artificial hedges. On the sameprinciple, artificial islands of piles and faggots Are commonly made inlakes that are destitute of any real ones, in order that they may becomea resort of wild-fowl. 

Javelins. --Heavy poisoned javelins, hung over elephant and hippopotamuspaths, and dropped on a catch being touched, after the manner of aspringe, are used generally in Africa. They sometimes consist of a "sharplittle assegai, or spike, most thoroughly poisoned, and stuck firmly intothe end of a heavy block of thornwood, about four feet long and fiveinches in diameter. This formidable affair is suspended over the centreof a sea-cow path, at about thirty feet from the ground, by a bark cord, which passes over a high branch of a tree, and thence, by a peg, on oneside of a path beneath. " (Gordon Cumming. )

Trigger. --Where a trigger has to release a strong spring, an arrangementon the principle of a figure of 4 trap is, I believe, the most delicate;the standard may be a branch or the stock of a tree; and the other piecesshould be hardened by fire. 

Pitfalls. --Very small pitfalls, with sharpened stakes, planted insidethem, that have been baked hard by the fire and well poisoned, are easilyto be set, but they are very dangerous to man and beast. In preparing apitfall for animals of prey, it is usual to ascertain whether they aredeep enough, by putting in a large dog; if he cannot get out, it is veryunlikely that any wild beast can. (See "Trous de loup, " p. 312. )

Pitfalls are often dug in great numbers, near frequented watering-places, to which numerous intersecting paths lead: by stopping up particularpaths, the pitfalls can be brought separately into use; therefore, thosepitfalls need never be employed in which animals have been freshlykilled, and where the smell of blood would scare the game. It isdifficult to prevent the covers of pitfalls becoming hollow: the only wayis to build the roofs in somewhat of an arch, so as to allow forsubsidence. If a herd of animals be driven over pitfalls, some are sureto be pushed in, as the crush makes it impossible for the beasts, howeverwary, to pick their way. 

Uganda Thorn-wreath. --Captain Grant found a very ingenious contrivancein use in Uganda, in Africa. Two small Stout hoops of equal diameter, made of wood fully an inch in thickness, were lashed one above the other;long acacia thorns were interposed, forming the spokes of a wheel ofwhich the hoops formed the rim. The bases of the thorns were nippedbetween the hoops; and their points radiated towards the centre. A greatmany thorns were used, so that the appearance was that of a wheel withouta nave, whose spokes were so close together that they touched each other, and, as thorns taper from base to point, the spokes touched one anotheralong their whole length, from circumference to centre. This apparatus isalways made with great neatness. It is laid over a hole 18 inches deep, dug in the beast's path, and the noose of a cord, of which the other endis secured to a log, is laid closely within the upper hoop. When thebeast treads on the apparatus, he crashes through the thorns, but, onwithdrawing his foot from the hole, the wreath clings to his fetlock likea ruff, and prevents the noose from slipping off. Thus there is time forthe noose to become firmly jammed during the struggles of the beast. Ofcourse, the trapper artfully bushes the path, so as to induce him to stepfull upon the trap. He sets a great many of them, and they require nolooking after. The diameter of the hoops is made proportionate to thesize of the beast for which they are intended. Six inches interiordiameter was the size used for buffalo and hartebeest. 

Traps. --Steel traps should never be tied fast, or the captured animalmay struggle loose, or even gnaw off his leg. It is best to cut smallbushes, and merely to secure the traps to their cut ends. Steel traps areof but little use to a traveller. 

Hawks are trapped by selecting a bare tree, that stands in an open space:its top is sawn off level, and a trap is put upon it: the bait is laidsomewhere near, on the ground: the bird is sure to visit the pole, eitherbefore or after he has fed. 

Poison. --Savages frequently poison the water of drinking-places, andfollow, capture, and eat the poisoned animals. Nux vomica or strychnineis a very dangerous poison to use, but it affords the best means ofridding a neighbourhood of noxious beasts and birds: if employed to killbeasts, put it in the belly; if, birds, in the eye, of the bait. Meat forkilling Beasts should be set after nightfall; else the crows and otherbirds will be sure to find it out, and eat it up before the beasts havetime to discover it. It would be unsafe to eat an animal killed withstrychnine, on account of the deadliness of the poison. 

The Swedes put fulminating-powder in a raw shankbone, and throw it downto the wolves; when one of these gnaws and crunches it, it blows his headto atoms. 

Poisoned Bullets. --I take the following extract from 'Galignani'sMessenger:'--"A new method of catching whales is now being tried withconsiderable success, science having contributed to its discovery. Ourreaders are well aware of the deadly effects of the Indian poison calledwurare, or woorali, concerning which we have often had occasion to recordthe most interesting experiments, especially in mentioning the attemptsmade to use it as a specific for lockjaw, its peculiar action consistingin relaxing the muscular system. Strychnine is a poison producing thecontrary effect, the excessive contraction of that system, or, in otherwords, tetanus, or lockjaw. It is a curious fact that by the conjunctionof these two agents, so diametrically opposite in their effects, a poisonis obtained that will kill almost instantly if only administered in thedose of half a milligramme per kilogramme of the animal to be subjectedto its action, provided its weight do not exceed ten kilogrammes. Iflarger, the dose must be proportionally increased. M. Thiercelin, theinventor of this poison, composes it by mixing a salt of strychnine withone-twentieth of woorali. To apply it to whale fishing, he makes thecompound up into cartridges of thirty grammes (an ounce) each, which isenough to kill an animal of 60, 000 kilogrammes weight. Each cartridge isimbedded in the gunpowder contained in an explosive shell which is firedoff on the whale. In a late whaling voyage ten whales received suchmissiles, and all died within from four to eighteen minutes after theinfliction of the wound. Out of these ten whales, six were cut up fortheir blubber and whalebone. Their remains were handled by careless men, who frequently had scratches and sores on their skin, and yet not one ofthem suffered the slightest injury, a circumstance which Shows that thepoison cannot be transmitted from the fish to the men. Its poisonousaction on the whale is, however, so great that practically the dose willhave to be diminished, so that the death of the creature may not be sosudden. We should not forget to state that two out of the ten whalesabove mentioned were lost by one of the many accidents incident towhaling, and that two others were of a kind that is not worth fishingfor. "

Poisoned Arrows. --Arrows are most readily poisoned by steeping a threadin the juice, and wrapping it round the barbs. Serpents' venom may alwaysbe used with effect. 

Bird-lime can be made from the middle bark of most parasitic plants, thatis to say, those that grow like mistletoe, out of the boughs of othertrees. Holly and young elder shoots also afford it. The bark is boiledfor seven or eight hours, till quite soft, and is then drained of itswater and laid in heaps, in pits dug in the ground, where it is coveredwith stones and left for two or three weeks to ferment; but less time isrequired, if the weather be hot. It is watered from time to time, ifnecessary. In this way, it passes into a mucilaginous state; and is thenpounded into a paste, washed in running water, and kneaded till it isfree from dirt and chips. Lastly, it is left for four or five days inearthen vessels, to ferment and purify itself, when it becomes fit foruse. It ought to be greenish, sour, gluey, stringy, and sticky. Itbecomes brittle when dry, and may be powdered; but, on being wetted, itbecomes sticky again. (Ure's Dictionary. )

Vast flocks of birds frequent the scattered watering-places of drycountries at nightfall and at daybreak: by liming the sedges and bushesthat grow about them, numbers of birds could be caught. 

Crows may be killed by twisting up a piece of paper like an extinguisher, dropping a piece of meat in it, and smearing its sides with bird-lime. When the bird pokes his head in, his eyes are gummed up and blinded; andhe towers upwards in the air, whence he soon falls down exhausted, and, it may be, dead with fright. (Lloyd. ) Fish-hooks, baited with meat, aregood to catch these sorts of birds. 

Catching with the Hand. --Ducks. --We hear of Hindoos who, takingadvantage of the many gourds floating on their waters, put one of them ontheir heads, and wade in among wild ducks; they pull them down, one afteranother, by their legs, under water; wring their necks, and tie them totheir girdle. But in Australia, a swimmer binds grass and rushes, orweeds, round his head; and takes a long fishing-rod, with a slip nooseworking over the pliant twig that forms the last joint of the rod. Whenhe comes near, he gently raises the end, and, putting the noose over thehead of the bird, draws it under water to him. He thus catches one afteranother, and tucks the caught ones in his belt. A windy day is generallychosen, because the water is ruffled. (Eyre. )

Condors and Vultures are caught by spreading a raw ox-hide, under which aman creeps, with a piece of string in his hand, while one or two othermen are posted in ambush close by, to give assistance at the propermoment. When the bird flies down upon the bait, his legs are seized bythe man underneath the skin, and are tied within it, as in a bag. All hisflapping is then useless; he cannot do mischief with his claws, and he iseasily overpowered. 

Bolas. --The bolas consists of three balls, composed either of lead orstone; two of them are heavy, but the third is rather lighter: they arefastened to long elastic strings, made of twisted sinews, and the ends ofthe strings are all tied together. The Indian holds the lightest of thethree balls in his hand, and swings the two others in a wide circle abovehis head; then taking his aim, at the distance of about fifteen or twentypaces, he lets go the hand-ball; all the three balls whirl in a circle, and twine round the object aimed at. The aim is usually taken at thehind-legs of the animals, and, the cords twisted round them, they becomefirmly bound. It requires great skill and long practice to throw the boasdexterously, especially when on horseback. A novice in the art incurs therisk of dangerously hurting either himself or his horse, by not givingthe balls the proper swing, or by letting go the hand-ball too soon. (Tschudi's 'Peru. ')

Lasso. --It is useless that I should enter into details about making andwielding the lasso, for it is impossible to become Moderately adept inits use, without months of instruction and practice. 

Amstringing. --Animals are hamstrung by riding at them, armed with a sortof spear; the blade of which is fixed at right angles to the shaft, andhas a cutting edge. 

Hawking is a disappointing pursuit, owing to the frequent loss of hawks;and can hardly be carried on except in a hawking country, where thesportsman has a better chance than elsewhere, both of recovering andreplacing them; it is impracticable except where the land is open andbare; and it is quite a science. There are some amateurs who will nothear a word of disparagement about their hawks, but the decidedimpression that I bear away with me from all I have learnt, is, that thebirds are rarely affectionate or intelligent. 

FISHING. 

Fishing-tackle. --Fish-hooks are made of iron, not steel, wire. While thepiece of wire is straight, it is laid along a little groove in a block ofwood, and there barbed by the stroke of a chisel, slantwise across it. The other end is flattened by a tap of the hammer, or roughened, that itmay be held by the whipping; then the point is sharpened by a file, andfinished on a stone. The proper curvature is next given, and then thehook is case-hardened (see "Case-hardening"); lastly, the proper temperis given, by heating the hook red-hot, and quenching it in grease. 

A traveller should always take a few hooks with him: they should be ofthe very small and also of the middling-sized sorts; he might have adozen of each sort whipped on to gut; and at least a couple ofcasting-lines, with which to use them: also several dozens of tinned ironfish-hooks, of various sizes, such as are used at sea; and plenty ofline. 

Fishing-lines. --Twisted sinews will make a fishing-line. To make astrong fine line, unravel a good silk handkerchief, and twist the threadsinto a whipcord. (See also "Substitutes for String. ")

Gut is made from silkworms; but the scrapings of the membrane in themanufacture of catgut (see "Sinew-thread") Make a fine, strong, andsomewhat transparent thread: twisted horsehair can almost always beobtained: and boiling this in soap-lees, takes away its oiliness. 

Shoemakers' Wax is made by boiling together common resin and any kind ofsoft grease, which does not contain salt, such as oil or butter. A sixthor seventh part of pitch makes it more tough, but it is not absolutelynecessary for making the wax. Try if the quantity of grease is sufficientby dipping the stick with which the wax is stirred, into water to coolit. When the wax is supposed to be successfully made, pour it into water, then taking it out while yet soft, pull it and stretch it with your wethands as much as it will bear; do this over and over again, after dippingit in lukewarm water, till it is quite tough. Wax is used of differentdegrees of hardness, according as the weather is warm or cold. 

Reel. If you have no reel, make a couple of gimlet-holes, six inchesapart, in the butt of your rod, at the place where the reel is usuallyclamped; drive wooden pegs into these, and wind your spare line roundthem, as in fig. 1. 

[Fig 1: illustration as described above]. 

The pegs should not be quite square with the butt, but should slope alittle, each away from the other, that the line may be better retained onthem. 

{Fig. 2 and Fig 3--line as described below]. 

A long line is conveniently wound on a square frame, as shown in theannexed sketch (fig. 2); and a shorter line, as in fig. 3. 

If you have no equivalent for a reel, and if your tackle is slight, andthe fish likely to be large, provide yourself with A bladder or otherfloat; tie it to the line, and cast the whole adrift. 

Trimmers are well known, and are a convenient way of fishing the middleof a pool, with only a short line. Anything will do for the float--abladder or a bottle is very good. 

To recover a lost Line, make a drag of a small bushy tree with plenty ofbranches, that are so lopped off as to leave spikes on the trunk. This isto be weighted with a stone, and dragged along the bottom. 

Otters. --What is called "an otter" is useful to a person on the shore ofa wide river or lake which he has no other means of fishing: it is a verysuccessful at first, but soon scares the fish; therefore it is bettersuited to a traveller than to an ordinary sportsman. It is made asfollows:--A board of light wood, fourteen inches long and eight incheshigh, or thereabouts, is heavily weighted along its lower edge, so as tofloat upright in the water; a string like the bellyband of a kite, andfor the same purpose, is fastened to it; and to this belly-band the endof a line, furnished with a dozen hooks at intervals, is tied. As thefisherman walks along the bank, the otter runs away from him, and carrieshis line and hooks far out into the stream. It is very convenient to havea large hand-reel to wind and unwind the line upon; but a forked stickwill do very well. 

Boat fishing. --In fishing with a long ground-line and many hooks, it isof importance to avoid entanglements; make a box in which to coil theline, and a great many deep saw-cuts across the sides, into which thethin short lines, to which the hooks are whipped, may be jammed. 

Fishermen who do not use oars, but paddles, tie a loop to their line:they put their thumb through the loop, and fish while they paddle. 

To see Things deep under Water, such as dead seals, use a long box ortube with a piece of glass at the lower end; this removes entirely theglare of the water and the effects of a rippled surface. Mr. Campbell, ofIslay, suggests that a small glass window might be let into the bottom ofthe boat: Plate-glass would be amply strong enough. (See"Water-spectacles. ")

Nets. --A small square net may be best turned to account by sinking it inholes and other parts of a river which fish frequent; throwing in bait toattract them over it; and then hauling up suddenly. The arrangement shownin the figure is very common. A seine net may be furnished with bladderfor floats, or else with pieces of light wood charred to make them morebuoyant. The hauling-ropes may be made of bark steeped for three weeks, till the inner bark separates from the outer, when the latter is twistedinto a rope. (Lloyd. ) Wherever small fish are swimming in shoals near thesurface, there the water is sure to be rippled. 

[Sketch of net arrangement as described]. 

Spearing Fish. --The weapon used (sometimes called the "grains") isidentical with Neptune's or Britannia's trident, only the prongs shouldbe more numerous and be placed nearer together, in order to catch smallfish: the length of the handle gives steadiness to the blow. In spearingby torchlight, a broad oval piece of bark is coated with wet mud, and init a blazing fire is lighted. It is fixed on a stage, or it is held inthe bow of the boat, so high as to be above the spearman's eyes. He cansee everything by its light, especially if the water be not above fourfeet deep, and the bottom sandy. But there are not many kinds of woodthat will burn with a sufficiently bright flame; the dry bark of someresinous tree is often used. If tarred rope can be obtained, it maysimply be wound round a pole fixed in the bow of the boat, and lighted. Fish can also be shot with a bow and a barbed arrow, to which a string isattached. 

Intoxicating Fish. --Lime thrown into a pond will kill the fish; and thesimilar but far more energetic properties of Cocculus Indicus are wellknown. Throughout tropical Africa and in South America, the natives catchfish by poisoning them. Dams are made, which, when the river is very low, Enclose deep pools of water with no current; into these the poison isthrown: it intoxicates the fish, which float and are taken by the hand. 

Otters, Cormorants, and Dogs. --Both otters and cormorants are trained tocatch fish for their masters; and dogs are trained by the Patagonians todrive fish into the nets, and to frighten them from breaking loose whenthe net is being hauled in. Cormorants, in China, fish during the winterfrom October to May, working from 10 A. M. To 5 P. M. , at which hour theirdinner is given to them. When they fish, a straw tie is put round theirnecks, to keep them from swallowing the fish, but not so tight as to slipdown and choke them. A boat takes out ten or twelve of these birds. Theyobey the voice: if they are disobedient, the water near them is struckwith the back of the oar; as soon as one of them has caught a fish, he iscalled to the boat, and the oar is held out for him to step upon. Itrequires caution to train a cormorant, because the bird has a habit, whenangry, of striking with its beak at its instructor's eye with anexceedingly rapid and sure stroke. 

SIGNALS. 

Colomb and Bolton's flashing signals, adopted in our Army and Navy, andused in many other countries as well, are eminently suited to the wantsof an expedition. Anything may be used for signalling, that appears anddisappears, like a lantern, or an opened and closed umbrella, or thatmoves, as a waved flag or a person walking to and fro on the crest of ahill against the sky. Sound also can be employed, as long and shortwhistles. Their use can be thoroughly taught in two hours, and howeversmall the practice of the operators, communication, though slow, isfairly accurate, while in practised hands its rapidity is astonishing. The proportion of time occupied by the flashes and intervals is asfollows. (I extract all the rest of the article from the pamphletpublished by the inventors of the system. )

Flashing Signals, with Flags. --Supposing the short flash to be half asecond in duration, the long flash should be fully a second and a half. The interval between the flashes forming a figure should be equal to ashort flash, and the interval between two figures should be equal to along flash. After the last figure of the signal is finished, there shouldbe a pause equal to at least one-third of the time taken up by thefigures. After this pause, the signal should be again repeated with thesame measured flashes and intervals, and so continued until answered byall to whom it is addressed. 

[Example of Morse code]. 

Care must be taken never to commence a fresh signal before the answers tothe last have ceased; and signals are never to be answered until theirrepetitions have been observed a sufficient number of times to make anerror impossible. 

[Fig. 1 and Fig 2--sketch of signalling with flags as described below]. 

The signalman may work from left to right, or from right to left, asshown in figs. 1 and 2, according to convenience and the direction of thewind. To make a short flash, the flag is waved from a to b, and back tothe normal position a. To make a long flash, the flag is waved from a toc, and back to the normal position a. 

The numerals 1 to 5 are, therefore, denoted by one to five waves of theflag from a to b, recovering to a. 

The numeral 6 by a wave from a to c, recovering to a. The numeral 7 by awave from a to b, back to a, and then to c, recovering to the normalposition a. The numeral 8 is denoted by a wave from a to c, back to a, and then to b, recovering to the normal position a. The numeral 9 isdenoted by two waves from a to b, and one from a to c. The numeral 0 byone wave from a to c, recovering again to a, and then two waves from a tob. The other signs are made in the same manner, so that a short motionshall always represent a short flash, and a long motion a long flash. 

On the completion of the motions required for each sign, the flag mustalways be brought to the position a. When the word, or group of figures, is completed, the flag may be lowered in front of the body. 

In receiving a message, the flag should always be kept in the position a, except when answering. 

In waving the flag, the point of the staff should be made to describe afigure of 8 in the air to keep the flag clear. 

Each signal party must consist of not less than two men, whose dutieswill be as follows:--

In receiving messages: No. 1 works the flag for answering, etc. , andrefers to the code for the interpretation of the numbers received, andcalls out the words to No. 2. No. 2 fixes the telescope and reads fromthe distant station, calling out the numbers as they are made for theinformation of No. 1, and writes down the numbers and meaning thereof. 

Suppose station "A" in communication with station "B":--No. 1 at "A" onbeing told by No. 2 that "B" is about to send a message, takes up hisposition at attention, holding the flag over the left arm and under theright, or vice versa across his body, according to the wind, with thecode book in his hand. No. 2 fixes his eyes on the glass, and onreceiving the numbers from "B" calls them out to No. 1, who ascertainstheir meaning from the code, and gives the words to No. 2, who writesthem down in his book, and then placing his eye to the glass, tells No. 1to make the answer. No. 2 does not, however, direct the answer to be madeuntil he is sure of the correctness of the signal received. 

Flashing Alphabet, for Use without a Code. --The following alphabet, etc. , can be used under circumstances when it is not convenient orpossible to have recourse to the Signal Book, and forms in itself aperfect telegraphic system, necessarily somewhat slow in its application, but having the great advantage of requiring very little previousknowledge and practice to work with correctness. The symbols and numbersexpressing the alphabet are identical with those forming the alphabet inthe Signal Book. 

[Chart with code signals]. 

All particulars as to the machines and lanterns used in the Service, formaking these flashing signals, and the code, can be procured at W. Nunn andCo. 's Army and Navy Lamp and Signal Works, 65, George Street East, London, E. 

Reflecting the Sun with a Mirror. --To attract the notice of a divisionof your party, five or even ten miles off, glitter a bit of looking-glassin the sun, throwing its flash towards where you expect them to be. It isquite astonishing at how great a distance the gleam of the glass willcatch the sharp eyes of a bushman who has learnt to know what it is. Itis now a common signal in the North American prairies. (Sullivan. ) Itshould be recollected that a passing flash has far less briliancy thanone that dwells for an appreciable time on the retina of the observer;therefore the signaller should do all he can to steady his aim. I findthe steadiest way of holding the mirror is to rest the hand firmlyagainst the forehead, and to keep the eyes continually fixed upon thesame distant object. The glare of the sun that is reflected from eachpoint of the surface of a mirror forms a cone of light whose verticalangle is constant, and equal to that subtended by the sun. Hence when aflash is sent to a distant place, the size of the mirror is of noappreciable importance in affecting the size of the area over which theflash is visible. That area is the section of the fasciculus of conesthat proceed from each point of the mirror, which, in the case we havesupposed, differs immaterially from the cone reflected from a singlepoint. Hence, if a man watches the play of the flash from his mirror upona very near object, it will appear to him of the shape and size of themirror; but as he retreats from the object, the edges of the flash becomerounded, and very soon the flash appears a perfect circle, of preciselythe same apparent diameter as the disc of the sun: it will, in short, look just like a very faint sun. The signaller has to cause this disc oflight to cover the person whose notice he wishes to attract. I willproceed to show how he can do so; but in the mean time it will be evidentthat a pretty careful aim is requisite, or he will fail in his object. The steadiness of his aim must be just twice as accurate, neither morenor less, as would suffice to point a rifle at the sun when it wassufficiently obscured by a cloud to bear being looked at: for the objectof the aim is of the same apparent size, but a movement of a mirrorcauses the ray reflected from it to move through a double angle. 

The power of these sun-signals is extraordinarily great. The result ofseveral experiments that I made in England showed that the smallestmirror visible under atmospheric conditions such that the signaller'sstation was discernible, but dim, subtended an angle of only one-tenth ofa second of a degree. It is very important that the mirror should be oftruly plane and parallel glass, such as instrument-makers procure; theindex glass of a full-sized sextant is very suitable for this purpose:there is a loss of power when there is any imperfection in the glass. Aplane mirror only three inches across, reflects as much of the sun as aglobe of 120 feet diameter; it looks like a dazzling star at ten miles'distance. 

To direct the flash of the Mirror. --There are makeshift ways ofdirecting the flash of the mirror; as, by observing its play on an objectsome paces off, nearly in line with the station it is wished tocommunicate with. In doing this, two cautions are requisite: first, thedistance of the object must be so large compared to the diameter of themirror that the play of the flash shall appear truly circular and exactlylike a faint sun (see preceding paragraph): secondly, be careful to bringthe eye to the very edge of the mirror; there should be as little"dispart" as possible, as artillerymen would say. Unless these cautionsbe attended to very strictly, the flash will never be seen at the distantstation. 

[Sketch of arrangement as described below]. 

An object, in reality of a white colour but apparently dark, owing to itsbeing shaded, shows the play of a mirror's flash better than any other. The play of a flash, sent through an open window, on the walls of a room, can be seen at upwards of 100 yards. It is a good object by which toadjust my hand heliostat, which I describe below. Two bits of paper and acouple of sticks, arranged as in the drawing, serve pretty well to directa flash. Sight the distant object through the holes in the two bits ofpaper, A and B, at the ends of the horizontal stick; and when you aresatisfied that the stick is properly adjusted and quite steady, take yourmirror and throw the shadow of A upon B, and further endeavour to throwthe white speck in the shadow of A, corresponding to its pin-hole in it, through the centre of the hole in B. Every now and then lay the mirroraside, and bend down to see that A B continues to be properly adjusted. 

Hand Heliostat. --Some years ago, I took great pains to contrive aconvenient pocket instrument, by which a traveller should be able tosignal with the sun, and direct his flash with certainty, in whateverdirection he desired. I did so in the belief that a signalling power ofextraordinary intensity could thus be made use of; and, I am glad to say, I succeeded in my attempt. I at last obtained a pretty pocket instrument, the design of which I placed in the hands of Messrs. Troughton and Simms;and upon the earlier models of which I read a paper before the BritishAssociation in 1858. I called it a "hand heliostat. " I always carry onewhen I travel, for it is a continual source of amusement. The instrumentis shown in fig. 1 (p. 280), and its principle is illustrated by fig. 2. The scale is about 2/3. 

E is the eye of the signaller; M the mirror; and L, S, fig. 2, a tubecontaining at one end, L, a lens, and at the other, S, a screen of whiteporcelain or unpolished ivory, placed at the exact solar focus of L: ashade, K, with two holes in it, is placed before L. Let R, r, be portionsof a large pencil of parallel rays, proceeding from any one point on thesun's surface, and reflected from the mirror, as R' r' (fig. 2). R'impinges upon the lens, L, through one of the holes in K, and R' goesfree toward some distant point, O. Those that impinge on the lens will bebrought to a focus on S, where a bright speck of light might be seen. This speck radiates light in all direction; some of the rays, proceedingfrom it, impinge on the lens at the other hole in the shade K, as shownin fig. 2, and are reduced by its agency to parallelism with r' and R', that is, with the rays that originally left the mirror: consequently E, looking partly at the edge of the lens, and partly into space, sees abright speck of light in the former, coincident with the point O in thelatter. 

[Fig 1 and Fig 2, as described in the text]. 

What is true for one point in the sun's disc, is true for every point init. Accordingly, the signaller sees an image of the sun, and not a merespeck of light, in the lens; and the part of the landscape which thatimage appears to overlay, is precisely that part of it over which theflash from his mirror extends; or, in other words, it is that from anypoint of which a distant spectator may see some part or other of thesun's disc reflected in the mirror. There is no difficulty in signallingwhen the sun is far behind the back, if the eye-tubes are made to pullout to a total length of five inches, otherwise the shadow of the headinterferes. For want of space, the drawing represents the tubes as onlypartly drawn out. The instrument is perfectly easy to manage, and letterscan be signalled by flashes. Its power is perfectly marvellous. On a dayso hazy that colours on the largest scale--such as green fields and whitehouses--are barely distinguishable at seven miles' distance, alooking-glass no larger than the finger-nail transmits its signalsclearly visible to the naked eye. 

I have made a makeshift arrangement on the principle of my heliostat, using the object glass of an opera-glass for the lens, and an ordinarylooking-glass: the great size and short focus of the object glass is agreat convenience when using a mirror with a wide frame. 

Professor W. H. Miller, the Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society, hassince invented a yet more compact method of directing the flash, which hehas described in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for 1865. Itconsists of a plate of silvered glass, one of whose rectangular cornersis accurately ground and polished. On looking into the corner when theglass is properly held an image of the sun is seen, which overlays theactual flash. Beautifully simple as this instrument is, I do not like itso much as my own, for the very fact of its requiring no "setting" is itsdrawback. With mine, when the image of the sun is lost it is immediatelyfound again by simply rotating the instrument on its axis; but withProfessor Miller's the image must be felt for wholly anew. 

Fire Signals. --Fire-beacons, hanging up a lantern, or setting fire to anold nest high up in a tree, serve as night-signals; but they are never tobe depended on without previous concert, as bushes and undulations of theground will often hide them entirely. The sparks from a well-struck flintand steel can be seen for much more than a mile. 

Smoke Signals. --The smoke of fires is seen very far by day; and greenwood and rotten wood make the most smoke. It is best to make two fires100 yards apart, lest your signalling should be mistaken for an ordinaryfire in the bush. These double fires are a very common signal to vesselsin the offing, on the African coast. 

Other Signals. --By Sight. --A common signal for a distant scout is, thathe should ride or walk round and round in a circle from right to left, orelse in one from left to right. 

Mr. Parkyns, speaking of Abyssinia, describes the habits of a caste ofrobbers in the following words:--"At other times they will lie concealednear a road, with scouts in every direction on the look-out; yet no oneventuring to speak, but only making known by signs what he may have tocommunicate to his companions or leader. Thus he will point to his earand foot on hearing footsteps, to his eyes on seeing persons approach, orto his tongue if voices be audible; and will also indicate on his fingersthe numbers of those coming, describing also many particulars as to howmany porters, beasts of burden or for riding, there may be with theparty. "

A kite has been suggested as a day signal; and also a kite with some kindof squib, let off by a slow-light and attached to its tail, as one bynight. (Colonel Jackson. )

Sound. --Whistling through the fingers can be heard at considerabledistances: the accomplishment should be learnt. Cooing in the Australianfashion, or jvdling in that of the Swiss, are both of them heard a longway. The united holloa of many voices, is heard much further thanseparate cries. The cracking of a whip has a very penetrating sound. 

Smells. --An abominable smell arrests the attention at night. 

Letters carried by Animals. --In short reconnoitring expeditions made by asmall detachment from a party, the cattle or dogs are often wild, and runhome to their comrades on the first opportunity; in the event of notbeing able to watch them, owing to accident or other cause, advantage maybe taken of their restlessness, by tying a note to one of their necks, and letting them go and serve as postmen, or rather as carrier-pigeons. 

BEARINGS BY COMPASS, SUN, ETC. 

Pocket Compass. --A pocket compass should not be too small; if one of thelittle toy compasses be carried in the pocket, it should be as a reserve, and not for regular use. A toy compass will of course tell N. FromN. N. E. , and the like; and that may be very useful information, but thetraveller will find that he constantly needs more precise directions. Hedoubts the identity of some hill or the destination of some path, andfinds on referring to his map, that the difference of bearing upon whichhe must base his conclusion, is small: he therefore requires a good sizedcompass, to determine the bearing with certainty. One from 1 1/2 to 2inches in diameter is practically the best. It should have plenty ofdepth, so that the card may traverse freely, even when the instrument isinclined: it should be light in weight, that it may not be easily jarredby a blow; the catch that relieves the card, when the instrument isclosed, should be self-acting and should act well: lastly the movementsof the needle should be quick; one that makes slow oscillations should beperemptorily refused, whatever its other merits may be: the graduation ofthe degrees on the card should be from 0 degrees to 360 degrees, Northbeing 0 degrees and East 90 degrees. I wish some optician would makealuminum cards. The material can be procured as foil, like tinfoil. Itcan then be stamped and embossed, in which case it retains its shapeperfectly, but I cannot satisfy myself as to a good pattern, nor do I seehow to make the North and South halves of the disc sufficiently differentin appearance. 

Compass for use at night. --The great majority of compasses are well-nighuseless in the dark, that is, when it is most important to be able toconsult them. They are rarely so constructed, that the difference betweenthe north and south sides is visible by moonlight or by the light of acigar or piece of tinder. The more modern contrivances are veryeffective; in these the southern half of the compass card is paintedblack, the northern being left white. With a very faint light, thisdifference can be appreciated. In compasses consisting simply of aneedle, the north end of the needle should have a conspicuous arrow-head. It is extraordinary how much the power of seeing a compass or a watch atnight is increased by looking nearly at it through a magnifying-glass. Thus, young people who can focus their vision through a wide range may beobserved poring with their eyes close to their books when the lightwanes. So again, at night-time, a placard, even in large type, isillegible at a short distance, but easily read on approaching it. Itseems, in order that a faint image on the retina should be appreciated bythe nerves of sight, that image must have considerable extent. 

Moonlight or the light of a cigar may be condensed on the compass by aburning glass, or other substitute for it. (See "Burning Glass. ")

True and Magnetic Bearings. --The confusion between true and magneticbearings is a continual trouble, even to the most experienced travellers. Sir Thomas Mitchell's exploring party very nearly sustained a loss bymistaking the one for the other. I recommend that the points of thecompass, viz. North, N. N. E. , etc. , should be solely used for thetraveller for his true bearings; and the degrees, as 25 degrees (or N. 25degrees E. ), for his magnetic. There would then be no reason why the twonomenclatures should interfere with one another, for a traveller'srecollection of the lay of a country depends entirely upon truebearings--or sunrise, sunset, and the stars--and is expressed by North, N. N. E. , etc. ; but his surveying data which find no place in his memory, but are simply consigned to his note-book, are necessarily registered indegrees. To give every facility for carrying out this principle, a roundof paper should be pasted in the middle of the traveller's pocket-compasscard, just large enough to hide the ordinary rhumbs, but leavinguncovered the degrees round its rim. On this disk of paper the points ofthe compass (true bearings) should be marked so as to be as exact aspossible for the country about to be visited. 

Errors in Magnetic Bearings. --The compass-needle is often found to bedisturbed, and sometimes apparently bewitched, when laid upon hill-tops;even when they consist of bare masses of granite. The disturbance iseasily accounted for by the hornblende in the granite, or by otheriron-bearing rocks. Explorers naturally select hills as their points oftriangulation; but compass observations on hill-tops, if unchecked by asextant observation of the sun's bearings, are never so reliable as thosetaken on a plain. 

[Sketch of card as described on following pages]. 

Bearings by Sun and Stars. --It requires very great practice to steer wellby stars, for, on an average, they change their bearings even faster thanthey change their altitudes. In tropical countries, the zodiacal stars -as Orion and Antares--give excellent east and west points. The GreatBear is useful when the North Pole cannot be seen, for you may calculateby the eye whereabout it would be in the heavens when the "pointers" werevertical, or due north; and the Southern Cross is available in preciselythe same way. The true North Pole is about 1 1/2 degree or 3 diameters ofthe full moon, apart from the Pole star; and its place is on a linebetween the Pole Star and the Great Bear. An almanac, calculated to showthe bearing, and the times of moonrise and moonset, for the country to betravelled over, as well as those of sunrise and sunset, would be a verygreat convenience; it would be worth while for a traveller accustomed tosuch calculations to make one for himself. 

Diagram. --The diagram (preceding page) is intended to be traced in linesof different colours, when it will be found to be far less confused thanat present. 

Its object is to enable a traveller to use the sun, both as a rude watchand as a compass. The diagram is calculated for the latitude of London, but will do with more or less accuracy for the whole of England. Atraveller going to other countries may easily draw up one for himself, and on a larger scale if he prefers it, by using the Azimuth tables andthe Horary tables of Lynn. 

The diagram represents, 1st, circles of equal altitudes; 2ndly, the pathof sun, stars, etc. , for each 10th degree of declination; 3rdly, the hourangles, all projected down upon--4thly--the level compass card. 

Thus, six circles are drawn round the centre of the compass card at equaldistances apart, each ring between them representing a space of 15degrees in altitude. 

The following angles were then calculated for each 10th degree ofdeclination in turns, viz. :--The height of the sun, etc. , when above thehorizon at each point of the compass. 2ndly, the bearing of the sun ateach consecutive hour. These points were dotted out; and, by joining theseveral sets of them, the drawing was made. 

The broken lines which diverge in curves from P are hour lines; thosewhich surround P in more or less complete ovals, are the paths of the sunand stars, for each 10th degree of declination; the prominent linerunning from E. Round to W. Being its path when on the Equator. 

The diagram, when it is traced out for use, should have the names of themonths written in coloured ink on either side of the south line at placescorresponding to the declination of the sun during those months: viz. :--

January S. 23 degrees to S. 17 degreesFebruary S. 17 " S. 8March S. 7 " N. 4April N. 5 " N. 15May N. 15 " N. 22June N. 22 " N. 23July N. 23 " N. 18August N. 18 " N. 8September N. 8 " S. 3October S. 3 " S. 14November S. 15 " S. 22December S. 22 " S. 23

To use the card. --Draw a broad pencil line, which may afterwards berubbed out, corresponding to the date of travel, and there will be nofurther confusion. 

Then, to know what o'clock it is, "span out" (see "Spanning") roughly thealtitude of the sun. The point in the diagram where the altitude soobtained crosses the pencil mark, corresponds to the position of the sun. The hour is then read off; and the compass bearings on the diagram areadjusted by holding it level, and turning it round until a line, drawnfrom its centre through the point in question, points towards the sun. Asto the moon or a star, if its declination be unknown, but its bearing andaltitude being given, its declination and path may be found, andtherefore the time since its rising or before its setting; a most usefulpiece of information to a traveller. Watches break, and compasses cannotbe used on horseback without stopping, and therefore a diagram of thisdescription, of which any number of copies can be traced out, may be ofuse for rough purposes. 

Other Signs of Direction. --Bearings by the Growth of Trees. --In exposedsituations and near the sea, the growth of trees is rarely symmetrical;they betray by their bent heads and stunted branches the direction of theprevalent influences most adverse to their growth. This direction isconstant over wide districts in a flat country, but cannot be equallyrelied upon in a hilly one, where the mountains and valleys affect theconditions of shade and shelter, and deflect the course of the wind. 

Moss grows best where there is continuous damp, therefore it prefers thatside of a tree which affords the most suitable combination of exposure todamp winds and shelter from the sun. When the winds do not differmaterially in dampness, the north side of the forest trees are the mostthickly covered with moss. 

Bearings by the shape of Ant-hills. --That most accurate observer, PierreHuber, writes as follows concerning the nests of the yellow ants, whichare abundantly to be found in the Swiss Alps and in some othermountainous countries. It must be recollected, in reading his statement, that the chief occupation of ants is to move their eggs and larvae fromone part of the nest to another, to ensure them a warm and equabletemperature; therefore, it is reasonable to expect that the nests of antsshould be built on a uniform principle as regards their shape and aspect. Huber says "they serve as a compass to mountaineers when they aresurrounded by thick mists, or have lost their way during the night; theydo so in the following manner:--The ant-hills (of the yellow ants), which are by far more numerous and more high in the mountains thananywhere else, are longer than they are broad, and are of a similarpattern in other respects. Their direction is invariably from east towest. Their highest point and their steepest side are turned towards thepoint of sunrise in the winter-time (au levant d'hiver), and they descendwith a gradual slope in the opposite direction. I have verified theseexperiences of the shepherds upon thousands of ant-hills, and have founda very small number of exceptions; these occurred only in the case wherethe ant-hills had been disturbed by men or animals. The ant-hills do notmaintain the constancy of their form in the lowlands, where they are moreexposed to such accidents. "

Ripple-marks on Snow or Sand. --The Siberians travel guided by the ripplesin the snow, which run in a pretty fixed direction, owing to theprevalence of a particular wind. The ripples in a desert of sand areequally good as guides; or the wind itself, if it happens to be blowing, especially to a person pushing through a tangled belt of forest. Beforeleaving a well-known track, and striking out at night into the broad openplain, notice well which way the wind blows as regards the course you areabout to pursue. 

Flight of Birds. --I have read somewhere that in the old days coastingsailors occasionally took pigeons with them, and when they had lost theirbearings they let one fly, which it did at once to the land. 

To follow a Track at Night. --Where the track is well marked, showers ofsparks, ably struck with a flint and steel, are sufficient to show it, without taking the pains of making a flame. 

Smell of an Old Track. --The earth of an old and well-trodden road has aperceptible smell, from the dung and trampling of animals passing overit, especially near to encampments. It is usual at night, when a guidedoubts whether or no he is in the track, to take up handfuls of dirt andsmell it. It is notorious that cattle can smell out a road. 

MARKS FOR THE WAY-SIDE. 

Marks on Trees--Cutting Marks. --A very excellent "tree-line" is made bycutting deep notches in a line of trees, starting from some conspicuousobject, so that the notches will face the men that are to be guided byit: the trees must be so selected that three, or at least two of them, are in sight at once. The notch or sliced bark of a tree is called a"blaze" in bush language. These blazed trees are of much use asfinger-posts on a dark night. They are best made by two persons; onechipping the trees on his right, and the other those on his left. If theaxes are quite sharp, they only need to be dropped against the tree inorder to make the chip. Doing so, hardly retards a person in his walking. Another way more suitable to some kinds of forests, is to strike theknife into the left side of the tree, to tear down a foot of bark, and toleave the bark hanging, for a double extent of white surface is shown inthis way. Also, to break down tops of saplings and leave them hanging:the undersides of the leaves being paler than the upper, and thedifferent lines of the reversed foliage make a broken bush to lookunnatural among health trees, and it quickly arrests the attention. Ifyou want a tree to be well-scored or slashed, so as to draw attention toit without fail, fire bullets into it, as into a mark, and let thenatives cut them out in their own way, for the sake of the lead. Theywill effect your purpose admirably, without suspecting it. 

Stamping Marks on Trees. --The keepers of some of the communal forests inSwitzerland are provided with small axes, having the back of the axe-headworked into a large and sharp die, the impression of the die being someletter or cipher indicating the commune. When these foresters wish tomark a tree, they give it first a slice with the edge of the axe, andthen (turning the axe) they deal it a heavy blow with the back of theaxe-head. By the first operation they prepare a clean surface for theirmark; and, by the second, they stamp their cipher deeply into the wood. 

Branding Trees. --Some explorers take branding irons, and use them to markeach of their camping-places with its number. This is especially usefulin Australian travel, where the country is monotonous, and there are fewnatives to tell the names of places. 

Faggot hung to a Tree. --A bundle of grass or twigs about 2 feet long, slung by its middle athwart a small tree, at the level of the eye, by theside of a path, is well calculated to catch the attention. Its lines areso different to those seen elsewhere in the forest, that it would bescarcely possible to overlook it. 

Boat or Canoe Routes through lakes well studded with islands, can be wellmarked by trimming conspicuous trees until only a tuft of branches isleft at the top. This is called, in the parlance of the "Far West, " a"lopstick. "

Wooden Crosses. --A simple structure like fig. 1 is put together with asingle nail or any kind of lashing. It catches the attention immediately. 

[Fig. 1. Sketch of cross as described]. 

Marks with Stones. --Marks cut on Stone. --I have observed a very simpleand conspicuous permanent mark used in forest-roads, as represented infig. 2. The stone is 8 inches above ground, 3 1/2 wide, 8 inches long:the mark is black and deeply cut. An arrow-head may be chiselled in theface of a rock and filled with melted lead. With a small "cold" chisel, 3inches long and 1/4 inch wide, a great deal of stone carving may bereadily effected. 

[Sketch of stone with incised cross]. 

Piles of Stones. --Piles of stones are used by the Arabs in their deserts, and in most mountain-tracts. "An immense length of the road, both in thegovernment of the Don Cossacks and in that of Tambov, is marked out on agigantic scale by heaps of stones, varying from 4 to 6 feet high. Theseare visible from a great distance; and it is very striking to see thedouble row of them indicating the line of route over the Great Steppe -undulations which often present no other trace of the hand of man. "(Spottiswoode. )

[Sketch of piled stones]. 

Gipsy Marks. --When gipsies travel, the party that goes in advance leavesmarks at cross-roads, in order to guide those who follow. These marks arecalled "patterans;" there are three patterans in common use. One is topluck three large handfuls of grass and to throw them on the ground, at ashort distance from one another, in the direction taken; another is, todraw a cross on the ground, with one arm much longer than the rest, as apointer--a cross is better than any other simple mark, for it catchesmany different lights. (In marking a road, do not be content with markingthe dust--an hour's breeze or a shower will efface it; but take atent-peg, or sharpened stick, and fairly break into the surface, and yourmark will be surprisingly durable. ) The third of the gipsy patterans isof especial use in the dark: a cleft stick is planted by the road-side, close to the hedge, and in the cleft, is an arm like a signpost. Thegipsies feel for this at cross-roads, searching for it on the left-handside. (Borrow's 'Zincali. ') A twig, stripped bare, with the exception oftwo or three leaves at its end, is sometimes laid on the road, with itsbared end pointing forwards. 

Other similar marks of direction and locality, in use in various parts ofthe world are as follows:--Knotting twigs; breaking boughs, and lettingthem dangle down; a bit of white paper in a cleft stick; spilling water, or liquid of any kind, on the pathway; a litter made of paper torn intosmall shreds, or of a stick cut into chips, or of feathers of a bird; astring, with papers knotted to it, like the tail of a boy's kite--tie astone to the end of it, and throw it high among the branches of a tree. 

Paint. --Whitewash (which see), when mixed with salt, or grease, or gluesize, will stand the weather for a year or more. It can be painted on atree or rock: the rougher the surface on which it is painted, the longerwill some sign of it remain. 

Black for Inscriptions is made by mixing lamp-black (which see) with somekind of size, grease, wax, or tar. Dr. Kane, having no other material athand, once burnt a large K with gunpowder on the side of a rock. Itproved to be a durable and efficient mark. When letters are chiselled ina rock, they should be filled with black to make them more conspicuous. 

Blood leaves a mark of a dingy hue, that remains long upon alight-coloured, absorbent surface, as upon the face of sandy rocks. 

ON FINDING THE WAY. 

Recollection of a Path. --It is difficult to estimate, by recollectiononly, the true distances between different points in a road that has beenonce travelled over. There are many circumstances which may mislead, suchas the accidental tedium of one part, or the pleasure of another; butbesides these, there is always the fact, that, in a long day's journey, aman's faculties of observation are more fresh and active on starting thanlater in the day, when from the effect of weariness, even peculiarobjects will fail to arrest his attention. Now, as a man's recollectionof an interval of time is, as we all know, mainly derived from the numberof impressions that his memory has received while it was passing, itfollows that, so far as this cause alone is concerned, the earlier partof his day's journey will always seem to have been disproportionatelylong compared to the latter. It is remarkable, on taking a longhalf-day's walk, and subsequently returning, after resting some hours, how long a time the earlier part of the return journey seems to occupy, and how rapidly different well-remembered points seem to succeed eachother, as the traveller draws homewards. In this case, the same causeacts in opposite directions in the two journeys. 

To Walk in a Straight Line through Forests. --Every man who has hadfrequent occasion to find his way from one place to another in a forest, can do so without straining his attention. Thus, in the account of LordMilton's travels, we read of some North American Indians who wereincapable of understanding the white man's difficulty in keeping astraight line; but no man who has not had practice can walk through treesin a straight line, even with the utmost circumspection. 

After making several experiments, I think the explanation of thedifficulty and the way of overcoming it are as follows:--If a man walkson a level surface, guided by a single conspicuous mark, he is almostsure not to travel towards it in a straight line; his muscular sense isnot delicate enough to guard him from making small deviations. If, therefore, after walking some hundred yards towards a single mark, onground that preserves his track, the traveller should turn round, he willprobably be astonished to see how sinuous his course has been. However, if he take note of a second mark and endeavour to keep it strictly in aline with the first, he will easily keep a perfectly straight course. Butif he cannot find a second mark, it will not be difficult for him to usethe tufts of grass, the stones, or the other accidents of the soil, inits place; they need not be precisely in the same line with the mark, butsome may be on the right and some on the left of it, in which case, as hewalks on the perspective of their change of position will be symmetrical. Lastly, if he has not even one definite mark, but is walking among athrong of forest trees, he may learn to depend wholly on the symmetry ofthe changes of perspective of the trees as a guide to his path. He willkeep his point of sight unchanged and will walk in its direction, and ifhe deviates from that direction, the want of symmetry in the change ofperspective on either side of the point on which he wishes to walk, willwarn him of his error. The appreciation of this optical effect growseasily into a habit. When the more distant view happens to be shut out, the traveller must regain his line under guidance similar to that bywhich a sailor steers who only looks at his compass at intervals--I meanby the aspect of the sky, the direction of the wind, and the appearanceof the forest, when it has any peculiarity of growth dependent ondirection. The chance of his judgment being erroneous to a small extentis the same on the right hand as on the left, consequently his errorstend to compensate each other. I wish some scientific traveller wouldrigidly test the powers of good bushmen and find their "probable" angulardeviation from the true course under different circumstances. Their lineshould be given to them, and they should be told to make smokes atintervals. The position of these smokes could be easily mapped out by thetraveller. 

The art of walking in a straight line is possessed in an eminent degreeby good ploughmen. They always look ahead, and let the plough take careof itself. 

To find the way down a Hill-side. --If on arriving at the steep edge of aridge, you have to take the caravan down into the plain, and it appearsthat a difficulty may arise in finding a good way for it; descend firstyourself, as well as you can, and seek for a road as you climb backagain. It is far more easy to succeed in doing this as you ascend, thanas you descend: because when at the bottom of a hill, its bold bluffs andprecipices face you, and you can at once see and avoid them: whereas atthe top, these are precisely the parts that you overlook and cannot see. 

Blind Paths. --Faintly-marked paths over grass (blind paths) are best seenfrom a distance. 

Lost in a Fog. --Napoleon, when riding with his staff across a shallow armof the Gulf of Suez, was caught in a fog: he utterly lost his way, andfound himself in danger. He there-upon ordered his staff to ride fromhim, in radiating lines, in all directions, and that such of them asshould find the water to become more shallow, should shout out. 

Mirage. --When it is excessive, it is most bewildering: a man will oftenmistake a tuft of grass, or a tree, or other most dissimilar object, forhis companion, or his horse, or game. An old traveller is rarely deceivedby mirage. If he doubts, he can in many cases adopt the following hintgiven by Dr. Kane: "Refraction will baffle a novice, on the ice; but wehave learned to baffle refraction. By sighting the suspected object withyour rifle at rest, you soon detect motion. "

Lost Path. --If you fairly lose your way in the dark, do not go onblundering hither and thither till you are exhausted; but make ascomfortable bivouac as you can, and start at daybreak fresh on yoursearch. 

The bank of a watercourse, which is the best of clues, affords the worstof paths, and is quite unfit to be followed at night. The ground isalways more broken in the neighbourhood of a river than far away from it;and the vegatation is more tangled. Explorers travel most easily bykeeping far away from the banks of streams; because then they have fewerbroad tributaries and deep ravines to cross. 

If in the daytime you find that you have quite lost your way, setsystematically to work to find it. At all event, do not make the matterdoubly perplexing by wandering further. Mark the place very distinctlywhere you discover yourself at fault, that it may be the centre of yoursearch. Be careful to ride in such places as will preserve your tracks. Break twigs if you are lost in a woodland: if in the open country, drag astick to make a clear trail. Marks scratched on the ground to tell thehour and day that you passed by, will guide a relieving party. A greatsmoke is useful for the same purpose and is visible for a long distance. (See "Signals. ")

A man who loses himself, especially in a desert, is sadly apt to find hispresence of mind forsake him, the sense of desolation is so strange andoverpowering; but he may console himself with the statistics of hischance of safety--viz. , that travellers, though constantly losing theirparty, have hardly ever been known to perish unrelieved. 

When the lost traveller is dead beat with fatigue, let him exert a strongcontrol over himself, for if he gives way to terror, and wanders wildlyabout hither and thither, he will do no good and exhaust his vital powersmuch sooner. He should erect some signal--as conspicuous a one as hecan--with something fluttering upon it, sit down in the shade, and, listening keenly for any sound of succour, bear his fate like a man. Hisultimate safety is merely a question of time, for he is sure to besearched for; and, if he can keep alive for two or three days, he will, in all probability, be found and saved. (To relieve thirst, p. 223;hunger, p. 197)

Theory. --When you discover you are lost, ask yourself the following threequestions: they comprise the ABC of the art of pathfinding, and I willtherefore distinguish them by the letters A, B, and C respectively:--A. What is the least distance that I can with certainty specify, withinwhich the caravan-path, the river, or the sea-shore, that I wish toregain, lies? B. What is the direction, in a vague general way, towardswhich the path or river runs, or the sea-coast tends? C. When I last leftthe path, did I turn to the left or to the right. 

As regards A, calculate coolly how long you have been riding or walking, and at what pace, since you left your party; subtract for stoppages andwell-recollected zigzags; allow a mile and a half per hour for the pacewhen you have been loitering on foot, and three and a half when you havebeen walking fast. Bear in mind that occasional running makes an almostinappreciable difference; and that a man is always much nearer to thelost path, than he is inclined to fear. 

As regards B, if the man knows the course of the path to within eightpoints of the compass (or one-fourth of the whole horizon), it is a greatgain; or even if he knows B to within twelve points, say 120 degrees, orone-third of the whole horizon, his knowledge is available. For instance, let us suppose a man's general idea of the run of the path to be, that itgoes in a northerly and southerly direction: then if he is also positivethat the path does not deviate more than to the N. E. On the one side ofthat direction, or to the N. W. On the other, he knows the direction towithin eight points. Similarly he is sure to twelve points, if hislimits, on either hand, are E. N. E. And W. N. W. Respectively. 

C requires no further explanation. 

Now, if a man can answer all three questions, A, B, to within eightpoints of the compass, and C, he is four and a half times as well off asif he could only answer A; as will be seen by the followingconsiderations. A knowledge of B in addition to A, is of only one-thirdthe use that it would be if C also were known. 

1. Let P (fig. 1) be the point where the traveller finds himself atfault, and let P D to be a distance within which the path certainly lies;then the circle, E D F, somewhere cuts the path, and the travellerstarting from P must first go to D, and then make the entire circuit, D EH F D, before he has exhausted his search. This distance of P D + D E H FD = P D + 6 P D nearly, = 7 P D altogether, which gives the length ofroad that the man must be prepared to travel over who can answer no otherthan the question A. Of course, P D may cut the path, but I am speakingof the extreme distance which the lost man may have to travel. 

[Sketch as described above]. 

Supposing that question B can be answered as well as question A, an thatthe direction of the line of road lies certainly within the points of thecompass, P S and P R. Draw the circumscribing parallelogram, G L H E M, whose sides are respectively parallel to P S and P R. Join L M. By theconditions of this problem, the path must somewhere cut the circle E D F;and since L M cuts L H, which is a tangent to it, it is clear it must cutevery path--such as a a, parallel to L H, or to P R--that cuts thecircle. Similarly, the same line, L M, must cut every path parallel to PS, such as b b. Now if L M cuts every path that is parallel to either ofthe extreme directions, P R or P S, it is obvious that it must also cutevery path that is parallel to an intermediate direction, such as c c, but

PL = PH/cos HPL = PD/cos 1/2 RPS;

The consequence of which is that P L exceeds P D by one-sixth, one-halfas much again, or twice as much again, according as R P S = 60 degrees, 90 degrees degrees, or 140 degrees. 

The traveller who can only answer the questions A and B, but not C, mustbe prepared to travel from P to L, and back again through P to M, adistance equal to 3 P L. If, however, he can answer the question C, heknows at once whether to travel towards L or towards M, and he has noreturn journey to fear. At the worst, he has simply to travel thedistance P L. 

The probable distance, as distinguished from the utmost possible distancethat a man may have to travel in the three cases, can be calculatedmathematically. It would be out of place here to give the working of thelittle problem, but I append the rough numerical results in a table. 

[Table as referred to above]. 

The epitome of the whole is this:--1. If you can only answer the questionA, you must seek for the lost path by the tedious circle plan; or, whatis the same, and a more manageable way of setting to work, by travellingin an octagon, each side of which must be equal to four-fifths of P D. (See fig. 2. )

[Fig. 2]. 

That is to say, look at your compass and start in any direction youplease; we will say to the south, as represented in the drawing. Travelfor a distance, P D; then supposing you have not crossed the path, turnat right angles, and start afresh--we will suppose your presentdirection to be west--travel for a distance 4/10 of P D, which will takeyou to 1; then turn to the N. W. And travel for a distance 8/10 of P D, which will take you to 2; then to the N. For a similar distance, whichwill take you to 3; and so on, till the octagon has been completed. Ifyou know B to eight points, and not C, adopt the L M system; also, if youknow A and C, and B to within thirteen points (out of the sixteen thatform the semicircle), you may still adopt the L M system; but nototherwise. A rough diagram scratched on the ground with a stick wouldsuffice to recall the above remarks to a traveller's recollection. 

CACHES AND DEPOTS. 

Caches. --It is easy enough to choose a spot, which you yourself shallagain recognise, for digging a hole, where stores of all kinds may beburied against your return: neither is it difficult to choose one, sothat you may indicate its position to others, or else leave it to a partywho are travelling in concert, to find it out for themselves. Butexcessive caution in the mode of depositing the stores is, in every case, required, as hungry and thieving natives keep watch on all the movementsof a party; they follow their tracks and hunt over their oldcamping-places, in search of anything there may be to pick up. Andhyenas, wolves, wild dogs, and all kinds of prowling animals, guided bytheir sharp scent, will soon scratch up any provisions that are buriedcarelessly, or in such a way as to taint the earth. 

The natives in Ceylon, when they wish to make a depot of game, jerk it, put the dry meat into the hollow of a tree, fill up the reservoir withhoney, and plaster it over with clay. 

Some dried plants of M. Bourgeau, the botanist attached to CaptainPalliser's expedition to the Rocky Mountains, remained underground forten months without injury. 

Newly disturbed Ground sinks when Wetted. --If a cache be made in dryweather, and the ground be simply levelled over it, the first heavy rainwill cause the earth to sink, and will proclaim the hidden store to anobservant eye. Soldiers, in sacking a town, find out hastily-buriedtreasures by throwing a pailful of water over any suspected spot: if theground sinks, it has surely been recently disturbed. 

Best place for a Cache. --The best position to choose for a cache is in asandy or gravelly soil, on account of its dryness and the facility ofdigging. Old burrows, or the gigantic but abandoned hills of white ants, may be thought of, if the stores are enclosed in cases of painted tin:also clefts in rocks: some things can be conveniently buried under water. The place must be chosen under circumstances that admit of your effacingall signs of the ground having been disturbed. A good plan is to set upyour tent and to dig a deep hole in the floor, depositing what you haveto bury wrapped in an oil-cloth, in an earthen jar, or in a woodenvessel, according to what you are able to get. It must be secure againstthe attacks of the insects of the place: avoid the use of skins, foranimals will smell and dig them out. Continue to inhabit the tent for atleast a day, well stamping and smoothing down the soil at leisure. Afterthis, change the position of the tent, shifting the tethering-place orkraal of your cattle to where it stood. They will speedily efface anymarks that may be left. Travellers often make their fires over the holeswhere their stores are buried; but natives are so accustomed to suspectfireplaces, that this plan does not prove to be safe. During summertravel, in countries pestered with gnats, a smoke fire for the horses(that is, a fire for keeping off flies), made near the place, willattract the horses and cause them to trample all about. This is anexcellent way of obliterating marks left about the cache. 

Hiding Small Things. --It is easy to make a small cache by bending down ayoung tree, tying your bundle to the top, and letting it spring up again. A spruce-tree gives excellent shelter to anything placed in its branches. (See also what is said on "Burying Letters, " p. 303. )

Hiding Large Things. --Large things, as a wagon or boat, must either bepushed into thick bushes or reeds and left to chance, or they may beburied in a sand drift or in a sandy deposit by a river side. A smallreedy island is a convenient place for such caches. 

Double Caches. --Some persons, when they know that their intentions aresuspected, make two caches: the one with a few things buried in it, andconcealed with little care; the other, containing those that are reallyvaluable, and very artfully made. Thieves are sure to discover the first, and are likely enough to omit a further search. 

To find your Store again, you should have ascertained the distance andbearing, by compass, of the hole from some marked place--as a tree--aboutwhich you are sure not to be mistaken; or from the centre of the placewhere your fire was made, which is a mark that years will not entirelyefface. If there be anything in the ground itself to indicate theposition of the hole, you have made a clumsy cache. It is not a bad plan, after the things are buried, and before the tent is removed, to scratch afurrow a couple of inches deep, and three or four feet long, and pickingup any bits of stick, reeds, or straw, that may be found at hand lyingupon the ground, to place them end to end in it. These will be easyenough to find again by making a cross furrow, and when found will leadyou straight above the depot. They would never excite suspicion, even ifa native got hold of them; for they would appear to have been dropped orblown on the ground by chance, not seen and trampled in. Mr. Atkinsonmentions an ingenious way by which the boundaries of valuable miningproperty are marked in the Ural, a modification of which might serve forindicating caches. A trench is dug and filled with charcoal beat small, and then covered over. The charcoal lasts for ever, and cannot betampered with without leaving an unmistakable mark. 

Secreting Jewels. --Before going to a rich but imperfectly civilisedcountry, travellers sometimes buy jewels and bury them in their flesh. They make a gash, put the jewels in, and allow the flesh to grow overthem as it would over a bullet. The operation is more sure to succeed ifthe jewels are put into a silver tube with rounded ends, for silver doesnot irritate. If the jewels are buried without the tube, they must haveno sharp edges. The best place for burying them is in the left arm, atthe spot chosen for vaccination. A traveller who was thus provided wouldalways have a small capital to fall back upon, though robbed ofeverything he wore. 

A Chain of gold is sometimes carried by Arabs, who sew it in dirtyleather under their belt. They cut off and sell a link at a time. (Burton)

The gun-stock is a good receptacle for small valuables. Unscrew theheel-plate and bore recesses; insert what you desire, after wrapping ittightly in cloth and plugging it in; then replace the heel-plate. (Peal. )

Depositing Letters. --To direct Attention to the Place of Deposit. --Whenyou make a cache in an inhabited land, for the use of a travelling partywho are ignorant of your purpose, there is of course some difficulty inensuring that their attention should be directed to the place, but thatthe natives should have no clue to it. If you have means of gashing, painting or burning characters, something of this sort (see fig. ), theywill explain themselves. 

[Sketch of direction plate]. 

Savages, however, take such pains to efface any mark they may find leftby white men, entertaining thoughts like those of Morgiana in the'Arabian Nights' tale of the Forty Thieves, that it would be mostimprudent to trust to a single mark. A relief party should therefore beprovided with a branding-iron and moveable letters, and with paints, andthey should mark the tree in many places. A couple of hours spent indoing this would leave more marks than the desultory efforts of rovingsavages would be likely to efface. A good sign to show that Europeanshave visited a spot is a saw mark (no savages use saws): it catches theeye directly. 

A system occasionally employed by Arctic expeditions, of making a cache10 feet true north (and not magnetic north) from the cairn or mark, deserves to be generally employed, at least with modifications. Let metherefore suggest, that persons who find a cairn built of a tree marked, so as to attract notice, and who are searching blindly in all directionsfor further clue, should invariably dig out and examine that particularspot. The notice deposited there may consist of no more than a singlesentence, to indicate some distant point as the place where the longerletter is buried. I hope it will be understood, that the precaution ofalways burying a notice 10 feet true north of the cairn mark is proposedas additional to and not in the place of other contrivances for givinginformation. There will often arise some doubt as to the exact point inthe circumference of the cairn or mark whence the 10 feet measurementshould be made. This is due to the irregularity of the bases of all suchmarks. Therefore, when searching for letters, a short trench, running tothe north, will frequently have to be dug, and not a mere hole. I shouldpropose that the short notice be punched or pricked on a thin sheet oflead, made by pouring two or three melted bullets on a flat stone, andthat the plate so made and inscribed should be rolled up and pushed intoa hole bored or burnt through the head of a large tent peg. The peg couldbe driven deeply in the ground, quite out of sight, without disturbingthe surrounding earth. It might even suffice to pick up a common stoneand to scratch or paint upon it what you had to say, and to leave it onthe ground, with its written face downwards, at the place in question. 

To secure Buried Letters from Damp. --They may be wrapped in waxed clothor paper, if there be no fear of the ravages of insects. Lead plate isfar more safe: it can be made easily enough by a traveller out of hisbullets. (See "Lead. ") A glass bottle (with something that insects cannoteat, such as lead-plate, sealing-wax or clay, put carefully over thecork) or an earthen jar may be used. The quill of a large feather willhold a long letter, if it is written in very small handwriting and onthin paper, and it will preserve it from the wet. After the letter hasbeen rolled up and inserted in the quill, the open end of the latter maybe squeezed flat between two stones, heated sufficiently to soften thequill (see "Horn") but not so hot as to burn it, and then, for greatersecurity against wet, the end of the quill should be twisted tight. Waxaffords another easy means of closing the quill. 

Picture-writing. --A very many excellent bushrangers are unable to read, rude picture-writing is often used by them, especialy in America. Thefigure of a man with a spear or bow, drawn as a child would draw, standsfor a savage; one with a hat or gun for a European; horses, oxen, andsheep are equally to be drawn; lines represent numbers, and arrow-headsdirection. Even without more conventional symbols, a vast deal may beexpressed by rude picture-writing. 

Reconnoitring Barren Countries by help of Porters and Caches. --Thedistance to which an explorer can attain in barren countries depends onthe number of days' provisions that he can carry with him. Half of hisload supports him on his way out, the other half on his way home. But ifhe start in company with a laden porter, he may reserve his own store andsupply both himself and the porter from the pack carried by the latter. When half of this is consumed, the other half may be divided into twoequal portions. The one is retained by the porter who makes his way backto camp, consuming it as he goes, and the other is cached (see "Caches")for the sustenance of the traveller on his return journey. This beingarranged, the traveller can start from the cache with his own load ofprovisions untouched, just as he would have started from the camp if hehad had no porter to assist him. It is evident a process of thisdescription might be frequently repeated; that a large party of portersmight start, and by a system of successive subdivisions, they couldenable the traveller to reach a position many days' journey distant fromhis camp, with his own load of provisions and with other food placed in asuccession of caches, for the supply of his wants all the way home again. The principle by which this may be effected without waste, is to sendback at each successive step the smallest detachment competent to travelalone, and to do this as soon as one half of their load of food has beenconsumed by the whole party. Then, the other half is to be divided intotwo portions; one consisting of rations to supply the detachment back tothe previous cache, whence their journey home has been provided for, theother portion to be buried, to supply rations for the remainder of theparty, when they shall have returned (either all together or else inseparate and successive detachments) back to the previous cache, whencetheir journey home has also been provided for. An inspection of the Tablewhich I annex (p. 307) makes details unnecessary. The dotted lines showhow the porters who first return may be dispatched afresh as reliefparties. I give, in the table, a schedule of the three most importantcases. In these the regular supply of two meals per diem, and a morningand an afternoon journey, are supposed. I wrote a paper on this subject, which is published in the 'Royal Geographical Society's Proceedings, 'vol. Ii. , to which I refer those who care to inquire further into thematter. Cases where each man or horse carries a number of rationsintermediate to those specified in the Table, are, perhaps, toocomplicated for use without much previous practice. It would be easy fora leader to satisfy himself that he was making no mistake, and to drillhis men to any one of the tabulated cases, by painting a row of sticks, 50 yards apart, to represent the successive halting-places of hisintended journey, and by making his men go through a sham rehearsal ofwhat they would severally have to do. Then each man's duties could bewritten down in a schedule and all possibility of mistake be avoided. 

The Table represents the proceedings of four men (or horses and men), wholeave camp. Two turn back at P1, one more turns back at P2, and theremaining man pushes on to P3. Food has been cached for him both at P2and P1; but to make matters doubly sure, a relief party, as shown by thedotted line, can be sent to meet him at P2. 

In Case A, each man carries 1 1/2 day's rations. " B. " (or horse) " 3 1/2 days' rations for himself (and drivers). " C. Each man (or horse) carries 5 1/2 days' rations for himself (and drivers). 

We will take the case C as an example. The figures that refer to it arein the lines adjacent to the letter C in the Table. They are those in theuppermost line, and also those in the line up the left-hand side of thediagram, and they stand for days' journey and for days respectively. P1is reached after 1 1/2 day's travel, P2 after 3 days, P3 after 6 daysfrom camp. The entire party might consist of 5 men, 2 carts (one a verylight one), and four horses, together with one saddle and bridle. Theheavier cart and 2 men and 2 horses would turn back at P1. One of the twohorses of the second cart would be saddled and ridden back by a third manfrom P2; and, finally, the remaining cart, single horse, and 2 men, wouldturn back, after 6 days, from P3. --The relief party wouldoriginallyconsist of the first cart and 3 horses. On arriving at P1, ahorse and man would be sent back. At P2 it would have more than enoughspare rations to admit of its waiting two whole days for the exploringcart, if it were necessary to do so. 

[Full page diagram as described above]. 

It will be seen from the Table that as 6 days' journey is the limit towhich C can explore, so 4 days' journey is the limit for B, and 2 daysfor A. But where abundance of provision is secured at P2 by means of arelief party, the explorers might well make an effort and travel on halfrations to a greater distance than the limits here assigned. 

MANAGEMENT OF SAVAGES. 

General Remarks. --A frank, joking, but determined manner, joined with anair of showing more confidence in the good faith of the natives than youreally feel, is the best. It is observed, that a sea-captain generallysucceeds in making an excellent impression on savages: they thoroughlyappreciate common sense, truth, and uprightness; and are not half suchfools as strangers usually account them. If a savage does mischief, lookon him as you would on a kicking mule, or a wild animal, whose nature isto be unruly and vicious, and keep your temper quite unruffled. Evade themischief, if you can: if you cannot, endure it; and do not troubleyourself overmuch about your dignity, or about retaliating on the man, except it be on the grounds of expediency. There are even times when anyassumption of dignity becomes ludicrous, and the traveller must, as MungoPark had once to do, "lay it down as a rule to make himself as uselessand as insignificant as possible, as the only means of recovering hisliberty. "

Bush Law. --It is impossible but that a traveller must often take the lawinto his own hands. Some countries, no doubt, are governed with a strongarm by a savage despot; to whom or to whose subordinates appeals must ofcourse be made; but, for the most part, the system of life among savagesis--

"The simple rule, the good old plan--That they should take, who have the power;And they should keep, who can. "

Where there is no civil law, or any kind of substitute for it, each manis, as it were, a nation in himself; and then the traveller ought to beguided in his actions by the motives that influence nations, whether tomake war or to abstain from it, rather than by the criminal code ofcivilised countries. The traveller must settle in his own mind what hisscale of punishments should be; and it will be found a convenientprinciple that a culprit should be punished in proportion to the quantityof harm that he has done, rather than according to the presumedwickedness of the offence. Thus, if two men were caught, one of whom hadstolen an ox, and the other a sheep, it would be best to flog the firstmuch more heavily than the second; it is a measure of punishment moreintelligible to savages than ours. The principle of double or treblerestitution, to which they are well used, is of the same nature. If alltheft be punished, your administration will be a reign of terror; forevery savage, even your best friends, will pilfer little things from you, whenever they have a good opportunity. Be very severe if any of your ownparty steal trifles from natives: order double or treble restitution, ifthe man does not know better; and, if he does, a flogging besides, andnot in place of it. 

Seizing Food. --On arriving at an encampment, the natives commonly runaway in fright. If you are hungry, or in serious need of anything thatthey have, go boldly into their huts, take just what you want, and leavefully adequate payment. It is absurd to be over-scrupulous in thesecases. 

Feast-Days. --Interrupt the monotony of travel, by marked days, on whichyou give extra tobacco and sugar to the servants. Avoid constant goodfeeding, but rather have frequent slight fasts to ensure occasional goodfeasts; and let those occasions when marked stages of your journey havebeen reached, be great gala-days. Recollect that a savage cannot endurethe steady labour that we Anglo-Saxons have been bred to support. Hisnature is adapted to alternations of laziness and of severe exertion. Promote merriment, singing, fiddling, and so forth, with all your power. Autolycus says, in 'A Winter's Tale'--

"Jog on, jog on, the foot-path way, Merrily bent the stils-a:A merry heart goes all the day, Your sad tires in a mile-a. "

Flogging. --Different tribes have very different customs in the matter ofcorporal punishment: there are some who fancy it a disgrace and a seriousinsult. A young traveller must therefore be discriminating and cautiousin the licence he allows to his stick, or he may fall into sad trouble. 

Kindliness of Women--Wherever you go, you will find kindheartednessamongst women. Mungo Park is fond of recording his experiences of this;but I must add that he seems to have been an especial favourite with thesex. The gentler of the two sexes is a "teterrima causa belli. "

When you wish a Savage to keep count, give him a string of beads. Theboxes and parcels that are sent by the overland route are, or were, counted in this way by an Arab overseer. He was described as having acord with great beads strung on it, and the end of the cord was thrownover his shoulder. As each box passed him, he jerked a bead from the forepart of the cord to the back part of it, over his shoulder. 

Drawing Lots. --It is often necessary to distribute things by lot. Do itby what children call "soldiering:" One stands with his back to the rest'another, pointing to the portions in succession, calls out "Who is tohave this?" To which the first one replies by naming somebody, who atonce takes possession. 

HOSTILITIES. 

To Fortify a Camp. --Forts at opposite Corners. --Explorers have frequentoccasion to form a depot: either a few men are left in charge of theheavy luggage, while the rest of the party ride on a distantreconnoitring expedition; or else the whole party may encamp for weeks, until the state of the season, or other cause, permits further travel. Ineither case, a little forethought and labour will vastly increase thesecurity of the depot against hostile attempts. For instance, it shouldbe placed at least 200 yards from any cover, or commanding heights; ifthe ground on which it stands have any features of strength about it, asbeing near the side of a stream, or being on a hill, so much the better;the neighbourhood of shingle prevents persons from stealing acrossunheard; and, finally, the camp should be fortified. Now the principle offortification best suited to a small party, is to form the camp into asquare, and to have two projecting enclosures at opposite corners, whereall the men who have guns may place themselves to fire on the assailants. It will be seen by the sketch, how completely the guns in each enclosurecan sweep the edges as well as the whole of the environs of the camp. 

[Sketch of camp with fortifications]. 

A square is better than a round for the projecting enclosures, as itallows more men to use their guns at the same time on the same point; butit is so convenient to make the walls of the enclosure serve as sidingsfor the tents, that it is perhaps best to allow the size and shape of thetent to determine those of the enclosures. A square of nine or ten feet, inside measurement, is amply sufficient for three guns or archers. Theparapets can be built of large stones. A travelling party rarely carriesspades, but when they have them, the parapet may be formed of the earththrown up by digging a trench outside it; the common calculation is, that, with good tools, a labourer can dig one cubic yard of earth anhour, and can continue working for eight hours in the day. The parapetshould be raised four feet above the ground, as that is the mostconvenient height to fire from when standing; and it is high enough toshield a person kneeling down to load. Upon this parapet, large stonesshould be laid, having loop-holes between them, and above the stones thetent may be pitched; its pole being lengthened by lashing apiece of woodto it, or by cutting a fresh pole altogether. It will make a high roof tothe enclosure, and will complete a comfortable abode. We have thus asquare enclosed camp for the cattle, the wagons, and the natives of theparty; and, at opposite corners of it, two fortified houses: one of whichwould naturally be inhabited by the leaders of the party; and the other, either by the storekeeper, or by the white servants generally

Trous de Loup are holes, with sharp stake driven in the bottom of each ofthem (see "Pitfalls, " p. 264) with the pointed end upwards. The South SeaIslanders use them in multitudes to prevent the possibility of an enemy'sapproach at night, otherwise than along the narrow paths that lead totheir villages: if a man deviates from a path, he is sure to stumble intoone of these contrivances, and to be lamed. The holes need not exceed onefoot in diameter; and the stake may be a stick no thicker than the littlefinger, and yet it will suffice to maim an ill-shod man, if its point bebaked hard. A traveller could only use these pitfalls where, from thecircumstances of the case, there was no risk of his own men, cattle, ordogs falling into them. 

Weapons, to resist an Attack. --Unless your ammunition is so kept as to beaccessible in the confusion of an attack, the fortifications I have justdescribed would be of little service. If the guns are all, or nearly all, of the same bore, it is simple enough to have small bags filled withcartridges, and also papers with a dozen caps in each. Buck-shot andslugs are better than bullets, for the purposes of which we are speaking. Bows and arrows might render good service. The Chinese, in their junks, when they expect a piratical attack, bring up baskets filled with stonesfrom the ballast of the ship, and put them on deck ready at hand. Theythrow them with great force and precision: the idea is not a bad one. Boiling water and hot sand, if circumstances happened to permit theiruse, are worth bearing in mind, as they tell well on the bodies of nakedassailants. In close quarters, thrust, do not strike; and recollect thatit is not the slightest use to hit a negro on the head with a stick, asit is a fact that his skull endures a blow better than any other part ofhis person. In picking out the chiefs, do not select the men that are themost showily ornamented, for they are not the chiefs; but the biggest andthe busiest. A good horseman will find a powerful weapon at hand byunhitching his stirrup leather and attached stirrup from the saddle. Iknow of a case where this idea saved the rider. 

Rockets. --Of all European inventions, nothing so impresses and terrifiessavages as fireworks, especially rockets. I cannot account for theremarkable effect they produce, but in every land, it appears to be thesame. A rocket, judiciously sent up, is very likely to frighten off anintended attack and save bloodshed. If a traveller is supplied with anyof these, he should never make playthings of them, but keep them forgreat emergencies. 

Natives forbidden to throng the Camp. --Have a standing rule that manynatives should never be allowed to go inside your camp at the same time:for it is everywhere a common practice among them, to collect quietly ina friendly way, and at a signal to rise en masse and overpower theirhosts. Even when they profess to have left their arms behind, do not betoo confident: they are often deposited close at hand. Captain Sturtsays, that he has known Australian savages to trail their spears betweentheir toes, as they lounged towards him through the grass, professedlyunarmed. 

Keeping Watch. --Head near the ground. --When you think you hear anythingastir, lie down and lay your ear on the ground. To see to the bestadvantage, take the same position; you thus bring low objects in boldrelief against the sky. Besides this, in a wooded country, it is ofteneasy to see far between the bare stems of the trees, while theirspreading tops shut out all objects more than a few yards off. Thus, adog or other small animal usually sees a man's legs long before he seeshis face. 

Opera-glass. --An opera-glass is an excellent night glass, and at leastdoubles the clearness of vision in the dark (0p. 284). 

Ear-trunpet. --I should be glad to hear that a fair trial had been alsogiven by a traveller to an ear-trumpet. 

Watchfulness of Cattle. --Cattle keep guard very well: a stranger canhardly approach a herd of oxen, without their finding him out; forseveral of them are always sure to be awake and watchful. The habits ofbush life make a traveller, though otherwise sound asleep, start updirectly at a very slight rustle of alarm among his cattle. 

Of Wild Birds and Beasts. --Scared birds and beasts often giveuseful warning. 

Smell of Negro. --A skulking negro may sometimes be smelt out like a fox. 

Dahoman Night-watch. --The Dahomans, the famous military nation of N. W. Africa, have an odd method of dividing their watches by night, but "whichis generally managed very correctly. At each gate of a stockaded town, isposted a sentry, who is provided with a pile of stones, the exact numberof which has been previously ascertained. The night is divided into fourwatches; during each watch the sentry removes the pile of stones, one byone, at a measured pace, from one gate to another, calling out at eachtenth removal: when all are removed, the watch is relieved. "--Forbes. 

Setting a common Gun as an Alarm-gun. --The gun may be loaded with bullet, or simply with powder, or only with a cap: even the click of the hammermay suffice to awaken attention. For the ways of setting it, see p. 257. 

Prairie set on Fire. --This is often done as a means of offence. But whenthe grass is short (lower than the knee), the strip of it on fire, at thesame moment, does not exceed 12 feet in width; therefore if a belt ofgrass of 12 feet in width be destroyed in advance of the line of fire, the conflagration will be arrested as soon as it reaches that belt. Thefire will be incapable of traversing the interval narrow though it be, where there is a total absence of fuel to feed it. Travellers availthemselves of this fact in a very happy manner, when a fire in theprairie is advancing towards them, by burning a strip of grass, to thewindward of their camp, of 12 feet in breadth; beating down the blazewith their blankets wherever it would otherwise extend too widely. Behindthis easily constructed line of defence, the camp rests in security, andthe adjacent grass remains uninjured for the use of the cattle. If, however, the wind is high and sparks are drifted for some distance beyondthe belt of fire, this method is insufficient: two lines of defenceshould then be constructed. 

Tricks upon Robbers. --It is perhaps just worth while to mention a trickthat has been practised in most countries, from England to Peru. Atraveller is threatened by a robber with a gun, and ordered to throwhimself on the ground, or he will be fired at. The traveller taking apistol from his belt, shouts out, "If this were loaded you should nottreat me thus!" and throws himself on the ground as the robber bids him. There he lies till the robber, in his triumph, comes up for his booty;when the intended victim takes a quick aim and shoots him dead--thepistol being really loaded all the time. I have also heard of an incidentin the days of Shooter's Hill, in England, where a ruffian waylaid andsprang upon a traveller, and holding a pistol to his breast, summoned himfor the contents of his pocket. The traveller dived his hand into one ofthem, and, silently cocking a small pistol that lay in it, shot therobber dead, firing out through the side of the pocket. 

Passing through a Hostile Country. --How to encamp. --A small party hasoften occasion to try to steal through a belt of hostile country withoutbeing observed. At such times, it is a rule never to encamp until longafter sun-down, in order that people on your track may be unable topursue it with ease. If you are pursuing a beaten path, turn sharp out ofit, when you intend to encamp, selecting a place for doing so where theground is too hard to show footprints; then travel away for a quarter ofan hour, at least. Lastly, look out for a hollow place, in the midst ofan open flat. Never allow hammering of any kind in your camp, nor loudtalking; but there is no danger in lighting a small fire, if reasonableprecautions be taken, as a flame cannot be seen far through bushes. Keepa strict watch all night: the watchers should be 100 yards out from camp, and should relieve one another, every two hours at least. Enough animalsfor riding, one for each man, should always be tied up, in readiness forinstant use. 

When riding alone. --A person who is riding a journey for his life, sleepsmost safely with his horse's head tied short up to his wrist. The horse, if he hears anything, tosses his head and jerks the rider's arm. Thehorse is a careful animal, and there appears to be little danger of histreading on his sleeping master. 

[Sketch of horse tethered as above]. 

The Indians of South America habitually adopt this plan, whencircumstances require extreme caution (see fig. )

To prevent your Horse from neighing. --If a troop of horsemen pass nearyour hiding-place, it may be necessary to clutch your steed's muzzle withboth hands, to prevent his neighing. 

Hurried retreat of a Party. --When a party, partly of horsemen and partlyof footmen, are running away from danger as hard as they can, the footmenlay hold of the stirrup-leathers of the riders, to assist them. (See"Litters for the Wounded, " p. 23. )

Securing Prisoners. --To take a strong man Prisoner singlehanded, threatenhim with your gun, and compel him to throw all his arms away; then, marching him before you some little distance, make him lie flat on hisface and put his hands behind him. Of course he will be in a dreadfulfright, and require reassuring. Next take your knife, put it between yourteeth, and, standing over him, take the caps off your gun, and lay itdown by your side. Then handcuff him, in whatever way you best can. Thereason of setting to work in this way is, that a quick supple savage, while you are fumbling with your strings, and bothered with a loaded gun, might easily spring round, seize hold of it, and quite turn the tablesagainst you. But if the gun had no caps on, it would be of little use inhis hands, except as a club; and also, if you had a knife between yourteeth, it would be impossible for him to free himself by struggling, without exposing himself to a thrust from it. 

Cord to be well stretched. --It is an imperfect security to tie aningenious active man, whose hands and feet are small, unless the cord orwhatever else you may use, had been thoroughly well stretched. Manypeople have exhibited themselves for money, who allowed themselves to betied hand and foot and then to be put into a sack, whence they emergedafter a few minutes, with the cords in a neat coil in their hands. Thebrothers Davenport were notorious for possessing this skill. They did notshow themselves for half-pence at country fairs; but, by implying thatthey were set free by supranatural agencies, they held fashionableseances in London and created an immense sensation a few years ago. Twoof these exhibitors were tied, face to face in a cupboard, respectivelyby two persons selected by the audience. The latter inspected oneanother's knots as well as they could, and on their expressing themselvessatisfied, the doors of the cupboard were closed, the lights of the roomwere kept low for 5 or 10 minutes, until a signal was made by theexhibitors from within the cupboard; then in a blaze of gas light thedoors were opened from within and out walked the two men, leaving theropes behind them. After this, they tied themselves in their own knots;and under those easy conditions a number of so-called spiritualmanifestations took place, which I need not here describe; the realcuriosity of the exhibition being that which I have just explained. Theseexhibitions continued for months; but at length two nautical gentlemeninsisted on using their own cord, which they had previously wellstretched, and this proceeding utterly baffled the Davenports. Thenceforward wherever the Davenports showed themselves, the nauticalgentlemen appeared also, appealing to the audience to elect them to tiethe hands of the exhibitors. In this way, they fairly exposed thepretensions of the Davenports, and drove them from England. Once I wasproposed by an audience to tie the hands. I did my best, and I alsoscrutinised my colleague's knot, as well as the confined place in whichthe exhibitors were tied, permitted. The cord we had to use was perhaps alittle too thick, but it was supple and strong, and I was greatlysurprised at the ease with which the Davenports disembarrassedthemselves. They were not more than 10 minutes in getting free. Of courseif either of the exhibitors could struggle loose, he would assist hiscolleague. It therefore struck me as an exceedingly ingenious idea of theDavenports, to have two persons, and not one person, to tie them. Iconsidered it was very improbable that a person taken at hap-hazardshould be capable of tying his man securely; and it was evident that theimprobability would be increased in a duplicate ratio, that both personsshould be capable. Thus if it be 20 to 1 against any one person's havingsufficient skill, it is (20 by 20 or) 400 to 1 against both the persons, who might be selected to tie the Davenports, being able to do soeffectively. As I have already said, the opportunity that was afforded toeach of scrutinising the work of the other, was worth very little, because of the dark and confined space in which the exhibitors sat. 

Tying the Hands. --To tie a man's hands behind his back, take ahandkerchief, it is the best thing; failing that, a thin cord. It isnecessary that its length should not be less than 2 feet, but 2 feet 6inches is the right length; for a double tie, it should be 3 feet 6inches. Compel him to lay his hands as in the sketch, and, wrapping thecord once (or twice if it be long enough) round the arms, pretty tightly, pass the longest end in between the arms as shown in the figure, and tiequite tightly. If you are quick in tying the common "tom-fool's knot, "well known to every sailor, it is still better for the purpose. Put theprisoner's hands one within each loop, then draw tightly the runningends, and knot them together. 

[Sketch of hands tied as above]. 

Tying the Thumbs. --To secure a prisoner with the least amount of string, place his hands back to back, behind him, then tie the thumbs together, and also the little fingers. Two bits of thin string, each a foot long, will thoroughly do this. But if you have not any string at hand, cut athong from his leathern apron, or tear a strip from you own linen. 

[Sketch of person with bound hands]. 

Strait-Waistcoats. --A strait-waistcoat is the least inconvenient mode ofconfinement, as the joints of the prisoner are not cut by cords. Amakeshift for one is soon stitched together, by stitching a piece ofcanvas into the shape of a sleeve, and sewing one end of this to one cuffof a strong jacket, and the other end to the other cuff; so that, insteadof the jacket having two sleeves, it has but one long one. The jacket isthen put on in the usual way, and buttoned and sewn in front. In a properstrait-waistcoat, the opening is behind and the sleeves in front; itlaces up behind. 

[Sketch of man in waistcoat]. 

Tying up a Prisoner for the night. --If a man has to be kept prisoner allnight, it is not sufficient to tie his hands, as he will be sure to watchhis time and run away. It is therefore necessary to tie them round astanding tree, or a heavy log of wood. A convenient plan is to fell alarge forked bough, and to make the man's arms fast round one of thebranches. It is thus impossible for him to slip away, as the fork on oneside, and the bushy top of the branch on the other, prevent his doing so;and, notwithstanding his cramped position, it is quite possible for himto get sleep. 

Files of Prisoners. --When several men have to be made fast and marchedaway, the usual method of securing them is to tie them, one behindanother, to a long pole or rope. 

In marching off a Culprit, make him walk between two of your men, while athird carrying a gun, walks behind him. If riding alone, tie theprisoner's hands together, and, taking your off-stirrup leather (for wantof a cord), pass it round his left arm, and round your horse's girth, andbuckle it. The off-stirrup leather is the least inconvenient one to partwith, on account of mounting, and the prisoner is under your right hand. 

Tying on Horseback. --In cases where a prisoner has to be secured andgalloped off, there are but two ways: either putting him in the saddleand strapping his ankles together under the horse's belly--in whichcase, if he be mad with rage, and attempts to throw himself off, thesaddle must turn with him; or else securing him Mazeppa-fashion--whenfour loops are passed, one round each leg of the horse, and to each ofthese is tied one limb of the prisoner, as he lies with his back againstthat of the horse; a surcingle is also passed round both horse and man. It is, of course, a barbarous method, but circumstances might arise whenit would be of use. 

Proceedings in case of Death. --If a man of the party dies, write down adetailed account of the matter, and have it attested by the others, especially if accident be the cause of his death. If a man be lost, before you turn away and abandon him to his fate, call the party formallytogether, and ask them if they are satisfied that you have done all thatwas possible to save him, and record their answers. After death, it iswell to follow the custom at sea--i. E. To sell by auction all the deadman's effects among his comrades, deducting the money they fetch from thepay of the buyers, to be handed over to his relatives on the return ofthe expedition. The things will probably be sold at a much higher pricethan they would elsewhere fetch, and the carriage of useless lumber issaved. Any trinkets he may have had, should of course be sealed up andput aside, and not included in the sale: they should be collected inpresence of the whole party, a list made of them, and the articles atonce packed up. In committing the body to the earth, choose a well-markedsituation, dig a deep grave, bush it with thorns, and weight it well overwith heavy stones, as a defence against animals of prey. 

MECHANICAL APPLIANCES. 

To Raise and Move a Heavy Body. --On Land. --Lever up its ends alternately, and build underneath them when they are lifted up. After a sufficientheight has been gained, build a sloping causeway down to the place towhich the mass has to be moved, and along which it may be dragged, withthe assistance of rollers and grease. If the mass be too awkwardly shapedto admit of this, burrow below it; pass poles underneath it, and raisethe ends of the poles alternately. Mr. Williams, the well-knownmissionary of the South Sea Islands, relates how his schooner of fromseventy to eighty tons had been driven by a violent hurricane and risingof the sea, on one of the islands near which she was anchored, and waslodged several hundred yards inland; and thus describes how he got herback:--"The method by which we contrived to raise the vessel wasexceedingly simple, and by it we were enabled to accomplish the task withgreat ease. Long levers were passed under her keel, with the fulcrum sofixed as to give them an elevation of about forty-five degrees. The endsof these were then fastened together with several cross-beams, upon whicha quantity of stones were placed; the weight of which gradually elevatedone end of the vessel, until the levers reached the ground. Propping upthe bow thus raised, we shifted our levers to the stern, which was inlike manner elevated; and, by repeating this process three or four times, we lifted her in one day entirely out of the hole (which she had workedfor herself, and which was about four feet deep). The bog that laybetween her and the sea was then filled up with stones, logs of wood werelaid across it, rollers were placed under the vessel, the chain cablepassed round her; and, by the united strength of about 2000 people, shewas compelled to take a short voyage upon the land, before she floated inher pride on the sea. "

In some cases, the body of a cart may be taken down, and deep ruts havingbeen dug on each side of the mass, the vehicle can be backed, till theaxletree comes across it; then, after lashing and making fast, the sandcan be shovelled from below the mass, which will hang suspended from theaxletree, and may be carted away. Or a sledge may be built beneath themass by burrowing below it and thrusting the poles beneath it. Then theremainder of the intervening sand can be shovelled away, and the mass, now resting directly upon the sledge, can be dragged away by a team ofcattle. 

A sarcophagus of immense weight was raised from out of a deep recess intowhich it had been fitted pretty closely, at the end of a long narrowgallery in an Egyptian tomb, where there was no room for the applicationof tackle or other machinery, by the simple expedient of slightlydisturbing it in its place and sifting sand into the narrow intervalbetween its sides and the recess. This process was repeated continually:the sand settled below the bottom of the sarcophagus, which graduallyrose out of the hole in which it had lain. The principle of this piece ofengineering was borrowed, I suppose, from observing that whenever a massof sand and stones is shaken together, the stones invariably rise out ofthe sand, the biggest of them always forming the highest layer. 

Expansive Power of Wetted Seeds. --Admiral Sir E. Belcher read a curiouspaper before the British Association in 1866, showing the remarkablepower to be obtained by filling tubes with peas or other seed, allowingthe weight to rest upon the surface of the peas through the medium of arude piston. When the peas were wetted they swelled upwards withconsiderable force. A pint of peas placed in a tube of a diameter thatwas not expressed in the newspaper report, from which I take thisaccount, lifted 60 lbs. Through a height of one inch in twenty-fourhours. The Admiral proposed to fix a number of tubes side by side in aframe below the mass to be lifted, preferring to use zinc tubes of fromtwo or three inches in diameter, and of about one foot high. Thus, in thesmall space of a cubic foot, a large number of tubes (thirty-six in theone case, sixteen in the other) could be made to act simultaneously; theforce of the stroke could be increased by arranging a number of framesside by side, or the length of the stroke could be increased by buildingthe frames in a series one above the other. I have elsewhere describedhow wetted seeds may be used to restore the shape of a battered flaskeither for holding water or gunpowder (pp. 230). 

Parbuckling. --A round log or a barrel should be rolled, not dragged; andmany irregularly-shaped objects may have bundles of faggots lashed roundthem, by which they become barrel-shaped and fit to be rolled. In thesecases, parbuckling doubles the ease of rolling them; one or more ropeshave one of each of their ends made fast in the direction to which thelog has to be rolled, while the other is carried underneath the log, round it, and back again. By pulling at these free ends, the log will berolled on. An equivalent plan, and in some cases a more practicable one, is to make fast one end of the rope to the log itself; then, winding therope two or three times round it, like cotton on a reel, to haul at thefree end as before. Horses can be used, as well as men, for this work. 

[Sketch of man pulling log]. 

Accumulation of Efforts. --South American Indians are said to availthemselves of their forest trees, and of the creepers which stretch frombranch to branch, in moving very heavy weights, as in lifting a log oftimber up on a stage to be sawn, in the following ingenious manner. Thelabourer gets hold of one of these creepers that runs from the top boughsof a tree in the direction in which he wants to move his log, and pullingthis creeper home with all his force, bending down the bough, he attachesit to the log; then he goes to another creeper and does the same withthat; and so on until he has accumulated strain of many bent boughs, urging the log forward and of sufficient power to move it. 

Short cords of india-rubber with a hook at either end, are sold under thename of "accumulators. " It is proposed that each of these should bestretched and hooked by one of its ends to a fixed ring, and by theother, to the body to be moved; by applying a number of these, insuccession, an immense accumulation of force can be obtained. 

Levers. --A piece of green wood has insufficient strength to be used as acrowbar; it must first be seasoned. (See "Green Wood, to season. ")

Other Means of Raising Weights. --I do not propose to take space bydescribing jacks, ordinary pulleys, differential pulleys, Chinesewindlasses, and the like. It is sufficient that I should recall them byname to the traveller's recollection; for if he has access to any ofthese things he is probably either a sailor or engineer and knows allabout them, or he is in a land where mechanical appliances areunderstood. 

To raise Weights out of Water. --If the mass should lie below water, aboat may be brought over it and sunk to its gunwales; then, after makingfast to it, the boat can be baled and the thing floated away. A raftweighted with stones will serve the same purpose. In some cases a raftmay be built round the mass during low water; then the returning tide orthe next flush of the stream will float it away. 

"Although from its bulk several men might be puzzled to lift a cow-fishfrom the water when dead, yet one single Indian will stow the largest inhis montaria without assistance. The boat is sunk under the body, andrising, the difficult feat is accomplished. " (Edwards' 'Amazon. ')

The huge blocks of marble quarried at Carrara are shipped in the smallvessels of the country, as follows:--at low water the vessel is buriedbodily in the sand, and a temporary railway laid down from the quarry towithinside of it. Along this the blocks are conveyed, and, when depositedin the vessel, the sand is dug away from under them, and they settle downin its hold, and the ship floats away at the returning tide. 

KNOTS. 

Elementary Knots. --The three elementary knots which every one should knoware here represented--viz. , the Timber-hitch, the Bowline, and theClove-hitch. (See also "Knots, " p. 49; "Malay hitch, " p. 147. )

Timber-hitch. --The virtues of the timber-hitch (fig. 1, p. 326) are, that, so long as the strain upon it is kept up, it will hold fast; whenthe strain is taken off, it can be cast loose immediately. A timber-hitchhad better have the loose end twisted more than once, if the rope bestiff. 

Bowline. --The bowline (fig. 2) makes a knot difficult to undo; with itthe ends of two strings are tied together, or a loop made at the end of asingle piece of string, as in the drawing. For slip nooses, use thebowline to make the draw-loop. When tying a bowline, or any other knotfor temporary purposes, insert a stick into the knot before pullingtight. The stick will enable you, at will, to untie the knot--to breakits back, as the sailors say--with little difficulty. A bowline isfirmer, if doubled; that is, if the free end of the cord be made to wrapround a second time. 

[3 fig of knots tied as described]. 

Clove-hitch. --The clove-hitch (fig. 3) binds with excessive force, and byit, and it alone, can a weight be hung to a perfectly smooth pole, as toa tent-pole. A kind of double clove-hitch is generally used, but thesimple one suffices, and is more easily recollected. A double clove-hitchis firmer than a single one; that is, the rope should make two turns, instead of one turn, round the pole beneath the lowest end of the cord inthe figure. (See"Tent-poles, to tie things to. ")

Knots at End of Rope. --To make a large knot at the end of a piece ofstring, to prevent it from pulling through a hole, turn the end of thestring back upon itself, so as to make it double, and then tie a commonknot. The string may be quadrupled instead of doubled, if required. 

Toggle and Strop. --This is a tourniquet. A single or a double band ismade to enclose the two pieces of wood it is desired to lash together;then a stick is pushed into the band and forcibly twisted round. The bandshould be of soft material, such as the strands of a rope that has beenpicked to pieces for that purpose: the strands must each of them, beuntwisted and well rubbed with a stick to take the kink out of them, andfinally twisted in a direction opposite to their original one. 

[Sketch of knot as described]. 

To sling a Jar. --Put it in a handkerchief or a net. 

To tie a Parcel on the back, like a Knapsack. --Take a cord 10 feet long, double it, and lay the loop end upon a rock or other convenientelevation; then place the object to be carried upon the cord, taking carethat the loop is so spread out as to admit of its ultimately enclosingthe object with a good hold and balance. Next pass the free ends of thecord over the object and through the loop; then, bringing your shoulderto a level with the package, draw the free ends of the cords over yourright shoulder: the cords will by this time have assumed the appearanceshown in the sketch. 

[Sketch of cords as described]. 

Now pass the left arm between the left-hand cord and the package at B, and the right arm between the right-hand cord and the package at C. Lastly, draw the cords tight, and the object will be found to be fastenedon to your back like a knapsack. A gun may be passed between the cordsand the top of the object. This is a capital method of carrying a load ofgame over a broken country, where at least one hand is required to befree. I am indebted to Mr. F. M. Wyndham for a knowledge of it: he foundit frequently in use in Norway. In hot countries the plan would not be soconvenient, as the heat of a soft package strapped closely to the back isvery oppressive. 

WRITING MATERIALS. 

Paper. --Its Numerous Applications. --Captain Sherard Osborn, in writing ofthe Japanese, says:--"It was wonderful to see the thousand useful as wellas ornamental purposes to which paper was applicable in the hands ofthese industrious and tasteful people. Our papier-mache manufacturers, aswell as the Continental ones, should go to Yeddo to learn what can bedone with paper. With the aid of lacker varnish and skilful painting, paper made excellent trunks, tobacco bags, cigar cases, saddles, telescope cases, the frames of microscopes; and we even saw and usedexcellent water-proof coats made of simple paper, which did keep out therain, and were as supple as the best macintosh . . . . . The inner wallsof many a Japanese apartment are formed of paper, being nothing more thanpainted screens; their windows are covered with a fine translucentdescription of the same material; it enters largely into the manufactureof nearly everything in a Japanese household, and we saw what seemedballs of twine, which were nothing but long shreds of tough paper rolledup. . . . In short, without paper, all Japan would come to a dead lock. "

Sizing Paper. --The coarsest foreign paper can be sized, so as to preventits blotting when written on, by simply dipping it in, or brushing itwell over with, milk and water, and letting it dry. A tenth part of milkis amply sufficient. Messrs. Huc and Gabet inform us that this is theregular process of sizing, as used by paper-makers in Thibet. 

Substitutes for Paper are chips of wood, inner bark of trees, calico andother tissues, lead plates, and slaty stone. I knew an eminent engineerwho habitually jotted his pencil memoranda on the well-starched wristbandof his left shirt-sleeve, pushing back the cuff of his coat in order toexpose it. The natives in some parts of Bengal, when in the jungle, writeon any large smooth leaf with the broken-off moist end of a leaf-stalk ortwig of any milky sap-producing tree. They then throw dust upon it, whichmakes the writing legible. If the leaf be so written upon, the writing isimperceptible until the dust is sprinkled. This plan might, therefore, beof use for concealed writing. A person could write on the leaf withoutdetaching it from the tree. (See Sympathetic Ink. ")

Prepared Paper, for use with pencils of metallic lead (see "Pencils"), ismade by rubbing a paste of weak glue and bones burnt to whiteness andpounded, on the surface of the paper. 

Waxed Paper is an excellent substitute for tin-foil, for excluding theair and damp from parcels. It is made by spreading a sheet of writingpaper on a hot plate or stone and smearing it with wax. A hot flat-ironis convenient for making it. 

Carbonised Paper, for tracing or for manifold writing, is made by rubbinga mixture of soap, lampblack, and a little water on the paper, and, whendry, wiping off as much as possible with a cloth. 

Tracing Designs. --Transparent tracing-paper can hardly be made by atraveller, unless he contents himself with the use of waxed paper; but hemay prick out the leading points of his map or other design, and layingthe map on a sheet of clean paper, charcoal or other powder that willleave a stain, it can be rubbed through. 

Book-binding. --Travellers' unbound books become so terribly dilapidated, that I think it well to give a detailed description of a method ofbook-binding which a relative of mine has adopted for many years withremarkable success, and to a great extent. The books are nottidy-looking, but they open flat and never fall to pieces. Take a cup ofpaste; a piece of calico or other cloth, large enough to cover the backand sides of the book; a strip of strong linen--if you can get it, ifnot, of calico--to cover the back; and abundance of stout cotton orthread. 1st. Paste the strip of linen down the back, and leave the bookin the sun or near a fire--but not too near it--to dry, which it will doin half a day. 2ndly. Open the book and look for the place where thestiching is to be seen down the middle of the pages, or, in other words, for the middle of the sheets; if it be an 8vo. Book it will be at every16th page, if a 12mo. At every 24th page, and so on: it is a mere matterof semi-mechanical reckoning to know where each succeeding stitching isto be found; in this volume the stitching is at pages 216, etc. , the interval being 16 pages. Next take the cotton and wind it inbetween the pages where the stitching is, and over the back round andround, beginning with the first sheet, and going on sheet after sheetuntil you have reached the last one. 3rdly. Lay the book on the tableback upwards, daub it thoroughly with paste, put on the calico cover asneatly as you can, and set it to dry as before; when dry it is complete. 

Other Materials for Writing. --Quills and other Pens. --Any feather that islarge enough, can be at once made into a good writing-quill. It has onlyto be dipped in hot sand, which causes the membrane inside the quill toshrivel up, and the outside membrane to split and peel off: a fewinstants are sufficient to do this. The proper temperature of the sand isabout 340 degrees. The operation may be repeated with advantage two orthree times. Reeds are in universal use throughout the East for writingwith ink. Flat fish-bones make decent pens. 

Pencil. --Lead pencils were literally made of the metal lead in formerdays; and there are some parts of the world, as in Arabia, where they arestill to be met with. A piece of lead may be cast into a serviceableshape in the method described under "Lead, " and will make a legible markupon ordinary paper. Lead is the best material for writing in note-booksof "Prepared Paper) (which see). A better sort of pencil for general useis made by sawing charcoal into narrow strips, and laying them in meltedwax to drench for a couple of days, they are then ready for use. 

Paint brushes. --Wash the bit of tail or skin, whence the hair is to betaken, in ox-gall, till it is quite free from grease. Then snip off thehairs close to the skin, put them points downwards resting in a box, andpick out the long hairs. After a sufficient quantity have been obtainedof about the same length, a piece of string is knotted tightly roundthem, and pulled firm with the aid of two sticks. Then a quill, that hasbeen soaked in water for a day in order to soften it, is taken, and thepinch of hair is put into the large end of the quill, points forward, andpushed right through to the other end with a bit of stick, and so thebrush is made. The chinese paint-brush is a feather--a woodcock's featheris often used. Feather, like hairs, must be washed in ox-gall. 

Ink. --Excellent writing-ink may be made in the bush. The readiest way ofmaking it is to blacken sticks in the fire and to rub them well in aspoonful of milk till the milk becomes quite black. Gunpowder orlamp-soot will do as well as the burnt stick; and water, with theaddition of a very little gum, glue, or fish-glue (isinglass) is betterthan the milk, as it will not so soon turn sour. Indian ink is simplylamp-soot and some kind of glue: it is one of the best of inks. If purewater be used, instead of gum or glue and water, the writing will rub outvery easily when dry, the use of the milk, gum, or glue being to fix it:anything else that is glutinous will serve as well as these. Strongcoffee, and many other vegetable products, such as the bark of treesboiled in water, make a mark which is very legible and will not rub. Blood is an indifferent substitute for ink. To make 12 gallons of goodcommon writing-ink, use 12 lbs. Of nut-galls, 5 lbs. Of green sulphate ofiron, 5 lbs. Of gum, and 12 gallons of water. (Ure. )

Lampblack. --Hold a piece of metal, or even a stone, over a flaring wickin a cup of oil, and plenty of soot will collect. 

Sympathetic Ink. --Nothing is better or handier than milk. The writing isinvisible until the paper is almost toasted in the fire, when it turns arich brown. The juice of lemons and many other fruits may also be used. (See "Substitutes for Paper. ")

Gall of Animals, or Ox-gall to purify. --To make ink or paint take upongreasy paper, a very little ox-gall should be mixed with it. It is veryimportant to know this simple remedy, and I therefore extract thefollowing information from Ure's 'Dictionary. ' I have often practised it. "Take it from the newly-killed animal, let it settle for 12 or 15 hoursin a basin, pour the liquid off the sediment into an earthenware pot, andset the pot into a pan of water kept boiling until the gall-liquidbecomes somewhat thick. Then spread it on a dish and place it before thefire till nearly dry. In this state it may be kept, without any lookingafter, for years. When wanted, a piece the size of a pea should bedissolved in water. Ox-gall removes all grease-spots from clothes, etc. "

Wafers, Paste, and Gum. --Wafers. --The common wafers are punched out of asheet made of a paste of flour and water that has suddenly been bakedhard. Gum wafers are punched out of a sheet made of thick gum and waterpoured on a slightly-greased surface (a looking-glass for example), another greased glass having been put on the top of the gum to make itdry even. 

Paste should be made like arrowroot, by mixing the flour in a minimum ofcold water, and then pouring a flush of absolutely boiling water upon it. It is made a trifle thicker and more secure from insects by the additionof alum. Corrosive sublimate is a more powerful protection againstinsects, but is by no means an absolute safeguard, and it is dangerous touse. 

Gum. --The white of eggs forms a substitute for gum. Some sea-weeds yieldgum. (See also "Glue, " "Isinglass, " and "Sealing-wax Varnish. ")

Signets. --Many excellent and worthy bushmen have the misfortune of notknowing how to write: should any such be placed in a post of confidenceby an explorer, it might be well that he should cut for himself a signetout of soft stone--such as the europeans of bygone generations, and theTurks of the last one, very generally employed. A device is cut on theseal; before using it, the paper is moistened with a wet finger, and theink is dabbed over the ring with another; the impression is then made, using the ball of the thumb for a pad. 

Sealing-wax Varnish. --Black or red sealing-wax, dissolved in spirits ofwine, makes a very effective stiff and waterproof varnish, especially forboxes of paper or cardboard. It might be useful in keeping some ironthings from rust: it is the same material that is used to cover toymagnets. When made stiff it is an excellent cement for small articles. Opticians employ it for many of these purposes. I have also used it as apaint for marking initials on luggage, cutting out the letters in paperand dabbing the red stuff through. 

Small Boxes for Specimens. --Cut the side of a cigar-box, or a strip ofpasteboard, half through in three places, add two smaller pieces likewings, one on each side, by means of a piece of gummed paper overlappingthem, as in the picture. 

[Sketch of box unfolded and folded]. 

Any number of these may be carried like the leaves of a book, and when abox is wanted they may be bent into shape, and by the adherence of themoistened gum-paper, can be made into a box at a moment's notice. Theshaded border of the figure represents the gummed paper. Quills makeconvenient receptacles for minute specimens. They should be dressed (see"Quills"), and may be corked with a plug of wood or wax, or, for greatersecurity, a small quill may be pushed, mouth forward, into a larger one, as into a sheath. 

TIMBER. 

Green Wood. --To season Wood. --Green wood cannot be employed in carpentry, as it is very weak; it also warps, cracks, and becomes rotten: wood driedwith too great a heat loses its toughness as well as its pliability: itbecomes hard and brittle. Green wood is seasoned by washing out the sap, and then drying it thoroughly. The traveller's way of doing this by onerapid operation, is to dig a long trench and make a roaring fire in it;when the ground is burning hot, sweep the ashes away, deluge the trenchwith boiling water; and in the middle of the clouds of steam that arise, throw in the log of wood, shovel hot earth over it, and leave it to steamand bake. A log thick enough to make an axletree may thus be somewhatseasoned in a single night. The log would be seasoned more thoroughly ifit were saturated with boiling water before putting it into the trench;that can be done by laying it in a deep narrow puddle, and shovelling hotstones into the water. All crowbars, wagon-lifters, etc. , should beroughly seasoned as green wood is far too weak for such uses. The regularway of seasoning is to leave the timber to soak for a long time in water, that the juices may be washed out. Fresh water is better for this purposethan salt; but a mineral spring, if it is warm is better than cold freshwater. Parties travelling with a wagon ought to fell a little timber ontheir outward journey, and leave it to season against their return, inreadiness to replace strained axletrees, broken poles, and the like. Theymight, at all events, cut a ring round through the bark and sap-wood ofthe tree, and leave it to discharge its juices, die, and becomehalf-seasoned as it stands. 

To bend Wood. --If it is wished to bend a rod of wood, or to straighten itif originally crooked, it must be steamed, or at least be submitted tohot water. Thus a rod of green wood may be passed through the ashes of asmouldering fire and, when hot, bent and shaped with the hand; but if thewood be dry it must first be thoroughly soaked in a pond or puddle. Ifthe puddle is made to boil by shovelling in hot stones, as described inthe last paragraph, the stick will bend more easily. The long straightspears of savages are often made of exceedingly crooked sticks, straightened in the ashes of their camp fires. A thick piece of wood maybe well swabbed with hot water, forcibly bent, as far as can be safelydone, tied in position and steamed, as if for the purpose of seasoning(see last paragraph), in a trench; after a quarter of an hour it must betaken out, damped afresh if necessary, bent further, and again returnedto steam--the process being repeated till the wood has attained the shaperequired; it should then be left in the trench to season thoroughly. Theheads of dog-sledges, and the pieces of wood used for the outsides ofsnow-shoes, are all bent by this process. 

Carpenters' Tools. --Tools of too hard steel should not be taken on ajourney; they splinter against the dense wood of tropical countries, andthey are very troublesome to sharpen. The remedy for over-hardness is toheat them red-hot; retempering them by quenching in grease. A small ironaxe, with a file to sharpen it, and a few awls, are (if nothing else canbe taken) a very useful outfit. 

As much carpentry as a traveller is likely to want can be effected bymeans of a small axe with a hammer-head, a very small single-handed adze, a mortise-chisel, a strong gouge, a couple of medium-sized gimlets, a fewawls, a small Turkey-hone, and a whetstone. If a saw be taken, it shouldbe of a sort intended for green wood. In addition to these, a small tinbox full of tools, all of which fit into a single handle, is veryvaluable; many travellers have found them extremely convenient. There isa tool-shop near the bottom of the Haymarket and another in the Strandnear the Lowthier Arcade, where they can be bought; probably also atHoltzapfel's in Trafalgar Square. The box that contains them is about sixinches long by four broad and one deep; the cost is from 20s. To 30s. Lastly, a saw for metals, a few drills, and small files, may be addedwith advantage. It is advisable to see that the tools are ground and setbefore starting. A small "hard chisel" of the best steel, three incheslong, a quarter of an inch wide, and three-eighths thick--which anyblacksmith can make--will cut iron, will chisel marks on rocks, and beuseful in numerous emergencies. 

Sharpening Tools. --A man will get through most work with his tools, if hestops from time to time to sharpen them up. The son of Sirach says, speaking of a carpenter--"If the iron be blunt, and he do not whet theedge, then must he put to more strength; but wisdom is profitable todirect. "--Ecclesiasticus. A small fine file is very effectual in givingan edge to tools of soft steel. It is a common error to suppose that thebest edge is given by grinding the sides of the tool until they meet atan exceedingly acute angle. Such an edge would have no strength, andwould chip or bend directly. The proper way of sharpening a tool, is togrind it until it is sufficiently thin, and then to give it an edge whosesides are inclined to one another, about as much as those of the letterV. The edge of a chisel is an obvious case in point; so also is the edgeof a butcher's knife, which is given by applying it to the steel at aconsiderable inclination. A razor has only to cut hairs, and willsplinter if used to mend a pen, yet even a razor is shaped like a wedge, that it may not receive too fine an edge when stropped with its face flatupon the hone. 

Nails, Substitutes for. --Lashings of raw hide supersede nails for almostevery purpose. It is perfectly marvellous how a gunstock, that has beenshattered into splinters, can be made as strong again as ever, by meansof raw hide sewn round it and left to dry; or by drawing the skin of anox's leg like a stocking over it. It is well to treat your bit of skin asthough parchment (which see) were to be made of it, burying the skin andscraping off the hair, before sewing it on, that it may make no eyesore. Tendons, or stout fish-skin such as shagreen, may also be used on thesame principle. An axle-tree, cracked lengthwise, can easily be mendedwith raw hide; even a broken wheel-tire may be replaced with rhinocerosor other thick hide; if the country to be travelled over be dry. 

Sketch of lathe as described below]. 

Lathes may be wanted by a traveller, because the pulleys necessary for alarge sailing-boat, and the screw of a carpenter's bench, cannot be madewithout one. The sketch will recall to mind the original machine, nowalmost forgotten in England, but still in common use on the Continent. Itis obvious that makeshift contrivances can be set up on this principle, two steady points being the main things wanted. A forked bough sufficesfor a treadle. A very common Indian lathe consists of two tent-pegs, twonails for the points; a leather thong, and some makeshift hand-rest;neither pole nor treadle is used, but an assistant takes one end of thethong in one hand, and the other end in the other hand, and hauls away ina see-saw fashion. For turning hollows, a long spike is used instead of ashort point: then, a hole is bored into the wood to the depth of theintended hollow, and the spike is pushed forward until it abuts againstthe bottom of the hole. One form of lathe is simplicity itself: two thickstakes are driven in the ground, so far apart as to include the object tobe turned; a cross piece is lashed to them (by a creeper cut out of thejungle), for the double purpose of holding them together, and of servingas a rest for the gouge. The object is turned with a thong, as alreadydescribed. 

Charcoal, Tar, and Pitch. --Charcoal. --Dig a hole in the earth, or choosesome gigantic burrow, or old well, and fill it with piles of wood, arranging them so as to leave a kind of chimney down the centre: the topof the hole is now to be covered over with sods excepting the chimney, down which a brand is dropped to set fire to the wood. The burning shouldbe governed by opening or shutting the chimney-top with a flat stone; itshould proceed very gradually, for the wood ought to smoulder, and neverattain to a bright red heat: the operation will require from two days toa week. The tarry products of the wood drain to the bottom of the well. 

Tar is made by burning larch, fir, or pine, as though charcoal had to bemade; dead or withered trees, and especially their roots, yield tar mostcopiously. A vast deal is easily obtained. It collects at the bottom ofthe pit, and a hole with smooth sides should be dug there, into which itmay drain. For making tar on a smaller scale:--ram an iron pot full ofpine wood; reverse it and lay it upon a board pierced with a hole oneinch in diameter; then prop the board over another pot buried in theearth. Make all air-tight with wet clay round the upper pot and board, covering the board, but exposing the bottom of the reversed pot. Make agrand fire above and round the latter, and the tar will freely drop. Itwill be thin and not very pure tar, but clean, and it will thicken onexposure to the air. 

Pitch is tar boiled down. 

Turpentine and Resin. --Turpentine is the juice secreted by the pine, fir, or larch tree, in blisters under the bark; the trees are tapped for thepurpose of obtaining it. Resin is turpentine boiled down. 

METALS. 

Fuel for Forge. --Dry fuel gives out far more heat than that which isdamp. As a comparison of the heating powers of different sorts of fuel, it may be reckoned that 1 lb. Of dry charcoal will raise 73 lbs. Of waterfrom freezing to boiling; 1 lb. Of pit coal, about 60 lbs. ; and 1 lb. Ofpeat, about 30 lbs. Some kinds of manure-fuel give intense heat, and areexcellent for blacksmith's purposes: that of goats and sheep is the best;camels' dung is next best, but is not nearly so good; then that of oxen:the dung of horses is of little use, except as tinder in lighting a fire. 

Bellows. --It is of no use attempting to do blacksmith's work, if you havenot a pair of bellows. These can be made of a single goat-skin, ofsufficient power, in skilful hands, to raise small bars of iron to awelding heat. The boat's head is cut off close under the chin, his legsat the knee-joint, and a slit is made between the hind legs, throughwhich the carcase is entirely extracted. After dressing the hide, twostrongish pieces of wood are sewn along the slit, one at each side, justlike the ironwork on each side of the mouth of a carpet-bag, and for thesame purpose, i. E. To strengthen it: a nozzle is inserted at the neck. Touse this apparatus, its mouth is opened, and pulled out; then it issuddenly shut, by which means the bellows are made to enclose a bagful ofair; this, by pushing the mouth flat home, is ejected through the nozzle. These bellows require no valve, and are the simplest that can be made:they are in use throughout India. The nozzle or tube to convey the blastmay be made of a plaster of clay or loam, mixed with grass, and mouldedround a smooth pole. 

Metals, to work. --Iron Ore is more easily reduced than the ore of anyother metal: it is usually sufficient to throw the ore into acharcoal-fire and keep it there for a day or more, when the pure metalwill begin to appear. 

Welding Composition for iron or steel, is made of borax 10 parts, salammoniac 1 part; to be melted, run out on an iron plate, and, when cold, pounded for use. 

Cast Steel. --A mixture of 100 parts of soft iron, and two of lamp-soot, melts as easily as ordinary steel--more easily than iron. This is a readyway of making cast-steel where great heat cannot be obtained. 

Case-hardening is the name given to a simple process, by which theoutside of iron may be turned into steel. Small tools, fish-hooks, andkeys, etc. , are usually made of iron; they are fashioned first, andcase-hardened afterwards. There are good reasons for this: first, becauseit is the cheapest way of making them; and secondly, because while steelis hard, iron is tough; and anything made of iron and coated with steel, combines some of the advantages of both metals. The civilised method ofcase-hardening, is to brighten up the iron and to cover it with prussiateof potash, either powdered or made into a paste. The iron is then heated, until the prussiate of potash has burned away: this operation is repeatedthree or four times. Finally, the iron, now covered with a thin layer ofsteel, is hardened by quenching it in water. In default of prussiate ofpotash, animal or even vegetable charcoal may be used, but the latter isa very imperfect substitute. To make animal charcoal, take a scrap ofleather, hide, hoof, horn, flesh, blood--anything, in fact, that hasanimal matter in it; dry it into hard chips like charcoal, before a fire, and powder it. Put the iron that is to be case-hardened, with some ofthis charcoal round it, into the midst of a lump of loam. This is firstplaced near the fire to harden, and then quite into it, where it shouldbe allowed to slowly attain a blood-red heat, but no higher. Then, breakopen the lump, take out the iron, and drop it into water to harden. 

Lead is very useful to a traveller, for he always has bullets, whichfurnish the supply of the metal, and it is so fusible that he can readilymelt and cast it into any required shape; using wood, or paper, partlyburied in the earth, for his mould. If a small portion of the lead remainunmelted in the ladle, the fluid is sure not to burn the mould. Byattending to this a wooden mould may be used scores of times. 

[Sketches as described below]. 

Fig. 1 shows how to cast a leaden plate, which would be useful forinscriptions, for notices to other parties. If minced into squares, itwould make a substitute for slugs. The figure represents two flat piecesof wood, enclosing a folded piece of paper, and partly buried in theearth the lead is to be poured into the paper. 

To make a mould for a pencil, or a rod which may be cut into shortlengths for slugs, roll up a piece of paper as shown in fig. 2, and buryit in the earth: reeds, when they are to be obtained, make a strongermould than paper. 

To cast a lamp, a bottle, or other hollow article, use a cylinder ofpaper, buried in the ground, as in fig. 3, and hold a stick fast in themiddle, while the lead is poured round. 

Loose, shaky articles often admit of being set to rights, by warming thejoints and pouring a little melted lead into the cracks. 

Tin. --Solder for tin plates, is made of one or two parts of tin, and oneof lead. Before soldering, the surfaces must be quite bright and closetogether; and the contact of air must be excluded during the operation, else the heat will tarnish the surface and prevent the adhesion of thesolder: the borax and resin commonly in use, effect this. The best planis to clean the surfaces with muriatic acid saturated with tin: thismethod is invariably adopted by watchmakers and opticians, who never useborax and resin. The point of the soldering-tool must be filed bright. 

Copper, to tin. --Clean the copper well with sandstone; heat it, and rubit with sal-ammoniac till it is quite clean and bright; the tin, withsome powdered resin, is now placed on the copper, which is made so hot asto melt the tin, and allow it to be spread over the surface with a bit ofrag. A very little tin is used in this way: it is said that a piece asbig as a pea, would tin a large saucepan; which is at the rate of twentygrains of tin to a square foot of copper. 

LEATHER. 

Raw Hides. --Dressing Hides. --Skins that have been dressed are essentialto a traveller in an uncivilised country, for they make hispacking-straps, his bags, his clothes, shoes, nails, and string, therefore no hide should be wasted. There is no clever secret in dressingskins: it is hard work that they want, either continual crumpling andstretching with the hands, or working and trampling with the feet. Todress a goat-skin will occupy one person for a whole day, to dress anox-hide will give hard labour to two persons for a day and a half, oreven for two days. It is best to begin to operate upon the skin half anhour after it has been flayed. If it has been allowed to dry during theprocess, it must be re-softened by damping, not with water--for it willnever end by being supple, if water be used--but with whatever thenatives generally employ: clotted milk and linseed-meal are used inAbyssinia; cow-dung by the Caffres and Bushmen. When a skin is put asidefor the night, it must be rolled up, to prevent it from becoming dry bythe morning. It is generally necessary to slightly grease the skin, whenit is half-dressed, to make it thoroughly supple. 

Smoking Hides. --Mr. Catlin, speaking of the skins used by the N. AmericanIndians, says that the greater part of them "go through still anotheroperation afterwards (besides dressing), which gives them a greatervalue, and renders them much more serviceable--that is, the process ofsmoking. For this, a small hole is dug in the ground, and a fire is builtin it with rotten wood, which will produce a great quantity of smokewithout much blaze, and several small poles of the proper length stuck inthe ground around it, and drawn and fastened together at the top (makinga cone), around which a skin is wrapped in form of a tent, and generallysewed together at the edges to secure the smoke within it: within thisthe skins to be smoked are placed, and in this condition the tent willstand a day or two, enclosing the heated smoke; and by some chemicalprocess of other, which I do not understand, the skins thus acquire aquality which enables them, after being ever so many times wet, to drysoft and pliant as they were before, which secret I have never seenpractised in my own country, and for the lack of which all our dressedskins, when once wet, are, I think, chiefly ruined. " A single skin mayconveniently be smoked by sewing the edges together, so as to make a tubeof it: the lower end is tied round an iron pot with rotten wood burninginside, the upper end is kept open with a hoop, and slung to a triangle, as shown in the figure. 

[Sketch of hide smoking apparatus as described]. 

Tanning Hides. --Steep them in a strong solution of alum and a littlesalt, for a period dependent on the thickness of the hide. The gradualchange of the hide into tanned leather is visible, and should be watched. If desired, thehair may be removed before the operation, as described in"Parchment;" kid gloves are made of leather that has been prepared inthis way. 

Greasing Leather. --All leather articles should be occasionally wellrubbed with fat, when used in hot, dry climates, or when they are oftenwetted and dried again: it makes a difference of many hundred per cent. In their wear. It is a great desideratum to be possessed of a supply offat, but it is not easy to obtain it from antelopes and other sinewygame. The French troops adopt the following method, which Lord Lucancopied from them, when in the Crimea:--the marrowbones of the slaughteredanimals are broken between stones; they are then well boiled, and thebroth is skimmed when cold. 

To preserve Hides in a dried State. --After the hide has been flayed froma beast, if it is not intended to "dress" it, it should be pegged out inthe sun. If it be also rubbed over with wood-ashes, or better still withsalt, it will keep longer. Most small furs that reach the hands ofEnglish furriers have been merely sun-dried; but large hides are usuallysalted, before being shipped for Europe to be tanned. A hide that hasbeen salted is injured for dressing by the hand, but it is not entirelyspoiled: and therefore the following extract from Mr. Dana's 'Two Yearsbefore the Mast' may be of service to travellers who have shot many headof game in one place, or to those who have lost a herd of goats bydistemper. 

Salting Hides. --"The first thing is to put the hides to soak. This isdone by carrying them down at low tide, and making them fast in smallpiles by ropes, and letting the tide come up and cover them. Every day weput 25 in soak for each man, which with us make 150. There they lie 48hours, when they are taken out and rolled up in wheelbarrows, and throwninto vats. These vats contain brine made very strong, being sea-waterwith great quantities of salt thrown in. This pickles the hides, and inthis they lie 48 hours: the use of the sea-water into which they arefirst put being merely to soften and clean them. 

"From these vats they are taken to lie on a platform 24 hours, and arethen spread upon the ground and carefully stretched and staked out, sothat they may dry smooth. After they were staked, and while yet wet andsoft, we used to go upon them with our knives, and carefully cut of allthe bad parts: the pieces of meat and fat, which would otherwise corruptand affect the whole if stowed away in a vessel for months, the largeflippers, the ears, and all other parts that prevent close stowage. Thiswas the most difficult part of our duty, as it required much skill totake off everything necessary, and not to cut or injure the hides. It wasalso a long process, as six of us had to clean 150; most of whichrequired a great deal to be done to them, as the Spaniards are verycareless in skinning their cattle. Then, too, as we cleaned them whilethey were staked out, we were obliged to kneel down upon them, whichalways gives beginners the back-ache. The first day I was so slow andawkward that I only cleaned eight; at the end of a few days I doubled mynumber, and in a fortnight or three weeks could keep up with the others, and clean my proportion--twenty-five. "

CORD, STRING, THREAD. 

General Remarks. --I have spoken of the strength of different cords in"Alpine outfit, " p. 48. All kinds of cord become exceedingly rotten inhot, dry countries: the fishermen of the Cape preserve their nets bysteeping them occasionally in blood. Thread and twine should be waxedbefore using them for sewing, whenever there is reason to doubt theirdurability. 

Substitutes. --The substitutes for thread, string, and cord, are asfollows:--Thongs cut spirally, like a watch-spring, out of a piece ofleather or hide, and made pliant by working them round a stick; sinew andcatgut (pp. 346); inner bark of trees--this is easily separated bylong steeping in water, but chewing it is better; roots of trees, as thespruce-fir, split to the proper size; woodbines, runners, or plianttwigs, twisted together. Some seaweeds--the only English one of which Ihave heard is the common olive-green weed called Chorda Filum; it lookslike a whip-thong, and sometimes grows to a length of thirty or fortyfeet; when half-dried, the skin is taken off and twisted intofishing-lines, etc. Hay-bands; horsehair ropes, or even a few twistedhairs from the tail of a horse; the stems of numerous plants affordfibres that are more or less effective substitutes for hemp, those thatare used by the natives of the country visited should be notices; "Indiangrass" is an animal substance attached to the ovaries of small sharks andsome other fish of the same class. 

In lashing things together with twigs, hay-bands, and the like, the wayof securing the loose ends is not by means of a knot, which usuallycauses them to break, but by twisting the ends together until they"kink. " All faggots and trusses are secured in this way. 

Sewing. --Sewing Materials. --These are best carried in a linen bag; theyconsist of sail needles, packed in a long box with cork wads at the ends, to preserve their points; a sailor's palm; beeswax; twine; awls;bristles; cobbler's wax; large bodkin; packing-needle; ordinarysewing-needles; tailor's thimble; threads; cottons; silks; buttons;scissors; and pins. 

Stitches. --The enthusiastic traveller should be thoroughly grounded by atailor in the rudiments of sewing and the most useful stitches. They areas follows:--To make a knot at the end of the thread; to run; to stitch;to "sew'\;" to fell, or otherwise to make a double seam; to herring-bone(essential for flannels); to hem; to sew over; to bind; to sew on abutton; to make a button-hole; to darn; and to fine-draw. He should alsopractise taking patterns of some articles of clothing in paper, cuttingthem out in common materials and putting them together. He should take alesson or two from a saddler, and several, when on board ship, from asail-maker. 

Needles, to make. --The natives of Unyoro sew their beautifully preparedgoat-skins in a wonderfully neat manner, with needles manufactured bythemselves. "They make them not by boring the eye, but by sharpening theend into a fine point and turning it over, the extremity being hammeredinto a small cut in the body of the needle, to prevent it fromcatching. "--Sir S. Baker. 

MEMBRANE, SINEW, HORN. 

Parchment--The substance which is called parchment when made from sheepor goat skins, and vellum when from those of calves, kids, or dead-bornlambs, can also be made from any other skin. The raw hide is buried forone or two days, till the hair comes off easily; then it is taken out andwell scraped. Next a skewer is run in and out along each of its foursides, and strings being made fast to these skewers, the skin is verytightly stretched; it is carefully scraped over as it lies on thestretch, by which means the water is squeezed out; then it is rubbed withrough stones, as pumice or sandstone, after which it is allowed to dry, the strings by which the skewers are secured being tightened from time totime. If this parchment be used for writing, it will be found rathergreasy, but washing it will oxgall will probably remedy this fault. (See"Ox-gall, " p. 331. ) In the regular preparation of parchment, the skin issoaked for a short time in a lime-pit before taking off the hairs, to getrid of the grease. 

Catgut. --Steep the intestines of any animal in water for a day, peel offthe outer membrane, then burn the gut inside out, which is easily to bedone by turning a very short piece of it inside out, just as you wouldturn up the cuff of your sleeve; then, catching hold of the turned-upcuff, dip the whole into a bucket, and scoop up a little water betweenthe cuff and the rest of the gut. 

[Sketch of making catgut as described]. 

The weight of this water will do what is wanted: it will bear down anadditional length of previously unturned gut; and thus, by a fewsuccessive dippings, the entire length of any amount of intestine, however narrow it may be, can be turned inside out in a minute or two. Having turned the intestine inside out, scrape off the whole of its innersoft parts; what remains is a fine transparent tube, which, being twistedup tightly and stretched to dry, forms catgut. 

Membrane Thread. --Steep the intestines of any animal in water for a day;then peel off the outer membrane, which will come off in long strips;these should be twisted up between the hands, and hung out to dry; theyform excellent threads for sewing skins together, or indeed for any otherpurpose. 

Sinews for Thread. --Any sinews will do for making thread if the fibresadmit of being twisted or plaited together into pieces of sufficientlength. The sinews lying alongside the backbone are the most convenient, on account of the length of their fibres. After the sinew is driedstraight strips are torn off it of the proper size; they are wetted, andscraped into evenness by being drawn through the mouth and teeth; then, by one or two rubs between the hand and the thigh, they become twistedand their fibres are retained together. A piece of dried sinew is usuallykept in reserve for making thread or string. 

Glue is made by boiling down hides, or even tendons, hoofs, and horns, for a long time, taking care that they are not charred; then drawing offthe fluid and letting it set. 

Isinglass is made readily by steeping the stomach and intestines of fishin cold water, and then gently boiling them into a jelly: this is spreadinto sheets and allowed to dry. The air-bladder of the sturgeon makes thetrue isinglass. (See "Paste and Gum, " p. 332. )

Horn, Tortoiseshell, and Whalebone. --Horn is so easily worked into shapethat travellers, especially in pastoral countries, should be acquaintedwith its properties. By boiling, or exposing it to heat in hot sand, itis made quite soft, and can be moulded into whatever shape you will. Notonly this, but it can also be welded by heating and pressing two edgestogether, which, however, must be quite clean and free from grease, eventhe touch of the hand taints them. Sheets of horn are a well-knownsubstitute for glass, and are made as follows:--The horn is left to soakfor a fortnight in a pond; then it is well washed, to separate the pith;next it is sawn lengthwise, and boiled till it can be easily split intosheets with a chisel; which sheets are again boiled, then scraped to auniform thickness, and set into shape to dry. Tortoiseshell and whalebonecan be softened and worked in the same way. 

POTTERY. 

TO GLAZE POTTERY. --Most savages have pottery, but few know how to glazeit. One way, and that which was the earliest known of doing this, is tothrow handfuls of salt upon the jar when red-hot in the kiln. The readerwill doubtless call to mind the difficulties of Robinson Crusoe in makinghis earthenware water-tight. 

Substitute for Clay. --In Damara land, where there is no natural materialfitted for pottery, the savages procured mud from the interior of thewhite-ant hills, with which they made their pots. They were exceedinglybrittle, but nevertheless were large and serviceable for storingprovisions and even for holding water over the fire. I have seen them twofeet high. What it was that caused the clay taken from the ant-hills topossess this property, I do not know. 

Pots for Stores and Caches. --An earthen pot is excellent for a store ofprovisions or for a cache, because it keeps out moisture and insects, andanimals cannot smell and therefore do not attack its contents. 

CANDLES AND LAMPS. 

Candles. --Moulds for Candles. --It is usual, on an expedition, to take tinmoulds and a ball of wick for the purpose of making candles, from time totime, when fat happens to be abundant. The most convenient mould is ofthe shape shown in the figure. The tallow should be poured in, when itsheat is so reduced that it hardly feels warm to the finger; that is, justbefore setting. If this be done over-night, the candles will come out inthe morning without difficulty. But, if you are obliged to make many at atime, then, after the tallow has been poured in, the mould should bedipped in cold water to cool it: and then when the tallow has set, themould should be dipped for a moment in hot water to melt the outside ofthe newly-made candle and enable it to be easily extracted. By thismethod, the candles are not made so neatly as by the other, though theyare made more quickly. 

[Sketch of candle mould]. 

It is well to take, if not to make, a proper needle for putting the wicksinto the moulds. It should be a hooked piece of wire, like a crochetneedle, which catches the wick by its middle and pulls it doubled throughthe hole. A stick across the mouth of the mould secures the other end. When the tallow is setting, give an additional pull downwards. Agun-barrel, with a cork or wad put the required distance down the barrel, has been used for a mould. Pull the candle out by the wick after heatingthe barrel. Two wads might be used; the one strongly rammed in, toprevent the tallow from running too far, the other merely as a supportfor the wick. Perhaps, even paper moulds might be used; they could bemade by gumming or pasting paper in a roll. 

Dip Candles. --Candles that are made by "dipping, " gutter and run muchmore than mould candles, if they have to be used as soon as made. The wayof dipping them is to tie a number of wicks to the end of a woodenhandle, so shaped that the whole affair looks much like agarden-rake--the wicks being represented by the teeth of the rake; thenthe wicks are dipped in the tallow, and each is rubbed and messed by thehand till it stands stiff and straight; after this they are dipped alltogether, several times in succession, allowing each fresh coat of tallowto dry before another dipping. Wax candles are always made by thisprocess. 

Substitute for Candles. --A strip of cotton, 1 1/2 foot long, drenched ingrease, and wound spirally round a wand, will burn for half an hour. Alump of beeswax, with a tatter of an old handkerchief run through it, makes a candle on an emergency. 

Materials for Candles. --Tallow. --Mutton-suet mixed with ox-tallow is thebest material for candles. Tallow should never be melted over a hot fire:it is best to melt it by putting the pot in hot sand. To procure fat, see"Greasing Leather, " p. 343. 

Wax. --Boil the comb for hours, together with a little water to keep itfrom burning, then press the melted mass through a cloth into a deeppuddle of cold water. This makes beeswax. (See "Honey, to find, " p. 199. )

Candlestick. --A hole cut with the knife in a sod of turf or a potato; 3, 4, or 5 nails hammered in a circle into a piece of wood, to act as asocket; a hollow bone; an empty bottle; a strap with the end passed thewrong way through the buckle and coiled inside; and a bayonet stuck inthe ground, are all used as makeshift candlesticks. "In bygone days thebroad feet, or rather legs, of the swan, after being stretched and dried, were converted into candlesticks. "--Lloyd. 

Lamps. --Lamps may be made of hard wood, hollowed out to receive the oil;also of lead. (See "Lead, " p. 340. ) The shed hoof of an ox or other beastis sometimes used. 

Slush Lamp is simply a pannikin full of fat, with a rag wrapped round asmall stick planted as a wick in the middle of it. 

Lantern. --A wooden box, a native bucket, or a calabash, will make theframe, and a piece of greased calico stretched across a hole in its side, will take the place of glass. A small tin, such as a preserved-meat case, makes a good lantern, if a hole is broken into the bottom, and an openingin the side or front. Horn (see p. 347) is easily to be worked by atraveller into any required shape. A good and often a ready makeshift fora lantern, is a bottle with its end cracked off. This is best effected byputting water into the bottle to the depth of an inch, and then settingit upon hot embers. The bottle will crack all round at the level of thetop of the water. It takes a strong wind to blow out a candle stuck intothe neck inside the broken bottle. Alpine tourists often employ thiscontrivance when they start from their bivouac in the cark morning. 

[Sketch of candle in bottle]. 

ON CONCLUDING THE JOURNEY. 

Complete your Collections. --When your journey draws near its close, resist restless feelings; make every effort before it is too late tosupplement deficiencies in your various collections; take stock of whatyou have gathered together, and think how the things will serve inEngland to illustrate your journey or your book. Keep whatever is prettyin itself, or is illustrative of your every-day life, or that of thesavages, in the way of arms, utensils, and dresses. Make careful drawingsof your encampment, your retinue, and whatever else you may in indolencehave omitted to sketch, that will possess an after-interest. Look overyour vocabularies for the last time, and complete them as far aspossible. Make presents of all your travelling gear and old guns to yournative attendants, for they will be mere litter in England, costly tohouse and attractive to moth and rust; while in the country where youhave been travelling, they are of acknowledged value, and would beadditionally acceptable as keepsakes. 

Memoranda, to arrange. --Paste all loose slips of MSS. Into the pages of ablank book; and stitch your memoranda books where they are torn; givethem to a bookbinder, at the first opportunity, to re-bind and page them, adding an abundance of blank leaves. Write an index to the whole of yourMSS. ; put plenty of cross-references, insert necessary explanations, andsupplement imperfect descriptions, while your memory of the eventsremains fresh. It appears impossible to a traveller, at the close of hisjourney, to believe he will ever forget its events, however trivial; forafter long brooding on few facts, they will seem to be fairly brandedinto his memory. But this is not the case; for the crowds of newimpressions, during a few months or years of civilised life, will effacethe sharpness of the old ones. I have conversed with men of low mentalpower, servants and others, the greater part of whose experiences insavagedom had passed out of their memories like the events of a dream. 

Alphabetical Lists. --Every explorer has frequent occasion to draw up longcatalogues in alphabetical order, whether of words for vocabularies, orof things that he has in store: now, there is a right and a wrong way ofsetting to work to make them. The wrong way is to divide the paper intoequal parts, and to assign one of them to each letter in order. The rightway is to divide the paper into parts of a size proportionate to thenumber of words in the English language which begin with each particularletter. In the first case the paper will be overcrowded in some parts andutterly blank in others, in the second it will be equally overspread withwriting; and an ordinary-sized sheet of paper, if closely and clearlywritten, will be sufficient for the drawing up of a very extendedcatalogue. A convenient way of carrying out the principle I haveindicated is to take an English dictionary, and after having divided thepaper into as many equal parts as there are leaves in the dictionary, toadopt the first word of each leaf as headings to them. It may savetrouble to my reader if I give a list of headings appropriate to a smallcatalogue. We will suppose the paper to be divided into fifty-twospaces--that is to say, into four columns and thirteen spaces in eachcolumn--then the headings of these spaces, in order, will be asfollows:--

 A dul pal son adv eve per sta app fin ple sir bal gin pre sur bil hee pro tem bre imp que tos cap int rec tur chi k reg umb col lan ria une com mac sab ven cra mil sca wea dec nap sha wor dis off siz x y a

Verification of Instruments. --On arriving at the sea-level, make dailyobservations with your boiling-point thermometer, barometer, and aneroid, as they are all subject to changes in their index-errors. As soon as youhave an opportunity, compare them with a standard barometer, compare alsoyour ordinary thermometer and azimuth-compass with standard instruments, and finally, have them carefully re-verified at the Kew observatory onyour return to England. A vast deal of labour has been wholly thrown awayby travellers owing to their neglecting to ascertain the index-errors ofthese instruments at the close of their journey. A careful observer oughtto have eliminated the effects of instrumental errors from his sextantobservations; nevertheless it will be satisfactory to him, and it mayclear up some apparent anomalies, to have his entire instrumental outfitre-verified at Kew. 

Observations, to recalculate. --Send by post to England a complete copy(always preserve the originals) of all your astronomical observations, that they may be carefully recalculated before your return, otherwise along period may elapse before the longitudes are finally settled, andyour book may be delayed through the consequent impossibility ofpreparing a correct map. The Royal Geographical Society has frequentlyprocured the re-calculation of observations made on important journeys, at the Royal Greenwich Observatory and elsewhere. I presume that awell-known traveller would never find a difficulty in obtaining thecalculations he might desire, through the medium of that Society, if itwas distinctly understood that they were to be made at his own cost. 

Lithograph Maps. --It may add greatly to the interest which a travellerwill take in drawing up a large and graphic route-map of his journey, ifhe knows the extreme ease and cheapness with which copies of such a mapmay be multiplied to any extent by a well-known process in lithography:for these being distributed among persons interested in the country wherehe has travelled, will prevent his painstaking from being lost to theworld. Sketches and bird'[S-eye views may be multiplied in the samemanner. The method to which I refer is the so-called Anastatic process;the materials can be obtained, with full instructions, at anylithographer's shop, and consist of autographic ink and paper. The paperhas been prepared by being glazed over with a composition, and the ink isin appearance something like Indian ink, and used in much the same way. With an ordinary pen, with this ink, and upon this paper, the travellerdraws his map; they are neither more nor less difficult to employ thancommon stationery, and he may avail himself of tracing-paper withoutdanger. He has one single precaution to guard against, which is, not totouch the paper overmuch with his bare and, but to keep a bit of loosepaper between it and the map as he draws. As soon as it is finished, themap is taken to a lithographer, who puts it face downwards on a stone, and passes it under his press, when every particle of ink leaves thesurface of the paper and attaches itself to the surface of the stone, precisely as though it had originally been written there; the glaze onthe paper, which prevents the ink from soaking into it, makes thistransference more easy and complete. The stone can now be worked with, just as a stone that has been regularly lithographed in the usual manner;that is to say, printing ink may be rubbed over it and impressions may betaken off in any number. It will be observed that the writing on thepaper is reversed upon the stone, and is re-reversed, or set right again, in the impressions that are taken from it. The lithographer's charges forfurnishing autographic ink and paper, working the stone, striking offfifty copies of a folio size, and supplying the paper (common whitepaper) for the copies--in fact every expense included--need not exceedten shillings, and may be much less. If before drawing his map thetraveller were to go to some working lithographer and witness theprocess, and make two or three experiments in a small way, he wouldnaturally succeed all the better. A map drawn on a large scale, thoughwithout any pretension to artistic skill, with abundance of profile viewsof prominent landmarks, and copious information upon the routes that wereexplored, written along their sides, would be of the utmost value tofuture travellers, and to geographers at home. 

INDEX. 

Accumulators. 

Advantages of Travel. 

Agates for striking sparks. 

Agreement with Servants. 

Alarm gun. 

Alloy for bullets. 

Alkail. 

Almanack, (see "Diagram"). 

Alpenstock. 

Alphabet, signal. 

Alpine tent. 

Amadou. 

Ammunition (See GUN FITTINGS and AMMUNITION). 

Anastatic process. 

Anchors. 

Andersson, Mr. 

Angareb (bedstead). 

Angles, to measure; by means of chords. 

Animal heat. 

Anthills of white ants, as ovens; yellow ants, as signs of direction. 

Arctic see "Snow, " "Esquimaux, " and "Climbing and Mountaineering. ". 

Arms, weapons. 

Arrows; set by a springe; to poison; to shoot fish. 

Artificial horizon. 

Ashes, for soap; for salt; for saltpetre and touchpaper; bivouac in;in flooring; dressing skins. 

Ass; kicking, to check; braying. 

Atkinson, Mr. 

Austin, Mr. 

Autographic ink. 

Awnings, to boat; to litter; to tents. 

Axe, for marking trees; for ice; to re-temper. 

Axletree, to mend; to prepare wood for. 

Backs, sore. 

Bags for sleeping in; saddle-bags; bags carried over saddle;on packsaddle; to tie the mouth of. 

Baines, Mr. 

Baker, Sir S. 

Baking Ball (bullet); poisoned (see "Lead"). 

Ballantyne, Mr. 

Bamboo rafts; to dig with; to cut meat; to strike sparks;to boil water in; to hitch together. 

Barclay, Captain, of Ury. 

Bark, to strip; for boats; for water vessels; for string andcord; for cloth. 

Barrels, as water vessels; in digging wells; to make filters;as floats (see also "Gourd-floats, "). 

Barth, Dr. 

Basket-work boats; bucket; to protect water-bags. 

Bath, vapour; bath-glove. 

Battues, marking beaters at. 

Beach, bivouac on (see "Dateram, "). 

Beacons, fire and smoke. 

Beads, for presents and payments; as means of counting. 

Beale, Lieutenant. 

Bearings by Compass, Sun, etc. --Pocket compass; bearings bysun and stars; other signs of direction; to follow a track atnight. 

Bedding--General remarks; vital heat; mattresses and theirsubstitutes; preparing the ground for bed; coverlets; pillows. 

Bedstead. 

Bees, to find hive. 

Beke, Dr. 

Belcher, Admiral Sir E. 

Bellows. 

Bells for cattle; to strings (thieves). 

Belt, life; for trousers; bundle tied to. 

Bengal fire. 

Birds, flight of, shows water; dead game; direction of unseencoast; Food of birds wholesome to man; rank birds, to prepare, for eating; watchfulness of; (see "Feathers, " "Quills, "Shooting and Game). 

Birdlime. 

Biscuit, meat. 

Bivouac--General remarks on shelter; various methods of bivouacking;bivouac in special localities; in hostile country; in unhealthycountries; flies at night. 

Blacksmith's work (see Metals). 

Black paint; lampblack. 

Bladder for carrying water (see "Floats, "; Membrane). 

Blakiston, Captain, R. A. 

Blanket stocking. 

Blaze (marked trees); of fire in early morning. 

Bleeding, haemorrhage; blood-letting. 

Bligh, Captain. 

Blisters. 

Blood, in making floors; as food; as paint; as ink. 

Blue fire. 

Boats (see Rafts and Boats). Boat fire-place; routes, to mark; shippinggreat weights; moving them on land; shooting from; fishing fron. 

Bogs, to cross. 

Bois de Vache (cattle-dung). 

Bolas. 

Bones, as fuel; food; to extract fat from; broken bones. 

Books, for MS. ; to bind; on conclusion of journey. 

Boots. 

Borrow, Mr. 

Bougeau, Mr. 

Bows set by a spring (see Arrows). 

Box of card, to pack flat. 

Braces, for trousers; for saddlery; to weave. 

Brands, for trees; for cattle. 

Break to carriage wheels. 

Breakwater of floating spars. 

Bridges of felled trees; flying bridges. 

Bridles. 

Broken limbs. 

Brush, to make; paint-brush. 

Buccaneer. 

Bucket; pole and bucket at wells. 

Buckle. 

Bullet; poisoned (see "Lead"). 

Buoys. 

Burning down trees; hollows in wood. 

Burning-glasses. 

Bush-costume. 

Bush-laws. 

Bushing a tent. 

Butcher Butcher's knife. 

Butter; relieves thirst. 

Caches and Depots--Caches; hiding jewels; depositing letters;reconnoitring by help of porters. 

Caesar. 

Calabash floats; water vessels. 

Calculations, to procure; blank forms. 

Calf stuffed with hay (Tulchan). 

Campbell, Mr. J. , of Islay. 

Camel. 

Camp (see Bivouac, Hut, Tent)m to fortify; camp fire; bakingbeneath. 

Candles and Lamps--Candles; materials for candles; candlesticks;lamps To obtain a blaze in early morning. 

Canoe, of a log; of three planks; of reeds and fibre; of bark;of the Rob Roy pattern; to carry on horseback. 

Canvas, life-belt; water vessels; boat; painted, for sleeping rug. 

Cap (hat); (percussion); to obtain fire from. 

Carbon paper for tracing. 

Carcass (carrion), to find; newly dead animal, warmth of. 

Card-boxes, to pack flat. 

Carpenters' tools (see "Burning down Trees, ". 

Carrara, shipping heavy blocks. 

Carriages--Wagons; drays; tarring wheels; breaks and drags;sledges; North American travel (trail); palanquins. 

Carrion. 

Carross (fur) (see). 

Cartel (bedstead). 

Carter, Alpine Outfitter. 

Case-hardening. 

Cask (see "Barrel"). 

Castings, of lead; cast-steel. 

Cats cannot endure high altitudes. 

Catgut; for nooses. 

Cattle--Weights carried by cattle; theory of loads and distances;horses; mules; asses; oxen; cows; camels; dogs; goats and sheep;management of horses and other cattle; intelligence of, in findingwater; smell road; keep guard; will efface cache marks; to watercattle; to swim with; to use as messengers (see 'Horse' in "Index"). 

Cattle-dung, as fuel; as tinder; in plastering huts; in makingfloors; in dressing skins. 

Catlin, Mr. 

Caulking boats; leaky water vessels. 

Caviare. 

Cerate ointment. 

Chaff, to cut, with a sickle. 

Chairs. 

Chalk to mark hats of beaters; whitwash. 

Charcoal, to make; for gun-powder; in balls (gulo); fire-placefor; used in filters; pencils made of; powdered and buried as amark Animal charcoal. 

Cheese, to make. 

Chill, radiation (see "Vital Heat, "; "Wet Clothes, "' and "Comfortin Travel"). 

Chisel, cold for metals or stone. 

Chollet's dried vegetables. 

Chords, table of; table for triangulation by. 

Christison, Dr. , tables on diet. 

Chronometer (see "Watch-pocket, "). 

Clay for pottery. 

Cleanliness (see "Washing Clothes, "; "Washing Oneself, "; "Warmthof Dirt, "). 

Cliffs, to descend with ropes. 

Climbing and Mountaineering--Climbing; descending cliffs withropes; leaping poles and ropes; the art of climbing difficultplaces; snow mountains; ropes; ice-axe; alpenstock; boots, spectacles, and masks, --Climbing with a horse; descendingwith wagons; rarefied air, effect of; mountains, coup e'airon; magnetism of. 

Clothing--Materials; warmth of different kinds; waterproofingand making incombustible, sewing materials; articles of dress(caps, coats, socks, etc. ); wet clothes, to dry; to keep dry;washing clothes; soap; washing flannels; washing oneself; warmthof dirt; bath glove and brush; Double clothing for sleeping in. 

Clove-hitch. 

Coat; to carry. 

Cold (see "Chill"). 

Collar, horse; swimming-collar. 

Colomb and Bolton's signals. 

Comfort in travel; dry clothes. 

Compass. 

Conclusion of the Journey--Completing collections; alphabeticallists; observations re-calculated; lithographical map. 

Concrete for floors. 

Condiments. 

Condors, to trap. 

Convergence of tracks aflight, to water; to dead game; of beesto hive. 

Cooking; utensils; fire-places; ovens; cook to be quick in makingthe fire. 

Cooper, Mr. W. M. 

Copper, to cover with tin; copper boats. 

Cormorants. 

Corracles. 

Cord, String, Thread--Suibstitutes; sewing; needles, to make(see "Ropes"). 

Corks and stoppers. 

Cot. 

Cotton, for clothing; for tinder. 

Counting, as done by savages. 

Coverlets. 

Cows. 

Crawfurd, Mr. J. 

Cresswell, Lieut. , R. N. 

Crocodiles, to shoot. 

Cross, as a mark for roads. 

Crowbar. 

Crows, to destroy. 

Crupper. 

Culprits, to secure; punishment. 

Cumming, Mr. Gordon. 

Cups; to make tea in. 

Curing meat; hides. 

D's for saddle. 

Dahoman night-watch. 

Dalyell, Sir R. 

Dana, Mr. 

Dangers of travel, I. 

Darwin, Mr. 

Dateram (for tent and picket ropes). 

Davenport brothers. 

Death of one of the party. 

Decoy-ducks. 

Defence. 

Depot (see Caches and Depots). 

Dew, to collect for drinking. 

Diagram of altitudes and bearings. 

Dial, sun. 

Diarrhoea. 

Diet, theory of. 

Digging. 

Dirt, warmth of. 

Discipline. 

Diseases. 

Distances, to measure; travelled over by day; loads and distances, theory of. 

Distilling. 

Division of game; by drawing lots. 

Doebereiner and Oelsner. 

Dogs, in harness; in fishng; in finding water; as messengers; tokeep at bay; eating snow; sheep-dogs. 

Donkey (see "Ass"). 

Douglas, Sir H. 

Down of plants as tinder. 

Drags and breaks. 

Drain to tents. 

Dray (wagon). 

Dress (see Clothing); dressing-gown. 

Drinking, when riding; from muddy puddles. 

Drowning. 

Drugs. 

Druitt, Mr. 

Dry, to keep, importance of; to dry clothes; to keep clothes dry;small packets, when swimming; tinder in wet weather; buried letters;dry fuel, to find; to dry meat, ;fish; eggs. 

Duck shooting. 

Dung, cattle (see "Cattle-dung"). 

Ear-trumpet. 

Ecclesiasticus. 

Echo, as a guide in steering. 

Edge of tools. 

Edgington, tents. 

Edwards, Mr. 

Eggs, to dry; white of, as gum. 

Elephants. 

Emetics. 

Encampments (see Bivouac, Hut, Tent). 

Enquiries, I (see Preparatory Enquiries). 

Esquimaux, lamp for cooking; spectacles for snow; faw meat forscurvy; raw meat and fur bag (see "Snow"). 

Estimates (see Outfit). 

Everest, Colonel Sir G. 

Expedition (see Organizing an Expedition). 

Extract, of meat; of tea and coffee. 

Eyre, General. 

Faggot hung to gree, as a mark. 

Falconer, Mr. 

Fat (see "Grease"). 

Feast-days. 

Feathers, for bed; for mark by road-side; on string, to scaregame. 

Felt, to make. 

Ferns as food. 

Ferry, African, of calabashes; of reeds; flying bridges. 

Fever, I. 

Filters. 

Fire--General remarks; to obtain fire from the sun (burning-glasses, reflectors); by conversion of motion into heat (flint and steel, guns, lucifers, fire-sticks); by chemical means (spontaneous combustion);tinder; tinder-boxes; fuel; small fuel for lighting the fire; tokindle a spark into a flame; camp fires Burning down trees; hollowsin wood; fire-beacons; prairie on fire; first obliterate cache marks;leave an enduring mark; heating power of fuels; blacksmithery; wetclothes, to dry; tent, to warm; incombustible stuffs ( see "Brands"). 

Fishing--Fishing-tackle; to recover a lost line; otters; boat-fishing;to see things under water; nets; spearing fish; intoxicating fish;otters, cormorants, and dogs; Fish roe as food; fish, dried and pounded;fish skin (see "Skin"); fish-hook for springes. 

Fitzroy, Admiral. 

Flags, for signals. 

Flannel; to wash. 

Flash of sun from mirror. 

Flashing signals. 

Flashing alphabet. 

Flask, battered, to mend (see). 

Fleas. 

Flies, near cattle-kraals. 

Flints; for gun; sparks used as a signal; as a light to show theroad; flint knives. 

Floats; floating powers of wood. 

Flogging. 

Floors, to make. 

Flour, nutritive value; to carry. 

Flying bridges. 

Food--Nutritive elements of food; food suitable for stores;condiments; butcher; store-keeping; wholesome food procurable inbush; revolting food, to save lives of starving men;cooking utensils; fire-places for cooking; ovens;bush-cookery. 

Forbes, Captain, R. N. 

Forbes, Professor J. 

Fords and Bridges--Fords; swamps; passing things from hand to hand;plank roads; snow-drifts and weak ice; bridges; flying bridges. 

Forge. 

Forest as shelter; log huts; to travel in a straight linethrough forests. 

Form, for log-book; calculations; for agreement withservants. 

Fortification of camp. 

Fountains. 

Fuel; heating powers of various kinds. 

Fulminating powder in destroying wolves; percussion caps. 

Furnioture--Bed. ; hammocks and cots; mosquito-nets; chairs;table--(See also). 

Fusees, in making a fire. 

Gall (ox-gall); girth-galls; blisters. 

Game, other means of Capturing (besides shooting)--General remarks;springes; pitfalls; traps; poison; bird-line; catching withthe hand; bolas; lasso; ham-stringing; hawking To hide fromanimals of prey; division of spoils; to float across a river;to carry Dead animals, to find; water, in paunch of. 

Garibaldi. 

Gauze, for mosquito-curtains; to make incombustible; stretchedover mercurial horizon. 

Geographical Society. 

Gilby, Mr. 

Gipsy tent; marks (patterans). 

Girths; girth-galls. 

Glass, to shape; substitute for, in mercurial horizon; tosilver; substitute for glass. 

Glaisher, Mr. 

Glaze for pottery. 

Glove (bath-glove). 

Glue. 

Goats. 

Gold, to carry. 

Gourd float; boat (makara). 

Grains (for spearing fish). 

Grant, Captain. 

Grass shutters. 

Graters. 

Grease for leather; in dressing skins; for wheels; to procurefrom bones; for relieving thirst; oiling the person; butter;olive oil, to purify. 

Gregory, Mr. 

Gul (ball of charcoal). 

Gum. 

Gun-fittings and Ammunition--Powder-flask; percussion-caps;wadding; flints; gunpowder; bullets; shot and slug. 

Guns and Rifles--Breech-loading; best size of gun; sights, ramrod, etc. ; rust; olive-oil, to purify; injuries to gun, torepair; guns to hang up; to carry on a journey; on horse-back;to dispose of at night; to clean--To procure fire; to set analarm-gun; to support tenting. 

Gunpowder, to make; to carry; mark on stone left by flash;in lighting a fire; in making touch-paper; substitute for salt;fulminating powder to kill beasts; powder-flask; battered, to mend (see). 

Gut; catgut. 

Gutta percha (see "Macintosh"). 

Guy-rope in tenting. 

Haemorrhage. 

Haggis. 

Hall, Dr. Marshall. 

Hammering, sound of. 

Hammock. 

Hamstringing. 

Handing things across a swamp. 

Handbook for Field Service. 

Handkerchief, to sling a jar; to tie the wrists. 

Hands of prisoner, to secure. 

Harness--Saddles for riding; bags; sore backs; pack-saddles;pack-bags; art of packing; girths, stirrups, bridles, etc. ;tethers, hobbles and knee-halters; horse-collar, traces andtrek-tows. 

Hats Hawker, Colonel. 

Hawks for hawking; to trap. 

Head, Sir F. 

Hearne, Mr. 

Heat, vital; heating power of different fuels (see Fire). 

Heather in bivouac. 

Heavy bodies, to move. 

Heber, Bishop. 

Heliostat. 

Helm. 

Hides (see "Skins;" also Leather). 

Hiding-places (see Caches and Depots). 

Hills (see Climbing, etc. ). 

Hitch, Malay (see Knots). 

Hobbies. 

Holes, to dig. 

Honey, to find; honey-bird. 

Hooker, Dr. 

Hooks, for walls of hut; fish-hooks; for springes. 

Horizon, artificial. 

Horn; substitute for glass; powder-horn. 

Horse; to check descent of wagon; tied to sleeping master;to horn of dead game; picketted to a dateram; running by sideof; climbing with; descending with; in deep snow;swimming with; carrying a gun on; loading on; tying aprisooner on; raising water from wells; horseflesh; hairfor string; collar. 

Hostilities--To fortify a camp; weapons to resist an attack;natives forbidden to throng the camp; keeping watch;prairie set on fire; tricks upon robbers; passing through ahostile country; securing prisoners; proceedings in case ofdeath. 

Hours' journey. 

Huber, M. 

Hue and Gabet, MM. Hunger. 

Huts--Log huts; underground huts; snow-houses; wattle and daub;palisades; straw or reed walls; bark; mats; Malay hitch;tarpaulin; whitewash; roofs, floors, windows. 

Ice, weak, to cross; axe; burning lens, made of. 

Incombustible stuffs. 

Index, to make. 

India-rubber (see "MacIntosh"). 

Information, preparatory, to obtain; through native women. 

Ink; autographic; sympathetic. 

Insects as food; mosquitos; flies; fleas; lice. 

Instruments for surveying; verification of; porters for;surgical instruments. 

Interpreters. 

Intesting to carry water; as swimming-belt; to make catgut from;membrane thread. 

Iron, ore to reduce; forge; boats. 

Isinglass. 

Ivory, to sling on pack-saddle. 

Jar, to sling. 

Jackson, Colonel. 

Javelins, set over beast paths. 

Jerked meat. 

Jewels, to secrete. 

Jourt, Kirghis. 

Kabobs. 

Kane, Dr. 

Kegs for pack-saddles. 

Keels. 

Kerkari. 

Kettle; used for distilling. 

Kite, as a signal. 

Knapsack sleeping-bag; to carry heavy weights knapsack fashion. 

Knee-halter. 

Knife. 

Knots--See also "Knots in Alpine Ropes, "; tying to tent-pole;tent-pole, to mend; knotting neck of a bag; Malay hitch;matting and weaving; raft fastening; leather vessels, tomend; hide lashings; rush chairs For a place to make fast to, see "Burning down Trees, "; "Digging Holes to plant them, "; "Dateram, ". 

Kraals. 

Ladder. 

Laird, M'Gregor, Mr. 

Lamp; of lead, to cast; Esquimaux; lamp-black. 

Lantern. 

Lappar (to scare game). 

Lashings of raw hide. 

Lasso. 

Lathe. 

Laws of the bush. 

Lead; to cast. 

Leaks, to caulk, in boats; in water vessels. 

Leaping-ropes and poles. 

Leather--To dress hides; to preserve them without dressing;greasing leather Leather clothing; tents; lashingsof raw hide; leather vessels, to repair; ropes (See"Skins. "). 

Leggings. 

Leichhardt, Dr. 

Length, measurement of. 

Letters, to deposit; carried by animals; of alphabet, to stampand to brand. 

Lever. 

Lice. 

Lime, to make; to poison fish; bird-lime. 

Linen clothing. 

Lines, for fishing. 

Lists of stores; of instruments; alphabetical, to make. 

Lithographic map, to make. 

Litter for the wounded; horse-litter. 

Livingstone, Dr. 

Lloyd, Mr. 

Loading guns. 

Loads and distances, theory of. 

Locusts, to cook. 

Log-book; log for a boat's speed; log-hut. 

Lopstick (to mark a road). 

Lost road; articles in sand; fishing-line, in water; tosee things lost under water. 

Lots how to draw. 

Lucan, Lord. 

Lucifer matches; for percussion caps. 

Lunars. 

Luxuries of tent-life. 

Lye (for soap). 

Lunch, Lieutenant. 

McClintock, Captain Sir L. 

Macgregor, Mr. 

Macintosh for under bedding; sleeping-bag; inflatable boats;water vessels; gun-cover; is spoilt by grease. 

Maclear, Sir Thos. 

McWilliams, Dr. 

Madrina (of mules). 

Magnetic bearings; magntism of rocks. 

Makara (gourd-raft). 

Malaria fever. 

Malay hitch. 

Marks for the way-side--Marks in the forest; for canoe routes;marks with stones; gipsy and other marks; paint To mark cattle(see also "Caches, "). 

Mask for snow mountains. 

Mast, substitute for. 

Match, lucifer; sulphur. 

Mats; for tents (see "Reed huts, "). 

Mattresses; feathers for. 

Meaden, Captain J. 

Measurements--Distance travelled; of rate of movement;tables for ditto; natural units; measurement of anagles;chords and table of; triangulation; table for, on principle ofchords; time, measurement of. 

Meat biscuit. 

Mechanical appliances--On land; by wetted seeds;accumulation of efforts; to raise weights out of water. 

Medicine--General remarks; drugs and instruments; bushremedies; illnesses and accidents; little for the wounded(see also "Palanquin, "). 

Membrane, Sinew, Horn--Parchment; cat-gut; membranethread; sinews for thread; glue;; isinglass; horn, tortoise-shell and whalebone. 

Memoranda and Log-books--General remarks; pocket MS. -book;log-book; calculation books; number of observations requiringrecord Memoranda, to arrange. 

Metals--Fuel for forge; bellows; iron and steel;case-hardening; lead, to cast; tin-plates; copper. 

Mercury to harden lead with. 

Metallic (prepared) paper. 

Miller, Professor W. H. 

Milk, to preserve; sizing paper with; used as sympathetic ink;to milk wild cows. 

Milton, Lord. 

Mirage. 

Mirror, signalling with the sun. 

Mitchell, Sir Thomas. 

Moltke. 

Mosquito curtains; tent of. 

Moss on trees, a sign of direction. 

Mould for candles. 

Mountain (see Climbing and Mountaineering). 

Muddy water, to filter. 

Muff. 

Mule. 

Murray, Admiral Hon. C. 

Nails, substitutes for. 

Napoleon I. , on bivouac. 

Natives (see "Savages"). 

Navy (British) diet. 

Needles. 

Neighing. 

Nets. 

Nettle as food. 

Niger, expedition to. 

Night, to follow a track by; shooting; night-glass; compass. 

Nocturnal animals. 

Nooses. 

Notes, to keep. 

Notices to another party. 

Number of a party; to camps. 

Nunn, W. And Co. 

Nutritive elements of food. 

Oakum, for bedding. 

Observations, number required; to procure calculation of. 

Occultations, telescopes for. 

Oil (olive) to refine (see "Grease"). 

Ointment. 

Opera glass as a night glass; supplies a burning lens; anda lens to condense light. 

Ophthalmia. 

Organising an Expedition--Best size for party; servants'engagement; women. 

Osborn, Captain Sherard, R. N. 

Ostrich eggs, to carry. 

Oswell, Mr. W. C. 

Otter; fishermen's board. 

Outfit--Stores for general use; for individual use; presentsand articles for payment; summary; means of transport; Outfit of medicine;Alpine gear; sewing materials. 

Outline forms for calculations; for the log-book. 

Outrigger, to balance canoes; irons for oars. 

Ovampo camp-fires. 

Ovens. 

Owen, Professor. 

Ox; for stalking; ox-gall. 

Paces, length of; to measure rate of travel by. 

Pack saddles; kegs for; art of packing. 

Padlock to a buckled strap. 

Palliasse. 

Paint; to paint cattle; paint-brush. 

Palanquin (see "Litter, "). 

Palisades. 

Palliser, Captain J. 

Pan-hunting. 

Paper; warmth of, in coverlet. 

Parbuckling. 

Parchment. 

Park, Mungo. 

Parkyns, Mansfield, Mr. 

Party, to organise (see Organising an Expedition). 

Paste. 

Patch to a water-bag. 

Path, lost. 

Patterans (gipsy marks by road). 

Paunch of dead animal, water in. 

Payment, articles of. 

Peal, Mr. 

Peat. 

Pegs, tent; to secure tent ropes; for hooks. 

Pemmican. 

Pencils. 

Pendulum. 

Pens. 

Percussion caps. 

Pereira, Dr. 

Picketting horses in sand. 

Picture writing. 

Pillow. 

Pitch. 

Pitching a tent. 

Pitfall. 

Pith for tinder; for hats. 

Plaids in bivouac in heather; wetted, in wind. 

Planks, to sew together (see Timber); plank-roads. 

Poaching devices (see Game, Other Means, etc. ). 

Poison for beasts; for fish; for stakes in pitfalls; forarrows; for bullets; snake bites; suspicion of poison;poisonous plants; antedotes to poison. 

Pole for tent; pole and bucket; pole star. 

Poncho. 

Portable food. 

Porters for instruments; of provisions for depots. 

Pottery--Glaze for; clay; pots for stores and caches; Pot for cooking;to mend; substitute for; baking in; distilling from. 

Powder (see "Gunpowder"). 

Prairie on fire. 

Precautions against poison; malaria; unwholesome water; thieves. 

Preparatory Inquiries--Qualifications for a traveller; dangers oftravel; advantages; to obtain information; conditions of failureand success; the leader; servants. 

Presents for savages. 

Preserving food. 

Pricker for gun-nipples. 

Prisoners, to secure; punishment. 

Pulley. 

Pump. 

Puna (effect of high mountain air). 

Punishment. 

Punt of hide; of tin. 

Putrid water. 

Pyrites. 

Qualifications for a traveller. 

Quicksilver, to harden lead. 

Quills, to prepare; to carry letters; to hold minute specimens. 

Quinine. 

Radiation chill. 

Rae, Dr. 

Rafts and boats--Rafts of wood; of bamboo; Boating power ofwoods; burning down trees; rafts of reeds; of hide;of gourds (Makara); rude boats; sailing; log canoe; ofthree planks; inflatable indi-rubber; of basket; of reed offibre; of hide; corracle and fibre; of hide; corracle andskin punt; bark boat and canoe; tin boat; boats, well built, of various materials; boating gear; boat building; boatmanagement; awning--(See also "Boats. "). 

Rain, to catch. 

Ramrod; to replace; probing with, for water; broken ramrodtubes. 

Rank birds, to prepare for eating. 

Rarefied air. 

Rarey, Mr. 

Rate of movement, to measure; of swimming; theory of load, andrate of travel. 

Rations; of water. 

Raw meat; as an antiscorbutic. 

Reconnoitring arid lands. 

Reeds, for rafts; mats; huts and fences; to weave; forpens; as a cache (see "Bamboo"). 

Reel, substitute for. 

Reflectors, to light tinder; of sun for a signal. 

Remedies. 

Resin. 

Retreat, hurried. 

Richardson, Sir J. ; Mr. 

Rifle (see Guns and Rifles). 

Right angle, to lay out. 

Rings for saddle. 

Rivers, to cross (see Fords and Bridges); their banks are bad roads. 

Road, to mark; plank-road; lost road. 

Rob Roy canoe. 

Robbers (see "Thieves"). 

Robbiboo. 

Rock, a reservoir of heat at night; magnetism of. 

Rockets. 

Roe of fish, as food. 

Roofs. 

Ropes, for descending cliffs; Alpine; of sheeting; of bark, (see Cord, String, Thread); tying a prisooner. 

Rudder. 

Rumford, Count. 

Running, with horses. 

Rushes (see "Reeds"), for chairs. 

Rust. 

Sack (see "Rag"). 

Saddle; packsaddle; saddle as pillow; saddle bags; asscreens against wind. 

Sails to raft; sail-tent. 

Salt; given to cattle; salt-lick; salt meat; tomake; to salt hides; to prepare salt meat for cooking(see "Sea-water"). 

Saltpetre; for gunpowder. 

Sand, sleeping in; to pitch tents or picket horses in; ripplemarks on, give sign of direction; used in raising a sarcophagus. 

Sarcophagus, raised by sand. 

Savages, management of--General remarks; bush laws; toenable a savage to keep count; drawing lots. 

Saw mark. 

Scarecvrow. 

Scent of human touch. 

Schlagintweit, H. 

Science, preparatory information in. 

Scorpion sting. 

Scurvy. 

Sea-birds, as food--Sea-water, wetting with, a remedy for thirst;a remedy for damp through rain; to distill. 

Seaweed as fuel; as food; as fodder; as string; to make gum;its ashes. 

Seeds wetted, expansive force of. 

Sealing-wax varnish. 

Seamanship. 

Seasoning wood. 

Sedlitz powders. 

Servants. 

Sewing. 

Sextant, to learn the use of; glasses to re-silver. 

Shavings for bedding. 

Sheep; sheep dogs. 

Sheets used as ropes. 

Shelter from wind; from sky. 

Shingle, bivouac on. 

Shingles (wood tiles). 

Shirt sleeves, how to tuck up; writing notes upon. 

Shoes; of untanned leather, eatable; shoemakers' wax. 

Shooting, hints on--How to load; shooting in water; nightshooting; battues to mark the beaters; scarecrows;stalking horses; pan-hunting; the rush of an enraged animal;hiding game; tying up the shooting horse; division ofgame; duck shooting; crocodileshooting; tracks; carrying game;setting a gun as a spring-gun; bow and arrows; knives; night-glass. 

Shot; for defence. 

Shutters of grass. 

Sickness (see "Medicine"). 

Sickle, in cutting chaff. 

Sights of a gun; to replace. 

Signals--Flashing with flags; reflecting the sun with amirror; fire and smoke; other signals; letters carried byanimals. 

Signets. 

Sinew-thread. 

Size, for paper. 

Skins (see Leather), eatable when untanned; salting animals in theirown skins; baking them, ditto; boiling, ditto; skinrafts; boats; water bags; lashings of raw hide; tomake glue. 

Sky, shelter from. 

Sledge. 

Sleeping-bags--Knapsack bags; Arctic bags; peasants'sack (see also). 

Slippers. 

Slugs (shot); to cast. 

Smell of road; of water; of human touch; of a negro;as an indication to stop. 

Smith, Archibald, Mr. 

Smith, Dr. 

Smith's work. 

Smoke signals; smoking skins;. 

Snake bites; tree snakes in boating; poison for arrows. 

Snards. 

Snow, bivouac on; huts of; hearth on; filter for muddywater; snow does not satisfy thirst; blindness and spectacles;drifts to cross; ripple marks to steer by; snowy mountains, to climb. 

Soap. 

Socks. 

Solder for tin. 

Soldering (lots). 

Sore backs to horses. 

Sound, velocity of; signals by. 

Span, measure of length; of angles. 

Sparks; to strike; to make a fire from; struck as asignal; to show the road by night. 

Spears, for fish; set over beast paths; trailed through grassby savages; to straighten wood for. 

Specific gravities of wood. 

Spectacles for snow; for seeing under water. 

Speke, Captain. 

Spokeshave. 

Sponge, lapping up water from puddles; dew from leaves. 

Spontaneous combustion. 

Spoons. 

Spring gun; bow. 

Springes. 

Squaring (right angles to lay out). 

Stalking-horses and screens; stalking game. 

Stars for bearings. 

Starving men. 

Steels for flints; steel tools; cast steel;case-hardening. 

Sticks, small, for lighting fires; for fire by rubbing; fortenting purposes and substitutes; to bend or straighten. 

Still (distilling). 

Sting of scorpions and wasps. 

Stirrups. 

Stitches. 

Stockings. 

Stones, heated, to make water boil; as weapons of defence; asmarks by roadside; to chisel marks upon. 

Stool. 

Stoppers. 

Stores, lists of; store-keeping. 

Strait-waistcoat. 

Straw, to work; straw walls. 

Stretchers. 

String. 

Strychnine. 

Stuffy bedding. 

Sturt, Captain. 

Sulphur matches; for gun-powder. 

Sunrise and sunset, diagram. 

Sun signals; solar bearings. 

Surveying Instruments. 

Swag. 

Swamps. 

Swimming--Rate of swimming; learning to swim; to supportthose who cannot swim; landing through breakers; floats;African swimming ferry; swimming with parcels; with horses;taking a wagon across a river; water spectaacles;--Swimming withcarcass of game; with sheath knife. 

Swivels for tether ropes. 

Sympathetic ink. 

Syphons, to empty water vessels. 

Tables and chairs. 

Tables, of diet; of outfit; for rate of movement; of chords;for triangulation by chords. 

Tallow for candles (see "Grease"). 

Tanks for wagons. 

Tar; tarpaulin; tarring wheels. 

Tawing hides. 

Taylor, Mr. 

Tea, theory of making. 

Temper, good. 

Temper of steel, to reduce. 

Tents--General remarks; materials for making them; largetents; smalltents; pitching tents; tent poles; tyingthings to them; to warm tents; permanent camp; to searchfor things lost in the sand; precautions against thieves--Awning, to litter; to boat; sail tent; tent and sleeping bag; gipsy tent. 

Tethers. 

Thatch. 

Theory of finding a lost path; of fords; of fountains; ofloads and distances; of nutriment; of reconnoitring by help ofdepots; of tea making. 

Thiercelin, M. 

Thieves, hedge round tent; tricks upon (see Hostilities). 

Thirst (see Water for Drinking). 

Thorn-wreath in noosing animals. 

Thread. 

Thumbs, to tie. 

Tiller. 

Timber--Green wood, to season; to bend wood; carpenters'tools; sharpening tools; nails, substitutes for; lathe;charcoal, tar, and pitch; turpentine and resin--See also "Trees. "). 

Tiimber-hitch (knot). 

Time, to measure; journey measured by. 

Tin; tin boat. 

Tinder; tinder-boxes. 

Toggle and strop. 

Toilet in travel. 

Tools. 

Toothache. 

Tortoiseshell. 

Touchwood; touch-paper. 

Tourniquet. 

Tow rope, to fix. 

Traces (harness). 

Tracing designs. 

Tracks, convergence of, towards water; towards dead game; toprepare ground to receive tracks; to obliterate tracks. 

Transport, means of. 

Trapping. 

Travail (North America). 

Travel, rate of. 

Trees (see Timber), as shelter; to mark; to fell with fire;to hollow with fire; as signs of neighbouring water; toclimb; to steer by; to make caches in; boughs bent asaccumulators; bark to strip; tree-bridges. 

Trektows (traces). 

Triangulation; table for, by chords. 

Trenches, for cooking. 

Trimmers. 

Trous de loup. 

Trowsers. 

Tschudi, Dr. 

Tulchan bishops. 

Turf screen against wind. 

Turnscrew in pocket-knife. 

Turpentine. 

Turtle, water in its pericardium. 

Tylor, Mr. 

Tyndall, Professor. 

Uganda thorn-wreath. 

Ulysses. 

Underground huts. 

Units of length. 

Ure's Dictionary. 

Vapour baths. 

Varnish of sealing-wax. 

Vavasour, Lady. 

Vegetables, Chollet's. 

Vegetation indicates water. 

Verification of instruments. 

Vermin on the person. 

Vessels to carry water, small; large. 

Vice in horses; in oxen. 

Virgil. 

Vital heat. 

Vraic (see "Seaweed"). 

Vulture trapping. 

Wadding. 

Wafers, . 

Wagons; to take across a river; axle-tree, to repair. 

Waistcoat; strait-waistcoat. 

Wakefulness. 

Walls; of snow; of straw or reeds. 

Washing clothes; oneself. 

Watch, pocket for; watch-glass as a burning lens; cover as areflector. 

Watching. 

Water for Drinking--General remarks; signs of theneighbourhood of water; pools of water; fountains; wells;snow-water; distilled water; occasional means of quenchingthirst; to purify water that is muddy or putrid; thirst, torelieve; small water-vessels; kegs and tanks; to raisewater from wells for cattle--To see things under water;shooting by waterside; floating game across water; raisingheavy bodies out of water; banks of watercourse a bad pathway;bivouac by water; water causes earth over caches to sink;waterproofing. 

Wattle and daub. 

Wax, bee-hives, to find; waxed paper; wax candles;shoemakers' wax. 

Way, to find--Recollection of a path; to walk in a straightline through forest; to find the best way down a hill-side;blind paths; lost in a fog; mirage; lost path;theory. 

Weapons of defence. 

Weaving mats; girths. 

Webbing. 

Weber, Dr. 

Weights drawn and carried by cattle; theory of, and distances;heavy weights, to move; to carry. 

Welding iron. 

Wells; dry, used as sleeping places. 

Wet clothes, to dry (see "Dry"). 

Whalebone. 

Wheels, to tar and grease; tire made of hide. 

Whistle. 

Whitewash. 

Whymper, Mr. 

Williams, Rev. Mr. 

Wind, shelter from; as a guide. 

Women, strength of; kindliness of. 

Wood (see Timber and Trees) shavings for bed; fire-wood Woodencups for tea; shingles for roof. 

Woolley, Mr. 

Wounded persons, to carry. 

Wrangel, Admiral. 

Writing Materials--Paper; bookbinding; pens andpaint-brushes; ink; ox-gall; wafers, paste, and gum;signets; sealing-wax varnish; small boxes for specimens;Letters, to deposit en cache; writing in the dark; onhorseback. 

Wyndham, Mr. F. M. 

Zemsemiyah